1

JMJ Marist Brothers

College of Arts and Sciences
Natural Sciences and Mathematics Department
Notre Dame of Marbel University
City of Koronadal

Tissue Level of Organization

This module discusses how a variety of cell types arranged in various combinations form

tissues. Tissues in combination form organs, such as the heart or liver, and in turn organs can be

grouped into organ systems. This module is good for two weeks. An assessment is provided at the

end of the module so that you can evaluate your learnings from the sessions.

Learning Outcomes

o Identify the four major types of tissues in the body and describe their roles

o Discuss the types and functions of epithelial tissue

o Compare the structures and functions of the various types of connective tissues

o Describe the three types of muscle tissue and the special structural features of each type

o Discuss the basic structure and functions of neural tissue and the anatomy of a neuron

o Describe how injuries and inflammation affect the tissues of the body

o Describe how aging affects the tissues of the body

Tissues

Tissues typically are groups of similar cells and extracellular material that perform a

common function, such as providing protection or facilitating body movement. The study of tissues

is called histology. Tissues in the body are classified into four major types: epithelial tissue,

connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. These four tissue types vary in the structure

of their cells, the functions of these cells, and the composition of an extracellular matrix. The

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 2

extracellular matrix is composed of varying amounts of protein fibers, water, and dissolved

molecules (e.g., glucose, oxygen). Its consistency ranges from fluid to semisolid to solid.

Epithelial Tissue

An epithelium also referred to as epithelial tissue, is composed of one or more layers of

closely packed cells, and it contains little to no extracellular matrix between these cells. Epithelial

tissue covers the body surfaces, lines the body cavities and organ cavities, and forms most glands.

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues

Cellularity. Epithelial tissue is composed almost entirely of tightly packed cells. There is a

minimal amount of extracellular matrix between the cells.

Polarity. An epithelium has an apical surface, which is exposed either to the external environment

or to some internal body space. The apical surface may have either microvilli or cilia. Microvilli

are small membranous projections on the apical surface of the cell that increase its surface area for

secretion and absorption, whereas cilia are numerous, slightly longer, membranous projections that

move fluid, mucus, and materials past the cell surface. The lateral surfaces may contain membrane

(intercellular) junctions. Additionally, each epithelium has a basal surface (a fixed or deep

surface), where the epithelium is attached to the underlying connective tissue.

Attachment to a basement membrane. The epithelial layer is bound at its basal surface to a thin

basement membrane. It may be seen as a single noncellular (or molecular) layer using the light

microscope—however, in reality it consists of three molecular layers that can be viewed using an

electron microscope: the lamina lucida, the lamina densa, and the reticular lamina. These

molecular layers are formed by secretions of both the epithelium and the underlying connective

tissue, and are composed of collagen, glycoproteins (e.g., laminin, fibronectin), and proteoglycans.

The two laminae closest to the epithelium (lamina lucida and lamina densa) contain collagen fibers

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 3

as well as specific proteins and carbohydrates, some of which are secreted by the epithelial cells.

Cells in the underlying connective tissue secrete the reticular lamina, which contains protein fibers

and carbohydrates. Together, these basement membrane components strengthen the attachment

and form a selective molecular barrier between the epithelium and the underlying connective

tissue.

Avascularity. All epithelial tissues lack blood vessels. Nutrients for epithelial cells are obtained

either directly across the apical surface or by diffusion across the basal surface from blood vessels

within the underlying connective tissue.

Extensive innervation. Epithelia are richly innervated (supplied with nerves) to detect changes in

the environment at that body or organ region.

High regeneration capacity. Epithelial cells undergo cell division frequently. This characteristic

allows this tissue to regenerate itself at a high rate; a necessary condition for a tissue that is often

exposed to the environment and lost by abrasion and damage. The continual replacement occurs

through cell division of the deepest epithelial cells (called stem cells), which are adjacent to the

basement membrane.

Figure 1. Characteristics of Epithelia. An epithelium exhibits its polarity, and the lateral surfaces
of cells are connected by membrane junctions (McKinley et al., 2016)

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 4

Functions of Epithelial Tissues

Physical protection. Epithelial tissues protect both external and internal surfaces from

dehydration, abrasion, and destruction by physical, chemical, or biological agents.

Selective permeability. All substances that enter or leave the body must pass through an

epithelium, and thus epithelial cells act as “gatekeepers.” An epithelium typically exhibits a range

of permeability; it may be relatively non-permeable to some substances, while promoting and

assisting the passage of other ions and molecules.

Secretions. Some epithelial cells are specialized to produce and release secretions. Individual

gland cells may be scattered among other cell types in an epithelium or arranged in small,

organized clusters within a gland.

Sensations. Epithelial tissues are innervated by sensory nerve endings to detect changes in the

external environment at the epithelial surface. These nerve endings—and those in the underlying

connective tissue—continuously relay sensory input to the nervous system concerning touch,

pressure, temperature, and pain. Additionally, several organs contain a specialized epithelium,

called a neuroepithelium, that houses specific cells responsible for the senses of sight, taste, smell,

hearing, and equilibrium.

Classifications of Epithelial Tissues

The body contains many different types of epithelia, and the classification of each type is

indicated by a two-part name. The first part of the name refers to the number of epithelial cell

layers, and the second part describes the shape of cells at the apical (superficial) surface of the

epithelium. Epithelia may be classified as either simple or stratified based on the number of cell

layers.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 5

Simple Epithelium

A simple epithelium is one cell layer thick, and all of the epithelial cells are in direct

contact with the basement membrane. A simple epithelium is found in areas where stress is

minimal and filtration, absorption, or secretion is the primary function. Examples of locations

include the lining of the air sacs in the lung, the intestines, and blood vessels.

Stratified Epithelium

A stratified epithelium contains two or more layers of epithelial cells. Only the cells in

the deepest (basal) layer are in direct contact with the basement membrane. A stratified epithelium

resembles a brick wall, where the bricks in contact with the ground represent the basal layer and

the bricks at the top of the wall represent the apical (superficial) layer. This tissue provides either

more structural support or better protection for underlying tissue. A stratified epithelium is found

in areas likely to be subjected to abrasive activities or mechanical stresses, as multiple layers of

cells are better able to resist the wear and tear (e.g., the skin, internal lining of the esophagus, and

the internal lining of the urinary bladder). Cells in the basal layer continuously regenerate as the

cells in the apical layer are lost due to abrasion or stress.

Pseudostratified Epithelium

A pseudostratified epithelium appears layered (stratified) because the cells’ nuclei are

distributed at different levels between the apical and basal surfaces. Although all of these epithelial

cells are attached to the basement membrane, some of them do not reach its apical surface. For our

purposes, we have classified pseudostratified epithelium as a type of simple epithelium, because

all of the cells are attached to the basement membrane.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 6

Figures 2. Classification of Epithelia. Two criteria are used to classify epithelia: the number of
cell layers and the shape of the cell at the apical surface. (a) An epithelium is simple if it is one
cell layer thick and stratified if it has two or more layers of cells. (b) Epithelial cell shapes include
squamous (thin, flattened cells), cuboidal (cells about as tall as they are wide), and columnar (cells
taller than they are wide) (McKinley et al., 2016)

Classifications of Epithelial Tissues by Number of Cell Layers

Epithelia are also classified by the shape of the cell at the apical surface. In a simple

epithelium, all of the cells display the same shape, whereas in a stratified epithelium, a difference

in shape can be seen between cells within the basal layer and those within the apical layer.

Squamous Epithelial Cells

Squamous cells are flat, wide, and somewhat irregular in shape. The cells are arranged

like floor tiles, and the nucleus is somewhat flattened.

Cuboidal Epithelial Cells

Cuboidal cells are about as tall as they are wide. The cells do not resemble perfect cubes

because their edges are somewhat rounded. The cell nucleus is spherical and located within the

center of the cell.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 7

Columnar Epithelial Cells

Columnar cells are slender and taller than they are wide. The cell nucleus is oval and

usually oriented lengthwise and in the basal region of the cell. Another shape classification that

occurs in epithelial cells is called transitional. These cells can readily change their shape from

polyhedral to more flattened, depending upon the degree to which the epithelium is stretched. The

shape change occurs when the epithelium cycles between distended and relaxed states, such as in

the lining of the bladder, which fills with urine and is later emptied.

Figure 3. Organization and Relationship of Epithelia Types. Epithelia are classified by (1) the
number of cell layers and (2) the cell shape at the surface (McKinley et al., 2016)

Simple of Squamous Epithelium

A simple squamous epithelium consists of a single layer of flattened cells. When viewed

“en face” (looking onto the surface), the irregularly shaped cells display a spherical to oval nucleus,

and the cells are tightly bound together. Each squamous cell resembles a fried egg, with the slightly

bulging nucleus of the cell representing the yolk. This epithelium is extremely delicate and

represents the thinnest possible barrier to allow rapid movement of molecules and ions by

membrane transport processes (see section 4.3). Simple squamous epithelium forms the lining of

the air sacs (alveoli) of the lung, where this thin epithelium is well suited for the exchange of

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 8

oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the inhaled air. Simple squamous epithelium

also is found lining the lumen (inside space) of blood vessel walls, where it allows for rapid

exchange of nutrients and waste between the blood and the interstitial fluid surrounding the blood

vessels. Serous membranes, which cover body organs and secrete serous fluid, are also formed by

a simple squamous epithelium.

Specific names are used to refer to the simple squamous epithelia in certain locations within

the body. Endothelium is the name of the simple squamous epithelium that lines both blood

vessels and lymph vessels, and mesothelium is the name given to the simple squamous epithelium

that forms the serous membranes of body cavities. Mesothelium gets its name from the embryonic

primary germ layer called mesoderm, from which it is derived.

Figure 4. Simple squamous epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

A simple cuboidal epithelium contains one layer of uniformly shaped cells that are about

as tall as they are wide with a centrally located spherical nucleus. This epithelium is designed for

absorption and secretion. Its cells’ uniformity in shape makes them ideal to form the structural

components of glands. For example, a simple cuboidal epithelium forms the follicles (spherical

structures) of the thyroid gland and covers each ovary. Simple cuboidal epithelium also composes

the walls of small ducts (or tubules), including those of kidney tubules.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 9

Figure 5. Simple cuboidal epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Simple Columnar Epithelium

A simple columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells that are taller than

they are wide. The nucleus is oval, oriented lengthwise, and located in the basal region of the cell.

This type of epithelium is ideal for both secretory and absorptive functions. Simple columnar

epithelium has two forms: One type has no cilia, whereas the apical surface of the other type is

covered with cilia.

Non-ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium often contains microvilli and a scattering of

unicellular glands called goblet cells. Individual microvilli cannot be distinguished under the

microscope; rather, the microvilli collectively appear as a bright, fuzzy structure known as a brush

border. Goblet cells secrete mucin, which is a glycoprotein that when hydrated (mixed with

water) forms mucus. Non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium lines most of the digestive tract,

from the stomach to the anal canal.

Figure 6. Non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 10

Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Ciliated simple columnar epithelium has cilia that project from the apical surfaces of the

cells. Mucus covers these apical surfaces and is moved along by the beating of the cilia. Goblet

cells typically are interspersed throughout this epithelium. Ciliated columnar epithelium lines the

larger bronchioles (air passageways) in the lung. It also lines the luminal (internal) surface of the

uterine tubes, where it helps move an oocyte from the ovary to the uterus.

Figure 7. Ciliated simple columnar epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

A pseudostratified columnar epithelium is so named because upon first glance, it

appears to consist of multiple layers of cells. However, this epithelium is not really stratified

because all of its cells are in direct contact with the basement membrane. Although it may look

stratified because the nuclei are scattered at different distances from the basal surface, not all of

the cells reach the apical surface in this epithelium. Its columnar cells always reach the apical

surface, and the shorter cells are stem cells that give rise to the columnar cells.

Figure 8. Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 11

Pseudostratified Ciliated and Non-ciliated Columnar Epithelium

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium consists of two forms: pseudostratified ciliated

columnar epithelium, which contains cilia on its apical surface, and pseudostratified non-

ciliated columnar epithelium, which lacks cilia. Both types perform protective functions. The

ciliated form houses goblet cells that secrete mucin, which hydrates to become the mucus that traps

foreign particles and is moved by the beating cilia. This type is found in the larger air passageways

of the respiratory system (e.g., the nasal cavity, part of the pharynx [throat], larynx [voice box],

trachea, and bronchi). The non-ciliated form is rare, lacks goblet cells and cilia, and occurs

primarily in part of the male urethra and epididymis.

Figure 9. Non-ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

A stratified squamous epithelium has multiple cell layers, and only the deepest layer of

cells is in direct contact with the basement membrane. The cells in the basal layers have a cuboidal

or polyhedral shape, whereas the apical cells display a flattened, squamous shape. A stratified

squamous epithelium is so named because of its multiple cell layers and the shape of its apical

cells. This epithelium is adapted to protect underlying tissues from damage caused by abrasion and

friction. Stem cells in the basal layer continuously divide, to produce a new stem cell and a

committed cell that is gradually displaced toward the surface to replace those cells that have been

lost. This type of epithelium exists in two forms: keratinized and nonkeratinized.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 12

Figure 10. Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

In keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, the superficial layers are composed of

cells that are dead. These cells lack nuclei and all organelles, and instead are filled with the protein

keratin, which is a tough, protective protein that strengthens the tissue. New cells produced in the

basal region of the epithelium migrate toward the apical surface of the tissue. During their

migration, the cells fill with keratin they produce, which makes them very strong, but as a

consequence the cells lose their organelles and nuclei and die. Thus, the strength of keratin has a

trade-off. The epidermis (outer layer) of the skin consists of keratinized stratified squamous

epithelium.

Figure 11. Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

The cells in nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium remain alive including those

at the tissue’s apical surface, and they are kept moist with secretions such as saliva or mucus. These

cells lack keratin. Because all of the cells are alive, the flattened nuclei characteristic of squamous

cells are visible throughout the tissue. Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium lines the oral

cavity (mouth), part of the pharynx (throat), the esophagus, the vagina, and the anus.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 13

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

A stratified cuboidal epithelium contains two or more layers of cells, and the superficial

cells tend to be cuboidal in shape. Stratified cuboidal epithelium, like simple cuboidal epithelium,

forms tubes and coverings. However, stratified cuboidal epithelium is thicker and functions in

protection and secretion. This tissue forms the walls of the ducts of most exocrine glands, such as

the ducts of the sweat glands in the skin, the lining of some parts of the male urethra, and the

periphery of ovarian follicles.

Figure 12. Stratified cuboidal epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

A stratified columnar epithelium is relatively rare in the body. It consists of two or more

layers of cells, but only the cells at the apical surface are columnar in shape. This type of epithelium

protects and secretes. It is found in the large ducts of salivary glands and in some segments of the

male urethra.

Figure 13. Stratified columnar epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Transitional Epithelium

A transitional epithelium is limited to the urinary tract (urinary bladder, ureters, and part

of the urethra). It varies in appearance, depending upon whether it is in a relaxed state or a stretched

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 14

state. In a relaxed state, the basal cells appear cuboidal or polyhedral, and the apical cells are large

and rounded. When transitional epithelium stretches, it thins and the apical cells flatten and

become almost squamous in shape. One distinguishing feature of transitional epithelium is the

presence of some binucleated (containing two nuclei) cells. By being able to stretch as the bladder

fills, this tissue ensures that urine does not seep into the underlying tissues of these organs.

Figure 14. Transitional epithelium (McKinley et al., 2016)

Glands

Glands are either individual cells or multicellular organs composed predominantly of

epithelial tissue. They secrete substances either for use elsewhere in the body or for elimination

from the body. Glandular secretions may include mucin, electrolytes, hormones, enzymes, or urea

(a nitrogenous waste produced by the body).

Endocrine Glands

Endocrine glands lack ducts and secrete their products, called hormones, directly into the

blood. Hormones act as chemical messengers to influence cell activities elsewhere in the body.

Exocrine Glands

Exocrine glands typically originate from an Invagination of epithelium that burrows into

the deeper connective tissues. These glands usually maintain their connection with the epithelial

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 15

surface by means of a duct, an epithelium-lined tube through which the gland secretions are

discharged onto the epithelial surface. Examples of exocrine glands include sweat glands,

mammary glands, and salivary glands.

Exocrine glands may be unicellular (one-celled) or multicellular. Unicellular exocrine

glands typically do not contain a duct, and they are located close to the surface of the epithelium

in which they reside. The most common type of unicellular exocrine gland is the goblet cell, which

is commonly found in both simple columnar epithelium and pseudostratified ciliated columnar

epithelium. In contrast, multicellular exocrine glands contain numerous cells that work together

to produce a secretion. The gland often consists of acini, which are the clusters of cells that produce

the secretion, and one or more smaller ducts, which merge to form a larger duct that transports the

secretion to the epithelial surface. Multicellular exocrine glands typically are surrounded by a

fibrous capsule, and extensions of the capsule called septa partition the gland into lobes.

Figure 13. General Structure of Multicellular Exocrine Glands. Exocrine glands may contain
secretory portions called acini, and conducting portions composed of many ducts that merge to
form a larger duct that transports the secretion to the epithelial surface (McKinley et al., 2016)

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 16

Classification of Exocrine Glands

Multicellular exocrine glands may be classified either by anatomic form or by method of

secretion, which may be thought of as a physiologic classification.

Classification of Exocrine Glands by Anatomic Form

Exocrine glands may be classified anatomically based on the structure and complexity of

their ducts. Simple glands have a single, unbranched duct; compound glands have branched

ducts. In addition, glands may be classified according to the shape of their secretory portions. The

gland is called tubular if the secretory portion and the duct have the same diameter. If the secretory

portion forms an expanded sac, the gland is called acinar. Finally, a gland with both tubules and

acini is called a tubuloacinar gland.

Classification of Exocrine Glands by Method of Secretion

Glands may be classified physiologically by their method of secretion. The three basic

types of glands in this classification are merocrine glands, apocrine glands, and holocrine glands.

Figure 14. Structural Classification of Multicellular Exocrine Glands. Simple glands (a) have
unbranched ducts, whereas compound glands (b) have ducts that branch. These glands also exhibit
different forms: Tubular glands have secretory cells in a space with a uniform diameter, acinar
glands have secretory cells arranged in saclike acini, and tubuloacinar glands have secretory cells
in both the tubular and acinar regions (McKinley et al., 2016)

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 17

Merocrine Glands

Merocrine glands package their secretions into secretory vesicles and release the

secretions by exocytosis. The glandular cells remain intact and are not damaged in any way by

producing the secretion. Examples of merocrine glands include lacrimal (tear) glands; salivary

glands; some sweat glands, also known as eccrine glands; the exocrine glands of the; and the

gastric glands of the stomach.

Figure 15. Methods of Exocrine Gland Secretion. Exocrine glands use different processes to
release their secretory product. (a) Merocrine glands secrete products by means of exocytosis at
the apical surface of the secretory cells. (b) Apocrine gland secretion is produced by a pinching
off of the apical surface of the cell. (c) Holocrine gland secretion is produced through the
destruction of the entire secretory cell. Lost cells are replaced by cell division at the base of the
gland (McKinley et al., 2016)

Apocrine Glands

Apocrine glands produce their secretion in the following way: The apical membrane

around a portion of the glandular cell cytoplasm with the secretory product pinches off and

becomes the secretion. The glandular cells repair the damage and then continue to produce new

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 18

secretions in the same manner. Examples include the mammary glands and ceruminous glands of

the ear.

Holocrine Glands

Holocrine glands are formed from cells that accumulate a product; the entire cell then

disintegrates. Thus, a holocrine secretion is a viscous mixture of both cell fragments and the

product the cell produced prior to its disintegration. The ruptured, dead cells are continuously

replaced by other epithelial cells undergoing cellular division. The oil-producing glands

(sebaceous glands) in the skin are examples of holocrine glands.

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue is the most diverse, abundant, and widely distributed of the tissues.

Connective tissue functions to support, protect, and bind organs. Examples of connective tissue

include tendons (structures that attach muscle to bone) and ligaments (structures that attach bone

to bone), adipose tissue (fat), cartilage, bone, and blood.

All connective tissues share a common origin; they all originated from an embryonic

connective tissue called mesenchyme (discussed in section 5.2c). In addition, while almost all

connective tissue is vascular, the different types of connective tissue exhibit a range of vascularity,

from very vascular (in areolar connective tissue) to poorly vascular (in dense regular connective

tissue) to avascular (in mature cartilage).

Characteristics of Connective Tissue

All connective tissues share three basic components: cells, protein fibers, and ground

substance. Together, the ground substance and the protein fibers it houses form an extracellular

matrix. The specific types of cells may vary between the various classes of connective tissue.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 19

However, diversity in connective tissue is due primarily to the different types and amounts of

protein fibers, as well as the varying proportions of the ground substance.

Figure 16. Connective Tissue Classification. Mesenchymal cells are the origin of all connective
tissue cell types. The three classes of connective tissue are connective tissue proper, supporting
connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

Functions of Connective Tissue

Physical protection. Bones of the skull and the thoracic cage protect delicate organs such as the

brain, heart, and lungs; adipose connective tissue packed both around the kidneys and posterior to

the eyes help protect these organs.

Support and structural framework. Bones serve as the framework for the adult body and provide

a place for muscle attachment; cartilage keeps air tubes like the trachea and bronchi patent (open);

and connective tissue proper forms supportive capsules around organs such as the kidney and

spleen.

Binding of structures. Ligaments bind bone to bone, tendons bind muscle to bone, and dense

irregular connective tissue anchors the skin to the underlying muscle and bone.

Storage. Adipose connective tissue is the major energy reserve in the body; bone is the primary

reservoir for calcium and phosphorus.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 20

Transport. Blood carries nutrients, gases, and wastes between different regions of the body.

Immune protection. Many connective tissues contain leukocytes that protect the body against

disease and mount an immune response when necessary. Additionally, the viscous nature of the

extracellular matrix restricts the movement and spread of disease-causing organisms.

Embryonic Connective Tissue

Two types of embryonic connective tissue have been identified: mesenchyme and mucous

connective tissue. They have different names because they occupy different locations, but both are

embryonic connective tissues. Mesenchyme is the first type of connective tissue to emerge in the

developing embryo. It has star-shaped (stellate) or spindle-shaped mesenchymal cells dispersed

within a gel-like ground substance that contains fine, immature protein fibers. In fact, ground

substance makes up a larger proportion than mesenchymal cells in this type of tissue. Mesenchyme

is the source of all other connective tissues. Adult connective tissues often house numerous

mesenchymal (stem) cells that provide support in the repair of the tissue following damage or

injury.

A second type of embryonic connective tissue is mucous connective tissue, also known as

Wharton’s jelly. The immature protein fibers in this tissue are more numerous than those within

mesenchyme. Mucous connective tissue is located within the umbilical cord only.

Classification of Connective Tissue

All connective tissue is ultimately derived from mesenchyme. Mesenchyme begins to

differentiate in the developing fetus as it forms the connective tissues that ultimately are found in

the adult body. The connective tissue types present after birth are classified into three broad

categories: connective tissue proper, supporting connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 21

Connective Tissue Proper

Connective tissue proper is divided into two broad groups: loose connective tissue and

dense connective tissue. This classification is based upon the relative proportions of cells, fibers,

and ground substance.

Figure 17. Embryonic connective tissue. (a) mesenchyme; (b) mucous connective tissue
(McKinley et al., 2016)

Loose Connective Tissue

Loose connective tissue contains relatively fewer cells and protein fibers than dense

connective tissue. The protein fibers are sparse and irregularly arranged (hence, the name “loose

connective tissue”), and there is abundant, viscous ground substance. Loose connective tissues act

as the body’s “packing material” by supporting and surrounding structures and organs. There are

three types of loose connective tissue: areolar connective tissue, adipose connective tissue, and

reticular connective tissue.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 22

Areolar Connective Tissue

Areolar connective tissue has a loosely unconfined organization of collagen and some

elastic fibers and is highly vascularized. This connective tissue type contains all of the fixed and

wandering cells of connective tissue proper, although the predominant cell is the fibroblast. The

ground substance is abundant and viscous. Areolar connective tissue is found nearly everywhere

in the body. It is found in the skin (papillary layer of the dermis) and is a major component of the

subcutaneous layer that is deep to the skin. It binds skin and some epithelia to deeper tissues. It

also surrounds organs, individual nerve and muscle cells, and blood vessels.

Figure 17. Areolar connective tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

Adipose Connective Tissue

Adipose connective tissue (commonly known as fat) is a highly vascularized loose

connective tissue composed primarily of adipocytes. Adipocytes are filled with lipid droplets, with

the nucleus pushed to the inside edge of the plasma membrane. On a histology slide, the lipid is

extracted during tissue processing so all that is left is the plasma membrane and nucleus of the

adipocyte. There are two types of adipose connective tissue: white and brown. Brown adipose

tissue is found in newborns and is designed to generate heat. As we age, we lose most of our brown

adipose tissue and instead predominantly have white adipose tissue. White adipose tissue stores

energy acts as an insulator and serves both as packing around structures as well as a cushion against

shocks. It is located throughout the body in places such as the subcutaneous layer deep to the skin

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 23

and surrounding various organs. Typically, the number of adipocytes remains relatively stable in

an individual, and weight gain or loss is due to the adipocytes enlarging or shrinking in size,

respectively.

Figure 18. Adipose connective tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

Reticular Connective Tissue

Reticular connective tissue houses abundant leukocytes and some fibroblasts within a

meshwork of reticular fibers. This tissue forms the stroma (structural framework) of many

lymphatic organs, such as the spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow.

Figure 19. Reticular Connective Tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

Dense Connective Tissue

Dense connective tissue is composed primarily of protein fibers and has proportionately

less ground substance than loose connective tissue. It also is known as collagenous tissue because

collagen fibers usually are the dominant fiber type. There are three categories of dense connective

tissue: dense regular connective tissue, dense irregular connective tissue, and elastic connective

tissue.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 24

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Dense regular connective tissue contains limited ground substance yet abundant collagen

fibers that are packed tightly and align parallel to one another. The fibers resemble lasagna noodles

stacked one on top of another. This tissue type is found in tendons and ligaments, where stress

typically is applied in a single direction. Dense regular connective tissue has few blood vessels,

and thus it takes a long time to heal following injury, because a rich blood supply is necessary for

quick healing.

Figure 20. Dense regular connective tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Dense irregular connective tissue contains bundles and clumps of collagen fibers that

extend in all directions. This tissue provides support and resistance to stress in multiple directions

and has an extensive blood supply. Dense irregular connective tissue is found in most of the dermis

of the skin, the periosteum surrounding bone, and the perichondrium surrounding cartilage. It also

forms capsules around some internal organs, such as the liver, kidneys, and spleen.

Figure 21. Dense irregular connective tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 25

Elastic Connective Tissue

Elastic connective tissue is composed of numerous fibroblasts among branching, densely

packed elastic fibers. The elastic fibers provide the ability for the tissue to stretch and recoil. This

tissue is found in the walls of large arteries, the trachea and vocal cords.

Figure 22. Elastic connective tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

Supporting Connective Tissue

There are two types of supporting connective tissue: cartilage and bone. Both form a strong,

durable framework that protects and supports the soft body tissue. The extracellular matrix

contains many protein fibers and a ground substance that ranges from semisolid (cartilage) to solid

(bone).

Cartilage

Cartilage has a firm, semisolid extracellular matrix that contains variable amounts of

collagen and elastic protein fibers. Mature cartilage cells are called chondrocytes. These cells

occupy small spaces called lacunae within the extracellular matrix. Most cartilage is surrounded

by a dense irregular connective tissue covering called the perichondrium. The perichondrium has

two distinct layers: an outer fibrous layer and an inner cellular layer. Cartilage is stronger and more

resilient than previously discussed connective tissue types, and it provides more flexibility than

bone. It occurs in areas of the body that need support and must withstand deformation, such as the

tip of the nose or the auricle (external part) of the ear.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 26

Chondrocytes produce and secrete a chemical that prevents blood vessel growth and

formation within the extracellular matrix. Thus, mature cartilage is avascular, and as a result the

chondrocytes must exchange nutrients and waste products by diffusion with blood vessels outside

of the cartilage.

Three major types of cartilage are found in the body: hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and

elastic cartilage. They exhibit both differences in density and dispersal of chondrocytes within the

extracellular matrix.

Hyaline Cartilage

Hyaline cartilage is the most common type of cartilage. It is named for its clear, glassy

appearance when viewed under the microscope. Its chondrocytes are irregularly scattered: The

collagen within the extracellular matrix is not readily observed by light microscopy. Hyaline

cartilage is surrounded by a perichondrium. If this tissue type is stained with hematoxylin and

eosin and examined under the microscope, the tissue resembles carbonated grape soda, where the

lacunae represent the bubbles in the soda. Hyaline cartilage is found in many areas of the body,

including structures of the respiratory tract (nose, trachea, most of the larynx), costal cartilage

(cartilage attached to ribs), and the articular ends of long bones. It also forms most of the fetal

skeleton.

Figure 22. Hyaline cartilage (McKinley et al., 2016)

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 27

Fibrocartilage

Fibrocartilage is a weight-bearing cartilage. It has numerous coarse, readily visible protein

fibers that are arranged as irregular bundles between large chondrocytes (table 5.7b). There is only

a sparse amount of ground substance. The densely interwoven collagen fibers contribute to the

durability of this cartilage. There is no perichondrium. Fibrocartilage acts as a good shock absorber

and resists compression. It is located in the intervertebral discs (circular supportive structures

between adjacent vertebrae), pubic symphysis (between the anterior parts of the hip bones), and

the menisci of the knee joint.

Figure 23. Fibrocartilage. McKinley et al., 2016)

Elastic Cartilage

Elastic cartilage is the flexible, springy cartilage. It is so named because it contains

numerous elastic fibers within its extracellular matrix. The chondrocytes are closely packed and

surrounded by a small amount of extracellular matrix. The elastic fibers are densely packed

together and ensure that this tissue is both resilient and very flexible. Elastic cartilage is surrounded

by a perichondrium. Note that both elastic cartilage and elastic connective tissue contain abundant

amounts of elastic fibers. However, elastic cartilage has a semisolid ground substance and contains

chondrocytes, whereas elastic connective tissue has a fluid ground substance formed by

fibroblasts. Elastic cartilage is found in the external ear and the epiglottis (a structure of the larynx

that prevents swallowed materials from entering the trachea). You can see for yourself how flexible

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 28

elastic cartilage is by performing this experiment: Fold your external ear over your finger, hold for

10 seconds, and release. Your ear springs back to its original shape because the elastic cartilage

resists the deformational pressure you applied. This also explains why our ears are not permanently

misshapen if we sleep on them in an unusual way.

Figure 24. Elastic cartilage (McKinley et al., 2016)

Bone

Bone connective tissue is also known as osseous connective tissue and makes up the mass

of most of the structures referred to as “bones.” Bone is more solid than cartilage and provides

greater support, although it is not as flexible.

The extracellular matrix of bone connective tissue consists of organic components

(collagen fibers and glycoproteins) and inorganic components composed of a mixture of calcium

salts, primarily calcium phosphate. The bone cells are called osteocytes and are housed within

spaces in the extracellular matrix called lacunae.

The two forms of bone tissue are compact bone and spongy (cancellous, trabecular) bone.

Compact bone appears completely solid, but is in fact perforated by a number of neurovascular.

It has a uniform histologic pattern. Compact bone is formed from cylindrical structures called

osteons, which display concentric rings of bone connective tissue called lamellae. The lamellae

encircle a central canal that houses blood vessels and nerves. Spongy bone is located within the

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 29

interior of a bone, and it contains a latticework structure of bone connective tissue that is very

strong, yet lightweight.

Bone serves a variety of functions. As an organ, bones provide levers for movement, and

they support soft tissues as well as protect vital body organs. The hard extracellular matrix of bone

connective tissue stores important minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus. Finally, some spongy

bone houses hemopoietic cells, which form a type of reticular connective tissue that makes blood

cells (a process called hemopoiesis).

Figure 25. Bone. Figure 24. Elastic cartilage (McKinley et al., 2016)

Fluid Connective Tissue

There are two types of fluid connective tissue: blood and lymph. Blood is a fluid connective

tissue composed of formed elements. Formed elements include cells, both erythrocytes (red blood

cells) and leukocytes (white blood cells), and cellular fragments called platelets. The liquid ground

substance is called plasma, and within it are dissolved proteins.

Blood has numerous functions. The erythrocytes transport respiratory gases (oxygen and

carbon dioxide), and the leukocytes protect the body from infectious agents. Platelets and the

protein fibers help clot the blood. Plasma transports nutrients, wastes, and hormones throughout

the body. Lymph is derived from blood plasma, but it contains no cellular components or

fragments. Ultimately, lymph is returned to the bloodstream.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 30

Figure 26. Blood (McKinley et al., 2016)

Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissue is composed of specialized cells that can contract when stimulated. When

this tissue contracts, it produces movement, such as the voluntary motion of body parts, contraction

of the heart, and propulsion of materials through the digestive and urinary tracts. The three types

of muscle tissue are skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle tissue, also known as striated or voluntary muscle tissue, is primarily

responsible for movement of the skeleton (although this tissue also moves some nonskeletal

structures, such as the skin of the face). It is composed of long cylindrical cells called skeletal

muscle fibers. These fibers are arranged in parallel bundles that typically run the length of the

entire muscle. Such long fibers need more than one nucleus to control and carry out all cellular

functions; thus, each skeletal muscle fiber is multinucleated (see figure 10.2), with nuclei located

at the periphery of the fiber. Under the light microscope, skeletal muscle fibers exhibit alternating

light and dark bands, called striations, that reflect the overlapping pattern of parallel thick and

thin contractile protein filaments. Additionally, skeletal muscle is considered voluntary because

it usually does not contract unless stimulated by the somatic (voluntary) nervous system.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 31

Figure 27. Skeletal muscle tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Cardiac muscle tissue is confined to the thick middle layer of the heart wall, called the

myocardium; it is responsible for the contraction of the heart to pump blood. Cardiac muscle tissue

contains visible striations, but unlike skeletal muscle, the cardiac muscle cells are short and often

bifurcating (branching). Cardiac muscle cells contain one or two centrally located nuclei. In

addition, the cells are connected by intercalated discs, which are intercellular junctions between

the cells composed of desmosomes and gap junctions.

Intercalated discs appear as dark, thick lines when viewed in the microscope. Intercalated

discs strengthen the connection between cells and promote the rapid conduction of electrical

activity through many cells at once, allowing the cells of a heart chamber to contract as a unit.

Cardiac muscle cells are considered involuntary because they cannot be controlled by the somatic

(voluntary) nervous system activity to initiate a contraction; instead, specialized cardiac muscle

cells (pacemaker cells) in the heart wall initiate the contraction.

Figure 28. Cardiac muscle tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 32

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Smooth muscle tissue, also called visceral or involuntary muscle tissue, is so named

because it lacks the striations seen in other muscle tissue, and so this tissue appears smooth.

Smooth muscle cells are fusiform (spindle-shaped), which means they are thick in the middle and

tapered at their ends. These cells are relatively short and contain one centrally located oval nucleus.

Smooth muscle tissue is also called visceral muscle tissue because it is found in the walls of most

viscera, such as the intestines, stomach, airways, urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels. The

contraction of smooth muscle helps propel material movement through these organs or controls

the size of the lumen. This tissue is considered involuntary because we do not have voluntary

control over the muscle.

Figure 28. Smooth muscle tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is located within the brain, spinal cord, and the nerves that traverse through

the body. It consists of cells called neurons that receive, transmit, and process nerve impulses. It

also contains a larger number of cells called glial cells (or supporting cells), which do not transmit

nerve impulses but instead are responsible for the protection, nourishment, and support of the

neurons. Each neuron has a prominent cell body that houses both the nucleus and other organelles.

Extending from the cell body are branches called nerve cell processes. The shorter and more

numerous processes are dendrites, that receive incoming signals and transmit the information to

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 33

the cell body. The single long process extending from the cell body is the axon, which carries

outgoing signals to other cells. Because of the extensive lengths of some axons, neurons are usually

the longest cells in the body; some are longer than 1 meter.

Figure 29. Nervous tissue (McKinley et al., 2016)

General Characteristics of Neurons

Excitability. This is responsiveness to a stimulus (e.g., chemical, stretch, pressure change). The

stimulus causes a local change in the resting membrane potential in the excitable cell. Local

electrical changes are called graded potentials.

Conductivity. This involves an electrical change that is quickly propagated along the plasma

membrane as voltage-gated channels open sequentially during an action potential.

Secretion. Neurons release neurotransmitters in response to conductive activity.

Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles and when released may have either an excitatory or an

inhibitory effect on their target structures (other neurons or effectors).

Extreme longevity. Most neurons formed during fetal development are still functional in very

elderly individuals.

Amitotic. During fetal development of neurons, mitotic activity is lost in most neurons, except

those in the olfactory epithelium of the nose and in certain areas of the brain.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 34

Neuron Structure

Neurons come in many shapes and sizes, but they typically share certain basic structural

features that include a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body is also called the soma, and

it is enclosed by a plasma membrane and contains cytoplasm surrounding a nucleus. Cell bodies

serve as the neuron’s control center. They also transmit graded potentials to the axon. The graded

potential is either received from the dendrites or initiated within the cell body.

The cytoplasm within the cell body is called the perikaryon, although some anatomists

use that term to describe the whole cell body. The nucleus accommodates a prominent nucleolus,

which form ribosomes. Free and bound ribosomes together are referred to as either: (1)

chromatophilic substance, because they stain darkly with basic dyes; or (2) Nissl bodies, because

they were first described by the German microscopist Franz Nissl. Cytologists consider that the

gray color of gray matter seen in gross dissections of the brain and spinal cord is due to the

chromatophilic substance, along with the absence of myelin, a glistening coat of insulating

material. Dendrites tend to be relatively short, small, tapering, unmyelinated processes that branch

off the cell body. Some neurons have only one dendrite; others have many. Dendrites transmit

graded potentials toward the cell body; in essence, they receive input and then transfer it to the cell

body for processing. The greater the number of dendrites, the more input a neuron may receive.

The axon typically a longer process emanating from the cell body to make contact with

other neurons, muscle cells, or gland cells. The axon extends from a triangular region of the cell

body called the axon hillock. The cytoplasm within an axon is called axoplasm, and the plasma

membrane of an axon is called an axolemma. Unlike the cell body, the axon is devoid of

chromatophilic substance. This distinctive difference allows the cell body to be distinguished from

the axon when nervous tissue is viewed with a microscope.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 35

Axons give rise to a few side branches called axon collaterals. Most axons and their

collaterals branch extensively at their distal end into an array of fine terminal extensions called

telodendria, or axon terminals. The extreme tips of these fine extensions are slightly expanded

regions called synaptic knobs, also called synaptic bulbs, end bulbs, or terminal boutons. Within

the synaptic knobs are numerous synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter. A synaptic knob

ends at a functional junction called a synapse (described shortly). Axons function in the initiation

and propagation of action potentials, which trigger synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter

from the synaptic knobs.

Tissues and Inflammation

Many stimuli—including impact, abrasion, distortion, chemical irritation, infection by

pathogenic organisms (such as bacteria or viruses), and extreme temperatures (hot or cold)—can

produce inflammation. Each of these stimuli kills cells, damages fibers, or injures the tissue in

some other way. Such changes alter the chemical composition of the interstitial fluid: Damaged

cells release prostaglandins, proteins, and potassium ions, and the injury itself may have introduced

foreign proteins or pathogens into the body.

Tissue conditions soon become even more abnormal. Necrosis, the tissue destruction that

occurs after cells have been damaged or killed, begins several hours after the original injury.

Lysosomal enzymes cause the damage. Through widespread autolysis, lysosomes release enzymes

that first destroy the injured cells and then attack surrounding tissues. The result may be an

accumulation of debris, fluid, dead and dying cells, and necrotic tissue components collectively

known as pus. An accumulation of pus in an enclosed tissue space is an abscess.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 36

Regeneration

Each organ has a different ability to regenerate after injury—an ability that can be directly

linked to the pattern of tissue organization in the injured organ. Epithelia, connective tissues

(except cartilage), and smooth muscle tissue usually regenerate well, whereas other muscle tissues

and neural tissue regenerate relatively poorly if at all. The skin, which is dominated by epithelia

and connective tissues, regenerates rapidly and completely after injury. In contrast, damage to the

heart is much more serious. Although the connective tissues of the heart can be repaired, the

majority of damaged cardiac muscle cells are replaced only by fibrous tissue. The permanent

replacement of normal tissue by fibrous tissue is called fibrosis. Fibrosis in muscle and other

tissues may occur in response to injury, disease, or aging.

Aging and Tissue Structure

Tissues change with age, and the speed and effectiveness of tissue repairs decrease. Repair

and maintenance activities throughout the body slow down; the rate of energy consumption in

general declines. All these changes reflect various hormonal alterations occurring with age, often

coupled with a reduction in physical activity and the adoption of a more sedentary lifestyle. These

factors combine to alter the structure and chemical composition of many tissues. Epithelia get

thinner and connective tissues more fragile. Individuals bruise easily and bones become brittle;

joint pain and broken bones are common in the elderly. Because cardiac muscle cells and neurons

are not normally replaced, cumulative damage can eventually cause major health problems, such

as cardiovascular disease or deterioration in mental functioning.

Summary

o Tissues are classified into four general types: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue,

and nervous tissue.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 37

o Epithelial tissue covers the surface of the body, lines body cavities, and forms secretory

structures called glands.

o The characteristics of epithelia include cellularity, polarity, attachment to a basement

membrane, avascularity, rich innervation, and high regeneration ability.

o Epithelia provide physical protection, are selectively permeable, produce secretions, and

contain nerve endings to detect sensations.

o A simple epithelium has only one layer of cells that is in direct contact with the basement

membrane; a stratified epithelium has two or more layers of cells and only the deepest (basal)

layer is in direct contact with the basement membrane.

o Examples of cell shape include squamous (cells are flattened), cuboidal (cells are about as tall

as they are wide), and columnar (cells are taller than they are wide).

o Pseudostratified columnar epithelium appears stratified but is not; all cells are in contact with

the basement membrane.

o Transitional epithelium contains several layers of rounded cells, and the epithelium appearance

changes between a relaxed and distended state.

o Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood, whereas exocrine glands secrete their

products onto the epithelial surface.

o Connective tissue contains cells, protein fibers, and a ground substance. The protein fibers and

ground substance together form the extracellular matrix.

o Connective tissue provides physical protection, support, structural framework, binding of

structures, storage, transport, and immune protection.

o All connective tissues are derived from an embryonic connective tissue called mesenchyme.

o Mucous connective tissue is found only in the umbilical cord.

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 38

o Loose connective tissue has a high volume of ground substance; it is easily distorted and serves

to cushion shocks.

o Dense connective tissue consists primarily of large amounts of protein fibers and relatively

little ground substance.

o Supporting connective tissue (cartilage and bone) provides support and protection to the soft

tissues and organs of the body.

o Fluid connective tissue (blood) contains formed elements, dissolved protein fibers, and a

watery ground substance.

o Skeletal muscle tissue is composed of long, cylindrical, multinucleated fibers that are striated.

The nuclei are at the periphery of the fiber, and the tissue is under voluntary control.

o Cardiac muscle tissue is located in the heart wall. Its cells are branched, short, striated, and

contain one or two centrally located nuclei. The tissue is under involuntary control.

o Smooth muscle tissue is found in the walls of internal organs; cells are fusiform (spindle-

shaped), contain one centrally located nucleus, have no striations, and are under involuntary

control.

o Nervous tissue contains neurons and glial cells, and forms the brain, spinal cord and nerves.

o When tissues age, repair and maintenance become less efficient, and the structure of many

tissues is altered.

Assessment

Answer the following questions in the assessment provided in your learning management

system account, on or before the deadline indicated.

To students enrolled in distance learning, copy the questions and write your answers in

whole sheet/s of intermediate papers (more than 1 whole sheet of intermediate paper may be used).

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 39

Indicate your name and the title of the module in every paper if multiple sheets will be utilized.

Submit the paper/s to Julius Kevin Cura at the College of Arts and Sciences Faculty Room, Notre

Dame of Marbel University, Koronadal City, South Cotabato on or before the deadline indicated.

The answers in every question will be scored based on content/biological basis (5), coherence (5)

and completeness (5).

Clinical Application Questions

1. In the operating room, a first-time mother named Eliza is currently in labor and is being told

by the gynecologist to push. In doing so, is she consciously contracting her uterus to expel the

baby? Justify your answer based on the muscular composition of the uterus and what you know

about the types of muscular tissues it contains. Explain your answer in 4 to 5 sentences. Indicate

the reference/s of your answer.

2. The epithelium of the respiratory tract is mostly of the pseudostratified columnar ciliated type,

but in the alveoli, the tiny sacs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the

blood and inhaled air, the epithelium is simple squamous. Explain the functional significance

of this histological difference. That is, why do the alveoli not have the same kind of epithelium

as the rest of the respiratory tract? Explain your answer in 4 to 5 sentences. Indicate the

reference/s of your answer.

3. Peter suffers from a knee injury involving damage to bone, cartilage and ligaments because of

an accident during basketball practice. What can you tell him about the healing of these tissues?

Explain your answer in 4 to 5 sentences. Indicate the reference/s of your answer.

4. Stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium is an excellent barrier to pathogens in the

epidermis of the skin. Despite the fact that it is such a good barrier, this tissue would not be

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura
 40

suitable for the lining of the trachea or small intestine. Explain your answer in 4 to 5 sentences.

Indicate the reference/s of your answer.

5. Joe had experienced a recent respiratory infection but felt he was responding well to over-the-

counter medications. He still had a low-grade fever, however. He was awakened during the

night with pain in the thoracic region. Fearful that the symptoms might indicate a heart attack,

he called 911 and was transported to the emergency department. On the way to the hospital,

the paramedic advised Joe that his EKG was normal. After all tests for cardiac illness and

pathology returned negative, Joe was sent home on antibiotics, pain medication, and with

recommended bed rest. From your study of tissues and membranes, what might be the reason

for this treatment? Explain your answer in 4 to 5 sentences. Indicate the reference/s of your

answer.

References

McKinley, M., O’Loughlin, D. & Bidle, T. (2016). Anatomy & Physiology: An Integrative
Approach (2nd Ed.). McGraw-Hill Ed. USA

Peate, I. & Muralitharan, N. (2017). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology for Nursing and
Healthcare Students (2nd Edition). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., West Sussex, UK

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by Julius Kevin Cura