805 TRU Way Kamloops, BC V2C 0C8 Table of Contents Course Units Unit 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... CU-1 Unit 2: Understanding Regions ................................................................................... CU-6 Unit 3: Defining Regions............................................................................................ CU-21 Unit 4: Ontario .............................................................................................................. CU-30 Unit 5: Québec .............................................................................................................. CU-43 Unit 6: Atlantic Canada ............................................................................................... CU-53 Unit 7: Western Canada .............................................................................................. CU-66 Unit 8: British Columbia ............................................................................................ CU-79 Unit 9: The Territorial North ..................................................................................... CU-93 Unit 10: Conclusion ................................................................................................... CU-102 GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-1
Unit 1: Introduction Introduction Welcome to the GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada. This course examines the physical, human, and economic geography of Canada in a regional context. It divides Canada into six regions: Ontario, Québec, British Columbia, Western Canada, Atlantic Canada, and the Territorial North. The criteria for defining Canada as these regions are examined below; however, the real focus of the course is on the many interconnections and relationships amongst the different regions, the different areas within those regions, and the forces that define regional uniqueness. This approach provides a framework for studying change over time as distinctive landscapes (elements of the physical environment as well as features made by humans) evolve. It also explores the distribution patterns of people, cultural groups, and economic activities to illustrate how the regions are part of larger interconnected systems (e.g., Canada, North America, or the Pacific Rim). The course is designed to promote an understanding of the similarities and differences between different areas across Canada, and to develop students’ skills in recognizing and analyzing the salient geographical features of those regions and the country as a whole. Additionally, you are encouraged to develop your “filter” on Canadian regionalism when you follow current events in the newspapers, on websites, or on TV. You may even want to bring in some of these current events as examples in your assignments to enhance your answers! We also want to point out some academic journals that are good sources of peer- reviewed articles that pertain to this course, including: • Canadian Journal of Regional Science • The Canadian Geographer For your interest, a popular magazine such as Canadian Geographic may provide some background material, as well some richly illustrated photos. Since you will be asked in some assignment questions to use scholarly resources, you are encouraged to review the TRU Library publication “Differentiate between popular, trade, and scholarly publications.”
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We also point you towards two citation guides for the American Psychological Association (or APA) citation style that you should use: • TRU library APA Citation Style • Online Writing Lab (OWL) Purdue University At the end of each unit, you will find a summary section that summarizes the chapters covered, provides references to secondary sources that you may find interesting, and links to websites with related material, as well as to the assessment activities related to each unit.
Learning Objectives for Unit 1
• Define regional geography. • Define geographical concepts and terms that will be used in discussing the geography of Canada throughout the course.
What is Regional Geography?
The short answer to the question “What is regional geography?” could be the answer given for every subject: “It is the study of the regions of Canada.” But that answer doesn’t specifically tell us the following: what are regions, how do we determine regions, and why are we studying the regions of Canada in the first place? This course aims to provide you with answers to these questions.
Supplementary Activity: Reflection—Why are you taking this
course? In your learning journal, write a response to the question: “Why am I taking this course?” It’s perfectly OK to answer “To get a credit for school,” but after you write that down, I am asking you to go beyond that and answer this question: “What do I hope to learn?” My answer is that I think we study Canadian regional geography so we can better understand people across the nation, understand the things that motivate them, and therefore gain some insight into how they feel, think, and make decisions. Thus, by being a life-long student of regional geography, I hope to continue learning about my country and the people in it.
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Learning about Regions
Studying regions requires identifying and analyzing the unique characteristics of an area. Broadly speaking, the characteristics that define a region can be categorized as the physical land base, historical foundations, and the people who live there (demographics). None of these can be studied alone; together they constitute what is distinctive about a geographical area. Further on in this course, we will take an in- depth look at each of these categories. Most importantly, though, learning about Canadian regions and the people who live there is interesting! Regional geography is not just a collection of miscellaneous facts about a region. Undoubtedly, facts are necessary to describe a region accurately, but these facts do not constitute the entirety of the discipline —they are used to illustrate themes or concepts. It is the selection, arrangement, and interpretation of facts that present a viewpoint that can be called geographical. This course aims to help you refine your skills in learning “the facts,” but also aims to give you practice in using the analytical tools that will help you interpret these facts. Thus, do not think that studying regional geography means you will be immersed in a haphazard collection of information; it entails the art of selecting information and the skill to develop and synthesize the themes that characterize the essential characteristics of regions.
Terms and Concepts
To begin our exploration of Canada’s regions through the discipline of Regional Geography, let’s look at some key definitions. This strategy will get us all on the same page, so to speak, as we move forward in the course. These following definitions are used in your textbook. You can use the text index to identify pages where these concepts are used, and the glossary also provides definitions for these and other terms. First, let’s take a look at the definition of regional geography (p. 413): “The study of the geography of regions and the interplay between physical and human geography, which results in an understanding of human society, its physical geographical underpinnings, and a sense of place.” Note that the definition includes both physical and human geography—so the way an area is defined as a region involves looking at both these aspects. A key part of this definition, one that we haven’t discussed in depth yet but will later, is that the elements that define a region are the perceptions that make up one’s sense of place. This sense of place brings with it emotional feelings, and creates a strong
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psychological bond between people and where they live (or the region with which they identify). Bone (2018) defines a separate term, regional consciousness (p. 413) to help explain those strong bonds we have with place. Regional consciousness is: “Identification with a place or region, including the strong feeling of belonging to that space and the willingness to advocate for regional interests.” Finally, let’s look at the definition of region itself (pp. 413): An area of the earth’s surface defined by its distinctive human and/or natural characteristics. Boundaries between regions often are transition zones where the main characteristics of one region merge into those of a neighbouring region. Geographers use the concept of region to study parts of the world. In your textbook, Bone emphasizes a key element of the process of defining regions, which includes, as above, both physical and human factors. He notes that geographers originally emphasized the physical properties of an area, or its land base, more than they do today: “Today, geographers place more emphasis on the human side because the physical environment is largely mediated through culture, economy, and technology” (p. 4). In making this statement, Bone has emphasized that over a period of time, many forces forge common identities among people. When Canada was a younger nation, and when people were more reliant on the land for their bread and butter (literally and figuratively), the physical characteristics of the land dominated the definitions of regions. Now, human (including cultural, economic, and demographic) factors are just as important. This discussion is related to the role of environmental determinism, a controversial philosophy in geography, which was debated in the early part of the 20th century. It argued that the physical environment “determined” what humans could do. Cultural geographers, and others, objected to, or modified, determinism by saying that humans were offered choices in the environment and could make good or bad decisions with respect to how they used the environment. The word determinism is seldom used now, and has been replaced by the phrase “influence of.” The debate in geographical philosophy continues, in another form, to examine how much (and how measured) humans are “influenced” by the natural environment in their activities. Many people now look at the other side of the question—how much do humans influence or affect the environment?
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Regionalism and Regionalization
As you work your way through this course, you will encounter definitions for regionalism and regionalization that are contrary to the definitions provided in your textbook. Bone defines regionalism (p. 413) as: “The division of countries or areas of the earth into different natural/political/cultural parts.” It is important to be aware, however, that most geographers would disagree with this definition. The definition provided by Bone is usually associated with the term regionalization, which is the division of an area into different regions or parts. In contrast, regionalism is typically defined as the affinity with, attachment to, or loyalty expressed for a particular region.
Assessment Activity 1. Review the Final Project assignment. 2. Complete Final Project Entry 1: Sense of Place. (3%)
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Unit 2: Understanding Regions
Introduction Robert Bone, the author of your textbook, begins Chapter 1 with this statement: “Geography helps us understand our world” (p. 3). Geography helps us do that by giving us the analytical tools to interpret what we are seeing and experiencing, which becomes especially important when looking at Canadian regions because approaches to defining these regions are almost as diverse as Canada itself. This unit introduces you to some of the frameworks for understanding the process of regionalization and Bone’s six regions.
Learning Objectives for Unit 2
• Describe the role of the regional geographer. • Identify Bone’s six regions of Canada. • Explain the role of scale in defining regions. • Examine stereotypes about different regions of Canada. How do we discern Canada’s regions? At its root, this question contains more fundamental questions about how we discern differences and similarities amongst places, and at what scale we decide to divide or combine. It is crucial to remember that when we define Canada’s regions, we do it with a framework in mind, for example, from a natural environment viewpoint, historical foundation, or social/economic/demographic scale.
Things That Divide Us
The same is true for how we define what is different or the same about parts of Canada. In this learning activity, we invite you to explore an excellent selection of thematic maps produced by Maclean’s Canada. Maclean’s provides an index to all its maps at http://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/putting-canada-on-the-map/. However, we can start with a map that looks at stereotypes by region:
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Maclean’s. (2014). Mapped: O Canada, our home and cliché land [Digital image]. Retrieved from http://www.macleans.ca/society/mapped-o-canada-our-home-and-cliche-land
When doing so, ask yourself: Is this a stereotype or truth? And also… Where do you think the people who generated these labels live? Were raised? Were educated?
Figure 2.1. The World’s Largest Fiddle, Sydney, Nova Scotia—Erecting the “World’s Largest” statues are ways that Canadians can display what is unique about their region. (Hint: You may want to use a photo of “the world’s largest” from your area in one of the map postings in your Final Project.) Jarvis, D. (2008). The Big Ceilidh Fiddle [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/archer10/2456697313/in/photostream/ (CC BY-SA 2.0)
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Things That Unite Us
As you progress through the course, keep an eye not only on the things that divide us, but also on the things that unite us. At the end of the course, in Unit 10, we will revisit the concept of Canada as a country of regions, and ask whether you think we are united or divided.
Figure 2.2. Canada Day in Calgary—Canada Day celebrations are one thing that unites us. davebloggs007. (2014). Canada day 2014 Calgary [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/davebloggs007/14584518883 (CC BY 2.0)
Supplementary Activity: Is Hockey Really That Important?
A good example of what unites us is our coast-to-coast-to-coast obsession with hockey. Even if you do not have any interest in the sport (say it isn’t so!), surely you know at least 100 other people who do!
Figure 2.3. Canadian hockey fans cheer at the 2010 Olympics in Vancouver. s.yume. (2010). Canada Wins GOLD! [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/syume/4399693897 (CC BY 2.0)
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Figure 2.4. Hayley Wickenheiser, long-time player on Canada’s National Women’s Hockey team, playing in the IIHF World Women Championship 2011 Gold Medal Game. becaro. (2011). Final Action [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/becaro/5655581950 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
If you need some empirical proof of something that unites us as a nation, and to demonstrate how hockey controls the actions of large groups of Canadians, consider the following data that show water consumption during the Olympic Gold Medal game. Note how consumption peaked significantly during intermissions and immediately after the awards ceremony.
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Figure 2.5. Water consumption in Edmonton and Halifax during the gold medal game. Donham, P. (2010). The nation that pees together. Retrieved from http://contrarian.ca/tag/epcor/
Learning Activity 2.1: Review the Shared Map
To begin to look at this question of how we define regions, and the analytical tools that help us to understand regions, let’s take a step back for a minute and review what we can learn from each other. Go to the course shared map, which is part of the Final Project (Figure 2.6). Each pin contains the information from the first activity of the Final Project completed at the end of Unit 1. The map contains the pins of all the students who have taken the on- line version of the course, and therefore represents students from many different places sharing their sense of place.
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Figure 2.6. Screenshot of Shared Map site
When you click on a pin, the information posted by the student pops up for you to see. Some locations may have many pins on them, so use the + sign to zoom into an area of the map so to see all of them.
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Figure 2.7. Screenshot of pin information from Shared Map site.
As you look at the pins, reflect upon the following: What is it that other students like about the locations they have posted? What is it that they don’t like? What do they show as the “typical” geography? How does the house/property compare with other locations? Remember that your textbook defines a sense of place as the “special and … intense feelings that people have for the area where they live” (p. 414). These feelings are derived from a combination of experiences: some from natural factors such as climate, others from cultural factors such as language.” If you had to categorize the things that comprise the sense of place contained in other students’ postings, do you think they could best be described as natural or cultural elements, or both? What do you think is the most prominent? Finally, how might comparing and contrasting information on house prices help us to better understand the divisions in economic identities—how we work, how much we have to put away for house payments, what money we have left over to do other things, etc.? Congratulations! By taking a look at the online postings and recording your responses to these questions, you have begun the process of considering what regional divisions exist in Canada.
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Robert Bone’s Canada
In your textbook, regional geographer Robert Bone introduces some basic premises about Canadian regions, most of which will be obvious by now: 1. Canada is a diverse country. 2. Canada is a country composed of regions. 3. Canada’s regions interact with each other. 4. Canada’s regions are not static. Bone presents the idea that four regional tensions, or “faultlines,” exist “in Canada’s collective psyche” (p. 9). The idea of applying the concept of geological faultlines was coined by Globe and Mail columnist Jeffery Simpson in the mid-1990s. Not only do these faultlines divide Canada and Canadians, but Bone argues that they can shift and, over time, rise up to create factious sections of Canada. As you work your way through this course, think of Bone’s faultlines as a framework or analytical tool to understand the regional divisions within Canada. The four faultlines he discusses are: 1. Centralist-Decentralist 2. English-speaking vs French-speaking 3. Indigenous Minority and the Non-Indigenous Majority 4. Newcomers and Old-timers Each of these brings with it a different history, a different value, or basically, a different sense of place (or sense of identity).
Learning Activity 2.2: Reading and Guiding Questions
Read the section in your textbook on faultlines, pp. 9–16. Make notes in the learning journal you keep for this course, and outline the main points Bone makes about each of the faultlines. After you have read this section, consider the following question: Can you think of other faultlines that divide Canadian society (apart from the four identified by Bone)?
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Core-Periphery A second major theme that is present in all regions is the core/periphery model. This model presents the idea that core regions have the power to control “acquiescent,” or less dominant, peripheral regions. The core-periphery model is similar to the model—heartland-hinterland—that dominated regional geography for decades, which originated with Harold Innis’ staples theory. The core-periphery theory supports our understanding of the economic relationships between, and within, regions. Basically, the core or centre of an area is where the power is located, and where decisions are made that affect not only the core but also the periphery areas. The periphery areas are those that are dependent on the core for funding, policies, etc. In Canada, where our economies have been so dependent on natural resource development, the periphery areas typically provide the extraction of resources, and the core areas make decisions regarding these materials, and in some cases, transform the raw materials into manufactured goods. Throughout the textbook, you will see references to the core-periphery model, in particular the following: • Ontario and Québec are core regions centred on manufacturing. • BC and Western Canada are rapidly expanding regions based on the expansion of resource bases. • Atlantic Canada is a slow growing region based on a declining resource base. • The Territorial North is a resource frontier where many resources exist, but so do barriers to their use. Many have argued, however, that this core-periphery model is changing, and so it is one of the themes challenged in this course.
Robert Bone’s Six Regions of Canada
So, as we have seen, and will continue to discuss, a single interpretation of regions does not exist. In Canada, regional grouping is commonly based on provinces. However, historical reasons exist, but are not supported by much logic, for grouping the three Prairie Provinces together as “the West,” while omitting one other western province, British Columbia. Note too that the word prairie actually means grassland, although most of the area of the Prairie Provinces is not grassland! Another interesting phenomenon exists in the east. Originally, the Maritime Provinces included only the small provinces on the east coast—Nova Scotia, PEI, and New Brunswick. But after Newfoundland joined confederation in 1949, what was this area to be called? Historically and traditionally, Newfoundland was not one of the Maritime Provinces. Many Canadians are probably confused as to what constitutes the Maritime Provinces, and where Newfoundland fits. In fact, the trivia
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question “Name Canada’s Maritime Provinces” was once asked by a WestJet
stewardess on a flight I was on, and the resulting debate amongst passengers was not only interesting, but it certainly helped pass the time! In short, be aware that the answer to the questions “How many regions?” and “What are they?” can be quite arbitrary. Your textbook divides Canada into six different regions, and these are the divisions that we will use. We still will consider the role of the natural environment, historical foundation, and social/economic/demographic makeup in defining regions, but for now, we will provide you with a framework. Bone’s six regions are: 1. Atlantic Canada 2. Québec 3. Ontario 4. Western Canada 5. British Columbia 6. The Territorial North Bone rationalizes his regional divisions this way (see pages 5–7): • They are readily understood by people across the nation. • They are a reflection of the political landscape. • They support the use of statistical data, since these data are collected in units that fit within these divisions. • They are based on the country’s physical geography. Remember that using these six regions is not the definitive way to explore Canada’s regions, and as we shall see in Unit 3, many different ways are available to define regions.
Learning Activity 2.3: Reading and Guiding Questions
In a moment, we will ask you to read the section introducing Bone’s regions in your textbook (pages 5–7). Before you begin, take this mini-quiz to test your perceptions of some of the general characteristics of these six regions:
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1. Which of the six regions has the largest population?
Québec British Columbia Ontario 2. Which of the six regions has the largest area (%)? Territorial North Québec Ontario 3. Which of the six regions contributes the most to Canada’s Gross Domestics Product (GDP)? British Columbia Western Canada Ontario See your course Learning Management System for the answers.
Supplementary Activity: Your Own Three Descriptive Words
Pause for a moment now, and in your learning journal write down each of Bone’s regions: the Atlantic, Québec, Ontario, Western Canada, British Columbia, and the Territorial North. Now write down three words for each that you think describes each region. When you come to the end of each unit, ask yourself: Would I use these same three descriptors? Would I select different ones? Why or why not?
The Role of Scale
Before we move on, it would be a good idea to touch briefly on the role of scale. Basically, regions are a classification of space. Thus, regions are sensitive to the scale of analysis; the scale or level of detail that is applied to define regions can determine how others perceive those regions. An example might prove the point. Consider the various “regions” of your university campus. We will talk about the Thompson Rivers University (TRU) campus in Kamloops. Some areas of the campus are associated because they provide facilities for those who teach similar subjects, for example, individual faculties could be lumped together. Others might define “regions” as areas that are based on function, such as the parking lot or lecture hall or labs. However, if we were
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interested only in describing, say, post-secondary institutions of the Southern
Interior of BC, then we wouldn’t be concerned with splitting out the individual parcels of the TRU campus itself; rather, we would just label the entire campus as part of one larger regional whole. Thus the way that an area (such as a campus) is divided or not divided into regions depends not only on function, but also on scale.
Learning Activity 2.4: Reading and Guiding Questions
We have made reference to different parts of Chapter 1: “Regions of Canada” of your textbook. Now would be a good time to sit down and read the whole chapter! As you read through it, consider the following questions, and write responses in your learning journal: 1. “Canada is a country of regions” (Bone, p. 9). Is this true of other countries? Is the United States (or any other country) also a country of regions? Can all countries be described in this fashion? Why or why not? (The issue here is whether or not Canada is unique in this respect.) 2. “Geography is destiny” (p. 4). To what extent does geography “determine” (influence) outcomes in your daily life? To what extent has geography determined (influenced) the history and development of your hometown? 3. Do you think it makes sense to consider Ontario and Québec as individual regions? Would it make more sense to distinguish between the urban, industrial, southern parts of Ontario and Québec, and the largely uninhabited, resource-producing northern parts? 4. Examine Figure 2.8 below. What does this editorial cartoon suggest about Canada’s regions? How do the regions in the cartoon “fit” with Bone’s regions (Figure 2.9)? Why is it important to be aware of regions (as perceived) as well as those (regions) defined by geographers?
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Figure 2.8. Image of Figure 1.1 of textbook (p. 5). Bone, R. M. (2018). Instructors resources. The regional geography of Canada (7th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Figure 2.9. Image of Figure 1.2 of textbook (p. 6). Bone, R. M. (2018). Instructors resources. The regional geography of Canada (7th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
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Supplemental Resources That Will Support Your
Learning The books listed below may be found at a local library or at the TRU Library.
Secondary Literature • Cohen, A. (2007). The unfinished Canadian: The people we are. Toronto, ON: McClelland and Stewart. • Coupland, D. (2002). Souvenir of Canada. Toronto, ON: Douglas & McIntyre. • MacGregor, R. (2007). Canadians: A portrait of a country and its people. Toronto, ON: Viking. • Warkentin, J. (Ed.). (2010). So vast and various: Interpreting Canada’s regions in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Montréal, QC and Kingston, ON: McGill- Queens University Press.
Websites • Souvenir of Canada (movie) - This is available as a DVD through the TRU Library • National Geographic’s Canadian Landscapes • Atlas of Canada • Water Consumption in Edmonton and Halifax during Olympic Gold Medal Game • NHL Players by Province • On the Ice with the NHL • Canada Regional foods (stereotypes) • Mapping Canada
Assessment Activities 1. Complete Quiz 1. (3%) 2. Complete Final Project Entry 2: Region and Faultlines. (3%)
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What’s Next: Moving on to Unit 3
After all you have read in this unit, you may still be asking: How many regions should Canada have so that we may understand its totality and still see the differences in its parts? What is a convenient but appropriate number between “too few” and “too many?” The next unit provides an introduction to some of the tools that geographers use when trying to answer these questions.
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Unit 3: Defining Regions
Introduction In this unit, we take a look at the key characteristics that underlie the different ways to define Canada’s regions. This is a particularly long unit, requiring that you read four chapters in your textbook, so you may want to take several weeks to cover the material.
Learning Objectives for Unit 3
• Discuss some of the challenges associated with defining regions. • Outline the physical foundation of Canada’s regional geography through descriptions of physiographic, climatic, and ecological factors. • Summarize the defining events of Canada’s history. • Describe the general social, demographic, and economic geographies of Canada. • Link Bone’s four faultlines to Canada’s identity and regions.
Many Ways to Define Regions
Canada is very complex geographically. One of the jobs of a regional geographer is to divide the country into smaller units that have some degree of similarity. However, grouping areas together by their similarities naturally ignores some of their differences, and herein lies the problem: How many regions should Canada have? Undoubtedly, Canada is diverse. Since every town and village has its own character, if taken to the extreme, we could end up dividing Canada into hundreds or even thousands of small regions, each different from each other in some small but significant way. We could end up with a framework of many different regions, each unique but linked together, like building blocks, based on their commonalities. In this way, smaller regions can combine into larger ones, and larger regions can be broken down. You may see literature or websites that define regions in this hierarchical fashion. Consider that regional geography also should emphasize the similarities of all these little places, and that a key part of defining regions is that the regions should be large enough to be recognized by people in other parts of the country.
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So, defining regions becomes an act of identifying patterns—physical, historical,
social, economic, demographic, and so on—across the landscape. When the elements that make up patterns are grouped together into regions, we realize that similarities and differences exist from place to place in Canada. Regions have some degree of similarity of selected phenomena and are defined by chosen criteria. Economists, for example, often use statistical units because their statistical data are captured in such units. Geographers also use these statistical units to define regions, but they also rely on physical features, or landforms, to help define a region. Landforms often are so visible on the landscape that they make obvious regional boundaries. A good example of this is the Rocky Mountain range, which except for north-eastern British Columbia, forms a natural border between British Columbia and Alberta. Even when we come to believe that regions do exist, we must always remember that they are human constructs: they exist only in the minds of the persons who define and accept the criteria and characteristics of the region. Despite this limitation, many people have a regional consciousness, or a sense of place (refer to pages 8 – 9 in your textbook) that tells them intuitively that that their local area differs from another. It is one of the tasks of the regional geographer to identify and define these characteristics.
Defining Regions: Major Characteristics
As we have seen, no single interpretation exists for what comprises Canada’s regions, and one of the goals of this course is to have you develop your own opinions on the characterization of the regional geography of Canada. In the next section, we will learn about the key characteristics that are used to define regions: Canada’s physical land base, human history, and current-day demographic, economic, and social makeup.
Physical Base In the past, some geographers have divided Canada into regions based solely on their physical, or physiographic, characteristics. Differences in landform characteristics can be seen easily in the landscapes; human uses of these landforms often have differed from region to region, and thus human-land relationships may be better understood within a landform framework.
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Learning Activity 3.1: Explore Six Canadian Regional Landforms
One way of defining Canada’s regions is to look at its landforms. Geographers have asserted that Canada has six major landform regions: the Appalachian mountains and hills, the Great Lakes and St Lawrence Lowlands, the Canadian Shield, the Interior Plains, the Cordillera, and the Arctic Islands. Each of these landform regions does not, of course, have completely similar topographic features throughout, and can be further subdivided into several landform types. (Remember the discussion on scale?) Explore Canada’s six regional landforms. Some questions to consider while you are exploring these landforms: 1. What are some of the natural forces that have created these landforms? 2. How does Canada’s national park system help protect representative areas of each of these landforms? 3. How do the provincial boundaries match, or not, with the landform boundaries? 4. When you are exploring the Canadian Geographic website, have a look at the information on Canada’s natural resource economy. What are some major industries that rely on the natural “wealth” of Canada’s landforms? To illustrate how one geographer can divide Canada differently from another, the Canadian Geographic divides Canada into six ecozones or natural regions. While your text author also divides Canada into six regions (Ontario, Québec, British Columbia, Western Canada, Atlantic Canada, and the Territorial North), his regional scheme is based on broader criteria and thus his regions differ from those based on purely natural criteria. You will find in your text, though, a discussion of how elements of the physical environment can be used to define regions. In your text, the author presents the idea that the physical environment has six key components: geomorphology, geology, climate, soils, vegetation, and hydrology. In a country as large as Canada, these environmental components vary considerably. He has argued that to understand the variations in human activity across such a large and complex country, we need to understand its physiographic, climatic, and ecological variations. Additionally, Bone emphasizes that variations in the physical environment can either constrain or support human activities. This idea has some similarity to our discussion about environmental determinism in Unit 1. He also discusses how humans impact the natural environment.
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Learning Activity 3.2: Reading and Guiding Questions
Read Chapter 2: “Canada’s Physical Base.” As you read through the chapter, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. In the introduction to this chapter, Bone notes that “physical geography . . . presents a natural system that underlies Canada’s national and regional character” (p. 21). If this is the case, then to what extent do the physiographic regions (Figure 2.1, p. 25) and climate zones (Figure 2.4, p. 39) “fit” with Bone’s six regions of Canada (Figure 1.2, p. 6)? 2. Bone writes: “Humans are the most active and dangerous agents of environmental change” (p. 53). Make a list of some of the environmental changes caused by humans in your local area. What can or should be done about these specific impacts? In general, we tend to see human-induced environmental change exclusively in negative terms. Can you think of any examples of human-induced environmental changes that are positive? 3. Bone notes in Vignette 2.1 (p. 22) that geography is partly responsible for the much smaller population in Canada (versus the United States). To what extent is this true? What other factors have contributed to this population differential? Suppose Canada’s population were to increase by, say, 10 million over the next 25 years. Where could/would these additional people live?
Historical Foundation In this chapter, Bone considers the historical foundations of the four faultlines. He summarizes the critical events in Canadian history in the context of four tensions, or “faultlines,” that exist between (1) English-speaking and French-speaking Canadians, (2) centralists and decentralists, (3) “new” and “old” Canadians, and (4) Indigenous and non-Indigenous Canadians. He provides an overview of each and argues that each one could significantly destabilize Canada as a nation.
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-25
Learning Activity 3.3: Reading and Guiding Questions
Read Chapter 3: “Canada’s Historical Geography.” As you read through the chapter, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. Maps are the most basic tool of the geographer. Their importance is shown in Figures 3.4 through 3.9, which illustrate the territorial evolution of Canada from 1867 to 1999. What are the implications of this political history for Canadian identity, and also for Bone’s regional scheme? 2. Can both of Saul’s concepts, “hard country” and “soft country,” be applied to Indigenous/non-Indigenous relations in Canada? Moving forward, what do you think are some of the key challenges associated with this faultline? 3. Speculate on the ramifications of Québec’s potential separation from Canada. In what way would the geography of Canada change if Québec separated? What other issues might arise if Québec separated?
Canada’s People With more than 35 million people (in 2016) inhabiting a very large area, Canada has one of the world’s lowest population densities. Yet the distribution is such that the vast majority is clustered in small pockets across the southern areas of the country. If we take a look at Figure 3.1 below, we can see that the moderately and most densely populated areas are adjacent to the border with the United States.
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CU-26 Course Units
Figure 3.1. Image of Figure 4.4 of text book (p.122). Bone, R. M. (2018). Instructors resources. The regional geography of Canada (7th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
It is interesting to note that even though nearly 90% of the country is defined as “northern,” most Canadians live in the small portion of the country that is not considered northern. If we think back to our discussion about what defines Canadians (or how Canadians represent themselves to each other and the world), many defining Canadian images are linked to the ideas of a “wild” and “Northern” Canada. Does our reality of who we are clash with the vision of who we think we are? When we consider Canada in a global context, we do live in a more northerly region defined by climate and geographic location. But what other forces are at work in defining who we are? Bone’s Chapter 4 takes a look at the social and demographic characteristics that make up Canadian regions.
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-27
Learning Activity 3.4: Reading and Guiding Questions
Read Chapter 4: “Canada’s Human Face.” As you read through the chapter, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. What factors underlie the “uneven distribution” of population in Canada? What are the advantages and disadvantages of this pattern? What role has Canada’s physical geography played as a determinant of this settlement pattern? 2. Develop an argument for or against a policy that would force newly arriving immigrants to settle in locations other than Toronto, Montréal, or Vancouver. 3. Speculate on the ethnic composition/profile of Canada’s population 25 years from now. How do you expect the four faultlines to be affected by the country’s changing ethnic composition?
Canada’s Economy In this chapter, Bone examines Canada’s place in the global economy, the significance of trade with the United States, and possible economic futures, including the potential role of the knowledge-based economy. The country’s regional economies are also described, and the core/periphery model is adapted to Canada’s economic landscape. A key theme is Canada’s reliance on exports and the challenges posed by a turbulent global economy.
Learning Activity 3.5: Reading and Guiding Questions
Read Chapter 5: “Canada’s Economic Face.” As you read through the chapter, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: • What are some of the major factors that contributed to changes in Canada’s industrial structure over time? Speculate on what the next steps might be in this evolution. • Why are exports considered so important to Canada’s economic well-being? • Equalization involves the transfer of funds from “have” to “have not” provinces. Why is this a contentious issue for both the “have” and “have not” regions?
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CU-28 Course Units
Supplemental Activity If you had to define and name another regional division (not one of Bone’s six), what would you call this region? How would you define it? Write your response in your learning journal.
Supplemental Resources That Will Support Your
Learning Secondary Literature A local library may have the additional resources listed below, or they can be accessed from TRU Library. • Bourne, L. S., & Hutton, T. (Eds.). (2011). Canadian urban regions: Trajectories of growth and change. Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. • Bunting, T., & Fillion, P. (Eds.). (2010). Canadian cities in transition: Local through global perspectives (4th ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. • Eyles, N., & Miall, A. (2007). Canada rocks: The geologic journey. Markham, ON: Fitz-Henry and Whiteside. • Hayes, D. (2002). Historical atlas of Canada. Vancouver, BC: Douglas and McIntyre. • MacDowell, L. S. (2012). An environmental history of Canada. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. • Morassutti, W. (Ed.). (2012). Imagining Canada: A century of photographs preserved by the New York Times. Toronto, ON: Doubleday Canada.
Websites • Atlas of Canada • Canadian Sustainability Indicators • Images Canada, Library and Archives Canada • Statistics Canada • National Parks of Canada • Canada’s Best Places to Live • Legacy of Hope Foundation • Mapping Canada
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-29
• Water Consumption in Edmonton and Halifax during Olympic Gold Medal
Game • NHL Players by Province • On the Ice with the NHL • Canada Regional Foods (stereotypes) • Ecozones • Another way of physical region interpretation • BC Biogeoclimatic Zones
You should submit Assignment 1 when it is completed so that you get
feedback from the Open Learning Faculty Member as soon as possible, and before you start the other assignments.
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CU-30 Course Units
Unit 4: Ontario Introduction Bone looks at Ontario and Québec as separate regions, although they have many commonalities or similarities. For example, in both regions, the bulk of their population is located along the Great Lakes or St Lawrence River. Much of the northern areas in both regions is dominated by the underlying Canadian Shield. Of course, these regions have many differences, the least of which is language. This unit outlines the geographic dimensions and importance of Ontario, and serves as a guide to your reading.
Learning Objectives for Unit 4
• Describe the physical and historical geography of Ontario as a basis for understanding the region’s social and economic dominance. • Identify two Ontarios: (1) a highly urbanized and industrialized south and (2) a remote, resource-producing area in the north. • Outline the importance of the automobile industry to the Ontario economy. • Explain why Ontario remains the dominant region in Canada, and the factors that have lessened its dominance. • Illustrate the environmental challenges associated with the massive concentration of people and economic activities in the south of Ontario.
Physical Geography Ontario’s physical geography explains why there are “two” Ontarios: (1) a highly urbanized and industrialized south and (2) a remote, resource-producing area in the north. As you read your textbook, you will probably find that many of the landscape differences between the Canadian Shield and the Great Lakes-St Lawrence Lowlands, and the different human uses of the environments in these regions, can be explained partly by the fact that the Shield is rocky and hilly whereas the Lowlands are lower and level. Your textbook contains a good description of the differences. In particular, Figure 6.4: “Physiographic regions in Central Canada” on page 179 illustrates the physiographic regions.
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-31
Figure 4.1. This photo illustrates the beautiful sugar maple (Acer saccharum) just as its leaves are starting to turn in the fall. Sugar maples and American beech are the dominant trees of the Great Lakes-St Lawrence Lowland deciduous forests. Bernier, M. (2013). Old Growth Maple Forest [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/121914523@N05/13539206655 (CC BY 2.0)
Figure 4.2. The trillium (Trillium grandiflorum ) is Ontario’s provincial flower, which is found in sugar maple-American beech forests. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
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CU-32 Course Units
Figure 4.3. Where there are sugar maples there is maple syrup! Ontario is the second largest producer of maple syrup (second to Québec), producing over 1 million litres a year. Muttoo, I. (2008). Sugar Shack [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/imuttoo/2342094244 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
Figure 4.4. The Canadian Shield (photograph at Burleigh Falls) is known for its rock outcrops, cold lakes, and white pine trees. Harris, R. (2005). Burleigh Falls [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/rickharris/100659205 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-33
Learning Activity 4.1: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read page 175 to “Ontario’s Historical Geography” on page 182. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. Differentiate between the north and south by describing climate variations. 2. What is the most prominent landscape feature that runs through Southern Ontario? 3. Describe the landscape of the Canadian Shield, noting some regional variations in your description. 4. Given the significant differences between northern and southern Ontario, does it make sense to treat them together as a single “region,” as Bone does in his regional scheme of Canada? One alternative is to treat them as two separate regions, i.e., the Industrial Heartland vs. the Near North. Additionally, we could look at all of southern Ontario and Québec as one region, and all of the northern portions, dominated by the Canadian Shield, as another. Which makes most sense to you? Why? Are your reasons driven by physical or economic characteristics?
Historical Geography The physical limits of the province have a direct bearing on Ontario’s historical geography (pp. 182–188). The growth of an industry-based economy in the south was driven largely by geographic location. Early industries required access to transportation routes by rail and ship, and Southern Ontario’s location along the Great Lakes provided this opportunity. Ontario also urbanized rapidly in comparison to other regions, and so was able to support the emergence of a manufacturing-based economy. Additionally, a key to Ontario’s rise in industrial prominence in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was Sir John A. MacDonald’s National Policy, which put high tariffs on imported manufactured goods, thus preventing people in the other regions of Canada from trading with their southern US neighbours for cheaper goods.
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CU-34 Course Units
Figure 4.5. Port Hope, Ontario, was first settled by Europeans in 1793, primarily because it has a major river running into Lake Ontario. For more than a century, it was a major southern Ontario community, and was once considered as the site for the provincial capital. Today, the local Heritage society has preserved many of the older buildings. This grist mill (for grinding grain) typifies one industry that used to rely on the water energy of the river to operate. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
Figure 4.6. What we see today as heritage homes, or in this case, a bed and breakfast business, reflects what was once central to the economy of the region. This home in Port Hope is believed to have been built by Captain Wallace in the 1820s. He was a ship’s captain who ran freight up and down the Great Lakes and St Lawrence. The house itself is approximately 30 m from the Lake Ontario shoreline. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-35
Figure 4.7. The Port Hope Town Hall was completed in 1853. Town Halls in the early towns created a space for council chambers and the courthouse, and also combined with a market to form a market square. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
Learning Activity 4.2: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Ontario’s Historical Geography” on page 182 to “Ontario Today” on page 188. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. What was the significance of the British winning the war of 1812? 2. The Ontario government’s decision to transition from fossil fuels to cleaner but higher-cost energy has pushed some Ontarians into what has been described as “energy poverty.” Do you agree with the Ontario government’s decisions in this area? What was the significance? 3. Describe the importance of the Welland Canal to the economic development of Ontario. What are some of the other transportation developments that supported industrial manufacturing in southern Ontario?
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CU-36 Course Units
Ontario’s Economy Despite its recent economic woes, the dominance of Ontario remains staggering. It contains 38.4% of the country’s population, which means that more than 1 in 3 Canadians live in Ontario. Ontario also is a powerhouse in terms of economic output (see Fig. 6.1, p. 176 in the textbook). Virtually all of these people and economic activity are concentrated in the extreme south of the province. In fact, 40% of Ontarians live in, or close to, Toronto. However, change has been a part of the Ontario economy for some time. The liberalization of global trade and the establishment of the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have resulted in a partial dismantling of the branch-plant economy (see pp. 192–196), the restructuring of Ontario’s industrial economy, and the growing dependence of the economy, both provincial and national, on the United States. Changes in Ontario’s automobile industry are most noteworthy. Beginning in 1965, the Canada-US Auto Pact ensured the survival of the automobile industry in Canada. However, with the end of the Auto Pact in 2001, the nature of this industry in Ontario has changed. As Bone explains, “Ontario is hurting” as the industry that once drove the province’s economy is moving to industrializing countries such as Mexico, where wages are considerably lower (p. 192). Although the future remains unclear, there is hope that investment in research may transform and revitalize the industry.
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-37
Figure 4.8. Despite much of Southern Ontario being cities and communities, agricultural activities are a leading feature and activity. This apple orchard is located outside of Brighton, Ontario. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
Figure 4.9. GM Trucks were built in Oshawa between 1965–2009. GM closed the plant, citing high gasoline prices and financial crisis. In 2009, the last truck off the line was raffled off to an employee, with the proceeds going to the Hospital for Sick Children. Camera Eye Photography. (2013). Week #2 My Home Town... Oshawa,Ontario,Canada: General Motors Canada trucks [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/camera_is_a_mirror_with_memory/8373719037 (CC BY 2.0)
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CU-38 Course Units
Learning Activity 4.3: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Ontario Today” on page 188 to “Ontario’s Core” on page 197. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. If the knowledge-based economy represents the future of Ontario, would you have “saved” Nortel rather than General Motors and Chrysler? Remember, you are making decisions based on the tax dollars of all Canadians! 2. Has globalization doomed Ontario manufacturing workers to fewer jobs at lower wages? 3. For much of its recent history, Ontario has fashioned its prosperity on trade with the United States. Is this “all eggs in one basket” strategy still valid?
Urban Ontario The central lowland adjacent to the Great Lakes and along the St Lawrence River is the “heart” of Canada—some have argued it is Canada’s nerve centre, its most vital organ, and its heartland. It is not, however, the geographical centre of Canada—that is in Manitoba! Southern Ontario has the highest densities of both urban and rural populations in Canada. In rural areas, farmhouses are reasonably close together along every mile of rural roads; there are no large areas without people as is the case in most other regions of Canada. Although the St Lawrence Lowlands provide excellent soils for agriculture, much of the farmland has been converted for urban settlement. This area has nearly one-third of Canada’s census metropolitan areas (CMAs). Of particular note is the fact that the Golden Horseshoe—Canada’s “largest urban cluster”—is home to well over 8 million Canadians (Bone p. 198). Thus, Ontario is the largest province in terms of population. This one area, southern Ontario, has almost double the population of British Columbia! Is it no wonder that in the core- periphery model, southern Ontario is frequently portrayed as the centre of national power?
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-39
Figure 4.10. Toronto skyline showing the CN tower and Air Canada Centre. Jarvis, D. (2008). Ontario - 00606 - Toronto [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/archer10/14840276941 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
Figure 4.11. Even Toronto has its more natural places, including the Toronto Islands. However, the ferries out to the Islands and the Islands themselves can be over-run by people on a hot summer’s day! Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
TRU Open Learning
CU-40 Course Units
Figure 4.12. Canada’s capital, Ottawa, is located in Southern Ontario, a location that reinforces the concept that Ontario is the centre of Canada. palindrome6996. (2006). Canada [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/62904109@N00/257831124 (CC BY 2.0)
Learning Activity 4.4: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Ontario’s Core” on page 197 to “Ontario’s Hinterland: Northern Ontario” on page 202. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. Southern Ontario has more than half of Canada’s Class 1 agricultural lands, which are located in the same area that is home to nearly 13 million people. What are the problems and challenges facing Ontarians in light of this coincidence of conditions? Are agriculture and urban development compatible? Can the negative effects of urban and industrial needs on agriculture (see page 182) be mitigated? 2. Geographers tend to avoid being overly deterministic in their explanations (see the Unit 1 discussion on environmental determinism), yet little doubt exists that the physical environment has played a significant role in Ontario’s emergence as the “Province of Opportunity.” Ontario’s Niagara Fruit Belt, for example, has “the best grape and soft-fruit growing lands in Canada” (p. 199). Do other countries have similarly favoured regions? Can you identify similarly favoured regions in the United States? 3. What are some signs of Toronto’s dominance within Canada’s urban hierarchy?
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-41
Northern Ontario In contrast to the highly populated and industrialized south, Bone describes the hinterland of Ontario as “the forgotten north,” where some residents claim to feel “isolated and ignored by the provincial government based in Toronto” (p. 202). This region, with its declining population and economic challenges, has a textbook core- periphery relationship with southern Ontario, which utilizes the resources of the north. At the same time, the resource-based industries of the north—largely lumber and mining—are influenced by events and trends external to Ontario and even Canada (see pp. 204–206). Natural resources in foreign countries can be more economically accessible than those found in the Canadian Shield. The opening up of trade regulations around the world, and in particular between Canada and the US, has created a challenge in terms of efforts to create long-term jobs in resource extraction. This pattern has been observed in other regions that depend on resource extraction and exports. One recent example of the type of challenge faced by Ontario and other regions that depend on forestry exports to the US is the end of the Softwood Lumber Agreement in 2016 and the “America First” trade position of US President Trump.
Figure 4.13. The boreal forest dominates the landscape of Northern Ontario. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
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CU-42 Course Units
Learning Activity 4.5: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Ontario’s Hinterland: Northern Ontario” on page 202 to the end of the chapter. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. Explain the main challenges facing the forest industry in Northern Ontario. 2. What factors have contributed to the delay in developing the “Ring of Fire?” 3. Given the challenges posed by northern Ontario’s resource-dependent economy, can you suggest some alternatives and options that might permit some degree of economic diversification (and, potentially, growth)?
Supplemental Resources That Will Support Your
Learning Secondary Literature To access the following additional readings, look at what your local library may have; or, they can be ordered from the TRU Library. • McIlwraith, T. F. (1997). Looking for Old Ontario. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. • Rogers, E. S., & Smith, D. B. (Eds.). (1994). Aboriginal Ontario: Historical perspectives on the First Nations. Toronto, ON: Dundurn Press. • Williamson, R. F. (Ed.). (2008). Toronto: An illustrated history of its first 12,000 years. Toronto, ON: James Lorimer.
Websites • Ontario Photos • Travel Ontario Youtube Channel • Toronto Star Newspaper • Stats Canada “A decade of change in Canadian Manufacturing Exports” • The Blackfly Song • Great Lakes Seaway: Gateway to North America • Toronto, Chinatown and Kensington Market—Canada HD Travel Channel
Unit 5: Québec Introduction Like Ontario, there are two Québecs—1) an urban, industrialized south and 2) a more remote, resource-producing north. Québec society also is dominated by a cultural conflict that is the basis for the English/French faultline.
Learning Objectives for Unit 5
• Describe the physical and historical geography of Québec as a basis for understanding the region’s social and economic position in Canada. • Understand two Québecs: 1) a highly urbanized and industrialized south and 2) a remote, resource-producing area in the north. • Outline the central role played by Hydro-Québec in the economic and social transformation of Québec. • Discuss the evolving French/English faultline and its implications for Canada.
Physical Geography Québec’s physical geography—supporting an urban industrial core located in the St Lawrence valley and a resource-producing area in the Canadian Shield—provides the basis for understanding the region’s dual character. In this sense, the character of Québec is very similar to Ontario. However, Bone notes that the physical environment of southern Québec imposes constraints on agriculture: the warmer temperatures and better soils of southern Ontario have helped to create a more productive agricultural base compared to southern Québec. These differences are reflected in a comparison of Ontario’s historical geography with that of Québec. Ultimately, it could be argued that these physical differences were among the factors that contributed to Ontario’s economic dominance over Québec within Canada. Additionally, in contrast to Ontario, the lowland of southern Québec was covered by an arm of the sea at the end of the glacial period, and the resulting marine deposition is now quite flat over large areas. The exceptions are the ancient volcanic plugs, called the Monteregion Hills, which rise sharply above the plain. (Mount Royal in Montréal is an example of these volcanic hills.) The soils of the Québec Lowland have more uniformity than those of Ontario, but Québec also has more extensive areas of poor drainage. Further differences include the Appalachian hills of southern Québec, which is a completely different landform region not present in Ontario.
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CU-44 Course Units
Cold air masses from the Canadian Shield and the northern part of Western Canada pass over central and southern Québec more frequently in winter than they do in southern Ontario (whose winter temperatures are moderated by the Great Lakes). The famous “Winter Carnival” of Québec City is in a more fitting location than it would be in the “banana belt” of southwestern Ontario. The number of these warm or cold air masses in spring and autumn influences the length of the average frost- free season, which is one month longer in southwestern Ontario. Thus, this longer frost-free period supports the growth of a greater variety of crops in southern Ontario than can be produced in the climate of southern Québec.
Figure 5.1. Québec shares the forests of the Great Lakes-St Lawrence Lowlands with Ontario. Douaire, G. (2011). Forêt Fernand-Seguin [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/douaireg/6274104919 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
Figure 5.2. Percé Rock (or pierced rock) is located in the Gaspésie region and is one of the largest natural arches in the world. It is composed of limestone and shale, and has been worn away by the sea. Jarvis, D. (2010). Grande-Vallee [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/archer10/4973832796 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-45
Learning Activity 5.1: Reading and Guiding Questions
Begin your exploration of Québec by reading in your textbook from page 213 to “Québec’s Historical Geography” on page 220. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between northern and southern Ontario and those of northern and southern Québec. What are the most notable similarities? Differences? How do you think these differences contribute to other distinctions between the two regions? 2. Describe the climate of the St Lawrence valley. 3. Identify and describe the two physiographic regions of southern Québec. 4. What proportion of Québec is covered by the Canadian Shield?
Historical Geography Québec’s historical geography helps to explain the province’s position within Canadian society, as well as the critical English/French faultline. From the establishment of the first French settlement in Québec in 1608 until the defeat of the French by the British on the Plains of Abraham in 1759, Québec evolved as part of New France. Of particular note, in terms of the colony’s character, were the seigneurial system and the role of the Roman Catholic Church. The English/French faultline originated when New France became a British colony. Since Confederation, Québec’s history has been one of territorial expansion, cultural struggle, and political unrest. The current political boundaries were realized through a series of events culminating in 1927 when the Québec–Labrador boundary was established by Britain. Interestingly, Québec does not recognize this boundary. The cultural and political unrest that has characterized Québec in recent years has its roots in the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s. Growing concerns over the preservation of Francophone culture contributed to the emergence of a strong separatist faction. In 1980 and again in 1995, referenda on Québec’s separation were held. In both cases, voters rejected (albeit narrowly in 1995) the separation of Québec from Canada. Little doubt exists, however, that the prospect of Québec’s separation and/or sovereignty will remain a critical issue in the future.
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CU-46 Course Units
Figure 5.3. Québec is known for its preserved heritage streetscapes and towns. This photo shows a narrow street in Old Québec City. Juan. (2007). Québec [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/juan_m/1958832040 (CC BY-ND 2.0)
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-47
Figure 5.4. The Catholic Church has contributed towards the internal cohesion of French America. The Notre-Dame Basilica in Montréal was built between 1824 and 1829. Bica, P. (2010). Notre-Dame [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/dexxus/4823034245 (CC BY 2.0)
Figure 5.5. Grande-Vallée is a beautiful rural village located halfway between Sainte-Anne-des-Monts and Gaspé on the northern shore of the Gaspésie Peninsula. Note the prominence of the church and its steeple. Jarvis, D. (2010). Mont Saint-Anne [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/archer10/4967545858 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
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CU-48 Course Units
Learning Activity 5.2: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Québec’s Historical Geography” on page 220 to “Québec’s Economy” on page 227. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. Explain the significance of the rural tradition in Québec. Identify some of the measures that have been taken to help preserve it. 2. Provide a few examples of French Canadians’ tradition of mobility throughout the 1860s and early 1900s. 3. Explain how the Roman Catholic Church contributed toward the internal cohesion in French America.
Québec’s Economy Much of the high industrial productivity and employment in Québec is attributable to the ample and inexpensive hydroelectric power produced by the rivers and lakes of the Canadian Shield. The Great Lakes-St Lawrence Lowlands and the Canadian Shield function together; the Shield supplies many of the natural resources and much of the power to the industries and consumers in the Lowland cities. In your textbook reading of Québec, you will learn more about the province’s economic anchor, Hydro-Québec. The spatial patterns of hydro development and utilization that have evolved throughout the twentieth century are similar to those of mining and forestry, with the first sites along the edge of the south‐central Shield. Later sites were developed outwards from the central core along the outer edge of the Shield (with the exception of northeastern Ontario); more recent development penetrated northward into the Shield, and by the 1970s, some of the rivers flowing into James Bay were being used. Power was used both within and outside the Shield. Development of sites moved sequentially outward (eastward), and power plants increased in size over time as technology changed. In Ontario, prior to 1950, the patterns were more dispersed, and the developments were small, primarily supplying local needs within the Shield. In contrast, Québec’s economy and society were transformed through a successful industrial development strategy centred on Hydro-Québec. Hydro-Québec’s megaprojects have necessitated important agreements between the federal and provincial governments and Indigenous peoples, among them the first modern land- claim agreement—The James Bay and Northern Québec Agreement—signed in 1975.
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-49
Figure 5.6. The hydroelectric dam at Pointe-Fortune, Québec. Armstrong, M. (2009). Carillon Hydro-electric Dam, Pointe Fortune, Québec [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/reiver/3818514447 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
Learning Activity 5.3: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Québec’s Economy” on page 227 to “Québec’s Core” on page 235. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. Provide some examples of Québec making progress toward advanced manufacturing and a knowledge-based economy. 2. Why did the Québec Cree reverse their position on the James Bay Project? And what is the significance of the James Bay and Northern Québec Agreement?
Urban Québec Québec’s urban geography is dominated by Montréal and Québec City. Over 80% of Québec’s population lives in urban centres and approximately 50% in the Montréal CMA. For a century and a half, Montréal was the largest and most prosperous city in Canada (until it was surpassed by Toronto in the 1970s). Similar to the urban geography of Ontario, the settlement pattern of northern Québec features resource and company towns, which are subject to the uncertainty of external economic conditions.
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CU-50 Course Units
Figure 5.7. This photograph, taken from space, shows the city lights of Montréal and the extent of the urban pattern. Major roadways and industrial areas are traced by bright white lighting, while the adjacent residential and commercial lands are characterized by more diffuse yellow-gold lighting. Rivers and other water bodies appear black, while the surrounding countryside is faintly illuminated by moonlight. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. (2010). Montréal, Canada [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/gsfc/7651357054 (CC BY 2.0)
Figure 5.8. Montréal skyline. Belleudy, C. (2013). Skyline Montréal [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/clemsherpa/10962710593 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-51
Learning Activity 5.4: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Québec’s Core” on page 235 to “Québec’s Northern Hinterland” on page 238. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. Describe the urban system of Québec. How does it compare to the urban system of Ontario? 2. Do you think that an independent French-speaking group can survive the language and cultural bombardment (through newspapers, books, radio, and television) of the millions of English-speaking people who surround them? 3. What factors contributed to the differential growth of Toronto over Montréal?
Northern Québec The northern hinterland of Québec is sparsely populated by a largely indigenous population. As suggested earlier, similar to northern Ontario, the resource-based economy is challenged by external economic factors, most notably the vagaries of global markets. According to Bone, northern Québec is best aligned with four of the province’s 16 administrative regions: Nor-du- Québec, Côte-Nord, Abitibi- Témiscamingue, and Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean. The Nor-du-Québec region, the only one of the four with positive population growth in recent years, most closely coincides with the geographic area of the James Bay hydroelectric projects, whereas forestry and mining are important in the three other administrative regions.
Learning Activity 5.5: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Québec’s Northern Hinterland” on page 238 to the end of the chapter on page 242. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: • What are the major challenges affecting future development in the forest and mining sectors in Québec?
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Supplemental Resources That Will Support Your
Learning Secondary Literature To access the following additional readings, look at your local library; or, they can be ordered from the TRU Library. • Hayes, D. (2002). Historical atlas of Canada: Canada’s history illustrated with original maps. Vancouver, BC: Douglas and McIntyre. • Hebert, C. (2015). The morning after: The 1995 Québec Referendum and the day that almost was. Toronto, ON: Vintage Canada. • Maciejewski, A. (2003). After Notman: Montréal ciews—A century apart. Willowdale, ON: Firefly Books. • Smith, M. L. (2006). Montréal’s Sherbrooke Street: The spine of the city. Montréal, QC: Infinite Books.
Websites • Great Lakes Seaway: Gateway to North America • Québec—Canada HD Travel Channel • Montréal, Basilique Notre Dame—Canada HD Travel Channel • Tourism Québec Youtube Channel
Introduction Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador form our region “Atlantic Canada.” Although the first three provinces listed above share similar cultural and historical heritage, Newfoundland and Labrador residents have been shaped by different experiences. In fact, the term “Atlantic Canada” was used to supersede the concept of “Maritime Canada” (which in fact applies only to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island) when Newfoundland and Labrador joined Confederation in 1949. Although in regional terms there are commonalities amongst the four provinces, keep an eye out for how they are different!
Learning Objectives for Unit 6
• Describe the key elements of the natural environment of the Atlantic region. • Understand the reasons behind Atlantic Canada’s decline. • Describe how the availability of resources impacts the regional economy and population distribution. • Identify areas of growth in the region.
Atlantic Canada The Atlantic Provinces are characterized by dispersal and fragmentation in their physical environmental conditions, resource utilization, and settlement patterns. Although this region was one of the first parts of Canada (and Anglo America) to be settled by Europeans, and enjoyed a relatively prosperous economy 100 to 150 years ago, it has fallen behind other parts of Canada as gauged by several economic indicators. For many decades, the region was characterized by an outflow of young people to find jobs elsewhere in Canada or in the United States. According to many local residents, it is a neglected part of Canada. However, this latter view is balanced by contrary evidence of the high percentage of federal funds for economic aid that has been allocated to the region; the allocation of these funds in itself indicates the region’s needs and deficiencies compared to other parts of Canada. Bone labels Atlantic Canada as “the weak sister” (p. 321) of Canadian regions due to its economic challenges, but he also points to positive developments in some economic sectors, as well as signs of growth and economic rejuvenation in the major cities of Halifax, Moncton, and St. John’s.
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A question to ask yourself as you work through this unit is: How much of this slower economic and population growth is due to the geographical characteristics of fragmentation and dispersal? Additionally, if the region is characterized by lethargic economic development, why do people stay there? The concepts of “regional consciousness” and regionalism are certainly most strongly illustrated by the people in the Atlantic Provinces. They are different, they know they are different, and they are proud of it! There is history, tradition, and culture in the Atlantic Provinces that many people in the “new” and “young” booming province of British Columbia may not understand or appreciate.
Figure 6.1. The region’s historical dependence on the fishing industry, and the decline of fish stocks, is a primary reason that the region displays “declining tendencies.” Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
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Figure 6.2. Tourism remains an important economic component to parts of the Atlantic region. Peggy’s Cove is a small rural village that, in part because of its proximity to Halifax, is highly popular amongst tourists. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
Figure 6.3. Famous Peggy’s Cove lighthouse is a significant tourist draw. Jarvis, D. (2012). Peggy’s Cove Lighthouse [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/archer10/8100732997 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
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Learning Activity 6.1: Reading and Guiding Questions
Begin your exploration of the Atlantic region by reading the first few pages of Chapter 10: “Atlantic Canada” (page 321 to “Atlantic Canada’s Physical Geography” on page 325). Consider the following question, and write your response in your learning journal: Where are Atlantic Canada’s population centres located? Before reading any further, ask yourself what you know about the activity and history of these areas that would explain high and low population numbers.
Figure 6.4. Image of Figure 10 of textbook (p. 324): Map of Atlantic Canada showing population centres. Bone, R. M. (2018). Instructors resources. The regional geography of Canada (7th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
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Physical Geography Fundamental to almost every discussion of the regional geography of the Atlantic Provinces is the diversity of the physical environment and the lack of large uniform areas. The population is distributed in strips and small clusters that are separated from one another by unoccupied areas. Many towns are dependent on the development of a single resource and are not able to combine two or more developments to diversify their economy and increase their work force. The region also is politically fragmented, consisting of four small provinces; one of these, Newfoundland, is further divided into two parts: the island of Newfoundland and the Labrador section, which is part of mainland Canada. The physical landscape of the Atlantic Provinces differs from other parts of Canada and, on a smaller scale, variations occur within the region. The low, linear mountains and rugged, indented coasts are landform types different from those of the level St Lawrence Lowlands (see Figure 6.5). The maritime climate of this region is not the same as that of the rest of eastern Canada, and it differs from the maritime climate of the west coast. Its trees are similar to those growing elsewhere in eastern Canada.
Figure 6.5. Fjord on Western Brook Pond, Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland. Millou, E. (2011). Fjord on Western Brook pond [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/manumilou/6153078538 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
At least two climatic regions can be discerned in Atlantic Canada. Typical maritime climatic characteristics of heavy precipitation and moderate temperatures are found near the coasts, but inland the climate has the continental characteristics of less precipitation, warm summers, and cold winters. In addition, the region has microclimates, which are associated with local landforms; for example, hills are cooler in summer, colder in winter, and receive more precipitation than nearby lowlands.
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Climate differences are illustrated by the fact that about 80% of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia is forested, but only 35% of Newfoundland island is covered with trees. The cooler summer climate has affected the amount of forest cover in Newfoundland (see Figure 6.6).
Figure 6.6. Fundy forests of New Brunswick. Mann, J. (2014). Fundy Park Forests [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/james_mann/15428308426 (CC BY 2.0)
Soil compositions reflect the wide range of variations in the physical environment. Soils are the end result of complex interactions between different kinds of bedrock, glacial deposition, vegetation decay, and climate. The soil-forming process, and erosion, proceed at different speeds within a region. The alluvial soils deposited on the flood plains and river terraces of the St. John River or the Annapolis Cornwallis Valley are different from the soils derived from glacial or marine depositions over the lowland of eastern New Brunswick. The colour in the famous and photogenic red soils of Prince Edward Island derives from ingredients in the rocks of the Carboniferous age that occur there (Figure 6.7).
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Figure 6.7. Potato fields in PEI—The iron-rich red soils help retain moisture in the growing season and give the potatoes grown in them a unique flavour. Potatoes are the largest commercial crop in PEI, and the tiny province is the largest producer of potatoes in Canada! Ratcliff, K. (2008). Potato Field [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/kenspix/4044376764 (CC BY 2.0)
Learning Activity 6.2: Reading and Guiding Questions
Continue reading Chapter 10 in your textbook. As you read pages 325–330, consider the following question and write a response in your learning journal: 1. Most of the people of the region live in the lowland valleys; the uplands and hills are relatively empty. Why do you think this is?
The Fishing Industry
One cannot discuss environmental challenges or the history of Atlantic Canada without considering the fishing industry. The meeting of the warm ocean currents from the Gulf of Mexico and the colder Labrador currents produces optimal environments for the reproduction and growth of fish. The early reliance on the fishing industry determined early patterns of settlement, and as the industry changed, so did settlement patterns. We can see this if we take a closer look at Newfoundland and Labrador. The typical small Newfoundland outports, as the tiny fishing settlements were called, were dispersed along the numerous bays,
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headlands, and islands of the northeast coast, including Avalon Peninsula. The individual small houses were spread along the shores, so each family had access to its tiny docks, drying flakes, and nearby fishing sites. There was no rectangular street pattern, so well-known in other Canadian villages. There were no sewers, few roads, many small elementary schools, few secondary schools, and almost no health or medical facilities. Rural poverty was characteristic of these small, dispersed fishing settlements, and educational and health standards were low. It is likely that these dispersed patterns helped to perpetuate social and economic problems. Several concurrent changes occurred in the Newfoundland fishery, aided by federal and provincial financial assistance. Loans and other financial aid were given to fishers and fishing companies to obtain larger boats and more efficient nets and gear, which permitted them to fish farther offshore. As a result, Canadians were able to increase their percentage of catch on the Grand Banks, on nearby banks to the south, and on the newly discovered banks northward off Labrador. This areal trend to increase the offshore fishing was accelerated when Canada claimed the right to manage the fisheries within a 200-mile (322 km) zone off the east coast. The impact of increased offshore fishing was greatest in the settlements on the Burin and Avalon Peninsulas in the southeast. Centralization occurred in the areal pattern of fishing settlements. Several hundred outports were abandoned, and the residents moved, with governmental financial assistance, to larger settlements where fish processing plants were built. How were these changes in settlement and in processing related? The industry changed its products from low-priced salted or dried cod to fresh, frozen, or processed fish products. These higher valued products were sold mainly in the United States. The fish processing plants had to be located in settlements large enough to have a labour supply, and had to be in sections of the coast with enough fishers to keep the plant operating for much of the year. The fishing population declined because many fishers, in addition to abandoning their small outports, became industrial workers rather than primary industry fishers. This change in geographical patterns and occupations is still controversial in Newfoundland. Social and family disruption occurred with the moves that were not always balanced by increased incomes in the larger towns. Rural poverty often was replaced by urban unemployment. The situation was made worse by the precipitous decline in cod stocks in the 1990s and the eventual closing of the northern cod fishery off of parts of Newfoundland and Labrador in 1992. By 2003, the remaining cod fishery in Newfoundland closed, along with the cod fishery in the Maritime Provinces and Québec. Inshore and offshore fishers, as well as fish processors, were hit hard by what amounted to the commercial extinction of the cod. Some fishers in Atlantic Canada turned to shellfish, which provide higher economic value but fewer fishing licenses.
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Lobster is the most valuable shellfish fishery today, with the most productive waters near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia. In recent years, there are encouraging signs that the northern cod is recovering off the Labrador coast and Northern Grand Banks, but at the same time, northern shrimp stocks are declining. While nothing is certain, it is possible that a capelin-cod food web may eventually replace, at least in some areas, what became a crustacean-dominated food web with the decline of the northern cod.
Figure 6.8. World’s Largest Lobster statue at Shediac, New Brunswick—Like many “world’s largest” statues across the country, this one serves as a visible advertisement about what is important both economically and culturally. Jarvis, D. (2010). The World’s Largest Lobster [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/archer10/4942745809 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
Figure 6.9. Fishing boats in Neil’s Harbour, Cape Breton—Although large-scale cod fisheries have collapsed, commercial fishing still operates for lobster, snow crab, scallops, halibut, ground fish, tuna, and Atlantic mackerel. Schaffer, A. (2012). Neil's Harbour, Cape Breton [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/aschaf/7618702182 (CC BY 2.0)
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Learning Activity 6.3: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Environmental Challenges/Disasters” on page 331 to “Atlantic Canada Today” on page 337. In addition, read from “Atlantic Canada’s Economic Anchor: The Fishing Industry” on page 342 to “Atlantic Canada’s Resource Wealth” on page 347. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. Describe some of the changes to the fishing industry and the impact these changes had on fishers. 2. Bone identifies the collapse of the cod fishery as a classic example of “the tragedy of the commons” (p. 332). Identify the main ways that the collapse of this fishery is a classic “tragedy of the commons” example. 3. What are some of the differences between the fishery in Newfoundland/Labrador and the fishery in the Maritime Provinces?
Supplementary Activity: Reading
Evidence exists that the cod stocks are recovering off the Labrador coast and Northern Grand Banks. The article, The cod are coming back to Newfoundland — and they're eating the shrimp that had taken over, from the National Post, March 23, 2017, describes some of the changes that scientists and fishers are observing.
Economy and Resource Wealth
Beyond fisheries, there are other economic activities and resources in the Atlantic region. Activities such as ship-building, hydroelectric development, oil and gas production, mining, forestry, and agriculture, in varying degrees, all contribute to the region’s economy. As is the case with other regions in Canada, the ups and downs of global markets as well as trade agreements play a key role in the region’s economy, which is presently stagnant. The application of advanced technology associated with the knowledge-based economy has emerged in some sectors. Resource wealth also depends on biological abundance and physical features. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the Atlantic region is the significance of the primary industries associated with the extraction and processing of natural resources. Fishing activities are coastal, of course. But as suggested in the last section, areal variations in the intensity of fishing use and in the concentration or dispersal of fishing settlements are apparent along the coasts of the Atlantic region. Some inlets or bays are fully occupied, while others have little fishing activity. Mining also has differences in distribution patterns, from localized areas of high intensity to broad areas of no mining activity. The type of mining is related to the bedrock geology. The Carboniferous rocks of the lowlands are sources of bituminous
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coal, salt, potash, and a little petroleum and natural gas, whereas the hard igneous and metamorphic rocks of the hills may contain such metallics as gold, lead, zinc, or copper. Forestry activity goes forward only where usable, productive, and accessible forests exist; much of central and southern Newfoundland, for example, is not productive. In your textbook, Figure 10.13 on page 352 displays the locations of the most prominent (besides fishing) natural resource-based industries. As you complete the next learning activity, consider the impact of the location of raw resources on the distribution patterns of people in the Atlantic Provinces. In particular, since the emerging economic strength is located in cities, consider how that will impact rural areas.
Learning Activity 6.4: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Atlantic Canada Today” on page 337 to “Atlantic Canada’s Economic Anchor: The Fishing Industry” on page 342. Additionally, read from “Atlantic Canada’s Resource Wealth” on page 347 to “Atlantic Canada’s Core” on page 355. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. What are the key reasons for the high rates of unemployment in Atlantic Canada? 2. Explain some of the potential benefits associated with the hydroelectric projects on the Lower Churchill River. What are some of the concerns? Which name do you think is the most fitting to describe the development: “megaproject of the century” or “white elephant?” 3. Identify the four main resource industries discussed in the “Atlantic Canada’s Resource Wealth” section. Describe how you would characterize these resource industries. Which ones hold the most promise for the region?
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Urban Atlantic Canada
When Friedmann’s regional version of the core/periphery model is applied to Canada and its regions, Atlantic Canada is described as a slow-growing region based on a resource base in decline (see Bone, page 16). However, evidence exists, such as a new trade agreement with the European Union and an increase in lobster exports, that some changes for the better are occurring. It is also important to recognize that many economic indicators measuring economic production and growth apply to the region as a whole, whereas geographers should look at the internal figures for a given region to see if sub-regional differences exist. In the case of Atlantic Canada, such analysis reveals that some centres and areas are growing, and as Bone explains, “sparks of economic rejuvenation are emerging in its major cities, especially Halifax, Moncton, and St. John’s” (p. 321).
Learning Activity 6.5: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Atlantic Canada’s Core” on page 355 to the end of the chapter. • What explains the rapid population growth in Atlantic Canada’s cities? Why do you think Atlantic Canada remains the least urbanized region in Canada? • Identify the important factors associated with the economic strength of Halifax. What prevents Halifax from serving as the primary city for the region?
Conclusion Your work in this unit should have given you a feeling for the “regional character” of the Atlantic Provinces, and an understanding of the distribution patterns of many of the activities in this region. One of the themes throughout the unit has been “distributions.” Three questions should always be asked: What? Where? Why? “What?” identifies the phenomena that are being discussed. “Where is it?” locates it locally, regionally, and nationally. “Why?” asks why it is located where it is. The description and explanation of these distribution patterns, whether concentrated or dispersed, are fundamental for a discussion of regional geography. This unit has emphasized areal, or spatial, patterns in the Atlantic Provinces that make this region different from others in Canada. After you have studied all the other regions, you will be able to better visualize the differences and similarities between this region and other parts of Canada.
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Supplementary Resources That Will Support Your
Learning Secondary Literature To access the following additional readings, look at your local library; or, they can be ordered from the TRU Library. • Kurlansky, M. (1997). Cod: A biography of the fish that changed the world. Toronto, ON: Alfred A. Knopf. • Slumkoski, C. (2011). Inventing Atlantic Canada: Regionalism and the Maritime reaction to Newfoundland’s entry into Canadian confederation. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
Websites • I Dies at You—Newfoundland and Labrador Language Lessons • Halifax, Nova Scotia—Canada HD Travel Channel • Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia - Canada HD Travel Channel • Hopewell Rocks, New Brunswick—Canada HD Travel Channel • St John’s Newfoundland—Canada HD Travel Channel • Newfoundland & Labrador Tourism Youtube Channel • Tourism PEI Youtube Channel • Discover Nova Scotia YouTube Channel • New Brunswick Tourism YouTube Channel
Assessment Activities There are no particular assessment activities, however you should be thinking about Assignment 3
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Unit 7: Western Canada
Introduction When Bone describes Western Canada, he means the Western Canada as reflected by three political jurisdictions: Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. If you recall back in Chapter 1, he explained that he chose the regional groupings he did because they provide a ready means to compare and contrast statistics, and also because these categories are understood by the majority of Canadians. The main characteristics of the Western Canada region are probably well known to Canadians. If asked to describe the landforms of this region, they would probably use only one word—flat. Its climate is notorious—dry; its agricultural economy is simple—wheat; its significance to Canada is probably also represented by one word—oil; and the occupations of its people are stereotyped—they are farmers or ranchers. All of these characteristics are partly correct, but in each case, the description is too generalized, and the words do not reflect the variety within Western Canada.
Figure 7.1. Big skies and agricultural land—two of the stereotypical terms used to describe Western Canada. BriYYZ. (2006). Gold and Blue [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/bribri/126039806 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
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Learning Objectives for Unit 7
• Understand the major elements in the physical environment of Western Canada. • Describe and discuss the influence of the physical environment on the distribution of agriculture across the region. • Analyze the effects of a decreasing rural and village population on the distribution patterns and functions of the town and small city “service centres.” • Understand the functional relationships between the various elements of the physical, resource, and human geography within the sub‐regions of Western Canada.
Physical Geography To understand the historical and contemporary patterns of Western Canada, you must understand its physical geography. Western Canada consists of two major physiographic regions—the Interior Plains and the Canadian Shield; and two minor ones—the Hudson Bay Lowland and the Cordillera. Throughout the region’s history, the physical environment has exerted a profound influence on its cultural and economic landscapes. The three western provinces are known for having extreme periods of drought. The mountain ranges along the BC‐Alberta border block, or reduce, the amount of precipitation from Pacific Ocean air masses that reaches the Interior. On the other hand, Western Canada has no landform barrier northward to the Arctic Ocean to deter the southward movement of cold air masses. Climate distribution maps record average conditions only, and so do not show a major characteristic—and problem—of the Interior climate: namely, that climate conditions vary from year to year, season to season, and place to place. Farmers cannot base decisions regarding the planting or harvesting of their crops on “average” conditions; instead, they must depend on the actual duration of the frost‐free period and specific amounts of precipitation in their area. In Western Canada, it is quite possible for some areas to be wet while others are dry; some places may have a long frost‐free season in the same year that other places have a short one. The long‐term influence of precipitation is reflected in the soil and vegetation patterns. The Brown soils, short grass vegetation, and driest climate are located on both sides of the southern Saskatchewan‐Alberta border. In a semicircle around the Brown soils zone are areas of Dark Brown soils, mixed grass prairie, and somewhat higher annual precipitation (compared to the Brown soil zone). Then farther
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outward in the semicircular pattern are Black soils, parkland (aspen groves) vegetation, and still more precipitation. To the north, the less fertile Grey Wooded soils have developed under deciduous and mixed forests in a zone of less precipitation, cooler summers, and shorter frost‐free seasons.
Learning Activity 7.1: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from page 247 to “Western Canada’s Historical Geography” on page 257. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. Compare and contrast the two environmental challenges identified by Bone: drought (caused by natural events) and the consequences of extracting bitumen from the Alberta oil sands (the impacts of human activity). 2. What is “Palliser’s triangle?” Using Figure 8.4, locate Palliser’s triangle. What is a chernozomic soil, and what property determines its colour? What is the pattern of overlap between Palliser’s triangle and the chernozemic soils (shown in Figure 8.3)?
Historical Geography The areal patterns of rural settlement in Western Canada were related to the evolution of the railway network. Settlement progressed from east to west; the highest densities were first established in southern Manitoba. A belt of high rural density extended north-northwest over the Black soil belt from Winnipeg to Saskatoon to Edmonton; sparser settlement spread west of Regina.
Figure 7.2. Early railway developments across the interior western provinces; note how settlement sprang up around the “ribbons of steel.” Laliberte, W. (2009). Map of Western Canada Manitoba, Alberta, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan and Part of British Columbia, Showing System of Land Survey and Lines of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company (1893) [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/manitobamaps/3697307173 (CC BY 2.0)
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As you read about agricultural settlement, remember that an urban distribution
pattern was also evolving at this time. In Western Canada, the service‐centre towns and villages were directly dependent on their surrounding agricultural hinterland, or periphery, areas.
Figure 7.3. Wheat field in early spring. BriYYZ. (2006). Gold and Blue [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/bribri/126039806 (CC BY-SA 2.0)
Figure 7.4. The world’s largest Ukrainian Easter egg, in Vegreville, Alberta, symbolizes the presence of generations of Ukrainian Canadians, descendants of the early immigrants who took up farming. hobvias sudoneighm. (2007). vegreville egg ~ world's largest pysanka [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://flickr.com/photos/striatic/537501345 (CC BY 2.0) license.
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Learning Activity 7.2: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Western Canada’s Historical Geography” on page 257 to “Western Canada Today” on page 260 on the historical geography of Western Canada. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. How were the establishment of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the settlement of the West by European immigrants key to Canada’s overall identity as a nation? 2. What was the “Crow Benefit?” How has its cancellation changed the economic face of Western Canada?
Agriculture Today As we have seen, economic growth in Western Canada has long been tied to primary sector activity. Initially, the region developed as an agricultural area. By the early 20th century, a combination of transportation subsidies (the Crow Benefit or Rate), hardy wheat strains (especially Marquis wheat), and mechanization led to the Canadian west becoming one of the “breadbaskets of the world.” By about 1940, most of the land suitable for agriculture in Western Canada had been settled. Most of the food products were grown to be consumed outside of the region in areas of higher population density elsewhere in Canada, or in other parts of the world that had food deficiencies and the money to pay for our surplus food. From their 40 to 50 years’ experience producing crops in an undependable physical environment, Western Canada farmers learned some hard lessons about adjusting to the variations in climate from year to year and from place to place, and they also were fully aware of their vulnerability regarding the selling of their surplus products in a world market in which prices fluctuated from year to year. Note that this experience contrasts with the experience of farmers in southern Ontario and Québec (or the physiographic region called the Great Lakes and St Lawrence Lowlands) where food was produced in a much more favourable environment and for a larger, closer market. As Bone notes, success has come about as a result of the significant agricultural changes in Western Canada, including a shift towards more capital-intensive farming and a shift from intensive to extensive agriculture. In recent years, Prairie farmers have faced many challenges, including the elimination of the Crow Rate, drought, and the heavy subsidization of European and American farmers. Notable consequences of these changes are rural depopulation and the disappearance of many small communities.
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Figure 7.5. Grain tower at Magrath, Alberta—Grain towers were important to the expanding grain trade, since they stored large amounts of grain prior to shipping by rail. As rail lines were abandoned in favour of an improved road system and agriculture became more industrialized—leading to the consolidation of farming properties—rural grain towers have become almost a thing of the past. Hui, W. (2013). Magrath Alberta Grain Elevator [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/wilsonhui/10401786274 (CC BY 2.0)
Figure 7.6. Canola in Rouleau, Saskatchewan—The importance of canola as a cash crop is discussed in your textbook. Meunier, S. (2010). saskcanola [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/scottmeunier/4816991561 (CC BY 2.0)
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Learning Activity 7.3: Reading and Guiding Questions
To learn more about agriculture and its contribution to the Western Canadian economy, read from page 265 to “Western Canada’s Resource Base” on page 269. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. In what ways have technological developments changed agriculture? 2. What has been the catalyst for the loss of rural communities? 3. Besides wheat, what other agricultural products are central to agricultural activity?
Economy and Natural Resource Base
The economy of Western Canada began to change significantly after petroleum was discovered at Leduc, south of Edmonton, in 1947. Petroleum and other mineral resources brought diversity to the economy; no longer were employment and prosperity so dependent on agriculture and its external markets as they were prior to 1940. These “other resources” always have been present, but their new prominence in the economy is due to their discovery in larger amounts and because technology has developed other uses for them. Mining, fuels, and, to a lesser extent, forestry, have continued to contribute to a broader-based resource economy. As is typically the case in periphery regions, the development of Western Canada’s resource sector is subject to the vagaries of external markets and events. Natural resources have a relatively small (but growing) local market in the Western Canada region, and profits are obtained by transporting and selling them to centres with more industry and population outside the region. The net result is an economy that has some of the characteristics of an industrial region and, at the same time, retains some of the classic periphery traits. In the case of the oil sands, Bone suggests that more crude bitumen should be processed in Alberta instead of shipped as diluted bitumen (dilbit) to refineries outside of the province. The issue of moving dilbit to tidewater has been a prominent one in recent years, extending well beyond the borders of Alberta. The province wants to diversify its markets and become less reliant on the United States, but efforts to expand pipeline infrastructure have met a variety of obstacles. TransCanada recently announced that it would not proceed with the proposed Energy East pipeline, which would have transported both conventional and unconventional oil such as dilbit to refineries in Eastern Canada. And the Enbridge Northern Gateway project from Bruderheim, Alberta, to Kitimat, BC, was quashed by the federal Liberal government shortly after it came into power. Kinder Morgan’s
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Trans Mountain Expansion project from Edmonton to Burnaby, which was
approved, involves twinning an existing pipeline and, if constructed, would triple the amount of dilbit shipped to Asian markets. However, opponents of the expansion include British Columbia’s recently elected NDP government, and as of late 2017, it remains to be seen if this project will ever be completed. Even with the Trump government’s approval of Keystone XL, which would transport dilbit from Alberta to the US coast, uncertainty reigns regarding the fate of the proposed pipeline.
Figure 7.7. From the photo description: “With the rising cost of oil, mining oil sands has become a profitable endeavour in the past decade. Oil sands consist of clay, sand, and other minerals, coated in water and thick, viscous oil called bitumen (or asphalt). To get usable oil from this mixture, producers have to separate the bitumen from the sand using hot water, and then process the bitumen into crude oil. It is an energy- intensive process that until recently cost too much to be profitable. Higher oil prices now offset the cost, and the oil sand industry is growing. Perhaps nowhere is growth easier to see than at the Athabasca Oil Sands in Alberta, Canada. It is the world’s largest oil sands deposit, with a capacity to produce 174.5 billion barrels of oil—2.5 million barrels of oil per day for 186 years. Where oil sands are close to the surface, they are extracted in large open pit mines. Taken by the Landsat satellites, these natural-color images show the expansion of the mines between 1984 and 2011.” NASA’s Earth Observatory. (2011). Athabasca Oil Sands [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasaearthobservatory/6431649765 (CC BY 2.0)
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CU-74 Course Units
Figure 7.8. Protestor outside the Canadian Petroleum Producers Investment Conference, June 2008—The protest was against the environmental impacts of the tar sands on land and water, which the Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation says are destroying their cultural way of life. ItzaFineDay. (2008). Tarsands = Cultural Genocide [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/itzafineday/2590535118 (CC BY 2.0)
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-75
Figure 7.9. Churchill, in northern Manitoba, receives an economic boost from tourists who travel there to view polar bears in their natural habitat. Karilop311. (2007). Travel Trend Year Ahead [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/karilop/10788798494 (CC BY 2.0)
Figure 7.10. A transition zone shared by the border of the Western Canadian and BC regions is the Rocky Mountains. Ananth BS. (2005). Canadian Rockies [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/ananth/53416301 (CC BY 2.0)
Learning Activity 7.4: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Western Canada Today” on page 260 to page 264. In addition, read from “Western Canada’s Resource Base” on page 269 to “Western Canada’s Urban Core” on page 277. As you read, consider the following questions and write responses in your learning journal: 1. How has advanced technology been applied in the energy sector in Western Canada? 2. Explain how Manitoba’s industrial structure differs from that of Alberta and Saskatchewan. 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of so-called “megaprojects” such as the oil sands projects? Do you think Alberta should refine more bitumen within the province? At a time when we are trying to reduce our greenhouse gas emissions, is pipeline expansion a good idea?
TRU Open Learning
CU-76 Course Units
Urban Geography Age is one of the fundamental differences between eastern and western cities. Cities in Western Canada are relatively new; they were founded almost a century after many eastern Canadian cities. Much of their population growth and areal expansion did not occur until about 1950. Most of this areal expansion occurred on level land, without the frequent landform or water barriers that impeded the growth of some eastern cities. Western Canadian cities have the same appearance in their downtown cores as eastern Canadian cities due to the ubiquitous high‐rise office and apartment buildings, but they look different in other ways. Their housing is in large areas of a more uniform age. The city streets in Western Canada are wider than eastern city streets, especially in the downtown core, and parking facilities were built for the automobile age, unlike the older central sections of eastern cities. As noted in your text, the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in Western Canada. This 400 km corridor has experienced rapid population growth over the last decade, and is now one of the most densely populated areas in Canada (Bone p. 277).
Figure 7.11. Saskatoon from across the South Saskatchewan River. Duhamel, K. (2012). Saskatoon July 2, 2012 [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/curacumba/7491542844 (CC BY 2.0)
Supplementary Activity: Gateway to the West?
Winnipeg has long been known as the “Gateway to the West.” View the video Winnipeg is where Canada's Heart... Beats from Tourism Manitoba. Consider how the message supports the concept that Winnipeg is central to the west. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3jzzYX24z_M Winnipeg was once the largest city in Western Canada, but now both Calgary and Edmonton surpass it in population size. Although Winnipeg enjoys one of the most diversified economies in the country, its role within Western Canada’s urban system has changed. What aspects of Canada’s development have contributed to the decline in Winnipeg’s status?
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-77
Learning Activity 7.5: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Western Canada’s Urban Core” on page 277 to the end of the chapter. Consider the following and write your responses in your learning journal: 1. View the figures presented in Table 8.7 showing the population changes between 2001 and 2015 in major urban centres in Western Canada. Which centres have shown the greatest change? 2. Using Figure 8.1 from the textbook (turn back to page 248), which provides a map of the Western Canadian region and its main population, locate each of the Census Metropolitan Areas (Table 8.7) and small cities (Table 8.8) and form a hypothesis as to why the centre’s population increased or decreased (Hint: Fort McMurray is an urban service area in the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo in Alberta). 3. What might explain Winnipeg always having the highest number of Indigenous people of any city in Canada?
Supplemental Resources That Will Support Your
Learning Secondary Literature Check your local library, or order from the TRU Library, to access the following additional resources. • Laidlaw, S. (2003). Secret ingredients: The brave new world of industrial farming. Toronto, ON: McClelland and Stewart. • Levant, E. (2010). Ethical oil: The case for Canada’s oil sands. Toronto, ON: McClelland and Stewart. • MacDowell, L. S. (2012). An environmental history of Canada. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.
Assessment Activities 1. Complete Quiz 4. (3%) 2. Complete Final Project Entry 4: Art and/or Literature. (3%)
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-79
Unit 8: British Columbia
Introduction In contrast to both Western Canada and the Canadian Shield, where environmental conditions are similar over large areas, British Columbia is a region of small‐scale diversity. The one element common to most parts of the region, and the physical characteristic so different from the rest of southern Canada, is its rugged, mountainous landforms. People live in the lower‐elevation areas, and transportation lines funnel through certain areas of the valleys (Figure 8.1). Thus, economic activities generate clustered and/or linear patterns in these lowlands and valleys. So within the diversity of landforms, there is a patchwork of small areas with distinctive patterns of climate, vegetation, soils, land use, and settlement. When studying the settlement of the province, it is particularly important to note the locations and interconnections of the interior valleys. The valleys are the inhabited parts of the region and the routes of land transport, which have determined historical and contemporary settlement and resource patterns.
Figure 8.1. BC is a province dominated by mountain ranges, which bring opportunities for recreation, including hiking and skiing, as is pictured in this summer view of ski runs. eclecctica. (2014). Beauty [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/eclecctica/14720813888 (CC BY 2.0)
TRU Open Learning
CU-80 Course Units
Figure 8.2. BC is known for its beautiful mountain scenery. Unlike in some other regions, most BC urban areas, such as North Vancouver, are close to the less-urbanized, more natural environment. abdallahh. (2009). North Vancouver [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/husseinabdallah/3835322916 (CC BY 2.0)
Figure 8.3. BC also is known for its diverse Indigenous population (more than 198 First Nation bands). The photograph depicts the historical Kasan Village. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-81
Learning Objectives for Unit 8
• Understand the view of British Columbia as a micro-version of the core/periphery model. • Understand the unique relations between Indigenous peoples and non- Indigenous peoples. • Compare and contrast the geographical characteristics of the two major regions of British Columbia—the Coast and the Interior—and describe internal variations within each. • Describe and locate the major elements in the physical environment of British Columbia, and analyze how these various elements interrelate. • Analyze the functional interrelationships between the physical environment, natural resources, and human activities. • Understand the role of the forest industry as a determinant of the region’s economic well-being, and the emergence of other resource-based industries. • Describe BC’s evolving position on the outer rim of Canada, and its emerging trade with Asia. • Explain the changing patterns of resource use in British Columbia over the past century and the significance of resource-based towns in the settlement patterns of the region. • Describe the function of metropolitan Vancouver in the economy of British Columbia.
Physical Geography To understand British Columbia’s uniqueness, one must understand its physical geography. Bone calls BC’s “spectacular” physical geography “the region’s greatest natural asset” (p. 288). The province’s diversity is unique with coastal rainforests, a dry interior, and alpine tundra. Only 2% of the province’s land is classed as arable (p. 290). Its physical landscape largely determines the kind of human activity that can be carried out, ranging from its resource-based regional economy to its settlement pattern. Since few people inhabit the mountain areas, much of that region is empty or sparsely inhabited. A fundamental geographical fact is that a high concentration of people (over 90%) reside in the southwest, and less than 10% are scattered throughout the remainder of the province.
TRU Open Learning
CU-82 Course Units
Figure 8.4. Mountains dominate the BC landscape. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
Figure 8.5. The interior rainforest of Northern British Columbia features thousand-year-old (and older) Western red cedar trees. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-83
Figure 8.6. BC’s diverse and relatively undeveloped physical landscape supports a rich wildlife population. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
Figure 8.7. Wildlife is reflected in culture, art, and tourist attractions. This “spirit bear” statue titled “Artists Speak” by Laura Chandler was part of the spirt bear art in Prince George in the mid-2000s. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
TRU Open Learning
CU-84 Course Units
Learning Activity 8.1: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from page 283 to “British Columbia’s Historical Geography” on page 297 for an overview of the province within Canada, BC’s population, and BC’s physical geography. Consider the following questions and write your responses in your learning journal: 1. Why does Bone describe BC’s “place” in Canada as a paradox (page 283)? Explain how this fits with the centralist/decentralist faultline. 2. Looking at Figure 9.4: “Physiography of British Columbia” on page 289, trace or imagine where the population centres are located. Now turn back to Figure 9.1: “British Columbia” on page 284, and note the location of these centres and the corridors that connect them. Were your assumptions accurate? Which communities are located in the mountains? 3. Why is the annual precipitation for Kamloops so much lower than the annual precipitation for Victoria?
Historical Geography In contrast to the eastern part of Canada (Ontario, Québec, and the Maritimes), BC has a much shorter post-European contact history. For example, when BC joined Confederation in 1871, its population was only 36,247, whereas Ontario’s population was 1.6 million at that time. BC not only has a much younger post-European contact history, but also has a unique relationship with its original inhabitants, the Indigenous peoples. Many individual First Nations are recognized (198 bands), and the majority have never signed a Treaty settlement. This fact alone started BC on a unique course that has impacted how its peoples relate to each other, and how its natural resources are used.
Learning Activity 8.2: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read “British Columbia’s Historical Geography” on page 297 to “British Columbia Today” on page 300. Consider the following questions and write your responses in your learning journal: 1. Describe how settlement patterns evolved in British Columbia. 2. Why was there little uniformity in British Columbia’s early settlement patterns? 3. Explain the significance of the Calder case.
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-85
Supplemental Activity On June 26, 2014, the Supreme Court of Canada rendered a decision that declared Aboriginal Title to lands outside of Indian reserves (a 1900 square kilometre area west of Williams Lake). This is the first time that Aboriginal Title has been recognized, and although the interpretation of this decision for other lands is not clear at this time, it will impact BC, Canada, and resource use for years to come. In many ways, this decision is the most important of our generation, since it may lay the foundation for determining who owns what resource, and how the governance of resources and the land will unfold. Read about this decision at the following websites: • “Summary of the Tsilhqot’in Aboriginal Title Case (William Case) Decision” • “Tsilhqot’in Win Aboriginal Title Case” • “Supreme Court Expands Land-Title Rights in Unanimous Ruling”
Natural Resources Bone describes BC as “a powerhouse” within Canada (p. 283), and explains that the province’s “strength flows from its resource sector, its advanced economy, and its geographically favourable location on the Pacific Rim” (p. 284). Forestry, while still important, is no longer dominant, and other economic activities, including mining, filmmaking, and shipbuilding have emerged. BC exhibits the characteristics of both “core” and “periphery.” As Bone suggests, “British Columbia’s economy is changing and diversifying, but growth in the manufacturing sector remains elusive” (p. 303). He concludes that “the main challenge facing BC is to diffuse its technically advanced economy to a broader range of economic activities” (p. 318). This situation raises the question of whether or not a region can attain core status without having a well-developed manufacturing sector. Additionally, Bone’s discussion about the fishing, mining, and hydroelectric power industries in British Columbia raises several important issues including: (1) the importance of external events, such as foreign demand for resources, (2) the delicate balance of the resource base (currently seen in the decline of salmon stocks), and (3) the social and environmental costs associated with megaprojects. The significance of external events is exemplified by recent developments involving BC’s fledgling liquified natural gas (LNG) industry. As a result of the global glut of natural gas and depressed prices, Malaysia’s state-owned Petronas cancelled the Pacific NorthWest LNG megaproject near Prince Rupert in July 2017. The potential environmental and social costs associated with megaprojects applies to this example as well—specifically, how LNG projects may conflict with the province’s greenhouse gas reduction target and the interests of local residents, including some First Nations.
TRU Open Learning
CU-86 Course Units
Figure 8.8. The mountain pine beetle has killed the majority of the Interior’s pine trees. This photo shows standing dead trees in their “red” phase. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
Figure 8.9. Mill at 100 Mile House—Many interior towns rely on one or two key resource-based industries. Forestry activity increased as the mountain pine beetle trees were logged, causing a temporary increase in forestry-based economic activity. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-87
Figure 8.10. The W. A. C. Bennett dam on the Peace River (completed in 1968). Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
Figure 8.11. Like the Bennett dam, the proposed Site C dam, also on the Peace River, has a huge social cost, including the flooding of valley bottoms. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
TRU Open Learning
CU-88 Course Units
Figure 8.12. Tourism is an important aspect of BC’s economy due to the diverse and beautiful landscapes. abdallahh. (2009). North Vancouver [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/husseinabdallah/3835322916 (CC BY 2.0)
Figure 8.13. The Okanagan and Thompson valleys provide rich soil for growing apples and other produce. Copyright: Nancy Elliot. Used with permission.
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-89
Learning Activity 8.3: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “British Columbia Today” on page 300 to “British Columbia’s Urban Core” on page 314. Consider the following questions and write your responses in your learning journal: 1. What is the connection between oil and gas operations in northeast BC and the advanced economy? What are some of the concerns associated with these operations? 2. Do you think that increased tourism could replace the economic impact of jobs lost in the forestry sector? Why or why not? What are some of the factors to consider when measuring the economic impact of different sectors? 3. How does the “tragedy of the commons” apply to the BC fishing industry? What factors account for the decline of fish stocks? How should these issues be addressed?
Urban Geography BC’s urban geography is dominated by Vancouver and, to a lesser extent, the provincial capital of Victoria. Natural resource development greatly influenced the growth of Vancouver and other cities in the Georgia Strait region. The periphery areas have supplied raw materials and power for the industries of the southwestern core, or these resources were funneled by means of transportation links to sea ports and then to world markets elsewhere. Vancouver grew rapidly during the late 20th century, and in the 21st continues its growth: between 2001 and 2015, the city’s population grew by 26% (Bone, p. 315). Additionally, Vancouver is notable because of its geographical position on the Pacific Rim and how its growth and character is influenced by Asian immigration and investment.
Figure 8.14.Satellite view of Vancouver (grey area), Lower Mainland and Fraser Valley. Vancouver NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. (2012). Lower Mainland/Fraser Valley, Canada 2010 [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/gsfc/12350706774 (CC BY 2.0)
TRU Open Learning
CU-90 Course Units
Figure 8.15. Victoria markets its “British” charm. Mascardo, T. (2009). Fairmont Empress. Victoria, BC [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/mascardo1/3616688696 (CC BY-ND 2.0)
Figure 8.16. Vancouver’s population is very diverse, with a strong Chinese presence. Prayitno. (2010). Gate of Vancouver China Town [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/prayitnophotography/5311578756 (CC BY 2.0)
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-91
Figure 8.17. Chinese markets in Vancouver. Le Clerc, S. (2006). China Town in Vancouver [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/sarah_jane/134264032 (CC BY-ND 2.0)
Learning Activity 8.4: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read about British Columbia’s urban core on page 314 to the end of the chapter on page 316. Consider the following questions and write your responses in your learning journal: 1. Is British Columbia a core or a periphery within Canada? Why is this an important question? Does it really matter whether British Columbia is a core or a periphery? Why or why not? Are there areas within BC that are core, and other areas that are periphery? Where are these areas? 2. Explain how transportation and location contribute to Vancouver’s position as the dominant heartland city in British Columbia. 3. Do you think Vancouver should take stronger action to address housing prices? If so, what additional action should it take??
TRU Open Learning
CU-92 Course Units
Supplemental Resources That Will Support Your
Learning Secondary Literature Check your local library, or use the TRU Library to access the following additional resources. • MacDowell, L. S. (2012). An environmental history of Canada. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. For geographical perspective on British Columbia’s history and future prospects: • McGillivray, B. (2005). Geography of British Columbia: People and landscapes in transition (3rd ed.). Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press. For a thorough description of British Columbia as it was a quarter-century ago: • Robinson, R. (Ed.). (1972). British Columbia. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. • Saul, J. R. (2014). The comeback. Toronto, ON: Penguin Random House.
Websites • British Columbia Photos • Pacific Wild’s photographs of the Great Bear Rainforest • Living Oceans view on marine issues • Destination British Columbia YouTube Channel
Assessment Activities 1. Complete Final Project Post 5: The Future. (3%)
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-93
Unit 9: The Territorial North
Introduction The concept of the Canadian North means different things to different people. In 2016, 66% of Canadians lived within 100 kilometres of the southern border with the United States, an area that represents about 4% of Canada's territory! Given that most Canadians live in this narrow strip along the southern part of the country, “the North” can be a vast region in the minds of many of us. While perhaps not quite as massive as some might imagine from a southern reference point, the Territorial North is a large region, covering 40% of the country. It comprises four physiographic regions, the Canadian Shield, the Interior Plains, the Cordillera, and the Arctic Lands, but most people would agree that the best known geographical characteristics of this part of Canada are a dispersed and low-density population and a very cold climate. Although the Territorial North may be viewed as Canada’s last resource frontier, for many northerners, it is seen as their ancestral homeland. These contrasting visions of the region, and whether or not they can be reconciled, are an important theme for you to consider throughout this unit.
Learning Objectives for Unit 9
• Describe the physical and historical geography of the Territorial North as a basis for understanding the region’s social and economic position in Canada. • Describe the two visions (dual character) of the Territorial North in terms of resource frontier and ancestral homeland. • Describe the Territorial North’s position as a resource frontier in the core/periphery model. • Outline the key role Canada’s north plays in geopolitics by discussing Arctic sovereignty. • Outline the key role played by megaprojects in the region’s development.
Physical Geography The landforms of the North are continuations of southern features and, as noted above, are not uniform throughout the large region. The Yukon is part of the Cordillera that covers most of British Columbia; the Mackenzie River Valley is the northern extension of the Western Canada region; the area west of Hudson Bay is part of the Canadian Shield, based on geological criteria; and most of Baffin Island is also underlain by Precambrian rock similar to the Canadian Shield on the mainland.
TRU Open Learning
CU-94 Course Units
The Arctic Islands can be defined by their island characteristic because they have no uniformity of landform characteristics. The physical processes that operate in northern Canada provide insights to help you understand some of the problems that people face in coping with the Arctic and Subarctic environments. Although the sun’s rays have a low angle, and don’t even reach some areas for part of the winter, latitude is not a major reason for differences of climate within the region. Of more importance are air mass movements and other controls that cause the wide range of internal climatic differences. The central Arctic has the least annual precipitation in Canada—less than 150 millimetres. Although the amount of snow that falls in the North is generally small, it accumulates and blows about and does not melt during the winter; rainfall occurs during the summer when daily temperatures are above freezing. The regional differences in precipitation should be noted; for example, more than 500 millimetres of precipitation has been recorded in the mountains of south‐western Yukon and in southeastern Baffin Island, as is evidenced by the accumulation of snow on the icecaps of those areas. These regional differences emphasize that we cannot make generalizations about uniform environmental conditions for such a large area.
Permafrost A physical phenomenon unique to most of Northern Canada is permafrost. An understanding of its characteristics and the process of its formation should help you to develop your comprehension of the special problems that people in the North face, particularly in building and road construction. Permafrost is an environmental hazard not experienced in southern Canada. When a continental icecap covered northern Canada, the land and rock beneath it became permanently frozen to a depth of several hundred, perhaps several thousand, metres. Most of the icecap melted away 7,000 to 10,000 years ago, but large glacier remnants still exist on most of Greenland and parts of Baffin, Devon, and Ellesmere islands. During the summer, when the daily temperatures rise above freezing nearly everywhere in the North, the land thaws to a depth of a few centimetres to a couple of metres (while the ground beneath remains frozen). If the surface consists of unconsolidated materials, the land can become a soggy, spongy mass over which travel by foot or by wheeled vehicle becomes almost impossible. Since the frozen ground below the surface poses a barrier to drainage, water collects during the summer on the surface and creates innumerable irregular lakes, swamps, and muskegs. Thus, overland travel is much easier during winter on a frozen, snow‐covered surface. Additionally, the design of suitable foundations for buildings constructed in areas with permafrost is a serious construction problem in the Arctic. Unfortunately, as climate change transforms the Territorial North, the problems associated with thawing permafrost are increasing in many areas.
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GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-95
Figure 9.1. Pingos (also known as hydrolaccoliths) are mounds of earth-covered ice maintained by the freeze and thaw cycles in the Arctic. Liu, T. (2008). Pingo near Tuk [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/75511860@N00/2876568729 (CC BY-ND 2.0)
Vegetation The contrast between the treeless Arctic landscape and the forested Subarctic areas is one of the main environmental distinctions of the North. Trees are able to grow in the relatively warm summers in the Subarctic but cannot survive in the Arctic, which has no summer. The adaptations of the Inuit people living in the Arctic climate and treeless tundra are different from those of the Native people and Europeans in the Subarctic forested areas.
Sea Ice An additional physical environmental characteristic of the Arctic region not present in other parts of Canada is sea ice. Hudson Bay and the channels between the Arctic Islands are frozen over for varying lengths of time for most of the year. Note the regional differences in the amount and duration of this ice cover. For example, Hudson Bay and Strait may be navigable for about 3 months of the year, but the channels west of Lancaster Sound may be ice-free for only about 1 month (during August). Since the Arctic does not have any railroads or roads (except local roads within settlements), the importance of sea ice to water transportation is fundamental.
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CU-96 Course Units
Climate Change Climate change is transforming the Arctic region, which is warming at double the rate of the global average temperature increase. As Bone notes, this enhanced warming is primarily caused by the albedo effect (p. 369). This simply means that as snow and ice melt, less solar radiation is reflected away from Earth, and more is absorbed by land and water due to a darker and less reflective surface. The impacts associated with a warmer climate are already occurring and affecting the people of the Territorial North. Indigenous people in the Western Arctic, for example, are finding it more difficult to apply their traditional knowledge due to changes in seasonal phenomena, variable weather, and the melting of ice and permafrost. With climate models projecting further increases in temperature this century, the already observed impacts are expected to intensify. Plant and animal species and Indigenous communities are vulnerable to the rapidly changing conditions. Further reduction of sea ice will make hunting and fishing increasingly difficult and dangerous, and will reduce habitat for many species. Presently, sea ice conditions in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago are complex and highly variable. Nevertheless, shipping traffic is expected to increase in the coming years, and it will be important to implement good standards and practices in order to reduce risks in this fragile environment. Along with increased marine transport, sovereignty and security issues may be raised over shipping routes and access to Arctic resources.
Learning Activity 9.1: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from page 363 to “Historical Geography of the Territorial North” on page 370. Consider the following questions and write your responses in your learning journal: 1. Describe the traditional and contemporary visions of the Territorial North as a northern frontier. How do these visions compare with the homeland vision? 2. Describe the characteristics that combine to create Arctic physical geography. 3. How is the Arctic similar to northern parts of the provinces? 4. What are the ways that increased temperatures may impact wildlife and Indigenous people in the Arctic?
Historical Geography Northern Canada and Alaska were probably the first parts of the continent to be inhabited. Asiatic people migrated across the Bering Strait to Alaska several thousand years ago. Archaeologists have yet to discover enough evidence to prove the exact times of arrival and the routes they followed. The ancestors of present‐day Native people probably came into Canada through the valleys of Yukon Territory
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-97
and/or along the south coast of Alaska. Inuit were likely later migrants; they probably moved along the northern Alaska coast in search of land game and sea mammals about 3,000 to 5,000 years ago. They spread thinly across Arctic Canada and reached western Greenland about 1000 AD—about the same time that the Norse were “discovering” North America for Europeans. Early exploration of the North was part of the futile search for a Northwest Passage—a route by which it was hoped to get trading ships around North America to East Asia. By exploration, the map of the North was slowly unfolded. European ships entered the eastern Arctic from the North Atlantic during the 16th and 17th centuries. These brief summer voyages charted the coasts of many of the Arctic Islands and the shores of Hudson Bay; sea captains reported on the unfavourable ice conditions and the barren landscapes.
Supplementary Activity: Franklin Expeditions
The written adventures of these European explorers have captured the imagination of many people. Perhaps you have read about the Franklin expedition in 1845 when the two ships, the Terror and the Erebus, and all their crew were lost. As a young person, I became fascinated when I read Owen Beattie’s excellent account of his archaeological work uncovering the remains of three sailors on Beechey Island, and the forensic examination that showed lead contamination in their tinned food supplies, which likely combined with scurvy to create a lethal effect (see references at the end of this unit). Like many Canadians, I was excited to read about the success of efforts to locate the missing ships. In the fall of 2014, a collaborative project lead by Parks Canada with the help of local Inuit knowledge identified the resting place of the I. And in September 2016, the I was located as well, 168 years after its doomed expedition in search of the Northwest Passage. You can read more about the expedition at the Parks Canada expedition website. See Parks Canada photos and videos on the search for the missing ships. Additionally, the “Franklin Mystery: Life and Death in the Arctic” website provides a wealth of information that ranges from current news to archival documents. The December 2014 issue of Canadian Geographic also contains many excellent articles.
TRU Open Learning
CU-98 Course Units
Exploration in the Western Arctic
Most of the exploration along the interior rivers of the Northwest carried out early in the 19th century was stimulated by a search for new fur-trapping areas. Fur-bearing animals inhabited the northwestern forests but were scarce in the treeless northeast. During the nineteenth century, the fur trade was essentially the only resource utilization of the Northwest. The Mackenzie Valley was occupied in the early 1800s with a string of fur-trading posts along the river, which was used for transport; however, fur traders did not penetrate into the less accessible Yukon valleys until the middle of the 19th century.
Learning Activity 9.2: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Historical Geography of the Territorial North” on page 370 to “Strategic Frontier, Arctic Sovereignty, and the Northwest Passage” on page 376. As you learn about the historical geography of the Territorial North, consider the following questions and write your responses in your learning journal: 1. Describe the significance of whaling and the fur trade to early exploration and non-Indigenous settlement in the Arctic. 2. How did the Inuit interact with early traders? What were some of the benefits to trading with Europeans? What were some of the disadvantages?
Sovereignty and the Contemporary North
In the 1960s, the Inuit of the Eastern Arctic began to organize politically and socially. In 1993, after years of negotiations, they settled an agreement with the federal government regarding the ownership and use of land and sea in the Northwest Territories. The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement was the largest land claim ever settled in Canadian history and was the first step towards the establishment of Nunavut, which means “our land” in the Inukitut language. Nunavut officially became a separate territory on April 1, 1999. Nunavut comprises one fifth of Canada’s total land mass and has a population that is approximately 85% Inuit. Iqualuit on Baffin Island was chosen by plebiscite as the capital city, and Nunavut entered confederation as the third territory in 1999. The establishment of Nunavut fulfills a long‐time dream for many Inuit of the Eastern Arctic. The Nunavut government has striven to build a strong economy and improve its residents’ income and education levels, but there are many challenges, including creating employment opportunities for a large workforce of young people, a cost of living that is significantly higher than that of southern Canadians, and a high suicide rate.
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-99
As noted by Bone, Arctic sovereignty has taken on a new urgency in the 21st century. Due to climate change and the loss of summer sea ice, more ships are able to access the region, and shipping nations, including the United States, argue that the Northwest Passage in the Canadian Archipelago lies in international waters. Another example of this new urgency is that circumpolar countries have made overlapping claims to the Arctic seabed (pp. 376–377).
Learning Activity 9.3: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read from “Strategic Frontier, Arctic Sovereignty, and the Northwest Passage” on page 376 to “The Territorial North’s Economic Anchor: Megaprojects” on page 389. Consider the following questions and write your responses in your learning journal: 1. How has Canada responded to concerns regarding Arctic sovereignty? 2. In Table 11.2 on page 381, note the population statistics for the three territorial capitals—Iqaluit, Yellowknife, and Whitehorse. What factors might account for the significant increase in the population of Iqaluit between 2006 and 2015? Which territorial capital has the largest percentage of its overall territorial population? What historical factors may explain this pattern? 3. Describe the governance structure in the Territorial North. In addition, what are the key features of the 1984 Inuvialuit Final Agreement? 4. What is “country food?” How does country food fit into the diets of most Inuit? What are the economic, cultural, and health benefits of country food?
Natural Resources A key topic in the following section on natural resources is the economic significance of megaprojects in the Territorial North. Bone identifies several important features associated with such projects. Megaprojects are large investments (often worth more than $5 billion) that take a long time to construct, and their profitability is closely tied to market forces outside of the region (p. 389). While megaprojects are not exclusive to the Territorial North (e.g., the James Bay Power Project and Confederation Bridge), this type of development is particularly important in this region of Canada.
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CU-100 Course Units
Learning Activity 9.4: Reading and Guiding Questions
To finish this unit, read from “The Territorial North’s Economic Anchor: Megaprojects” on page 389 to the end of the chapter. Consider the following questions and write your responses in your learning journal: 1. It would be interesting to compare any of the recent or current megaprojects described by Bone in Chapter 11 with historical examples—for instance, the Northwest Territories Diamond Projects or the Mary River iron ore project with the construction of the Trans-Canada railroad, completed in 1885. In what ways are these large-scale, costly (allowing for changing currency values) projects similar? In what ways are they different? Another historical example that could be used for comparison purposes might be the St Lawrence Seaway project, completed in 1959. 2. Bone describes megaprojects as the “Achilles heel” of the northern economy (p. 393). Outline his reasoning.
Supplemental Resources That Will Support Your
Learning Secondary Literature Check your local library or use the TRU Library to access the following additional resources: • Beattie, O., & Geiger, J. (1987). Frozen in time: Unlocking the secrets of the Franklin Expedition. Saskatoon, SK: Western Produce Prairie Books.
(The fate of the Franklin expedition has long captured the imagination of Canadians.) • Berger, T. R. (1977). Northern frontier, northern homeland: The report of the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry. Ottawa, ON: Department of Supply and Services.
(The Berger Report may be one of the most important documents of the post– World War II era in Canada.) • Hayes, D. (2002). Historical atlas of Canada: Canada’s history illustrated with original maps. Vancouver, BC: Douglas and McIntyre.
(This atlas includes a variety of fascinating historical maps of the North.)
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-101
• McGoogan, K. (2003). Ancient mariner: The amazing adventures of Samuel
Hearne, the sailor who walked to the Arctic Ocean. Toronto, ON: Harper Collins.
(The documents Hearne’s important contributions to the geographical
knowledge of Canada’s north.)
Websites • Baffin Island Photos • Gita J. Ljubicic (nee Laidler) is an Associate Professor in Geography and Environmental Studies at Carleton University who has done extensive work in collaboration with the Inuit on climate change and the Arctic (see list of referred publications): • Parks Canada—The Franklin Expedition • Up Here magazine • Canada’s International Polar Year • Canada Vignettes: Inuit Pipe • Northwest Territories Tourism YouTube Channel • Nunavut Tourism YouTube Channel • Tourism Yukon Youtube Channel • Inuit Sea Ice Atlas
Introduction A major purpose of this course in Canada’s regional geography is to examine the differences in the environments, peoples, and resource patterns from place to place and region to region within Canada.
Learning Objectives for Unit 10
• Describe how Canada’s regions can be viewed in the context of the core/periphery model. • Explain how Canadian society is characterized by four faultlines. • Describe how regions and faultlines are increasingly being influenced by global economic and political forces.
Canada within the World
If you remember, at the beginning of this course, we discussed how regions are mental constructs: the way regions are defined is neither right nor wrong. The six geographic regions presented by Bone are all defined by political boundaries. While concerns exist about such boundaries, especially in the cases of Ontario and Québec, it nevertheless is true that this six-region scheme fits nicely within the context of Friedmann’s core/periphery model. Each region has a different history and geography and so warrants study as an entity in itself. It must not be forgotten, however, that the composite of these six regions is a nation, which by some accounts ought not to exist because of its immense size. As Bone notes, quoting Kenneth Hare: “Canada is big—preposterously so” (p. 397). He goes on to say: “The sheer size of Canada has meant that the country spans a diverse set of physical and cultural geographies, thus transforming the nation into a country of regions” (p. 397). Seemingly against all the odds, Canada has survived as a nation. When considering the future of Canada and its unique regions, it seems fitting to end the unit with one of Bone’s concluding comments on the topic. Bone points to the importance of national unity, suggesting that “in a country like Canada, however frail or fractured it sometimes appears, is the linchpin holding the nation and its regions together; if strengthened, unity can empower regional bonds and drive their economies into the futuristic knowledge-based world” (p. 404).
TRU Open Learning
GEOG 2221: Regional Geography of Canada CU-103
Learning Activity 10.1: Reading and Guiding Questions
In your textbook, read the concluding chapter (pp. 397–405). The following questions will guide your learning: 1. Speculate on Canada’s future. What will the regional geography of Canada look like 25 years from now? 2. What new faultlines might develop in the future? 3. Describe the three certainties about Canada’s future that Bone identifies near the end of the chapter. Do you agree with these three certainties?
Supplemental Resources That Will Support Your
Learning Secondary Literature Check your local library or use the TRU Library to access the following additional resources: • Hare, K. (1988). Canada: The land. Daedalus, 117(4), 31–50. • Harris, C., & Matthews, G. J. (Eds.). (1987). Historical atlas of Canada Vol. I, from the beginning to 1800. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. • The New York Times. (2012). Imagining Canada: A century of photographs preserved by the New York Times. Toronto, ON: Doubleday. • Warkentin, J. (Ed.). (2010). So vast and various: Interpreting Canada’s regions in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Montréal, QC and Kingston, ON: McGill- Queen’s University Press.
Websites • Canadian Geographic
Assessment Activities 1. Complete the Regional Report of the Final Project on one of the six regions. (30%)
