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INTRODUCTION

0.1. IMPORTANCE OF THE COURSE

Be it spoken, printed or online, most of the information in professional
settings, in technology, in sciences, or in business are designed,
edited, printed, published or delivered in English. Besides, the
adequate use of professional documents, work tools and assisting
devices in work places, in factories, in education or in research
environment requires a real mastery of a special language which
obviously must be specific. The mastery of English by transport
sciences students is of a higher importance as English is not only the
first business language in the word, but also one of the most wide
spread languages and the most used in the world communication and
in the world business. It is one of the most spoken used by more than
400 million people in the world. People speaking English in the world
are more than those speaking Arabic and French combined.

0.2. COURSE OBJECTIVES

At the completion of this course students will be able to:
1. To read professional documents in English and be able to
understand them properly.
2. To design and write professional documents in English and
be able to be understood by others through written documents.
3. To exchange with professional partners successfully
through oral speech.

0.3. TEACHING METHODOLOGY

The teaching methodology adopted in this course is referred to as
“tasks oriented approach”. In this teaching methodology students are
trained to develop their reading, writing and speaking skills through
language learning activities based on learning tasks where the student
is considered to be an actor and an active participant while the teacher
plays the role of a helper and facilitator.
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UNIT I: DEVELOPPING LANGUAGE

COMPETENCE

When people learn their native language, they usually learn

to listen first, then to speak, then to read, and finally to write.
To involve in and complete communication foreign language
learners in their turn need to develop the same four language
skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These four
language skills constitute individuals’ language competence. They
are related to each other in two ways: in the direction of
communication and in the method of communication.

 In the direction of communication: When “listening” and

“reading” are receptive skills (i.e. input skills), “speaking”
and “writing” are productive skills (i.e. output skills).
 In the method of communication: When “listening” and
“speaking” relate to spoken language (i.e. oral speech);
“reading” and “writing” relate to the written language (i.e.
based on scripture & text).

These four language skills are sometimes referred to as "macro-

skills" in contrast to "micro-skills", which are things like
grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. In the scope of this
course, however, a main focus is to be put on Reading and
Writing skills.
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1.1. READING SKILL

1.1.1. What Is Reading?

Reading is a receptive skill. Through reading activities

readers receive information. When reading, eyes are used to
receive written symbols (letters, punctuation marks and spaces)
and the brain is used to convert them into words, sentences and
paragraphs that communicate something to the reader.

Reading is then a complex cognitive process which enables the

reader to recognize and decode written symbols and to construct
and derive meaning (understanding). It consists of two related
processes: word recognition and comprehension. Word
recognition refers to the process of perceiving how written
symbols correspond to one’s spoken language. Comprehension is
the process of making sense of words, sentences and connected
text.

Reading is the third of the four language skills. It is usually learnt

after listening and speaking, and before writing.

1.1.2. Why Reading?

Generally reading is regarded as important because it can be

entertaining and educational, can open up new worlds and enrich
your life, and can improve hand-eye co-ordination and enhance
social skills. But for learning a foreign language, such as English,
reading has additional important benefits that can help you learn
the language faster and more completely.
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Reading is an essential skill for language learners. When your

reading skills improve, your listening, speaking and writing skills
improve too. Here are some of the specific reasons why English
learners are encouraged to read in English:

 The constant repetition of words and patterns in reading

helps you learn and remember vocabulary and grammar
structures.

 Reading helps you become familiar with the rhythm of

English. Over time it will start to feel natural and you will
notice when a sentence or phrase doesn't seem right.

 Unlike conversation, reading is something you can do on

your own.

 Reading is not expensive, often free.

 Good reading skills can improve your other language skills.

You need to learn to read before you can write.

 Reading is the best way to learn and remember the proper

spelling of words.

 Listening as you read aloud can help you improve your

pronunciation skills.

If you want to improve your English, learn to love reading in

English. The best readers often get the best grades, jobs and
opportunities.

1.1.3. Types of Reading

Reading is a cognitive activity that requires the work of different

parts of human body to be adequately performed. It is performed
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different ways by different people for different purposes. A

distinction is, however, built between:

Eye Reading: This is generally based on the work of the eyes and
of the brain. It is just the process of looking at a series of written
symbols and getting meaning from them.

Ear Reading: Reading can sometimes be based on the work of the

brain and of the eyes with a significant impact of the ears for
understanding meaning.

Braille Reading: Reading can also be based on the work of the

brain in coordination with hands and is referred to as braille
reading.

Silent Reading: Reading is generally a silent activity that is made

by heart (or in our head). In this case, it is referred to as “silent
reading”.

Oral Reading: The complex process of reading also requires the

skill of speaking, so that we can pronounce the words that we
read. It is made aloud so that other people can hear. In this case,
it is referred to as “Oral reading”.

Reading is something that you can do on your own and that

greatly broadens your vocabulary, thus helping you in speaking
(and in listening and writing). Reading is therefore a highly
valuable skill and activity, and it is recommended that English
learners try to read as much as possible in English.
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1.1.3. What to Read?

You can read printed texts (books, magazines, newspapers at the

library), online materials (websites and blogs), and ebooks (on
your mobile devices).

There are two important things in deciding what to read:

1. It should interest you, so that the reading is fun and not

boring.
2. It should be at a level that is not too difficult for you.
Think about what you like to read in your native language. Can
you find these written materials in English?

Here are some types of reading material to try: Books,

newspapers, online news articles, online blogs (about topics that
interest you), letters (personal and commercial), transcripts (of
some online videos and sub-titles on films), short stories, poetry,
proverbs, cartoons and jokes, recipes for cooking, advertisements
and brochures

1.1.4. Reading Strategies

Here are some strategies for improving your comprehension skills.

 Intensive reading: involves learner reading deeply an

amount of text for learning the language and for
understanding details.

 Extensive reading: involves learners reading for pleasure

and for general understanding.

 Skimming: Learner reads for the brief idea or overview.

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 Scanning: Learner reads for specific details or a specific

reason.

 KWL: You have to determine what you Know about the

topic, what you Want to know, and what you Learned.

 Skipping: if you don't understand a word or section, keep

reading ahead. Come back to the section or word again and
try to figure out the meaning. Use a dictionary if necessary.

 Look for headings, subtitles and keywords.

 Reading out loud: children read out loud when they first
start reading. You can too. Get comfortable hearing your
English voice.

 Create timelines or charts: reorganize what you read in a

different format.

 Rewrite in a different tense.

 Rewrite in a different format: for example, rewrite an article

in letter or list form.

 Illustrate: if you think you're a visual learner, sketch

images or an infographic related to what you read.

 Write the questions: as you read, think about which

questions you might find on a test or quiz. Write them down
and answer them, or quiz a friend.

 Summarize or retell: you can do this by writing a letter to a

friend, writing a blog post, making a web cam video, or just
starting a conversation on this topic.

 Learn affixes: knowing prefixes and suffixes will increase

your word recognition.
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 Keep a vocabulary journal.

 Get a vocabulary partner.

 Use a pen or ruler: some people find it is easier to read with

a pacer. A pen, ruler or fingertip can help you keep your
place and prevent your eyes from wandering off. This may
not be suitable if you are reading on a computer or mobile
device. Adjust the screen to a larger size if necessary.

1.1.5. 10 Reading Tips

1. Read at a level slightly lower than what you understand.

You should not have to look up a lot of words. It's okay to
look up a few words.

2. Make reading a ritual. Choose a time and place to read

every day or week. Commit to this reading time as if it were
a job.

3. Read what interests you.

4. Understand what you'll be tested on. If you're working on

your reading skills for a particular test, make sure to learn
about the test. There may be specific formats such as
advertisements that you'll have to read in the test.

5. Find free reading materials. Project Gutenberg is an

excellent source, but be careful with public domain books
that are written in outdated English. Some words and
expressions are no longer in use.

6. Visualize what you are reading. Some people try to imagine

they are reading a movie or a how-to video.
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7. Listen and read. Find podcasts or videos that have

transcripts and read along silently. You can also read out
loud with the recording.

8. Relate what you read to your own life. How does the
reading apply to you?

9. Think about the author or journalist. How would the

reading differ if you were the author?

10. Check your eyesight. If you haven't had your eyesight

checked in the last few years, make an appointment.

1.2. WRITING SKILL

Good writing requires in the part of the writer being able to ask
and answer a series of questions such as the followings: What is
writing? Why writing? Whom writing to? What writing? And How
writing?
1.2.1. What Is Writing?
Writing is the fourth of the four language skills, which are:
Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing. It is the process of
using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation and spaces) to
communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form. It can also
refer to the work/career of author, as in: “Shakespeare didn’t
make much money from writing.” Writing is above all “the

communication of content for a purpose to an

audience.”

A writer, however, may write for personal enjoyment or use, or for

an audience of one person or more. The audience may be known
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(targeted) or unknown. Taking notes for study purposes is an

example of writing for one's self. Blogging publicly is an example
of writing for an unknown audience. A letter to a friend is an
example of writing for a targeted audience. As with speaking, it is
important to consider your audience when writing.

1.2.2. Why Writing?

What must be the “Purpose” of a piece of writing?
Generically, we might say that the purpose of a piece of writing is
“to entertain” or “to inform” or “to explain” or “to describe” or “to
persuade.” These are the typical purposes for writing, but
understanding this may not help you very much with the piece
you’re working on right now. Specifically, writers write because
they want their readers to be thinking about something when
they finish reading. And often they want their readers to do
something, too. That is to say that Purpose = Think + Do.

Many pieces have just one or the other. However, writers who
include both often end up with stronger pieces. You may feel that
you would like your “Think” or your “Do” to be identical to your
main idea. This is fine. But your piece will be stronger if you take
the opportunity here to go a step beyond your main idea. For
example, why is your main idea important to your reader?

Your purpose is where you’re going, it’s your destination, it’s the
end. When is your piece finished? When you’re pretty sure you’ve
achieved your purpose. That’s why we want to be so specific
about it. If you think of your purpose as simply “to entertain” or
“to inform,” how will you know what to write? What will your
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readers find entertaining? What will you inform them about?

These are the more specific questions you need to be able to
answer.
When you start a piece, it’s not always possible to know how you
want it to end. But it helps if you can take a guess. And that’s
why writers have to come up with specific language about what
they would like their readers to think or do once they’ve finished
reading. You can always change it later. But having a purpose in
mind, even if it’s not exactly perfect, helps you write more quickly
and more effectively.
Here’s something that helps. Often, before you finish a piece,
you write out an ending. You just think about why you are
writing the piece (what you want your reader to think and/or do)
and you try to come up with a simple paragraph or two.

1.2.3. What Writing?

What to write in a piece of writing is not actually different
from what you know, what you have seen, what you have
heard, what you have read, what you want, or what you
think about a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. The
“what” of your writing is the content or the message that
you communicate through your piece of writing. That is
identified by the topic and elaborated through the text.

What is meant by “Content”?

Content = Main Idea + Key Details
The main idea of your piece is a single sentence that sums
everything up and expresses the one most important thing you
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want your readers to know. It should be something that is

important to you and that you think will be important to your
readers as well. The key details are the vital pieces of
information your readers have to have in order to “unlock” or
understand your main idea.

1.2.4. What Is Your Audience?

Who are you writing to? How would you describe them? How old
are they? What are their circumstances and interests? Be as
specific as you can be.
Audience = People + Questions
Sometimes we write to specific people like friends or relatives.
This happens when we write letters or send e-mail messages. But
often, and especially in school, we’re trying to write for a broader
audience. In this case, the audience could be defined as a group
of people of a certain age (kids between the ages of 9 and 12), a
particular set of circumstances (parents of/ who have kids in
our school), a specific interest (people who want ideas for fun
family vacations), or any combination. The better you know your
audience, the more you’ll be able to understand and anticipate the
kinds of questions they will have about your topic. What are the key
questions your audience will have about your topic? What are the most
important things your audience would want to know?

1.2.6. How Writing?

Generally, people write using a pen/pencil (handwriting) or a

keyboard (typing). With a pen/pencil people usually write on a
surface such as paper or board. A keyboard is also used to write.
It is normally attached to a typewriter, computer or mobile device.
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Voice recognition programs allow those who can't see or use their
hands to have their thoughts transcribed.

To write clearly it is essential to understand the basic system of a

language. In English this includes knowledge of grammar,
punctuation and sentence structure. Vocabulary is also
necessary, as is correct spelling and formatting. Writers, however,
differ in their styles.

1.2.7. What is a Writing Style?

An author's writing style is the manner in which the author

writes to his or her readers. A particular writing style can reveal
the writer's personality, as well as how he or she perceives the
audience. The choice of a conceptual writing style molds the
overall character of the work.

Every piece writers write is for a specific purpose—for example,

writers may want to explain how something works or persuade
people to agree with their point of view. While there are as many
writer's styles as there are writers, there are only four general
purposes that lead someone to write a piece, and these are known
as the four styles, or types, of writing. Knowing all four different
types and their usages is important for any writer.

Here are the four categories (styles/types) of writing and their

definitions:

1. Expository

Expository writing explains or informs. It talks about a subject

without giving opinions.
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Expository writing's main purpose is to explain. It is a subject-

oriented writing style, in which authors focus on telling you about
a given topic or subject without voicing their personal opinions.
These types of essays or articles furnish you with relevant facts
and figures but do not include their opinions. This is one of the
most common types of writing. You always see it in textbooks and
how-to articles. The author just tells you about a given subject,
such as how to do something.

Key Points:

 Usually explains something in a process.

 Is often equipped with facts and figures.

 Is usually in a logical order and sequence.

When Would You Use Expository Writing?

You would use expository writing in: -Textbook writing, - How-to

articles, - Recipes, - News stories (not including opinion or
editorial pieces), - Business, technical, or scientific writing.

Example:

Many people associate the taste of pumpkins with fall. In October,

companies from Starbucks to McDonalds roll out their pumpkin-
flavored lattes and desserts. Here is how to make an easy
pumpkin pie using only five ingredients. First, make sure you have
all of the ingredients.

This writing is expository because it is explaining. In this case,

you can already tell that the piece will be about how to make a
pumpkin pie.
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Non-example:

Everyone knows that the best part about fall is all of the pumpkin-
flavored desserts. Pumpkin pie is the best fall treat because it is
not only delicious but also nutritious. Pumpkin is filled with vitamin
A, which is essential for a healthy immune system and good vision.

This is not expository because several opinions are stated, such

as “Pumpkin pie is the best fall treat…” Although this excerpt
contains a fact about pumpkin containing vitamin A, that fact is
used as evidence to support the opinion. These opinions make
this an example of persuasive writing.

2. Descriptive

Descriptive writing focuses on communicating the details of a

character, event, or place. Descriptive writing's main purpose is to
describe. It is a style of writing that focuses on describing a
character, an event, or a place in great detail. It can be poetic
when the author takes the time to be very specific in his or her
descriptions.

Example:

In good descriptive writing, the author will not just say: “The
vampire killed his lover.”

He or she will change the sentence, focusing on more details and

descriptions, like: “The bloody, red-eyed vampire, sunk his rust-
colored teeth into the soft skin of his lover and ended her life."

Key Points:

 It is often poetic in nature

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 It describes places, people, events, situations, or locations in a

highly-detailed manner.

 The author visualizes what he or she sees, hears, tastes,

smells, and feels.

When Would You Use Descriptive Writing?

You would use descriptive writing in: - Poetry, - Journal or diary

writing, - Nature writing, - Descriptive passages in fiction

Example:

The iPhone 6 is unexpectedly light. While size of its screen is bigger

than those of the iPhones that came before, it is thinner, and its
smooth, rounded body is made of aluminum, stainless steel, and
glass. The casing comes in a whitish silver, gold, or a color the
company calls “space gray,” the color of the lead of a pencil, with
darker gray accents.

This is an example because it describes aspects of the phone. It

includes details such as the size, weight, and material.

Non-example:

So you just brought home a shiny new smartphone with a smooth

glass screen the size of your palm. The first thing you will want to
do when purchasing a new cell is buy a case. Cracking your screen
is an awful feeling, and protection is inexpensive when you
compare it to the costs of a new phone.

Even though this example uses adjectives, you can tell that this is
not an example of descriptive writing because the purpose is not
to describe the phone—it’s to persuade you to buy a case.
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3. Persuasive

Persuasive writing tries to bring other people around to your point

of view. Persuasive writing's main purpose is to convince. Unlike
expository writing, persuasive writing contains the opinions and
biases of the author. To convince others to agree with the
author's point of view, persuasive writing contains justifications
and reasons. It is often used in letters of complaint,
advertisements or commercials, affiliate marketing pitches, cover
letters, and newspaper opinion and editorial pieces.

Key Points:

 Persuasive writing is equipped with reasons, arguments, and

justifications.

 In persuasive writing, the author takes a stand and asks you

to agree with his or her point of view.

 It often asks for readers to do something about the situation

(this is called a call-to-action).

When Would You Use Persuasive Writing?

You would use persuasive writing in: - Opinion and editorial

newspaper pieces, - Advertisements, - Reviews (of books, music,
movie, restaurants, etc.), - Letter of recommendation, - Letter of
complaint, - Cover letters

Example:

Following the 2012 Olympic Games hosted in London, the UK

Trade and Investment department reported a £9.9 billion boost to
the economy. Although it is expensive to host the Olympics, if done
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right, they can provide real jobs and economic growth. This city
should consider placing a bid to host the Olympics.

This is persuasive writing because the author has a belief—that

“this city should consider placing a bid to host the Olympics”—
and is trying to convince others to agree.

Non-example:

According to legend, the Olympics were founded by Hercules. Now

almost 100 countries participate in the Games, with over two
million people attending. So cities from Boston to Hamburg begin
considering their bid to be a host city more than 10 years in
advance.

All of these statements are facts. Therefore it’s expository. To be

persuasive writing, you must have an opinion that you’re trying to
persuade people of—then, of course, you will support that opinion
with evidence.

4. Narrative

A narrative tells a story. There will usually be characters and

dialogue. Narrative writing's main purpose is to tell a story. The
author will create different characters and tell you what happens
to them (sometimes the author writes from the point of view of
one of the characters—this is known as first person narration).
Novels, short stories, novellas, poetry, and biographies can all fall
in the narrative writing style. Simply, narrative writing answers
the question: “What happened then?”
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Key Points:

 A person tells a story or event.

 Has characters and dialogue.

 Has definite and logical beginnings, intervals, and endings.

 Often has situations like actions, motivational events, and

disputes or conflicts with their eventual solutions.

When Would You Use Narrative Writing?

You would use narrative writing in: - Novels, - Short stories, -

Novellas, - Poetry, - Autobiographies or biographies, - Anecdotes,
- Oral histories

Example:

“I don’t think that’s a good idea,” said Jaelyn.

“You never used to be such a girl!” retorted Orin, pushing open

the door.

Reluctantly, Jaelyn followed.

This is a narrative because it’s telling a story. There are different

characters conversing, and a plot is unravelling.

Non-example:

Cutting Edge Haunted House holds the Guinness World Record for
the largest haunted house on earth. It’s located in a district in Fort
Worth, Texas known as "Hell's Half Acre" in a century-old
abandoned meat-packing plant. The haunted house takes an hour
to complete, winding through horrific scenes incorporating the
factory's original meat-packing equipment.
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While this would serve as a worthy setting for a story, it would

need a plot before it could be called a narrative.

N.B:

 These are the four different types of writing that are

generally used. There are many sub-types of writing
that may fall in any of those categories. A writer must
know all these styles in order to identify the purpose of
his or her own writing and make sure it's something
the audience wants to read.
 Business style is very similar to technical style, except
that longer sentences are acceptable. The phraseology
is likely to be somewhat more subjective, with relatively
more opinions rather than facts.
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UNIT II: SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

2.1. WHAT IS A SENTENCE?

Linguists have problems in agreeing on how to define the word

sentence. The concept sentence is traditionally (and inadequately)
defined as a word or group of words that expresses a complete
idea and that includes a subject and a verb.

Sentence is also described as the largest independent unit of

grammar. It actually starts with a capital letter and ends with a
period/full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark /point. On
the basis of this definition, some of the sentences written by ESL
students (indeed by all writers) will be correct, and other
sentences will be problematic.

2.2. PARTS OF A SENTENCE

2.2.1. SMALL PARTS OF A SENTENCE

If it helps you, think about a sentence as if it were a skeleton, the

skeleton contains various bones and these bones are put together
to form different parts of the body. So are sentences formed by
words, the words are the bones and they are put together in
different ways to form sentences.
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Parts of a sentence Description

Noun Names things
Proper noun (subject) The actual names of people or places
etc
Pronoun used instead of a noun to avoid
repetition
Article a, an - indefinite articles
the - definite articles
Adjective Describes things or people
Adverb Alters the meaning of the verb
slightly
Preposition Relates one thing to another
Conjunction Joins words or sentences together
Interjection A short word showing emotion or
feeling
Verb Action or doing word

2.2.2. MAIN PARTS OF A SENTENCE

A simple sentence contains a single subject and predicate.

Questions that rise in minds and that actually need to be
answered are: “what is a subject?” And “what is a predicate?”

2.2.2.1. SUBJECTS

A subject is the person or the thing the sentence is 'about'.

Generally it is the person or thing carrying out an action. Often
(but not always) it will be the first part of the sentence. The
subject will usually be a noun phrase (i.e. a noun and the words,
such as adjectives, that modify it). In a statement, the subject is
actually followed by a verb.
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How finding the subject in a sentence?

The subject(s) of a sentence will answer the questions, "who or

what." Once you determine the verb, ask a wh...? question of the
verb. This will locate the subject(s).

For example: - David works hard.

-Who "works hard"? =David does=the subject.

-Beer and wine are my favorite drinks.

-What "are my favorite drinks"? Beer and wine are=the subjects.

2.2.2.2. PREDICATE

Predicate always includes the verb and the words which come
after the verb. Once you have identified the subject in a
sentence, the remainder of the sentence tells us what the subject
does or did. This part of the sentence is the predicate of the
sentence.

In the sentence “Michael Schumaker drove the race car.” for

example "Michael Schumaker" is the subject; but "drove the race
car" is the predicate.

2.2.2.3. VERB

What is verb?

Verb is the fundamental part of the sentence. It is the word that

names and asserts the action or state of the sentence. The rest of
the sentence, with the exception of the subject, depends very
much on the verb. A distinction, however, should be build
between linking verbs, transitive and intransitive verbs.
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LINKING VERBS

Linking verbs or be verbs, include words such as: am, is, are,
was, were, be, been, being, became, seem, appear, and sometimes
verbs of the senses like tastes, feels, looks, hears, and smells.

For example: "Beer and wine are my favorite drinks." The verb
"are" is a linking (be) verb.

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Verbs that have an object are called transitive verbs (e.g. eat,
drive, give, speak…). Verbs which don't have an object are called
intransitive (e.g. disagree). Some verbs can be transitive or
intransitive (e.g. sing). Some verbs can only be intransitive (e.g.
disagree). In addition they cannot be used in the Passive Voice
(e.g. smile, fall, come, go).

For example: David disagreed. - intransitive verb

David gave her a present. - transitive verb

Sing. - transitive or intransitive verb

Matu Samuel sings. - intransitive verb

Xavier Nadu sings pop songs. - transitive verb

It is important to have a good knowledge of the forms used after

each verb (i.e. verb patterns), for example: to tell [someone] to do
[something]. Here we can see that the verb to tell is followed
immediately by a person (the indirect object), an infinitive with
'to', and, possibly, an object for the verb you substitute for do.
Fortunately, there are only a limited number of different verb
patterns. Verbs can describe the action (something the subject
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actually does) or state (something that is true of the subject) of

the subject. For example: I play football twice a week (Action).
I've got a car (State).

Some verbs can represent both actions and states, depending on

the context. For example: Action: David's working in the bank.
State: David works in a bank.

How finding the verb in a sentence?

When you analyze a sentence, first identify the verb. The verb
names and asserts the action or state of the sentence. For
example: "Working at the computer all day made David's head
ache."

The main verb of the sentence is "made", not working. Verbs

identify our activity or state. For example: eat, sleep, run, jump,
study, think, digest, shout, walk....

2.3. TYPES OF SENTENCES

Sentences are categorized in different ways by different writers.

The two most frequent ways are by structure and by purpose.

2.3.1. TYPES OF SENTENCES BY STRUCTURE

One way to categorize sentences is by the clauses they contain. A

sentence, however, can consist of a single clause or several
clauses. To this extends, the four basic sentence structures are
the simple sentence, the compound sentence, the complex
sentence, and the compound-complex sentence.
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2.3.1.1. SIMPLE SENTENCE

For example:

o I don't like dogs.

o I love chocolate.
o Our school basketball team lost their last game of the season.
o The old hotel opposite the bus station in the center of the town
is probably going to be knocked down at the end of next year.
o You can't surprise a man with a dog

N.B: A simple sentence is the one which contains a single clause

and this clause is called an independent clause (i.e. When a
sentence is a single clause, it is called a simple sentence). A
simple sentence has just one independent clause. A simple
sentence contains a single subject and predicate. It describes only
one thing, one idea or one question, and has only one main verb.

Even the addition of adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional

phrases to a simple sentence does not change it into a complex
sentence. Even if you join several nouns with a conjunction, or
several verbs with a conjunction, it remains a simple sentence.

For example:

 Jill reads.
 The dog barked loudly.
 The brown dog with the red collar always barks loudly

2.3.1.2. COMPOUND SENTENCE

For example:

o I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats.

o I love chocolate, and I love eating chocolate
o You can write on paper, or you can use a computer.
 27

o A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students
was injured.
o The sun was setting in the west and the moon was just rising.
o I walked to the shops, but my husband drove.
o I might watch the film, or I might visit my friends.
o My friend enjoyed the film, but she didn't like the actor.

N.B: A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses.

It contains two independent clauses that are joined by a
coordinating conjunction. Every clause in a compound sentence
is like a sentence with a subject and a verb. A coordinating
conjunction goes in the middle of the sentence, and it is the word
that joins the two clauses together, (The most common coordinating

conjunctions are: but, or, and, so).

2.3.1.3. COMPLEX SENTENCE

For example:

 I don't like dogs that bark at me when I go past.

 She did my homework, while her father cooked dinner.
 You can write on paper, although a computer is better if you want to
correct mistakes easily.
 I love chocolate because it’s decadent.

N.B: Complex sentences describe more than one thing or idea and
have more than one verb in them. They are made up of more than
one clause. A complex sentence contains an independent clause
plus one or more dependent clauses. An independent clause can
stand by itself but a dependent subordinate clause cannot stand
by itself. A dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction.

Examples: that, because, while, although, where, if.

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2.3.1.4. COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCE

For example:

o I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats because they make
her sneeze.
o You can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you can
easily correct your mistakes.
o A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students
was injured, although many of them were in classrooms at the top of
the building.
o I love chocolate because it’s decadent, and I love eating
chocolate because it’s delicious.

N.B: Complex-compound sentence referred by some writers as

Compound-complex sentence Contains 3 or more clauses (of
which at least two are independent and one or more than one are
dependent).

Those four categories apply to normal, grammatical sentences.

However, some of our most common expressions are sentences
that don’t follow the rules.

2.3.2. TYPES OF SENTENCES BY PURPOSE

2.3.2.1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE

For example:

o I love chocolate
o Clothes make the man.
o He has every attribute of a dog except loyalty.
o Naked people have little or no influence on society.
o I wonder if all the RDC politicians are members of a weird
religious cult.
 29

N.B: A declarative sentence states a fact and ends with a period /

full stop. It is used to make a simple statement. Most sentences
in our speech or in our writings are declarative.

2.3.2.2. NEGATIVE SENTENCE

A negative sentence also known as negation is a sentence which

is denying. It generally holds a verb form carrying the negative
particle “not”. Not all verbs can carry the negative inflection “not”.
“not” is carried by auxiliary verbs only. If a main verb in a
statement is used without auxiliary verb, it will borrow the
auxiliary (do, does, did) when getting into negation.
e.g.: - We are not stranger in this country.
- You cannot leave the office before the boss.
- Some students have not got personal computers.
- Politicians do not share the same opinions.
- I do not like travelling by canoe.
N.B:-NOT is not the only one negative marker. Other negative
markers are never, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere, and
neither. When not is carried by the conjugated verb, other
markers are carried by other sentence components.

e.g.: - Nobody understands her.

- He knows nothing.

- Not everybody can afford such holiday!

- He asked us not to repeat it.

- She went away without adding anything.

- We hardly know anything about him.

 30

- She could scarcely walk, could she?

- Never did he work at night!

- No sooner had he graduated than he left his girlfriend.

- Hardly had she uttered his name than she burst into tears.

2.3.2.3. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE

For example:

o Do you love chocolate?

o Who knew that dog saliva can mend a broken heart?

N.B: An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a

question mark. ? It is used to ask a question.

2.3.2.4. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE

For example:

o Please buy me some chocolate

o When a dog runs at you, whistle for him.

N.B: An imperative sentence is a command or a polite request. It

ends with a period / full stop. It is used for commands with the
pronoun you always implied.

2.3.2.5. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE

For example:

o I need chocolate!
o In Washington, it's dog eat dog. In academia, it's exactly the
opposite!
 31

o To die for an idea; it is unquestionably noble. But how much

nobler it would be if men died for ideas that were true!

N.B: An exclamatory sentence expresses excitement or emotion. It

ends with an exclamation mark. It is used for emphasis and
emotion.

2.3.2.6. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

For example:

o If I had a billion dollars, I would buy a castle made of chocolate.

o When a dog runs at you, whistle for him.

N.B: Conditional sentence is used to express what one would do if

a condition were met. There are several types of conditional
sentences: the present general (or zero condition), the future
more-vivid (or first condition), the future less-vivid (or second
condition), the present contrafactual (also sometimes called the
second condition), and the past contrafactual (or third condition).

Advice: Writing that contains mostly short, simple sentences can

be uninteresting or even irritating to read. Writing that consists of
mostly long, complex sentences is usually difficult to read. Good
writers, therefore, use a variety of sentence types.

Sentences can be extremely simple or incredibly complicated.

Obviously, the more complicated the sentence the more care you
need to take to make sure that all the parts are properly
constructed and agree with one another. However, when you
review your work, you should make sure that all of your
 32

sentences contain all the necessary elements - at the most basic

level, at least a subject and a verb.

2.4. PROBLEMATIC 'SENTENCES'

To write a correct sentence, you need to have a good

understanding of what a sentence is. Students who don't have
this understanding, or don't take care, often include problem
sentences in their writing. Native English speakers are just as
likely to write problem sentences as ESL students. There are
three main types of problem sentence:

2.4.1. Run-on sentences

These are two sentences that the writer has not separated with an
end punctuation mark, or has not joined with a conjunction.

o I went to Paris in the vacation it is the most beautiful place I

have ever visited.
o It's never too late to learn to swim you never know when you
may fall from a boat.
o If you're going to the shops can you buy me some eggs and flour
I want to make a cake.
o I like our new math teacher, she always explains the work very
clearly.
o He was late to school again, his bus got caught in heavy traffic.

Advice: It is helpful to read your written work aloud. When you

speak, you will make natural pauses to mark the end of your
sentences or clauses. If there is no corresponding end
punctuation mark in your writing, you can be almost certain that
you have written a run-on sentence.
 33

2.4.2. Sentence fragments

Fragment sentences are unfinished sentences, i.e. they don't

contain a complete idea. A common fragment sentence in student
writing is a dependent clause standing alone without an
independent clause. In the each of the following examples the
fragment is the second 'sentence':

o I don't think I'm going to get a good grade. Because I didn't

study.
o She got angry and shouted at the teacher. Which wasn't a very
good idea.
o He watched TV for an hour and then went to bed. After falling
asleep on the sofa.
o She got up and ran out of the library. Slamming the door behind
her.
o I have to write a report on Albert Einstein. The famous scientist
who left Europe to live in the USA.
o After riding my bike without problems for over a year, the chain
broke. 40 kilometers from my house!

Advice: If your 'sentence' is a dependent clause, or it doesn't

contain both a subject and a predicate, then it is not a proper
sentence. You can often detect fragments if you read your writing
backwards sentence by sentence, i.e. from the last sentence to
the first one. You can usually correct a fragment by connecting it
to the sentence before or after it.

Good writers, who have a full understanding of the sentence,

occasionally choose to write a sentence fragment. So you may see
sentence fragments in the fiction or even some of the non-fiction
 34

you read. As an ESL student, however, you should avoid

fragments (except when writing your own creative stories).
2.4.3. Rambling sentences

A rambling sentence is a sentence made up of many clauses,

often connected by a coordinating conjunction such as and, or,
so.

o John usually gets up before 7 o'clock, but yesterday his alarm

clock did not ring, so he was still asleep when his boss called him
at 10.30 to ask where he was and tell him that he would lose his
job if he was late again.
o Although the blue whale has been protected for over 30 years and
its numbers are increasing, especially in the North Pacific, where
whale hunting has been banned, it is still at risk of extinction as
its habitat is being polluted by waste from oil tankers and its
main food, the plankton, is being killed off by harmful rays from
the sun, which can penetrate the earth's atmosphere because
there is a huge hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica.

Advice: A rambling sentence is quite easy to spot. You have

almost certainly written one if your sentence contains more than
3 or 4 conjunctions. If you read the sentence aloud and run out of
breath before reaching the end of it, you have written a rambling
sentence. If your sentence stretches over many lines of writing,
you have certainly written a rambling sentence and most
probably a run-on sentence too.

Unlike run-ons or fragments, rambling sentences are not wrong,

but they are tiresome for the reader and one of the signs of a poor
writer. You should avoid them.
 35

2.5. MORE ADVANCED TERMINOLOGY IN SENTENCE

STRUCTURES

More advanced terminology that involves within the sentence

structure included: complement, object, adjunct, adverbials,
clause...

2.5.1. COMPLEMENTS

There are various definitions of 'complement', which range from

the very general (anything in the predicate except the verb,
including the direct object and adverbs) to the much more
restrictive one. A complement is the part of the sentence that
gives you more information about the subject (a subject
complement) or, in some structures, about the object (an object
complement).

The complement to be used, if any, is dependent on the verb used

in the sentence. Subject complements normally follow certain
verbs. A subject complement is used with verbs like be, seem,
look etc. For example:

 He is Spanish.
 She became an engineer.
 That man looks like John.

Object complements follow the direct object of the verb. For

example:

 They painted the house red.

 She called him an idiot!
 36

 I saw her standing there.

The complement often consists of an adjective or noun phrase,

but can also be a participle phrase, as in the last example. It is
often not very clear whether a phrase is a complement or an
adverbial.

2.5.2. OBJECTS

The object is the person or thing affected by the action described

in the verb. Some verbs have an object (always a noun or
pronoun). Objects come in two types, direct and indirect. The
direct object refers to a person or thing affected by the action of
the verb. The indirect object refers to a person or thing who
receives the direct object.

For example:

"He opened the door." - here the door is the direct

object as it is the thing being affected by the verb to
open.

"He opened the door." - here the door is the direct

object as it is the thing being affected by the verb to
open.

2.5.3. ADJUNCTS

In linguistics, an adjunct is an optional, or structurally

dispensable, part of a sentence, clause, or phrase that, if removed
or discarded, will not otherwise affect the remainder of the
 37

sentence. Example: In the sentence "John helped Bill in Central

Park ", the phrase in Central Park is an adjunct. [1]

An adjunct can be a single word, a phrase, or an entire clause.[4]

Single word
She will leave tomorrow.
Phrase
She will leave in the morning.
Clause
She will leave after she has had breakfast.

Most discussions of adjuncts focus on adverbial adjuncts, that is,

on adjuncts that modify verbs, verb phrases, or entire clauses like
the adjuncts in the three examples just given. Adjuncts can
appear in other domains, however; that is, they can modify most
categories. Thus one can have ad-nominal adjuncts, ad-adjective
adjuncts, ad-adverb adjuncts, etc.

-The discussion before the game - before the game is an ad-

nominal adjunct.
-Very happy - very is an ad-adjectival adjunct.
-Too loudly - too is an ad-adverb adjunct.

Adjuncts are always constituents. Each of the adjuncts in the

above examples is a constituent.

A more detailed definition of the adjunct emphasizes its attribute

as a modifying form, word, or phrase that depends on another
form, word, or phrase, being an element of clause structure with
 38

adverbial function. Take the sentence John helped Bill in Central

Park on Sunday as an example:

1. John is the subject argument.

2. helped is the predicate.
3. Bill is the object argument.
4. in Central Park is the first adjunct.
5. on Sunday is the second adjunct.

An adverbial adjunct is a sentence element that often establishes

the circumstances in which the action or state expressed by the
verb takes place. The following sentence uses adjuncts of time
and place:

Yesterday, Lorna saw the dog in the garden.

SEMANTIC FUNCTION OF ADJUNCTS

Adjuncts can be categorized in terms of the functional meaning

that they contribute to the phrase, clause, or sentence in which
they appear. The following list of the semantic functions is by no
means exhaustive, but it does include most of the semantic
functions of adjuncts identified in the literature on adjuncts:

A. Causal - Causal adjuncts establish the reason for, or purpose

of, an action or state.
e.g. The ladder collapsed because it was old. (reason)
B. Concessive - Concessive adjuncts establish contrary
circumstances.
e.g. Lorna went out although it was raining.
 39

C. Conditional - Conditional adjuncts establish the condition in

which an action occurs or state holds.
e.g. I would go to Paris, if I had the money.
D. Consecutive - Consecutive adjuncts establish an effect or
result.
e.g. It rained so hard that the streets flooded.
E. Final - Final adjuncts establish the goal of an action (what one
wants to accomplish).
e.g. He works a lot to earn money for school.
F. Instrumental - Instrumental adjuncts establish the
instrument used to accomplish an action.
e.g. Mr. Bibby wrote the letter with a pencil.
G. Locative - Locative adjuncts establish where, to where, or
from where a state or action happened or existed.
e.g. She sat on the table. (locative)
H. Measure - Measure adjuncts establish the measure of the
action, state, or quality that they modify
e.g. I am completely finished.
That is mostly true.
We want to stay in part.
I. Modal - Modal adjuncts establish the extent to which the
speaker views the action or state as (im)probable.
e.g. They probably left.
In any case, we didn't do it.
That is perhaps possible.
I'm definitely going to the party.
J. Modificative - Modificative adjuncts establish how the action
happened or the state existed.
 40

e.g. He ran with difficulty. (manner)

He stood in silence. (state)
He helped me with my homework. (limiting)
K. Temporal - Temporal adjuncts establish when, how long, or
how frequent the action or state happened or existed.
e.g. He arrived yesterday. (time point)
He stayed for two weeks. (duration)
She drinks in that bar every day. (frequency)

2.5.4. ADVERBIALS

An 'adverbial' or 'adverbial phrase' is a word or expression in the

sentence that does the same job as an adverb; that is, it tells you
something about how the action in the verb was done.

For example:

 I sometimes have trouble with adverbs.

 He spoke very quietly.
 I've read that book three times.
 She's gone to the bank.

The first tells us the frequency of the action (sometimes), the

second how he carried out the action (quietly), and the third how
many times the action has happened (three).

The fourth is a little different, as in this case the adverbial (gone

to the bank) is more or less demanded by the verb (has).

For example:

 to go [somewhere]
 41

 to put [something][somewhere]

This information is also useful when deciding the order of

adverbials in a sentence. Unlike the previous parts of the
sentence, a sentence can contain an indefinite number of
adverbials, although in practice it's a good idea to keep them few
in number.

2.5.5. CLAUSES

In grammar, a clause is the smallest grammatical unit that can

express a complete proposition. A typical clause consists of a
subject and a predicate, where the predicate is typically a verb
phrase – a verb together with any objects and other modifiers.
However the subject is sometimes not expressed (as in imperative
sentences and non-finite clauses).

A primary division for the discussion of clauses is the distinction

between main clauses (i.e. matrix clauses, independent clauses)
and subordinate clauses (i.e. embedded clauses, dependent
clauses).

A) A main clause

A main clause is the independent clause. It can stand alone as a

sentence (i.e. it can constitute a complete simple sentence by
itself) or can be a part of a multi-clause sentence. An independent
clause (or main clause) contains both a subject and predicate.

We visited Paris last September. [Independent clause functioning

as a full sentence]
 42

Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) are used
to connect elements of equal weight such as two independent
clauses, using a comma before the conjunction.

We visited Paris in September, and then we visited Berlin in

October. [two independent clauses connected by the coordinating
conjunction and proceeded with a comma].

B) A subordinate clause

A subordinate clause (i.e. embedded clause), in contrast, is reliant

on the appearance of a main clause; it depends on the main
clause and is therefore a dependent clause, A dependent clause
(or subordinate clause) contains both a subject and a verb but
cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must always be a part of a
sentence, on which it depends for meaning. Reading a dependent
clause on its own leaves the reader wondering where the rest of
the information is.

An adverb clause or adverbial clause (also called a subordinate

clause) is a type of dependent clause which starts with a
subordinating conjunction (e.g. because, although, when, if, until,
as, if etc.). It indicates a dependent relationship with information
elsewhere in the independent clause that it modifies. Similarly to
adverbs, adverb clauses usually answer questions such as: Why?
How? When? Under what circumstances? When the adverb
clause is written before the independent clause, separate the two
with a comma.
 43

A second major distinction concerns the difference between finite

and non-finite clauses. A finite clause contains a structurally
central finite verb, whereas the structurally central word of a non-
finite clause is often a non-finite verb.
 44

UNIT III: DEVELOPING PARAGRAPHS

A paragraph is a collection of sentences which all relate to one

main idea or topic. Effective paragraphs have four main
characteristics: a topic sentence, unity, coherence, and adequate
development. Each of these characteristics is discussed below.

3.1. Topic Sentence

Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best

ways to achieve clarity and unity in one's writing. The function of
a topic sentence is to describe what the paragraph will be about,
such that the reader has clear expectations about what will
follow. An effective topic sentence typically contains only one
main idea. The remainder of the paragraph then develops that
idea more fully, offering supporting points and examples. After
reading a topic sentence, one should be able to anticipate the type
of information contained in the rest of the paragraph. If the
remainder of the paragraph does not fulfill the "promise" of the
topic sentence, the paragraph will lack unity, coherence and
adequate development.

Examples

"The cockroaches that inhabit many city apartments and homes are parasites
that are almost impossible to exterminate completely."

Notice that this sentence clearly identifies that the key topic of the paragraph
is cockroaches. It also indicates what the remainder of the paragraph will
discuss: the difficulty of exterminating cockroaches. The reader can then
 45

expect the rest of the paragraph to explain how and why cockroaches are
difficult to eliminate.

"Many television cartoons contain an unhealthy amount of violence."

Notice that this sentence clearly identifies that the key topic of the
paragraph is violence in television cartoons. It also indicates that
the remainder of the paragraph will discuss how much violence
cartoons typically contain, and how/why this violence is
unhealthy for viewers.

"An increasing number of people in America are enjoying the benefits of

organically grown fruits and vegetables."

This topic sentence indicates that the remainder of the paragraph

will cover the trend in the United States toward eating organic
foods. The reader can also anticipate learning more in this
paragraph about the specific benefits of organic foods.

3.2. Unity

Unity refers to the extent to which all of the ideas contained

within a given paragraph "hang together" in a way that is easy for
the reader to understand. When the writer changes to a new idea
-- one which is not consistent with the topic sentence of the
paragraph -- the writer should begin a new paragraph. Unity is
important because it aids the reader in following along with the
writer's ideas. The reader can expect that a given paragraph will
deal only with one main topic; when a new paragraph begins, this
signals that the writer is moving on to a new topic.
 46

Consider the following example. Note that there are two main
ideas presented in this paragraph. The topic sentence indicates
that the paragraph will deal with the subject of "employees'
attitudes," but the paragraph shifts unexpectedly to the topic of
"management's attitudes." To achieve unity in this paragraph, the
writer should begin a new paragraph when the switch is made
from employees to managers.

Example

"Employees' attitudes at Jonstone Electric Company should be improved.

The workers do not feel that they are a working team instead of just
individuals. If people felt they were a part of a team, they would not
misuse the tools, or deliberately undermine the work of others.
Management's attitude toward its employees should also be improved.
Managers at Jonstone Electric act as though their employees are
incapable of making decisions or doing their own work. Managers treat
workers like objects, not human beings."

3.3. Coherence

Coherence refers to the extent to which the flow of ideas in a

paragraph is easily understood by the reader. For this reason,
coherence is closely related to unity. When a writer changes main
ideas or topics within a paragraph, confusion often results. To
achieve coherence, then, a writer should show how all of the ideas
contained in a paragraph are relevant to the main topic.

Consider the example below. In this paragraph, the writer begins

with the topic of job-skills courses, but veers off onto the topic of
algebra and history before returning to the subject of courses on
 47

employment. As a result, the paragraph is disjointed and difficult

to understand.

Example
"Schools should offer courses to help students with the problems of
unemployment. Such a course might begin with a discussion of where to
find employment, then cover resume writing and interviewing. Algebra
and history don't help students with real-world needs. They are required
courses that students aren't interested in, and this is frustrating for
students who would rather learn about other subjects. If schools offered
job-skills courses, students would be well prepared for the difficult task
of finding a job once they finish school."

3.4. Adequate Development

A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains

and supports the topic sentence. If the "promise" of the topic
sentence is not fulfilled, or if the reader is left with questions after
reading the paragraph, the paragraph has not been adequately
developed. Generally speaking, a paragraph which consists of
only two or three sentences is under-developed. A good rule of
thumb to follow is to make sure that a paragraph contains at
least four sentences which explain and elaborate on the topic
sentence.

Consider the paragraph below. The topic sentence promises to

discuss "several" points of comparison and contrast between
leadership and management, but the remainder of the paragraph
falls short of fulfilling this promise. Only one point of comparison
is raised, and this point is left unexplained. Several questions
remain unanswered. How are leaders different from managers? In
 48

what specific ways are the two alike? Why must a manager be a
good leader to be effective? Why must good leaders know how to
manage people effectively? To achieve adequate development in
this paragraph, these questions should be addressed.

Example

"The topics of leadership and management are both similar to and different
from one another in several important ways. To be effective, a manager
should be a good leader. And good leaders know how to manage people
effectively."

Generally speaking, a paragraph should contain between three

and five sentences, all of which help clarify and support the main
idea of the paragraph. When a writer begins a new paragraph, it
signals to the reader that the writer is changing thoughts or
ideas, or is moving on to discuss a different aspect of a main idea.

3.5. Paragraph patterns

Paragraphs should be unified and coherent so they are more
easily understood by the reader. There are many paragraph
patterns writers can use to help keep their paragraphs unified.
For example, a paragraph may focus on the reasons or the causes
for a specific event or it may provide examples or illustrations. It
may compare and contrast two items or ideas or it may break
something down into components.

United Nations reports often use the following types of paragraph

organization:
 49

(a) Definition;

(b) Analysis or classification;

(c) Time, space or sequence (chronological order);

(d) Compare and contrast;

(e) Cause and effect;

(f) Argument or recommendation.

Paragraphs often combine different patterns of development:

chronological order used with comparison/contrast, definitions
with recommendations and so forth.

Here are some examples:

Definition

Located at The Hague, the International Court of Justice is the principal

judicial organ of the United Nations. It settles legal disputes between States
and gives advisory opinions to the United Nations and the specialized
agencies. Its Statute is an integral part of the Charter of the United Nations.

Analysis or classification

Conflicts today are a complex mix. Their roots may be essentially internal,
but they are complicated by cross-border involvement, either by States or by
economic interests and other non-State actors. Recent conflicts in Africa have
shown the deadly mix of civil strife and illegal export of natural resources -
primarily diamonds - to fuel arms purchases. In addition, the consequences of
conflicts can quickly become international because of illegal arms flows,
terrorism, drug trafficking, refugee flows and environmental degradation.
 50

Time, space or sequence (chronological order)

The Security Council has held several special meetings on Africa at the
ministerial level. In 1997, it expressed grave concern over the number and
intensity of conflicts on the continent and called for an international effort to
promote peace and security. In 1998, meeting at the level of Foreign Ministers,
it adopted resolutions on the destabilizing effects of illicit arms flows, on arms
embargoes and on conflict prevention in Africa.

The average age of minors at the time of breaking the law was found to be
mainly between 15 and 18. Nevertheless, there is an emerging tendency for
younger offenders, in particular offenders between the ages of 12 and 15, to
come into conflict with the law.

Compare and contrast

Refugees usually find safety, food and shelter in a second country. They
are protected by a well-defined body of international laws and conventions
and are assisted by UNHCR and other organizations. But the internally
displaced often face far more insecure conditions. They may be trapped in an
ongoing internal conflict at the mercy of the warring parties, making the
provision of relief hazardous or impossible.

Cause and effect

Families are the basic units of society and have been transformed to a
great degree over the past 50 years as a result of changes in their structure
(for example smaller families, later marriage and childbearing, increased
divorce rates and single parenthood), global trends in migration, the ageing of
the population and HIV/AIDS. These dynamic social forces have had a
manifest impact on the capacities of families to perform such social functions
as the socialization of children and caregiving for its younger and older
members.
 51

Argument or recommendation

The United Nations is committed to strengthening the protection of human

rights in the judicial process. When individuals are under investigation by
State authorities, when they are arrested, detained, charged, tried or
imprisoned, there is always a need to ensure that the law is applied with due
regard for the protection of human rights.
 52

UNIT IV : WRITING AN ESSAY

4.1. WHAT IS ESSAY?
An essay is a short nonfiction prose piece. It is a short analytical,
descriptive, or interpretive piece of literary or journalistic prose
dealing with a specific topic, especially from a personal and
unsystematic viewpoint. It is also seen as a set written piece or a
short piece of written work set as an assignment for a student

4.2. PARTS OF AN ESSAY

An essay actually has three main parts:

 Introduction
 Body
 Conclusion

4.2.1. THE INTRODUCTION

The introduction paragraph is the first paragraph of your essay. It

opens the essay. It is a short paragraph – usually about THREE
sentences. It introduces the main idea of your essay. A good opening
paragraph captures the interest of your reader and tells why your
topic is important.

3.2.2. THE BODY

Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay The

Body is the main part of the essay. In an argument essay, it is divided
into two or three paragraphs, giving your opinion and reasons. They
 53

develop the main idea of your essay.

4.2.3. THE CONCLUSION

The summary paragraph is often called "conclusion." It comes at the

end of your essay after you have finished developing your ideas. It
summarizes or restates the main idea of the essay. In writing the
summary paragraph, you have to leave the reader with a sense that
your essay is complete. The Conclusion is the end of the essay. It is a
short paragraph – about THREE sentences. It often has the same idea
as the Introduction, only in different words.

4.3. GUIDE TO WRITING A BASIC ESSAY

An essay can have many purposes, but the basic structure is the
same no matter what. You may be writing an essay to argue for a
particular point of view or to explain the steps necessary to
complete a task. Either way, your essay will have the same basic
format. If you follow a few simple steps, you will find that the
essay almost writes itself. You will be responsible only for
supplying ideas, which are the important part of the essay
anyway. Don't let the thought of putting pen to paper daunt you.
Get started!
These simple steps will guide you through the essay writing
process:
1. Decide on your topic.
2. Prepare an outline or diagram of your ideas.
3. Write your thesis statement.
4. Write the body.
 54

5. Write the main points.

6. Write the sub points.
7. Elaborate on the sub points.
8. Write the introduction.
9. Write the conclusion.
10. Add the finishing touches.

4.3.1. CHOOSING A TOPIC FOR YOUR ESSAY

In writing an essay the topic can be assigned or not. What should
be your behavior in each of the cases?

A.THE TOPIC HAS BEEN ASSIGNED

You may have no choice as to your topic. If this is the case, you
still may not be ready to jump to the next step. Think about the
type of paper you are expected to produce. Should it be a general
overview, or a specific analysis of the topic? If it should be an
overview, then you are probably ready to move to the next step. If
it should be a specific analysis, make sure your topic is fairly
specific. If it is too general, you must choose a narrower subtopic
to discuss. For example, the topic "DRC" is a general one. If your
objective is to write an overview, this topic is suitable. If your
objective is to write a specific analysis, this topic is too general.
You must narrow it to something like "Politics in DRC" or "DRC's
Culture." Once you have determined that your topic will be
suitable, you can move on.
.
B.TOPIC HAS NOT BEEN ASSIGNED

If you have not been assigned a topic, then the whole world lies
before you. Sometimes that seems to make the task of starting
 55

even more intimidating. Actually, this means that you are free to
choose a topic of interest to you, which will often make your essay
a stronger one.

 DEFINE YOUR PURPOSE

The first thing you must do is thinking about the purpose of the
essay you must write. Is your purpose to persuade people to
believe as you do, to explain to people how to complete a
particular task, to educate people about some person, place,
thing or idea, or something else entirely? Whatever topic you
choose must fit that purpose.

 BRAINSTORM SUBJECTS OF INTEREST

Once you have determined the purpose of your essay, write down
some subjects that interest you. No matter what the purpose of
your essay is, an endless number of topics will be suitable. If you
have trouble thinking of subjects, start by looking around you. Is
there anything in your surroundings that interests you? Think
about your life. What occupies most of your time? That might
make for a good topic. Don't evaluate the subjects yet; just write
down anything that springs to mind.
 EVALUATE EACH POTENTIAL TOPIC
If you can think of at least a few topics that would be appropriate,
you must simply consider each one individually. Think about how
you feel about that topic. If you must educate, be sure it is a
subject about which you are particularly well-informed. If you
must persuade, be sure it is a subject about which you are at
least moderately passionate. Of course, the most important factor
in choosing a topic is the number of ideas you have about that
topic. Even if none of the subjects you thought of seem
 56

particularly appealing, try just choosing one to work with. It may

turn out to be a better topic than you at first thought. Before you
are ready to move on in the essay-writing process, look one more
time at the topic you have selected.
Think about the type of paper you are expected to produce.
Should it be a general overview, or a specific analysis of the topic?
If it should be an overview, then you are probably ready to move
to the next step. If it should be a specific analysis, make sure
your topic is fairly specific. If it is too general, you must choose a
narrower subtopic to discuss. For example, the topic "DRC" is a
general one. If your objective is to write an overview, this topic is
suitable. If your objective is to write a specific analysis, this topic
is too general. You must narrow it to something like "Politics in
DRC" or "DRC's Culture." Once you have determined that your
topic will be suitable, you can move on.

4.3.2. ORGANIZE YOUR IDEAS

The purpose of an outline or diagram is to put your ideas about
the topic on paper, in a moderately organized format. The
structure you create here, may still change before the essay is
complete, so don't agonize over this. Decide whether you prefer
the cut-and-dried structure of an outline or a more flowing
structure. If you start one or the other and decide it isn't working
for you, you can always switch later.

A. DIAGRAM
1. Begin your diagram with a circle or a horizontal line or
whatever shape you prefer in the middle of the page.
2. Inside the shape or on the line, write your topic.
 57

3. From your center shape or line, draw three or four lines out
into the page. Be sure to spread them out.
4. At the end of each of these lines, draw another circle or
horizontal line or whatever you drew in the center of the page.
5. In each shape or on each line, write the main ideas that you
have about your topic, or the main points that you want to make.
 If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best
arguments.
 If you are trying to explain a process, you want to write the
steps that should be followed. You will probably need to
group these into categories.
If you have trouble grouping the steps into categories, try using
Beginning, Middle, and End.
 If you are trying to inform, you want to write the major
categories into which your information can be divided.
6. From each of your main ideas, draw three or four lines out into
the page.
7. At the end of each of these lines, draw another circle or
horizontal line or whatever you drew in the center of the page.
8. In each shape or on each line, write the facts or information
that support that main idea. When you have finished, you have
the basic structure for your essay and are ready to continue.

B. OUTLINE
1. Begin your outline by writing your topic at the top of the page.
2. Next, write the Roman numerals I, II, and III, spread apart
down the left side of the page.
 58

3. Next to each Roman numeral, write the main ideas that you
have about your topic, or the main points that you want to make.
 If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best
arguments.
 If you are trying to explain a process, you want to write the
steps that should be followed. You will probably need to
group these into categories.
 If you have trouble grouping the steps into categories, try
using Beginning, Middle, and End.
 If you are trying to inform, you want to write the major
categories into which your information can be divided.
4. Under each Roman numeral, write A, B, and C down the left
side of the page.
5. Next to each letter, write the facts or information that support
that main idea.
When you have finished, you have the basic structure for your
essay and are ready to continue.

4.3.3. COMPOSE A THESIS STATEMENT

Now that you have decided, at least tentatively, what information

you plan to present in your essay, you are ready to write your
thesis statement.
The thesis statement tells the reader what the essay will be about,
and what point you, the author, will be making. You know what
the essay will be about. That was your topic. Now you must look
at your outline or diagram and decide what point you will be
making. What do the main ideas and supporting ideas that you
listed say about your topic?
 59

Your thesis statement will have two parts.

The first part states the topic.

 Kenya's Culture
 Building a Model Train Set
 Public Transportation
The second part states the point of the essay.
 has a rich and varied history
 takes time and patience
 can solve some of our city's most persistent and pressing
problems
Once you have formulated a thesis statement that fits this
pattern and with which you are comfortable, you are ready to
continue.

4.3.4. WRITING THE BODY PARAGRAPHS

Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay The

Body is the main part of the essay. In an argument essay, it is
divided into two or three paragraphs, giving your opinion and
reasons. They develop the main idea of your essay.

How do I write them?

1. List the points that develop the main idea of your essay.
2. Place each supporting point in its own paragraph.
3. Develop each supporting point with facts, details, and
examples.

To connect your supporting paragraphs, you should use special

transition words. Transition words link your paragraphs together
 60

and make your essay easier to read. Use them at the beginning
and end of your paragraphs. Each paragraph in the body is
between FIVE and SEVEN sentences long.

To say it in other words, in the body of the essay, all the

preparation up to this point comes to fruition. The topic you have
chosen must now be explained, described, or argued. Each main
idea that you wrote down in your diagram or outline will become
one of the body paragraphs. If you had three or four main ideas,
you will have three or four body paragraphs. Each body
paragraph will have the same basic structure.

1. Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence

form. If your main idea is "reduces freeway congestion," you might
say this: Public transportation reduces freeway congestion.
2. Next, write down each of your supporting points for that main
idea, but leave four or five lines in between each point.
3. In the space under each point, write down some elaboration for
that point. Elaboration can be further description or explanation
or discussion.
Supporting Point
Commuters appreciate the cost savings of taking public
transportation rather than driving.

Elaboration
Less driving time means less maintenance expense, such as oil
changes. Of course, less driving time means savings on gasoline as
well.
In many cases, these savings amount to more than the cost of
riding public transportation.
 61

4. If you wish, include a summary sentence for each paragraph.

This is not generally needed, however, and such sentences have a
tendency to sound stilted, so be cautious about using them. Once
you have fleshed out each of your body paragraphs, one for each
main point, you are ready to continue.

4.3.5. WRITING INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION

Your essay lacks only two paragraphs now: the introduction and
the conclusion. These paragraphs will give the reader a point of
entry to and a point of exit from your essay.

A.WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

How do I write one?

1. Write the thesis statement. The main idea of the essay is

stated in a single sentence called the thesis statement. You must
limit your entire essay to the topic you have introduced in your
thesis statement.

2. Provide some background information about your topic. You

can use interesting facts, quotations, or definitions of important
terms you will use later in the essay. In an argument essay, it
usually describes or summarizes both sides of the present
situation and says what you are going to do in your essay.

Example: Hockey has been a part of life in Canada for over 120 years. It has
evolved into an extremely popular sport watched and played by millions of
Canadians. The game has gone through several changes since hockey was
first played in Canada.
 62

The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's

attention and give her an idea of the essay's focus.
1. Begin with an attention grabber.
The attention grabber you use is up to you, but here are some
ideas:
Startling information
This information must be true and verifiable, and it doesn't need
to be totally new to your readers.
It could simply be a pertinent fact that explicitly illustrates the
point you wish to make.
If you use a piece of startling information, follow it with a
sentence or two of elaboration.
Anecdote
An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point.
Be sure your anecdote is short, to the point, and relevant to your
topic. This can be a very effective opener for your essay, but use it
carefully.
Dialogue
An appropriate dialogue does not have to identify the speakers,
but the reader must understand the
point you are trying to convey. Use only two or three exchanges
between speakers to make your
point.
Follow dialogue with a sentence or two of elaboration.
Summary Information
A few sentences explaining your topic in general terms can lead
the reader gently to your thesis.
 63

Each sentence should become gradually more specific, until you

reach your thesis.
2. If the attention grabber was only a sentence or two, add one or
two more sentences that will lead the reader
from your opening to your thesis statement.
3. Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.

B.WRITING CONCLUSION/ SUMMARY PARAGRAPH

How do I write one?

1. Restate the strongest points of your essay that support your
main idea.
2. Conclude your essay by restating the main idea in different
words.
3. Give your personal opinion or suggest a plan for action.

Example: Overall, the changes that occurred in hockey have

helped to improve the game. Hockey is faster and more exciting as
a result of changes in the past 120 years. For these reasons,
modern hockey is a better game than hockey in the 1890s.

The conclusion brings closure to the reader, summing up your

points or providing a final perspective on your topic. All the
conclusion needs is three or four strong sentences which do not
need to follow any set formula. Simply review the main points
(being careful not to restate them exactly) or briefly describe your
feelings about the topic. Even an anecdote can end your essay in
a useful way. The introduction and conclusion complete the
paragraphs of your essay. Don't stop just yet! One more step
remains before your essay is truly finished.
 64

4.3. 6: THE FINISHING TOUCHES

You have now completed all of the paragraphs of your essay.
Before you can consider this a finished product, however, you
must give some thought to the formatting of your paper.

 CHECK THE ORDER OF YOUR PARAGRAPHS.

Look at your paragraphs. Which one is the strongest? You might
want to start with the strongest paragraph, end with the second
strongest, and put the weakest in the middle. Whatever order you
decide on, be sure it makes sense. If your paper is describing a
process, you will probably need to stick to the order in which the
steps must be completed.

 CHECK THE INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ASSIGNMENT.

When you prepare a final draft, you must be sure to follow all of
the instructions you have been given.
 Are your margins correct?
 Have you titled it as directed?
 What other information (name, date, etc.) must you include?
 Did you double-space your lines?

 CHECK YOUR WRITING.

Nothing can substitute for revision of your work. By reviewing
what you have done, you can improve weak points that otherwise
would be missed. Read and reread your paper.
 Does it make logical sense?
Leave it for a few hours and then read it again. Does it still make
logical sense?
 Do the sentences flow smoothly from one another?
 65

If not, try to add some words and phrases to help connect them.
Transition words, such as "therefore" or "however," sometimes
help. Also, you might refer in one sentence to a thought in the
previous sentence. This is especially useful when you move from
one paragraph to another.
 Have you run a spell checker or a grammar checker?

These aids cannot catch every error, but they might catch errors
that you have missed.
 66

UNIT V: WRITING LETTERS

The writing of letters is normally subjected to the use of specific
language style and requirements. English letters are generally
grouped into two main categories: informal familiar letter and
formal letters.
5.1. INFORMAL – FAMILIAR LETTER
Informal-familiar letters are those addressed to people such as
friends, acquaintances, one’s kinsmen or family member. They
are referred to as informal social letters or simply personal letters.
When writing those letters, one is not bound to observe particular
principles or conventions. i.e. the writer is free to write the way he
wants.

5.2. FORMAL LETTERS

Formal letters also known as conventional – correct tone letters
are those written with respect to the rules or conventions
regarding;
1. The layout;
2. The style and;
3. The grammar of the language
A good formal letter must be clearly thought out, and clearly
organized on paper. Its message should be understandable to the
reader and its appearance on the page should be well balanced.

Among formal letters mention is commonly made of

administrative letters, public/official letters and business letters.
 67

5.3. BUSINESS LETTER WRITING

The main aim of teaching business writings to students is to
develop their skills in writing business documents. Among
business documents a distinctions is generally built between
financial documents and transactional documents. Some of well
known business documents are the books, checks, invoices,
diaries, notices, catalogues, forms, pro format, prospectus,
circulars, bills, tickets and different forms of business letters. In
this unit an emphasis will be put on the writing of business
letters.

5.3.1. COMPONENTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER

A business letter is a conventional letter which normally has
seven main parts and four additional parts.

5.3.1.1: MAIN COMPONENTS

The seven main components of a business letter are:
1. The letter head; 5. The body of the letter;
2. The date; 6. The complementary close;
3. The inside address; 7. The signature
4. The salutation.

1. The letter head

The letter head will appear at the top right hand corner of the
letter sheet. It generally contains the name of the sender and his
entire address. The sender’s address normal contains the house
number, the name of the street/avenue, the name of the
city/town, optionally the name of the country. Some other very
 68

important information are P.O box, phone number, fax, e-mail

address…
Most of the company use heading already printed sheet of paper
with their addresses at the middle top part of the paper.

2. The date
The date should be written one space bellow the letter hand. It
contains the day of the month, the month of the year and the
year. The use of the figures to show the month of year has to be
avoided as it leads to confusion. A well written date will look as
follows.
April 20th, 2011
April, 20, 2011
20th April 2011
20th April 2011

3. The inside address

The name and the address of the person or group to whom the
letter is addressed constitute the inside address. This is placed
against the left-hand margin nearly bellow the date opposite side.
The name of the addressee (in case of a person) is always
preceded by a title of respect (e.g. Mr, Mrs, Ms, Dr, etc) and
followed by the business title (or work position).

4. The salutation
The salutation also referred to as the beginning of the letter is
placed two spaces bellows the inside address and against the left
hand margin. In the United Kingdom (UK), the salutation is
followed by a comma (,) but in USA it is followed by a colon (:)
 69

Formal social letters and business letters are characterized by

the use of the fallowing salutations:
a. -Dear sir (to married or single man)
- Dear Madam (to married or single woman)
b. Dear sirs (in British style, when addressing a group consisting
of men or a group of men and women)
c. Mesdames/ladies (to a group entirely consisting of women)
d. Sir, Madam, Dear, Mr prime Minister, My lord….are used in official
letters
e. The name of a person may be used in the salutation but, it
must be preceded by a title of respect as in
Dear Mr KOMBENONGO
Dear Ms ESEKA
Dear Rev OLENGA
Dear Prof MUBENGA
f. The write way simple use the title of his/her correspondent as it
can be read in the followings;
Dear Director, Dear General Manager…

5. The body of the letter

The text is seen as the body of the letter. It is the most important
part of your letter as it is the one which contains the essential
message. It is in this part that the writer states the “Why” of his
letter applying the 3 Cs of business correspondence.
Except in short letters, in which the body is occasionally double
spaced, the body of the letter is single-spaced with double spacing
between paragraphs.
 70

6. The complementary close/closing

It usually begins two spaces bellow the last line of the text, either at
the left hand or at the right hand side. The most frequently used
closing are:
- Yours very truly (American)
- Yours faith fully (British)
- Yours sincerely (when the name appears in the salutation)
N.B. Always make sure that salutation and complementary close
conform.
For business letters in general starting with:
 Dear sirs (s) or gentlemen = Yours faith fully,
Yours very truly
Yours truly
For friendly letters starting with:
 Dear Mr(s)….
Sincerely yours, yours very
Sincerely, cordially yours
For high dignitaries:
Yours respect fully
Yours very respect fully
7. The signature
The signature consists usually of the name of the addressor plus his
title if he has one. When the signature appears on the second or
succeeding page, the name of the company is included in the
signature.

5.3.1.2: ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS

Apart from the above main components, formal and business letter
might also have other four parts which are said to be additional. Those
parts are:
 71

8. The reference line; 9. The attention line;

9. The subject matter 10. The enclosure(s)
8. The reference line
The reference line appears on the same level as the date but on the
opposite side, that is to say, above the inside address. It consists
merely of the initials of the person dictating the letter and the ones of
the person typing it, plus the number of the letter as illustrated bellow.
Our ref: KBO/T/B/064/11 27 November. 2011
Your Ref: NT.F/DV/145/11
Groupe KILO & GA.Ltd
B.O. Box 2473 KINSHASA RDC

9. Attention or ATTN
The attention line is written two spaces bellow the last line of the
receiver’s address, both on the letter sheet (inside address) and on the
envelope (outside address).
It consist of some strong words that one writes when he wants to save
time or wishes his letter to reach immediately one particular person or
one specific department in the company.
e.g. Mr KOMBENONGO, General Manager
Gracia Agency, 76 Mahenge Street
Kinshasa- Kinshasa
Attn: Complaint Dept.

1O. Subject matter

Subject matter is the object or concern of the letter. It is written in the
center of the letter sheet, a space above the salutation. This part of a
letter has become out dated today; the writer is simply requested to
state the concern of his letter; i.e. in the first or second paragraph.
 72

11. Enclosure
This part of the letter is used if any papers are to be enclosed in the
envelope or attached to the letter itself, e.g. price-list, invoice, receipt,
etc. it is written in the bottom Left-haut corner of the paper.

5.3.2: THE LAYOUT

There are three different letter forms in English correspondence: block
form, indented form and semi block form.

a. Block form
A block form is the one which all the parts are set in block. That
is to say that, the lines of the inside address, those of the body
and the salutation line flush with the left hand margin. The letter
head and the date are written in block. So are the complementally
close and the signature. This is mostly used in American writings.
As it can be seen in the following chart:

6
7

b. Indented form
Indented form letter, each line of the address is indented two spaces to
the right of the preceding, the paragraph composing the body of the
 73

letter are indented, too. This is an old style rarely used today. It
represented as follows.

c. Semi-block form
In semi-block form, all the parts of the letter are blocked except the
body which is indented. This style is both American and British.

5.3.3: STYLE
The main features required for a good formal letter in English are:
clarity, concision and courtesy which mainly constitute the essential of
the style and the three CS of business correspondence.

a. Clarity
Clarity in letter writing pre supposes:
 Correctness in sentence construction, in word selection, in word
spelling and in punctuation;
 Precision in formulating the “why” of the letter.
 74

To active correctness in sentence, one should master, among other

things, the use of some grammar items such as nouns, pronouns,
articles, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, verb tenses and aspects,
complements, direct and indirect objects, relative clauses…
b. Concision
The writer of a formal letter should feel requested to make his message
concise. To achieve conciseness, one should:
1. Practice the principle ”One letter, one point”;
2. Summarize his ideas privileging the essential;
3. Avoid repetition by practicing delectation or by using pronouns.
c. Courtesy
Courteous writing consists on using polite and moderate expressions.
Practicing courtesy proves that one is well-mannered and able to take
his reader’s personality into consideration. Some of common place
expressions of courtesy are following:
- Please/Will you please…
- Thanks/thank you/ I wish to thank you…
- I am sorry/ I regret for…
 75

UNIT VI: DISCUSSING TRANSPORT TOPICS

TASK: Read, learn more and write a very clear essay about one
of the following topics and then discuss it with other students in
the classroom.

6.1. TRANSPORT DEFINITION, USES AND MODES

Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals

and goods from one location to another. Relocation of travelers
and cargo are the most common uses of transport. However,
other uses exist, such as the strategic and tactical relocation of
armed forces during warfare, or the civilian mobility construction
or emergency equipment. Transport is important since it enables
trade between people, which in turn establishes civilizations. The
field of transport can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and
operations.

A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a particular

type of vehicle, infrastructure and operation. Different modes of
transport are used to facilitate the transport of people and goods.
Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline
and space. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one
mode or several of the modes, with the latter case being called
intermodal or multimodal transport. Each mode has its own
advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on
the basis of cost, capability, route and speed.
 76

6.2. HUMAN VERSUS ANIMAL POWERED TRANSPORT

Human powered transport is the transport of people and/or

goods using human muscle-power, in the form of walking,
running and swimming. It remains common in developing
countries. It is sometimes the only type available, especially in
underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. Human-powered
transport remains popular for reasons of cost-saving, leisure,
physical exercise and environmentalism. It is considered an ideal
form of sustainable transportation.

Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-

power. Although humans are able to walk without infrastructure,
the transport can be enhanced through the use of roads,
especially when using the human power with vehicles, such as
bicycles and inline skates. Human-powered vehicles have also
been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and
water, by watercraft rowing and skiing; even the air can be
entered with human-powered aircraft.

Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the

movement of people and goods. Humans may ride some of the
animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or
harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled
vehicles.
 77

5.3. ROAD TRANSPORT

Road transport is the transport made on the road. It offers a

complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one
lane to the other and from one road to another according to the
need and convenience. This flexibility of changes in location,
direction, speed, and timings of travel is not available to other
modes of transport. It is possible to provide door to door service
only by road transport.

A road being an identifiable route, way or path between two or

more places ; the most common road vehicle is the automobile; a
wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users
of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles and
pedestrians. Automobiles offer high flexibility with low capacity,
but are deemed with high energy and area use. They are the main
source of noise and air pollution in cities. Besides, buses allow for
more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility. Road
transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight
transport.
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6.4. RAIL TRANSPORT

Rail transport is the land transport mode where a train runs

along a set of two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or
railroad. A train consists of one or more connected vehicles that
run on the rails. The rails are anchored perpendicular to ties (or
sleepers) of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent
distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are
placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed earth
and gravel in a bed of ballast. Alternative methods include
monorail and maglev.

Propulsion for the train is commonly provided by a locomotive,

that hauls a series of unpowered cars that can carry passengers
or freight. The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by
electricity supplied by trackside systems. Alternatively, some or
all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a
train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and
gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with much less friction than
rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient,
though not as efficient as ships. Different types of trains are use
to move passengers and cargo. Intercity trains are long-haul
services connecting cities; modern high-speed rail is capable of
speeds up to 350 km/h (220 mph), but this requires specially
built track. Regional and commuter trains feed cities from
suburbs and surrounding areas, while intra-urban transport is
performed by high-capacity tramways and rapid transits, often
making up the backbone of a city's public transport. Freight
trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and
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unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have

become the dominant solution for general freight, while large
quantities of bulk are transported by dedicated trains.

6.5. WATER OR SHIP TRANSPORT

Water transport is movement by means of a watercraft—such as a

barge, boat, ship or sailboat—over a body of water, such as a sea,
ocean, lake, canal or river. Although slow, modern sea transport
is a highly efficient method of transporting large quantities of
goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than air
transport for transcontinental shipping; short sea shipping and
ferries remain viable in coastal areas.

In the 19th century the first steam ships were developed, using a
steam engine to drive a paddle wheel or propeller to move the
ship. The steam was produced in a boiler using wood or coal and
fed through a steam external combustion engine. Now most ships
have an internal combustion engine using a slightly refined type
of petroleum called bunker fuel. Some ships, such as
submarines, use nuclear power to produce the steam.
Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some
smaller craft use internal combustion engines to drive one or
more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet.
In shallow draft areas, hovercraft are propelled by large pusher-
prop fans. The need for buoyancy is common to watercraft,
making the hull a dominant aspect of its construction,
maintenance and appearance.
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6.6. AIR TRANSPORT

Aviation is able to quickly transport people and limited amounts

of cargo over longer distances, but incur high costs and energy
use; for short distances or in inaccessible places helicopters can
be used. The aircraft is the second fastest method of transport,
after the rocket. Commercial jets can reach up to 955 kilometres
per hour (593 mph), single-engine aircraft 555 kilometres per
hour (345 mph).

6.7. PIPELINE AND CABLE TRANSPORT

Pipeline transport sends goods through a pipe, most commonly

liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can also send
solid capsules using compressed air. For liquids/gases, any
chemically stable liquid or gas can be sent through a pipeline.
Short-distance systems exist for sewage, slurry, water and beer,
while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural
gas.

Cable transport is a broad mode where vehicles are pulled by

cables instead of an internal power source. It is most commonly
used at steep gradient. Typical solutions include aerial tramway,
elevators, escalator and ski lifts; some of these are also
categorized as conveyor transport.
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6.8. SPACEFLIGHT AND SUBORBITAL SPACEFLIGHT

Spaceflight is transport out of Earth's atmosphere into outer

space by means of a spacecraft. While large amounts of research
have gone into technology, it is rarely used except to put satellites
into orbit, and conduct scientific experiments. However, man has
landed on the moon, and probes have been sent to all the planets
of the Solar System.

Suborbital spaceflight is the fastest of the existing and planned

transport systems from a place on Earth to a distant other place
on Earth. Faster transport could be achieved through part of a
Low Earth orbit, or following that trajectory even faster using the
propulsion of the rocket to steer it.
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6.9. PASSENGER TRANSPORT VERSUS FREIGHT

TRANSPORT

Passenger transport, or travel, is divided into public and private

transport. Public transport is scheduled services on fixed routes,
while private is vehicles that provide ad hoc services at the riders
desire. The latter offers better flexibility, but has lower capacity,
and a higher environmental impact. Travel may be as part of daily
commuting, for business, leisure or migration.

Short-haul transport is dominated by the automobile and mass

transit. The latter consists of buses in rural and small cities,
supplemented with commuter rail, trams and rapid transit in
larger cities. Long-haul transport involves the use of the
automobile, trains, coaches and aircraft, the last of which have
become predominantly used for the longest, including
intercontinental, travel. Intermodal passenger transport is
where a journey is performed through the use of several modes of
transport; since all human transport normally starts and ends
with walking, all passenger transport can be considered
intermodal. Public transport may also involve the intermediate
change of vehicle, within or across modes, at a transport hub,
such as a bus or railway station.

International travel may be restricted for some individuals due to

legislation and visa requirements.

Freight transport, or shipping, is a key in the value chain in

manufacturing. With increased specialization and globalization,
production is being located further away from consumption,
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rapidly increasing the demand for transport. While all modes of

transport are used for cargo transport, there is high
differentiation between the nature of the cargo transport, in
which mode is chosen.

Traditionally, all cargo had to be manually loaded and unloaded

into the haul of any ship or car; containerization allows for
automated handling and transfer between modes, and the
standardized sizes allow for gains in economy of scale in vehicle
operation. This has been one of the key driving factors in
international trade and globalization since the 1950s.

Bulk transport is common with cargo that can be handled

roughly without deterioration; typical examples are ore, coal,
cereals and petroleum. Gigantic ships and whole trains are
commonly used to transport bulk. Liquid products with sufficient
volume may also be transported by pipeline. Air freight has
become more common for products of high value; In addition to
mail, common items sent by air include electronics and fashion
clothing.

Logistics refers to the entire process of transferring products from

producer to consumer, including storage, transport,
transshipment, warehousing, material-handling and packaging,
with associated exchange of information. Incoterm deals with the
handling of payment and responsibility of risk during transport.
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6.10. SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

Transport is a key component of growth and globalization. It is a

key necessity for specialization—allowing production and
consumption of products to occur at different locations. Transport
has throughout history been a spur to expansion; better
transport allows more trade and a greater spread of people.
Economic growth has always been dependent on increasing the
capacity and rationality of transport.[26] But the infrastructure
and operation of transport has a great impact on the land and is
the largest drainer of energy, making transport sustainability a
major issue.

Modern society dictates a physical distinction between home and

work, forcing people to transport themselves to places of work or
study, as well as to temporarily relocate for other daily activities.
Passenger transport is also the essence of tourism, a major part
of recreational transport. Commerce requires the transport of
people to conduct business, either to allow face-to-face
communication for important decisions or to move specialists
from their regular place of work to sites where they are needed.
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6.11. TRANSPORT PLANNING

Transport planning allows for high utilization and less impact

regarding new infrastructure. Using models of transport
forecasting, planners are able to predict future transport
patterns. On the operative level, logistics allows owners of cargo
to plan transport as part of the supply chain. Transport as a field
is studied through transport economics, the backbone for the
creation of regulation policy by authorities. Transport
engineering, a sub-discipline of civil engineering, and must take
into account trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice and
route assignment, while the operative level is handled through
traffic engineering . Because of the negative impacts made,
transport often becomes the subject of controversy related to
choice of mode, as well as increased capacity. Too much
infrastructure and too much smoothing for maximum vehicle
through put means that in many cities there is too much traffic
and many—if not all—of the negative impacts that come with it.
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6.12. TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Transport is a major use of energy and burns most of the world's

petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides
and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global
warming through emission of carbon dioxide, for which transport
is the fastest-growing emission sector. By subsector, road
transport is the largest contributor to global warming.
Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced
individual vehicles' emissions; however, this has been offset by
increases in the numbers of vehicles and in the use of each
vehicle. Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road
vehicles considerably have been studied. Energy use and
emissions vary largely between modes, causing environmentalists
to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-
powered transport, as well as increased transport electrification
and energy efficiency.

Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic

congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can
consume natural habitat and agricultural lands. By reducing
transportation emissions globally, it is predicted that there will be
significant positive effects on Earth's air quality, acid rain, smog
and climate change.
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6.13. TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

Infrastructure is the fixed installations that allow a vehicle to

operate. It consists of a way, a terminal and facilities for parking
and maintenance. Transport infrastructure consists of the fixed
installations necessary for transport, including roads, railways,
airways, waterways, canals and pipelines and terminals such as
airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking
terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel
stations) and seaports.

Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and

cargo and for maintenance. Bridges, such as Golden Gate Bridge,
allow roads and railways to cross bodies of water. For rail,
pipeline, road and cable transport, the entire way the vehicle
travels must be built up. Air and water craft are able to avoid
this, since the airway and seaway do not need to be built up.
However, they require fixed infrastructure at terminals.

Terminals such as airports, ports and stations, are locations

where passengers and freight can be transferred from one vehicle
or mode to another. For passenger transport, terminals are
integrating different modes to allow riders to interchange to take
advantage of each mode's advantages. For instance, airport rail
links connect airports to the city centers and suburbs. The
terminals for automobiles are parking lots, while buses and
coaches can operates from simple stops.[13] For freight, terminals
act as transshipment points, though some cargo is transported
directly from the point of production to the point of use.
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The financing of infrastructure can either be public or private.

Transport is often a natural monopoly and a necessity for the
public; roads, and in some countries railways and airports are
funded through taxation. New infrastructure projects can involve
large spendings, and are often financed through debt. Many
infrastructure owners therefore impose usage fees, such as
landing fees at airports, or toll plazas on roads. Independent of
this, authorities may impose taxes on the purchase or use of
vehicles.
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6.14. VEHICLES

A vehicle is any non-living device that is used to move people and

goods. Unlike the infrastructure, the vehicle moves along with the
cargo and riders. Unless being pulled by a cable or muscle-power,
the vehicle must provide its own propulsion; this is most
commonly done through a steam engine, combustion engine,
electric motor, a jet engine or a rocket, though other means of
propulsion also exist. Vehicles also need a system of converting
the energy into movement; this is most commonly done through
wheels, propellers and pressure.

Vehicles are most commonly staffed by a driver. However, some

systems, such as people movers and some rapid transits, are fully
automated. For passenger transport, the vehicle must have a
compartment for the passengers. Simple vehicles, such as
automobiles, bicycles or simple aircraft, may have one of the
passengers as a driver.
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6.15. OPERATION

In the transport industry, operations and ownership of

infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the
country and mode. Private transport is only subject to the owner
of the vehicle, who operates the vehicle themselves. For public
transport and freight transport, operations are done through
private enterprise or by governments.

The infrastructure and vehicles may be owned and operated by

the same company, or they may be operated by different entities.
Traditionally, many countries have had a national airline and
national railway. Since the 1980s, many of these have been
privatized. International shipping remains a highly competitive
industry with little regulation,[14] but ports can be public owned.

Private transport is only subject to the owner of the vehicle, who

operates the vehicle themselves. For public transport and freight
transport, operations are done through private enterprise or by
governments. The infrastructure and vehicles may be owned and
operated by the same company, or they may be operated by
different entities. Traditionally, many countries have had a
national airline and national railway. Since the 1980s, many of
these have been privatized. International shipping remains a
highly competitive industry with little regulation, but ports can be
public owned.
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6.16. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Transportation engineering is the application of technology and

scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation
and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in
order to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable,
convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods (transport). It is a sub-discipline of
civil engineering and of industrial engineering. Transportation
engineering is a major component of the civil engineering and
mechanical engineering disciplines, according to specialization of
academic courses and main competences of the involved territory.

The planning aspects of transport engineering relate to urban

planning, and involve technical forecasting decisions and political
factors. Technical forecasting of passenger travel usually involves
an urban transportation planning model, requiring the estimation
of trip generation (how many trips for what purpose), trip
distribution (destination choice, where is the traveler going), mode
choice (what mode is being taken), and route assignment (which
streets or routes are being used). More sophisticated forecasting
can include other aspects of traveler decisions, including auto
ownership, trip chaining (the decision to link individual trips
together in a tour) and the choice of residential or business
location (known as land use forecasting). Passenger trips are the
focus of transport engineering because they often represent the
peak of demand on any transportation system.

Transportation engineering, as practiced by civil engineers,

primarily involves planning, design, construction, maintenance,
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and operation of transportation facilities. The facilities support

air, highway, railroad, pipeline, water, and even space
transportation.[1] The design aspects of transport engineering
include the sizing of transportation facilities (how many lanes or
how much capacity the facility has), determining the materials
and thickness used in pavement designing the geometry (vertical
and horizontal alignment) of the roadway (or track).

Before any planning occurs the Engineer must take what is

known as an inventory of the area or if it is appropriate, the
previous system in place. This inventory or database must
include information on (1)population, (2)land use, (3)economic
activity, (4)transportation facilities and services, (5)travel patterns
and volumes, (6)laws and ordinances, (7)regional financial
resources, (8)community values and expectations. These
inventories help the engineer create business models to complete
accurate forecasts of the future conditions of the system Review.

Operations and management involve traffic engineering, so that

vehicles move smoothly on the road or track. Older techniques
include signs, signals, markings, and tolling. Newer technologies
involve intelligent transportation systems, including advanced
traveler information systems (such as variable message signs),
advanced traffic control systems (such as ramp meters), and
vehicle infrastructure integration. Human factors are an aspect of
transport engineering, particularly concerning driver-vehicle
interface and user interface of road signs, signals, and markings
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6.17. TRANSPORTATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A transportation management system (TMS) is a subset of supply

chain management concerning transportation operations and
may be part of an enterprise resource planning system. A TMS
usually "sits" between an ERP or legacy order processing and
warehouse/distribution module. A typical scenario would include
both inbound (procurement) and outbound (shipping) orders to be
evaluated by the TMS Planning Module offering the user various
suggested routing solutions.

Licensing

Recently, these systems have been offered with many different

types of licensing arrangements. These different arrangements
have given shippers who otherwise would not be able to afford
sophisticated software the opportunity to utilize TMS to better
manage this vital function. The 4 primary offerings are:

1. On-premise licensing (traditional purchased license)

2. Hosted licensing (remote, Saas, Cloud)
3. On-premise hosted licensing (a blend of 1 and 2)
4. Hosted - TMS free of licensing (same as 2 but free with no
license requirements)

Additionally, some software providers have either been acquired

or merged with traditional supply chain management
consultancies and are now offering shippers "blended" managed
and software services as an outsourced process.

Functionalities
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Transportation management systems manage four key processes

of transportation management:

5. Planning and decision making – TMS will define the most

efficient transport schemes according to given parameters,
which have a lower or higher importance according to the
user policy: transport cost, shorter lead-time, fewer stops
possible to ensure quality, flows regrouping coefficient, etc.
6. Transportation Execution – TMS will allow for the
execution of the transportation plan such as carrier rate
acceptance, carrier dispatching, EDI etc..
7. Transport follow-up – TMS will allow following any physical
or administrative operation regarding transportation:
traceability of transport event by event (shipping from A,
arrival at B, customs clearance, etc.), editing of reception,
custom clearance, invoicing and booking documents,
sending of transport alerts (delay, accident, non-forecast
stops…)
8. Measurement – TMS have or need to have a logistics key
performance indicator (KPI) reporting function for transport.

Various functions of a TMS include but not limited to:

9. Planning and optimizing of terrestrial transport rounds

10. Inbound and outbound transportation mode and
transportation provider selection
11. Management of motor carrier, rail, air and maritime
transport
12. Real time transportation cracking
13. Service quality control in the form of KPI's (see below)
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14. Vehicle Load and Route optimization

15. Transport costs and scheme simulation
16. Shipment batching of orders
17. Cost control, KPI (Key performance indicators) reporting and
statistics