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Working Paper # 206

Social Theory, Modernity, and the Three Waves of Historical Sociology

Julia Adams, Elisabeth Clemens and Ann Shola Orloff

Date: April 14, 2003

Russell Sage Working Papers have not been reviewed by the Foundation. Copies of working papers are
available from the author, and may not be reproduced without permission.

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Social Theory, Modernity, and the Three Waves of Historical Sociology

Julia Adams, Elisabeth Clemens and Ann Shola Orloff

[forthcoming as the Introduction to Julia Adams, Elisabeth Clemens and Ann Shola Orloff, eds.
Remaking Modernity: Politics, History and Sociology, Duke University Press, 2004]

“We shall set to work and meet the ‘demands of the day,’ in human relations
as well as in our vocation. This, however, is plain and simple, if each finds and
obeys the demon who holds the fibers of his very life.” (Max Weber 1958: 156)

“Discontinuity is freedom.” (Harold Bloom 1997: 39)

Sociology as a discipline is intimately entwined with modernity, both as lived and theorized.
Sociologists have galvanized distinctive mechanisms of social rationalization and technical regulation
(not least statistics and surveys) and authored ideas of the modern social space as a realm that we
denizens inhabit and control. Sociologists have also helped define modernity’s significant Others,
including the categories of tradition and post-modernity. They have applied their intellectual energy to
formulating what might be called the “sociological modern”: situating actors and institutions in terms of
these categories, understanding the paths by which they develop or change, and communicating these
understandings to states, citizens, all manner of organizations and social movements – as well as vast
armies of students. On this basis, sociologists have helped build and manage today’s sprawling, globally
extended social edifice, while simultaneously trying to diagnose and dismantle its disciplinary aspects
and iron cages. The discipline is itself a product of modernity, not simply in its institutions but, as we
will argue, in its theoretical core.

The formation of modernity now figures as a place of disorder as well as dynamism – troubled,
fissured, perhaps even in civilizational crisis. This is all the more ironic now that capitalism – surely a
core constituent of modernity – is thought by some to have arrived at a point of triumphant stasis, the
highest stage and culmination of history.1 In this unsettled time, the discipline of sociology finds itself in
an interesting position. It is prey to heightened theoretical dispersion and home to a confused array of
possible stances toward the place of the “modern” in ongoing global transitions, reconfigurations and
cataclysms. Many sociologists still embrace the familiar contrast between tradition and modernity and
assume that a directional development from the former to the latter is underway.2 They may celebrate or

1
See for example Francis Fukyama’s neo-Hegelian meditation The End of History and the Last Man (New York:
Avon, 1993) and Samuel P. Huntington’s controversial The Clash of Civilization and the Remaking of Wo rld Order
(New York: To uchstone, 1998). Both boo ks have sparked muc h deba te. For many in the human science s, these worries
have taken on fresh urgency in the wake of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. See Craig Calhoun, Paul Price
and Ashley Tim mer, eds. Understanding September 11 (New Y ork: New Press, 2002 ).

2
The stubborn persistence of modernization theory in dem ography and family sociology is critica lly discussed
in Arland Thornton’s 2001 Presidential Address to the Population Association of America (Thornton 2001 : 449-465).
Ian Roxbo rough’s “M odernization Theory Revisited: A Review Article” finds modernization theory to be “alive and
2
mourn the modernist rationalization and disenchantment of the social world against which romantic or
neo-traditional energies are aimed and from which “we moderns” cannot turn back. Others, particularly
of a more cultural studies bent, insist on the plasticity of all such distinctions or celebrate the viability of
alternative modernities.3 And so on. Yet what is often missing in the stew of sociological discussion,
research and political prescription is a sense of history as more than a vague preamble to the current
moment.

Historical sociology is one place for reflection about theory in the broader discipline, its
connections to other academic and intellectual formations and to the quandaries inherent in the
“sociological modern” as it plays out in the social world. In part that is because historical sociologists
have offered analyses and narratives of how people and societies became modern or not – what was it
that changed in the series of Great Transformations, and how these manifold processes are continuing to
reshape the contemporary world.4 At times historical sociologists have done even more. “Doing justice to
the reality of history is not a matter of noting the way in which the past provides a background to the
present,” as Philip Abrams (1982: 8) eloquently put it: “it is a matter of treating what people do in the
present as a struggle to create a future out of the past, of seeing the past not just as the womb of the
present but the only raw material out of which the present can be constructed.” In this Introduction, we
offer an archaelogy and analysis of the three waves of historical sociology specifically in order to inform
these reflections about theory, doing sociology and the future scholarship that might emerge from present
debates.

Sociology’s Historical Imagination

For much of its own history, sociological theory has evinced a deep concern for historical
thinking. Attention to history has been tightly coupled to theoretical exploration as sociologists addressed
the central questions of the discipline: how did societies come to be recognizably “modern”? how did
selves come to be understood as individuated, coherently centered and rationally-acting human subjects?
From Thomas Hobbes through Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, Georg Simmel, W. E. B.
DuBois, Thorstein Veblen and Norbert Elias, various lines of theory developed as an effort to understand
the processes by which social structures and social actors were created and transformed over the course
of the transition from “traditional” or feudal societies to some distinctively “modern” social life.5 How

well” after a comeback in studies of develop ment (19 88: 75 3). These are but two of many possible examples. Immanuel
W allerstein’s valedictory “Modernization: Requiescat in Pace,” which begins with the word s “when a concept has died,”
was a tad premature (1976: 131 -135). See also Reinhard Bendix, “Tradition and Modernity Reconsidered,” Comp arative
Studies in Society and History 9 (1967): 292-346.

3
The notion that “mo dernity is not one, but m any” is ex plored in Dilip P aram eshwa r Gaonka r’s “On Alternative
Mode rnities,” as well as the other essays in Gaonkar’s edited volume Alternative Modernities (2001). In historical
socio logy, Paul Gilroy’s contribution to a vision of “alternative modernities” has been particularly influential, espec ially
his The Black A tlantic: Mod ernity and Do uble Co nsciousness (1993). See the section below on “W orld Systems,
Postcoloniality, and Rem app ing the W orld after the Second W ave.”

4
Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation (Boston, MA : Beacon, 1957 [1944]).

5
There are of course multiple lines of theory that can be identified in the sociological canon, and multiple
readings of theorists. A nd peop le chan ge. T he D urkheim of The Division of Lab or in Society was closer to the stylized
evolutionary models of Auguste Comte and H erbert Spencer than was the Durkheim of the Moral Education, especially
3
modernity was understood varied, of course: it might involve the rise of capitalism and class-structured
actors, as in Marx; the formation of the disciplined bourgeois subject and his confinement in the iron
cage of rationalized collective life, as in Weber; the twinned inventions of Enlightenment individualism
and a new order of racial subordination, as in DuBois, or still other broad evolutionary visions.6 The
proposed mechanisms of change were framed differently as well, whether in terms of political
revolutions; the growth of the division of labor; colonialism and empire; pressures to manage the
manifold anxieties of the self; opportunities for group cultural distinction, and so on. Yet within this
diverse intellectual landscape, social theorists converged on a fundamentally historical project.

Sociological theory, however, has been marked by striking shifts in just how it has attended to
history. As sociology was institutionalized in this century, particularly as it took shape in the United
States, this historically-informed theoretical vision gave way to more ahistorical models of social and
cultural change.7 Structural-functionalism and other allied approaches invoked highly general and
abstracted characteristics, processes or sequences while claiming to explain change over time. These
approaches paid little or no attention to the temporally-bound logics of particular social and cultural
configurations. Moreover, they lacked an emphasis on critical turning points, and tended to assume that
many constituent and possibly disjoint processes could be coherently collapsed or fused under one
general and rather vague heading – “modernization.” Ironically, these approaches either deployed the
concepts of “modern,” “modernity” and “modernization” in unreflective ways, with minimal explicit
substantive content, or aligned the “modern” with a roster of associated static concepts.8
Yet by the 1970s and 1980s, these ahistorical approaches served as the foil for a resurgence of historical
inquiry. Of course this arid, desert background is partly fictive. A certain reading of one master theorist,
Talcott Parsons, came to stand for, to signify, a broader and more complicated intermediary epoch.
Intellectual lineages are constructed out of many materials, including people’s desire to claim forebears
who will lend them academic credibility; the dynamics of disciplinary competition and collaboration, and
authors’ conscious and unconscious desires and identifications (Bloom 1997; Camic 1992; Gieryn 1995;
Latour and Woolgar 1979). We all interpret our predecessors, polishing some and vilifying others.9
Nevertheless we think the general point still stands. The mid-20th century was the apex of presentism in
U.S. sociology as well as the moment of highest confidence in modernity.

in his analysis of the recipro cal relationship betwe en the m ode rn state and the catego ry of the ind ividual.

6
W hile “mod ernism”generally designates an aesthetic movement, coined in 189 0 by a Nicaraguan poet Ruben
Dario (Anderson 1998: 3), “modernity” is a messier congeries of categories with W ittgensteinian family resemblances.
See below for further discussion of this po int.

7
For the provenance of those ahistorical models, see George Steinmetz’s essay in this volume.
8
See for example Talcott Parson s, Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (Engelwo od C liffs,
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966). Parsons actually oscillated among different ways of melding history and sociology. In the
System of Modern Societies, for example , he is at times carefully historical in his claims in what is a “directional”
argument that exp licitly seeks to update W eber (1971: 1 39). At other points the historical materials are awkwardly
subordinated to an overly-abstracted taxonomic impulse. See David Zaret, “From Max W eber to Parsons and Schutz:
The Eclipse of History in Modern Social Theory,” American Journal of Sociology 85 (1980): 1180-1201.

9
“Every forgotten precursor becomes a giant of the imagination. To tal repression would be health, but o nly a
god is capa ble of it.” (Harold Bloom. The Anxiety of Influence: A Theo ry of Poetry. New Y ork: Oxford U niversity Press,
199 7 [1973]: 10 7). To o bad – it would save o n footnotes.
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 Luckily, not all sociologists in the United States – and sociologists working in the U.S. were the
most enthusiastically encamped in this presentist desert – were captured by modernization theory or its
more sophisticated cousin structural-functionalism, even in their palmiest days. One immediately thinks
of Barrington Moore Jr., Reinhard Bendix, Seymour Martin Lipset or the early work of Charles Tilly
among others.10 They were in dialogue both with like-minded scholars outside the United States, and
with colleagues from more presentist persuasions.11 Thus there were always a few engaged by
fundamentally historical questions, particularly with respect to politics and political transformations.
Their work nourished the next generation of historical sociologists -- a “second wave” of the 1970s and
1980s – and helped inspire programmatic calls for a return to historical inquiry.12 The “second wave”13
was a “theory group” and a system of signs bound together by continuing engagement with questions

10
See Seymour M artin Lipset, Agrarian Socialism: The Coöperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan
(Be rkeley: University of California Press, 1950) and The First New N ation: The United States in Historical and
Comp arative Perspective (New York: B asic Bo oks, 1963 ); Barrington M oore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and
Democ racy: Lord and P easant in the M aking o f the M ode rn W orld (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Charles Tilly, The
Vendee (Cam bridge, H arvard U niversity Press, 196 4). Among Bendix’s many writings, see , for example, Nation-
Building and C itizenship (New York : Wiley, 19 64). Ro bert King M erton’s Science, Technology and S ociety in
Seventeenth-Century England (New York: H. Fertig, 1970), was originally published in Belgium in 1938.

11
In different ways, some of Lip set’s work, as well as Rob ert Neelly Bellah’s Tokugawa Religion: Cultural Ro ots
of Moder n Japan (Glenco e, IL: Free P ress, 1957 ); Neil Smelser’s Social Change in the Industrial Revolution. An
Application of Theory to the British Cotton Industry (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1959); and S. N.
Eisenstadt’s The Po litical System of Empires (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 19 63) attemp ted more o r less succ essfully
(opinion is still divided!) to bridge the perceived gap b etween the exigencies of doing justice to history and mapping
structural-functionalist taxonomies. For a negative evaluation, consult Michael Anderson’s Fam ily Structure in
Nine teenth Century Lancashire (Camb ridge: Cam bridge U niversity Press, 1971). Yet what is often forgotten is just how
“historical” these works were in the context of prevailing sociological practice.

12
See, for example , Phillip A bram s, Historical Sociology (Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press, 1982); Peter
Burke, Sociology and History (Boston: Allen & Unw in, 198 0); T heda Sko cpo l, “Sociology’s Historical Imaginatio n,”
pp.1-21 in T. S kocpol, ed., Vision and M ethod in Historical Sociology (New Y ork: Cambridge University Press, 1984);
Raymond Grew, “The Case for Comparing Histories,” The American Historical Review 85 #4 (October 1980): 763-778;
Arthur Stinchc omb e, Theoretical Method s in Social History (New York: Academic Press, 1978); Charles T illy, Big
Structures, Large Processes, Huge Co mparisons (New York: Russell Sage, 1984) and As Sociology M eets History (New
York: Acade mic Press, 1981).

13
W e are not the first to use the terminology of “waves” when describing the development of historical
socio logy. In The Rise of Historical Sociology, Dennis Smith discusses two (long) “waves” of histo rical sociology, the
first comprising writers who now occupy the canon of the discipline (including Tocq ueville, Marx, Durkheim and W eber)
and the second partially overlapping what we are calling the second wave. Smith divides the second wave into three
“phases,” encompassing the scholars who carried the torch of history in sociology during the ahistorical dominance of
structural functionalism, and those who we identify as leading the resurgence of historical sociology in the late 1970s
and 198 0s; he also identifies a “third phase” (“partially overlapping” the second phase of the second wave) which
comprises scholars he sees as responding to the conservative political shifts of the 1980s and the decline of Marxism.
W e find it more useful to classify these latter two groups together, for they share theoretical and methodological
proclivities which divide them from more recent scholars. Written in 1991, Smith’s book could not have commented on
more recent intellectual developments in historical sociology, such as the influence of rational choice theory or the
cultural turns. Rather, his work described the intellectual contributions of various key second-wave scholars’ major
works. It does not address – as we do – the theoretical contradictions which helped to create challenges to this work.
From the vantage point of 2003, the movem ent that was still “young” at Smith’s writing has consolidated and begun to
break up, as we discuss further below, producing rebellious intellectual progeny who may or may not come to share
a single p aradigm. D ennis Smith, The Rise of Historical Sociology. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991.
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inspired by Marxism.14 It was also a social movement. (The sense of a movement was nourished both by
interdisciplinary activity and by the spread of historical methods to a large number of core sociological
topics, and perhaps also by the influence of historians of, for example, the Annales school, who had
earlier borrowed social scientific concepts and orientations.) This is not to say everyone was then a
Marxist, but that even those who were not debated on largely Marxist terrain. Indeed, most of the best-
known works of the comparative-historical renaissance of the 1970s and early 1980s – even those that
did not explicitly embrace a Marxist theoretical stance – take off from puzzles within the Marxian
tradition to which Marxism itself could not provide satisfactory answers. To resolve these puzzles,
analysts had to draw on intuitions and concepts from other theoretical traditions.

Any such characterization necessarily simplifies along two lines. First, many of those who
contributed to the consolidation of the initial resurgence of historical sociology have continued to grapple
with the new intellectual currents that challenge contemporary work. 15 They have moved on after having
created (and surfed) the second wave. For example, Charles Tilly is now engaged in the lively
interdisciplinary work on “social mechanisms,” Theda Skocpol moved from revolutions to the emergence
of the U.S. welfare state, in the process making a major contribution to the understanding of gendered
politics and institutions, and Craig Calhoun has emerged a one of the leading voices of the cultural turn.16
The analytic contribution of a scholar in a field at one time does not exhaust her or his intellectual
persona. Second, although the second wave was a broad, eclectic movement, sheltering a variety of actors
who contributed to the resurgence of theoretically-informed history in sociology and allied disciplines, it
was quickly typecast in terms of some of its members, and only some of their ideas. The canonical
second wave was a system of signs as well as a movement of actors, and macroscopic, comparative
scholars of revolution, state building, class formation became the synecdochal representative of the
whole. Why should this have been so? First, the macro-political sociologists put forward programmatic
statements and self-consciously forwarded historical approaches against the prevailing orthodoxy (see
Abbott 2001, chapter 4). They also had a well-defined theoretical agenda which put them in dialogue
with thriving marxist-inspired debates across history, anthropology and (to some extent) political science.
And let us not forget the Zeitgeist, and the worldwide audience for radical politics and Marxist theory.

14
W e believe that the “second wa ve” was not primarily a generation o f Young T urks engaged in the recurring
ritual of overthrowing its academic p redecessors (as, for example, Andrew A bbo tt’s witty Chaos of Disciplines [2001,
23-25] would have it), although surely Abbott is right to argue that the dynamic helped constitute it as an intellectual
formation. Chaos links this to a broader argument regarding the fractal patterns of sociological knowledge . See also Craig
Calhoun, “The Rise and Domestication of Historical Sociology,” in The Historic Turn in the Human Sciences, Terrence
J. McD onald, ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996, 306-7. The general concept of a “theory group”
derives from N icholas C. M ullins, with the assistance of Carolyn J. Mullins. Theories and Theory Gro ups in
Contempo rary American Sociology. New York, New York: Harper and Row, 1973.

15
Most com mentators o n this era o f scholarship underline the genera tional ch aracter of the m ovement. Yet age
alone does not determine membership in any “wave.” Senior scholars as well as precocious PhDs-in-the-making took
part in the second wave resurgence, while we find among the stude nts of the second wave “delayed” PhDs, some of the
contributors to the present volume included, who took time out from academia to participate in 1970s po litics before
completing their degrees. Thus someone’s graduate school cohort might be one proxy for her or his “risk of
participating” in various waves – but not a perfect one.

16
Craig J. Calhoun, Critical Social Theory: Culture, History and the Challenge of Difference (Cambridge, MA:
Blackwell, 1995); Theda Skocpo l, Protecting Soldiers and Mo thers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United
States (Cam bridge, M ass.: Harvard U niversity P ress, 19 92); Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley, CA: University
of California P ress, 19 98).
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Those who worked on key intellectual questions that intersected with that theoretical formation were
most likely to be seen as central.

In what follows, we walk an analytic tightrope. We discuss the second wave in terms of its
canonical version, which came to represent comparative historical sociology in the academic eye. But we
will also insist that during the very period of its ascendancy in the 1970s and early 1980s, a number of
historical sociologists were publishing important research that fell outside the hegemonic analytic
framework. One might instance Andrew Abbott, Charles Camic, David Zaret, Viviana Zelizer among
others.17 One of the nicer ironies of the present moment – reflected in many of the chapters that follow –
resides in the ongoing rediscovery of some of the substantive contributions of these and other
iconoclastic historical sociologists, some of whose work was marginalized during the moment of
canonical second wave dominance, and some of which represented the leading wedge that helped
explode it.

As an emerging paradigm, then, second wave historical sociology was defined by a shared set of
commitments: a substantive interest in political economy centered on questions of class formation,
industrialization, and revolution along with a (usually implicit) utilitarian model of the actor. While
motivating a forceful line of inquiry into the transformations associated with modernity, these core
assumptions reproduced many of the exclusions and repressions of modernist social theory. Certain
subjects – in the double sense of both topics and actors – tended to be marginalized or excluded: colonial
peoples, women, and groups that we would now call people of color and queers. The analytic
dimensions of gender, sexuality, race, and nation were downplayed in parallel fashion. Moreover,
culture, emotion, religion, the informal aspects of organization and more were repressed by the powerful
political-economic analytic framework undergirding the resurgence of historical sociology. And, in
proper dialectic form, they returned. In the process, recent scholarship has greatly enriched historical
sociology while shredding many of the core assumptions of second wave scholarship.

Take, for example, the combination of structural determination and the utilitarian model of action
that informs canonical second-wave analyses of the influence of economic position on political action.
This double reductionism has been questioned as attention to culture and identity has unearthed the
complex and contingent ways in which selves and discursive positions are formed. So what count as key
substantive elements of “structure” or psyche is analytically open, and getting more open all the time.18
The once-robust combination of structural determination and comparative methods is also deeply
contested. Thinking historically, it is increasingly acknowledged, undermines comparative strategies that
isolate distinct events in an empty “experimental time.”19 Some see salvation for explanatory claims in

17
See for example Andrew Abbott, “Sequences of Social Events” (Historical Methods 16: 129-47, 19 83);
Charles Cam ic, Experience and Enlightenment: Socialization for Cultural Change in Eighteenth-century Scotland
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 198 3); D avid Zaret, The Heavenly Contract: Ideology and Organization in Pre-
revolutionary Puritanism (Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 198 4); V iviana Z elizer, Mo rals and Markets: The
Development of Life Insurance in the United States (New Y ork: Columbia University Press, 1979).

18
W e will have more to say about this below, and about the vigorous rational-choice theoretic counter-attack,
which replaces the implicit rational-actor assumptions of earlier work with a much more explicit and sophisticated
utilitarianism.

19
See for example And rew A bbo tt, Time Matters: Theory and Method (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press, 2001); Michael Burawoy, “Two Methods in Search of Science: Skocpol versus Trotsky.” Theory and Society 18
(1989): 759 -805 ; Philip M cMichael, “Incorporating Comparison within a World-Historical Perspective,” American
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terms of “mechanisms” that may be identified across diverse temporal and social settings.20 Others pin
their hopes on a more thoroughgoing reconstruction of sociology’s own categories of analysis, now
themselves under the historicizing microscope.21 The latter approach owes something to post-
structuralism and post-modernist critiques of Enlightenment universalism and the grand narratives of
modern historical development, including those deployed by sociologists. Some sociologists have drawn
on this postmodern repertoire to destabilize organizing imageries of progress and modernity in productive
ways. But because these organizing imageries are constitutive of our discipline, post-modernist and post-
structuralist modes of thought are anathema to many sociologists, including the many historical
sociologists who get twitchy when they see the very ideas of progressive social and cultural change being
put into question. Thus a congeries of lively debates and oppositions -- sometimes friendly, sometimes
antagonistic -- have replaced the relatively cohesive theory group that initially reestablished historical
sociology in professional associations, streams of syllabi and publications.

There is a great deal of legitimate uncertainty about what sort of claims can be made and
sustained at this juncture. The open-endedness and fragmentation of the present academic moment
evokes intellectual anxiety, over-determined by the epochal events of 1989 and the subsequent
revitalization of liberalism, the vagaries of globalization, fundamental challenges to the order of nation-
states, and the collapse of Marxism as a mode of imagining a future beyond capitalist modernity. If, as
Abrams argued, a fully historicized sociology explores the construction of futures out of pasts, recent
events shift figure and ground in our understanding of trajectories of social change. The present
problematizes the past in new and challenging ways. Yet we also see grounds for hope: a new intellectual
openness associated with this unsettled moment, a willingness to forsake old antagonisms and to
experiment with new ways of thinking sociologically and historically, while drawing on the theoretical
and analytical resources bequeathed by the sociological pioneers, our predecessors and their critics. We
see this moment as an opportunity to examine some crucial questions: Is there a distinctive theoretical
project (or projects plural) for historical sociology in informing approaches to social and cultural
transformation? What are we to make of the irony that the programmatic calls for a more historical
sociology have inspired much better sociological history and rather less consensus on theory? To what
extent can newer varieties of historical sociology contribute to a reconsideration, perhaps a
reconstruction, of theories of social and cultural change, and of modernity or modernities?

Sociological Review 55 (1990): 385-397; William G. Roy,“Time, Place, and Peo ple in History and Sociology: Boundary
Definitions and the Logic of Inquiry,” Social Science History 11(198 7): 53 -62; Ja mes M ahoney, “N ominal, Ordinal,
and Narrative Appraisal in Macrocausal Analysis,” American Journal of Sociology 104 (1999): 115 4-11 96; L ynette
Spillman, “Causal Reasoning, Historical Logic, and Sociological Explanation,” in Jeff Alexander, Gary Marx, and
Christine W illiams, eds. Self, Social Structure, and Beliefs: Explorations in the Sociological Thought of Neil J. Smelser
(Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002).

20
Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow and Charles Tilly offer one definition of “mechanism”: “Mechanisms are a
delimited class of events that alter relations among specified sets of elements in identical or closely similar ways over
a variety of situations” (M cAd am, T arrow and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, New Yo rk, NY: Camb ridge University
Press, 2001: 24). See also Peter H edström and Richard Swed berg, eds., Social Mechanisms: An Analytical Approach
to Social Theory (New Y ork: Cambridge University Press, 1998). See also Arthur Stinchcombe in “The Conditions of
Fruitfulness of Theorizing about Mechanisms in Social Science” (Philosophy of the Social Sciences 21 #3 (Sep tember):
367 -87). A s a social science signifier, “m echanism” is fast becoming as messy and capa cious as “mo dernity.”

21
Craig Calhoun, “Domestication of Historical Sociology,” pp.306, 313 (see footnote 4).
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 These are hard questions, but tackling them will propel sociological and cross-disciplinary
conversations about social theory. No one person can successfully address them, and no one approach
will do. We gathered a diverse group of sociologists, first at a conference and then as contributors to this
volume, to assess the accomplishments of the resurgence of historical inquiry and to peer into the future,
delineating the challenges to come. We editors made certain choices, among several possible strategies,
in assembling the group. We chose to limit ourselves to sociologists currently working in the U.S.
(although some in the group originally hail from other countries). This decision wasn’t just a matter of
money! Historical sociology, as international as it was and is, has clearly had its own history in the
American academy; the concept of “historical sociology” itself was adopted most enthusiastically in the
United States, for reasons including the “brain drain” of historical sociologists to the U.S. from abroad.22

We deliberately included people who reflect a wide range of theoretical orientations and a broad
spectrum of understandings of what constitutes historical sociology. Some would sign onto what Craig
Calhoun calls a minimalist list of inherent historical sociological objects: “rare but important sociological
phenomena (e.g., revolutions); critical cases – particular events or cases which bear on theory, or have
intrinsic interest (e.g., Japanese capitalism); phenomena that occur over extended period of time (e.g.,
industrialization, state formation, creation of “modern” family forms); phenomena for which changing
historical context is a major set of explanatory variables (e.g., changing international trade opportunities,
political pressures, technologies shape the conditions for economic development)” (Calhoun 1996: 313-
14). Other members of our group still understand historical sociology as it was defined by Theda Skocpol
in Vision and Method: works that “ask questions about social structures or processes understood to be
concretely situated in time and space ... address processes over time, and take temporal sequences
seriously in accounting for outcomes ... attend to the interplay of meaningful actions and structural
contexts, in order to make sense of the unfolding of unintended as well as intended outcomes in
individual lives and social transformations ... [and] highlight the particular and varying features of
specific kinds of social structures and patterns of change [author’s emphasis]” (Skocpol 1984: 1). And
still others would insist that even this is too limiting a frame, and that the rightful province of historical
sociology is the "problematic of structuring" -- and therefore all of history and sociology. Here is Phillip
Abrams again: "Sociology must be concerned with eventuation, because that is how structuring happens.
History must be theoretical, because that is how structuring is apprehended." (1982: p. x) We aren't fully
satisfied with any of these definitions. But since what historical sociology is is now sharply contested, we
sought to reflect rather than constrain the diversity of understandings.23

We editors also elected to bring together sociologists, rather than a cross-disciplinary group. This
may at first seem surprising. Historical sociologists are enthusiastically interdisciplinary. In examining
any particular historical event or transformation, our own work – and that of all the contributors – has
been deeply engaged in conversations with historians, political scientists, literary theorists, economists

22
In his “They Do Things Differently There, Or, The Contribution of British Historical Sociology” (The British
Journal of Sociology 40 #4, December 1989: 544-564), for example, John A. Hall describe s the lineage of B ritish
historical sociology and laments the impact of the “brain drain” of historical sociologists from B ritain to theUnited States
(p. 564).

23
For that reason, we editors invited members of our own mid-career and younger cohorts, rather than scholars
who were originally the leading lights of the official o r unofficial second wa ve. W e exp ected this decision to create a
conversation that was freer from people’s (including our own) stock assumptions about representative figures and
canonical intellectual positions. The intention was not to c reate o r police new intellectual boundaries, but to take
collective temperatures and open further space for thought, discussion and action. As should be obvious, the scholars
assem bled in this book co mpo se a loo se and contingent co alition rather than a theory group.
9
and anthropologists. And we recognize that the “historic turn,” or the move to historicize social inquiry,
is decidedly a cross-disciplinary project.24 The contributors to this volume are joining with a broad range
of scholars responding to the classics of social theory, and to the problems of modernity, post-modernity
or alternative modernities, however understood. Political theorists interrogate the classical canon for its
textual silences or rhetorics; ethnographers in the “new ethnography” incorporate the situated nature of
anthropology and sociology in the construction of the distinction, still alive and kicking, between the
“modern” self and the “traditional”other, to cope with problems of power and modernity. 25 Sociologists
have much in common with these categories or groups of scholars, but they also make distinctive
contributions. Those of us who pursue a historicized sociology can tackle the processes conventionally
grouped under the heading of “transitions to capitalist modernity” on empirical as well as theoretical
ground. Of course, historical sociology is about not only the past, but also the ways in which the past
shapes the present and future, inviting our remaking of modernist social analysis and the concept of
modernity itself, which has significant disciplinary specificities. So perhaps we even have an intellectual
responsibility, born of our middleman position, both to our own discipline and to others.

Disciplines – like any structure – provide both distinctive constraints and capacities embedded in
theoretical and methodological orientations, transmitted through graduate education, hiring, the tenure
process, and the gate-keeping of fellowship, research proposal and manuscript review. We can illustrate
this point with reference to the treatment of “race” in U.S. historical sociology versus historical political
science.26 Why is it that historical work foregrounding race and ethnicity has been less typically found
among the most-cited works of historical sociology, while it has been central to studies of American
political development, a core constituency in historical political science? In the historical study of
American politics, the problems of race, slavery and political freedom have loomed large, motivated both
by the foundational position of liberalism in political theory and the national crisis of the Civil War.
Given these theoretical and empirical foci, work on race could not be so easily marginalized. Yet in
historical sociology, “race” has been one of the areas of scholarship that had to be “brought back in” in
the current period (although work on racial formations and identities was flourishing in other areas of
sociology). Key programmatic statements of historical sociology explicitly mention “race” as a keyword
in the survey of current literature; for example, Skocpol’s Vision and Method includes in its survey,

24
See Terrence J. M cDonald, ed. The H istoric Turn in the Human Sciences (Ann Arbor, MI: University of
Michigan Press, 199 6).

25
See, for exam ple, Jo an Landes, W omen and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca,
NY: Cornell U niversity P ress, 19 88); Linda Zerilli, Signifying W oma n: Culture and Chaos in Rousseau , Burke, and Mill
(Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press, 1994). See Stephen Tyler, “Post-Modern E thnography: From Docum ent of the
Occult to Occult Do cument,” in W riting Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, James Clifford and G eorge
E. Marcus, eds. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1986). Post-modern ethnography converges in interesting
ways with “the ex tende d case method” forwarded in sociology by M ichael Burawo y and his students. See Michael
Burawo y, Ethnography U nbound: P ower and Resistance in the M ode rn M etrop olis (Berkeley: U niversity of California
Press, 1991) and Glo bal E thnography: Forces, Co nnections, and Imaginatio ns in a P ostmo dern W orld (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2000).

26
We are grateful to Ira Katznelson and John Lie for helpful discussions on this issue.
-

10
among others, Orlando Patterson’s work on slavery.27 Yet the analysis of race was sidelined by the
second wave’s orientation to Marxian questions about the transition to capitalism, revolution, class
conflict and the state in modern Europe. The larger point is that disciplinary specificity still matters.
Trans-disciplinary intellectual projects – the historic, linguistic, or cultural turns, gender studies,
Marxism, rational choice theory – attempt to reform or revolutionize knowledge and academic practices
across these boundaries, yet their success will be reflected in their penetration of disciplinary canons and
graduate training practices, and this requires engagement with the substantive, methodological and
theoretical particularities of each discipline.

Sociology is also a symptomatic site where people from a variety of disciplines can get a bird’s-
eye view of processes of paradigm formation, contention and implosion. Historical sociology in
particular lies at the crossroads of current intersecting trends in knowledges that touch all the social
science disciplines – the rise of cultural analysis, neo-positivism, the revival of the mechanism metaphor,
to name but a few. Other disciplines have experienced some of these developments, of course, but not
simultaneously; political science has witnessed the juggernaut of rational-choice theory, while culturalist
trends are almost entirely absent outside the subfields of political theory and constructionist international
relations. Anthropology and history, on the other hand, have been most influenced by culturalist and
poststructuralist trends, and have proved inhospitable to rational choice approaches. But all of these
orientations are well-represented in sociology – and their representatives are fighting over claims to
define the overall disciplinary field. Readers from many points in this range of contending perspectives,
and from the other disciplines, should be interested in how these debates are progressing in the discipline
where the alternative perspectives are most directly contending.

Finally, our group has given substantive pride of place to politics, broadly understood to include
not simply forms of authoritative sovereign power but much of what, since Michel Foucault burst on the
American academic scene, has come to be thought of as disciplinary power dispersed throughout the
social landscape. The political focus has enabled participants to respond to a central legacy of historical
sociology, while at the same time broadening its concerns in light of the developments we signaled
above. In their essays for Remaking Modernity, the authors have engaged a range of analytic strategies
and/or theoretical models in light of more recent sociological research on a process or dimension of
historical change. In some cases, there is an obvious continuity between classical theory and
contemporary research. Given that secularization – including the changing institutional relations between
church and state and the making of a “bourgeois” and secular self -- was identified by Max Weber and
others as an important aspect of modernity, for example, how do these claims and assumptions inform
recent research? How is current work revealing the limits of these claims and theories? For other
themes, the redefinition of key processes is critical. State formation, the transition to capitalism and
professionalization were originally theorized as European phenomena, so what happens when we widen
our frame to take in post-socialist, colonial or post-colonial states as well? Finally, for some topics, the
absence of attention in classical theory is an important feature: how should we reconceptualize theories
of social and cultural change in light of research on race, gender, sexuality, nation and other concepts that
were marginalized -- or simply unknown -- in earlier theoretical debates?

27
Theda Skocpol, “Emerging Agendas and R ecurrent Strategies in Historical Sociology,” pp. 356-391 in Vision
and Method, ed. T heda Sko cpo l. This p articular citation is fro m p. 3 58 o f Orlando P atterson, Slavery and Social Death:
A Comparative Study. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990.
-

11
 We think about these revisions and reformulations under the general heading of “remaking
modernity.” The Oxford English Dictionary defines modern as “of or pertaining to the present and recent
times, as distinguished from the remote past.” To be modern is to be in the now and (if the metaphor still
has life in it) at the cutting edge of history. The concept remains eternally fresh because it is a moving
index. It points to everything – and nothing. In the face of such slipperiness, the authors in this book have
gravitated toward alternative responses. Some of our contributors try to endow “modernity” with fixed
referential content that can be defended as a platform for generalization and explanation, usually with
“capitalism” or “industrialism” at the conceptual and causal core.28 “As Max Weber observed,” say
Michael Lowy and Robert Sayre, “the principal characteristics of modernity – the calculating spirit
(Rechnenhaftigkeit), the disenchantment of the world (Entzauberung der Welt), instrumental rationality
(Zweckrationalitat), and bureaucratic domination – are inseparable from the advent of the ‘spirit of
capitalism.’”29 Others who want a stable and univocal definition gesture toward Marx, whether
modernity is taken to signal “the cultural articulations that accompany processes of capital accumulation”
(Pred and Watts 1992: xiii) or a “mode of vital experience – experience of space and time, of the self and
others, of life’s possibilities and perils – that is shared by men and women all over the world today....To
be modern is to be part of a universe in which, as Marx said, ‘all that is solid melts into air.’”30 These
various approaches may or may not be compatible: the arguments over problems and affiliated research
are ongoing, and readers must judge.

Alternatively, one could abandon the whole family of concepts – modern, modernity, etc. – as
social science concepts.31 This we think would be a mistake, if it’s even possible. We editors would
advocate approaching “modernity” as a conceptually unstable historical concept. Our definitions should
capture both people’s changing ideas of what is or isn’t modern (or traditional, or backward, or
postmodern) and the valences of emotion and moral judgment that these mappings assume in varieties of
discourse and institutions. Historical sociologists would be wise to at least think about why, in today’s
world, the idea of the modern (and its associated practices) is invested with such desires and hatreds, and
has such political force – and to do that, we need to better understand it.

28
“At its simplest, modernity is a shorthand term for modern society or industrial civilization,” p. 94 in Anthony
Giddens and C hristop her P ierson, Conversations with Anthony Giddens (Stanfo rd, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998).

29
Michael Lowy and Robert Sayre, Romanticism Against the Tid e of M ode rnity (Durham, NC : Duke University
Press, 200 1: 18 ).

30
Marshall Berman, All T hat Is So lid M elts Into Air: The Experience of M ode rnity (New Y ork: Viking Penguin,
1976: p. 15).

31
In a sharp and amusing broadside, Alan Knight writes that “mod ernity” is one of “a series of buzzwords that
pop ulate the new cultural history like drones in a hive...”; one of many redundant tropes that “take up sp ace and claim
attention out of all proportion to their semantic contribution” (Knight, “Subalterns, Signifiers, and Statistics: Perspectives
on Mexican Historiography,” Latin American Research Review 37 # 2, 20 02: 1 49, 1 49 n. 10). B ut Knight greatly
underestimates the extent to whic h the co ncep t is unreflectively implanted in social scienc e of all stripes. For one
example, see Ronald Inglehart and Wayne E . Baker, “Mod ernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional
Values,” American Sociological Review 65 # 1 (2000 ): 19-5 1.

12
 The theme of “remaking modernity” is far too grand to approach as an integrated totality; we do
not want to reinstate a grand narrative of the present day, a new Key to All Mythologies32 that the very
terms modernity and post-modernity may seem to invite. And in fact the contributors to this volume
differ on many important questions -- together, they represent a range of responses rather than a single
consolidated position. But we do imagine that our still-separate revisions will clarify our collective
understanding of what is at stake in debates about modernity and post-modernity, perhaps even lead to a
better grasp of what is entailed in fashionable claims that alternative or distinct modernities are possible,
if they do not already exist. We see these questions and concerns as crucial not only for historical
sociology but for the fabric of our discipline – and for the human sciences more generally.

The Second Wave and the Reappropriation of the Classics

In justifying their turn to history, the second wave latched onto the classics in a very particular
way. The disciplinary canon with which they operated, filtered through Talcott Parsons, had enshrined
Weber, Durkheim and latterly Marx as the major scholars of reference.33 Second wave scholars wanted to
bring to the fore class inequality, power and the conflicts these engendered, and Marx became the most
important figure for them, as they cast themselves as the leading protagonists against the postulates of
modernization theory, particularly the claim that all paths of development led from the “traditional” to
the “modern.”34 From Marx they took their emphases on the importance of the “material” (understood as
separate from and determinative of the “ideal”) modes of production, class conflict as the basis of politics
and the motor of history. The history that the second wavers drew out was one of conflict, particularly of
class conflict, expropriation and bloody oppression. It was also one that was built around the tendential
development of social structures and epochal transitions.35 It is important to note that their Marx was
leavened with an emphasis on elements of Weber’s writings, as we will see below, and laced with a
strong refusal of Durkheim, who was understood as the patron saint of the twin evils of cultural values
and structural functionalism. 36

The second wave – memorably described as an “uppity generation” by Theda Skocpol --

32
George Eliot. Middlemarch (New Y ork, NY: Penguin, 199 4).

33
Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action, 2 vols.(New York: The Free Press, 1937). Marx was
classified as a utilitarian in Structure, and the refore received short shrift.

34
For e xample, Charles T illy, the editor of The Fo rmation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), the final volume in Princeton University Press’s “Studies in Political
Developm ent” series (under the leadership of Lucien Pye), used the volume to critique the argument of the preceding
seven volum es and of the whole “political develo pme nt” pro ject.

35
“Marxism is one of the theories mo st attuned to the need to specify clear breaks betwe en ep ochs and to
develop historically specific conceptual tools for understanding each.” Craig Calhoun, “ The Rise and Domestication
of Historical Sociology,” p.322 (see footnote 4).

36
Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1978).

13
consigned modernization theory and structural-functionalism to the dustbin of intellectual history.37 The
radical political movements of the 1960s and 1970s had inspired many students to go on to graduate
study, where they linked their political concerns to intellectual questions, and found guidance from that
historically-inclined minority of senior scholars even as they rebelled against their more presentist
colleagues. In sociology, Andrew Abbott notes that rebellious impulses helped to direct many younger
sociologists to historical approaches, which allowed criticism of two then-dominant tendencies:
Parsonian functionalism and atheoretical and ahistorical empirical work.

Theoretically, historical sociology was for them a way to attack the Parsonian framework
on its weakest front–its approach to social change–and a way to bring Marx into
sociology. Methodologically, historical sociology damned the status attainment model
for its micro focus, its antihistorical and antistructural character, its reifications, its
scientism. 38

Ensuing sociological debates arrayed second wave scholars against more orthodox Marxists of
various complexions. Second wavers, who tended to prefer an eclectic theoretical approach, were
nevertheless powerfully pulled into the current of the Marxist problematic.39 Modes of production were
the basic units of comparison, and transitions from one mode to another marked the significant historical
transformations – that which was to be explained. Wallerstein’s world-systems theory, castigated as
shockingly “circulationist” by many Marxists at the time, can in retrospect be seen as a close cousin and
marxisant variant.40 Scholars of the second wave found this broad tradition of work useful, but thought
that it discouraged comparative work to explain variation across regions, countries, cities and other sites
within the same mode of production or position within the world system. Even more problematically, it

37
Theda Skocpol, “An ‘Uppity Generation’ and the Revitalization of Macroscopic Sociology.” Theory and
Soc iety 17 (1988 ): 627-643. Unfortunately, this meant that the big p heno mena that mode rnization theorists had tried to
explain -- such as totalitarianism, or the relatively uniform rise of education, urbanization or democracy – disappeared
from most second-wave scholarship. (W e are grateful to Arthur Stinchcombe for helpful discussion of this point.) As
we will see below, this disappearance set up opportunities for historically-oriented scholars – particularly John Meyer
and his students – to retrieve these issues in the 199 0s.

38
Andrew Abb ott, Chaos of Disciplines. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, p.94. Craig Calhoun,
in “The Rise and Domestication of Historical Sociology,” p. 305, sees the battle with the quantitative empiricists as
having been thrust upon the historical sociologists when the “dominant quantitative, scientistic branch of the discipline
dismis sed their work as dangerously ‘idiographic,’ ex cessively political, and in any case somehow not q uite ‘real’
sociology.” In any event, historicity split this intellectual movement from then-dominant forces.

39
Structuralist Marxism of the 1970s engag ed in attempts to und erstand contempo rary class structure s (e.g., the
work of Erik Olin Wright), state forms (e.g., Nicos Poulantzas) and ideological structures (e.g. Louis Althusser, Goran
Therborn). See Erik Olin Wright and Luca Perrone, “Marxist Class Categories and Income Inequality,” American
Sociological Review 42(1977):32-55; Erik Wright, Cynthia Costello, David Hachen, and Joey Sprague, “The American
Class Structure,” American Sociological Review 47(1982):709-726; Louis Althusse r, “Ideo logy and Ideological State
Apparatuses,” Lenin and Philosophy; Nicos P oulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: Verso, 19 73);
Go ran T herborn, The Ideo logy of Power and the Power of Ideology (London: New Left Books, 1980).

40
Immanuel W allerstein, The Mo dern W orld System I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European
W orld Eco nom y in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974). By “circulationist,” insiders of the day
meant market-based rather than the more orthodox production-focused orientation.
-

14
tended to consign history to the realm of the singular and idiographic, grist for the nomothetic mill of
Marxist theory.41 Still, while second wave historical sociologists in the American academy appreciated
Marx’s The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte for the prominent role it awarded politics in
nineteenth-century France, and excavated it as a meaty source of aphorisms on history as tragedy and
farce, they had yet to appreciate its full potential as a source of anti-structuralist and cultural analysis.42

The questions posed by the Second Wave derived from a Marxist theoretical agenda; their
answers pushed beyond. The question of why revolutions didn’t happen how and where Marxists
expected them animated exciting work by authors including Theda Skocpol, who drew on the Weberian
tradition in her discussion of the “great revolutions” of France, Russia and China, and Mark Gould, who
recruited Parsonian theory in his work on the English Revolution.43 Immanuel Wallerstein worried about
why socialism could not succeed in one country, and if his “one world system” answer was novel, it was
certainly addressed to an ongoing preoccupation of the Marxian tradition.44 A different sort of challenge
to Marxist thinking on states which also deployed the idea of a (cultural) system of states emerged from
the collaborative work of John Meyer, Michael Hannan, George Thomas, Francisco Ramirez and John
Boli.45 Ronald Aminzade, Victoria Bonnell, Craig Calhoun, Jeffery Paige, Sonya Rose, William Sewell,

41
In their now-canonical second wave article, Skocpol and Somers argued that this was similar to the w ay in
which Neil Smelser had deployed history to illustrate modernization theory in Social Change in the Industrial Revolution
(London: Routledge and Ke gan Paul, 1959). See T heda Skocpo l and Margaret Som ers, “The Uses of Compa rative
History in Macrosocial Inquiry,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 22(198 0):174-1 97. H owever, Sm elser’s
choice of topic was itself a form of resistance to Parsons’ mentoring.

42
Karl Marx, The E ighteenth Brum aire of Louis B onaparte (New York : International Pub lishers, 1973 [first
printed as a book in 1 869 , printed as a series in the journal Die revolution in 1852]). Meanw hile, Stuart Hall was working
through The E ighteenth Brumaire in exactly that kind of way. See his “Rethinking the ‘Base-Su perstructure’ Me tapho r,”
in Jon B loom field (ed .), Class, Hegemony and Party (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1977), pp. 43-72. It took a long
time for Hall’s work to reach historical sociologists working in the United States – another index of the uneven and
nationally-specific rhythms of intellectual diffusion.

43
Theda Skocpo l, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (New
York: Cam bridge U niversity P ress, 19 79); Mark G ould, Revolution in the Development of Capitalism: The Coming of
the English Revolution (Berke ley: University of California Press, 1987 ). See also Ellen Ka y Trimb erger’s Revolution
From Above: Military Bureaucrats and Development in Japan, Turkey, Egypt, and Peru (New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction Books, 1978). Maurice Zeitlin crafted a perfect, and perfectly symptomatic, second wave title. See his The
Civil W ars in Chile, or, The Bourgeois Revo lutions that Never W ere (Princeton , N.J.: P rinceto n Un iversity Press, 1984).

44
W allerstein, Mod ern World System .

45
George T homas, John W. M eyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Bo li, Institutional Structure: Constituting
State, Society, and the Individual (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987); John W.M eyer

15
Jr., Mark Traugott, Charles Tilly, and many others worked on the Marxian problem posed by the
collective action of what were thought to be intermediary, transitional or surprising groups like artisans,
counter-revolutionary peasants, women workers, intellectuals and so on.46 Perry Anderson studied
absolutism -- a state form emerging from within an economic context where it “shouldn’t have”
appeared.47 This conundrum made sense within the space of Marxian theory, to which Anderson wedded
fundamentally Weberian insights about state forms. Anthony Giddens, Michael Mann, Gianfranco Poggi,
Theda Skocpol, Charles Tilly (to name just a few) interrogated the sources of state formation and
dissolution, highlighting the dynamics of war-making and violence that were emphasized by Weber and
Hintze but given short shrift in Marxian theory.48 Randall Collins staged a “confrontation” between
Weberian and Marxian theories of capitalism. 49 Michael Burawoy highlighted the “color of class” in a
historical analysis of the Zambian copper mines; Michael Hechter studied the “Celtic fringe” and the
puzzle of nation for issues of class formation; Judith Stacey’s pioneering analysis tackled the role of
gender in the Chinese revolution, and John Stephens and Walter Korpi sought to understand the socialist
potential of social democracy and the welfare state in capitalist countries.50 This is, of course, just a

and M ichael T. Hannan (eds.) National Development and the World System (Chicago : University of Chicago Press,
1970).

46
Ronald Aminzad e, Class, Politics, and Early Industrial Capitalism: A Study of Mid-nineteenth-century
Toulouse, France (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1981); Victoria Bonne ll, Roots of Rebellion:
W orkers’ Politics and Organizations in St. Petersburg and Moscow, 1900-1914 (Berke ley/Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 198 4); Craig Calhoun, The Question o f Class Struggle: Social Founda tions of Pop ular Radicalism
during the Industrial Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 198 2); George Konrad and Ivan Szelenyi, The
Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jo vanovich, 197 9); Jeffery Paige, Agrarian
Revolution: Social M ovements and E xport Agriculture in the Und erdevelop ed W orld (New Y ork: Free Press, 1975);
Sonya Rose, “Proto-Industry, W ome n’s W ork and the Ho useho ld Ec onomy in the T ransition to Industrial Capitalism ,”
Journal of Family History 13 (Spring 19 88): 181 -193 ; W illiam H . Sewe ll, Jr., W ork and Revolution in France: The
Language of Labor from the Old Regime to 1848 (New Y ork: Cambridge University Press, 19 80); Charles Tilly, Louise
Tilly, and R ichard Tilly, The Rebellious Century, 1830-1930 (Cam bridge: Harvard University Press, 1975); M ark
Traugo tt. “Determinants of P olitical O rientation: Class and O rganization in the Parisian Insurrection of June 18 48,”
American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 86, No. 1. (Jul., 1980), pp. 32-49.

47
Perry And erson , Lineages of the Ab solutist State (London: Verso, 19 74).

48
Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence (Berke ley: University of California Press, 1985); John A.
Hall, Powers and Liberties (London: Pen guin, 1 986 ); Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power, volume 1 (New
York: Cambridge U niversity Press, 1986); Gianfranco Poggi, The Development of the Modern State: A Sociological
Introduction (Stanfo rd, CA: Stanford University Press, 1978); Theda Skocpol, “Bringing the State Back In: Strategies
of Analysis in Current Re search,” In P eter E vans, D ietrich R ueschemeyer and Theda Skocpo l, eds., Bringing the State
Back In (New Yo rk: Cambridge U niversity P ress, 19 85), pp.3 -43 ; C harles T illy, Coercion, Capital and European States,
AD 990-1990 (Cambridge, M A: Blackwell, 1990).

49
Randall Collins. W eberian Sociological Theory (New York, N Y: C amb ridge University Press, 19 86, p p. 19 -44).

50
Michael Burawoy, The Colour of Class on the Copper Mines: From African Advancement to Zambianization
(Manchester: Manchester U niversity Press, 1972); Michael Hec hter, Internal Colo nialism: The C eltic Fringe in British
National Development, 1536-1966 (Berkeley: U niversity of California Press, 19 75); Judith S tacey, Patriarchy and
Socialist Revolution in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); John Step hens, The Transition from
-

16
partial list of contributors to what was an incredibly exciting moment of intellectual ferment. When we
explore these individual works, we find that they differ on many important matters. They also have
distinctive takes that relate to national and regional genealogies of intellectual debate. But in retrospect
there is also an incredible level of international conversation and convergence.

These trends extended across all the social sciences and history in the 1970s and early 1980s: one
thinks of Louise Tilly and Joan Scott’s ground-breaking research on women workers and David
Abraham’s class analysis of the breakdown of the Weimar Republic; Ira Katznelson’s investigations of
the ethnic and racial complications of working-class formation, or the interdisciplinary “Brenner Debate”
on the transition from feudalism to capitalism. 51 Indeed, this was also a period in which social scientists
were avidly reading historians’ work and forging interdisciplinary allegiances and ties, especially with
the resurgent social history typified by the work of E. P. Thompson, Sheila Rowbotham and the History
Workshop Journal;52 with the work of Fernand Braudel and the Annales school,53 and marxisant
historians who were pondering the intersection between family and economic forms.54 Consequently, the
historical turn in sociology was linked to the erosion of the boundaries between social theory, scientific
method and historical research, exemplified by the changing contents of key journals such as
Comparative Studies in Society and History, and by the growth of the Social Science History
Association, incorporated in 1974. Reflecting the broader trends characterizing social science and
history, the SSHA was at first a meeting place for historians (“cliometricians”) wanting to learn methods

Capitalism to Socialism (London: M acmillan, 1979); W alter K orpi, The W orking Class in Welfare Capitalism: Work,
Unions and Politics in Sweden (Boston: Routledge and K egan Paul, 1978).

51
David Abraham , The Co llapse o f the W eimar Rep ublic: P olitical Economy and Crisis (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1981); T. H. Aston and C. H . E. Philpin, ed s., The B renner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure
and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe. (New York, N ew York: Cam bridge University Press, 1988); Ira
Katznelson, City T renches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 198 1); Lo uise A. Tilly and Joan W . Scott, W omen, W ork, and Family (New York: Ho lt, Rinehart and
W inston, 1978).

52
See, for example E.P. Thomp son, The M aking o f the English W orking Class (London: Victor Gollancz, 1973 );
Sheila Rowbotham, W omen, Resistance and Revolution: A History of Women and Revolution in the Modern W orld
(New York: Pantheon Books, 1972); and the History Workshop Journal. This had a particular impa ct on some feminist
historical sociologists, for example Sonya Rose, whose work includes “Gender at Work: Sex, Class and Industrial
Cap italism,” History Workshop Journal 21 (Spring 19 86): 113 -131 ; Limited Liveliho ods: Gender and C lass in
Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).

53
Many structuralist social scientists found particularly congenial the Annales school’s broadly sociological
app roach and antago nism to an und erstand ing of histo ry as a “mere sequence” of events. See Francois Dosse (1997).
One could also includ e, by the 198 0s – before the American appropriation of the cultural turn had hit full force – work
on mentalites (e.g., Natalie D avis, T he Return of Martin Guerre (Cam bridge: Harvard U niversity P ress, 19 83), Carlo
Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-century Miller (translated by John and Anne
Tedeschi) (Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), which was beginning to deal with the cultural, but in the
context of “total history” and a still-materialist fram ework [see pp.2 04-0 5 in G eoff Eley, “Is All the W orld a Text?
From Social History to the History of Society T wo D ecad es Late r,” in T . McDonald, ed., The H istorical Turn in the
Human Sciences (Ann Arbor, M I: University of M ichigan Press, 199 6), 19 3-24 3.]

54
W e are thinking, for example, of the debates over proto-industrialization, catalyzed by Kriedte, Medick and
Schlumbohm (1 981).
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17
from social scientists, then in the 1980s and 1990s became the place for social scientists who wanted to
do history, with a second wave twist, and for both social scientists and historians who wanted to explore
the cultural and linguistic turns, the uses of narrative and network analyses, as well as substantive work
that crossed the fields.55

The Marxian heritage of the second wave functioned as an overall regime of knowledge. The
second-wave comparative-historical sociologists varied in the extent to which they conceived their
project as revising Marxism or as combining diverse theoretical insights to create fresh understandings of
important processes and events, but they consistently read and argued with each other. Even as they
challenged this tradition, they leaned on its coherence, especially in terms of what Geoff Eley calls
“social determination” or the claims that collective action, subjectivities, politics and culture rested on
“material interests,” themselves embedded in material life, however conceived.56 And while it raised
hackles from the very beginning and continues to be controversial today, the work of these sociologists
and others working in allied disciplines is in our view of lasting significance. Their attention to politics
opened up a tremendously fruitful vein of analysis, which gained force in the 1980s and early 1990s and
continues today.57 In fact, it is that impossibly cumbersome phrase, “the relative autonomy of the
political,” that best characterizes both the promise and the limits of second wave work.

It is also true that the appropriation of classical theory by second wave scholars emphasized the
political-economic and material, understood as opposed to the cultural and ideal, while the ironies and
irrationalities of modernity hinted at by classical theorists disappeared from view. The enduring
structuralist Marxist leanings of the second wave, emphasizing the necessary and sufficient conditions
for transitions between modes of production, effaced the Marx who theorized the continuing cataclysm of

55
See Alice Bee Kasakoff, “Is There a Place for Anthropology in Social Science History?” Social Science
History 23 #4 (1999): 535-559. Abb ott (19 91, 2 001 ) points out that sociologists and historians approached the task of
melding “history” and “sociology” from very different disciplinary starting points, and gravitated toward the Social
Science History Association for different reasons. He also argues that there was a sharp distinction between two groups
of historical sociologists, only one of which – the quantitative historical sociologists (which he calls HS2) – was active
in SSHA and, in his account, friendly to an essentially historical and narrative approach. The other group (HS1), the
macro-political comparativists, dominated the American Sociological Association’s section on Com parative and
Historical Sociology (ASAC HS). In the revised account of SSHA history in Chaos of Disciplines, Abbott indicates some
ways in which the divisio n between H S1 and H S2 has come un done. At this point, the two groups have pretty thoro ughly
commingled. In fact, by asking Ann Orloff to start the SSHA’s States and Societies Network as a focus for “HS1"-type
work, Abb ott himself helped o rganize this proce ss of dedifferentiation. The States and Societies network is thriving, and
there are more conversations between this group and political history scholars in SSHA. The ASAC HS now incorporates
both HS1 and HS2 (e.g., prizes have gone to macro-comparative, quantitative and narrative analysts, and people who
mix these styles). ASACHS has now taken on questions of narrative -- in various panels about analytic ap proach, in
debates among section-affiliated authors like Margaret Somers, Edgar Kiser and M ichael Hechter, and so on. The
institutional differences between HS1 and HS2, if they were ever as sharp as Abbott argued (which we doubt), have
eroded.

56
Eley (1996), p.194.

57
No te that vast majority of historical work on social movements published in ASR and AJS over the pa st two
decades has been on the French revolution or the U.S. Progressive Era and New D eal period. Elisabeth Clemens and
Martin Hughes, “Recovering Past Protest: Archival Research on Social Movements,” In S. Staggenborg and B.
Kland ermans, eds., Method s in Social Movement Research (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, forthcoming).
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18
capitalist development, including its contradictory impact on the individuals whom it continually
reconstituted. “Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions,
everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones. All fixed, fast-
frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all
new-formed ones become antiquated before they can ossify.”58 Where was this modernist Marx in the
second wave? Similarly, the second wave sociologists reached out to Weber’s writings on the specificity
of the organizational and politico-economic, drawing on his analyses of ideal types of organization, of
relations between rulers and staffs, of power politics. Yet this resurgence of politics in a debate
dominated by material determinism came at the cost of excising the Weber of The Protestant Ethic, of
complexes of meaning, the historical ironist who saw the personal losses and terrors instilled by
processes of rationalization.59 The second wave historical sociologists were by no means apologists for
capitalism, and they clearly understood that the development of post-revolutionary states, democracy,
social welfare, and so on, were not linear and progressive – but they also viewed these matters and
processes as neatly contained, and often reducible to a single analytical principle. Certainly their own
theoretical categories, and their position as analysts, remained serenely above the fray.

58
Karl Marx and Fre derick Engels, The Co mmunist M anifesto (New York: Verso, 1998[1 848]), pp. 38-39; the
citation is from M arshall Berm an’s All T hat Is So lid M elts Into A ir: The Experience o f Mo dernity (New York: Viking
Penguin, 19 76).

59
Max W eber, The Protestant E thic and the Sp irit of Capitalism (New Y ork: Harper Collins, 1930).
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19
 The legacy of the classical sociologists is more productive than the flattened 1950s version or the
second wave reappropriation would indicate – and also more troubling. Weber offered a textured sense of
the manifold ambiguities inscribed in elements of what came to be thought of as “the modern.” He traced
one long-run counterintuitive result of people’s rational conduct in pursuit of a calling: the emptying of
the world of subjective meaning.60 The expansion of scientific rationality, he thought, would entrain “an
ever more devastating senselessness... a senseless hustle in the service of worthless, moreover self-
contradictory, and mutually antagonistic ends.” Following Weber and Freud, Norbert Elias thought that
the fruits of the “civilizing process” could only be had at the price of internalized regulation, discipline
and social repression. Marx and Engels wrote as apocalyptically (but with more hope for the future of
humankind) when they celebrated the “most revolutionary part” played by the bourgeoisie in not only
building the capitalist order but dialectically engendering the proletariat, “its own gravediggers.”61 “The
development of modern industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the
bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products.”62 Durkheim saw the rise of the modern state as
instrumental in creating the individuated selves that would in turn raise fundamental challenges for and
to the state itself.63 The unintended consequences of human action could and did issue in the opposite of
what was desired or envisioned. The classical sociologists made passionate arguments for the historical
genesis and limits of social formations and selves -- and of their own foundational concepts. They
described paradoxes and ironies that worked themselves out historically – and this infused their
intellectual and practical encounters with “modernity” with lasting grandeur as well as pathos.

For all its complexity, however, this theoretical heritage inscribed a potential conceptual dualism,
assigning a whole series of subordinate concepts to the category of the “not modern.” This continued to
be the case in second wave work and, as we will argue, still characterizes much contemporary historical
sociology, particularly within the institutional and rational-choice approaches. On one side were grouped
capitalism, rationality, bureaucracy, the public; on the other feudalism, traditionalism, and so forth. And
these oppositions took on strikingly gendered and racialized meanings. Men were aligned with the
“rational” and women with the “irrational” and “traditional,” while the “civilization of the metropole”
was juxtaposed to “an Other whose main feature was its primitiveness.”64 Of course this mode of
dualistic and devaluative thought predated the classical sociologists, deriving from earlier lines of

60
Max W eber, The Protestant E thic and the Sp irit of Capitalism (New Y ork: Harper Collins, 1930); “Science
as a Vo cation,” in H. H. G erth and C. W right M ills, eds. From M ax W eber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1958), 129-156.

61
Karl Marx and Fre derick Engels, The Co mmunist M anifesto (New York: Verso,1998 [1848]), pp. 37, 50.

62
Ibid., p. 50.

63
Emile Durkheim , Moral Education: A Study in the Theory and Application of the Sociology of Education
(New Y ork: Free Press, 1961), chapters IV-VI.

64
R.W. Connell, “Why is Classical Theory Classical?” American Journal of Sociology 102 (199 7), pp. 1516-
1517; see also Barbara M arshall, Engendering Modernity: Feminism, Social Theory and Social Change (Boston:
Northeastern University Press, 1994) and Configuring Gender: Explorations in Theory and Practice (Peterborough,
Ontario: Broadview Press, 2000 ).
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20
conservative and Enlightenment reasoning65 and from the properties of modernity itself – for example,
the separation of home and work in the rise of industrial capitalism; the disembedding of family and
state; the impact on the metropole itself of the massive waves of European colonialism. These
oversimplified oppositions embedded in core concepts of the classical sociological tradition functioned
not only as a shared conceptual language but as both a source of theoretical closure and ideological
consolation. It was all too tempting to juxtapose the supposed rationality of one’s modernity to the
irrationality of tradition – much more comfortable than analyzing the substantive irrationalities
embedded in the process of rationalization itself. Herein lay the foundation for both the 1950s “pattern
variable” version of what had been a great historical intellectual tradition, and the second-wave
appropriations of sanitized concepts of modernization, industrialization, bureaucracy, and so on.66
Nonetheless, what was expelled from the idea of the modern could not be easily excised, even in theory.
It continued to structure, in a subterranean way, the conscious text of social theory itself. We will return
to this point below, in our discussion of the theoretical challenges that beset -- and are remaking --
historical sociology.

The Second Wave Under Pressure

Like all significant intellectual innovations, the second wave courted its own upending.
Theoretically, we claim, their hyper-structuralism invited assertions of agency and process. Their
conceding modes of production such a role in determining social formations and intellectual problems 67
prompted counter-claims of the constitutive significance of culture. The apotheosis of the image of the
coercive, central state apparatus provoked counter-imageries of productive capillary power. Moreover,
their repressions of key aspects of modernity – religion, emotion, habit, the arational core of war and
state violence – virtually invited work that would bring all of those elements “back in.”68 And the
exclusion of various subaltern subjects has been challenged by those who would speak in their name. We
will turn to these theoretical issues below.

Methodologically and epistemologically, the combination of a language of Humean constant

conjunction (if complicated and conditional constant conjunction) with a research program that called for
comparative historical work was unstable at best.69 Attempting to satisfy the requisites of positivistically-
minded sociological gatekeepers did not (and perhaps cannot) mix easily with attention to history.

65
Zerilli, Signifying Woman.

66
See, for example, W illiam Sewell’s comments on mod ernization in his “T hree T heories of T emp orality,” in
Terrence J. M cDonald, ed., The Historic Turn in the Human Sciences (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996).

67
The argum ent that the econ omic was determinate only in the last instance d id not go far enough, in our view.
But for one influential attempt to spell out why, within a Marxian paradigm and inspired by some of Friedrich E ngels’
remarks, the “lonely hour of the last instance” never comes, see Louis Althusser’s “Contradiction and Overdetermination:
Append ix,” pp. 117-128 in For M arx (New Y ork, NY: V erso, 1990 [196 5]).

68
Two essays in this volume that frontally address this issue of repression are Gorski’s (for religion) and
Kestnbaum’s (on war).

69
“If A then B” is the simplest and most general form of a Humean statement of “constant conjunction.” D avid
Hume, 1975 [1748]. An Enquiry Concerning Hum an Understanding. Oxfo rd: Clarend on P ress.
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21
Moreover, second wave scholars ignored the textual foundations of their own practices at a time when
distinctions between literary and scientific argument were coming under increased question, both from
mavens of science studies and post-structuralists.70 As we will see below, these characteristics of the
approach itself articulated with pressures and pulls from other scholarly communities. Finally, second
wave historical sociology proved ill-equipped to deal with key developments outside the academy
including new social movements, innovative forms of political action, identity politics, and the partial
displacement of nation-states as the central organizing nodes of politics.

From the outset, second wave historical sociology evolved methodological and epistemological
practices that elicited challenges from both historians and more conventional social scientists. Second
wave scholars were – and many of their intellectual descendants still are -- “interested in generalizing
across multiple instances of a phenomenon under investigation – whenever this can be done with fidelity
to conceptually defined contexts and with due attention to the causal complexities of historically
embedded conjunctures and processes.”71 Early efforts to explain the distinctive methodological
approaches and benefits of historical sociology usually began from the premise that this work was as
scientific, or at least as systematic, as the positivist researchers’. Second wave scholars brandished John
Stuart Mill’s A System of Logic72 to show how analyses of substantively-significant but relatively rare
outcomes could still satisfy the requisites of conventional social science.73 By insisting on historical
sociology as preeminently rigorous comparative method, practitioners sought and gained some tenuous
legitimacy vis-a-vis the mainstream of sociology, a point that many have made but that Craig Calhoun

70
Hayden W hite, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore, MD : John
Hop kins University Press, 1973) has been particularly influential in this turn toward ferreting out the literary tropes active
in historical analysis. In his The T ruth in Painting (tr. Geoff Bennington and Ian McLeod. Chicago, 1987), Jacques
Derrida questions our capacity to draw boundaries between texts and contexts. “And in the other corner...” Those that
object to the ae stheticization of analysis include A llan M egill Pro phets of Extremity: N ietzsche, He idigger, Foucault,
Derrida (Berkeley, C A: U niversity of California Press, 19 85) and J urgen Haberm as, The Philosophical Discourse of
Mode rnity. Twelve Lectures (tr. Frederick Lawrence. Cambridge, M A: MIT Press, 1987). Scott Lash tries to referee the
fight in “Postmodernity and Desire,” Theory and Society 14 #1 (January 1985): 1-33.

71
Theda Skocpol, “Doubly Engaged Social Science: The Promise of Comparative Historical Analysis,” in
Mahoney and R ueschemeyer, eds., Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences. New Yo rk, NY: Camb ridge
University Press, 2003, p. 515.

72
John Stuart M ill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, Being a Connected View of the Principles
of Evidence, and the Methods of Scientific Investigation (London: Longm ans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, 1875 ).

73
For example, again, the now-classic Theda Skocpol and Margaret Som ers, “The Uses of Comp arative History
in Macrosocial Inquiry,” Compa rative Studies in Society and H istory 22(1980):174-197. Even the comparative
dimension of historical sociological work has generated a great d eal of scholarly contro versy and commentary, for it is
here that some principal figures o f what go t defined as the official second wa ve stake d their claims for the scientific
standing of historical sociology and fo r their lead ership of the burgeo ning social mo vement that was bringing history
back into sociology. Skocpol and So mers (1980, 199 5) identified three major analytic strategies within comp arative
history (that is, “explicit juxtapositions of distinct histories,” p.72): “comparative history as the parallel demonstration
of theory,” as “the contrast of contexts,” or as “ma cro-c ausal an alysis” (p.73). It was in connection w ith the last of these
that Skocpol and So mers invoked the enormously influential use of John Stuart Mill’s methods of difference and
agree ment, a template that structured many an ensuing dissertation, but that has since become a particular target of critics.

22
captured best with his aphoristic reference to the “domestication” of historical sociology. 74 However,
second wave scholars were also uncomfortable with what they took to be vague and general sociological
concepts that hadn’t been built up from the ground of historical particulars, and they were absolutely
allergic to covering laws. None was willing to consign history to the merely idiographic.75 Second wavers
overall embraced historians’ emphasis on sequence and timing.76

74
Craig Calhoun, “Domestication of Historical Sociology” (see footnote 4).

75
On cove ring laws and history, see especially M aurice Mandelbau m, “H istorical Exp lanation: The Problem
of Covering Laws,” History and Theory 1 (3): 229-242. In his unjustly neglected Compa rative M ethod s in the Social
Sciences (Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall 1976), Neil J. Smelser points out that “[nomothetic and
idiographic] approaches – insofar as both attempt to explain – do not necessarily differ substantively with respect to the
nature of the causal forces invoked....do not call for different theoretical ground ing points. The differences between them
lie more in the mode of explanation, the mode of organizing variables, and the techniques of research employed” (pp.
204-205 ). Of course it is now the case that some historical sociologists (particularly those influenced by Foucauldian
genealogical methods) would not see them selves as engaged in any version o f an explanatory project.

76
Historical sociologists are collectively thinking through the imp lications of the interventions that see k to
displace comparative method in favor of narrative, or couple the two in some way. This task that is made still more
challenging by lack of agreement over what might be entailed in that move, already underway in some area s of our field
(see special issues on narrative in Social Science History 1992). Are some forms of historical narrative more analytically
acceptable, perhaps more “sociological” than others, and more easily integrated into accepted canons of social science
research? (See Larry J. Griffin, “Narrative, Event-Structure Analysis, and Causal Interpretation in Histo rical So ciology,”
American Journal of Sociology 98 #5 (March 199 3), pp . 109 4-11 33.) Or is that too narrow a way to contem plate this
important problem and o ppo rtunity? R obe rto Franzosi provides a recent overview in “Narrative Analysis – W hy (and
How) Sociologists Should Be Interested in Narrative,” in pp. 517-54, John Hagan, ed., The Annual Review of Sociology,
Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, 1998.
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23
 Whether they conducted archival historical work or drew from secondary sources, in the context of
1970s and early 1980s sociology, they were unusually respectful of the histories of the countries, regions
and periods in which the processes at the center of their analyses unrolled.

Historical sociologists were attacking entrenched practices and violating disciplinary boundaries
in sociology and history, and they stepped on some toes in the process. The response by mainstream
sociologists has been heated, focusing on the supposed failure of comparative and historical sociologists
to satisfy the requisites of social scientific method, as conventionally, positivistically, understood.77
These critics have argued that the choice of a “small-n” research design is inherently flawed because it
suffers from too few degrees of freedom to cope with large numbers of potential causal factors; that
“selecting on the dependent variable” introduces unacceptable bias into conclusions; that the failure to
seek universal knowledge in the form of covering laws means that comparative-historical researchers are
really no better than hopelessly idiographic historians – in short, they’re not real social scientists. But the
critics have no good answer to how we should better study relatively rare, over-determined but
significant phenomena, or processes unfolding over the longue duree, with which so many historical
sociologists are concerned.78 Nor can they help us with dimensions of social processes that function
more like a language and less like a set of billiard balls. To the extent that historical sociologists
underline the fundamental historicity of the categories and concepts of social life, in any case, they will
inevitably be at odds with social scientists seeking universal covering laws.

Comparative-historical researchers have in time grown less fond of Mill, and some claim to have
found firmer ground for claiming methodological advantages – even if it is often unclear whether they
are claiming to escape positivist methodological prescriptions or to better satisfy them. Some have
moved into a less defensive position, arguing that conventional statistical analysis rarely satisfies the
methodological requisites of its own favored quantitative techniques.79 Historical sociologists have long

77
See especially Stanley Lieb erson , “Small N ’s and Big C onclusions: A n Examina tion of the Reasoning in
Comp arative Studies Based on a S mall Number of Cases,” Social Forces 70 (1991):307-320 and John Goldthorpe,
“Current Issues in C omp arative Macrosocio logy: A Debate o n M ethod ological Issues,” Social Research 16(1997):1-26
and “The Uses of History in Sociology: Reflections on Some Recent Tendencies,” British Journal of Sociology 42
(1991): 211-30. One recent response is George Steinmetz, “Odious Compa risons: Incom mensurab ility, the Case Study,
and “Small N’s” in Sociology (forthcoming Sociological Theory, 2003). Wendy Nelson Espeland and Mitchell L.
Stevens remind us to be sensitive to the social-psychological conditions under which claims to commensuration –
including our own! – are made or refused. See their “Commensuration as a Social Process,” Annual Review of Sociology
24, 1998: 313-343.

78
Indeed, it is partly on these grounds that contemporary defenses of comparative and historical analyses are
based. For e xample, see Lieberson ’s critique of Orloff and Skocpo l, in which he uses traffic incidents to illustrate his
criticism of their analysis of the initiation of modern welfare programs in Britain and the U.S. (Lieberson , “Small N’s
and Big Conclusions,” cited above in note 46; Ann Shola Orloff and Theda Skocpol, “Why Not Equal Protection?
Explaining the Politics of Public Social Spending in Britain, 190 0-19 11, and the United States, 1880s-192 0,”American
Sociological Review 49(1984):726-750). For the concept of the longue duree, see Fernand Braudel, “History and the
Social Sciences: The Longue Duree,” in Fernand Braudel, On H istory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980: 25-
34).

79
Charles Ragin, Fuzzy-Set Social Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). “In Ragin’s view,”
James Maho ney comments, “the challenge is for statistical researchers to adapt their research to the more demanding
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24
insisted on the significance of the temporal dimensions of analysis.80 Some, like Andrew Abbott and
Roberto Franzosi, are also developing formal methods for analyzing sequences.81 Charles Ragin makes a
strong case for a holistic, case-based logic of comparative research that addresses situations of multiple,
conjunctural causation – the majority of “cases” that interest us – better than does the array of standard
quantitative techniques.82 Some call our attention to the need for more systematic methods of discourse
analysis.83 Others emphasize “biography as historical sociology.”84 Still others point to the ongoing
debates among representatives of various post-positivist perspectives that have appeared across the
human sciences.85 The participants in all these debates and discussions certainly differ among
themselves, but together they have revealed that the positivist empiricism that characterizes much
mainstream sociology rests on shaky ground. These debates take on additional urgency because they are
occurring in virtually every discipline with any scientific aspirations, at a time when the growing

standards of qualitative analysis rather than the reverse.” James Mahoney, “Beyond Correlational Analysis: Recent
Innovations in Theory and Method,” Sociological Forum 16 (2001): 575-593, p. 584.

80
For example, Ronald Aminzade, “Historical Sociology and Time,” Sociological Methods and Research
20(1992):456-480; Eviatar Zerub avel, Time Ma ps, Collective M emory and the Soc ial Shape o f the Past (Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press, 2003); Theda Skocpo l, “Sociology’s Historical Imaginatio n,” in T . Skocpo l, ed., Vision
and Method in Historical Sociology (New York: C amb ridge University Press, 19 84), 1-21 . See also the re ferences in
Footnotes 76 and 81.

81
Andrew Abb ott, Time Matters: On Theory and Method (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001) and
Andrew Abbott and A. Tsay, “Sequence Analysis and Optimal Matching Methods in Sociology,” Sociological Methods
and Research 29 (2000 ): 3-33 (also see Lawrence Wu, “Com ments on "Sequence A nalysis and Optimal M atching
Method s in Sociology: Review and Prospe ct,” in the same issue, pp.41-64). “Introduction.” Theory and Society ran a
special issue on “New D irections in Formalization and Historical Analysis,” edited by Roberto Franzosi and John M ohr
(Vo lume 2 6 19 97), Nos. 2-3. See Franzo si’s and M ohr’s “Introduction,” pp. 133 -160 .

82
Charles Ra gin. The Co mparative Method: M oving Beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1987) and Fuzzy-Set Social Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).

83
Julia Ada ms and T asleem Pad amsee, “Signs and Regimes: Rereading F eminist W ork o n W elfare States,”
Social Politics 8(2001):1-23; Tasleem Padamsee and Julia Adams, “Signs and Regimes Revisited,” Social Politics
(2002): 187-202; John Mohr, “Measuring Meaning Structures,” Annual Review of Sociology 24(1998):345-370.

84
Barbara Laslett. “Biography as Historical Sociology: The Case of William Fielding Ogburn,” Theory and
Soc iety 20 #4 (August 1991) : 511-538; Mary Jo Maynes, Barbara Laslett and Jennifer Pierce, “Agency, Personal
Narratives, and So cial Science H istory,” Presiden tial Session, Social Science History Association, November 2001
[available upo n request from the authors]. Caro lyn Steedma n’s Landscape for a Good Wo man: A Story of Two Lives
(New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986) has been a particularly influential model for the use of
autobiog raphy as me thod of ana lysis.

85
See, for example Margaret R. Somers, “‘We’re No Angels’: Realism, Rational Choice, and R elationality in
Social Science,” American Journal of Sociology 104(1998):722-784 and the response from Edgar Kiser and Michael
Hechter, “The Deb ate on Historical Sociology: Rational Choice Theory and Its Critics,” American Journal of Sociology
104(1998):785-816; also see Andrew Abbott,“Transcending General Linear Reality,” Sociological Theory 6 (1998): 169-
86; and C harles R agin’s wo rks, cited above.
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25
sophistication of science studies illuminates the unsteady foundations for unreflective claims to the
scientific. Some science studies work in historical sociology questions quite basic assumptions of
positivist social science, such as concept-independence or the assumption of temporal invariability that
underlies scientific laws.86 Defenders of positivism are under assault themselves, in other words, and the
critical arrows have penetrated multiple chinks in their defenses. New attempts to please positivistically-
minded social scientists – whether by invoking sociology as physics-in-the-making or by policing the
practices of historical sociologists with invocations against “unscientific interpretation” – are just as
likely to fail as earlier efforts and will keep us from bringing to bear our combined forces on important
aspects of social life.

While mainstream social scientists attacked historical sociologists from the premise that we
should be more general, abstract and “scientific,” historians often criticized historical sociology for its
lack of engagement with the particularities of each case; its failure to plumb relevant primary documents;
its condescending treatment of historians’ theoretical debates; its reduction of historiographical debate to
fact, and its tendency to lose itself in ungrounded, compounded abstractions – to create what Lawrence
Stone memorably called “sociological unicorns.”87 Ironically, these stinging and, one must admit,
sometimes just accusations stem from the very legacy of interdisciplinarity that historical sociologists
have fostered and prized. As historical sociologists are increasingly evaluated from within the
disciplinary canons of History as well as their home discipline, they are expected to do the kind of high-
quality original archival primary source research expected of historians without sacrificing the impulse
toward sociological generalization. Meeting this expectation has made the work inherently more difficult
and, some argue, less doable – at least by the lonely artisanal scholar who is still the norm in this corner
of our discipline. And if the call to “go to the archives, young woman” was not sufficiently challenging,
historical sociologists are now pulled by the cultural turn in History and the humanities, which underlines
a whole series of symbolic mediations: that archival documents are problematic texts, themselves in need
of discursive deciphering; that explanatory accounts of History-writ-large must be understood as
narratives with their own rhetorical devices and plots; that every observation and utterance makes sense
only in the context of a symbolic order.88

86
Historical-sociological works in this vein inc lude T hom as Gieryn, Cultural Boundaries of Science: Cred ibility
on the Line (Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1995); Steven Shap in, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science
in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Daniel Breslau, In Search of the
Unequivocal: The Political Economy of Measurement in U.S. Labor Market Policy (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998); Libby
Schweber, “Manipulation and Articulation: Population Statistics in 19th Century France and England,” Social Research
68 #2, 2001 ; “Styles of Statistical Reasoning” in Systemes Statistiques et Trad itions Nationales, Jean-Pierre Beaud and
Jean-Guy Prevost, eds., Presses de l’Universite du Quebec, 2000. See also Bruno Latour, Pandora’s Hope: Essays on
the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).

87
Cf. Lawrence Stone’s review o f Jack Go ldstone’s Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern W orld
(1991) – an AS A “best book” prizewinner and influential book of second wave historical sociology – in the New Y ork
Review of Books (“The Revolution over the Revolution,” June 11, 1992). Stone seem s rema rkably blind to the beauty
and allure of these so ciological anima ls.

88
Some exem plary texts include Jacques Derrida, Archive Feve r: A Freudian Impression (translated by E ric
Prenowitz) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1996); Caro lyn Steedma n, Dust: The Archives and Cultural History
(Ne w Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U niversity P ress, 20 02); W hite, Metahistory.
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26
 The methodological pulls of history and “proper” social science are powerful forces in creating
cleavages among historical sociologists. In conjunction with the whip-hand of tenure, academic review,
and gate-keeping more generally, these have pulled what was once a more unitary body of historical
sociologists in wildly different methodological directions.89 Within departments, universities and
subfields, the local balance of forces between neo-positivist and various post-positivist approaches help
explain why particular individuals have taken certain scholarly paths. Thus, some are attuned to problems
raised from the interpretive disciplines about texts, sources, and systems of meaning, and many have
become more suspicious of claims that studies of the social can be scientific in the conventional sense.
Others, however, are still attempting to speak to the critiques from the mainstream of social science – we
think of James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer’s recent edited volume, which in many ways
continues the second wave’s project of seeking scholarly legitimacy through emphasizing the ways in
which comparative-historical sociology fulfills the requisites of social science.90 Those who attend to
history, especially if they make use of narrative forms or appeal to textuality, rhetoric and semiotics, are
too often set up as straw men, spinners of Just-So stories. We editors see historically-minded
sociologists using a variety of ways to discipline their inquiries. All these strategies are both legitimate
and at least potentially productive.

These methodological debates are obviously fascinating, thoroughly contested terrain. The
contributors to this volume do touch on them, but our main brief is theory: the theoretical issues
associated with understanding social and cultural change in the light of the intellectual challenges that
beset and entice the present generation of historical sociologists. In that context, and before we delve into
these challenges, we wish to signal some general, and paradigmatically related, theoretical problems of
the analyses of the second wave. As more than one commentator has noted, most are relentlessly
structural – and the structures are those of the political economy – and the work remains curiously
dissociated from human experience and aspirations.91 Since these features actually lent their work
legitimacy in the academy, and helped make the organizational case for historical sociology, they have
proven notoriously hard to shake. However, it is perhaps the attempt to shake them that best
characterizes the theoretical impulses that motivate extremely diverse approaches within historical
sociology today.

The problem is not with “structure” as a sociological category. It’s certainly useful – nay,
indispensable – if it is conceptualized as relatively enduring relations among bounded units of some kind.
But the second wavers interpreted “structure” in a particular way, one that authorized certain sorts of

89
Certain aspects of the infrastructure o f the discip line affect us in distinctive ways: research fund ing is still
geared to more p ositivist approaches to social analysis (see Steinmetz, this volume), while the press system – more
important to us than some of our colleagues because we are still, preeminently, “book people” – faces increasing
difficulty in publishing monographs not geared to popular audiences (see Elisabeth S. Clemens, Walter W . Powell, Kris
McIlwaine, and Dina Oka moto , “Care ers in P rint: Bo oks, Jo urnals, and Scholarly Reputatio ns,” American Journal of
Sociology, 101 (1997 ): 433-94).

90
James M ahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, editors, Comparative-Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences
(New Y ork, NY: Cam bridge University Press, 2003).

91
Ira Katznelso n, “Periodization and P references: C ontributions o f Com parative-Historical Social Scien ce,”
pp. 270-301 in James Mahone y and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, editors, Comparative-Historical Analysis in the Social
Sciences (New Y ork, NY: Cam bridge University Press, 2003).
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27
intellectual advances, yet ultimately proved too limiting. They wanted to rescue sociology from what
they saw as overly individualistic or voluntaristic accounts of human action and complex social
outcomes; “structures” were held up as the mediating feature that constrained human action but also
crystallized its emergent properties. The analytic recourse to “structures” as a binarized sign in
opposition to “culture” should be situated in the political and intellectual landscape of the time. Culture
was often invoked to “blame the victim” (e.g., in so-called “culture of poverty” arguments), or to
rationalize the persistence of repressive political regimes by pointing to values that legitimized the status
quo.92 Unfortunately, “structures” as a particular power term also authorized a naive structure/culture
opposition – and that in spite of the fact that social life is unthinkable without cultural structures, like
language and other systems of representation in which the bounded units in relationship are signs. In their
responses to simplistic notions of culture and individual action, moreover, the second-wave analysts also
shied away from analyzing properties of modernity that were not formal-organizational, and as a result
their writings often seem strangely one-sided.

It was not just the internal weaknesses of their particular understanding of structure that
undermined the approach that characterized the classics of the second wave. The paradigm that guided
second wave work proved unable to deal with a whole series of epochal transformations, summed up in
the events or rather signs of “1968" and “1989.” 1968 is shorthand for a welter of things, but among them
it stands for the genesis of “new” movements93 – feminism, gay liberation, ongoing rebellions among
post-colonials and racial and ethnic minorities within the metropole, “post-materialism” – that challenged
Marxist-based organizations politically, and opened the way for feminist theory, postcolonial theory,
queer theory, and critical race studies to pull apart Marxism in the decades after.94 Of course, these
challenges to modernist principles also applied to modernist and universalizing liberalism. “1989"
signals the subsequent revival of liberalism, the vagaries of globalization, fundamental challenges to the
order of nation-states, and the collapse of Marxism as a mode of imagining a future beyond capitalist
modernity.95 These signs, and the processes and events they reference, triggered the rethinking of the

92
It seems obv ious -- now -- that we can’t understand people’s making revolutions without looking at what they
thought they were doing. Yet recall that at that time, “culture” did not mean the sophisticated analytics of a Clifford
Geertz or a W illiam Sewell, Jr., but was often deployed in rather simplistic ways, understood as homogenous and
nationally-unified (e.g. arguments that the U.S. lacked a proper welfare state because of its individualist national culture).

93
W e will not b e the first to point out that most of these movements are not in fact “new” to the post-W W II
world, yet they were and are understood as such by many analysts. And note that is also true that “1968" is often cited
as a sign for a series of explo sive events fueling M arxist understandings.

94
Erne sto Laclau an d Chantal M ouffe, Hegemo ny and Socialist Strategy (London: Verso, 19 85).

95
Few social analysts predicted the events of 1989, and those who d id so probably did so accidentally. So one
can hardly fault the second wave for unique theoretical lacunae. It was clear to many that structural Marxism was not
equipped to deal with the forms o f difference and power that were not reducib le to class, yet second-wave scholarship,
like mod ernist social science more genera lly, also obscured the workings of gender, race, and other forms of difference.

28
landscape of modernity that is currently in process.96 The place of the state as a privileged unit of
analysis is being eroded by globalization and transnationalism and the proliferation of parastatal and
other ambiguous bodies.97 Moreover, historical work in the vein of postcoloniality and other approaches
has stressed the ways in which metropoles have been formed by events and processes in the periphery
(see Magubane, this volume). Current events or rather signifiers of events – “9/11/2001" above all for
American scholars – have underlined global interdependency, sometimes cruelly. At this historical
moment, the conjuncture of events both in the world and in the academy calls for rethinking certain
premises of historical sociology.

Where Historical Sociology Stands Today

It is fair to say that the second wave scholars’ calls for reinfusing sociology with history have
had a hearing, and have indeed inspired new generations of scholars pursuing historical research – the
contributors to the present volume included.98 Historical sociologists now enjoy a hard-won though
partial acceptance within the discipline of sociology. The ASA section on Comparative and Historical
Sociology is well-established. Historical articles appear in the pages of American Sociological Review
and American Journal of Sociology. Sociologists identify themselves as specialists in “comparative
historical sociology” in the ASA Guide to Graduate Departments, and graduate departments are ranked
by U.S. News and World Report in the specialty of “historical sociology,” along with economic
sociology, stratification, cultural sociology and social psychology. However, we’re very far from having
convinced mainstream sociologists that social inquiry demands a fundamentally historical approach
which attends to the cultural and historical specificity of concepts and categories -- if indeed that is a
desirable goal. Indeed, some argue that our acceptance has come at the price of our
compartmentalization. We tend to be located at major research institutions, in part because these

96
See, for exam ple, Rita Felski, Doing Time: Feminist Theory and Postmodern Culture (New York: New Y ork
University Press, 200 0); D avid H arvey 1 989 . The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural
Change Cam bridge, M A: B lackwell. ; Frederic Jameso n, Postmodernism,or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism
(Durham, NC : Duke University
Press, 199 2); Perry Anderson, The Origins of P ostmo dernity (New York: V erso, 1 998 ); Michael Hardt and Antonio
Negri, Empire (Cam bridge: Harvard U niversity P ress, 20 00); Allan P red and M ichael John W atts, Reworking
Mode rnity: Cap italisms and Sym bolic Discontent (New B runswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992).

97
Arjun App adurai, Mode rnity at Large. Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis, MN: U niversity
of Minnesota Press, 1996); Giovanni Arrighi, “Globalization and Historical Macrosociology,” in Sociology for the
Twe nty-first Century, edited by Janet Abu-Lughod (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 117-33; Mathieu
Deflem, Policing W orld Society: Historical Foundations of International Police Cooperation (New Y ork: Oxford
University Press, 2002); Timothy Mitchell, “The Limits of the State: B eyond Statist App roaches and T heir Critics,”
American Political Science Review 85(1991):77-96; Bob Jessop, “The Crisis of the National Spatio-Tempo ral Fix and
the Tendential Ecological Do minan ce of G lobalizing Capitalism ,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research
24(200 0):231-2 33; P hilip McM ichael, “Incorporating Comparison within a World-Historical Perspective,” American
Sociological Review 55 (1990): 385 -397 ; Saskia Sassen, The Global City: Ne w York, London, T okyo (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1991); Scott Lash and John Urry, The End of Organ ized Capitalism. Madiso n, W I: University
of Wisconsin Press, 1987.

98
Hall, John R. 19 99. Cultures of Inq uiry: From Epistemology to Discourse in Sociohistorical Research (New
York, NY : Cambridge University Press).
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29
institutions have had the resources to hire from among a sub-discipline that is still regarded – in spite of
its classical legacy – as at odds with the mainstream of sociological concerns. By the standards of
mainstream sociology, and despite diverse substantive foci, historical sociologists are all part of a sub-
discipline that is regarded as something of a luxury good – the sociological equivalent of a Panerai watch
or a Prada bag. On the one hand, our pursuits are considered arcane; on the other, pursuing them requires
markers of cultural capital (e.g., theory, multiple languages, art appreciation), which may be useful in the
quest for departmental “distinction” in the university setting. But any potentially serious disruption to
the mainstream has been neutralized by our categorization and segregation as historical sociologists –
rather than as sociologists who take seriously the claims of historicity implicit in elaborating explanations
rooted in, and limited by, time and place. This segregation authorizes conventional work on
contemporary – and by any seriously historicized standards, parochial -- U.S. concerns without the need
to specify historical and geographical context or limits.

Historical sociologists are often seen by outsiders as united in our focus on “history,” that is, on
what is not the (U.S.) present. “History” in no unitary subject, however, and even if we historical
sociologists were to surrender to the urge to define ourselves solely in terms of method, larger
intellectual debates over positivism, interpretation, textuality divide us. Theoretically, we find ourselves
without the unifying analytic framework that undergirded second-wave efforts. This should not occasion
regret or nostalgia. We know that some of the advances of the second wave scholars came burdened with
troubling repressions and exclusions attendant on that regime of knowledge. This is rather an opportunity
for historical sociologists, as they use new tools to re-ask the core questions that preoccupied the second
wave -- but also ask new questions and identify and probe silences – particularly to do with culture,
agency, the character of modernity, gender, race and the world beyond the West – in the earlier work.

Some contemporary historical sociology – notably the various institutionalisms – represents a

series of friendly amendments to the second wave, while other work poses more fundamental challenges.
The political-economic structuralism of the second wave is still present in institutionalist approaches, but
has developed away from comparative statics towards more processual accounts, often with improved
methods (e.g., network analysis) that directly engage the assumed durability of different forms of
structure. Moreover, there is a greater appreciation of the range of variation in the historical and political
constitution of political actors, with some loosening of strictly political-economic understandings of
identities and preferences, interests or goals. Yet even so, institutionalism often operates with a
utilitarian understanding of actors’ goals, as well as a strictly goal-driven rather than practice-oriented
understanding of action.99 And among many institutionalists, many of the problematic exclusions and
repressions of second wave work continue, although the emergence of culturalist and gendered
institutionalisms is a hopeful development.

We see important work going on in many directions. Our metaphorical model is not the
superhighway from a past imperfect to an ever-improving future. We think rather of crooked and tangled
side-streets feeding into and radiating out of the broad avenues laid out by the second wave of the 1970s
and 1980s. And “we’ll always have Paris” – its high modernist Haussmann boulevards and its medieval
and post-modern byways. So we refrain from organizing our discussion of the current state of historical
sociology as a story of progress, with successive waves of scholarship getting closer and closer to the

99
See Biernacki, this volume.
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30
ideal theoretical and methodological approach. In what follows, we investigate strands of third-wave
analysis that have developed in reaction to – and on the basis of – second-wave work. We identify five
communities or foci of historical sociologists: (1) institutionalism; (2 ) rational-choice; (3) the cultural
turn; (4) feminist challenges and (5) the scholarship on colonialism and the racial formations of empire,
in which sociologists turn their eyes to the world beyond the second wave’s favorite stomping grounds,
Europe and the United States. Scholars pursuing these different challenges work within a range of
intellectual frames, and we see no sign of the emergence of a dominant paradigm of the sort that
commanded the second wave’s allegiance. But we believe that the effort by historical sociologists to
grasp their intellectual common roots as well as their points of divergence is a prerequisite to having
more interesting and fruitful conversations, doing better theory and making more effective alliances with
potentially sympathetic groups in and outside of sociology. Reculer pour mieux sauter. A more active
remembering of our own histories can spark thinking across the analytic divides around agency,
signification, power, repression and exclusion that have opened up in the last decade or two.

Institutionalism: Networks, Processes and the Institutional Opportunity

Much of the power of the second wave flowed from the invocation of structural determination.
Yet this assertion of structure has been destabilized by a dialogue between Marx and Weber that echoes
through much of the work described above. While questions of revolution and the transformation of
economic regimes framed many of these projects, the explanations increasingly invoked Weberian
themes of complex conjunctures, of the formation of social actors and creation of rationalized structures
of domination as specifically historical accomplishments. With this shift in emphasis, historical
sociology was reoriented to intersect with important methodological and theoretical developments
elsewhere in the discipline: network analysis and the various “new institutionalisms.”100 To a greater
degree than other challenges, institutional analysis both extends key projects of the second wave while
opening familiar research questions to explorations of process, transformation, and agency.

The problematics of the second wave continued to inform important projects of historical
research, particularly the questions of revolutions that “should or shouldn’t” have occurred, or social
classes that “should or shouldn’t” have been mobilized as political challengers. And armed with new
technologies of network and organization analysis, researchers could address these anomalies in new and
systematic detail. Working on nineteenth-century Paris, Roger Gould explored the complex ground of
class formation: why was the uprising of 1848 organized around class lines and through rhetorics of
class, whereas neighborhood solidarity served as the organizing framework for the insurrection of
1871?101 Peter Bearman’s study of the English Civil War mobilized fine-grained data on social ties to
explain the emergence of new connections between court and country, as well as competing blocs within

100
For example, see Rebecca Jean Emigh, “The Spread of Sharecropping in Tuscany: The Political Economy
of Transaction Costs,” American Sociological Review 62 (1 997 ):423-44 2. M ore generally, see Peter A. Hall and
Rosemary C. R. Taylor, “Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms,” Political Studies (1996), XLIV, 936-
957.

101
Roger V. G ould, Insurgent Identities: Class, Comm unity, and Protest in Paris from 184 8 to the Commune
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
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31
the bourgeoisie.102 Richard Lachmann’s two books have examined the signal contribution of
organizationally-anchored elites – as distinct from classes – to the transition to capitalism and state-
formation in early modern Europe.103 Addressing Sombart’s classic query of “Why No Socialism in
America?,” Kim Voss turns to an organizational analysis of locals of the Knights of Labor–a sweeping
“producerist” organization of workers in the late nineteenth century–to identify the conditions under
which local unions were formed, persisted, and engaged in active challenges to the economic order.104
These works all share a project defined both theoretically and empirically: to move beyond explanations
that rest on the presence or absence of a particular class actor, to develop theoretical explanations and
methodologically-sophisticated demonstrations of the processes through which class actors are
mobilized.

While second-wave scholarship had focused on breakdowns of and failed challenges to existing
political orders105, more recent scholarship has moved to consider challenges that resulted in new
political institutions. Some of this work engages now-classic debates on state-building in Europe, but the
bulk deals with twentieth-century America.106 Social science history has long given a central place to
American politics.107 But a key intellectual switching point may have been Skocpol’s 1980 article on the

102
Peter S. Bearm an 19 93. Relations into Rhetorics: Local Elite Structure in Norfolk, England, 1540-1640
(New B runswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1993).

103
Richard Lachmann, From Manor to Market: Structural Change in England, 1536-1640 (Mad ison, WI:
University of W isconsin Pre ss, 198 7); Richard Lachmann, Capitalists in Spite of Themselves? Elite Conflict and
Economic Transitions in Early Modern Europe (New Y ork, NY: O xford University Press, 2000).

104
Kim Vo ss, The M aking of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the
Nine teenth Century (Ithaca, N.Y .: Cornell University Press, 199 3); on the po litics of eco nom ic elites, Jason Kaufman,
“Three Views of Associationalism in 19 th-century America: An Empirical Examination,” American Journal of Sociology
104(1999):1296-1345.

105
Jack Goldstone, “Revolutions: Toward a Fourth Generation of Revolutionary Theory,”in James Mahoney
and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, editors, Comparative-Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences (New Y ork, NY: Cam bridge
University Press, 2003).

106
See for examp le Tho mas Ertm an’s Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in M ediev al and Early
Mo dern Europe (New York , NY : Camb ridge University Press, 1997) and B rian Downing’s The M ilitary Revolution and
Political Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton U niversity
Press, 1992). These excellent bo oks, by political scientists, directly engage second-wave historical sociological d ebates,
testifying to the interdisciplinarity of this particular space.

107
An important line of wo rk deals with the historical sociology of educational institutions in America, for
exam ple Randall Collins, The Credential Society: An Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification (New Y ork,
NY: Academic P ress, 1979); Richard Rubinson, “Class Formation, Politics, and Institutions: Schooling in the United
States,” American Journal of Sociology 92 #3 (November 1986): 519-548; Pamela Barnhouse Walters and Philip J.
O’C onne ll, “The Family Econom y, Work, and Ed ucational Participation in the United States, 1890-1940,” American
Journal of Sociology 93 # 5 (M arch 1 988 ): 111 6-11 52; P amela Ba rnhouse W alters, D avid R . James and Ho lly J.
McC ammon, “Citizenship and Public Schools: A ccounting for Rac ial Inequality in Ed ucation in the P re- and Post-
Disfranchisement South,” American Sociological Review 62 #1 (Feb ruary 1997): 34-52; M ustafa Emirbayer, “Beyond
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32
New Deal and theories of the state108, which brought in its wake renewed interest in the U.S. as a case, in
at least implicitly comparative perspective.109 Others have transposed analyses of competing class
fractions and state autonomy to the development of welfare states.110 As contemporary revolutionary
openings seemed to close, and revolutionary outcomes to be viewed more sourly, a still-modernist
sensibility moved many scholars to consider a non-revolutionary version of progress toward a more
egalitarian future, the Progressive Era and New Deal origins of the U.S. welfare state.

With this renewed interest in the U.S. social policy, historical institutionalists have been drawn
into vibrant comparative debates over the origins and development of welfare states. Within this multi-
faceted intellectual community, scholars explore the conjunctural and multiple causation of a range of
policy and political outcomes, even as interest has shifted from the origins and growth of welfare states,
to their contemporary character and their uncertain future.111 Of late, innovation has been especially

Structuralism and Voluntarism: The Politics and Discourse of Progressive School Reform, 1890-1930,” Theory and
Soc iety 21 #5 (October 1992): 621-664.

108
Theda Skocp ol, “Political Respo nse to Cap italist Crisis: Neo-Marxist Theories of the State and the Case of
the New Deal, Politics and S ociety 10(1980): 155-201; for commentary, see Jess Gilbert and Carolyn Howe, “Beyond
‘State vs. Society’: Theories of the State and New Deal Agricu ltural Policies, American Sociological Review 56
(1991):204-220; Jeff M anza, “Political Sociological M ode ls of the U .S. New Deal,” Annual Review of Sociology
26(2000): 297-322.

109
In sociology, see for example, E dwin A menta, Bold Relief: Institutional Politics and the Origins of Modern
American Social Policy (Princeton , NJ: Princeton U niversity Press, 1998); Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff and Theda
Skocpo l, eds., The Po litics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton : Princeton U niversity P ress, 19 88); Elisabeth
Clemens, “Organizational R epertoires and Institutional Change: Women’s Groups and the Transformation of U.S.
Politics, 1890-1920,” American Journal of Sociology 98(199 3):755-7 98; M argaret W eir, Politics and Jobs: The
Boundaries of Employment Policy in the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); Edwin Amenta,
Chris Bonastia, and Neal Caren, “US S ocial Policy in Comparative and Historical Perspective: Concepts, Images,
Argum ents, and Research Strategies,” Annual Review of Sociology 27(200 1): 21 3-23 4; Daniel Le e Kleinmann, Politics
on the Endless Frontier: Postwar Research Policy in the United States (Durham, NC : Duke University Press, 1995). In
political science, this renewed interest grew under the banner of “American political development,” including works by
Stephen Skowronek, Karen Orren, Victoria Hattam, Martin Shefter, Christopher Howard , Sven Steinmo, and Paul
Pierson.

110
Jill Qua dagno, The Transformatio n of O ld Age Sec urity: Class and Politics in the American We lfare State
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Craig J. Jenkins and Barbara G. Brents, "Social P rotest, H egem onic
Comp etition, and S ocial R eform : A Po litical Struggle Interp retation of the O rigins of the American W elfare State,"
American Sociological Review 54:(1989) 891-909; Gregory Ho oks, “From an Autonomo us to a Captured State Agency:
The Decline of the New Deal in Agriculture,” American Sociological Review 55(1990):29-43. Robin Stryker’s “Science,
Class and the Welfare State: A Class-centered Functional Account,” American Journal of Sociology 96 #3 (November
199 0): 684 -726 examines eco nomists’ role in New Dea l labor relations and America n welfare policies.

111
Ann Orlo ff and T heda Sko cpo l, “W hy No t Equ al Pro tection? Explaining the P olitics of P ublic S ocial S pending in
Britain, 1900-1911, and the United States, 1880s-1920,” American Sociological Review 49(198 4):726-7 50; G osta
Esping-Anderse n, Politics Against M arkets (Princeton , NJ: Princeton U niversity P ress, 19 85); The da Skocpol,
Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cam bridge, M ass.:
Harvard University Press, 19 92); Geo rge Steinmetz, Regulating the Social: The W elfare State and Local Po litics in
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33
notable in conceptualizing the qualitative dimensions of variation across cases and in formulating
typologies of ideal types, or “welfare regimes” (at times incorporating gender), which have been linked to
distinctive political coalitions and institutional configurations.112 While some of this work, by focusing
on presences and absences, may tend toward a “comparative statics,” much of it has opened toward
processual analyses. Indeed, regime types have been understood as a way of thinking about distinctive
political-institutional “opportunity structures,” giving rise to varying sets of interests or preferences,
identities and categories, coalitions, and administrative capacities that influence social politics in “path-
dependent” ways.113 The tempo of history shifts from the sharp alternation of system and contradiction-
driven crisis to a more even cadence of contestation and consolidation.

The encounter of classic questions with new methodologies also generated new developments on
the more Weberian pole of historical sociology. Just as studies of (non) revolutions generated more
processual accounts of class formation, analyses of state-formation also incorporated insights from new
advances in the study of networks and identities. Influenced by the Simmelian heritage of positional
network analysis,114 John Padgett and Christopher Ansell take fifteenth-century Florence as a major case
of the “political centralization [which] lies at the heart of state building.” Their analysis of “the structure
and the sequential emergence of the marriage, economic, and patronage networks that constituted the
Medicean political party, used by Cosimo in 1434 to take over the budding Florentine Renaissance

Imperial Germany (Princeton , NJ: Princeton U niversity P ress, 19 93); Tho mas Janoski and Alexa nder Hicks, eds.,
The Co mpa rative P olitical E conomy o f the W elfare State (Cambridge: Camb ridge University Press, 1994);
Alexander Hicks, Social D emoc racy and W elfare Capitalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999); Evelyne
Huber and Jo hn Stephens, Develop ment and C rises of the W elfare State: Pa rties and Policies in G lobal Markets
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 200 1). So me o f these scholars d raw on T.H. M arshall, Citizenship, Class,
and Other Essays (Cam bridge: Ca mbridge U niversity P ress, 19 50); Karl Polanyi, The G reat Transformation: The
Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Bo ston: B eaco n Pre ss, 194 4) and of course , the social-dem ocratic
version of M arxism in which socialism – or w elfare states, the “next best thing” – can be achieved by peac eful,
dem ocratic means (see e.g., Step hens, The Transition from Capitalism to So cialism; Korpi, W orking Class in
W elfare Capitalism; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and Jo hn D . Steph ens, Capitalist Developm ent
and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992).

112
Go sta Esping-Anderse n, The Three W orlds of W elfare C apitalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
1990) and Social Foundations of Postindustrial Economies (New York: O xford University Press, 19 99); Ann S hola
Orlo ff, “Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Co mparative Analysis of Gender Relations and W elfare
States,” American Sociological Review 58(199 3b):303-328 ; Julia S. O’Connor, Ann Sho la Orloff, and Sheila Shaver,
States, Ma rkets, Families: Gend er, Liberalism and Social Policy in Australia, Canada, Great Britain and the United States
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Walter Korpi, “Faces of Inequality: Gender, Class and Patterns of
Inequalities in Different Types of Welfare States,” Social Politics 7(2000 )127-91 .

113
Paul Pierson, “Increasing R eturns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics,” American Political Science
Review 94(200 0):251-68. Ho wever, Ira Katznelson cautions us about institutionalism’s potential neglect of the large-
scale dynamics foregrounded by “macrohistorical analysis,” especially as this is expressed in the notion of “path
dependency” (“Periodization and Preferences,” pp. 270-301 in M ahoney and Rueschemeyer, especially pp. 290-294).

114
Harrison C. W hite, Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (Princeton, NJ: University
of Princeton Press, 1992) and An Anatomy of Kinship: Mathematical Models for Structures of Cumulated Roles
(Englewood C liffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1963).
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34
state.”115 This research explores how relatively strong states emerge out of webs of social relations. In
City of Capital116, Bruce Carruthers extends this theoretical project, and links it with the longstanding
neo-Weberian concern with the “sinews of state power”117 – war and money. Whether concerned with
Renaissance Florence or early modern England, these studies harness the analysis of social ties and
interactions to a processual account of state formation.

Although driven by network analysis and new interests in collective identities, these
developments converged with broader trends in the social sciences that are grouped under the theoretical
umbrella of “institutionalism.” At the most general level, institutional theory draws attention to higher-
order effects or emergent processes, rejecting the reductionism and methodological individualism that
informed much of post-WWII social science.118 In its initial formulations, institutionalism in historical
analysis tended to invoke institutions as given, as opportunity structures within which strategic actors
operate. The opportunities confronting mobilized groups with a particular interest, for example, will
differ across centralized and decentralized political institutions. At some level, this style of analysis only
loosens the combination of structural determinism and utilitarian actors characteristic of the second
wave. To the extent that these assumptions inform institutional analysis, less attention is paid to both the
emergent character and cultural dimensions of institutions.

More recent work, however, takes the institutional framework of states as both the outcome of
historical processes and a factor that explains subsequent historical trajectories. Rather than selecting
cases of revolution and insurrection, these studies focus on moments of institutional transformation or
consolidation. For example, Ann Orloff’s study of the initiation of modern pension programs in Britain,
the U.S., and Canada traces the political processes – as conditioned by institutional legacies – which
produced the building of the new institutions of the modern welfare state.119 Within American history,

115
John F. Padgett and Christopher K. Ansell, “Robust Action and the Rise of the Medici, 1400-1434,” American
Journal of Sociology 98(199 3), pp .125 9, 12 60. S ee also Paul D. M cLea n’s syncretic culturalist-institutionalist “A Frame
Analysis of Fav or Se eking in the Renaissance: Agency, Networks, and Political Culture,” American Journal of Sociology
104 #1 (July 1998): 51-91.

116
Bruce Carruthers, City of Capital: Politics and Markets in the English Financial Revolution (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1996). Tho mas Ertm an’s Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval
and Early-Modern Europe (New York, NY: Cambridge 1997) argues that differences in constitutional institutions led
to divergent trajectories of state formation.

117
John Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money, and the English State, 1688-1783 (Ne w York: K nop f,
1988).

118
The phrase “historical institutionalism” appears to have sprung from the collective conversations in a 1989
Boulder, Colorado workshop organized by Sven Steinmo and issu ing in Kathleen Thelen and Sven Steinmo, “Historical
Institutionalism in Comparative P olitics” in S ven Steinmo , Kathleen T helen, and Frank L ongstreth, eds. Structuring
Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Perspective (New York : Camb ridge University Press, 1992) [perso nal
communication, Sven Steinmo]. See also Elisabeth Clemens and James Coo k, “Politics and Institutionalism: Explaining
Durability and Change,” Annual Review of Sociology (1999)25 : 441-66;; Kathleen Thelen, “Historical Institutionalism
in Comparative Politics,” Annual Review of Political Science 2(1999 ):369-40 4.

119
Ann S hola O rloff, The Po litics of Pe nsions: A Co mpa rative A nalysis of B ritain, Canada, and the United
States, 1880-1940 (Mad ison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993).
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35
the Progressive Era has provided the “classic case.” Foundational works of institutional history used
narrative history embedded in case comparisons to identify the common mechanisms and critical
dimensions of variation in processes of state formation.120 As these studies foreground complex
historical narratives -- often through comparisons that highlight similarities and differences of process –
they move away from the empty experimental time of second wave historical sociology to a much deeper
engagement with historicity and sequence.

In subsequent studies, these key insights into the dynamics of state transformation and
consolidation have been coupled to the theoretical as well as methodological sensibilities that
characterize the analyses of state-building presented by Padgett and Carruthers. Theories of
structuration– as opposed to simply structure – highlight the processual relationships of networks,
resources and cultural constructs.121 Institutional consolidation is understood as a project of embedding
the agencies in a complex supporting coalition as well as in key experiments in service that enhanced the
agencies’ reputations.122 The shift from a political system dominated by parties and centered on elections
to one organized around interest groups and legislators was produced as political challengers transposed
“organizational models” from non-political activities to political mobilization.123 As with new work on
early modern state-formation, these accounts of institutional consolidation and transformation employ
processual theories and methods to account for fundamentally Weberian questions of bureaucratization
and rationalization.

With respect to the second wave, the emergence of institutionalism within historical sociology is
essentially, as we said above, a friendly amendment. The substantive focus remains in the sphere of
political economy, although the broadly Marxist terrain of the earlier theory group has been extended and
crosscut by Weberian themes of state-building and transformation. In the place of actors whose interests
could be read directly from economic position by invoking utilitarian assumptions, institutionalists have
substituted actors who are boundedly-rational, operating with repertoires – of collective action, of
organization, of identity – that are culturally constituted in ways specific to time and place. But as
historical sociology has encountered other intellectual trends, the challenges to basic assumptions have
been much more fundamental.

Rational Choice Theory and the Cultural Turn

120
For exam ple, Stephen Sko wronek, Building a N ew Am erican State: T he Exp ansion of National
Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (New York: C amb ridge University Press, 19 82); The da Skocpol, Protecting
Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cam bridge, M ass.: Harvard U niversity
Press, 1992).

121
W illiam H. Sewe ll, Jr., “A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency and Transformation.” American Journal
of Sociology 98 (1982 ): 1-29 ; Antho ny Gid dens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).

122
Daniel P. Carpenter, “State B uilding through Reputation Building: Coalitions of Esteem and Program
Innovation in the National Postal System, 1883-1913,” Studies in American Political Development 14(2000): 121-55.

123
Elisab eth S. Clemens, The People’s Lob by: Organizational Innovation and the Rise of Interest Group Politics
in the United States, 1890-1925 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
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 In very different ways, both the ongoing “cultural turn” and rational choice theory have given
people languages first to criticize and then – if they follow out these impulses – to depart from
structuralist Marxist-influenced historical work. Rational-choice theory proceeds from rigorously
worked-out utilitarian assumptions about the properties of individual and group action. As a body of
thought, it too descends from classical sociological founding fathers, Thomas Hobbes and Adam Smith.
But just as twentieth-century versions of Marxian theory elaborated and relaxed some of Marx’s core
assumptions, so too has rational-choice theory been reshaped, so much so that some practitioners believe
that they have solved or transcended the famous Hobbesian problem of “explaining social order”on the
basis of individualistic strategic-rational assumptions.124 Be that as it may, rational-choice arguments
have figured in some recent and historically-relevant incarnations in sociology, such as Edgar Kiser and
his collaborators’ work on the fiscal aspects of state formation, which has examined the longue duree
development of different forms of fiscal extraction and administration in sites including China, Turkey,
and western Europe; William Brustein’s analysis of the rise of Nazism; Rosemary Hopcroft’s book on
peasant communities and property relations in English history; Julia Adams’ analysis of network
mechanisms in the decay of Dutch colonialism; Arthur Stinchcombe’s work on agency problems and
slave societies in the 18th century Caribbean; Paul Froese and Steven Pfaff’s exploration of the “missing”
religious revival in two of ten post-communist societies of East Central Europe, and Ivan Ermakoff’s
work joining game theoretic and interpretivist approaches to examine medieval European political
marriages or crisis decision-making in the Weimar Republic or Vichy France.125

Except as whipping boy, rational-choice theory is not a widespread presence in today’s historical
sociology – not yet. Our sense is that this theoretical tendency will become more influential for two
reasons. First, like the cultural turn (with which it has some surprising if subterranean affiliations),
rational choice theory is part of a powerful cross- and interdisciplinary intellectual movement, embracing

124
Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action, 2 vols. (New York: The Free Press, 1937); James S.
Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Cambridge, M ass: Harvard University Press, 1990).

125
Julia Adams, “Principals and Agents, Colonialists and Company M en: The Decay of C olonial Control in the
Dutch East Indies,” American Sociological Review 61,(1996):12-28; W illiam B rustein, The Logic of Evil: The Social
Origins of the Nazi Party, 1925-1933 (New H aven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1996); Ivan Ermakoff, “Prelates
and Princes: Aristocratic M arriage s, Canon Law P rohib itions, and Shifts in the N orms and Patterns of D omination in
the Central Middle Ages,” American Sociological Review 62 (1 997 ):405-42 2; Ivan Erm akoff, “Strukture lle Zwange und
Zufallige Geschehnisse,” M arch 2 001 , Geschichte und Gesellschaft, Sonderheft 19: Struktur und Ereignis, pp. 224-256
(also available from the author in English, as “Structural Constraints and Incidental Happenings”); Paul Froese and
Steven Pfaff, “Replete and Desolate Markets: Poland, East Germ any and the New Religious Paradigm,” Social Forces
(December 2001) 80 (2): 481 -507 ; Rose mary H opc roft, Regions, Institutions and Agrarian Change in European History
(Ann Arbor, M ichigan: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Edgar Kiser, “A Principal-Agent Analysis of the Initiation
of W ar in Absolutist States,” in R. Sc haeffer, ed., W ar and the World System (New Y ork: Greenwood Press, 1989),
pp.65-82; Edgar K iser and Joachim Schneider “Bureaucracy and Efficiency: An Analysis of Taxation in Early Mo dern
Prussia,” American Sociological Review 59 (1994 ):187-204; Edgar K iser and Xiaoxi Tong, “Determinants of the
Amount and Type of Co rruption in State Fiscal Bureaucracies: An Analysis of Late Imperial China,” Comp arative
Political Studies 25(1992); Edgar Kiser and April Linton, “The Hinges of Histo ry: State-M aking and R evolt in Early
Mod ern France,” American Sociological Review 200 2, Vol. 67 (December: 8 89-9 10); Arthur L. Stinchcombe , Sugar
Island Slavery in the Age of Enlightenment: The Political Economy of the C aribb ean W orld (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1995).
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historical work in political science, economics, psychology and evolutionary biology as well as
sociology.126 The use of rational-choice arguments in new institutionalism and historical path-dependent
reasoning will almost certainly increase as a fuller engagement emerges from within historical
institutionalism in political science, and as a legacy of the explicit coupling of utilitarian and neo-
evolutionary reasoning that is making dramatic headway all over the social sciences. Second, historical
sociologists are groping for theoretical languages in which they can discuss strategic action, and rational
choice theory is currently the most consistently developed paradigm. 127 We can expect to see more
historical sociological analysis emerging under several rational-choice rubrics, including game theory,
which has been applied inter alia to the emergence of political actors and coalitions128 and the creation
and reproduction of political institutions, which have figured as the equilibrium outcomes of repeated
games, linked together over time. We can also expect strong resistance to these forms of analysis!
Rational choice as an abstract theory has inspired hot-and-heavy reactions from other historical
sociologists and will continue to do so.129 But rational-choicers’ on-the-ground historical analyses,
typically less orthodox than their self-conscious methodological pronouncements suggest, often wed
utilitarian arguments to Weberian-style comparative institutional analysis or even (gasp) culture.

Historical sociologists with a rational choice bent have not had much to say about modernity per
se. This is not just because such large and unruly concepts sit awkwardly with methodological
individualism. Silence in this case also betrays the taken-for granted quality of a very close relationship:
the detached, individualistic modern self is the utilitarian’s chief assumption and analytical building
block (but see Kiser, this volume). Yet the genesis of the so-called modern rational actor is itself an
outcome of historical developments, including some decidedly non-rational processes of psychic
repression and restructuring described in the works of Norbert Elias, Sigmund Freud and Franz Fanon

126
See for example Hendrik Spru yt, Avner Greif, Hilton Root, Margaret Levi and other contributors to the recent
Analytic Narratives collection: Robert H . Bates, Analytic Narratives (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,
1998). Rational-cho ice theo ry has made very little headway in the discipline of History, although forms of utilitarian
thinking are certainly to be found there (and therein lies another tale). Hilton L. R oot is o ne of the few partisans. Se e his
The Fountain of Privilege: Political Founda tions of Ma rkets in Old Regime France and England. Berkeley/Lo s Angeles,
CA: University of California P ress, 19 94; Peasants and King in Burgundy: Agrarian Found ations of French Absolutism,
Berkeley/Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1987.

127
Pierre Bourdieu’s work – particularly as codified in his Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of
Taste (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984) – is often cited as an alternative. Taken as a whole, however,
Bo urdieu’s arguments involving individual and group strategic action – deve loped as a relationship between “habitus”
and “field” – have a conceptually incoherent relationship to utilitarian thinking.

128
For example, see Robert Axelrod, “The Emergence of Cooperation Among Egoists,” American Political
Science Review (June 1981): 306-18. Historical sociologists interested in the analytic possibilities that game theory
offers can consult Avinash K. D ixit and S usan S keath, Games of Strategy (New York, N Y: W .W . Norton an d Comp any,
1999).

129
See for example the resp onses to Ed gar K iser and Michael Hec hter, “T he Role of General T heory in
Comparative-historical Sociology,” American Journal of Sociology 97(1991):1-30, including M argaret R. So mers,
“‘We’re No Ange ls’,” now collected in Roger V . Gould, ed ., The Ra tional Choice Controversy in Historical Sociology
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004).
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(especially the latter’s Black Skin, White Masks) as foundational to the “civilizing process.”130 Elias in
particular argued that the capacity to think calculatively, linking ever-longer chains of means and ends,
was necessarily bound up with increased self-discipline: the internalization of controls over socially
inadmissable forms of anger, desire and other emotions. Rational-choice historical sociologists may well
elect to ignore this, since culture is at best understood in an extremely limited and limiting way, as
preferences, in utilitarian work (see Katznelson 2003) and emotions are ruled out of the theory in its
rigorous version. Tacitly, however, this growing body of work can help us arrive at a broader and more
situated view, although it must be stressed that this view systematically departs from utilitarian
frameworks. We believe that capturing the precise contours of conditional and idealized rational action
can help illuminate its ascendancy as the dominant mode of action and characteristic trope in today’s
capitalist world.131 Less can be said, as yet, about the post-modern causal conditions under which forms
of strategic action and utilitarian self-understanding might be extended, undermined or otherwise
transformed. Certainly there is a great need for better description and analysis of the dispersion of the
mode of detached utilitarian action into all sorts of surprising social spaces.132

If rational choice theory has a natural enemy within historical sociology, that appears to be the
“cultural turn,” at least at first blush.133 People’s routes to and on “the turn” vary tremendously; we
would be better off abandoning the highway metaphor and speaking of turns plural. The bottom-line
assumption, however, is that signification is a constitutive part of social life, with its own logic, which
cannot be reduced to or “read off of” social position. In fact, those positions are themselves formed by
processes of meaning-making. The cultural turn as a moniker covers an enormous intellectual field, part
of the general shift toward linguistic modes of analysis in the twentieth century,134 with ramifying roots
in structural linguistics, philosophy, anthropology, history, literary theory, cultural studies, pragmatism,

130
No rbert Elias, The Civilizing Proce ss (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1939); Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud,
Studies in Hysteria (authorized translation with an introduction A .A. Brill.) (New Y ork: Nervous and Me ntal Disease
Mono graphs, 1937); Franz Fano n, Black Skin, White M asks (New Y ork: Grove W eidenfeld, 1991).

131
See Gerald F. Davis and Michael Useem 2001. “Top Management, Company Directors and Corporate
Control,” in Andrew Pettigrew, Howard Tho mas and Richard W hittington, eds., Handb ook of Strategy and Managem ent
(Lond on: Sage, 2 002), 233-25 9 for one examp le of the organizing power of this language in economic institutions.

132
This point is adum brated in U lrich B eck, The Risk Society (London: Sage P ublications, 199 2). O rloff, this
volume, discusses this issue with resp ect to risk m anagement in welfare states. T he idea of measuring an agent’s
willingness to assume risk, found in Plato and Epicurus and reintroduced by Kant, became the core of vo n Ne umann’s
and Morgenstern’s expected utility theory. On this point see William C. Charron, “Greeks and Games: Forerunners of
Mod ern Game Theory,” Forum for Social Economics 29 #2 (Spring 2000): 1-32.

133
Things are not as sim ple as they seem . One of us (Julia Adams) has argued that rational choice theories of
state formation from Hobbes to the present day are built on tacit, or rather rep ressed , culturalist argume nts (see J ulia
Adam s, “Culture in Rational-Cho ice T heories of State-Fo rmatio n,” in G eorge Steinmetz, ed. State/Culture: State-
Formation after the Cultural Turn [Ithaca , New Yo rk: Co rnell U niversity P ress, 19 99], 98-1 22.)

134
Charles Taylor describes this epochal shift with great clarity in his “Language and Human N ature” and
“Theories of Meaning,” Chapters 9 and 10 in Human Age ncy and Lang uage. Philosophical P apers I (New Y ork,
Cam bridge U niversity P ress, 19 85), 215 -247 and 2 48-2 92.
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feminist and post-colonial theory – and of course sociology itself. Here we want to signal the most
important theoretical themes for historical sociology. 135

The argument that all conceptual categories are fundamentally social, systemically organized,
and historically mutable, hails from Ferdinand de Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics and
Durkheim and Mauss’s Primitive Classification.136 One could say that Saussure introduced the concepts
of sign and system of signification, and Durkheim in particular underlined its sociality and emergent
properties. No wonder Emile Durkheim was the Founding Father ritually abominated by the scholars of
the canonical second wave: Durkheim’s Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1995) could serve as a
totem – whether worshipped overtly or not – for ways in which scholars foregrounding the historical
transformation of classification systems and practices actively disrupted the second wave’s social
imaginary. Andrew Abbott’s The System of Professions (1988), to take one influential example, showed
that jurisdictional claims – which revolve around “differences between archetypes” (p. 61) – and
struggles among actors over whether and how those archetypical arrangements would be recognized, and
perhaps institutionalized, anchor an interdependent system of professions. The major dynamics of
system-level change reside in a number of external and internal factors, including technologies and
organizations, but the professional formations of valued knowledge, the attendant arguments for
recognition, including rhetorics and the migration of metaphors, have their own cultural properties and
tendencies of development (Abbott 1988: 57-113).137 Pierre Bourdieu’s analyses of systems of taste and
political language play out the relationship among objects of consumption or ways of speaking that
function as signs of class difference in organized fields in which each element takes on its meaning in
relationship to others. These elements are then available for actors’ manipulation, accumulation, and so
forth, but their relationships also constrain the possibilities for strategic action and thus of systemic
transformation.138

135
For manifold other aspects, see the excellent review by Eley (1 996 ). Ronald G rigor S uny considers the state
of the cultural turn/rational choice face-off in political science in his review essay “Back and B eyond: Reversing the
Cultural Turn?” (Pp. 14 76-1 499 of American Historical Review, December 20 02).

136
Emile Durkheim and M arcel Mauss were responding to Immanuel Kant. See their Primitive Classification
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 196 3) as well as the foun datio nal Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General
Linguistics (New York, N Y: P hilosophica l Library, 195 9).

137
W hile System defines the archetypical units as “organized groups of individuals” (p. 117), in practice the
argument is more complicated, recognizing two levels of archetypes - one a formation o f signs, the other a concatenation
of individuals and aggregates of individu als. Signs and relations among signs are treated as relatively fixed for purposes
of the theory, ho wever, thereb y stabilizing and streamlining wha t is already a com plex argument.

138
Pierre Bo urdieu. Distinction: A S ocial C ritique of the Jud gment of T aste (Cambridge, M A: Harvard
University Press, 1984); Language and Symbo lic Power (Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press, 1991). Stanley
Lieberson pokes a few holes in the emp irical basis of Distinction in his “Einstein, Renoir, and G reeley: Some Though ts
about Evid ence in Soc iology: 199 1 Presidential Ad dress,” American Sociological Review 57 #1 (February 1992), pp.
1-15.

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 Classification systems continue to generate wonderful historical sociological work. Their
evolving modes of abstraction and application have been examined across a series of social fields,
including double-entry bookkeeping and law.139 As classification systems receive renewed attention, the
construction and policing of boundaries necessarily comes to the fore, whether they be boundaries among
institutionalized formations of knowledge; among perceived racial and class groupings; among medieval
and early-modern European status groups; among categories of children, and so on.140 Some historical
sociologists engaged by the disciplinary power residing in categorization also take Michel Foucault as
one reference point.141 Foucault’s own unclassifiable work, which if not that of a standard sociologue
certainly flirts with historical sociology and is taught in many of our graduate theory courses, captures
the historical emergence of normalizing discourses and “technologies of the self,” and traces the
processes by which they are embedded in and help create a range of disciplinary complexes including the
prison, clinic, confessional, and state apparatuses. These discourses contribute to creating the very
individuals that they describe and regulate. These arguments have been one impetus for exciting
sociological work detecting the fingerprints of power on shifting historical categories.142

Ironically, the state-centric heritage of the second wave has actually been helpful to historical
sociologists working in the Foucauldian vein, helping them dodge two dangerous temptations. First,
rather than displacing the central in favor of the capillary, or washing out their analytical differences (as
Foucault himself tended to do), historical sociologists have sought to reconnect them and trace the
genealogies of their institutionalization in forms of rule and the formation of subjects. There Foucault
meets Weber, one might say. Thus Ivan Evans analyzes the relationship between racialized forms of local

139
See Bruce G . Carruthers and W endy Nelson Espeland, “Accounting for Rationality: Double-Entry
Bookkeeping and the Rhetoric of Economic Rationality,” American Journal of Sociology 97 (1), 1991: 31 -69. Arthur
L. Stinchcom be’s W hen Formality Works: Authority and Abstraction in Law and Organizations (Chicago, IL: University
of Chicago Press, 2001) modifies M ax W eber’s acco unt of the relationship betwe en formal and informal systems.

140
Michele Lamont has explored the morality and historical development of perceived class and racial
boundaries in the U nited S tates and France. M ichele L amo nt. Mo ney, Morals and M anners: The Culture of the French
and America n Up per-M iddle Class (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); The D ignity of Wo rking Men:
Morality and the Boundaries of Race, Class, and Immigration (New Y ork: Russell Sage and Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 2000). Andrew A bbott’s Chaos of Disciplines (2001) deals inter alia with boundaries among
institutionalized forma tions of knowledge . See also Jo hn Sutton, Stubborn Children: C ontro lling Delinquency in the
United States, 1640-1981 (Berke ley/Los Angeles: Univ ersity of California Press, 19 88) and S amuel Clark, State and
Status: The Rise of the State and Aristocratic Power in Europe (Buffalo, NY: McG ill-Queen’s University Press, 1995).

141
Foucault was not the first to exam ine the ways that categories com e to be “transfer points” of power; his
philosophical lineage rests on Nietzsche, Heidegger, Saussure, Derrida and others, as well as the first wave of classical
historical sociology. T wo texts have b een p articularly influential in today’s historical sociology: Discipline and Punish:
The B irth of the Prison (New York, N Y: V intage, 1 979 ); The History of Sexuality, vol. 1 (New York, NY : Pantheon,
1978).

142
See for example John To rpey, The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship and the State
(Cambridge, England: Cambridge U niversity Press, 2000) and M ara Loveman, Nation-state Building, “Race,” and the
Production of Official Statistics: Brazil in Comparative Perspective (Ph.D. Dissertation, Sociology, University of
California-Los Angeles, 2001).

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vigilantism and state power in the twentieth-century U.S. and South Africa, while Philip Gorski traces the
way in which capillary forms of Calvinist social discipline forged in the crucible of the Reformation are
incorporated into state projects in early modern Europe.143 The second temptation involves the reification
of categories. We see this form of vulgar Foucauldianism whenever categories are deemed coextensive
with identities and subjectivities (and either celebrated or excoriated as such!), or when categories get
treated as homogeneous, suffocating, instrumentally deployed weapons by which the powerful
unfailingly repress the less powerful. The growing body of work on identities in historical sociology has
by and large evaded this trap. A serious engagement with history makes it hard to ignore the complexity
of actors or the unintended consequences of action for those on top as well as on the bottom of the social
heap.

The categories of politics – particularly with respect to nations and citizenship – attract the most
scholarly attention in historical sociology. The power-political emphasis owes something to the second
wave. But before that wave ebbed, politics was considered an arena of rational contestation, not aesthetic
spectacle, and categories like citizenship and nationhood were erased or “forgotten” (see Somers, this
volume; Spillman and Feages, this volume). No longer. There is now an analytical space for politics as
the mobilization of desires and categories, not just interests.144 Citizenship has been analytically
reconstructed through the lens of the cultural turn,145 and a wealth of work engages the formation of
nations and national identities in many forms of politics. Benedict Anderson’s influential concept of
nations as “imagined communities”146 has been a touchstone and an inspiration. Some of the new

143
Ivan Evans, “Racial Violence and State Formation in Two Racial Orders: South Africa and the United S tates,”
[working paper, available fro m the author]; Philip S. Gorski, “T he Protestant Ethic Revisited: Disciplinary Revolution
and State Formation in Holland and Prussia,” American Journal of Sociology 99 (1 993 ):265-31 6, and Philip S. Gorski,
The Disciplinary Revolution: Calvinism, Confessionalism and the Growth of State Power in Early Modern Europe
(Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2003). See also Michael Biggs, “Putting the State on the Map: C artography,
Territory, and European State Formation,” Comp arative Studies in Society and History 41 #2, 1999, pp. 374-411.

144
Two quite different examples are John M arkoff’s The Ab olition o f Feud alism: P easants, Lord s and Legislators
in the French Revolution (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996), which analyzes shifting and emergent categories
of political grievance in the French Revolution, and Sim onetta Falasca-Zam poni’s Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of
Power in M ussolini’s Italy (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997).

145
Categories of citizenship and nation overlap, of course. See Rogers B rubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood
in France and Germ any (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Margaret Somers, “Citizenship and the Place of
the Public Sphere: Law, Community, and P olitical Culture in the Tra nsition to Democ racy,”American Sociological
Review 58 (1993):587-620; Yasemin Soysa l, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe
(Berkele y/Los Ange les: University of C alifornia Press, 199 4); Jo hn T orpey (cited above), and M ichael Hanagan’s
Introduction to the Theory and Society Special Issue on Recasting Citizenship, Vol. 26 #4 (August 1997): 397-402.

146
Anderson writes in keeping with the darker impulse behind some of the cultural turn – recall that his project
began as an attempt to understand the wars between Vietnam, Cambo dia and China. “Who can be confident,” he asked
with depressing prescienc e in the 1983 first edition, “that Yugoslavia and Albania will not one day come to blows?”
(Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1991), p. 12.

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scholarship foregrounds Europe;147 other scholarship looks beyond.148 Many of these works on nations
and national identities take conceptually hybrid forms as well, dovetailing with other foci. For example,
Eiko Ikegami deploys the lens of collective identities in conjunction with institutionalism to locate the
honorific culture of the samurai as the source of the nationally distinctive combination of collaboration
and competition that characterizes the government institutions as well as corporations of modern
Japan.149 Frank Dobbin weds cultural analysis to the national specificities of industrial policy in his study
of how policy-makers’ perceptions influenced the building of the railways in the nineteenth-century
United States, Britain and France.150 And John Meyer and his collaborators have demonstrated that
nation-state institutional forms and capacities for action have become a set of standardized, modular and
reproducible cultural templates in today’s “world society.”151

147
A partial and telegraphic list of sociological works would includ e M abel Berezin, Making the Fascist Self:
The Political Culture of Interwar Italy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997); Rogers B rubaker Nationa lism
Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (New York: Camb ridge University Press, 1996);
Liah Greenfield, The Spirit of Capitalism: Natio nalism and E conomic Gro wth (Cambridge, M A: Harvard U niversity
Press 200 1); Christian Jo ppke, Immigration and the Nation-State: The United States, G erma ny and Great Britain (New
York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2000); Anne Kane, "Theorizing Meaning Co nstruction in Social M ovements:
Interpretation and Symbolic Meaning during the Irish Land War, 1879-1882," Sociological Theory, 1997, 3:249-76;
"Narratives of Nationalism: Constructing Irish Nationalist Identity during the Land War," National Identities
3(2000):246-64; Michael D. Kenned y, The Constitution of Critical Intellectuals: Polish Physicians, Peace Activists and
Democ ratic Civil So ciety (Ann Arbor, M I: University of M ichigan Press, 199 0); M ichael D. K ennedy, Cultural
Formations of Postcommunism. Emancipation, Transition, Nation and War (Minneapolis, MN: U niversity of Minnesota
Press, 200 2); Jo hn Lie, Multiethnic Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Jeffrey K. Olick and
Daniel Levy, “Collective Mem ory and Cultural Constraint: Holocaust M yth and Rationality in Germa n Po litics,”
American Sociological Review 62 # 6 (D ecem ber 1 997 ): 921 -936 ; Yasemin S oysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and
Postnational Memb ership in Europe (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994); Susan Cotts W atkins,
From Pro vinces into N ations: D emo graphic Integration in Western Europe, 1870-1960 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1991).

148
See for examp le Lynette Spillman’s Nation and Commemoration: Creating National Identities in the United
States and A ustralia (N ew Yo rk : Cam brid ge University Pre ss, 1997); M ing-c he ng M . Lo, Do ctors W ithin Borders:
Profession, Ethnicity, and Mo dernity in Colonial Taiwan. Berkeley/Lo s Angeles, CA : University of California Press,
2002); see also Lo, this volume; M ounira M . Charrad, States and W omen’s Rights: The Making of Postcolonial Tunisia,
Algeria, and Morocco (Berkeley/Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2001); Gershon Shafir, Immigrants
and Nationalists: Ethnic Conflict and Accomm odation in Catalonia, the Basque Country, Latvia, and Estonia (Albany,
NY: State U niversity of New Yo rk, 19 95). The contrib utors to Jeffrey K . Olick’s edited collection, States o f Me mory:
Continuities, Co nflicts, and Transformations in National Retrospection (Durham, NC : Duke University Press, 2003),
discuss collective me mory, nation and nationalism with respect to a wealth of Euro pean and non-E uropean cases.

149
Eiko Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan
(Cambridge, M ass.: Harvard University Press, 1995).

150
Frank Do bbin. Forging Industrial Policy: The United States, Britain and France in the Railway Age (New
York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 1994).

151
See for example John W . Meyer, “The Changing Cultura l Content of the Nation-State: A W orld Society
Perspective,” in George Steinm etz, ed., State/Culture: State-Formation After the Cultural Turn (Ithaca, NY : Cornell
University Press, 1999): pp. 123-143.
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 The making of modernity is central to the cultural turn in historical sociology in at least two
ways. First, sociologists engage the substantive problems and questions associated with the formation of
historically evolving cultural categories and practices. Often (but not always) these have an explicitly
power-political focus.152 How, Meyer Kestnbaum wonders in this volume, do we describe and explain the
ways in which “the people” have become involved in war – as citizens or in the name of other identities –
and the corresponding critical relationship between popular uprisings and military mobilization? Or to
take another example, one which returns us to the root class-based concerns of the second wave but with
a novel culturalist twist, how are class-based identities historically constructed and reconstructed, and
what might that mean for politics, work, family life, community action and so on? Howard Kimeldorf has
examined such questions with special reference to the Wobblies in U.S. labor history.153 Marc
Steinberg’s Fighting Words examines the discursive construction of working-class boundaries in early
nineteenth-century English politics; Richard Biernacki has analyzed the ways that distinctive conceptions
of labor as a commodity shaped the practices of work in the textile industries of Germany and Britain.154
There are many other possible examples. In fact, this general genealogical project is almost definitive of
the way that the cultural turn has played out in historical sociology.

Second, more generally, the very concept of identity, thought to inhere primarily in an authorized
individual subject, is the result of a long historical process in which that authorizing power, originally
socially located in God or Nature, descends to and is inherited by “the self.”155 Weber’s Protestant Ethic
marked out one significant moment of that embattled process.156 We are now located at an interesting
intellectual and political moment at which this notion of the sovereign self and its associated practices
are simultaneously being intellectually reinvigorated (for example, in rational-choice theory) and quite
thoroughly undermined. Powerful voices outside the academy are reasserting fantasized fundamentalist

152
For two delightful counter-examples see W endy Griswold, Renaissance Revivals: City Comedy and R evenge
Tragedy in the London Theatre, 1576-1980 (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986) and Allan
Silver, “Friendship an d Trust as Mo ral Ideals: An Historical Approach,” Arch ives Europ eenes de Sociologie (1989) 30:
274 -97. W e can expe ct the choice o f analytic objec ts to bro aden further as the sec ond wave reced es.

153
See Ho ward Kimeldorf, Battling for American Labor: W obblies, Craft Workers, and the Making of the Union
Mo vement (Berkeley, C A: U niversity of California Pre ss, 1999 ). Again, M ichele Lamont’s The D ignity of Wo rking Men
is an important work in this particular category. See also Ron ald Am inzade’s Ballots and Barricades: Class Formation
and Republican Politics in France, 1830-1871 (Princeton , NJ: Princeton U niversity P ress, 19 93); John R. H all, ed.
Rewo rking Class (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997) and Josep h Gerteis (2003).

154
Richard Biernacki, Fabrication of Labor: Germany and Britain, 1640-1914 (Berkeley: U niversity of California
Press, 1995); M arc W . Steinb erg, Fighting W ords: W orking-Class Formation, Collective A ction, and D iscourse in Early
Nineteenth-Century England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999).

155
See John M eyer and Ronald Jepp ersen, “The ‘Actors’ of Modern Society: The Cultural Construction of Social
Agency,” Sociological Theory 18 (2000):100-120.

156
Max W eber, The Protestant E thic and the Sp irit of Capitalism (Harper Co llins, 1930).
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versions of tradition and personhood.157 But perhaps the strongest credible intellectual challenge to date
emanates from the inroads of post-structuralism and postmodernism – currents that reached American
sociology later than some of the other human sciences. The relevant critiques of the subject,
Enlightenment universalism and the grand narratives of modern historical development are by now
familiar.158 Perhaps this shift has become so overriding, bringing with it a sense of meaning as
simultaneously crucial and fragile, because social processes associated with modernity and
modernization are disenchanting the world.159 No doubt the horrific political events of the twentieth and
now twenty-first century are also an influence -- including the total wars that ushered in Eric
Hobsbawm’s “age of catastrophe” and seem to “confirm what many have always suspected, that history –
among many other and more important things – is the record of the crimes and follies of mankind.”160
Whereas the utilitarian vision aims for the crystalline clarity of a mathematical model, some of those who
have taken “the turn” see through a glass darkly. But it must also be said that others find fundamental
uncertainties exhilerating, and take them as an invitation to playful resignification and cultural creativity.

Because modernist theoretical imageries are deeply constitutive of our discipline, however, post-
modernist and post-structuralist modes of thought raise substantial problems for sociologists in general
and historical sociologists in particular. Opinion is therefore divided within the sociological community
with respect to the more avowedly “postie” versions of the cultural turn. Some historical sociologists are
grappling with this repertoire, trying to destabilize organizing imageries of progress and modernity in
constructive (rather than simply deconstructive) ways.161Others have responded by seeking to define
these currents out of existence – or at least out of comparative historical sociology – in an attempt to
make common cause with the more soi-disant scientific and soft-utilitarian sub-discipline of historical
institutionalist political science. For James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, “comparative historical
analysis” should by definition exclude most interpretivists, whom they also call “cultural theorists.” “The

157
“Cleric, rabb i, sadhi, and m ullah mount the rostrum , occupy the p ublic p lace, seeking to ordinate society
according to a text o riginating outside of it.” The quote is from p. 236 of Roger Friedland, “Religious Nationalism and
the Problem of Collective Representation,” Annual Review of Sociology 27, 2001: 125-152.

158
Jean-Franc ois Lyotard, The Po stmod ern Condition: A Report on K nowledge (Minneapolis, MN: U niversity
of Minneso ta Pre ss, 198 4 [1979 ]); Seyla Benhab ib, “Hannah Arendt and the R edemptive Po wer of Narrative,” Social
Research 57 (1990):167-196.

159
The sense of progress, of progressive change, is one casualty. In her comparison of the late nineteenth and
late twentieth century commemorations, Lynette Spillman found that faith in progress ha d dim inished in the twentieth
century, even though there was more progress – by nineteenth century criteria – in the twentieth. Lynette Spillman,
Nation and C omm emo ration: Cre ating N ational Identities in the U nited S tates and Australia (New Y ork: Cambridge
University Press, 19 97).

160
Eric Ho bsbawm, Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914-1991 (New Y ork: Pantheon Boo ks, 1994),
p. 584.

161
Mayer N. Zald. 1996. “More Fragmentation? U nfinished Business in Linking the Social Sciences and the
Humanities,” Administrative Science Q uarterly 41 (2): 251-61. Things are complicated by the fact that “cultural
socio logy” has in part been constituted in reaction to cultural studies and “postie” thou ght – at the same time tha t it has
been influenced by them, and is itself a product of the same intellectual and historical mom ent. All the more reason to
render the “turn” in cultural turn in the plura l!
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danger of not taking sides on this issue,” they warn, “is that promising young researchers may be steered
toward the theoretical nihilism embraced in the more extreme forms of postmodern theory.”162

This latter strategy – je refuse! – seems as misconceived as it is to be expected. Work in the

historical sociology of science – itself a wonderfully alive area in the cultural turn, as we noted above –
would suggest that these efforts at boundary maintenance are characteristic of not only normal science
but also of legitimatory moves emerging from within sociology. Think, for example, of the repressions
that Charles Camic (1992) has shown were part and parcel of the Parsonian project of grand theorizing
and institution-building. Why should historical sociology be immune from this hegemonizing impulse?
Nevertheless, we should resist it – and ironically there are good scientific grounds for doing so.
Innovations in fundamental knowledge often emerge from the encounter with other fundamental
knowledges, as Arthur Stinchcombe notes, and fundamental knowledge is not stratified along a single
dimension.163 There is plenty to criticize about “the turn” – including some of its methods of analysis,
which are as yet in their infancy – and criticism should be vigorously pursued. But given the rapid
transformation of these knowledges, and the world that they are seeking to map, who is to prophesy from
whence will come the “cultural toolkit”164 for the historical sociologists of the third, fourth or future
waves?

Feminist Challenges

Like their companeras in other parts of the human sciences, feminists within historical sociology
have contested the exclusions and repressions that have characterized social analysis, and have revealed
both the promises and limits of universalist modern categories and of modern social structures
themselves.165 They are but one small wing of a set of multifaceted intellectual and political movements,
emerging in the 1960s and continuing today, that has transformed social life and social theory across the
globe. These movements, some of the most successful grass-roots ventures in United States and, indeed,
world history, have been dedicated to expressing what has been understood to be women’s interests and
identities, and to reversing exclusions of women from modernity’s privileged intellectual spaces and
fields of practice, including social theory and the university. Even with women’s movements past their
peak of popular mobilization, scholars in gender studies – including historical sociologists – often

162
James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Comparative-Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences. New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press, 20 03), p. 24 . Since every pro hibition is also an in citement, to paraphrase Foucault, we
would have thought that such finger-wagging would only ad d to the temptations luring tod ay’s academ ic youth to their
culturalist doom.

163
Arthur Stinchc omb e, W hen Formality Works: Authority and Abstraction in Law and Organizations (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 2001), see especially pp. 158-178.

164
Here we bo rrow Ann S widler’s staunchly utilitarian me tapho r. See Ann S widler, “Culture in Action: Symbols and
Strategies,” American Sociological Review 51(1986):273-86.

165
The current renaissance of feminist intellectual work got underway in the late 1960s, concurrent with our second-wave
historical sociologists; feminist acad emics in historical socio logy and other disciplines have b een allied with a social
movement – the “second wave” women’s movem ent that peaked in the 1970s, but continues in more institutionalized
forms even today.
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continue to be linked to feminist political activities outside academia. This differentiates them from some
of the other challenges to second-wave work discussed above, and gives the feminist challenges to
historical sociology – usually, but not always, mounted by women – a stronger political charge than we
find in most other areas.

Working against disciplinary resistance within both heterodox fields like historical sociology and
more orthodox areas like stratification research, feminists have had real though uneven successes in
bringing the insights of gender scholarship to bear on theory and research.166 In so doing, they have upset
many of the foundational concepts of modernist social theory; they continue to trouble sociological
analysis. Social theorizing founders on the gendered divisions between rational and non-rational action,
and the evident unsuitability of practices like mothering for theorizing agency in the rationalist mode of
second-wave, rational-choice and institutionalist historical sociologists. Women and the work they do –
care-giving, housekeeping, sexual labor, their varying modes of political activity, and gendered
signification, have been troublesome categories for sociological analyses of politics, capitalism and
modernity. Meanwhile, the gendered (masculine) character of the central sociological subjects of
modernity – citizens, workers, soldiers -- and what have been seen as core constituents of modernity –
markets, public spheres, states – has also been revealed by feminist analysis, challenging the universalist
modern on another front.167 Feminist scholarly challenges raised difficulties for second-wave historical
sociology, for they undermined taken-for-granted premises about who were the important political
subjects and which were the critical events; upended periodization; and opened new arenas for political
analysis – bodies, families, sexualities – while deepening the understanding of how gender structures
even formal political spaces where women were excluded.

In the narrative of modernization theory, and in most varieties of Marxism, women have been
seen to inhabit a “traditional,” “private,” world of family and home. As they move into the public sphere
of the labor market, civil society and the state – as did men before them (in the transition from feudalism
to modern capitalism) – they, too, become modern subjects. We can now say that women’s status and
activities are important signs of what is understood to be modern or traditional, including by social
scientists, even as the content and significance of these terms shifts over time and place. “Women”
represent a key category of modernity’s Others, and liberal and autonomous individuals, citizens,
workers, soldiers – the categories of modern subjects – are defined in opposition to what is “woman,”
even when actual women were making decisions, working or fighting. Their absence helped to constitute
the modern bourgeois public sphere and citizenship. Later, their inclusion signifies that modernity has
arrived, even if the structures themselves retain a masculine character. Once (in the nineteenth-century
heyday of the “family wage”) women’s paid labor was taken as evidence of the barbaric (if not satanic)

166
On the general issue of disciplines and fem inism, see Judith Stacey and B arrie Tho rne, “The Missing Fe minist
Revolution in Sociology,” Social Problems 32(198 5):301-15 and “Is Sociology Still Missing its Feminist Revolution?”
in “The M issing Feminist Revolution: Ten Years Later,” Perspectives: The ASA Theory Section Newsletter 18(1996):1-
3; M ichael Burawoy, “The Po wer of Feminism,” in this same issue of Perspectives, 3-8.

167
Barbara Marshall argues that those aspec ts of feminism that challenge mo dernist premises have gone against the grain
of sociology precisely because our discipline is a modernist project (see her Engendering M ode rnity and Configuring
Gender). See also H elene Silverb erg, ed itor, Gender and American Social Science: The Form ative Years (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1998).
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character of capitalism, which had to be civilized by protecting women from paid work.168 Contemporary
analysts often assume that modernizing developments will inevitably bring women out of what they see
as traditional housewifery and into the paid labor force and that the exclusion of women from paid work
demonstrates societal backwardness.169 Feminists have shifted this narrative decisively, showing that
women’s expulsion from public social life and the erection of a public-private divide between
domesticity, home and family on the one hand, and paid labor, democratic politics and states on the other
is very much a modern creation, not the residue of women’s incomplete modernization.

Thanks to their cross-disciplinary ties through gender studies, feminist historical sociologists
have been a conduit into the subdiscipline for a variety of intellectual trends, including women’s history,
feminist political theory, cultural studies, post-structuralism, and (post)colonial studies. Women’s
politics and women’s experiences, historical and contemporary – later to be subjected to deconstructive
readings and political interventions – provided the initial impetus for feminist work in the human
sciences over thirty years ago. Within still second-wave historical sociology, feminists brought novel
arguments and analyses about gender relations, previously understood only as “sexual difference,” or
marginalized as insignificant to the main action of modernization. Power and inequalities – core
concerns of political and historical sociology – had a gendered face, where they had been previously
understood as principally about class and (sometimes) race. In this period, feminists in historical
sociology – like their colleagues in the rest of the subfield, and indeed throughout the human sciences –
understood women and men to be natural groups, emerging from biological or social universals. They
saw “women’s interests” in the classical Marxian-Lukacsian fashion found throughout second-wave
historical sociology: identifiable by social analysts (or feminist vanguards), who could read them off
social-structural locations, even as their interpretations diverged on what provided the material basis for
those interests – labor, citizenship, mothering or sexuality. Sometimes these approaches construed
women’s interests and political demands in the same vaguely utilitarian mode as much mainstream
institutionalist analysis. Yet at times feminist historical sociologists mounted an explicit challenge to
utilitarianism and the concept of the atomized, rational individual pursuing his own interests. How, for
example, could such premises accommodate the activities of mothers – and indeed fathers – caring for,
and sacrificing for, children? (The question remains a pertinent point of analytical vulnerability.)170 An
even more severe break with the fantasy of clear materialist determination was to come with the various
culturalist and post-structuralist moves of the late 1980s and early 1990s.

168
Bo th men and w ome n cham pioned m others’ dom esticity, although with different aims in m ind; on ly a minority of
women pursued the goals of gaining entry to paid labor, which today would be recognized as a “feminist” position. In
many places (not simply the United States and Europe), women often struggled for resources and political recognition
on the basis of gender “difference,” in the instance of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, on the basis of
what were understood to be distinctively feminine virtues associated with mothering; see, e.g., Mothers of a New World:
Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States, edited by Seth Koven and Sonya Michel (New York: Routledge,
1993).

169
International organizations use measures of women’s status to construct a “Gender-related development index,” which
can be compa red to the general “Human development index”; see, e.g., United Nations Development Programme, Human
Developm ent Report 2000 (New York: O xford University Press, 20 00). See also N itza Berkovitch, From Motherhood
to Citizenship: Wo men's Rights and International Organizations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999).

170
Som e rational-choice thinke rs are seeking to plug this analytical ho le with a sp ot of evolutionary bio logy, bu t this
has analytic strategy has yet to make an app earance in historical sociology. No do ubt it will, and soon.
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 Second-wave historical sociology experienced a series of challenges to its premises about power,
the construction of agents and signification with the cultural turns of the late 1980s and beyond (as we
have outlined above). These challenges affected feminist historical sociologists from two directions –
from within the subdiscipline and within gender studies, where parallel contestations erupted, with
scholars mounting devastating attacks on the concepts of a culturally- or linguistically-unmediated
experience and of a natural, pre-social and unified category of “women,” heretofore the lodestars of
women’s movement politics and women’s studies scholarship.171 Joan Scott showed “women’s
experience” to be culturally-mediated and variable yet she argued, with wide influence in historical
sociology, that a (changeable) gender is “a useful category of historical analysis,” with two interrelated
aspects: gender as “a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between
the sexes” and as “a primary way of signifying relationships of power.”172 Not all who embraced the turn
to signification and culture took Scott’s deconstructive path, but her formulation helped to establish
cultural approaches for feminists doing historical work, including historical sociologists.

Another part of the culturalist challenge can be categorized as anti-essentialism, in which the
category of “women” was exploded by consideration of multiple differences or post-structuralist
decomposition. Analysts such as Evelyn Nakano Glenn mined the vein of difference beyond gender to
unearth confounding dissimilarities and inequalities based on race and ethnicity, nationality, sexuality
and the like.173 Much of the work around “multiple differences” or “intersecting inequalities”
incorporates discursive and cultural issues, yet some of it has maintained the familiar materialist
premises about groups and interests even as the possible bases of oppression multiply. 174 Denise Riley –
an influential gender scholar hailing from the humanities – demonstrated that “women” were a fiction,
“historically, discursively constructed... a volatile collectivity in which female persons can be very
differently positioned... synchronically and diachronically erratic as a collectivity... inconstant [for the

171
Judith Butler, who beca me the iconic post-structuralist feminist theorist, conceived gender as performance. Yet her
innovative work was less significant for historical sociologists than the others here cited, for her analyses are for the most
part historically deco ntextualized. M oreo ver, to the dism ay of sociologists, the no w-canonica l (in gender studies) Gender
Troub le (New Y ork: Routledge, 1990) did not explore the work of such obvious predecessors as Erving Goffman.
Butler’s work also lost something by this refusal to engage both Goffman and Clio.

172
Joan W . Scott, “Experience,” pp.2 2-40 in Feminists Theorize the Political, edited by Jud ith Butler and Joan W . Scott
(New Yo rk: Ro utledge, 1992) and “G ender: A U seful Category of Historical Analysis,” American Historical Review
91(1986):1053-75.

173
Evelyn Nakano Glenn, “From Servitude to Service Work: Historical Continuities in the Racial Division of
reproductive Labor,” Signs 18(199 2):1-43. T he critique of the idea o f a unified catego ry of woman was extremely
widespread, and the literature on what has com e to be called “multiple differences” or “intersectionality” is enormous.
Feminism and Race, edited by Kum-K um B havnani (N ew Y ork: O xford University Press, 2001)is an excellent collection
on the debates around race, gender, colonialism, sexuality. For an influential piece in history, see Tessie Liu, “Teaching
the Differences among Wo men from a Historical Perspective: Rethinking R ace and G ender as Social C atego ries,”
W omen's Studies International Forum 14(199 1): 26 5-76 .

174
For “interlocking oppressions” see, for exam ple, P atricia H ill Collins, Black Feminist Thought (Boston: Unwin,
Hyman, 199 0), and the critique of the limits on her “deconstructive zeal” by Paul Gilroy in Black Atlantic, p.232n26.
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individual] and [unable to]... provide an ontological foundation.”175 The deconstruction of “women” also
combined with concerns about multiple inequalities, raising difficult questions about what might be
involved in relations among women. For example, Chandra Mohanty revealed the colonialist discursive
moves embedded in the monolithic portrayal of “third world women” as Other to “Western feminism.”176
These sorts of challenges raised particular difficulties for large-scale comparative or longue-duree
historical work; while historical case studies (or ethnography) may be well-suited to unpacking the
complex, cultural construction of identities at the intersection of multiple forms of difference, power and
inequality for small groups of women (or men), undertaking studies of what Leslie McCall calls
“complex inequality” on the vast terrain of the labor market, state, revolutions and other collective
political action is challenging indeed.177

The intellectual shifts to representation and the multiplicity of identities and inequalities have
been very powerful, and open new understandings of modernity. Yet it is important to note that within
historical sociology, as across the academy, feminism retains very diverse theoretical orientations, and
different attitudes about modernist analysis and its various post- alternatives. And of course feminist
theory and analysis continues to develop.178 Feminism’s increasing internal diversity is reflected among
feminist historical sociologists, who run the gamut from deconstructionism – one end of culturalist work
– to standpoint theory, which assumes a still-robust social determinism. Historical sociologists, raised on
earlier, largely materialist understandings of gender relations, were initially ambivalent about the
deconstructionist and culturalist critiques. And, indeed, the materialist tendencies have not been
extinguished, as much work continues in a still-modernist vein, within an implicitly utilitarian
institutionalist or power resources framework. Of late, however, with the spread of culturalist
approaches throughout the discipline, historical sociologists have become friendlier to analyses featuring
signification. Many feminist historical sociologists have been influenced by the cultural turn, but most
have not taken what Geoff Eley calls “the escalator” all the way to post-structuralism179, and only a few
have ventured into post-structuralist archaeologies of categories and concepts (especially the categories
of “woman” and “man” themselves). Thus gender has entered (historical) sociology mainly as a
dimension of analysis, to be incorporated into various theoretical frameworks, rather than through the
adoption of feminist theories. Feminist historical sociologists are trying to strike compromise positions.

175
Denise Riley, “Am I That Name?” Fe minism and the Category of Wo men in History (Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 1989 ).

176
Chandra Talpade Mohanty, “Under W estern E yes: Fem inist Scho larship and C olonial Discourse s,” pp .51-8 0 in Third
W orld W omen and the P olitics of Feminism, edited by Chandra M ohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes T orres (Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1991).

177
Leslie M cCall, Complex Inequality: Gender, Race and Class in the New Economy (New Y ork: Routledge, 2001).

178
The project of “gendering” sociology means different things for scholars in different subdisciplines, and with different
analytic and theoretical leanings. Sociologists of gender who identify with the historical wing of the discipline differ
sharp ly from their rather presentist and too-often positivist colleagues by their concern with the exp licitly political
institutions o f mod ernity. See O’Con nor, O rloff and Shaver, States, Markets, Families, pp.10-11.

179
Geoff Eley, “Is All the World a Text? From Social History to the History of Society Two Decades Later,” in T.
McDonald, ed., The Historical Turn in the Human Sciences (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 193-
243.
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With respect to the analysis of collective political action and states, this is where we are today, on this
extremely unsettled ground.

Feminist historical sociology has had some impressive intellectual successes, yet we take note of
a gendered patterning in the areas of scholarship where feminist analyses have, or have not, made
headway, and where they have found resistance. Gender analysis has faced resistance throghout the
academy, echoing the opposition feminist politics have faced in the “real world.” This resistance takes on
a distinctive character in historical sociology, with its center of gravity in the macro-political.180 R.W.
Connell has argued that opposition to feminism grows stronger the closer one gets to what he calls the
core institutions of male power: the state apparatus, especially its military wing. 181 (He thinks feminists
are capable of achieving “local reversals” in “peripheral” sites such as the family.) We do not sign onto
Connell’s overall analysis of patriarchy and state power – which is extremely bleak – but we do see a
parallel relationship between resistance to feminism and feminist theory and proximity of an academic
discipline or subdiscipline to the commanding heights of state power. Thus, it has been easier for
gendered work to take hold in English than in economics, or in the sociology of the family than in
political sociology, including its historical wing. When we examine historical sociological research on
the state, we find greater penetration by gender analysis in scholarship on welfare policy than in research
on state formation and state building, including the symbolically masculine activities of war and
coercion. The gender segregation of scholarship, ubiquitous in academia and intellectual life, disables
historical sociologists from making convincing historicized accounts of modernity, capitalism, states and
politics. The recurring theoretical move of shunting “concerns of gender” to women scholars or to fields
of scholarship marked as feminine prevents analyses of “core” political institutions and practices from
understanding their gendered character – and thus, results in fatally misunderstanding them. And gender
scholarship is reciprocally impoverished by the lack of work on institutions and practices that are also
central to the constitution of gender relations.

Feminists in the last two to three decades have built up a significant body of research on
gendered processes of reproduction, understood broadly as encompassing biological, social, and cultural
elements; of gendered processes of identity-formation within classes, nations, racial/ethnic formations; of
gendered collective action and citizenship practices; of gendered systems of social provision (welfare
states). This research took off from the distinguished line of work among Marxist feminists on class
reproduction, families and gender, but has evolved its own post-Marxist character.182 Nicola Beisel’s
Imperiled Innocents, for example, argues for the central role of the family, gender and sexual politics in

180
Julia Adams, “Feminist Theory as Fifth Columnist or Discursive Vanguard? Som e Co ntested Uses of Gender Analysis
in Histo rical So ciology,” Social Politics 5(1998):1-16; Ava Baron, “Romancing the Field: The M arriage of Fem inism
and Historical Sociology,” Social Politics 5(1998):17-37; Ewa Morawska, “A Historical Turn in Feminism and Historical
Sociology,” Social Politics 5(1998 ):38-47.

181
R .W . Connell, Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics. (Stanfo rd, CA: Stanford University
Press,1987). A fascinating co unter-a rgument is Ro bert M ax Jackso n’s Destined for Equality: The Inevitable Rise of
W omen’s Status (Bo ston, M A: H arvard U niversity P ress, 19 98).

182
See Barbara Laslett and Johanna Brenner, “Gender and Social Reproduction: Historical Perspectives,” Annual Review
of Sociology 15 (1989): 381-404.
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class formation and reproduction – including cultural aspects of these processes, and links these to the
formation of Anthony Comstock’s anti-vice movement in Victorian America.183

Nevertheless it must be said that the masculine preserves of states remain analytically off limits.
There have been few if any historical analyses of the gendered mechanics of warmaking itself – this in
spite of the implicit invitation in Norbert Elias’ The Civilizing Process, a text about, above all, the social
disciplining and internalization of forms of masculinized coercion involved in the formation of “modern”
states and male subjects.184 And studies of state formation, one of the most significant and influential
areas of scholarly activity by comparative-historical sociologists, have remained relatively untouched by
gender analysis. For too many scholars in these areas, masculinity remains unmarked, and gender
continues to signify women.185 Yet recent work by historians and political theorists has revealed not only
elements of women’s role in state-making, but also the ways in which masculine identities and men’s
gendered aims were implicated in the political activities that established modern states and democratic
orders.186 Other analyses highlight the ways in which “woman” or particular women functioned as signs
in sexualized political discourses and political culture.187 Among historical sociologists, Pavla Miller has
traced the making and unmaking of different forms of patriarchal governance across a number of Western
sites, relating gender and family dynamics, technologies of the self and larger processes of state-making
and capitalist industrialization.188 Gary Hamilton compares the intersection of families and states in
China and Western Europe, reevaluating Weber’s arguments about patriarchy and patrimonialism.189
Julia Adams’ work on the Netherlands, England and France uncovers the way in which representatives of
family lineages mobilized signifiers of fatherhood and rule in the formation of patrimonial political
structures, and shows how the articulation of signs of paternity, elite family forms and political structures

183
Nicola B eisel, Imperiled Innocents: A nthony Comstoc k and Family Reproduction in Victorian America (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1997).

184
No rbert Elias, The Civilizing Proce ss (Oxford, U K: B lackwell, 193 9). On the other hand, histo rical and political
theoretical studies of representations of war abound. See, for example, the sections on masculinity and representations
of war in Jean B ethke Elshtain’s W omen and War (New Y ork: Basic Books, 198 7).

185
Terrell Carver, Gender Is Not a Synonym for Women (Boulder, Colorado : Lynne Reiner, 1996).

186
Joan Land es, W omen and the Pub lic Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press,
1988); Caro le Pateman, Disorder of W omen: Dem ocracy, Feminism, and Political Theory (Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press, 1989) and The Sexual Contract (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988).

187
Linda Gregerson, “Native Tongues: Effeminization, Miscegenation and the Construct of T udor Nationalism ,”
Mitteilungen des Zentrum s zur Erforsch ung der Fruhen N euzeit, No. 3 (June 1995), Frankfurt, Renaissance Institute,
Johan W olfgang Goethe Universitat: 18 -38; Lynn H unt, Politics, Culture and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley:
University of California Press,1984) and The Fam ily Romance of the French Revolution (Berkeley: University of
California Press,1992); Sara Maza, Priva te Lives and Public Affairs: The Causes Célèbres of Prerevolutionary France
(Be rkeley: U niversity of California Press,19 93); Zerilli, Signifying Woman.

188
Pavla M iller, Transformations of Patriarchy in the West, 1500-1900 (Blo omington, IN: Indiana University Press,
1998).

189
Gary G. H amilton, “Patriarchy, P atrimo nialism, and Filial Piety: A Comp arison of China and W estern E urop e,” The
British Journal of Sociology 41 #1 (March 1990): 77-104.
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contributed to the different fates of these three states.190 This general body of work has mostly
concentrated on Europe – a limitation, to be sure, but also a rhetorical advantage, since Europe was often
rendered as the premiere site of rationalized state-making – the site in which gender, associated with
notions of traditionalism, was supposed to have been progressively extirpated.191

While work on “the sinews of power” – war, bureaucratization, fiscal extraction – has not yet
become a favored site for feminist historical sociology, it is not the case that they have neglected states
altogether. Far from it. Gender analysts in historical sociology have thoroughly worked the ground of
states and their critical role in social reproduction, particularly in systems of social provision and
regulation – today’s welfare states and their precursors (see Orloff, this volume). Feminist historical
sociologists have changed the way welfare states or regimes are conceptualized. By beginning from
feminist premises about “women’s (and men’s) interests,” focusing on different capacities to exercize
citizenship rights, the distribution of paid and unpaid labor, employment opportunities, poverty levels,
and support for caregiving, they have upended much of the common wisdom about the modern welfare
state and citizenship, including the periodization of citizenship rights, the categorization of regimes, the
import of key concepts like “decommodification,” and the prerequisites for state welfare. To take only
one of these accomplishments: Mainstream scholars of the early years of modern state welfare saw
workingmen utilizing political rights to demand social rights, which in turn strengthened their collective
political capaicities. Feminists brought out the gendered content of these struggles, showing that trade
unionists, employers and others had gender and familial as well as occupational or class interests. In the
struggles over protective legislation for women and for family provision, for example, many workingmen
wanted women to be constructed as wives, male employers wanted them to be (subordinate, cheap)
workers, and women themselves often wanted recognition as mothers or as (equally-paid and equal)
workers.192 Which group won out differed across countries and time periods. Furthermore, historical
sociologists showed that for women, social rights preceded political rights – reversing the periodization
handed down by T.H. Marshall to historical sociologists of welfare – and that women utilized distinctive
political strategies and forms to win passage of legislation in the absence of the franchise.193

Gender analysts of welfare systems for the most part have followed the basic intellectual
contours of institutionalism, including many of its utilitarian assumptions. But by starting with women,
many institutionalist premises are unravelled. And considerations of gender often bleed into topics
outside the normally dry parameters of institutionalist analysis, such as body rights or, even more

190
Julia Adams, “The Fam ilial State: Elite Family Practices and State-Making in the Early Modern Netherlands,” Theory
and Society 23(199 4):505-539; Julia Adams, “The R ule of the Father: Patriarchy and Patrimonialism in Early Modern
Europe,” W orking Paper, Russell Sage Foundation.

191
George Steinmetz, ed. State/Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999).

192
Susan Ped ersen, Fam ily, Dep endence, and the Origins of the W elfare State: Britain and France, 1914-1945 (New
York: Cambridge U niversity Press, 1993); Jane Jenson, “Gender and R eproduction: Or, Babies and the State,” Studies
in Political Economy 20(1986):9-45.

193
Skocpo l, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers; Clemens, Peo ple’s Lo bby.
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53
commonly, unpaid care work. 194 These subjects are difficult to assimilate to certain aspects of the
utilitarian model of the actor, which depends on notions of an autonomous liberal individual, whose
gender is unmarked but masculine and is unburdened by care or other attachments. Moreover, opening up
questions about care, women’s exclusion, and bodies has troubled assumptions about the easy
interpretability of “interests” apart from politics, culture and signification. For example, many scholars
have looked at different political struggles around the proper relationship of motherhood and paid labor,
citizenship and welfare benefits, finding that different groups of men and women take varying positions
over time and across countries. Debates around the meanings of all these statuses are shifting and
politically and culturally charged.195 Within this research area, many are paying increased attention to
the ways in which states create categories and subjects, which is leading some to consider the ways in
which making claims on the state incorporates cultural or discursive dimensions, as in a host of studies
on the ways in which discursive categories have been institutionalized in state agencies and professional-
administrative practices at the local level, and either embraced or resisted by those to whom they have
been applied.196

Scholars working on the broad topic of collective action -- which has always been a contentious
area with respect to gender – uncovered the contribution of women to class politics and social
movements, then moved to consider the ways in which gendered identities and gender relations are
politically and culturally created, sustained or challenged by social movements and in the routines of
institutionalized politics. Facile assumptions about working-class solidarity across gender lines or the
content of political demands were undermined by the research of historical sociologists such as Ava
Baron, Johanna Brenner, Elizabeth Faue, Ruth Milkman, Sonya Rose and Carole Turbin, writing in the
1980s and early 1990s on the history of working-class or middle-class women, gender in the workplace,

194
O’C onno r, Orlo ff, and Shaver, States, Markets, Families; Orloff, “Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship.”

195
Julia Adams and T asleem Padamsee, in “Signs and Regimes: Rereading Feminist Work on W elfare States,” Social
Politics 8 (2001): 1-23 and T asleem Pad amsee and Julia Adam s (“Signs and Regimes R evisited,” pp. 187-202 in Social
Politics 9 #2 (Sum mer 2 002 )) draw on p ost-structuralism in their analysis of the deployment of the concept of
“maternalism” in feminist histories of the U.S. welfare state; see also An n Sho la Orlo ff. 2000. “Farewell to Maternalism:
W elfare Reform, Liberalism, and the End of Mothers' Righ t to Choose Between Employment and Full-time Care”
(Evanston, Ill. : Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University).

196
See, for example, Barbara Ho bson and M arika Lindholm , “Collective Identities, Power Reso urces, and the Making
of Welfare States,” Theory and Society (Fall 1997 ):1-34 ; Lynne Haney, Inventing the Needy: Gend er and the Politics
of W elfare in Hungary (Berkeley: U niversity of California Press, 20 02); Susan Gal and G ail Kligm an, The Politics of
Gender After Socialism (Princeton : Princeton U niversity Press, 2000); Bruc e Bellingham and M ary Pugh M athis, “Race,
Citizenship and the Bio-po litics of the M aternalist Welfare State: “Traditional” M idwifery in the American South under
the Sheppard-Towner Act, 1921-29,” Social Politics 1(1994):15 7-89; see also Steinm etz, Regulating the Social. Nancy
Fraser has made several influential interventions to bring discursive approaches to gendered welfare scholarship; see
“Women, Welfare and the Politics of Need Interpretation,” and “Struggle over N eeds: Outline of a Socialist-Feminist
Critical Theory o f Late C apitalist P olitical Culture,” p p.14 4-60 and p p.16 1-90 in her book, Unruly Practices: Power,
Discourse and Gend er in Contemporary Social Theory (Minneapolis” University of Minnesota Press, 1989) and the
essays in Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the “PostSocialist” Condition (New York: Routledge, 1997); Nancy
Fraser and L inda G ordon, “A Genealo gy of ‘Dependency’: Tracing a Ke yword of the U S W elfare State,” Signs
19(1994):309-36.
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the gender politics of the labor movement, and the role of the state in creating sex segregation.197 Others
chronicled the rise of the different waves of women’s movements.198 But their close ties to history also
meant they felt the pull of the cultural turn, and the associated shift from the “history of women”199 to the
post-structuralist historical construction of sexual difference.200 The construction of distinctive
masculinities and femininities in diverse contexts, and the sources of gendered political action, have been
examined by many analysts, including, for example, Mary Ann Clawson in an analysis of nineteenth
century U.S. fraternal organizations or Raka Ray in a study of women’s movements in two Indian cities,
while Kathleen Blee incorporated the racialized dimensions of women’s identities in a study of women’s
participation in the Ku Klux Klan.201 This focus on gendered mobilization extends to the formation of
nations and states as well – for example, Gay Seidman’s examination of post-apartheid South Africa and
Daina Stukuls’ study of processes of gendered normalization in post-Soviet Latvia.202 Theda Skocpol’s
analysis of the emergence and successes of “maternalist” movements in the first decades of the twentieth
century challenged understandings of U.S. political and policy history and of the sources of collective
action that had formed the basis for much political sociology.203 In all of these studies, we see not only
better historical documentation of the varying forms and levels of gendered collective action (including
armed struggle), but also interesting attempts to integrate culturalist preoccupations with political

197
See A va B aron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, NY :Cornell University
Press, 199 1); Jo hanna Brenner and Maria Ramos, “Rethinking Women’s Oppression,” New Left Review 144(1984):33-
71; Elizab eth Faue, Community of Su ffering and Struggle: W ome n, M en, and the Labor Movement in Minneap olis,
1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 19 91); Ruth M ilkman, Gender and W ork: The
Dynamic of Job Segregation by Sex During W orld W ar II (Urbana, Il:University of Illinois Press, 1987); Sonya Rose,
Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berke ley, Ca: University of California P ress,
1992); Samuel Co hn, The Process of Occup ational Sex-typing: The Feminization of C lerical Labo r in Great B ritain
(Philadelphia: PA: Temple University Press, 19 85); Carole Turbin, W orking Women of Collar City: Gender, Class and
Community in Troy, New York, 1864-1886 (Urb ana, IL : University of Illinois Press, 199 2); D esley D eaco n, Mana ging
Gender: The State, the New Middle Class and Women Workers, 1830-1930 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1989).

198
For exam ple, M yra M arx Ferree and B eth B. H ess, Contro versy and Coalition: The New Fem inist Mo vement (Boston:
Twayne Pub lishers, 1985 ); Jo Freem an, The Politics of Women’s Liberation: A Case Study of an Emerging Social
Movement and Its Relation to the Policy Process (New Y ork, McK ay, 1975).

199
Louise A. T illy and Jo an W . Scott, W ome n, W ork, and Family (New Y ork: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978).

200
For e xample, Jo an Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New Y ork: Columbia University Press, 19 88); see also
Eley, “Is A ll the W orld a Text?,” pp. 2 02-0 3.

201
Kathleen B lee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (Berke ley, CA: University of California Press,
1991); Mary Ann Claw son, Constructing Brotherho od: C lass, Gende r, and Fraterna lism (Princeton, NJ:Princeton
University Press, 198 9); Raka R ay, Fields of Protest: W ome n’s M ovements in India (Minneapolis: Univ ersity of
Minnesota Press, 1999 ).

202
Gay Seidman, “‘No Freedom W ithout the W ome n’: Mobiliza tion and G ender in So uth Africa, 1970-1992,” Signs 18
(1993): 291-320; and Daina Stukuls, “Body of the Nation: M other ing, Pro stitution, and W ome n’s Place in P ost-
Communist Latvia,” Slavic Review 58 (1 999 ):537-55 8.

203
Skocpo l, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers.
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struggles and structures. Much of this work deals with the ways in which gender relations are interwoven
with political struggles and gendered signs and symbols are constitutive of political discourse.

Feminists in historical sociology have conducted a spirited campaign to bring gender into the
political and still-masculinized core of modernity. The masculine redoubts of the working class (like
welfare states) have been revealed in exemplary historical sociological research as sites of gendered
contestation and sources of gendering broader social orders, but we have been less successful in entering
the corporate headquarters of modernity. We think this means less satisfying explanatory accounts of
social transformation for all of us. Sociologists who want to incorporate gender analysis into their work
will continue to find the road hard going, but we hope they will keep up their efforts. We editors also
hope that they will resist certain intellectual tendencies within gender studies, particularly those that
automatically reject any further congress between the liberal subject and womanhood. This rejection
would be a grievous mistake at a moment when gendered meanings of “tradition” and “modernity,”
swirling around women’s bodies and practices yet again, threaten to engulf whatever progress – situated
and relative though it may be – women have achieved through a qualified embrace of modernity.

With respect to the wider community of historical sociologists, and the discipline of sociology
itself, “la lucha continua” (as we used to say). Linda Zerilli points out in her study of classical political
theory and the signifier “woman” that political theory as an intellectual enterprise also participates in the
construction of gender – the same point may be made of historical sociology.204 Witness the ways in
which areas of sociology in which gender analyses have scored some successes may be subject to
redefinition by those who would prefer, consciously or not, to dispense with it.205 The gendering
encounters on intellectual territory are never finally fixed.

World-Systems, Postcoloniality and Remapping the World after the Second Wave

Historical sociology is built on theories of transitions to capitalist modernity, and those theories
have been historically been centered around versions of the European Experience. Both first and second
wave sociologists overemphasized the originary importance of European historical lineages, as we have
seen, and many simply assumed that the concepts and theories deriving from those lineages applied
around the world. Certain key features of those lineages (such as their linkage to colonialism or Islam)
were also off the table. As people in and outside the academy reexamine these assumptions, the process
of academic soul-searching in historical sociology is underway on three main fronts.

First, some scholars are critically reevaluating and extending second wave work and debates. The
filiation is often explicitly marked. Thus the reciprocal relationship between organized violence –
including war-making – and state centralization highlighted by Charles Tilly among others has been
qualified and reformulated by Karen Barkey, based on the case of the Ottoman Empire, and Miguel

204
Adams, “Feminist Theory as Fifth Columnist or Discursive Vanguard”; Ba ron, “R oma ncing the Field ”; Zerilli,
Signifying Woman.

205
Some might wonder if the ma chine termino logy attac hed to the intellectual move to “social mechanisms” is not at least
partially an attempt to reclaim masculine intellectual space, for example!
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Centeno and Fernando Lopez-Alves, with respect to patterns of state-formation in Latin America.206
What role ideology might play in the genesis of revolutions, the topic of a well-known debate between
Theda Skocpol and William Sewell, Jr., spurred Mansoor Moaddel’s study of the 1979 Iranian
Revolution.207 Revolutionary processes and outcomes established in the state-centered tradition of
second-wave research have been reexamined in non-European states by Jeff Goodwin, Timothy
Wickham-Crowley and others.208 Do certain class coalitions make particular paths of political
development more likely? James Mahoney and Jeffery Paige revisit Barrington Moore Jr.’s classic
arguments in their respective studies of liberalism and the rise of democracy in Central America.209 Does
a state’s relative autonomy not simply from the bourgeoisie, but from a colonial power, help secure the
conditions of modernization? Muge Gocek reexamines the familiar second wave Marxian question in her
study of the Ottoman Empire.210 This is only a sampling of recent scholarship in this genre. “While
history may perhaps suffer less from this confusion than the social sciences,” write Miguel Centeno and
Fernando Lopez-Alves, “we are all used to assumptions that peasant means French, state means
Germany, revolution means Russia, and democracy means Westminster.”211 These and other excellent

206
Karen Barkey. Bandits and B ureaucrats: The Ottoman Road to State Centralization. (Ithaca, NY : Cornell University
Press, 199 4); M iguel Angel C enteno . Blood and Debt: War and the Nation- State in Latin America. (University Park,
Pa.: Penn State University Press, 2002); Fernando Lopez-Alves, “”The Transatlantic Bridge: Mirrors, Charles Tilly, and
State Form ation in the River Plate,” pp. 153-176 in Miguel Angel Centeno and Fernand o Lop ez-Alves, eds. The Other
Mirror: Grand T heory Through the Lens of Latin America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 20 02). See also
Misagh Parsa, States, Ideologies, and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of Iran, Nicaragua and the Philippines
(New Y ork: Cambridge U niversity Press, 2000).

207
Mansoor Moad del. Class, Politics and Ideology in the Iranian Revolution (New York , NY : Columb ia University Press,
1992). For a quite different historical-sociological interpretation, see Said Arjom and’s The Turban for the Crown: The
Islamic Revolution in Iran (New Y ork: Oxford University Press, 1988) and his “Perso-Indian Statecraft, Greek Political
Science and the Muslim Idea of Government,” International Sociology 16 #3, 2001, pp. 455-473. The Sewell/Skocpol
deb ate is William Sewell, Jr., “Ideologies and Social Revolutions: Reflections on the French Case,” Journal of Mod ern
History 57 (1985 ): 57-85; Thed a Skocpol, “Cultural Idioms and Political Ideologies in Revolutionary Reconstruction
of State Power: A Rejoinder to Sewell,” Journal of Mod ern History 57 (1985): 86-96.

208
See Jeff Good win, No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945-1991 (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 200 1); T imothy P. W ickham -Crowley, Guerrillas and Revolution in Latin America. A Com parative
Study of Insurgents and Regimes Since 1956 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992).

209
Jeffery Paige. Coffee and Power: Revolution and the Rise of Democracy in Central America (Cambridge, M A: Harvard
University Press, 1997); James M ahoney. Legacies of Liberalism. Path Dependence and Political Regimes in Central
America. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Press, 2001.
210
Fatma M uge Gocek, Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman W esternization and Social Change (New
York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996). In the Marxian tradition, see also
Vivek Chibber’s “Breaching the Nadu: Lordship and Economic Development in Pre-colonial South India,” The
Journal of Peasant Studies 26 (1), 1 998 1-42 and his “Building a D evelopm ental State: The Kore an Case
Reconsidered,” Politics and S ociety 27(3):309-346, 1999.

211
See Miguel Angel Centeno’s and Fernando Lo pez-Alves’ “In troduction,” pp. 3-24 of their edited volume The Other
Mirror: Grand Theory Through the Lens of Latin America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002).
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works disorganize these assumptions, tell us about Other Cases, and rewrite the empirical generalizations
and sociological theories of state-formation derived from internalist and nationally-specific European
histories.212

Another version of this approach, which we might call critical extensions of second wave
scholarship, follows in the path of Fernando Cardoso, Andre Gunder Frank, Immanuel Wallerstein and
other pioneers of dependency theory and world systems analysis.213 This vision has been taken up in a
variety of fruitful ways by Janet Abu-Lughod; Giovanni Arrighi; Terry Boswell; Georgi Derluguian;
Peter Evans; John Foran; Harriet Friedman, and David Strang among others.214 In the broadest sense, it
has diffused beyond the boundaries of world-systems analysis: the general world-systems intuition is now
quite widespread, with plenty of historical sociologists who do not sign onto the theory making free with
some vague version of the concept. True, few historical sociologists have adopted Wallerstein’s full
argument that there is something one might call a “world system”: a single network of core, peripheral
and semi-peripheral nodes sustained by the extraction of surplus based on economic specialization and
rationalization rather than imperial force. Nevertheless the impulse behind world systems analysis was a

212
No te that individual scholars with second wave affiliations have followed the threads into other areas as well, such as
historical institutionalism. Karen Barkey, for example, has since written on network organization in the Ottoman Empire
in the manner of the “institutionalist challenge” described above. See B arkey’s and Ronan Van Ro ssem’s “Networks of
Contention: Villages and Regional Structure in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire,” American Journal of
Sociology 102 #5 (March 1997): 1345-1382. In general, this whole category of work overlaps substantially with similar
moves in historical institutionalist political science.

213
Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Enzo Faletto, Dependency and Developmen t in Latin America, tr. M arjory M.
Urq uidi. (Berkeley/Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 197 9, originally published 1971); Andrew Gunder
Frank, The D evelopment of Underde velopment (Boston, MA: New England Free P ress, 196 6); W allerstein, Immanuel.
1974. The Mo dern W orld System I: C apitalist Agriculture and the O rigins of the European W orld Econom y in the
Sixteenth Century. New Yo rk: Academic P ress. An insightful conte mporaneous discussion of this literature is Ian
Roxbo rough, Theories of Underd evelopment (London: M acmillan, 1979). John Foran’s “An Historical-Sociological
Framework for the Study of Long-Term Transformations in the Third World” (pp. 330-349 in Humanity and Society vol.
16 #3 (A ugust 1992 )) examines the relatio nship b etween underdevelop ment theor y, dependency and world-systems
theories.

214
Some of the highlights of this intellectual tradition include Janet Abu-Lughod, Before Europ ean Hegemo ny: The
W orld-System A.D. 1250-1350 (New York, Oxford University Press, 1989); Giovanni Arrighi and Beverly J. Silver,
Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System (Minneapolis, MN: University of M innesota Pre ss, 1999); Albert
Bergesen and Ronald Scho enberg, “Long Waves of Colonial Expansion and Contraction, 1415-1969 ,” in Studies of the
Mo dern Wo rld System (New York: A cademic Press);Terry Boswell, “Colonial Empires and the Capitalist World-System:
A Time-Series Analysis of Colonization, 1640-1960,” American Sociological Review 54, 1989 : 180-196); Geo rgi M.
Derluguian, “The Po litics of Identity in a Russian Borderland Province: The Kuban Neo-Cossack Movement, 1989-
199 6,” Europe-Asia-Studies, ed. Serge Cipko (1997, 49 (8): 1485-1500 ); Peter Eva ns, Depend ent Development: The
Alliance of M ultinational, State, and Local Cap ital in Brazil (Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 1979); John
Foran, Fragile Resistance: Social Transformation in Iran from 1500 to the Revolution (Boulder, CO : We stview Press,
1993); David Strang, “From Dependency to So vereignty: An E vent H istory Analysis of D ecolonization 18 70-1 987 ,”
American Sociological Review 55 #6 (D ecember 19 90, pp. 846-89 0).

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remarkable one, and it is still one that all of us might profitably take up, particularly when it comes to
jettisoning the automatic identification of important social processes with the boundaries of
contemporary sovereign states and nation-state borders.215

In all this work, we continue to see the signs of the rending and tearing of the second wave
paradigm along several fault lines. Those who hold by its core dimensions, who try to explain what
they’re about in terms of expanding the reach and generalizability of second-wave models, are prey to
increasingly sharp analytic tensions. Sometimes those tensions are explicitly thematized. Jeff Goodwin,
for example, discusses the limitations of his “state-centered perspective” (pp. 55-58), including its failure
to tackle associational networks and culture. These limits are reasonable trade-offs, he argues, when one
is looking for a parsimonious rather than exhaustive explanation (p. 58). But the basic question – which
Goodwin himself raises elsewhere in his work -- is whether the omitted dimensions structure the state of
affairs that sociologists are examining.216 World systems analysts for their part want to incorporate
dynamics of race, ethnicity, even religion into their analyses, but find themselves corseted by the
economistic propositions about what organizes the relationships among relevant network nodes.217 The
further insistence that there must exist a social totality, an integrated and in this case global regime, has
blocked off valuable avenues of discussion with people of other theoretical inclinations.218

215
See Open the Social Sciences: Report of the Gulbenkian Commission on the Restructuring of the Social Sciences
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996). The report of the commission, which was chaired by W allerstein,
includes an exc ellent section on the analytic problems associated with “state-centric thinking” (pp. 80-85). This does not
mean that we should all analyze the world – a dubious project in any case, subject to all the objections that were raised
about the vaulting amb ition of Braudelian “total history.” (See especially J. H. H exter’s critical (and often hilarious)
com ments on Braudel in his On H istorians: Reappraisals of Some of the Makers of Mo dern History (Boston, MA:
Harvard University Press, 19 79).) No te that W allerstein also continues to make impassioned and inspiring argum ents
for not simply interdisciplinary but de-disciplinary historical ana lysis. See his The End of the W orld as W e Know It.
Social Science for the Twenty-First Century (Minneapolis, MN : University of Minnesota Press, 1999).

216
In Go odw in’s “The Libidinal Constitution of a High-Risk Social Mo vement: Affectual Ties and Solidarity in the Huk
Rebellion, 1946 to 1954,” American Sociological Review 62 #1, 1997, pp. 53-69, he examines the absence of “sexual
relationships and affectual ties” from social science analyses of collective action. Here’s the memorable first sentence:
“If the modern era is characterized by “a veritable d iscursive explo sion” (Fou cault 1978 : 17) about sexuality, then social-
movement theory remains deeply embedded in the ancien regime.” (P. 53)

217
A symptom of this problem is the widening distance between the theoretical propositions and the historical analyses
or predictions that are adduced from them. See for exam ple the five con cluding pro positions in Arrighi and Silver, pp.
271-289 of Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System. The book is admirably historical; for example, it treats
this era’s hegemonic arrangements in relationship to previous hegemonic systems. But it is very difficult to see how
propositions at this level of abstraction can be qualified by emp irical evidence, much less gainsaid. The problem then
is that historical materials take on a purely illustrative character. W e would feel more confident of the overall argument
if the authors also prese nted so me m aterials that they felt were puzzling or less automatically inco rporated into their
theoretical system.

218
The versions of history featured in regulation-theoretic sociology share this totalizing feature as well. See for example
Da vid Harvey’s The Co ndition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. Cambridge, MA:
Blackwell (1989). Michael Burawoy criticizes this tendency on pp. 337-41 of his “Grounding Globalization” in Global
Ethnography: Forces, Connections, and Imaginatio ns in a P ostmo dern W orld (Berkeley, C A: U niversity of California
Press: 200 0), pp . 337 -350 . Geo rge Steinmetz (this volume) offers a friendlier evaluation of regulation theory and its uses
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 In general, the category of “race” is one symptomatic flashpoint at which these sorts of
paradigmatic strains ignite. Race is easily digested within second wave paradigms as long as it is taken to
index fixed, underlying and even biologically-given attributes rather than shifting sets of signifiers that
are not tethered to referents in any essential way. (The parallel developed in the above section on
feminist challenges to historical sociology is the reduction of gender to the category of biological sex.)
Actors are assumed to have certain attributes and to fall into natural groups on this basis, groups that
have one or another economic or political function within a social formation. Note that some superb
second wave work on the historical sociology of race, class and states was conducted within this
rubric.219 But the analytical line in the sand drawn by the second wave precluded many of us historical
sociologists from recognizing the plasticity and autonomy of systems of racial classification and their
relationship to the structuring of societies and subjectivities. This has been problematic for the analysis
of the entwined European, African and American historical trajectories themselves – because of the deep
importance of chattel slavery and its unfolding impact on systems of racial classification and nationhood.

These trajectories and systems are precisely what is at issue in a second category of scholarship
that problematizes the lines of connection between colonizer and colonized. This might mean explaining
historical transitions between colonial formations that were basically bipolar at the outset of empire-
building but then sprouted more rival heads than a Hydra. Rulers might disagree among themselves, or
the subject population split into factions, or middlemen set up on their own accounts, having escaped
mechanisms of colonial and post-colonial control delivered through principal-agent networks (on agency
relations and empire, see Kiser and Tong 1992; Stinchcombe 1995; Adams 1996). This relational
research tradition dovetails with ongoing efforts in political science and historical economics to induct
more well-known cases into more general utilitarian understandings of colonialism and post-
colonialism.220

Much of this family of work on connections between colonizer and colonized, however, focuses
on the circulation of discourses, categorization and identification in colonial and post-colonial settings. A

for historical sociology.

219
See for example David R. James, “The Transformation of the Southern Racial State: Class and Race Determinants of
Local-State Structures,” American Sociological Review 53 #2 (1988): 191-208, which argues that institutional features
of the local “racial state” were created and defended by white planters and farmers in ord er to forward their interests in
maintaining certain features of labor-intensive cotton agriculture. A recent book on apartheid South Africa by Ivan Evans
tackles just this issue – the racialization of bureaucracy – from a more culturalist angle. See Ivan E vans, Bureaucracy
and Race. Native Administration in South Africa (Berkeley, CA: University o f California Press, 1997). Two other
pertinent works, excellent examples of third-wave historical sociology, are A nthony W . Marx ’s Making Race and Nation:
A Comp arison of South Africa, the United States, and Brazil (New York : Camb ridge University Press, 1998) and Gay
Seidman, Manufac turing M ilitance: Workers’ Movements in Brazil and South Africa, 1970-1985 (Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press, 1994).

220
See for example Jeffry A. Frieden, “International Investm ent and Colonial C ontro l: A New Interpretation,”
International Organization 48 # 4: 19 94, p p. 55 9-93 ; David Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking
Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998).
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number of the authors whose writings fall into these category are represented in this volume.221 Nader
Sohrabi, for example, analyzes the role of constitutionalist discourses in key political conjunctures in pre-
revolutionary Iran. Zine Magubane charts the historical development of discourses about race, some of
which were legally institutionalized, that circulate between Britain and South Africa. George Steinmetz,
who deploys post-colonial theory to pinpoint and analyze shifts among colonialists’ – and their
indigenous inheritors’ – “native policy models” – racial discourses which categorize “natives” as
civilizable – or not. These discourses, he argues, are differentially implicated in genocidal state
policies.222 This style of historical sociology has some affinities with the broader field of post-colonial
scholarship which, Catherine Hall (1996: 70) notes, argues that “the political and institutional histories of
‘the centre’ and its outer circles [are] more mutually constituted than we used to think.”223 What is being
constituted here is not typically economics, but the nexus of politics and culture. “Provincializing
Europe” – to borrow Dipesh Chakrabarty’s catchy phrase – is the overall intellectual project.224 This is a
crucial but tricky business: it involves tacking back and forth between deconstructing and deploying
European universalistic notions embedded in social theorizing and political practice. These notions were

221
See in particular the bibliographical references to Lo; Magubane; Sohrabi; Spillman and Steinmetz, and the relevant
essays in this volume. These and other historical sociological works do not take Geo ff Eley’s (1996) p ost-structuralist
escalator all the way to complete concept-dependence. On the other hand, who does? (T his was always a utopian – or
dystopian, if you hail from other theoretical persuasions – formulation.) There are referents as well as signifiers and
signifieds in their stories, and the pro blem of the relationship between signification and other m echanisms is also
perennially on the table. For some o f these authors, M arshall Sahlins’ Historical M etaphors and M ythical Realities:
Structure in the Early History of the Sandwich Islands Kingdom (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1981)
is a theoretical touchstone.

222
Nader Sohrabi, “Global Waves, Local Actors: What the Young Turks Knew about Othe r Revolutions and W hy it
Mattered ,” Comp arative Studies in Society and History (44 (1), 2002)45-79; “Historicizing Revolutions: Constitutional
Revolutions in the Ottoman Empire, Iran and Russia, 1905-1908,” American Journal of Sociology (100 (6), 1995: 1383-
1447); Zine Mag ubane, Fo rthcoming, Bringing the Empire Home : Imagining Race, Class and Gend er in Britain and
Colonial South Africa (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press,); George Steinmetz, “Precoloniality and Colonial
Subjectivity: Ethnographic Discourse and Na tive Policy in German Overseas Imperialism, 1780s-1914,” Political Power
and Social Theory 15, 2001; George Steinmetz, “‘The Dev il’s Handwriting”: P recolonial D iscourse, Ethnographic
Acuity, and Cross-Identification in German Colonialism,” pp. 41-95 in Compa rative Studies in Society and History
2003. See also Julian Go , “Chains of Empire, Pro jects of State: Political Education and U.S. Colo nial Rule in Puerto
Rico and the Philippines,” Compa rative Studies in Society and History 42 (2), 2000: 33 3-362; Enid Lynette Logan,
“Consp irators, Paw ns, Patriots and Brothers: Race and Politics in W estern Cuba 1906-1909,” Political Power and Social
Theory 14, pp. 3-51; Moon-kie Jung, “No W hites, No A sians: Race, M arxism, and H awaii’s Preem ergent W orking Class,
Social Science History 23 #3 (1999): 357-393.

223
Catherine Hall is quoted in Magubane, this volume. See Catherine Hall, “Histories, Em pires, and the Post-Colonial
Mome nt,” in The Post-Colonial Question: Common Skies, Divided Ho rizons, edited by Iain Chambers and Lidia C urti
(New Yo rk, NY: R outled ge, 19 96). See also B ill Ashcro ft, Gareth Griffiths and H elen T iffin, eds. The Post-Colonial
Studies Reader (New Y ork, NY: Ro utledge, 1995); Thomas B lom Hansen and Finn Stepputat (2001); Ann Laura Stoler,
“Developing Historical N egatives: Race and the (M ode rnist) Visions of a Colonial State,” pp. 1 56-1 85 in Brian Ke ith
Axel, ed. From the Margins: Historical Anthropology and its Futures (Durham, NC : Duke University Press, 2002);
Robert J. C. Young, Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction (Cambridge, M A: Blackwell, 2001).

224
Dipesh Chakrabarty. Provincializing Europe (Princeton , NJ: Princeton U niversity P ress, 20 00).
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not developed in the isolated modernizing capitalist spaces of Europe – as second wave historical
sociology would have had it – but during centuries of colonial encounters that actors based in Europe
organized and experienced.225 That this formative process was mutual is clear, but its contours remain
hazy and much detective work remains to be done, in historical sociology as well as elsewhere. On the
purely theoretical level, as Zine Magubane discusses (this volume), historical sociologists are just
beginning to ask how the particular colonialist optic of the classical theorists constitute the terms of their
concepts and theories, and when that affects claims to universal applicability and reach.226 This part of
the provincialization project should also include scrutinizing the particular versions of world history
embedded in classical theories that many sociologists still take as emblematic of – and sometimes a
substitute for – history itself.

Having ignored the “colonial Other” for so long, sad to say, historical sociologists are at least
relatively free of romantic visions of the “agency” of that “Other” or of its self-appointed academic
representatives.227 Perhaps we can escape the trap of romanticizing the supposed collective communitas
of the East as an antidote to the liberal individual, thus avoiding re-Orientalizing non-Western societies
and selves.228 Let us hope so, for we will otherwise find ourselves flummoxed when professions of
modernity and liberal individualism among political actors make an indigenous appearance in contexts
far beyond the second wave’s imagined European and North American spaces. As they do and will!

Finally, meta-narrative and synoptic grand theory are making a comeback as a third variety of the
historical sociology that reaches beyond the second wave’s internalist version of Europe and the United
States. One major example is the work of S. N. Eisenstadt and others on the world’s axial civilizations.229

225
C. L. R. James’ pioneering The B lack Jacobins (New York: Vintage, 1963 [19 38]) has been a foundational text for
those making this argument.

226
For one recent debate, see R. W. Connell, “Why is Classical Theory Classical?” (American Journal of Sociology 102
(6), 1997: 1511-1557) and Randall Collins, “A Sociological Guilt Trip: Comment on Connell,” American Journal of
Sociology 102 (6), 1997 : 1558 -64. The flip side of these discussions ap pears in Paul Gilroy’s The Black Atlantic:
Mode rnity and D ouble C onsciousne ss (Cambridge, M A: Harvard University Press, 1993), which argues, inter alia, that
to “diasp ora b lacks,” the “ambiguo us intellectual traditions of the Euro pean E nlightenment” have served as b oth “a
lifeline and a fetter” (p. 30).

227
One controversial complaint is Arif Dirlik’s, delivered from a Marxist perspective, excoriating post-colonial
studies and its intellectual avatars. See his “The Postcolonial Aura: Third W orld Criticism in the Age of Global
Capitalism,” Critical Inquiry 20 (1 997 : pp. 328-56). Som e might argue that American sociologists have be en busy
romanticizing the agency of internal “Others” instead – particularly Black Americans. See the Review Symposium in
the American Journal of Sociology 107 #6 (May 200 2): 1468-159 9, in which Loic Wacquant finds fault with the
ethnographic work of M itchell D unier, E lijah Anderson and K atherine Newman on just these grounds, an d is roundly
criticized in return.

228
Edward Said. Orientalism. (New York, N Y: Vintage, 1994).

229
See especially S. N. Eisenstadt “The Civilizational Dimension in Sociological Analysis,” pp. 1-21 in Thesis Eleven
62 (August 2000); S. N. Eisenstadt, “The Civilizations of the Americas: The Crystallization of Distinct Mode rnities,”
pp. 43-62 in Comp arative Sociology 1 #1 (200 2). See also Gary G. Ham ilton’s wide-ranging “Civilizations and the
Organization of Economies,” pp. 183-205 in Neil J. Smelser and Richard Swe dberg, eds. The Handboo k of Economic
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This move toward grand civilizational narratives is part of a more general intellectual impulse, we
believe, and it is thoroughly understandable in this age of academic dispersion and global religious
resurgence.230 We editors sympathize with the urge, but find it simultaneously nostalgic and premature.
There are far too many open questions of theory and method in historical sociology – many of them
detailed in this document – that cannot be readily folded into a new totalizing narrative. Rather, historical
sociologists need to ask, as concretely as possible, whether there are alternative practices conducted
under the sign of modernity that have emerged from colonial and post-colonial encounters and if so, what
they look like.231 How are categories and practices that are tagged by the actors themselves as “modern”
or “Western” picked up, modified, rejected, recombined, transported, elaborated and so on? Are
dimensions of social and cultural life that historical sociologists in the U.S. and elsewhere take for
granted as part of a modernist ensemble connected differently – or not at all – in different historical
settings? There are many ways to approach these questions without falling back into simplistic polarities
between the categories of “the West and the Rest.”232 One strategy would analyze how notions of and
practices associated with, say, property, or “civil society” and “public sphere,” are appropriated and
transformed in non-Western contexts – including Eastern Europe, which often gets lost in the binarizing
shuffle.233 A second strategy might involve analyzing non-western colonialisms – such as Japan’s
colonization of Taiwan.234 Yet another, engaging in historicized ethnographies of global connections

Sociology (New York: R ussell Sage Foundation/Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); Johan Goudsblom,
Fire and Civilization (New York, N Y: P enguin 1992); Johan Go udsb lom, The Co urse and Hum an H istory. Eco nom ic
Growth, Social Process and Civilization (Arm onk, N Y: M . E. Sharpe, 199 6).

230
For samples of such engagements in other fields see, for example, Samuel Huntington (19 96); Andrew Sherratt,
“Reviving the Grand Narrative: Archaeology and Long-Term Change,” Journal of European Archaeology 3 (1995);
Bru ce M azlish and Ralph B uultjens, ed. Conceptualizing Global History (Boulder, CO : Westview Press, 1993).

231
Are they “the same but not quite” or are they radically different, and if so, how? At the core of colonial discourse,
Homi K. Bhabha (1994) argues, there is a fundamental ambivalence and “classificatory confusion”: “colonial
mimicry is the desire for a reform ed, recognizab le Other, as a subject of difference that is almost the same, but not
quite.” (p. 86) [italics in original] On alternative modernities, see for starters Charles Taylor (1999): 153 -174 and
Nilufer Go le. “Glo bal E xpectations, Local Experiences: N on-W estern M ode rnities,” in W il Arts, ed. Through a
Glass, Darkly: The Blurred Images of Cultural Tradition and Modernity over Distance and Time (Leiden, The
Netherlands: Brill).

232
Stuart Hall, “T he W est and the Re st: Disco urse and Power,” in Stua rt Hall and A dam Gieb en, eds. Formations of
Mode rnity. Cambridge, England: Open University Press, 1992.

233
See for example David Stark, “Recombinant P roperty in East European Capitalism,” American Journal of Sociology
101 #4 (January 1996): 993-1027; Akos Rona-Tas, “The First Shall Be Last? Entrepreneurship and Communist Cadres
in the Transition from Socialism,” American Journal of Sociology 100 #1 (July 1994): 40-69; Craig Calhoun, ed. (1993)
Haberm as and the Public Sphere (Boston, MA : MIT Press).

234
See fo r e xa mp le Min g-cheng M . Lo’s Do ctors within Borders: Profession, Ethnicity, and Modernity in Colonial
Taiwan (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002).
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emerging in today’s “postmodern world.”235 There are of course other avenues of exploration, all
promising.

This is a thoroughly interdisciplinary arena of discussion, where sociologists have both plenty to
learn and some distinctive theoretical and methodological tools for identifying social and cultural
conditions for cosmopolitanism and other vaunted goals. No matter what the authors’ preferred theory,
values or political position – no matter what their relationship to “modernity” – it is clear that such
analyses are not antiquarian exercizes. We live in an historical moment during which many academics
and intellectuals assert that the Enlightenment notions of personhood, rights, reason embedded in the
“sociological modern” should be expunged as vestiges of imperialism. Others (including Adams,
Clemens and Orloff) think that these notions – reclaimed, revised, retranslated – are essential to critical
intellectual and political projects everywhere.236

Conclusion: Remaking Modernity, Historicizing Sociology

If these challenges represent a theoretical and substantive enrichment of historical sociology,

they have also come with costs. As the careful reader will have noticed, the present moment lacks both
the topical and theoretical coherence of the second wave. The marxisant framework identified important
problems, such as revolution; provided a dominant narrative of change fueled by class conflict; and tied
contemporary concerns to past processes. The events of 1968 and imagined future rebellions were
understood – both theoretically and viscerally – as belonging to a historical series that began with the
English and French Revolutions, and that had roots in the transitions to, and ongoing developments of,
capitalism. For the core substantive topics of the second wave – revolution, transitions to democracy, the
welfare state – past and present are linked in ongoing processes of social change.

It seems clear to us that historical sociology will die if left solely to modify the second wave’s
answers to Marxist questions generated in the heat of the 1960s and 1970s. Although a powerful
heuristic, this intellectual framework is too confining and incompatible with the openness of the current
moment, our interest in differences along many dimensions. Surely new questions emerge from the
current encounters of modernity and Islam, post-colonialism, postsocialism, aboriginality; from the
ongoing transformations of capitalist modernity in its core, and from many other moments in world
historical time. There is not the same political cohesiveness that we saw during the height of the second
wave, but more than enough intellectual reasons to insist that answering these new questions of
modernity will require a historicized sociology.

235
See the contributions in M ichael Burawoy, ed., Global Ethnography: Forces, Connections, and Imaginations in a
Postmodern W orld (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000). See also Daniel Lee Kle inman, Impure
Cultures: University Biology and the Co mmercial W orld (M adiso n, W I: forthco ming, U niversity of Wisconsin Press).

236
There are clear parallels to the ongoing arguments about multiculturalism and history in the U.S. academ y. W ill
Kymlicka advo cates accommoda tions to “m inority nationalism” in “American Multiculturalism in the International
Aren a,” Dissent (Fall 1998): 73-79. Claims to cultural “authenticity” are fictive (if nonetheless deeply felt and historically
institutionalized) argues David A. Hollinger in Postethnic A merica: B eyond M ulticulturalism (New Y ork, Basic B ooks,
1995).
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 Note that we emphasize “historicized” than simply “historical” sociology. We reject the
segregation of historical inquiry to a designated set of problems located securely in the past, and
reinforce the conviction that inspired the revival of historical sociology in the 1970s: that the past is
connected to, and informs our understanding of, the present and future. The close identification of
historical sociology with methods of archival research or systematic comparison based largely in
secondary sources – perhaps a necessary strategy for initially professionalizing a project with roots in
political commitments – now unnecessarily limits the enterprise’s scope, which we would take to be the
whole canvas of modern social transformations, including those ongoing in the present.237 The very label
“historical sociology” may have occluded this possibility of linking of past to present, of redescribing the
past to inform our understanding of contemporary and future processes. Much of the “transitions”
literature – the burgeoning body of research on post-socialist societies – illustrates the failure of
historical sociology to make a connection to questions of dramatic societal transformation (see Emigh,
this volume). In these debates, the theoretical underpinnings of historical sociology are often rejected,
both for their association with the collapsed political regimes and because the phenomena themselves –
the creation of markets and civil societies – appear to fall outside the empirical ambit of studies of
revolution and class formation, especially when they were informed by a loosely marxist teleology. In
the place of this theoretical framework, an implicit imagery of modernization and convergence with the
West prevails: how are the institutions of credit or property rights constructed? How are network ties
rooted in party membership transformed into resources for entrepreneurial endeavors? And so on. What
we need, as Martin Shaw (1998) put it, is an “historical sociology of the present and future.”

How then to proceed? From our discussion of third-wave challenges – institutionalist, rational
choice, culturalist, feminist and colonial/post-colonial studies – we can identify four main axes of
theoretical descent and dissent from the second wave paradigm. First, there are assertions of agency, or
attempts to theorize agency, against the second wave’s structuralist approach, in which subjects’ interests
and ideologies were more or less automatically given by their social-structural location (see for example
the chapters by Biernacki; Kiser and Baer).238 Second, we have challenges to the exclusions of second
wavers and their modernist forebears from scholars speaking on behalf of diverse subaltern groups and
invoking the heretofore repressed dimensions of social life connected to relations between the unmarked,
dominant subjects of modernity and these “others” (gender, sexuality, “race,” nation, etc.). Fueled in
part by attention to the constitution of domination outside the formal polity, a third tendency has
expanded the analysis of power to include capillary processes working through classification systems,
therapeutic discourses, and other technologies of order. Finally, there are scholars investigating those

237
Take the phenomenon of formerly “historical sociologists” claiming that they “no longer do historical sociology” as
they have taken up work on contemporary topics. The contempo rary sub ject matter is usua lly linked the oretically with
their earlier work, and reflects an extension of the analysis of social change to the present moment -- but simply does not
dem and use of conve ntionally historical sources (archival or secondary).

238
In sociological theo ry, work on “structuration” has been a critical inspiration. See, for example, Pierre Bourdieu,
Outline of a Theory of Practice (New York: C amb ridge University Press, 197 7); W illiam H . Sewe ll, Jr., “A Theory of
Structure: Duality, Agency and Transformation.” American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992 ): 1-29; An thony Giddens,
The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1984. For
the flip side, see Mustafa Emirbayer and Ann Mische, “What is Agency?” (American Journal of Sociology 103 (4), 1998:
962-102 3).

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elements of the social that were repressed by the second wave’s focus on the structures of the political
economy (see for example the chapters by Gorski and Kestnbaum). Here we find a whole variety of
approaches grouped under the rubric of the cultural turn or turns, efforts to “bring back in” religion,
emotion, violence, habit, and all the non-rational elements of social life.

These tendencies have resulted in a burst of topical differentiation and theoretical reformulation.
The domain of the political has been stretched to include the interplay of politics and religion (e.g.
Gorski, this volume) and the cultural constitution of nation and citizenship (e.g. Somers; Spillman and
Faeges, this volume). Even within the domain of the economic, recent historical sociology extends the
second wave’s central interest in relations of production to include explorations in the creation of
markets and relations of consumption (see the chapters by Carruthers and Emigh). In these lines of
inquiry, as well as many others, both actors and the relationships among them are understood as
profoundly constituted, by culture and historical conjuncture, rather than as reflections of some
underlying system of economic relations (see for example the chapters by Biernacki, Brubaker,
Magubane, and Lo). Thus power relationships are reconceptualized in terms of classification systems,
and formal political institutions are embedded within broader systems of capillary power that harness
categories to projects of domination and contestation (Orloff, Sohrabi). With a recognition of the
multiplicity of structures, new sites of agency are located where actors transgress and transpose the
constraints of local but established interaction orders (see Gould, this volume).

Thus the kaleidoscopic quality of historical sociology – ranging from the Dutch patrimonial state
and its Indonesian colonies to the origins of welfare states and interest groups (to cite only our own
concerns) – may easily obscure a more coherent set of theoretical engagements with the defining
problematics of the second wave. In place of the combination of structural determinism, a singular focus
on political economy, and a model of the rational actor, much recent work documents the multiplicity of
structures, the underdetermination of outcomes, and the complex constitution of human agency
(Clemens, this volume). While this new combination might appear doomed to fragmentation, this is not
inevitable. In making a case for “global ethnography,” Michael Burawoy and his collaborators
“emphasized the way the external ‘system’ colonized the subject lifeworld and how that lifeworld, in
turn, negotiated the terms of domination, created alternatives, or took to collective protest.” Their
ambition was to accommodate “empirical findings to wider contexts of determination” (2000: 25).
Recent historical sociology complements this move, demonstrating how structures, subjects or
institutions are inflected by particular settings and, in the process, potentially transformed. Neither grand
general theory nor particular case studies are adequate to the task of understanding social change, its
continuities and unprecedented transformations.

For historical sociologists, like global ethnographers, new directions of inquiry may require (but
not be defined by) new research strategies. As a practical matter, today’s historical sociologists proceed
from both extremes in order to understand the interpenetration of general processes and local settings as
played out in world historical time. Some produce rich case studies that explore that explore conjunctures
and their consequences. In her study of Taiwanese doctors under Japanese colonialism, for example,
Ming-Cheng Lo illuminates “the importance of the ‘agents’ of modernity by attending to how different
social groups negotiate between the powerful narrative of the universality of science and the concrete
political and social relationships through which science is delivered and developed” (2002: 10). Others
harness the analytic power of comparison by tracking the inflection of a large-scale project – German
colonialism for Steinmetz (2003), the Marshall Plan for Djelic (1998) – across a series of settings to
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exploit the analysis of variation deeply embedded in world historical time. For fundamental theoretical
reasons, these comparative strategies reject the criterion of the independence of cases. The repertoire of
comparative methods that complemented the political economy of the second wave (world systems
theory notably excluded) tended to explore the unfolding of capitalism and modernity in an implicitly
empty world or one in which “tradition” would collapse and be erased by the progress of a modernizing
social order. In contrast to the imagery of clearly-bounded cases existing in the empty “experimental
time” of comparative methods, these studies define their objects as fully embedded in world historical
time and explore conjunctures in which institutional legacies other than Western capitalism or democracy
resist or transform the allegedly homogenizing tendencies of globalization. Beyond this, historical
sociology needs to attend to encounters generated by other dynamic institutional orders such as other
world religious traditions as well as to the blowback within capitalism itself, the transformative effects of
free trade on the labor markets and economic organization of the core.

Prediction is a dangerous game, particularly for historical sociologists. We are, after all,
daughters and sons of Clio as well as of sociology (which, being a creation of modernity, has no muse).
But this vision of a more fully historicized sociology builds on the conviction that the study of the past
illuminates both present and future. The current conversation among historical sociologists is
symptomatic of a moment when world events, the reordering of signs and trajectories of social change
have confounded many people’s expectations. Yet as new manifestations of political, cultural, and
religious past infuse the current moment, it is impossible to take this defeat of expectations as a signal of
some sharp caesura between present and past. Perhaps different parts of the past demand our attention as
we strive to understand processes of social change that have operated behind and beside those
foregrounded by historical sociology’s second wave. “But the danger of continuity types of argument is
that they bring us back to where theoretically we started: normalizing a phenomenon in advance of
rethinking it” (p. 826, author’s italics).239 Perhaps this is also a genuinely unprecedented historical
moment. We should consider these possibilities, carefully but urgently. Figure and ground have been
disturbed; new figures are there to be found.

Many Americans in particular see their way of life as newly unsettled. For although the majority
of the world’s peoples have lived with this condition much longer than we have, this is a moment in
which both world and theory have been shaken in the core. Historical sociologists, like other academics
and intellectuals, have unconsciously depended on this sense of settlement, of achieved modernity, and
are disoriented by its loss. So it is natural when they react with nostalgia for old totalities, a past of
imagined theoretical stability, or with a sense of perceived threat – by policing the boundaries of
intellectual inquiry to try to forcibly settle things anew, or by simply refusing to debate or consider new
ways of thinking. But unsettled times demand open minds. In a speech in Munich, in 1918, at just such
another troubling moment, Max Weber said that although “the ultimately possible attitudes toward life
are irreconcilable, and hence their struggle can never be brought to a final conclusion,” science – which
he meant in the broadest sense, as Wissenschaft – offers us tools and training for thought; technologies
for action, and the possibility of gaining some clarity about where we stand (1919: 150-151, 152). His

239
Peter Baehr’s excellent “Identifying the Unprecedented: Hannah Arendt, Totalitarianism, and the Critique of
Soc iology,” American Sociological Review 67 (December 2002: pp. 804-831) deals with the inability of 1930s
socio logists to grasp the novelty and importance of National Socialism and the Nazi concentration camps; it also includes
a discussion of the unprecedented character of al-Qaeda and 9/11/2001.
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vision of historical sociology still seems right to us – refusing ultimate guarantees or fundamental
foundations; generous, not cramped; focused on “the demands of the day,” and wide open to the future.240

Overview of the Volume

These challenges and responses crosscut the various contributions to this volume. The first
section contains a trio of chapters that engage the development of sociology as a discipline. George
Steinmetz explores the historical constitution of the mid-century discipline of sociology against which a
resurgent historical sociology defined itself. Zine Magubane turns her eyes back toward the classical
sociologists, and to the ongoing debate over the shaping presence of particular visions of colonialism and
empire in their (and our) work. Richard Biernacki then looks towards future theoretical possibilities in
which assumptions of the goal-oriented actor, encoded in Parsonian sociology, are displaced by a
developed theory of practice, attuned to the historical and cultural constitution of rationalities and other
modes of action.

The Weberian imprint on historical sociology is most evident in the attention paid to state
formation. Drawing on rational choice arguments, Edgar Kiser and Justin Baer reconsider processes of
bureaucratization. Close attention to the strategic choices confronting elites replaces a functional
account of efficiency with analyses of the risks and benefits of domination via different means. But if the
bureaucratic state developed as a mechanism for extracting resources, it now also delivers benefits,
although with some hefty conditions. Ann Shola Orloff surveys the development of systems of social
provision and regulation (including welfare states), a central topic for students of the second wave but
now very much under reconstruction. Finally, Philip Gorski argues that historical analyses of both state-
formation and religious change have been hampered by the failure to address the deep mutual implication
of these two processes.

The next trio of chapters shifts perspective, examining politics from the vantage point of political
contention, including the mobilization of violence. Meyer Kestnbaum turns to a topic which, with the
hindsight of the twentieth century, is strangely absent from classical sociological theory: war. Long
acknowledged as an exogenous shock which might catalyze economic or political contradictions, war-
making has only recently received sustained analysis in the context of state-making and the changing
relations between states and peoples. Nader Sohrabi addresses the flourishing research on revolutions,
emphasizing how theorizing has been reshaped by attention to cases beyond Europe and to the
intersecting politics of nations embedded in transnational relations and cultural conversations. And in an
essay on contentious politics, the late Roger Gould (to whom this volume is dedicated) offers a bracing
corrective to historicist tendencies, arguing that robust patterns have been identified across episodes and
contexts of political conflict.

Just as historical sociologists have reconsidered the centrality of the tropes of the utilitarian and
goal-oriented actor, so too has historical research transformed our understanding of the home turf of that

240
Here is the full quote, the last sentences in Webe r’s “Science As a Vocation”: “We shall set to work and meet the
‘demands of the day,’ in human relations as w ell as in our vo cation. This, howe ver, is plain and simple, if each finds and
obeys the demon who holds the fibers of his very life.” (Weber 1946: 156)
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actor: the economy. Rebecca Jean Emigh surveys responses to what was a central preoccupation of the
first wave: the transition to capitalism. Historical research across a growing set of cases, both positive
and negative, has redefined the puzzle as one of transitions to capitalisms, plural, just as the
transformations signaled by “1989" have raised questions of the generalizability of historical explanation.
Bruce Carruthers then traces the path of another great question for classical theory – the development
of markets – which after decades of exile in economic history now reemerges as a critical topic for
historical sociology. The connections among race, ethnicity, class, and gender, along with colonial
domination, anchor Ming-Cheng Lo’s reconsideration of work on the history of the professions. As
both a relic of guild society and a vehicle of rationalizing experts, these collectivities provide a powerful
lens on the internal ambiguities of modernity.

The historical sociologies of both state-building and political conflict have burst the boundaries
of institutional politics to address the formation of collective identities. Wars transform the relations
between states and peoples, states are differentially embedded in religious communities and practices.
Lynette Spillman and Russell Faeges directly explore these relationships in an essay on another of the
surprising absences in classical theory: the nation. Margaret Somers’ essay addresses the curiously
chequered history of citizenship in historical sociology, in hopes that new approaches can help us think
not just about citizens and subjects, but also about the stateless. Rogers Brubaker joins this general
conversation, interrogating a concept both central and utterly taken-for-granted – the group – in the
context of the politics of race and ethnicity.

Across a range of topics, the contributors to this volume explore how recent work in historical
sociology has confronted the challenges and opportunities discussed throughout this introduction.
Although these essays reveal few signs of an emergent theory group, patterns do emerge: key theoretical
appropriations, persistent lines of division. In a concluding chapter, Elisabeth Clemens surveys these
local maps of current historical sociology, arguing that recent research is at least partially organized
around a set of theoretical puzzles – the articulation of practices, the embedding of institutional domains
– rather than substantive questions such as which classes were or were not revolutionary.

Whereas many discussions of historical sociology have focused on questions of method, these
chapters privilege the substantive and theoretical challenges presented by the making of modernity, by
social change writ large. Many of the weightiest processes and events, both past and present, resist
standard sociological methods but our discipline is fundamentally poorer if we ignore them for this reason. We hope
that Rem aking M ode rnity illuminates the possibilities of historical sociology and the large-scale transformations that
made and continue to make our world s.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people have read previous drafts of this paper and generously offered responses. We weren’t
able to address all comments, but the essay is stronger because of the arguments they sparked. Our biggest
thanks go to our fellow volume contributors. We are also grateful to Andy Abbott, Gabi Abend, Raphael
Allen, Ron Aminzade, Nicola Beisel, Michael Burawoy, Craig Calhoun, Chas Camic, Georgi Derluguian,
Geoff Eley, Ivan Evans, Ray Grew, Ira Katznelson, John Lie, Art Stinchcombe, and two anonymous
reviewers for Duke University Press. Earlier versions were presented at the Sociology Department at
Columbia University; Comparativist Day at UCLA; the European University Institute, and the Comparative
and Historical Workshop at Northwestern University, and the essay benefitted from those occasions as well.
We are enormously appreciative of Kari Hodges’ and Kendra Schiffman’s help in getting the unruly text and
bibliography into shape. Our work was supported by the American Sociological Association/National
Science Foundation Fund for the Advancement of the Discipline, which along with the Judd and Marjorie
Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences and the Department of Sociology at Northwestern University made
possible the 2001 conference at which volume participants presented their first drafts. Julia Adams wishes
to thank the American Council of Learned Societies and especially the Russell Sage Foundation, which
provided a wonderful setting for work on the final draft. Ann Orloff is grateful to the Judd and Marjorie
Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences and the Department of Sociology at Northwestern University for
supporting her research.

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