Magbook General Science - Poonam Singh

Coverage of Important Facts
from NCERT Books (Class 6-12)

A Must for Civil Services (Pre) Examination,
State PCS & Other Competitive Exams
GENERAL
SCIENCE
Coverage of Important Facts
from NCERT Books (Class 6-12)
Authored By
Poonam Singh, Mansi Garg
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PHYSICS CHEMISTRY
1. Mechanics 1-12 1. General Chemistry 54-58
Physical Quantity Matter
Dimensions Solid
Kinematics Liquid
Force Gas
Work, Energy and Power Substances
Collision Elements
Moment of Inertia Compounds
Gravitation Mixtures
Planets Solution
Satellite Colloids Around Us
2. Properties of Matter 13-18 2. Atomic Structure and Chemical

Matter Bonding 59-65
Solid Atoms and Molecules
Fluid Atomic Models
Bernoulli’s Theorem Planck’s Quantum Theory
Shell
3. Oscillations and Waves 19-24
Quantum Numbers
Periodic Motion
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Wave
Radioactivity
Sound
Soddy Fajan’s Group Displacement Law
Sonar
Applications of Radioactivity and Radioisotopes
4. Heat and Its Transmission 25-29 Nuclear Hazards and Safety Measures
Heat Chemical Bonding
Temperature
3. Classification of Elements 66-69
Calorimetry
Evolution of Periodic Table
Thermodynamics
Hydrogen
Black body
4. Chemical Reactions and Equations 70-74
5. Optics 30-37
Physical and Chemical Change
Light
Chemical Reactions
Mirrors
Oxidation and Reduction
Lenses
Electrolysis Batteries
6. Electricity and Magnetism 38-45 Enzyme Catalysis
Electricity
5. Elements and Compounds 75-85
Magnetism
Metals
7. Modern Physics 46-53 Metallurgy
Atom Non-Metals
Electronics Metalloids
Universe Acid and Base
Salts
6. Organic Chemistry 86-94 Excretion in Humans
Organic Compounds Skeletal System
Bioactive Compounds Neural Coordination in Humans
Coal Sense Organs
Petroleum Chemical coordination by Endocrine System
Fuels
5. Plant Physiology 144-147
7. Environmental Chemistry 95-100 Nutrition in Plants
Environment Respiration in Plants
Atmospheric Pollution Transportation in Plants
Water Pollution Excretion in Plants
Soil Pollution Mineral Nutrition in Plants
8. Chemistry In Everyday Life 101-109 Plants Growth and Development
Synthetic Materials
6. Reproduction in Plants and
Chemicals in Agriculture
Animals (Humans) 148-153
Chemicals in Medicines
Reproduction
Chemicals in Food
Reproductive Health
Fire Extinguisher
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
Chemicals in Cosmetics
7. Genetics and Evolution 154-159
BIOLOGY Genetics
Sex Determination in Humans
1. Cell Biology 110-116 Gene and Gene Concept
Biology: An Introduction Evolution
The Cell
Biomolecules 8. Ecology 160-162
2. Biological Classification 117-126 9. Biology in Human Welfare 163-171

Classification of Living Organisms Agriculture
Systems of Classification Animal Husbandry
Viral Diseases of Human Beings Plant Breeding
Vaccination
3. Structural Organisation of Plants
and Animals 127-133 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Morphology of Plants
1. Computer and Information
Anatomy of Plants
Technology 172-181
Wood
Computer
Anatomy of Animals
Hardware
Some Specialised Tissue Structures of Animals
Software
4. Human Physiology 134-143 Cyber Crimes
Nutrition in Animals Internet
Digestion in Humans Artificial Intelligence
Respiration in Humans Robotics In India
Transportation in Humans
2. Telecommunication 182-186 5. Indian Nuclear Programme 203-209
Telecommunication Atomic Energy
Generation of Mobile Phone Nuclear Reactor/Atomic Reactor
Television Development of Nuclear Energy in India
Radio Isotopes
3. Biotechnology 187-194
Nuclear Waste Management
Microorganisms
DNA Profiling/Sequencing 6. Indian Defence Programme 210-216
Human Genome Project (HGP) DRDO
Genetic Engineering Types of Missile
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) Radar Systems
Tissue Culture Indian Navy Ships
Aircrafts
4. Indian Space Programme 195-202
ISRO
Appendix 217-222
Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System
Some Early Satellites Practice Sets (1-5) 223-246
Prominent Space Missions of India Previous Years’ Solved Papers Set 1 247-257
Satellite Launch Pads All Over the World
Previous Years’ Solved Papers Set 2 258-264
Major Space Missions
TOPICS FOCUS &
TREND OF QUESTIONS
Electricity and Magnetism
PHYSICS Significant topics in this chapter are electric field,
Mechanics capacitor, resistance, conductors and semiconductors,
The important topics in this chapter are fundamental electric cell, magnetism and earth’s magnetic field,
units and dimensions, various types of weak and strong ferromagnetism and electro magnetic induction,
forces, newton's law of motion and inertia, different working principles of transformer and dynamo.
types of energy and conservation of energy, mass and Questions have asked recurrently on above topics in
weight, planets and satellites. Questions asked in previous year’s examinations.
previous exams are related to concepts such as force,
energy, circular motion of satellites, escape velocity etc. Modern Physics
Important topics in this chapter are nuclear fission and
Properties of Matter fusion, radioactive decay, photoelectric effect,
From examination point of view significant topics are electromagnetic waves and devices based on
stress, strain, elasticity, surface tension, capillarity, electromagnetic radiations, electronics, nano
viscosity, stoke's law and bernoulli's theorem. Most of technology, radar and Solar system. Previous exam
the questions asked in previous exams from this section questions were based on process involved in nuclear
arere garding elastic limit, fracture point, capillary action reactors, nuclear forces, devices based on photoelectric
and viscous flow. effect and properties of comets, asteroids and meteors in
Oscillations and Waves solar system.
This chapter deal with important topics such as
oscillatory motion including SHM and wave motion,
speed, characteristics, properties of sound wave CHEMISTRY
including doppler’s effect. Previous year's exam General Chemistry
questions were based on amplitude and wavelength of This chapter will introduce the reader to the chemistry
wave motion as well as reflection, refraction and and matter concepts related to classification of matter,
diffraction of sound waves. solution, colloids and suspensions are important from
examination point of view since questions have been
Heat and Its Transmission
asked in the past about it.
Important topics are various scales of temperature
measurement, laws of thermodynamics, specific and Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding
latent heat, humidity, convection, conduction and This chapter discusses vital topics like atoms, molecules,
radiation and properties of black body. Questions were subatomic particles, and bonds. From an examination
asked on various mode of transmission of heat and point of view the topics of carbon dating, geological
specific and latent heat. dating, electrovalent, covalent and van der waals forces
Optics are important. The concepts related to valency are also
This is the most important chapter from the perspective very important.
of competitive examination. Important topics from
Classification of Elements
examination point of view are light and related
This chapter presents the concepts related to the
properties of reflection, refraction and total internal
periodic table. From examination point of view the new
reflection, properties of concave, convex and spherical
super heavy element unseptium, and various blocks of
mirrors, lenses, behaviour of prism, dispersion, scattering
periodic table and periodic properties are important.
and interference of light.
Chemical Reactions and Equations Structural Organisation of Plants and Animals
This chapter discusses the types of chemical reactions, Concepts of xylem and phloem, meristmatic tissues,
catalysts and batteries. Questions relating to oxidation sapwood and hardwood, types of tissues, blood are not
and reduction fuel cells can appear in the exam. only interesting but also important. From exam
perspective, questions relating to blood groups – the
Elements and Compounds antigens, antibodies and donor groups appear very
This chapter discusses important metals, non-metals and frequently.
their properties. It also discusses concepts relating to
acids, bases and salts. From examination point of view, Human Physiology
all the toxic materials and nutrition related materials are Concepts relating to digestive system, respiratory
important. system, cardiovascular, neural, endocrinal and excretory
system are the most important. From the examination
Organic Chemistry perspective, questions can primarily be asked regarding
This chapter introduces the reader to various organic the role of various vitamins, importance of proteins,
compounds and fuels. From examination point of various disorders associated with various systems, tables
view –fuels, hydrocarbons and petroleum are extremely related to various glands are extremely important.
important. Nutrition itself is one of the most important topics for
Environmental Chemistry preliminary examination.
This is the most important section in Chemistry from Plant Physiology
examination point of view as questions are asked in The topics of photosynthesis, mineral nutrition in
almost every exam. Some important topics are abiotic, plants are most important. Questions related to xylem,
biotic and energy components, different types of phloem transportation and transpiration have appeared
pollution and pollutants and pollution control. This in the past.
chapter carries nearly as much importance as all
other chapters combined in terms of both importance Reproduction in Plants and Humans
and relevance. The concepts associated with a sexual and sexual
reproduction are important since they help understand
Chemistry in Everyday Life various issues related with biology. Questions related to
It is important to understand various synthetic sexually transmitted diseases, and reproductive healths
materials like cement, glass, fertilizers, pesticides, have been asked in the previous exams.
explosives from examination point of view.
Operation of fire-extinguisher, various chemicals in Genetics and Evolution
medicine, chemicals in food need to be understood One of the most important and interesting topics to
thoroughly – since there is great scope for questions understand because it forms the basis for biotechnology,
from that section. green revolution and other associated topics. From exam
point of view, the concepts of recessive allele, mendels
laws, theory of evolution and genetic disorders are
BIOLOGY important.
Cell Biology Ecology
Some important topics are cell cycle and cell division, This chapter introduces the reader to ecology – from a
enzymes and inhibitors. Most of the questions which biological and terminological perspective.
were asked in past were related to mitosis, meosis, Understanding these terms are important not only to
enzymes and inhibitors. gain a grasp on the environment and biodiversity
subject in syllabus, but also because questions related to
Biological Classification them can appear directly in the exam.
The concepts related to bacteria, virus, protozoa are very
important – especially to understand more advanced Biology in Human Welfare
concepts in biotechnology, pathology etc. Questions The concepts related to economically important plants,
relating to gram staining, modes of transmission can be biofertilizers and vaccination are important from
asked in the exam. examination point of view. Questions have been asked in
the past about Principal Vaccines.
regarding the developments in Indian space
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY programme. Some of the important topics from
Computer and Information Technology examination point of view are INSAT, IRS, various
In almost all the competitive examinations questions space launching stations of India and world, types
are asked frequently from this section. Some of the of launch vehicles used in India, IRNSS, GPS, glonass,
important topics are types of computers, super galileo, GIS, various space missions of India, cryogenic
computers in India and world, input and output technology, international space mission etc.
devices, types of memory, software, types of
network, cyber crimes etc. Indian Nuclear Programme
This is one of the most important topics from which
Telecommunication questions are asked on regular basis regarding the
Questions are asked from this topic in all exams latest developments in the field of nuclear
regarding the current developments in the technology and the basic concepts of nuclear
telecommunication technology. Some of the technology. Some of the important topics from
important topics from examination perspective are examination perspective are various parts of a
optical fibre, wireless communication, mobile nuclear reactor and their functions, types of nuclear
operating systems, GPRS, types of television etc. reactors used in India, India’s important nuclear
Biotechnology installations and their location along with the types
Biotechnology is one of the hot topics now-a-days, of fuel used, various applications of radio isotopes,
from which questions are asked in most of the radioactive wastes etc.
competitive examinations. mportant topics from Indian Defence Programme
examination perspective are uses of biotechnology, In almost all the competitive examinations questions
genetic engineering, cloning, genetically modified are asked regarding latest developments in the
crops (Bt brinjal), biodiesel etc. Indian Defence system. Some of the important topics
Indian Space Programme are types of missiles inducted in Indian defence
After analysing question papers of various forces, range of missiles, types of radars, naval ships,
examinations, it has been found that questions are submarines, tanks, aircrafts etc.
asked in most of the competitive examinations
Physics
Chapter one
Mechanics
Physical Quantity
Mechanics is the branch It is a physical property of a body, or substance, or of a phenomenon, that can be
quantified by measurement.
of science (physics)
concerned with the Measurement of a Physical Quantity
behaviour of physical It is done by assigning a value to a physical quantity by comparing it with a standard
value (calibrated value) of that physical quantity which is called unit.
bodies, when subjected
To know the value (or magnitude) of a physical quantity we generally measure it in
to forces or
different system of units.
displacements, and the
Errors in Measurement
subsequent effects of
The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as
the bodies on their error.
environment. There are mainly three types of error occurs in measurement.
– Absolute Error It is the difference of true value and measured value.
– Relative Error It is defined as the ratio of absolute error to mean value.
– Percentage Error It is defined as fractional error multiplied by 100.
System of Units
Physical quantities are measured in four system of units as below.
– CGS (Centimetre, Gram, Second) – FPS (Foot, Pound, Second)
– MKS (Metre, Kilogram, Second) – SI system (International System of Units).
Fundamental Quantities
The physical quantities which are independent to each other are called fundamental
quantities and their units are called fundamental units.
The most accepted one is SI system which was adopted in 1971 by conference of
weights and measures held in Geneva.
There are seven fundamental quantities in SI system
Fundamental Quantities in SI System

S.No. Fundamental quantity Fundamental unit Symbol
1. Length Metre m
2. Mass Kilogram kg
3. Time Second s
4. Electric current Ampere A
5. Temperature Kelvin K
6. Luminous intensity Candela cd
7. Amount of substance Mole mol
2 Magbook ~ General Science
There are also two supplementary fundamental units in SI Area is related with square of length, some units of area
system. are
– Radian (rad) It is unit of plane angle. – 1 barn = 10−28 m 2
– Steradian (sr) It is unit of solid angle. – 1 acre = 4047 m 2
– 1 hectare = 104 m 2
Derived Quantities
The physical quantities which are obtained with the help of Volume is related with cube of length, some units of
volume are
fundamental quantities are called derived quantities and their
10 millilitre (mL) = 1 centilitre (cL)
units are called derived units.
For example, Velocity, Force, Work, Density, Momentum etc = 0.018 pint (0.021 US pint)
are derived quantities. 100 centilitre (cL) = 1 litre (L) = 1.76 pint
10 litre (L) = 1decalitre (daL)
Some Important Derived Units
= 2. 2 gallon (2.63 US gallon)
Physical quantity Unit (SI) Symbol
1 cubic centimetre (cm 3 ) = 1 millilitre (mL)
Force newton N
1 barrel = 159 litre
Energy joule J
Speed metre/second ms −1 Unit of Mass
Angular velocity radian/second rad s −1 The SI unit of mass is kilogram. One kilogram is
Frequency hertz Hz defined as the mass of 5.0188 × 1025 atoms of
Moment of inertia kilogram metre square kg m 2 carbon−12.
Momentum kilogram metre/second kg ms −1 Other Units of Mass
Angular momentum kilogram metre square/second kg m 2 s −1 1
– 1 gram = kg = 10−3 kg
Pressure pascal Pa 1000
1
Power watt W – 1 milligram = g = 10−6 kg
Surface tension newton per metre Nm −1 1000
– 1 Atomic Mass Unit (amu) = 1.66 × 10−27 kg
Viscosity newton second per metre square Nsm −2
Thermal conductivity watt per metre Kelvin Wm −1 K −1 – 1 quintal = 100 kg
– 1 tonne or metric ton =1000 kg
Electric charge coulomb C
– 1 slug = 14.57 kg
Potential volt V
– 1 Chandra Sekhar Limit (CSL) = 1.4 times the mass of sun
Capacitance farad F = 2.8 × 1030 kg
Electrical resistance ohm Ω
Unit of Time
Inductance henry H
Magnetic flux weber Wb
The SI unit of time is second. One second is defined
1
Luminous flux lumen lm as part of a mean solar day.
86400
Impulse newton second Ns
Other Units of Time
Unit of Length – 1 microsecond = 10 −6 s
The SI unit of length is metre (m). One metre is the distance – 1 picosecond = 10−12 s
1 – 1 Lunar month = 295
. day
travelled by light in vacuum in of a second.
29, 97, 92, 458
– 1 nanosecond = 10−9 s
Some Other Units of Length – 1 shake = 10−8 s
Light year The distance travelled by light in one year in
Important Prefixes to Units
vacuum.
peta (P) = 1015 exa (E) = 1018
1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m
giga (G) = 10 9
tera (T) = 1012
Parsec (Parallactic Second) The distance at which an arc of
length equals to one astronomical unit subtends an angle of kilo (K) = 103 mega (M) = 106
one second at a point. deca (da) = 10 hecto (h) = 102
−2
– 1 parsec = 3.085 × 1016 m – 1 micron or µm = 10−6 centi (c) = 10 deci (d) = 10−1
– 1 AV = 1.49 × 1011 m – 1 angstrom or Å = 10−10 m micro = 10−6 milli (m) = 10−3
– 1 nanometre or nm = 10−9 m – X-unit = 10−14 m pico (p) = 10 −12
nano (n) = 10−9
−15
– 1 Fermi = 10 m – 1 yard = 0.9144 m zatto (a) = 10−18 femto(f) = 10−15
Magbook ~ Mechanics 3
Scalar and Vector Quantities Distance and Displacement

On the basis of magnitudes and direction, physical quantities The length of the actual path travelled by an object during
are categorised as below motion in a given interval of time is called the distance
Scalars Physical quantities which have only magnitude travelled by the object.
and no direction are called scalars quantities e.g., length, The change in position of the object along a particular
mass, time etc. direction in a given interval of time is called the
Vectors Physical quantities which have both magnitude as displacement of the object.
well as direction are called vectors quantities e.g., force, Displacement can be positive, negative or zero but
displacement, impulse etc. distance cannot be negative.
– A vector obeys triangle law and parallelogram law of addition Distance is a scalar quantity and displacement is vector
of two vectors. Zero vector or null vector, unit vector, etc are quantity.
some special types of vectors.
If an object travels equal distances in equal intervals of
time, then it is said to be in uniform motion.
Dimensions If an object travels unequal distances in equal intervals of
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to time, then it is said to be in non-uniform motion.
which the fundamental units are raised in order to obtain
the units of that quantity. Speed
The fundamental quantities mass, length, time, The distance covered by a moving body in a unit time
temperature, luminous intensity, amount of substance and interval is called its speed.
current are respectively represented as M, L, T, θ, cd, N
Distance travelled
and A. Speed =
Time taken
The dimension of the physical quantity shall be written in
the manner [Ma Lb Tc θd ] . The speed at an instant of time is known as instantaneous
where, a, b, c and d are exponents. speed.
Some Important dimensional Formulae are An object is said to be moving with uniform speed if it
Displacement [L] covers equal distances in equal intervals of time.
– Velocity = = = [LT −1 ]
Time [T] An object is said to be moving with non-uniform or
– Density =
Mass
=
[M]
= [ML −3 ]
variable speed if it covers unequal distances in equal
Volume [L 3 ] intervals of time.
Average speed of an object is the ratio of the total
Kinematics distance travelled to the total time taken to cover this
distance.
The branch of Physics which deals with the study of
Total distance travelled
motion of material objects etc is called mechanics. Average speed =
Total time taken
Kinematics is a branch of mechanics which deals with the
study of motion of the objects without taking into account When a body travels equal distances with speeds v 1 and
the cause of their motion. v 2 , then average speed is the harmonic mean of the two
speeds.
Rest and Motion 2 1 1 2 v 1v 2
= + ⇒ v =
An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its v v1 v 2 v1 + v 2
position with respect to its surroundings with time and
said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect When a body travels for equal times with speeds v 1 and v 2 ,
to its surroundings with time. then average speed is the arithmetic mean of the two
speeds.
Basic types of motion are
v +v 2
– Rectilinear motion The motion in which particle moves along v = 1
a straight line, such as moving car on horizontal road, motion 2
under gravity etc. Velocity
– Angular motion The motion in which particle moves along a
The time rate of change of displacement of a body is
curved track, such as particle going on a circle, projectile
motion, rotation of machine shaft etc. called its velocity.
– Rotational motion If a body rotates about a given axis, its Displacement
Velocity =
motion is called rotational motion, such as motion of a fan. Time
The velocity at an instant of time is known as Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion

instantaneous velocity.
(Along straight line)
An object is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it
undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals of time. If a body started its motion with initial velocity u and attains
final velocity v in time interval t. The acceleration assumed to
An object is said to be moving with non-uniform or variable
be uniform in motion is a and the distance travelled is s, then
velocity if it undergoes unequal displacements in equal
equations of motion
intervals of time.
v = u + at
Average velocity of an object is the ratio of the total 1
displacement to the total time taken. s = ut + at 2
2
Total displacement v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Average velocity =
Total time taken If any body is falling freely under gravity, then a is replaced
by g in above equations.
Relative Velocity If an object is thrown vertically upward, then in above
Relative velocity of an object with respect to another object is equations of motion a is replaced by ( − g ).
the time rate of change of position of one object with respect Distance travelled by a body in a particular nth second is
to another object. If two objects A and B are moving with a
velocities v A and v B making an angle θ with each other, then given by sn = u + (2n − 1)
2
magnitude of relative velocity of A with respect to B is given by For a body with zero acceleration or constant speed, graph
between velocity and time will be a line parallel to time axis
vAB
–vB and for accelerating or decelerating body the graph will be
θ
0− a straight line inclined to time axis and velocity axis.
α 18 θ
Graph between position (distance)-time for an accelerating or
vA
decelerating body is always a parabola whereas
v AB = v A − v B acceleration-time graph for uniformly accelerating body is a
line parallel to time axis.
| v AB | = v 2A + v 2B − 2v A v B cos θ
In case of uniform accelerated, the graph between position
If v AB makes an angle α with v A , then and velocity is always parabola.
v B sinθ In case of uniformly accelerated motion, the graph between
tan α =
v A + v AB cos θ velocity and time is always a straight line.
If both objects are moving in same direction (i.e. θ = 0°), then Slope of displacement-time graph gives velocity and slope
v AB = v A − v B of velocity-time graph gives acceleration.
If both objects are moving in opposite directions (i.e. θ = 180° ),
then Projectile Motion
v AB = v A + v B When a body is thrown from horizontal making an angle (θ )
except 90° , then its motion under gravity is a curved
parabolic path, called trajectory and its motion is called
Acceleration projectile motion.
y
The time rate of change of velocity of a body is called its
acceleration. u u cos θ Trajectory
Change in velocity (parabolic)
Acceleration =
u sin θ
H
Time taken
θ u′
−2
It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is ms . O u cos θ A
x
R
Acceleration at an instant of time is known as
instantaneous acceleration. The horizontal component of velocity (u cos θ ) of projectile
is responsible for its horizontal motion and remains
When the velocity of a body increases with time, then its
constant and vertical component of velocity (u sin θ ) is
acceleration is positive and if velocity decreases with
responsible for its vertical motion.
time, then its acceleration is negative called deceleration
or retardation. For examples
If acceleration does not change with time, it is said to be – The motion of a bullet shot from the gun
constant acceleration. – The motion of a rocket after burn-out
– The motion of a bomb dropped from a aeroplane etc.
Some terms related with the projectile motion are Angular Displacement and Velocity
Time of flight (T ) It is the time taken by the projectile to The angle subtended at the centre
cover the journey from point of projections (O) to end point of a circle by a body moving along ∆S
( A ). the circumference of the circle is θ
2 u sin θ called angular displacement of the
O r
It is given by T =
g body. Its unit is radian (rad).
where, g is acceleration due to gravity.
Maximum Height (H) It is the maximum height attained by Length of the arc ∆s
Angular displacement (θ ) = =

the projectile during the journey from ‘‘O’’ to “A” as shown Radius of the circle r
in the diagram. The time rate of change of angular displacement is called
u 2 sin2 θ angular velocity. Its unit is rad s−1.
It is given by H =
2g Angular displacement ∆θ
Angular velocity (ω ) = =
Range (R ) It is the distance between starting point (O ) and Time ∆t
final point ( A ). If time period of uniform circular motion is T, then average
u 2 sin 2θ angular velocity is given by
It is given by R=
g 2π  1 
ω= = 2πf where, Frequency (f ) = 
T  Time period (T ) 
Properties of Projectile Motion
Horizontal range is maximum when angle of projection is
Linear velocity in circular motion is given by
45°. Horizontal range is same for angle of projections θ° Linear velocity = Angular velocity × radius
and ( 90 − θ )°. or v = ω × r
The horizontal component of velocity remains unchanged
Centripetal Acceleration
during the projectile motion. At the highest point of
projectile motion, the direction of motion becomes
During circular motion an acceleration acts on the body
horizontal as vertical component of velocity becomes zero towards the centre, called centripetal acceleration.
at that point. v2
Centripetal acceleration (ac ) = = rω 2
If we drop down a ball from a height and at the same time r
thrown another ball in a horizontal direction, then both the where, v = uniform speed of the body
balls would strike the earth simultaneously at different r = radius of circular path and
places. ω = angular velocity.
The direction of centripetal acceleration is always towards
Circular Motion the centre of the circular path.
The motion of an object along a circular path is called
circular motion. Force
v A v It is an external push or pull which can change or tries to
change the state of rest or of uniform motion. SI unit is
newton (N) and CGS unit is dyne. 1 N = 105 dyne.
If sum of all the forces acting on a body is zero, then body
O is said to be in equilibrium.
In nature, there are four basic types of forces
– Gravitational force – Electromagnetic force
v – Weak nuclear force – Strong nuclear force
v
Among these forces, the strong nuclear force is strongest one.
Circular motion with a constant speed is called uniform
circular motion. Centripetal Force
The direction of motion at any point in circular motion is During circular motion a force always acts on the body
given by the tangent to the circle at that point. towards the centre of the circular path, called centripetal
In uniform circular motion, the velocity and acceleration force.
both changes. mv 2
Centripetal force (F ) = = mrω 2
In case of non-uniform circular motion, the speed r
changes from point to point on the circular track. where, m = mass of the body.
Centrifugal Force Inertia of Rest

In circular motion we experience that a force is acting on It is the property of a body by virtue of which it cannot
us in opposite to the direction of centripetal force called change its state of rest on its own.
centrifugal force. This is an apparent force or imaginary – When a bus or train at rest starts, to move suddenly, the
force and also called a pseudo force. passengers sitting in it jerk in backward direction due to their
inertia of rest.
Applications of centripetal and centrifugal forces – The dust particles come out from a carpet when it is beaten
Cyclist inclined itself from vertical to obtain required with a stick due to their inertia of rest.
centripetal force. To take a safe turn cyclist slower down – A passenger jumping out from a rapidly moving bus or train
his speed and moves on a path of larger radius, to balance is advised to jump in forward direction and run forward for a
short mile due to inertia of rest.
decreased value of friction due to bending.
Roads are banked at turns to provide required centripetal Inertia of Motion
force for taking a turn. The component of normal reaction It is the property of a body by virtue of which it cannot
force provides required centripetal force. change its state of uniform motion on its own.
For taking turn on a curved road, the frictional force is When a running bus or train stops suddenly, the
acting between the tyres of the vehicle and the road acts passengers sitting in it jerk in forward direction due to
as centripetal force. inertia of motion.
If a car takes a turn with a speed greater than the safe
limit, then inner tyres leave the roads first in turning of car Momentum
because inner tyres were moving in smaller radius, hence
The momentum of a moving body is equal to the product of its
larger centrifugal force were acting on these tyres so more
mass and its velocity.
chances of skidding.
Its unit is kg - ms −1. It is a vector quantity and its direction is in
If a bucket containing water is revolved fast in a vertical
the direction of velocity of the body.
plane, the water may not fall even when bucket is
Momentum = Mass × velocity
completely inverted because a centrifugal force equal or
greater than the weight of water pushes the water to the p=m×v
bottom of the bucket. Conservation of Linear Momentum
For orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus, The linear momentum of a system of particles remains
electrostatic force of attraction is acting between the conserved if the external force acting on the system is
electrons and the nucleus as centripetal force. zero. Rocket propulsion and engine of jet aeroplane works on
principle of conservation of linear momentum. In rocket,
Cream is separated from milk when it is rotated in a vessel
ejecting gas exerts a forward force which helps in accelerating
about the same axis. During rotation lighter particles of cream
the rocket upward.
experience a lesser force than the heavier particles of milk.
Therefore, lighter particles tend to adopt a path of smaller Conservation of Angular Momentum
radius and move towards the centre. The heavier particles If external torque on a system is zero, angular momentum will
tend to adopt a path of larger radius and move towards the remain conserve. It is known as principle of conservation of
circumference and hence cream is separated from milk. angular momentum.
For revolution of the earth around the sun, gravitational force
of attraction between the earth and the sun acts as centripetal Newton’s Second Law
force. The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
Torque or Moment of a Force It is the product of the force proportional to the force applied on it and change in
and the perpendicular distance of the force from the axis of momentum takes place in the direction of applied force.
rotation. It produces rotational effect. It is a vector quantity. ∆p m∆v
F = = = ma
∆t ∆t
Newton’s Laws where, m is mass of the body and is constant.
Newton’s First Law If the resultant force on a body is zero, the body is said
A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in to be in equilibrium.
a straight line unless an external force acts on it. It is Newton’s Third Law
based on law of inertia.
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which it and both act on two different objects.
opposes any change in its state of rest or of uniform motion
Rocket is propelled by the principle of Newton’s third law
in a straight line.
of motion.
Rolling friction is lesser than sliding friction. Therefore, it

Impulse
is easier to roll a body than to slide it.
A large force which acts on a body for a very short interval It is easier to drive a bicycle when its tyres are fully
of time and produces a large change in its momentum is inflated because it decreases rolling friction.
called an impulsive force.
Velocity of the point of contact of the wheel with respect
The impulse of a force acting on a body is equal to the to the floor remains zero all the time while the centre of
product of the large force and small time interval for which the wheel moves forward in rolling motion.
it acts on a body.
The limiting frictional force is independent of the area of
Impulse (I ) = Force × time contact but depends on the nature of the material of the
Its unit is newton-second. surfaces in contact and their roughness or smoothness.
Impulse of a force applied on a body is equal to the The ratio of limiting friction (F) to the normal reaction (R)
change in linear momentum of that body. is called coefficient of friction (µ ) between two surfaces.
Impulse = Force × time = Change in momentum F
Coefficient of friction (µ ) =
Change in momentum R
or Force =
Time The angle between the normal reaction (R) and the
– A fielder lowers its hand when catching a cricket ball because resultant of limiting friction (F) is called angle of friction
by lowering his hands, he increases the time of contact for (θ).
stopping the ball and therefore fielder has to apply lesser force
F
to stop the ball. The ball will also exert lesser force on the where, tan θ = = µ
hands of the fielder and the fielder will not get hurt. R
– Wagons of a train are provided with the buffers to increase the
time of impact during jerks and therefore, decreases the
Application of Friction
damage. The vehicles like scooter, car, bus, truck etc. are A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element that uses balls
provided with shockers. to maintain the separation between the bearing races as
shown in the diagram. The
Friction purpose of a ball bearing is to
Bearing
Races
Friction is a force which opposes the relative motion of the reduce rotational friction and to
two bodies when one body actually moves or tries to move support loads (weight). It is
over the surface of another body. possible by using atleast two
races to contain the balls and
The cause of friction is the strong atomic or molecular
transmit the loads through the
forces of attraction acting on the two surfaces at the point
balls. Balls
of actual contact.
In most of the applications one race is stationary and the
Types of Friction other is attached to the rotating assembly (e.g. hub or
Static friction The opposing force that comes into play shaft). As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the
when one body tends to move over the surface of another balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they
body but the actual motion has yet not started is called have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat
static friction. Static friction is a self-adjusting force and it surfaces were sliding against each other. Hence, ball
adjusts itself so that it becomes equal to the applied force. bearing also minimises the energy loss due to wear and
Limiting friction The maximum static frictional force tear caused by friction.
which comes into play, when one body is just at the verge Friction is necessary for walking, to apply brakes in
of moving over the surface of the another body. vehicles, for holding nuts and bolts in a machinery etc.
Limiting friction (fs ) = µs R = µsmg Friction can be decreased by polishing the surfaces by
where, µs = coefficient of limiting friction. using lubricants or by using ball bearings.
Kinetic friction The opposing force that comes into play Tyres are made of synthetic rubber because its coefficient
when one body actually moves over the surface of another of friction with road is larger and therefore, large force of
body, is called kinetic friction. friction acts on it, which stops sliding at turns.
Kinetic friction is of two types The tyres are threading which also increases the friction
– Sliding friction It comes into play when one body slides over between the tyres and the road.
the surface of the another body. When pedal is applied to a bicycle, the force of friction on
– Rolling friction It comes into play when one body rolls over rear wheel is in forward direction and on front wheel is in
the surface of the another body. the backward direction.
If a coolie is carrying a load on his head and moving on a

Lever horizontal platform, then work done by force of gravity is
It is a simple machine in which a straight or inclined rod is made zero as displacement is perpendicular to the direction of
to turn or rotate at a point freely or independently. There are force of gravity.
three points related to lever namely load, effort and fulcrum.
Load The weight carried by the lever is called load. Energy
Effort To operate lever, the force applied externally is called Energy of a body is its capacity of doing work. It is a
effort. scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule.
Fulcrum The fixed point about which the rod of lever moves M Energy can be transformed into work and vice-versa with the
independently is called fulcrum. help of some mechanical device.
There are two types of Mechanical Energy, which are as
Work, Energy and Power follows
Kinetic Energy
Work The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is
Work done by a constant force (F) is equal to the dot called its kinetic energy.
product of the force applied on a body and the
displacement (s) of the body. Kinetic energy of the body of mass m moving with velocity
1 p2
W = F ⋅ s = Fs cos θ v is given by K = mv 2 =
2 2m
where, θ is the angle between F and s.
where, p = mv = momentum of the body.
Work is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is joule and CGS unit
is erg. 1 joule = 107 erg. Potential Energy
Work done by a force is positive if angle between F and s The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its position
is acute angle and negative if angle θ is obtuse angle. or configuration is called its potential energy.
Work done by a force is zero when Gravitational potential energy, U = mgh
– Body is not displaced actually, i.e. s = 0 where, m = mass of the body
– Body is displaced perpendicular to the direction of force i.e. g = acceleration due to gravity and
θ = 90°. h = height through which body is lifted.
Work done by a variable force Different Forms of Energy
Work done by a force is equal to the area under the
Solar Energy
force-displacement graph, along with proper sign and is
It is the emission of energy by the sun, used in solar
given by W = ∫ F ⋅ d s cooker, solar water heater, solar cell etc. Others are Fossil
energy, Wind energy, Hydroelectric energy, Nuclear
B Energy.
A Fossil Energy
Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy such as
Force
anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. Fossil

fuels contain coal, petroleum and natural gas.
D C Hydroelectric Energy
Displacement The production of electrical power through the use of the
Work done by force = Area ABCDA gravitational force of falling or flowing water. In our
If we throw a ball upward, work done against gravity is country, more than 23% of water is used in production of
given by, W = mgh hydroelectric power.
where, m = mass of the body, Nuclear Energy
g = acceleration due to gravity and It is found that when U235 nucleus break-up into lighter
h = height through which the ball is raised. nuclei on being bombardment by slow moving neutron, a
The centripetal force acts on a body perpendicular to the large amount of energy released is called nuclear energy.
direction of motion. Therefore, work done by or against Nuclear reactors and nuclear bombs are the sources of
centripetal force in circular motion is zero. nuclear energy.
If after collision two colliding bodies gets sticked with each

Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation other and moves with a common velocity, then collision is
◆
According to this relation, the mass can be transformed into said to be perfectly inelastic.
energy and vice-versa. In perfectly inelastic collision, the loss of kinetic energy during
◆
When ∆m mass is disappeared, then produced energy collision do not recover at all and two bodies stick together
after collision.
E = ∆mc 2
where, c = speed of light in vacuum.
Centre of Mass
Every physical system of particles (body) is associated
Conservative and with a certain point whose motion is characterised by the
Non-conservative forces system as a whole, and when a system moves under an
external force, then this point moves in a similar way as a
Conservative forces are non-dissipative forces like
single particle moves under the same external force.
gravitational force, electrostatic force etc.
This is called centre of mass of the system. For uniform
For the conservative forces, work done during a round trip
rod and solid spherical body, it is at the geometrical
is always zero.
centre.
Non-conservative forces are dissipative in nature like
frictional force, viscous force etc.
Moment of Inertia
Law of Conservation of Energy Moment of Inertia of a body with respect to axis of rotation
Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, only one is the summation of product of the masses of its particles
type of energy can be transformed into other form of and square of respective distances from axis of rotation.
energy.
Only for conservative forces, (total mechanical energy)
Definitions Related to Moment of Inertia
initially = (total mechanical energy) finally Radius of Gyration Radius of gyration is defined as the
distance of a point from axis of rotation at which the total
Power mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated, such
that its moment of inertia would be same.
The rate of doing work by a body is called its power.
Work done W F. s I = MK 2
Power = ;P = = = F. v = Fv cosθ
Time taken t t Theorem of Parallel Axes Moment of inertia about any
where, θ is the angle between F and v. parallel axis will be sum of moment of inertia about centre
of mass and product of mass and square of distance
It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule second − 1 or between the two axes.
watt. Theorem of Perpendicular Axes For a laminar body,
Other units are kilowatt and horse power. moment of inertia about perpendicular axis will be the
1 kilowatt = 1000 W and 1 HP = 746 W sum of moments of inertia about two other mutually
perpendicular axes.
Collision
Collision between two or more particles is the interaction Gravitation
for a very short interval of time in which they apply Each and every massive body attracts each other by virtue
relatively strong forces on each other. of their masses. This phenomenon is called gravitation.
For a collision, physical contact of two bodies is not
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
necessary.
The gravitational force acting between two point objects is
A collision in which momentum of the system as well as
directly proportional to the product of their masses and
kinetic energy of the system remains conserved, is called an
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
elastic collision.
between them.
In an elastic collision, all involved forces are conservative Gm1m2
forces. Gravitational force (F) =
r2
A collision in which only momentum remains conserved
where, G is universal gravitational constant.
but kinetic energy of the system does not remain
Its value is 6.67 × 10−11 N -m 2 kg −2 .
conserved, is called an inelastic collision.
Gravitational force is a central as well as conservative force.
Acceleration Due to Gravity of Earth Mass and Weight

The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in it.
body due to the earth’s gravitational pull, is called It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is kg.
GM
acceleration due to gravity, g = 2 Mass is measured by an ordinary equal arm balance.
R
where, M = mass of the earth , R = radius of the earth. Mass of a body does not change from place to place and
The value of g changes slightly from place to place but remains constant.
its value near the earth’s surface is 9.8 ms −2 . The weight of a body is the force with which it is attracted
Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature. It is towards the centre of the earth. Weight of a body (w) = mg
1036 times smaller than electrostatic force and 1038 The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the
times smaller than nuclear force. whole weight of the body appears to act.
The centre of gravity of a body can be inside the material of
Factors Affecting Acceleration due to the body or outside it. For regularly shaped body, the centre
Gravity of gravity lies at its geometrical centre.
Shape of Earth Earth is not completely spherical its It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is newton (N). It is
radius at equator is approximately 42 km greater than measured by a spring balance.
its radius at poles.
Weight of a body is not constant, it changes from place to
The value of g is maximum at poles and minimum at place.
equator. The difference in value of g at poles and at
equator is 3.4 cms−2 . Weight of a Body in a Lift
Rotation of Earth about its Own Axis If ω is the angular When lift is at rest or in uniform motion The weight
velocity of rotation of earth about its own axis, then recorded in spring balance (i.e. apparent weight) is equal to
acceleration due to gravity at any place on the earth is the real weight of the body w = mg .
given by g ′ = g − Rω 2 cos2 λ When lift is accelerating upward The weight recorded in
where, λ = latitude of the place, R = radius of the earth. spring balance is greater than the real weight of the body
At poles, λ = 90° and at equator λ = 0° Therefore, there w ′ = m( g + a )
is no effect of rotation of the earth at poles and When lift is accelerating downward The weight recorded in
maximum at equator. spring balance is lesser than the real weight of the body.
w ′ = m( g − a ).
Effect of Altitude The value of g at height h from the
earth’s surface is given by
When lift is falling freely under gravity The apparent weight
of the body
g  2 h
g′ = ≈ g 1 −  if h < < R w′ = m (g − g ) (Qa = g )
 h
2
 R 
 1 +  w′ = 0
 R
Therefore, body will experiences weightlessness.
Therefore, g decreases with altitude.
Weight of a Body at the Moon
Effect of Depth The value of g at depth from the earth’s
As mass and radius of moon is lesser than the earth, so the
 h
surface is given by g ′ = g 1 −  force of gravity at the moon is also less than that of the
 R g
earth. It’s value at the moon’s surface is .
Therefore, g decreases with depth and becomes zero at 6
centre of the earth.
Planets
Gravitational Field and Potential The heavenly bodies which revolve around the sun are
Gravitational Field The space surrounding the material called planets.
body in which its gravitational force can be experienced. Our solar system contains eight planets (as Pluto has lost its
Gravitational Potential It is the work done in carrying planet status, now it is considered as a dwarf planet). The
unit mass from infinity to a particular point in the field. order of the planets in the solar system with their increasing
Gravitational Potential Energy It is the work done in distance from the sun is
assembling system of masses from infinity to its present 1. Mercury, 2. Venus, 3. Earth, 4. Mars,
configuration. 5. Jupiter, 6. Saturn, 7. Uranus, 8. Neptune.
Weather monitoring which is predicted on the basis of

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary
information about moisture present in air, atmospheric
Motion pressure etc, obtained through a polar satellite.
Kepler’s Three Laws are We are able to see a live telecast of cricket world cup
– All planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with the match or other programme with the help of a
sun at its one focus. communication satellite which is a geostationary satellite.
– The areal speed of a planet around the sun is constant.
– The square of the time period (T ) of revolution of a planet Time Period of a Satellite
around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of the It is the time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution.
semi-major axis (a) of its elliptical orbit, i.e. T 2 ∝ a 3 . R
If satellite is near the earth’s surface, then T = 2 π ≈
g
Satellite 84.6 min
A heavenly body revolving around a planet in an orbit is
called a satellite. Moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
The satellite may be artificial. Artificial satellites are of two
Escape Velocity
types The minimum velocity with which when an object is thrown
vertically upwards from the earth’s surface just crosses the
Geostationary Satellites earth’s gravitational field and never returns. Escape velocity (v e )
It revolves around the earth in equatorial orbits which is 2 GM
also called Geostationary or Geosynchronous orbit at a = = 2gR
R
height of approximately 36000 km above the earth’s
Its value on earth’s surface is 11.2 km/s.
surface. The time period of these satellites is 24 hour
exactly equal to the time period of earth’s rotation about Escape velocity = 2 (orbital speed of a satellite when it is near
its own axis. the earth’s surface) v e = 2 v o
These satellites appear stationary with respect to the Therefore, when orbital speed of a satellite is increased by 2
earth. These satellites are used for communication times (41%), then it will escape from its orbit.
purpose, and for weather forecasting, in studying the
upper region of the atmosphere, in mapping etc. M The response of plants to gravity is called geotropism.
Polar Satellites M Two types of effects are obtained in plants due to gravity.
u The roots of plants always grow downward.
These satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits u The stems (or shoots) of plants always grow upward.
at a height of approximately 800 km. The time period of
– Variation in the length of day time and night time from season to
these satellites is approximately 84 min. season are due to revolution of the Earth on a tilled axis.
Self Check
Build Your Confidence
1. Variations in the length of day time and night time from 2. Polar satellites are used for weather forecasting.
season to season are due to [IAS 2013] Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) the Earth’s rotation on its axis (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(b) the Earth’s revolution round the Sun in an elliptical manner (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) latitudinal position of the place
(d) revolution of the Earth on a tilled axis 7. Consider the following statements.
Statement I When a parachutist jumps from a height h
2. The known forces of nature can be divided into four metre, then graph relating displacement and time will be
classes, viz, gravity, electromagnetism, weak nuclear parabolic.
force and strong nuclear force. With reference to them,
which one of the following statements is not correct? Statement II When a particle falling under gravity graph
relating displacement and time will be straight line.
(a) Gravity is the strongest of the four [IAS 2013]
(b) Electromagnetism acts only on particles with an electric Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
charge (a) Only I (b) Only II
(c) Weak nuclear force causes, radioactivity (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
(d) Strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons inside 8. Consider the following statements.
the nucleus of an atom
Statement I If a gymnast standing on a rotating stool
3. Ball bearings are used in bicycles, cars, etc, because with his arms stretched suddenly lowers his arms. His
[IAS 2013]
angular velocity increases.
(a) the actual area of contact between the wheel and axle is
increased Statement II A geostationary satellite is at an
(b) the effective area of contact between the wheel and axle is approximate height of 10000 km.
increased Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
(c) the effective area of contact between the wheel and axle is (a) Only I (b) Only II
reduced (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
(d) None of the above
9. Consider the following statements. [IAS 2008]
4. Satellites used for telecommunication relay are kept in 1. A force is said to be conservative if the work done by the
a geostationary orbit. A satellite is said to be in such an force on a particle in a round trip is zero.
orbit when [IAS 2008] 2. A force is said to be non-conservative if work done by
1. the orbit is geosynchronous the force on a particle in a round trip is not zero.
2. the orbit is circular 3. The gravitational force and the electrostatic force are
3. the orbit lies in the place of the earth’s equator the examples of non-conservative forces.
4. the orbit is at an altitude of 22236 km 4. Viscous force and frictional force are the examples of
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? conservative forces.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(c) 2 and 4 (d) All of the above (a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2
5. Consider the following statements in respect of a jet (c) 3 and 4
engine and a rocket [IAS 2008] (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
1. A jet engine uses the surrounding air for its oxygen supply
and so is unsuitable for motion in space. 10. A metal ball and a rubber ball of the same mass are
2. A rocket carries its own supply of oxygen in the gas form dropped from the same height. After hitting the floor, the
and fuel. rubber ball rises higher than the metal ball, why?
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? [IAS 2008]
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (a) Momentum is not conserved when the metallic ball hits
(c) Both 1and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 the floor
6. Consider the following statements. [IAS 2008] (b) The rubber ball hits the floor with greater velocity
(c) Momentum is not conserved when rubber ball hits the
1. Geostationary satellites are used to reflect TV signals and
floor
telecast TV programmes from one part of the world to
another.
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (d)
Chapter two
Properties of Matter
Plasticity
Matter The property of a body by virtue of
Matter is one of the Matter is considered as any thing which has which it does not regain its original
two basic components weight and occupy space. configuration after the removal of
Matter consists of atoms and molecules. It exist deforming force, is called plasticity.
of the physical science
in three states: Solid, liquid and gas.
in which the another Strain
In solid, molecules vibrate about fixed positions.
component is being The fractional change in
In liquid, molecules also vibrate but

energy. The simultaneously they move freely throughout the configuration i.e. length, volume and
material. In gas, the molecules are much farther shape, is called strain. Strain has no
distinguishing shbshaik
apart than in solids and liquids and move at high unit.
properties of matter 1/5/2022 On the basis of change in
velocities.
are gravitation and 9789325797239 configuration, strain is of three types
inertia. Any entity Interatomic Forces ∆l
B09PXVHL7H – Longitudinal strain =
The electrostatic force of interaction acting l
exhibiting these ∆V
between the two ARIHANT
or more atomsAHBIN is called – Volume strain =
properties are matter. V
interatomic forces.Magbook – Shearing strain = θ
Matter is also used as a
Bhartiya
The range of interatomic forces is equal to the
general term for the order of atomic size, i.e. 10−10 m.
Stress
Arthavyavastha
substance that make The variation of potential energy U and
The internal restoring force acting
for Civil services per unit area of cross-section of a
up all observable interatomic force F with the separation r between
prelims/state dU deformed body, is called stress.
physical objects two atoms is given by F = −
PCS & other dr Stress is of two types
Competitive – Normal stress
A force which changes the configuration of a
– Tangential stress
body, is called a Exam
deforming 2022
force.HIN
Also tangential stress are of two types :
Yes Yes compressive and tensile stress
Solid shbshaik The maximum deforming force
It is that, state of matter which has definite shape

1/5/2022 upto which a body retains its
and definite volume. In this state molecules are very property of elasticity is called the
9789325797215 limit of elasticity of the material
closely packed i.e. interatomic or intermolecular
body.
space is minimum. B09PYPB98P
ARIHANT AHBIN
Properties Magbook of Solids Hooke’s Law
◆
Within the limit of elasticity the strain
Some important properties
Bhartiya of solids are as
Itihas forfollows produced in a body is directly
Elasticity Civil services proportional to the stress applied to it.
The property of aprelims/state
body by virtue of which it i.e. Strain ∝ Stress
regain its originalPCS
configuration
& other after the removal Stress
or = constant (E )
of deforming force, is called elasticity. Strain
Competitive
Quartz and phosphor bronze are almost perfectly where, constant E is called modulus of
elastic bodies.
Exam 2022 HIN elasticity.
Yes Yes
Types of Modulus of Elasticity

Elastic Fatigue
The modulus of Elasticity is of following types
It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its
Young’s modulus of elasticity
behaviour becomes less elastic under the action of repeated
Normal stress (F / A) FL MgL
Y = = = = alternating deforming force. Due to elastic fatigue, the
Longitudinal strain (l / L) Al pr 2l bridges becomes less elastic after a use of long time and
where, L = initial length of the wire therefore are declared unsafe.
l = change in length
r = radius of the wire
M = mass suspended to the wire Fluid
Steel is more elastic than rubber as YS > YR . A substance which begins to flow under an external
Normal stress force is called a fluid. Liquids and gases are fluids.
Bulk modulus of elasticity, K or B =
Volumetric strain
p pV Fluid Density
= =−
−(∆V /V ) ∆V The ratio of mass to the volume of a body is called its
Tangential stress F / A F density (i.e. mass present in its unit volume). It is a
Modulus of rigidity, n = = = scalar quantity having SI unit kg/m 3 .
Shearing strain (θ ) Aθ
Mass (m )
Density (d ) =
The unit of modulus of elasticity is Nm −2 or pascal (Pa). Volume (V )
The minimum stress required to break a wire is called The density of water is 1000 kg/m 3
breaking stress. – Relative density of a solid
Breaking stress is fixed for a material but breaking force varies
Weight of the body in air
with change in area of cross-section of the wire. =
Weight of the same volume of water at 4° C
The torque required to produce a given twist in a hollow
Weight of the body in air
cylinder is greater than that required to produce the same =
twist in a solid cylinder. Therefore, hollow shaft is stronger Loss in weight of the body in water
than a solid shaft. – Relative density of a liquid
Girders are made I shaped for checking the buckling Density of liquid
(bending at middle). Springs are made of steel, not of copper =
Density of water at 4° C
as Young’s modulus of elasticity of steel is more than that of
copper. Loss in weight of a solid in liquid
=
Loss in weight of a solid in water
Elastic Limit
The density of water is maximum at 4° C.
It is the limit of stress and strain upto which a wire remains
elastic i.e. when the stretching force is removed, the wire Hydrometer It is an instrument used to measure
acquires its natural length. density or relative density of liquid. Its working is based
on law of floatation.
Plastic Behaviour Water is dipolar in nature, therefore it can dissolve
If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic limit, the strain more substances than any other liquid.
increases much more rapidly. If the stretching force is
removed, the wire does not comes back to its natural length. Fluid Pressure
Some permanent increase in length takes place, this Thrust (the normal force) exerted by a liquid per unit
behaviour of the wire is called plastic behaviour.
area of the surface in contact at rest, is called fluid
Fracture Point pressure.
F
If the deformation is increased further the plastic behaviour, Fluid pressure (p ) =
the wire breaks at a point known as fracture point. A
−2
Its unit is Nm or Pascal (Pa).
Ductile and Brittle Materials Pressure exerted by a liquid column is given by
If large deformation takes place between the elastic limit and p =h ρ g
the fracture point, the material is called ductile.
where, h = height of liquid column
If the wire breaks soon after the elastic limit is crossed, it is
ρ = density of liquid
called brittle.
g = acceleration due to gravity.
Magbook ~ Properties of Matter 15
– Ice and large icebergs float on water surface as its

Atmospheric Pressure density (0.92 g/cm 3 ) is lesser than the density of water.
11
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere, is called – When a piece of ice floats on water, its   th part
atmospheric pressure. The value of atmospheric pressure on  12 
the earth at sea level is nearly 1. 013 × 105 Nm −2 or Pascal. submerged in water and (1 / 12) th part is outside the water.
– In sea water, (8/ 9) th part of icebergs is submerged
Aneroid barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure
and height of a place. and (1 / 9) th part is outside the water during floating.
– It is easier to swim in sea water than in a river as density of sea
Other units of atmospheric pressure are torr and bar.
water is greater than the density of river water. In sea water,
1 torr = 1 mm of mercury column buoyant force is greater than that in river water.
1 bar = 105 Pa – The density of human body is less than the density of water but
the density of human head is greater than the density of water.
Therefore, during swimming a person displaces the liquid with
Pascal’s Law hands and legs and total weight of displaced liquid becomes
The pressure exerted anywhere at a point of confined equal to the weight of the body.
fluid is transmitted equally and undiminished, in all
directions throughout the liquid. Surface Tension
Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press, hydraulic brakes works on The property of a liquid by virtue of which it tries to minimise
the basis of Pascal’s law. its free surface area is called surface tension.
Surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force acting
Buoyancy perpendicularly per unit length on an imaginary line drawn
at the surface of the liquid its unit is newton/metre.
When a body is partially or wholly immersed in a liquid,
an upward force acts on it, which is called buoyant force F
Surface tension (S) =
or upthrust and this property of fluids is called l
buoyancy. The minimum surface area of a given amount of liquid is
Buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid for spherical shape. Therefore, rain drops are spherical.
displaced by the submerged part of the body. Factors Affecting Surface Tension
The buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the Temperature The surface tension of a liquid decreases with
liquid displaced by the submerged part of the body, increase in temperature.
which is called ‘centre of buoyancy’.
Soluble Impurities If the impurities are less soluble in
liquid, then its surface tension decreases. If impurities are
Archimedes’ Principle highly soluble in liquid, then its surface tension increases.
When a body is partially or completely immersed in a
liquid, it loses some of its weight. The loss in weight is Applications of Surface Tension
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the Surface tension of a liquid becomes zero at critical
submerged part of the body. temperature.
If w1 is the weight and V is the volume of a body in air When soap, detergent, dettol, phenyl etc., are mixed in
and its weight becomes w 2 in a liquid of density ρ, water then its surface tension decreases.
then, Loss in weight = w1 − w 2 When salt is added in water, its surface tension increases.
When oil spreads over the surface of water, its surface
Law of Floatation tension decreases.
A body will float in a liquid if weight of the body is equal When kerosene oil is poured over water its surface tension
to weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of decreases and now weight of a mosquito sitting on water
the body. surface is not balanced by surface tension force and it is
In floating condition, the centre of gravity (g) and the dipped in water.
centre of buoyancy (B) of the floating body must lie on Antiseptics like dettol have low surface tension and
the same straight line. therefore it reaches in the tiny cracks of the wound and
The volume and density of a body are V1 and ρ1 cleans the germs and bacteria. The surface tension of soap
respectively and if it is immersed in a liquid of density ρ2 solution in water is less than the surface tension of pure
then its volume V2 submerged in the liquid is given by the water. Therefore, soap solution cleans greasy strains of
V ρ clothes better than pure water.
relation, 2 = 1 .
V1 ρ 2
Surface Energy Viscosity

The potential energy of the molecules in Viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of which an internal frictional
the surface of liquid is called the surface force acts between its layers when it is in motion. This force is called
energy. viscous force.
Surface energy = T × ∆A Viscous force acting between two layers of a liquid is given by
where, T = surface tension of liquid, dv
F = –η A
∆A = increase in surface area. dx
where, η = coefficient of viscosity
Angle of Contact A = contact area of layers
The angle between the tangent to the liquid dv
= velocity gradient

surface and the tangent to the solid surface dx
at the point of contact is known as angle of If A = 1 m 2 and
dv
= 1 s−1, then η = F
contact. dx
The angle of contact is always measured The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature while the
through the liquid. Angle of contact viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature. The viscosity of
increases with increase in temperature of liquids except water increases with increase in pressure. The viscosity of
liquid. water decreases with increases in pressure.
The viscosity of gases is independent of pressure.
Capillarity
Coefficient of Viscosity
The phenomenon of rising or falling of liquid
column in a capillary tube (glass tube of very
It is the viscous force acting between two layers of unit area of
fine bore) is called capillarity. cross-section having unit velocity gradient. Its unit is N sm −2 or
Pascal-second (Pa-s)
Water rises in narrow capillary tubes in a Its other unit is poise.
tree due to capillarity. 1
1 poise = Nsm −2
A blotting paper sucks the ink into their 10
narrow capillary tubes due to capillarity.
Rise of liquid in a capillary tube is given by Stoke’s Law
2S cosθ According to this law, the viscous force depends upon the coefficient of
h=
rρg viscosity, velocity of the moving object and its size (i.e. radius).
where, S = surface tension of the liquid Terminal Velocity

θ = angle of contact When a small spherical body falls through a long liquid column its
r = radius of the capillary tube velocity increases gradually but later on it becomes constant, called
ρ = density of the liquid terminal velocity.
The liquid column of water, milk, etc, rises 2 r 2 (ρ − σ )g

Terminal velocity, v =
in capillary tube while mercury column 9 η
falls. where, r = radius of spherical body
ρ = density of the body
Cohesive and Adhesive σ = density of the liquid
Forces η = coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.
The radius of spherical rain drops is very small therefore their terminal
The intermolecular force of attraction acting
velocity is also small, with which they strike the earth’s surface.
between the molecules of same substance is
called cohesive force. When a liquid flow through a pipe, its speed is maximum near axis and
e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting minimum near the walls of the pipe.
between the molecules of water, mercury etc.
The intermolecular force of attraction acting
Equation of Continuity
between the molecules of different substance When a non-viscous liquid flows through a pipe of non-uniform
is called adhesive force. cross-sectional area in stream-lined flow, (i.e. velocity at every point in
e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting the fluid remains constant) then at each section of the tube, the product
between the molecules of paper and gum, of area of cross-section of the pipe and velocity of liquid remains
paper and ink, etc. constant, i.e. A × v = constant or A1 v 1 = A2 v 2 = constant
Therefore speed (v ) of fluid flow becomes faster in narrower pipe.
Magbook ~ Properties of Matter 17
Flow of Fluid Magnus Effect : Motion of a Spinning Ball

When liquid flows, there are two types of flow When swing bowlers deliver the ball, the ball
– Steady flow Rear molecules of fluid follows same path of flow as changes its plane of motion in air.
that of molecules ahead. The situation is shown in the figure
– Turbulent flow The path of flow at a point followed by rear
A
molecules are not same as that of molecules ahead. Water
flow in high fall or a fast flowing river is generally turbulent.
Bernoulli’s Theorem
F
If a non-viscous and incompressible liquid is flowing in Vair
stream-lined flow then total energy, i.e., sum of pressure
energy, kinetic energy and potential energy, per unit volume of
the liquid remains constant.
1
p + ρV 2 + ρgh = constant B
2 Spinning Ball
1
For horizontal flow of fluid, p + ρV 2 = constant
2 – Figure represents horizontal plane. The air that goes
Venturi tube and aspirator pump works on Bernoulli’s theorem. from the A side of the ball in the figure is dragged by
the spin of the ball and its speed increases.
According to Bernoulli’s theorem, with increase in velocity of
– The air, goes from B side of the ball in the figure, suffers
liquid its pressure decreases and vice-versa. an opposite drag and its speed decreases.
During storms or cyclones, the roofs of the huts or tinned roofs – The pressure of air is reduced on the A side and
blown off because wind blows with very high speed over the increased on the B side as required by the Bernoulli’s
top of the roof and therefore pressure of air decreases. Due to equation.
the pressure difference of air above and below the roof, a lifting – As a result, as net force F acts on the ball from the B
force acts on the roof. If it is sufficient to balance the weight of side to A side due to this pressure difference. This
the roof it start to fly off. causes the deviation of the plane of motion and this is
the spinning of the ball.
Self Check
1. Consider the following statements 6. Consider the following statements
If there were no phenomenon of capillarity Statement I An iron ball floats on mercury but gets
1. it would be difficult to use a kerosene lamp. immersed in water.
2. one would not be able to use a straw to consume a soft Statement II The specific gravity of iron is more than
drink. that of mercury.
3. the blotting paper would fail to function. Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
4. the big trees that we see around would not have grown (a) Only I (b) Only II
on the Earth. (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
Which of the following statement(s) given above is/are correct? 7. An oil tanker is partially filled with oil and moves forward
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 on a level road with uniform acceleration.
(c) 2 and 4 (d) All of the above The free surface of oil then
2. Four wires of same material and of dimensions as (a) remains horizontal
mentioned below are stretched by a load of same (b) is inclined to the horizontal with smaller depth at the rear end
magnitude separately. Which one of them will be (c) is inclined to the horizontal with larger depth at the rear end
elongated maximum? [IAS 2009] (d) assumes parabolic curve
(a) Wire of 1m length and 2 mm diameter 8. An ice cube is floating on the surface of water. How will
(b) Wire of 2m length and 2 mm diameter the water level be affected by melting of this ice cube?
(c) Wire of 3m length and 1.5 mm diameter (a) Water level will be raised
(d) Wire of 1m length and 1 mm diameter (b) Water level will go down
3. A liquid is flowing in a streamlined manner through a (c) Water level will remain the same
cylindrical pipe. Along a section containing the axis of (d) Water level will first rise up then it will go down
the pipe, the flow profile will be [IAS 2008] 9. Consider the following statements
Statement I With the increase of temperature, the
(a) (b) viscosity of glycerine increases.
Statement II Rise of temperature increases kinetic
energy of molecules.
(c) (d) Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) Only I (b) Only II
(c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
4. There identical vessels A, B and C are filled with water, 10. Consider the following statements
mercury and kerosene respectively up to an equal Statement I The ships of iron and the boats of wood
height. The three vessels are provided with identical float in water but the nails iron sink.
taps at the bottom of the vessels. Of the three taps are Statement II The special by designed shape of the ship
opened simultaneously, then which vessel is emptied and the boat provides more force of buoyancy. So, the
first? [IAS 2009]
ships or boats floats. But the weight of the water
(a) Vessel B displaced by the nails is less than the weight of nails
(b) All the vessels A, B and C will be emptied simultaneously that is why nails sink.
(c) Vessel A
Which of the following statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(d) Vessel C
5. Consider the following statements (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
Statement I The tendency of a liquid drop to contract
11. Consider the following statements
and occupy minimum area is due to surface tension.
1. Surface tension of liquid depends on length but not on
Statement II Blotting of ink is due to capillarity.
the area like the elastic property.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
2. SI unit of surface tension is N/m.
(a) Only I
(b) Only II 3. Surface tension is a scalar quantity because it has no
(c) Both I and II specific direction for a given liquid.
(d) Neither I nor II Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (d)
Chapter three
Oscillations and Waves
Characteristics of SHM
A wave motion is a
Periodic Motion The motion of the particle should take
A motion which repeats itself identically place in a straight line to and fro about
process of transmission after a fixed interval of time, is called a the mean position.
of disturbances created periodic motion.
The restoring force acting on the
somewhere in an elastic For example
particle should always be proportional to
medium in all directions – Motion of arms of a clock, orbital motion of
the displacement of the particle towards
the earth around the sun, motion of a
around it and along with simple pendulum etc. the mean position.
the directions around it Some Definitions Related
and along with the Oscillatory Motion to SHM
disturbances energy A periodic motion taking place to and fro
Time Period and Frequency
or back and forth about a fixed point, is
transmit. Although the Time taken by the particle to complete
called oscillatory motion or oscillation.
particles of the medium one oscillation, is known as time
For examples
only vibrate or oscillate period (T).
– Motion of a simple pendulum.
about their mean The number of oscillations completed
– Motion of a loaded spring etc.
by the particle in one second, is called
positions and do not If a particle oscillates with its own frequency ( ν ).
leave their original natural frequency without help of any 1
external periodic force. The oscillation is Frequency ( ν ) =
respective positions. Time period (T )
then called damped oscillation.
When a body oscillates with the help of Its unit is second−1 or hertz.
an external periodic force with a The product of frequency with a factor
frequency different from natural 2π, is called angular frequency (ω).
frequency of the body, then oscillation is Angular frequency
called forced oscillation. 2π
(ω ) = 2πν =
T
Simple Harmonic Its unit is second−1 or hertz.
Motion (SHM)
Displacement and
An oscillatory motion of constant
amplitude and of single frequency under
Amplitude
a restoring force whose magnitude is A physical quantity which changes
proportional to the displacement and uniformly with time and also mean
always acts towards mean position, is position in a periodic motion, is called
called Simple Harmonic Motion. displacement (y ).
For example The maximum displacement in any
– Equation of SHM is given by direction from the mean position, is
x = Asin (ωt + δ), where (ωt + δ) is known called amplitude (a).
as phase.
Displacement in SHM at any instant is given by Acceleration due to gravity decreases with altitude (height) and
y = a sin ωt or y = a cos ωt therefore time period of a pendulum clock will increase and clock
becomes slow.
If the bob of a simple pendulum is suspended from a metallic wire,
a then the length of the pendulum increases with increase in
3T/4 T
y O temperature and therefore its time period also increases. When a
T/4 T/2 t
a bob of simple pendulum of density (ρ) oscillates in a fluid of density
ρ 0 ( ρ 0 < ρ ), then its time period gets increased.
ρ
Increased time period, T ′ = T
Velocity of a particle executing SHM at any ρ − ρ0
instant is given by v = dy / dt = aω cos ωt
Time period of oscillations of a loaded spring is given by
or v = ω (a 2 − y 2 ) m
T = 2π
At mean position ( y = 0), velocity is maximum. k
v max = aω where, m = mass suspended with the spring
At extreme position ( y = a ), velocity is zero. k = force constant of the spring.
aω Energies in SHM
aω Potential energy of a particle of mass m executing SHM is given by
y T/2
O
T/4 3T/2 t
–aω 1 1
U = mω 2y 2 = ky 2 [k = mω 2]
2 2
where,
Acceleration of a particle executing SHM at any m = mass of the particle,
instant is given by α = d 2y / dt 2 A
ω = angular velocity of oscillations,
or α = − ω 2y y = displacement.
At mean position ( y = 0), the acceleration is zero Kinetic energy of a particle of mass m executing SHM is given by
and at extreme position ( y = a ), the acceleration 1
is maximum. α max = − aω 2 K = mω 2 (a 2 − y 2 )
2
Time period in SHM is given by Total energy (E) = U + K
Displacement 1
T = 2π = mω 2a 2 = 2π 2mn 2a 2
Acceleration 2
A girl is swinging over a swing. If she stands up over the swing, then
Simple Pendulum the effective length of the swing decreases and therefore, the time
A heavy point mass suspended from a rigid period of oscillations decreases.
support by means of an elastic inextensible A pendulum clock cannot be used in a space-ship.
string, is called a simple pendulum. Damped Harmonic Motion
Time period of a simple pendulum is given by When there is friction or any other force acting within an oscillating
T = 2π
l system, the amplitudes of the oscillation decreases over time to this
g damping force. This is called damped harmonic motion.
where, l = effective length of the pendulum Resonant Oscillations
g = acceleration due to gravity. When a body oscillates with its own natural frequency (ν 0 ) with the
The time period of a simple pendulum of infinite help of an external periodic force also called forced harmonic
length is 84.6 min. The time period of a motion. And if the frequency ( ν ) provided by the enternal agent is
second’s pendulum is 2 s. Its length on the equal to the natural frequency of the body, the oscillations of the
earth is nearly 100 cm. body are called resonant oscillations.
Magbook ~ Oscillations and Waves 21
Wave Definitions Related to Waves

A wave is a vibratory disturbance in a medium which The distance between two nearest points in a wave which are
carries energy from one point to another point in the same phase of vibration, is called the wavelength ( λ ).
without any actual movement of the medium. Time taken to complete one vibration, is called time period (T).
The number of vibrations completed in one second, is called
Types of Waves frequency of the wave.
Those waves which require a material medium for 1
Frequency ( ν ) =

their propagation, are called mechanical waves. Time period (T )

For examples Its SI unit is hertz.
– Sound waves, water waves etc.
Those waves which do not require a material
Superposition and Interference of Waves
medium for their propagation, are called Two or more progressive waves can travel simultaneously in the
electromagnetic waves. medium without effecting the motion of one another. Therefore,
resultant displacement of each particle of the medium at any
For examples
instant is equal to vector sum of the displacements. This
– Light waves, radio waves, X-rays etc.
principle is called principle of superposition.
Nature of Waves On the other hand, when two waves of same frequency stand
in the medium in the same direction, then the resultant
A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate intensity due to their superposition, at a point, is different from
at right angles to the direction of propagation of the sum of intensities of two waves. This phenomenon is called
wave, is called a transverse wave. interference.
These waves travel in the form of crests and troughs.
Crest Sound
Sound is a form of energy, which produces the sensation of
hearing. Sound is produced by vibrating objects.
Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves and require
Trough medium for their propagation. Sound waves cannot propagate
through vacuum. If a sound wave propagates from one medium
In a transverse wave, the position of maximum to another, then its speed and its wavelength changes but its
displacement in the upward direction, is called crest frequency remains constant.
and the position of maximum displacement in Sound waves are of three types
downward direction is called trough. – The sound waves of frequency lies between 0 to 20 Hz, are called
A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate infrasonic waves.
in the same direction in which wave is propagating, – The sound waves of frequency lies between 20 Hz to 20000 Hz, are
is called a longitudinal wave. called audible waves.
– The sound waves of frequency greater than 20000 Hz, are called
These waves travels in the form of compressions and
ultrasonic waves.
rarefactions as shown below
Compression Speed of Sound
The speed of sound is different in different media.
γp
Rarefaction v= (In gaseous medium)
d
When a longitudinal wave propagates in a medium, where, p is pressure, d is density, γ is ratio of specific heats.
the density and pressure becomes maximum at few Y
points and minimum at other few points, these v= (In solid)
d
points are called compressions and rarefactions.
where, Y = Young’s modulus.
Longitudinal waves can be produced in solid, liquid
and gases. Transverse waves can be produced in β
v= (In liquid)
solids and on the surface of a liquid but cannot be d
produced in the interior of a liquid or in a gas. where, = Bulk modulus.
Speed of sound ≈ 332 m/s (in air), 1483 m/s (water) and

5130 m/s (in iron). If v s , v l and v g are speed of sound waves
Properties of Sound Wave
in solid, liquid and gases, then v s > v l > v g . Reflection
Sound waves cannot be heard on the surface of the moon The bouncing back of sound when it strikes a hard
and in outer space because there is no air on the moon. surface, is called reflection of sound.
Some important points related with speed of sound waves are The laws of reflection of light are also obeyed during
– The speed of sound waves in air increases with increase in reflection of sound.
temperature. The working of megaphone, sound boards and ear
– The speed of sound increases by 0.61 m/s per °C rise in trumpet is based on reflection of sound.
temperature.
The repetition of sound due to reflection of sound
– The dependence of speed of sound wave is given as v ∝ T ,
waves, is called an echo.
where, v = speed of sound, T = temperature.
1
– The sound waves is faster in humid air and slower in dry air. The persistence of hearing on human ear is th of a
10
– The speed of sound in air is very slower as compared to the
speed of light in air. Therefore, in rainy season, the flashing of
second.
lightning is seen first and the sound of thunder is heard a little The minimum distance from a sound reflecting surface
later. to hear an echo is nearly 17 m.
Sound proof rooms are made of two layers of walls
Characteristics of Sound having vacuum between them.
Some characteristics of sound are as follows Reverberation arises due to multiple reflection of
sound.
Intensity
While designing an auditorium for speech or musical
It is the characteristic of sound by which weak and loud
concerts, one has to take proper care for the
sounds can be identified. The intensity is proportional to the
absorption and reflection of sound.
square of the amplitude of vibration of the source. It is also a
measure of quality of sound. It is generally represented by I. Time taken by reverberant sound to decrease its
intensity by a factor of 106 is called reverberation time.
When two sound waves of nearly equal frequency interfere,
then intensity of resultant wave increases and decreases with Refraction
time. This phenomenon is known as beats and beat When a sound wave move from one mechanical
frequency is equal to difference of frequencies of two waves. medium to another mechanical medium, it shows
Loudness deviation from the original path of the incident wave.
This phenomenon is called refraction. It is due to
It is related with sound level (β) given by
difference is speed of sound in media.
I
β = 10 log10   dB,
 I0  Diffraction
where, I is intensity of the source, producing sound waves. When sound waves originated by a vibrating source,
−12 2 they spread in the medium and if the medium is
and I 0 = reference intensity = 10 W/m
homogeneous, this leads to bending of sound waves
Pitch around the edges. Which is known as diffraction.
It is related with frequency of the source. It distinguishes a The sound waves diffracted broadly and one can easily
shrill note from a grave note. hears the voice of the another person.
Musical Scale
Shock Waves In theory of music, a musical scale is a set of musical
◆
A body moving with speed greater than the speed of sound in air notes by the frequencies of which are in simple ratios
(supersonic speed) leaves behind it a conical region of to one another. Sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni is one such
disturbance which spreads continuously. Such a disturbance is scale called the diatonic scale. The frequencies of
called shock wave. These waves carry huge energy and may even these notes are: sa (256), re (288), ga (320),
make cracks in window panes or even damage a building. It is
ma (341.3), pa (384), dha (426.7) and ni (480). The
produced by shock waves.
next note denoted by sa has a frequency 512, twice
◆
The ratio of speed of the source and speed of sound in air is that of sa. The interval sa-sa is called an octave (8).
called ‘‘Mach number’’.
Magbook ~ Oscillations and Waves 23
Noise Reduction in Doppler’s Effect

Recording Media The apparent change in the frequency of source due to relative motion between the
Five types of noise reduction system source and observer is called Doppler’s effect.
exists in recording media as Applications of Doppler’s Effect
discussed below
The measurement of Doppler shift (based on Doppler’s effect) has been used
– Dolby A noise reduction system, ◆
By police to check over speeding of vehicles.
intended for use in professional
recording studios. It provided about 10
◆
At airports to guide the aircraft.
dB of broadband noise reduction. ◆
To study heart beats and blood flow in different parts of the body.
– Dolby B was developed to achieve ◆
By astrophysicist to measure the velocities of planets and stars.
about 9 dB noise reduction primarily
for cassettes. It was much simpler than
Dolby A and therefore less expensive to SONAR
implement in consumer products.
SONAR stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging. It is used to measure the
– Dolby C provides about 15 dB noise
depth of a sea, to locate the enemy submarines and shipwrecks.
reduction.
The transmitter of a sonar produces pulses of ultrasonic sound waves of
– Dolby SR (Spectral Recording) system
is much more aggressive noise frequency of about 50000 Hz. The reflected sound waves are received by the
reduction approach than Dolby A. receiver.
Dolby SR is much more expensive to
implement than Dolby B or C, but it is Human Ear
capable of providing upto 25 dB noise We are able to hear with the help of an extremely sensitive organ of our body
reduction in the high frequency range. called the ear. There are three parts of human ear
– Dolby S is found on some Hi-Fi and – The outer ear is called pinna. It collects the sound from the surroundings. The
semi-professional recording middle ear transmits the amplified pressure variations received from the sound wave
equipment. It is capable of 10 dB of to the inner ear.
noise reduction at low frequencies and
upto 24 dB of noise reduction at high In the inner ear, the pressure variations are turned into electrical signals by the
frequencies. cochlea. These electrical signals are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve
and the brain interpret them as sound.
Self Check
1. During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the sky is (a) Air at 0°C (b) Air at 100°C
produced by the [IAS 2013] (c) Water (d) Wood
1. meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky. 7. Consider the following statements
2. lightning that separates the nimbus clouds.
Statement I The velocity of sound in air increases due to
3. violent upward movement of air and water particles.
the presence of moisture in it.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 Statement II The presence of moisture in air lowers the
(c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these density of air.
Which of the above statement (s) is/are correct ?
2. Consider the following statements [IAS 2008] (a) Only I (b) Only II
1. A widely used musical scale called diatonic scale has (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
seven frequencies.
8. The bulk modulus and the density of water are greater
2. The frequency of the note Sa (Sa) is 256 Hz and that of Ni
than those of air. With this much of information, we can
512 Hz.
say that velocity of sound in air
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) is larger than its value in water
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(b) is smaller than its value in water
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) is equal to its value in water
3. Assertion (A) A jet aircraft moving at mach number (d) cannot be compared with its value in water
equal to 1 travels faster at an altitude of 15 km than
while moving at mach number equal to 1 near the sea
level. Statement I When a particle is executing simple
harmonic motion, total energy varies with time.
Reason (R) The velocity of sound depends on the
temperature of the surrounding medium. Statement II Audible waves have frequency range of
Codes 30 kHz to 30 MHz.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A Which of the above statement (s) is/are correct?
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation (a) Only I (b) Only II
of A (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
(c) A is true but R is false 10. Consider the following statements
(d) A is false but R is true
Statement I Radar waves are sent towards a moving
4. Consider the following statements [IAS 2007] aeroplane and the reflected waves are received. When
1. A flute of smaller length produces waves of lower the aeroplane is moving towards the radar, the
frequency. wavelength of the wave decreases.
2. Sound travels in rocks in the form of longitudinal elastic Statement II The velocity of sound in air decreases with
waves only. increase in pressure.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Which of the above statement (s) is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (a) Only I
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (b) Only II
5. What does the term Dolby B or Dolby C printed on (c) Both I and II
tape-recorders and other sound systems refer to? (d) Neither I nor II
[IAS 2008] 11. When an aeroplane attains a speed higher than the
(a) Frequency Modulated System speed of sound in air, a loud band is heard this is
(b) Amplitude Modulated System because
(c) Noise Reduction Circuit (a) Its wings vibrate so violently that the bang is heard
(d) Both DC and AC power can be used (b) it explodes
6. In which one among the following is the speed of sound (c) it produces a shock wave which is received as the bang
maximum? [IAS 2008]
(d) the normal engine noises undergo a Doppler shift to
generate the band
(d) (a) (d) (b) (c) (d) (c) (d) (d) (a)
(c)
Chapter four
Heat and its Transmission
Heat Relation between
Heat is the form of energy which produces Different Scales of
The thermal energy due
to which the existence of
the sensation of warmth. Its SI unit is joule Temperature
and other unit calorie is also widely used. Different scales of temperature are related
the temperature in the (1 cal = 4.2 Joule) as follows:
body appears is called A body gets heated various types of C F − 32 R K − 273
changes, such as expansion, contraction, = = =
heat. In other words, 100 180 80 100
change of state, change of electrical
heat is a type of energy K = 273 + ° C
properties etc., are observed.
by which mechanical At temperature − 40 ° C = − 40 ° F
The transfer of heat is always from hotter to
work can be done. This colder body. The heat energy that is The temperature at which the three
was first defected by transferred from one body to another, can phases of water remains at equilibrium
change into mechanical energy, electrical is called triple point of water (273.16 K)
Rumford, later, Dawy
energy etc. Thermometers
confirmed this fact after
rubbing two pieces of The instruments used to measure
ice on melting.
Temperature temperature of a body is called
Temperature is measure of hotness or thermometer.
coldness of a body. Thermometers are of following three types
The heat flows from one body to another 1. Clinical thermometer It is used to
due to the difference in their body measure human body temperatures
temperature. and ranges from 96º F to 110°F or
35°C to 43°C.
Scale of Temperature 2. Electronic thermometer Basic
To measure the temperature of a body components of an electronic
following temperature scales are used. thermometer are thermistors or
thermoresistors. Range of electronic
– Celsius scale of temperature ice point is 0°C
Boiling point of water = 100°C
thermometer is –40° to 450°F.
– Fahrenheit scale of temperature 3. Other thermometers These include
ice point = 32° F constant volume gas thermometer,
Boiling point of water = 212° F platinum resistance thermometer
– Kelvin or absolute scale of temperature ice etc.
point = 273° K Clinical thermometer measures
Boiling point of water = 373° K
temperature in degree fahrenheit (°F).
– Reaumur scale of temperature ice point is 0° R,
In thermometer, mercury is commonly
Boiling point of water = 80°R
used through a wide range from –30°C
– Rankine scale of temperature ice point
to 300°C.
= 491.67 °R Boiling point of water
= 671.641° R Thermometer was developed by
Where, Lower Fixed Point (LFP) = lce point and Galileo who found that the gases
Upper Fixed Point (UFP) = Boiling point of water. expand on heating.
Coefficient of real expansion of a liquid

Thermal Expansion
Real increase in volume

The expansion of a body caused by heat is known as γr =
Original volume × Rise in temperature

thermal expansion.
γr = γ a + γ g
Thermal Expansion of Solids where, γr and γ a are coefficients of real and apparent
Thermal expansion of solids is of three types expansion of liquids and γ g = coefficient of cubical expansion
1. Expansion in length on heating, is called linear of the container.
expansion. The increase in length of a rod of unit length
Anomalous Expansion of Water
of a substance due to increase in its temperature by 1° C
is called the coefficient of linear expansion of the When temperature of water is increased from 0° C, then its
substance of that rod. It is represented by α. volume decreases up to 4° C, becomes minimum at 4° C and
Increase in length ∆L then increases. This behavior of water expansion around 4° C
α= = is called, anomalous expansion of water.
Initial length × Rise in temperature L × ∆t
– Its unit is ° C −1 . Thermal Expansion of Gases
2. Expansion in area on heating, is called superficial There are two types of coefficient of expansion in gases
expansion. Coefficient of superficial expansion is given – At constant pressure, the change in volume per unit volume per
as degree celsius, is called volume coefficient (γ V ).
Increase in area ∆A – At constant volume, the change in pressure per unit, pressure
β= =
Initial area × Rise in temperature A × ∆t per degree celsius, is called pressure coefficient (γ p ).
– Its unit is ° C −1 .
3. Expansion in volume on heating, is called volume Calorimetry
expansion or cubical expansion.
Coefficient of volume or cubical expansion is given as Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of
Increase in volume ∆V water by 1°C is called 1 calorie.
γ= = Calorimetry states that heat lost by hotter body equals the
Original volume × Rise in temperature V × ∆ t
heat gained by colder body.
– Its unit is ° C −1
A both or container in which calorimetry (process) takes
Relation between Coefficients of places is called calorimeter.
Expansions
Coefficients of thermal expansions are related as Specific Heat
β = 2α and γ = 3 α The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
and α :β :γ = 1:2 : 3 unit mass (m) of a substance through 1° C, is called its
specific heat (s).
In laying a railway line, a small gap is left in between two
It is denoted by s and its unit is ‘cal/g°C or Joule/g°/ C.
iron rails otherwise railway line will become curved on
heating in summer. The specific heat of water is 4200 J / kg1 / ° C or 1000 cal/
g1 / ° C− , which is high compared with most other
Telephone wires are not tighten on poles because in
substances. Therefore, water is used as coolant in radiator
winter, wires get contract and can break.
in vehicle and hot water is used for the fermentation.
Thermal Expansion of Liquids Heat energy given or taken to change the temperature of
In liquids, only expansion in volume takes place on a body is given by
heating. Q = ms∆θ
Expansion of liquid is of two types where, m = mass of the body
When expansion of the container, containing liquid, on and ∆θ = change in temperature.
heating, is not taken into account, then observed At constant volume, the amount of heat required to raise
expansion is called apparent expansion of liquids. the temperature of 1 g of a gas by 1° C is called specific
Coefficient of apparent expansion of liquid. heat at constant volume (CV ). Its unit is cal/g/°C.
Apparent increase in volume At constant pressure, the amount of heat required to raise
γa =

Original volume × Rise in temperature the temperature of 1g of a gas by 1°C is called specific heat
When expansion of the container, containing liquid, on at constant pressure (Cp ). Its unit is cal/g/°C.
heating, is also taken into account, then observed The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
expansion is called real expansion of liquids. 1 mole of a gas by 1°C is called molar specific heat.
Magbook ~ Heat and its Transmission 27
Latent Heat Humidity

The heat energy absorbed or released at constant The presence of moisture in the atmosphere, is called
temperature per unit mass for change of state, is called humidity.
latent heat. The amount of water vapour present in the unit volume
It is denoted by L and its SI unit is cal/g or kcal/kg. of atmosphere, is called absolute humidity.
Heat energy absorbed or released during change of state is The relative humidity of air at a given temperature is the
given by ratio of mass of water vapour present in a certain volume
Q = mL of air to the mass of water vapour required to saturate the
where, m = mass of the substance. same volume of air at the same temperature, multiplied
by 100.
Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g.
Relative humidity is measured by hygrometer.
Latent heat of vaporisation of steam is 536 cal/g.
Relative humidity of about 50% is considered
comfortable at temperature 22° − 25° C.
Thermodynamics If the relative humidity is very low in air, then lips
The branch of physics which deals with the study of relation become dry and cracks appear in them.
of heat energy with different types of energy is called If relative humidity is very high in air then the sweat
thermodynamics. from our body does not evaporate readily and
Zeroth Law therefore we feel uncomfortable.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics tells about thermal Air conditioning provides comfortable conditions by
equilibrium. regulating temperature and humidity.
First Law Transmission of Heat

As per first law about energy, heat given to a substance is
Heat can be transferred from one place to another by
equal to sum of change in internal energy and work done.
process of transmission.
Second Law There are three methods of transmission of heat.
In second law work can be converted into heat and vice-versa
but conversion is not possible with 100% efficience. Conduction
It is impossible for a machine operating in a cyclic process to The mode of transmission of heat in solids from higher
convert heat completely into work, it is kelvin’s statement. temperature part to lower temperature part without
actual movement of the particles, is called conduction.
Heat by itself can not transfer from a colder to a hotter body.
It is clausius statement. Refrigerator is based on this Transmission of heat in solids takes place mainly
statement. through conduction.
Heat engine is a device which converts heat into mechanical Metals are good conductors of heat.
work. Internal combustion and external combustion heat Wood, cotton, wool, glass are bad conductors of heat,
engine are two types of heat engine. dry air is also a bad conductor of heat.
Car engine uses coolant added with water to reduce harmful Woollen clothes do not allow the heat of our body to
effects like corrosion, rusting etc. Such as ethylene glycol, escape and therefore we feel warm.
polossium dichromate etc, On a cold night two thin blankets give more warmth
Carnot’s theorem tells about maximum efficiency of heat than a single thick blanket because the layer of air
engine. It refers to carnot cycle. between the two blankets works as a better insulator.
Entropy measures the molecular disorder of a system and is a Refrigerators and ice-boxes have double walls having
thermodynamic function depending only on the temperature of thermocol between them which minimise heat gain by
the system. conduction.
Evaporation is a process in which molecules escape slowly Convection
from the surface of a liquid.
The mode of transmission of heat in fluids (liquids and
For a given liquid the rate of evaporation demands on the gases) due to actual movement of the particles, is
temperature and area of evaporating surface. called convection.
Refrigerator is a device used for cooling things by the In liquids and gases, heat is transmitted by convection.
evaporation and compression of a volatile liquid inside a
When a liquid in a vessel is heated at the bottom, the
copper coil.
liquid at bottom gets heated and expands.
Due to its lower density, hot liquid rises and its place is taken White colour is a bad absorbers and good reflectors
by cold liquid from above. Convection currents are set up in of heat radiations while black colour is good
the liquid until the temperature of the whole liquid becomes absorbers and bad reflectors of heat. Therefore,
same. clothes of light colours give better feeling in summer
The cooling unit in a refrigerator is fitted near the top as cold and clothes of dark colours give better feeling in
air move downward and keeps cool the whole interior. winter.
Radiator in a motor car works on the principle of convection.
Stefan’s Law
It states that ‘‘The amount of heat energy (E) radiated per
Newton’s Law of Cooling second by unit area of perfectly black body is directly
The rate of loss of heat from a body is directly proportional to the proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature
difference in temperatures of the body and its surroundings. (T) of the body.’’
If we take hot water and fresh water and put it in a refrigerator, E ∝T 4
then rate of cooling of hot water will be faster than the fresh Good absorbers are good emitters and poor absorbers
tap-water. are poor emitters.
Wien’s Displacement Law
Sea Breeze During day time, the seashore warms up much
It states that “The wavelength (λ m ) of maximum intensity
faster than sea water. Hot air over the seashore rises and
of emission of black body radiation is inversely proportional
cooler air from sea water moves towards seashore to take its
to the absolute temperature (T ) of the black body”. If the
place resulting in a sea breeze.
temperature of a black body is increased gradually
Land Breeze At night, land cools faster than sea water . then initially it emits light of red colour and gradually it
Now hot air over sea water rises and cooler air from land changes to orange, then yellow and ultimately changes
moves towards sea to take its place and resulting in a land to blue and violet.
breeze.
Cloudy night are warmer than clear night because clouds
reflect the radiations emitted by the earth at night and keep Greenhouse Effect
it warm. In a greenhouse, heat readiated from the sun passes through
the glass and keeps the plants and the air inside warm. The
Radiation glass prevents warm air from escaping. Moreover, radiation
The process of heat transmission in the form of emitted by an object in the greenhouse cannot escape through
electromagnetic waves, is called radiation. the glass. A car parked in the sun with its windows close get
Radiation does not require any medium for propagation and it terribly warm due to the greenhouse effect.
propagates without heating the intervening medium.
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Black Body According to it ideal gas particles are assumed to be
A body that absorbs all the radiation incident on it is called tiny and collisions made by particles are perfectly elastic
perfectly black body. in nature.
Ratio of heat absorbed (radiation) to total incident radiation Boyle’s law is pV = constant
for a body is called absorptive power (a ) of body. It has no where T = constant
unit. Charle’s Law, V ∝T
Amount of heat radiation per unit area of the surface at a where p = constant , p ∝ T
given temperature is called emissive power of the surface.
when V = constant.
Its unit is J / m 2 − s.
The ideal gas equation is pV = nRT
The ratio of emissive power and absorptive power of a body
where, p, V , n, R and T are respectively pressure, volume,
is always same. It is equal to emissive power of a black
number of moles, gas constant and temperature of the
body. This is known as Kirchhoff’s law.
gas.
Self Check
1. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is 2. Latent heat of fusion of ice is equal to the latent heat of
slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, vaporisation of water.
because it absorbs [IAS 2012] 3. In an air-conditioner, heat is extracted from the room air at the
(a) the water vapour of the air and retains its heat evaporator coils and is rejected out at the condenser coils.
(b) the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation Which of statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(c) all the solar radiations (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(d) the infrared part of the solar radiation (c) Only 2 (d) Only 3
2. Normally, the temperature decreases with the increase 8. Which of the following statements are correct regarding
in height from the Earth’s surface, because [IAS 2012] heat?
1. the atmosphere can be heated upwards only from the 1. Heat is a form of energy.
Earth’s surface. 2. Heat can be reflected by mirror.
2. there is more moisture in the upper atmosphere. 3. Heat is an electromagnetic radiation.
3. the air is less dense in the upper atmosphere. 4. Heat cannot pass through vacuum.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below Select the correct answer using the codes given below
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
3. What is the principle by which a cooling system 9. Two bodies A and B are of same mass and same amount
(Radiator) in a motor car works? [IAS 2010] of heat is given to both of them.
(a) Conduction (b) Convection If the temperature of A increases more than that of B
(c) Radiation (d) Both ‘a’ and ‘c’ because of heat addition, then
4. Statement I A piece of copper and a piece of glass are (a) the specific heat capacity of A is more than that of B.
heated to the same temperature, when touched, (b) the specific heat capacity of A is less than that of B.
thereafter, the copper piece appears hotter than the (c) both A and B have the same specific heat capacity but A
glass piece. has greater thermal conductivity.
Statement II The density of copper is more than that of (d) both A and B the same specific heat capacity but B has
glass. [IAS 2008] greater thermal counductivity.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 10. The specific heat of a gas at constant pressure is
(a) Only I (b) Only II greater than the specific heat at constant volume
(c) Both I and II (d) Neither I or II because
(a) work is done in the expansion of the gas at constant
5. Statement I The boiling point of water decreases as the
volume
altitude increases.
(b) work is done in the expansion of the gas at constant
Statement II The atmospheric pressure increases with pressure
altitude. (c) the molecular collision increase at constant pressure
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct (d) the attraction between the molecules increases at
(a) Only I (b) Only II constant pressure.
(c) Both I and II (d) Neither I or II
6. A hollow sphere of radius R, a hollow cube of side R and 1. A heat engine is a device which converts heat energy
thin circular plate of radius R made up of the some into mechanical energy.
material, are all heated to 20 o C above room temperature.
2. A heat engine essentially consists of source of heat at
When left to cool in the room, which of them will reach
higher temperature, working substance and sink of heat
the room temperature first?
at lower temperature.
(a) Circular plate
3. In a diesel engine, a mixture of fuel vapours and air acts
(b) Cube
as the working substance.
(c) Sphere
4. Efficiency of a petrol engine is greater than diesel
(d) All of them will reach the room temperature at the same time
engine.
7. Consider the following statements Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. Steam at 100 o C and boiling water at 100°C contain (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
same amount of heat. (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All of these
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (c)
Chapter five
Optics
The image obtained by the real meeting
Light
of light rays, is called a real image. A real
Optics is the branch Light is a form of energy which produces the image is inverted and can be obtained on
visual sensation on our eyes. a screen.
of physics which
Light waves are electromagnetic waves The image obtained when light rays are
involves the whose nature is transverse. not really meeting but appear to meet
behaviour and The speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 108 ms−1 only, is called a virtual image.
properties of light, but different in different media. A virtual image is erect and cannot be
including its obtained on a screen. Both real and
Wave Nature of Light virtual types of images can be
interactions with Light travels in the form of waves. Light waves photographed.
matter and the are transverse. They exhibit the properties of
construction of interference, diffraction scattering and Properties of Light
instruments that polarisation. Rectilinear Propagation of
uses to detect it. Particle Nature of Light Light
Light travels in a straight line. That is why
Optics usually Based on Maxwell Planck’s Quantum Astronomical distances are measured in
describes the Theory
light years. When an opaque object is
behaviour of visible, Light is continuous flowing energy packets placed between a source of light and a
(called quanta). screen, a shadow of the object is obtained
ultraviolet, and
Maxwell’s theory failed to explain on the screen. If light comes from a point
infrared light. photoelectric, Compton and Raman effect source then the shadow obtained is a
Because light is an but Maxwell Planck’s quantum theory could region of total darkness, called umbra.
electromagnetic explain these effect and the polarisation of If light comes from an extended source
wave, other forms of light. then in the shadow obtained, the umbra
electromagnetic is surrounded by a region of partial
Luminous and
darkness, called penumbra.
radiation such as Non-luminous Objects
When the moon comes between the sun
X-rays, microwaves, Those objects which emit its own light, are
and the earth, then the shadow of the
called luminous objects.
and radio waves moon falls on the earth and the sun is not
For example visible at earth. This phenomena is called
exihibiting the
– Sun, other stars, an oil lamp etc. solar eclipse.
similar properties..
Those objects which do not emit its our light When the earth comes between the sun
but become visible due to the reflection of and the moon, then the shadow of the
light falling on them, are called non-luminous earth falls on the moon and the sunlight
objects. do not incident on the moon. Therefore,
For example moon is not visible at the earth. This
phenomenon is called lunar eclipse.
– Moon, table, chair, tree etc.
Reflection of Light
Image The phenomenon of rebouncing back of
If light rays coming from an object meet or light into the same medium when it
appear to meet at a point after reflection or strikes on a smooth shining surface such
refraction then this point is called image of as a plane mirror, is called reflection of
the object. light.
Magbook ~ Optics 31
Laws of Reflection When light rays travel from a denser medium towards a rarer
There are two laws of reflection medium it deviates away from the normal. Therefore, a pond
– The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at appears shallower.
the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. A coin appears at lesser depth in water. Writing on a paper
– The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle appears lifted when a glass slab is placed over paper.
of reflection, i.e. ∠i = ∠r
Refraction of Light Atmospheric Refraction

The phenomenon of deviation of light rays from
The density of earth’s atmosphere decreases with altitude. When sun
its path when it travels from one transparent
light enters the earth’s atmosphere it gets refracted at different layers of
medium to another transparent medium, is called different refractive index and therefore followed a curved path. This
refraction of light. phenomenon is called atmospheric refraction.
When a light ray travels from a denser medium to
Due to atmospheric refraction some optical illusions like the sun appears
a rarer medium it deviates away from the normal
two minutes before the actual sunrise and appears two minutes after the
and when light ray travels from a rarer medium to
actual sunset, the twinkling of stars have been observed.
a denser medium it deviates towards the normal.
The cause of refraction is that the speed of light
is different in different media. Critical Angle and Total Internal
In refraction, the speed of light and its wavelength Reflection (TIR)
changes but its frequency remains unchanged.
The angle of incidence in a denser medium for which the angle
Refractive Index The ratio of speed of light in of refraction in rarer medium becomes 90°, is called
vacuum (c) to the speed of light in any medium critical angle (C).
(v) is called refractive index of the medium.
c
Refractive index of a medium ( µ) = Rarer
v medium
Relative Refractive Index The refractive index of
second medium with respect to first medium
C
v 1 Height of object
1µ 2 = = Denser
v 2 Height of image
medium
Laws of Refraction
Refractive index of denser medium,
There are two laws of refraction
1
– The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at µ=
the point of incidence all three lie in the same sin C
plane. When a light ray travelling from a denser medium towards a rarer
– The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of medium is incident at the interface at an angle of incidence greater
angle of refraction remains constant for a pair of than critical angle, then light rays reflected back into the denser
media, i.e. medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection (TIR).
sin i µ
= constant (1µ 2 ) = 2
sin r µ1 Phenomena Related with TIR
This law is called Snell’s law (1µ 2 is called
Mirage is an optical illusion of water appears in desert in a hot
summer day. In a hot summer day in desert, the layers of air near
refractive index of second medium with respect to
the earth surface remains hot and their temperature decreases
the first medium.)
with altitude and becomes denser. When a ray of light coming from
Successive Refractions through the top of a tree or sky, moves towards the earth it deviates away
several Media from the normal gradually.
If refraction takes place successively through When angle of incidence becomes greater than critical angle, total
several media like air, water, glass and again air internal reflection takes place. After that light rays bend upward.
then product of refractive indices of second When light rays enter the eyes, inverted image of tree is obtained
medium with respect to the first medium, third which produces illusion of water.
medium with respect to the second medium and Sparkling of diamond takes place due to multiple total internal
so on is, unity. reflection takes place inside the diamond.
The mid-point of a spherical mirror, is called its pole (P).

Mirrors
When a parallel beam of light rays is incident on a spherical

Surfaces on which reflection is generally seen are mirror then after reflection it meets or appears to meet at a
called mirrors. A mirror is basically a glass surface with point on principal axis, called focus (F ) of the spherical mirror.
one face polished. These can be of two types
Plane Mirror
It is the cut part of a plain glass with highly polished P
one face. F
Properties of Image Formed by a Plane Mirror

– Image is virtual and erect. f
– Image is of the same size as that of object and obtained at
the same distance behind the mirror as the object is The linear distance between the pole and the focus, is called
infront of it. focal length (f ).
– Image is laterally inverted i.e. the right side of the object Focal length of a spherical mirror (f )
appears as left side of the image and vice-versa.
Radius of Curvature R
When the plane mirror is rotated through an angle θ, = =
2 2
then the reflected light ray rotates through an angle 2 θ.
When two mirrors are parallel to each other, then Mirror Formula
infinite number of images are formed. The mirror formula is given by
1 1 1
Spherical Mirrors = +
f v u
A spherical mirror is a cut part of a hollow glass sphere where, u = distance of object from the mirror
and highly polished at its one face. v = distance of image from the mirror
Spherical mirrors are of two types f = focal length of the mirror.
Concave mirror Linear Magnification
– It is a part of a hollow glass sphere, having outer surface
silvered and reflection takes place at inner (concave) The ratio of height of image (I) formed by a mirror to the
surface. height of the object (O), is called linear magnification (m).
I v
Convex mirror m= =−
O u
– It is a part of a hollow glass sphere, having inner surface
silvered and reflection takes place at outer (convex) Image Formed by a Concave Mirror
surface.
Position of Position Size of image Nature of
object of image with comparison image
to object
At infinity ( ∞ ) At focus Very small Real and inverted

R
P P
C R Between centre Between focus Small Real and inverted
Centre of of curvature and centre of
curvature and infinity curvature
Concave Convex
mirror mirror At centre of At centre of Equal in Real and inverted
curvature curvature length
Important Definitions Related to Between focus Between centre Large Real and inverted
Spherical Mirrors and centre of of curvature
The centre of the hollow glass sphere of which the curvature and infinity
mirror is a part, is called centre of curvature (C ). At focus At infinity ( ∞ ) Very large Real and inverted
The radius of the hollow sphere of which the mirror is a
Between pole Behind the Large Virtual and
part, is called radius of curvature (R).
and focus mirror erected
Magbook ~ Optics 33
Image Formed by a Convex Mirror

Position of Position of Size of image Nature of image
object image with comparison
F1 F1
to object
At infinity ( ∞ ) At focus Very small Virtual and Erect
Any where Between focus Small Virtual and Erect The linear distance between the optical centre and focus
except infinity and optical
of the lens, is called its focal length.
(∞ ) centre
Lens Formula
Use of Spherical Mirrors 1 1 1
Lens formula is given by = −
Concave mirrors are used in torches, search-light f v u
and vehicle head lights to get powerful parallel beams of where, f = focal length of the lens
light. It is also used as a shaving mirror and dentists use it u = distance of the object from the lens
to see large images of the teeth of patients etc. v = distance of the image from the lens.
Convex mirrors are used as rear- view mirror in vehicles. It
is also used in reflection lamps installed near roads.
Lens Maker’s Formula
It is used while making a lens and is given by
Lenses 1 1
= (µ − 1)  − 
1
A lens is a uniform refracting medium bounded by two f  R1 R2 
spherical surfaces or one spherical and one plane surface.
where, µ = refractive index of the material of the lens
Lenses are mainly of two types
R1 and R2 = radii of curvature of the surfaces of the lens.
– Convex lens
If lens is splits in two equal parts perpendicular to the
– Concave lens
principal axis, then focal length of each new lens is
double that of original lens.
–
When a lens is used in a medium of refractive index
lesser than that of the material of the lens, then its
focal length increases but nature remains unchanged.
Bi-convex Plano-convex Concavo
lens lens convex lens When a lens is used in a medium of refractive index
greater than that of the material of the lens, then the
nature of the lens changes.
When a lens is used in a medium of refractive index
equal to that of the material of the lens, then it will work
Bi-concave Plano-concave Convexo as a plane glass plate.
lens lens concave lens
Power and Magnification for a Lens
Important Definitions Related to Lenses Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length, when
A line joining the centres of curvature of the two bounding it is measured in metre.
surfaces of a lens, is called its principal axis. 1
Power of a lens (P) =
A point on the principal axis through which light rays pass f (metre)
undeviated , is called optical centre of the lens. Its unit is diopter (D).
Total power of the Combination of lenses is given by
algebraic sum of powers of the lenses, which
1 1 1
form the combination. i.e., = + ...
O F2 F2 F F1 F2
or
P = P1 + P2 ...
Focus of the lens is a point on the either side of principal Linear magnification for a lens :
axis. The light rays coming or appear to come from it Size of image v
(m ) = =
become parallel to the principal axis after refraction Size of object u
through the lens.
Image Formed by a Convex Lens Rainbow is formed due to dispersion of the

sunlight by water droplets suspended in air. In
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
each drop dispersion of the sunlight and then
At infinity At F2 Extermely Real and inverted internal reflection take place.
diminished
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 Small size Real and inverted Colour of Objects
(at finite distance) and 2F2
When light is incident on an object, it reflects
At 2F1 ) At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
only a part of it. The reflected light gives the
Between Beyond 2F2 Magnified Real and inverted objects of their colour.
F1 and 2F
A rose appears red when white light is incident
At F1 At infinity Highly Real and inverted
magnified on it because it reflects only red colour of light
and absorbs other all colours of light. When same
Between lens On same side of Magnified Virtual and erect
and F1 lens Magnified
rose is viewed in green light, it appears black
because it absorbs green light and reflects no
colour of light.
Image Formed by a Concave Lens
Red, green and blue are primary colours.
Position Position Size Nature
of object of image of image of image
The colours which are obtained by the mixing of
two primary colours, are called secondary
At infinity At focus on same side of lens Highly Virtual and erect
as object diminished colours. Yellow, magenta and cyan are secondary
colours.
At finite Between focus and optical Diminished Virtual and erect
distance centre on the same side of
Red + Green = Yellow
lens as object Red + Blue = Magenta
Green + Blue = Cyan
Prism Those primary and secondary colours which on
mixing produce white colour, are called
Prism is a uniform transparent refracting medium bounded by plane complementary colours.
surfaces inclined at some angles forming a triangular shape. Red + Cyan = White
Angle of Deviation Red + Magenta = White
The angle subtended between the incident ray and emergent Green + Magenta = White
ray, is called angle of deviation (δ). Blue + Yellow = White
pri
sm A Mixed Coloured Pigments
of
An
g le The pigments in common use are of impure
δ Angle of colours. Therefore, on mixing paints of different
deviation
ray colours the resultant colour of paint is not
e nt
In cid obtained as given by colour triangle. When blue
and yellow paints are mixed together, they
Emergent
ray produce green paint in spite of white paint.
Prism
B C
Colour Television
Dispersion of Light Light coming from the scene to be televised is split up
When white light is incident on a glass prism, it splits into its seven in red, green and blue primary colour components
colour components in the sequence of VIBGYOR. This with the help of dichromic mirrors fitted in TV camera.
phenomenon is called dispersion of white light. Now, light of different colours are incident on three
The refractive index of glass is maximum for violet colour and separate camera tubes which converts them into
minimum for red colour of light. Therefore, violet colour of light electrical signals.
deviated maximum and red colour of light deviated least. These signals are transmitted to distant places. At the
receiving end, these signals are received and the
Rainbow picture tube of a TV-set produces the same scene on
When the sun shines just after a shower of rain, a rainbow is seen the screen.
in the sky opposite to the sun. It is in the form of circular arcs of
seven colours.
Magbook ~ Optics 35
Human Eye Pinhole Camera

Human eye is an optical instrument which forms A device used to see the images of various objects and which works on
real image of the objects on retina. the principle that light travels in straight lines is called a pinhole camera.
The image in a pinhole camera is inverted, real and of the same colour as
Retina contains lakhs of cone and rod cells which
the object.
are sensitive for colours of light and intensities of
light respectively. The image in a pinhole camera can be smaller than the object or equal to
the object or bigger than the object (depending on the distance of object
Ciliary muscles change the focal length of eye lens.
from the pinhole camera).
This power of eye is called power of accommodation
of eye.
The eye lens is a convex lens made of a Optical Instruments
protogeneous jelly like material. With the application of generalised rules of optics optical instruments
Iris is a coloured diaphragm which controls the are developed and used.
size of pupil and the intensity of light entering the
eye. Simple Microscope
The point nearest from the eye at which an object It is a convex lens of small focal length used for observing
can be seen distinctly, is called near point. magnified images of objects.
The distance of near point from the eye, is called The magnifying power of a simple microscope are given in two cases.
least distance of distinct vision (D). It is 25 cm for – When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D), then
a normal healthy eye. D
m = 1+
The point farthest from the eye at which an object f
can be seen distinctly, is called far point. where, f = focal length of the lens.
D
– When final image is formed at infinity, then m =
Defects of Vision f
Myopia or Short Sightedness It is a defect of eye
due to which a person can see nearby objects
Compound Microscope
clearly but cannot see far away objects clearly. It is a combination of two convex lenses, called objective lens and
eyepiece, separated by some distance. Both lenses are of small
In this defect, the far point of eye shifts from
focal lengths but fo < fe .
infinity to a nearer distance.
Where, fo and fe are focal lengths of objective and eyepiece,
The defect can be removed by using a concave
respectively.
lens of appropriate power.
It is used for getting larger magnification.
Hypermetropia or Long Sightedness It is a defect
of eye due to which a person can see far away Magnifying Power
objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects The magnifying power of a compound microscope in two cases.
clearly. – When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D), then
In this defect, the near point of eye shifts away v  D
m = o 1 + 
from the eye. The defect can be removed by using uo  fe 
a convex lens of appropriate power. where, v o = distance of image formed by objective lens.
Astigmatism In this defect, a person cannot focus u o = distance of object from the objective lens
on horizontal and vertical lines at the same distance – When final image is formed at infinity (normal adjustment), then
at the same time.This defect can be removed by vo D
using suitable cylindrical lenses. m=
uo fe
Colour Blindness In this defect, a person is
unable to distinguish among few colours. The Astronomical Telescope
reason of this defect is the absence of cone cells It is also a combination of two lenses, called objective lens and
sensitive for few colours. This defect cannot be eyepiece, separated by a distance.
removed.
Objective lens is a convex lens of large aperture and large focal
Cataract In this defect, an opaque, white length while eyepiece is a convex lens of small aperture and
membrane is developed on cornea due to which a small focal length.
person loses power of vision partially or
It is used for observing distinct images of heavenly bodies like
completely. This defect can be removed by
stars, planets, etc.
removing this membrane through surgery.
Magnifying Power Scattering of Light

The magnifying power of an astronomical telescope
When light passes through a medium in which particles are
in two cases are
– When final image is formed at least distance of
suspended whose sizes are of the order of wavelength of light, then
f  D light on striking these particles, deviated in different directions.
distinct vision (D), then m = o  1 +  This phenomenon is called scattering of light. Therefore, red
fe  fe 
colour of light is scattered least (wavelength is highest) and violet
where, fo and fe are focal lengths of objective and
colour of light is scattered most (wavelength is least).
eyepiece respectively.
Danger signals are of red colours because red colour of light
Length of the telescope (L) = fo + ue
scatters least and therefore, these signals can be seen from far
where, ue = distance of object from the eyepiece away.
f
– When final image is formed at infinity, then m = o The sky appears blue because in sunlight, the blue colour of light
fe
is scattered maximum and this scattered blue light enters our
Length of the telescope (L) = fo + fe eyes and therefore, sky appears blue.
Kaleidoscope Clouds appear white because clouds are consists of large size of
droplets of water and dust particles which scatter all colours of
It is a device consists of three plane rectangular
light equally. The mixture of all seven colours of sunlight is white.
mirrors of equal lengths and breadths inclined at
an angle of 60° enclosed in a cylindrical tube. The Sky appears black to astronauts from space because there is no
reflecting surfaces of the mirrors are towards atmosphere in space and therefore, no scattering of light takes
inward. Glass pieces of bright colours are placed in place.
it. When we see through its one end, coloured
symmetrical pattern is obtained which changes Interference and Diffraction of Light
continuously on rotating the tube. (Wave)
Periscope Light is an electromagnetic wave having electric vibrations and
magnetic vibrations. These are also known as electric and
It is a device consists of two plane mirrors inclined
magnetic vectors.
at an angle of 45° such that their reflecting surfaces
are oppositely directed. Firstly, light rays incident on The phenomena of redistribution of energy due to superposition
first (upward) plane mirror and after reflection of waves is called interference of light waves. The interference
incident on the second mirror (below) and after taking place at points of maximum intensity is called constructive
reflection light rays enter the eyes. Periscope is used interference. The interference taking place at points of minimum
in submarine to see above the sea level. intensity is called destructive interference.
The bending of light wave around the corners of an obstacle or
Optical Fibre aperture is called diffraction of light.
The working of optical fibre is based on total
internal reflection. Its inner part is core of higher Polarisation
refractive index surrounded by another layer of The phenomena of restricting of electric vectors of light into a
glass of lower refractive index. It is surrounded by single direction is called polarisation. Ordinary light has electric
a plastic jacket. vectors in all possible directions in a plane perpendicular to the
When light enters from the one end of the core and direction of propagation of light.
moves towards cladding, then total internal Polaroids are thin and large sheets of crystalline polarising
reflection takes place again and again, and light materials. These are used in the sun glasses. In wind shield of an
propagates through it. automobile, window panes of a train and as polaroid spectacles
Optical fibers are used in decorative table lamps. in camera.
Optical fibers are also used for telecommunication
and networking because each fibre can carry many
Doppler’s Effect in Light
signals, each using a different wavelength of light. Whenever there is a relative motion between a source of light and
Doctors use optical fibers to see the inside of a observer, the apparent frequency of light received by observer is
patients’s stomach. Few optical fibers are piped
different from the actual frequency of light emitted from the source of
light. This phenomenon is known as Doppler’s effect.
down inside the stomach. When light is incident on
these optical fibers, it is reflected back along some ◆
Light received from stars and galaxies show red shift, which indicates
other fibers through stomach. This process is that the universe is expanding.
called endoscopy. ◆
By measuring Doppler shift in the electromagnetic wave reflected
from an automobile, the speed of automobile can be found.
Self Check
1. Rainbow is produced when sunlight falls on drops of 7. Consider the following natural phenomena. [IAS 2005]
rain. Which of the following physical phenomena are 1. Terrestrial heating 2. Reflection of light
responsible for this? [IAS 2013] 3. Refraction of light 4. Diffraction of light
1. Dispersion 2. Refraction Due to which of these phenomena is mirage formed?
3. Internal Reflection (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 (d) Only 4
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 8. Consider the following statements
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these 1. Optical fibre works on the principle of total internal reflection.
2. An air bubble in water will act like a concave lens.
2. Consider the following phenomena [IAS 2013]
1. Size of the sun at dusk.
2. Colour of the sun at dawn.
3. Moon being visible at dawn.
4. Twinkle of stars in the sky. 9. Consider the following statements
5. Polestar being visible in the sky. 1. Light of longer wavelength is scattered much more than the light of
Which of the above are optical illusions? shorter wavelength.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 3, 4 and 5 2. The speed of visible light in water is 0.95 times the speed in
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 5 vacuum.
3. Radio waves are produced by rapidly oscillating electrical
3. Which one of the following reflects back more currents.
sunlight as compared to other three? [IAS 2010]
4. To detect the over speeding vehicles, police use the Doppler effect
(a) Sand desert of reflected short radio waves.
(b) Paddy crop land
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(c) Land covered with fresh snow
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
(d) Prairie land
4. Consider the following statements [IAS 2007]
1. Optical fibres are frequently used in telecommunication.
1. If magenta and yellow coloured circles intersect, the
2. A fibre is an optical system based upon the basic principle of total
intersected area will have red colour.
internal reflection.
2. If cyan and magenta coloured circles intersect, the
3. In total internal reflection, the angle of incidence should always be
intersected area will have blue colour.
greater than critical angle.
4. The critical angle is very low for a light ray coming from diamond
to air.
5. To which one of the following process is the term (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 2
CMYK related? [IAS 2006] (c) 3 and 4 (d) All of these
(a) Railway
(b) Navigation
1. For a normal human eye, the least distance of distinct vision is 25
(c) Offset printing
cm.
(d) Electronic voting machine
2. The person suffering of colour blindness cannot distinguish the red
6. Consider the following statements and green colours distinctly.
Statement I A diamond sparkles more than a glass 3. The colour blindness depends on various defects of the cylindrical
imitation cut to the same shape. (conical) cell of the retina.
Statements II The refractive index of diamond is less 4. The presbyopia affected person uses bifocal lens and cylindrical
than that of glass. [IAS 2006] lens.
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
(a) Only I (b) Only I
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) (c) (c) (c) (c) (a) (c) (c) (d) (d)
(a)
Chapter six
Electricity and Magnetism
q1q 2 1 q1q 2
Electric Charge F∝
r2
=
4πε 0 r 2
Electromagnetism or Electric charge is an intrinsic
q1q 2
the electromagnetic force property of protons and electrons = 9 × 109 ×
r2
and only two types of charge have
is one of the four where, ε 0 is called permittivity of
been discovered positive and
fundamental interactions negative. It is a scalar quantity. Its SI free space.
in nature, the other three unit is coulomb. Electric Field
being the strong Like charge bodies repel and unlike The space in the surrounding of any
interaction, the weak charge bodies attract each other. charge in which its influence can be
interaction and A proton has a positive charge ( +e ) experienced by other charge, is called
and an electron has a negative electric field.
gravitation. This force is
charge ( −e ). | e | = 1.6 × 10−19 C . Field created by a charge in their
described by
surroundings is called electric field.
electromagnetic fields,
and innumerable physical
Electricity Electric field intensity (E) at any point is
defined as the electrostatic force (F) acting
The electricity deals with motion of
instances including the per unit positive test charge (q 0 ) at that point.
electric charges.
interaction of electrically E=
F
Static Electricity When a plastic q0
charged particles and the comb is rubbed with dry hair or a
interaction of uncharged glass rod is rubbed with silk, they Its unit is newton/coulomb.
magnetic fields with acquire a property of attracting small Electric field due to a point charge q at a
bits of paper, dust particles, feathers distance r is given by
electrical conductors.
etc. In this state, the plastic comb or 1 q 1
glass rod is called electrified or E= . 2 ⇒ E ∝ 2
4πε 0 r r
charged with electricity.
Therefore, electric field intensity is
The electricity produced by friction
inversely proportional to the square of the
between two appropriate bodies, is
distance r from the point charge.
called static electricity, it is also
called frictional electricity. Electric Field Lines
Due to friction, one body gets An electric field line is an imaginary line or
positive and the other gets negative curve drawn through a region of space so
charge depending on their nature. that its tangent at any point is in the
direction of the electric field vector at that
Coulomb’s Law point. The relative closeness of the lines at
some place gives an idea about the
The electrostatic force of interaction
intensity of electric field at that point.
acting between two stationary point
charges is directly proportional to the Two lines can never intersect. Electric field
product of magnitude of charges and lines always begin on a positive charge and
inversely proportional to the square end on a negative charge and do not start
of the distance between them. or stop in mid-space.
Magbook ~ Electricity and Magnetism 39
Electric Potential Electric Current

Electric potential at a point in an electric field is equal to the work Electric current is simply a flow of charge. Its
done per unit charge in carrying a test charge from infinity to that magnitude is equal to the time rate of flow of
point. Its unit is joule/coulomb. charge through any conductor. Its unit is ampere.
W It is a scalar quantity.
Electric potential, V = .
q0 q
Electric current, I =
Potential difference between two points in electric field is equal to t
the work done per unit charge in carrying a positive test charge An electric current whose magnitude and
from one point to the other point. direction do not change with time is called direct
Potential difference between two points A and B of the field, current, and whose magnitude changes
W continuously and direction changes periodically is
VA − VB = . Its unit is also joule/coulomb.
q0 called alternating current.
Potential difference is that physical quantity which decides the Inverter is a device which converts DC to AC.
direction of flow of charge between two points in electric field. In solid conductors, electric current flows due to
Positive charge always tends to move from higher potential flow of electrons, in liquids due to flow of ions as
towards lower potential. well as electrons and in semiconductors due to
flow of electrons and holes.
When charge is given to a closed metallic body, it resides only on
outer surface and electric field remains zero inside it but potential Electrical Resistance
remains same at every point inside the conductor as that of on the The obstruction offered by any conductor in the
surface of the conductor.
path of flow of current, is called its electrical
Electric Dipole and Capacitor resistance. Its SI unit is ohm (Ω) and its dimension
An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite point charges is [ML2T –3A –2 ].
separated by a very small distance. Electrical resistance of a conductor,
Electric dipole moment of the dipole is product of charge and the ρl

R=
separation between the charges. A
A capacitor or condenser is a device over which a large amount of where, l = length of the conductor
charge can be stored without changing its dimensions. A capacitor A = cross-sectional area
is used in several electrical devices having an electric motor and in ρ = resistivity of the material
electronic circuits. of the conductor.
The capacitance of a conductor is equal to the ratio of the charge
(q) given to the conductor to change in its potential (V ) is given by Conductance
q Conductance and conductivity is the reciprocal
C=
V of resistance and the resistivity of the material
Its unit is coulomb/volt or farad. Farad (F) is a large unit of respectively. The SI unit of conductance is Ω −1
capacitance. Its practical unit is microfarad (µF). i.e., mho and to that of conductivity is Ω −1 m −1.
1 µF = 10−6F Resistivity
The resistivity of a material is equal to the electrical
Type of Materials resistance of its wire of unit length and of unit area
Conductors are those type of materials which have number of free of cross-section. Its unit is ohm-metre.
electrons to conduct the electricity. The metals are good Resistivity of a material depends on temperature
conductors of electricity. and nature of the material. It is independent of
Insulators are that type of materials which do not have the free dimensions of the conductor, i.e., length, area of
electrons in its volume and hence, it does not conduct the cross-section etc.
electricity at all. The materials such as wood, plastic, rubber etc., Resistivity of metals increases with increase in
are the insulators. temperature as
Semiconductor is that type of materials which do not have free ρt = ρ 0(1 + α t )
electrons at the normal temperature, but has the free electrons at
where, ρ 0 and ρt are resistivities of metal at 0° C
the increased temperature and hence, behaves like a conductor.
and t ° C and α = temperature coefficient of
The materials such as silicon, germanium etc., are the
resistance of the material.
semiconductor.
For metals, α is positive. For some alloys like nichrome, Emf of a Cell
manganin and constantan, α is positive but very low. For The work done by the cell to bring a ( + )ve charge from its
semiconductors and insulators, α is negative. own terminal to the other is known as its emf (electromotive
Resistivity is low for metals, more for semiconductors force). Electromotive force is work but not a force.
and very high for alloys like nichrome, constantan etc.
Resistivity of alloys like nichrome, constantan etc., is Joule’s Law of Heating
very low and has high boiling point, this makes richrome When a potential difference V is applied across the ends of
a very good conductor of electricity and ideal for material a conductor of resistance R, an electric current will flow
making wires other insulation devices. through the conductor.
Combination of Resistances Current can produce three effects : heating effect, magnetic
If resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series, effect and chemical effect.
then their equivalent resistance is given by Heat is produced in conductor in time t is given by
V 2t
R = R1 + R2 + R3 H = VIt = I 2Rt =
R
In series combination, equal current flows through each This is known as Joule’s law of heating.
resistors. Electric bulb, electric kettle, heater etc., devices work on
If resistances R1, R2, R3 are connected in parallel, then the basis of heating effect of electric current.
their equivalent resistance is given by To protect the domestic appliances from sudden change in
1 1 1 1 electricity, fuses are used. It is made of tin, lead, alloy (63% +
= + + 37%).
R R1 R2 R3
It should have high resistance and low melting point always
In parallel combination, potential difference across each connected in series.
resistor remains same.
Electrical Power
Ohm’s law The electrical energy produced or consumed per unit time
It states that if physical conditions of any conductor is called electric power.
such as temperature, pressure etc., remain unchanged, V2
Electric power, P = VI = I 2R =
then electric current (I) flowing through it is directly R
proportional to the potential difference (V ) applied across 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
its ends, i.e.,
It is the electric energy (called 1 unit).
I ∝V or V = IR
where, R is the electrical resistance of the conductor. Chemical Effect of Electric Current
Kirchhoff’s Law When an electric current is passed through an acidic or basic
solution, it decomposes into its positive and negative ions. The
Kirchhoff’s current law states that the net current on a positive ions collect at negative electrode (cathode) and
junction in an electrical circuit will be zero. It is based the negative ions collect at positive electrode (anode).
on conservation of charge. This phenomenon is called electrolysis. It is chemical effect of
Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of current. The process of coating of a base metal with a layer of
all the potential difference along a closed loop is zero. It more expensive metal, is called electroplating.
is based on conservation of energy.
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
Electric Cell First law The total mass (m) deposited at an electrode in
An electric cell is a device which converts chemical the process of electrolysis is directly proportional to the total
energy into electrical energy. charge (q) passed through the electrolyte, i.e.,
Electric cell are of two types m ∝q
– Primary cell cannot be charged. Voltaic, Daniell and m = Zq = ZIt
Leclanche cells are primary cells.
where, I = electric current
– Secondary cell can be charged again and again. Acid and
alkali accumulators are secondary cells. t = time
Working of electric cells is based on chemical effect of Z = electrochemical equivalent of the substance
electric current. deposited at electrode.
Second law If same strength of electric current is allowed to Directive property A magnet, when suspended freely,
flow for same time in different electrolytes, then mass of the aligns itself approximately along geographical N-S line.
substance liberated at the electrodes is directly proportional Magnetic poles exist in pairs If a magnet is cut into two
to their chemical equivalent, i.e., equal parts transverse to its length, then N and S-poles of
m1 E1 the magnet do not get separated.
m ∝ E or =
m2 E 2
Domestic Electrification
Magnetic Field
From the distribution, the two terminals are supplied to the The space in the surrounding of a magnet or a current
houses named as live and neutral (neutral is earthed at local carrying conductor in which its magnetic effect can be
substation). The third terminal is introduced as the earth for experienced, is called magnetic field.
the safety in the building. Magnetic lines of force is an imaginary line drawn in
magnetic field at which a magnetic North pole will move,
Lightning Appliances if it is free to do so.
The appliances that give the light instead of electricity A tangent drawn at any point of an magnetic line of
through it are known as lightning appliances such as
force represents the direction of magnetic field at that
incandescent lamp or filament lamp, compact fluroscent
point.
lamps etc.
The magnetic flux linked with a surface is equal to the
The electric discharge occurring between two charged
total number of magnetic lines of force passing through
clouds or between a charged cloud and earth can damage
that surface normally. Its unit is weber.
the houses or buildings. To protect this lightning conductors
are used. Magnetic flux, φ = B. A = BA cos θ
Magnetic Force Acting on a Charge

Magnetism Moving in Uniform Magnetic Field
In magnetism we study about the magnet and its properties The magnetic force on a moving charge in a magnetic
field is given by
Magnet F = Bqv sin θ
A magnet is a material which can attract iron objects. where, B = magnetic field
A natural magnet is an ore of iron (Fe3O4 ) called magnetite q = charge
or lodestone. v = speed
A magnet which is prepared artificially, is called an artificial θ = angle between the direction of motion
magnet. and magnetic field.
For examples Magnetic Force Acting on a Current-Carrying
A bar magnet, a horse-shoe magnet etc. Conductor Placed in Uniform Magnetic Field
A freely suspended magnet always aligns itself into North- If a conductor carrying element I is placed in a magnetic
South direction. Like magnetic poles repel and unlike field, the magnetic force on it is given by
magnetic poles attract each other. F = Bil sin θ
A current-carrying coil containing a soft iron core, is called where, l = electric current flowing through the conductor
an electromagnet. l = length of the conductor
An electromagnet is utilised in electric bell, telegraph θ = angle between the direction of current
receiver, telephone diaphragm, transformer, dynamo etc. and magnetic field.
Permanent magnets are made of steel and temporary The direction of this force can be find out by Fleming’s
magnet or electromagnets are made of soft iron because left hand rule which is given below.
steel cannot magnetised easily but when it is magnetised
F Force
one time, cannot be demagnetised easily. The soft iron can
be magnetised or demagnetised easily.
Properties of Magnet
B Magnetic
Attractive property A magnet can attract small pieces of field
magnetic substances like iron, steel, cobalt, nickel etc. The
attraction is maximum at poles. Unlike poles attract and like i Electric
poles repel. current
If we stretch the thumb, then the fore finger and the A voltmeter is a device used to measure potential
middle finger of left hand in such a way that all three are difference between two points in an electric circuit.
perpendicular to each other and if fore finger represents The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity. It is always
the direction of magnetic field, middle finger represents the connected in parallel.
direction of current flowing through the conductor, then A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by
thumb will represent the direction of magnetic force. connecting a high resistance in series.
Earth’s Magnetism A small resistance connected in parallel with the load
resistance to reduce amount of electric current through
The earth has its own magnetic field and it resembles that
resistor is called shunt.
of a magnetic dipole located at the centre of the earth. The
pole near the geographic North of the earth is called the
magnetic North pole. Similarly, the pole near the
Magnetic Substances
geographic South pole is called the magnetic South pole. There are three types of magnetic substances
The Earth’s magnetic field diverts charged particle coming Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic and Ferromagnetic.
from space towards its poles and saves living beings from Paramagnetic Substances
being severely harmed.
Those substances which are feebly magnetised in the
Magnetic compass A magnetic needle which always direct direction of magnetic field when placed in strong
in North-South (N-S) direction. magnetic field, are called paramagnetic substances.
Neutral point A point in a magnetic region where the net For examples
magnetic field is zero.
– Aluminium, platinum, chromium, manganese, solutions of
Magnetic storm salts of iron, nickel, oxygen etc.
Local disturbances in the earth’s magnetic field which can These substances are attracted towards strong magnetic
damage telecommunication which are probably caused by field in a non-uniform magnetic field.
lump of charged particles emanating from the sun is The magnetism of these substances decreases with
known as magnetic storm. increase in temperature.
Coil Places in Uniform Magnetic Field Diamagnetic Substances

When a coil having number of turns N, each of area of cross- Those substances which are feebly magnetised in the
section A carrying current I is placed in a uniform magnetic opposite direction of magnetic field when placed in
field B, then a torque acts on it, which tries to rotate it. strong magnetic field are called diamagnetic substances.
Torque, τ = NBIA sin θ For examples
– Gold, silver, zinc, copper, mercury, water, alcohol, air,
where, θ is angle subtended between the direction of hydrogen etc.
magnetic field and normal to plane of the coil.
These substances are attracted towards weak magnetic
In radial magnetic field, θ = 90° field in a non-uniform magnetic field.
∴ τ max = NBIA The magnetism produced in these substances does not
change with increase or decrease in temperature.
Moving Coil Galvanometer
Ferromagnetic Substances
A moving coil galvanometer is used to detect the presence
Those substances which are strongly magnetised in the
of current and the direction of current in any circuit.
direction of magnetic field when placed in it, are called
When current is passed through a coil, suspended in a ferromagnetic substances. For examples −
magnetic field, a torque acts on it. As coil rotates, a
– Iron, nickel, cobalt etc.
restoring torque acts on phospher bronze strip due to twist
The magnetism produced in these substances decreases
produce in it. In equilibrium, both torques become equal
with increase in temperature and at a particular
the pointer stops for a short moment and coil starts to
temperature, called Curie temperature.
rotate in opposite direction.
At the Curie temperature, a paramagnetic substance
Ammeter and Voltmeter becomes diamagnetic.
An ammeter is an instrument used to measure electric 1
The Curie law is, χ m ∝

current. It is always connected in series. The resistance of T

an ideal ammeter is zero. where, χ m = magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic
substance and T = temperature.
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by
connecting a low resistance in parallel. Curie temperature for iron is 770°C and for nickel is
358°C.
In 2016, noble prize is Physics has been awarded to three Eddy Current
theoretical researchers for their insights into the odd If a piece of metal is placed in a varying magnetic field
behaviour of matter in unusual phases, like superconductors, or rotated with high speed in a uniform magnetic field,
superfluid films and some kinds of magnets. They discovered then induced current set up in the piece is like
the strange changes that occur with very thin layers of matter whirlpool of air, called eddy current, also known as
or extreme magnetic fields. foucault’s current.
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) Uses
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with an electric circuit Eddy currents are used in dead beat galvanometer,
changes, an emf is induced in the circuit. This phenomenon induction furnaces, induction motor, speedometers of
is called electromagnetic induction. automobiles etc.
Eddy currents are used in diathermy for deep heat
Faraday’s Laws of EMI treatment of the human body.
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an
Self and Mutual Induction
induced emf is produced in it.
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a
The induced emf loses as long as the change in magnetic flux
circuit due to change in current flowing in its own, is
continues.
called self induction.
The magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the
The magnetic flux linked with a coil
rate of change in magnetic flux, i.e.,
−dφ φ = LI
E ∝
dt where, L = coefficient of self induction
N dφ I = current.
E =−
dt The unit of self induction is Henry (H).
where, N = 1, 2, 3… constant of proportionality and negative sign The coefficient of self induction of a coil is equal to
indicates Lenz’s law. the numerical value of induced emf in the coil when
the rate of change of current through the coil is unity.
Lenz’s Law
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a
The direction of induced emf or induced current is always in
circuit due to change in magnetic flux in its
such a way that it opposes the cause due to which it is
neighbouring circuit, is called mutual induction.
produced.
The coefficient of mutual induction (M) of two coils is
Lenz’s law is in accordance with the conservation of energy.
equal to the numerical value of induced emf in one
Motional EMF coil when the rate of change of current through
If a rod of length l moves in a magnetic field B with a velocity second coil is unity.
v, then induced emf produced in it given by In case of mutual induction, flux linked is given by
E = (B × v ) l = Bvl sin θ φ = MI.
Its unit is Henry (H).
where, θ = angle between the velocity v of the conductor and the
magnetic field B.
Alternating Current
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule An electric current whose magnitude and direction
I F changes continuously is called alternating current.
F
B I I
3T/4
O
T/4 T/2 T
If we stretch the thumb, the fore finger and the middle finger Alternating current is represented as
of right hand in such a way that all three are perpendicular to I = I 0 sin ωt
each other, and if thumb represents the direction of motion, where, I 0 = peak value of alternating current
the fore finger represents the direction of magnetic field, then ω = angular frequency of alternating current.
middle finger will represent the direction of induced current.
Alternating voltage is given by An DC generator or dynamo contains slip rings or

V = V0 sin ωt commutator inspite of slip rings.
where, V0 = peak value of alternating voltage Its working is based on the fact that when a current
ω = angular frequency of alternating voltage. carrying coil is placed in uniform magnetic field, a torque
acts on it.
The frequency of alternating current in India is 50 Hz.
Torque acting on a current carrying coil placed in uniform
Mean or average value of AC is zero for one complete
magnetic field
cycle. But its average value for a half-cycle is given by
τ = NBIA sin θ
2I
Im = 0 = 0.637 I 0 When armature coil rotates, a back emf (induced emf) is
π
produced in the coil.
Root mean square value of AC is given by Back emf E
I Efficiency of a motor ( η) = =
Irms = 0 = 0.707 I 0 Applied emf V
2
Similarly, root mean square value of alternating voltage is Transformer
given by It is a device which can change a low voltage current into
V a high voltage current and vice-versa.
Vrms = 0 = 0.707V0
2 Its working is based on mutual induction.
An AC ammeter and AC voltmeter read root mean square There are two types of transformers
value of alternating current and alternating voltage
Step-up Transformer
respectively.
It converts a low voltage current into a high voltage
current.
Wattless Current In this transformer, Ns > Np , E s > E p
When alternating current flows through a pure capacitor or a and Ip < Is
pure inductor, then average power dissipation in it is zero.
where,
Therefore, the current through it is called wattless current.
Ns = number of turns in the secondary coil
Np = number of turns in the primary coil
AC Generator or Dynamo E s = emf induced in the secondary coil
It is a device which converts mechanical energy into E p = emf induced in the primary coil
alternating current. l p = current in the primary coil
Its working is based on electromagnetic induction. I s = current in the secondary coil.
The induced emf produced by the AC generator is given Step-down Transformer
by It converts a high voltage current into a low voltage
e = NBA ω sin ωt = e0 sin ωt current. In this transformer,
There are four main parts of an AC generator Ns < Np, E s < E p
– Armature It is a rectangular coil of insulated copper wire
having a large number of turns. and Ip > Is
– Field magnets These are two pole pieces of a strong Ns E s I p
electromagnet.
Transformation ratio (K ) = = =
Np E p I s
– Slip rings These are two hollow metallic rings.
– Brushes These are two flexible metals or carbon rods which For step-up transformer, K >1
remain slightly in contact with slip rings. For step-down transformer, K < 1
DC Motor The main energy losses in a transformer are given below
It is a device which converts electrical energy into – Iron loss – Flux loss
mechanical energy. – Hysteresis loss – Humming loss (ohmic loss)
Self Check
1. Electrically charged particles from space travelling at Statement II A permanent magnet can be made from
speeds of several 1000 km/s can severely harm living cobalt.
beings, if they reach the surface of the earth. What Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
prevents them from reaching the surface of the earth? (a) Only I (b) Only II
[IAS 2012] (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
(a) The Earth’s magnetic field diverts them towards its poles
(b) Ozone layer around the earth reflects them back to outer 8. Consider the following statements
space Statement I In our houses, the current in AC electricity
(c) Moisture in the upper layers of atmosphere prevents them line changes direction 60 times per second.
from reaching the surface of the earth Statement II The frequency of alternating voltage
(d) None of the above supplied is 50 Hz.
2. Indiscriminate disposal of used fluroscent electric lamps Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
causes mercury pollution in the environment. Why is (a) Only I (b) Only II
mercury used in the manufacture of these lamps? (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
[IAS 2010]
(a) A mercury coating on the inside of the lamp makes the light
bright white 1. Choke coil reduces current in the circuit.
(b) When the lamp is switched On, the mercury in the lamp 2. The voltage used in motor car battery is usually 12 V.
causes the emission of ultra-violet radiations 3. The temperature of a metal wire rises when an electric
(c) When the lamp is switched On, it is the mercury which current is passed through it.
converts the ultra-violet energy into visible light 4. Domestic electrical wiring is basically a series connection.
(d) None of the statements given above is correct about the use Which of the statement(s) given above is /are correct?
of mercury in the manufacture of fluroscent lamps (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
3. In a dry cell (battery), which of the following are used as (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1, 3 and 4
electrolytes? [IAS 2009] 10. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched?
(a) Ammonium chloride and zinc chloride (a) Ammeter : Potential difference
(b) Sodium chloride and calcium chloride (b) Voltameter : Electric current
(c) Magnesium chloride and zinc chloride (c) Potentiometer : EMF
(d) Ammonium chloride and calcium chloride (d) Meter bridge : Electrical resistance
4. A fuse is used in mains electric supply as a safety device. 11. Consider the following statements
Which one of the following statements about the fuse is
1. Ohm’s law can be applied for semiconductors.
correct? [IAS 2008]
2. Electrical resistance is having unit mho.
(a) It is connected in parallel with the main switch 3. Permanent magnet can be made from cobalt.
(b) It is made mainly from silver alloys 4. A fuse wire is made up of alloy of tin and aluminium.
(c) It must have a low melting point
(d) It must have a very high resistance
(a) 1, 2 and 4
5. Which one of the following non-metal is not a poor (b) 1 and 3
conductor of electricity? [IAS 2007] (c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
(a) Sulphur (b) Selenium
(c) Bromine (d) Phosphorus
A copper voltmeter measures the
6. Which one of the following is printed on a commonly used 1. quantity of current passing through the circuit.
fluroscent tube light? [IAS 2006] 2. amount of copper deposited.
(a) 220 K (b) 273 K 3. resistance of the circuit.
(c) 6500 K (d) 9000 K Which of these statement(s) is/are correct?
7. Consider the following statements (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
Statement I Diamagnetic substances are strongly (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
attracted by permanent magnets.
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (b)
Chapter seven
Modern Physics
The atoms of different elements having
Atom
same mass number but different atomic
The term modern physics Atom is the smallest part of any matter numbers, are called isobars.
refers to the which carries all the chemical and Examples 1H3 , 2 He3 and 11Na22 , 10 Ne22
physical properties as the matter. are isobars.
post-Newtonian
All the matters in the universe are made The atoms of different elements having
conception of physics. up of atoms, which in turn are made up different atomic numbers and different
Modern physics deals of mainly three particles electron, proton mass numbers but having same
with the underlying and the neutron. number of neutrons, are called
isotones.
structure of the smallest
Composition of the Examples 1H3 , 2 He4 and 6 C14 , 8 O16 are
particles in nature as isotones.
well as a rigorous
Nucleus
Nucleus consists of protons and Radioactivity
understanding of the
neutrons. Protons provide positive
fundamental interactions charge and protons-neutrons combindly The spontaneous process by which a
of particles, understood provide entire mass to a nucleus. nucleus changes its state with the
emission of some particle or radiation is
as forces. Proton was discovered by Rutherford
called radioactivity.
when he bombard the nitrogen nuclei
with α-particles. Types of Radioactive Decay
7N
14
+ 2 He4 → 8O17 + 1H1 In nature, three types of radioactive decay
The charge on a proton is + 1.6 × 10 −19 occurs
coulomb and its mass is 1.672 × 10−27 kg. (i) α-decay (ii) β-decay (iii) γ-decay
Neutron was discovered by J. Chadwick This phenomenon was discovered by a
when he bombard beryllium with French Physicist Henry Becquerel in
α-particles 1896. When an α-particle is emitted by
Be14 + 2 He4 → 6O12 + 0n1 a nucleus, its atomic number decreases
4
by 2 and mass number decreases by 4.
Neutron is a neutral particle and its
α −particle
mass is 1.675 × 10−27 kg. z X A → z − 2 Y A − 4 + 2 He4
The number of protons in the nucleus of When β-particle is emitted by a nucleus,
an atom of the element, is called atomic its atomic number increases by 1 and
number (Z ) of the element. mass numbers remains unchanged.
The total number of protons and β −particle
X A → z +1 Y A + e0 + ν
neutrons present inside the nucleus of z −1
( anti - neutrino )
an atom of the element, is called mass When γ-rays are emitted by a nucleus.
number (A) of the element. The atoms Its atomic number and mass remain
of an element having same atomic γ −Ray
unchanged. z X A → z X A
number but different mass numbers,
are called isotopes. Where, (*) stands for excited atom.
Examples 1H1, 1H2 , 1H3 are isotopes of In nature three types of radioactive
hydrogen. decay occurs.
Magbook ~ Modern Physics 47
Radioactive Decay Law If the particle starting the nuclear fission reaction is
produced as a product and further takes part in the
The rate of disintegration of radioactive atoms at any instant
nuclear fission reaction, then a chain of fission reaction
is directly proportional to the number of radioactive atoms
present in the sample at that instant. started, which is called nuclear chain reaction.
Rate of disintegration
Nuclear chain reaction are of two types
– Controlled chain reaction
 dN  dN
−  ∝N or − =λN – Uncontrolled chain reaction
 dt  dt
where, λ is the decay constant. Nuclear Reactor
The number of atoms present undecayed in the sample at The working of a nuclear reactor is based on controlled
any instant N = N0e – λ
t
chain reaction.
where, N0 = number of atoms at time t = 0 The main parts of a nuclear reactor are as follows
N = number of atoms at time t – Fuel Fissionable materials like 92 U235 , 92 U238 , 94 Pu239 are used
as fuel.
Important Terms Related to Radioactivity – Moderator Heavy water, graphite and beryllium oxide are
The time in which the half number of atoms present used to slower down fast moving neutrons.
initially in any sample decays, is called half-life (T) of that – Coolant The cold water, liquid oxygen etc., are used to
radioactive element. remove heat generated in the fission process.
Relation between half-life and disintegration constant – Control rods Cadmium or boron rods are good absorber of
neutrons and therefore, used to control the fission reaction.
loge 2 0.6931
T= = Atom bomb working is based on uncontrolled chain
λ λ

reaction.
Average life or mean life ( τ ) of a radioactive element is the
The nuclear reactors in which energy is produced by the
ratio of total life time of all the atoms and total number of
fission of U235 by slow moving neutrons, are called thermal
atoms present initially in the sample.
reactors.
l
Relation between average life and decay constant τ = The nuclear reactors in which energy is produced by the
λ

fission of Pu239 or U233 , are called breeder reactors.

Relation between half-life and average life τ = 1.44 T
Pu239 is produced from U238 and U233 is produced from
The number of atoms left undecayed after n half- lives is
n Th235 .
 1
given by N = N0  
 2 Working of a Nuclear Reactor
t When reactor is to be started, the cadmium rods are
where, n=
T pulled out. Any neutron present in the reactor starts
Here, t = total time fission reaction of U235 . The neutrons produced in fission
The activity of a radioactive element is equal to its rate of process further takes part in the fission process and a
disintegration. chain reaction of fission started. The rate of reaction is
controlled by pressing the cadmium rods inside the
 dN 
Activity, R = −  reactor. A large amount of heat is produced in fission
 dt 
process which is continuously carried out with the supply
Activity of the sample after time t is given by R = R0 e − λt of cool water.
Its SI unit is Becquerel (Bq). Its other units are Curie and
Rutherford. Nuclear Fusion
1 curie = 3 .7 × 1010 decay/s The process of combining of two lighter nuclei to form one
1 rutherford = 10 decay/s
6 heavy nucleus, is called nuclear fusion. In this process, a
large amount of energy is released.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear fusion takes place at very high temperature
approximately about 107 K and at very high pressure
The process of the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or
106 atmosphere.
more lighter nuclei, is called nuclear fission.
Hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fusion and it is more
When a slow moving neutron strikes with uranium nucleus
destructive than an atom bomb. The source of the sun’s
( 92 U235 ), it splits into 56 Ba141 and 36 Kr 92 along with three
energy is the nuclear fusion process taking place at the
neutrons and a lot of energy.
sun.
92 U235 + 0n1 → 56 Ba141 + 36 Kr 92 + 30 n1 + Energy
Dangers of Nuclear Leakage Fluorescence and Phosphorescence

Nuclear power plants should be installed far away from The absorption of energy by atoms, molecules etc
populated areas. Its building or structure should be made followed by immediate emission of electromagnetic
in such a way that it can bear the earthquake. Proper radiations when atoms or molecules return to their lower
supply of coolant (normal water) should be available in energy state. In fluorescence, the emission of light stops
normal working conditions or at the time of any accident. as the incident radiation is cut-off.
A nuclear disaster has thrilled Japan currently March 11, On the other hand, the absorption of energy by atoms
2011. At Fukushima, nuclear power plants are out of work followed by emission of electromagnetic radiation is called
due to an earthquake. Radiations leakage is continuously phosphorescence.
contaminating water in the coastal areas and air in a wide
range. Photoelectric Effect
The nuclear energy is a powerful source of energy but The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal
mishandling or carelessness can result as a disaster. surface when light of suitable frequency is incident on it,
There are two types of radiations effect on human body is called photoelectric effect.
– Somatic Effect These affects a human being which can be
cured or cannot be cured but never transferred to the next Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
generation. Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of
– Genetic Effect These affects the genes of a person and
Maxwell-Planck quantum theory. According to which light
therefore are transferred to the next generations.
is emitted from a source in the form of packets or bundles
of energy, called quanta or photon. The energy of each
Nuclear Forces photon is given by
◆
Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature. E = hν,
◆
It is a very short range attractive force. where, h = Planck’s constant
◆
It is non-central, non-conservative force. ν = frequency by incident light
◆
It is neither gravitational nor electrostatic force.
Kinetic energy of emitted photoelectron is given by
◆
It is independent of charge.
EK = h ν − φ
◆
It is 100 times that of electrostatic force and 1038 times that of
1
gravitational force. or EK = mv 2 = h ( ν − ν 0 )
◆
According to Yukawa, the nuclear force acts between the 2
nucleons due to continuous exchange of meson particles. This is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
The electrons emitted during photoelectric current, are
called photoelectrons.
Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation The minimum energy required to eject one photoelectron
According to Einstein, when ∆m mass is lost, the from a metal surface, is called its work function.
produced energy is given by The minimum frequency of incident light that can eject
∆E = ∆mc 2 photoelectron from a metal surface, is called its threshold
where, c is the speed of light in vacuum. frequency. It is denoted by ν o.
The 12th part of the mass of a carbon atom ( 6 C12 ), is The maximum wavelength of incident light that can eject
called atomic mass unit. photoelectron from a metal surface, is called its threshold
1 amu = 1.66 × 10−27 kg = 931 meV wavelength. It is denoted by λ max .
The minimum energy required to separate the nucleons hc
Work function, φ = hν 0 =

,
upto an infinite distance from the nucleus, is called λ max
nuclear binding energy.
where, h = Planck’s constant
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon
Nuclear binding energy The negative potential given to the anode of a
= photoelectric cell for which photoelectric current becomes
Total number of nucleons
zero, is called the stopping potential or cut-off potential. It
is denoted by V0 .
Mass Defect
Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is given by
The difference between the sum of masses of all nucleons (M)
Ek = eV0
and mass of the nucleus (m), is called mass defect.
Mass defect (∆m) = M − m where, e is the charge of an electron.
Cathode Rays These are formed by electrons emitted in a The intensity of X-rays depends on the heating voltage or
discharge tube when the pressure falls to about 10−4 mm filament current.
of mercury. The kinetic energy of X-ray photons depends upon the
These rays travel in straight lines and deflected by electric voltage applied across the ends of coolidge tube.
and magnetic fields, can produce chemical changes. X-rays are used to detect fractures of bones, presence of
Positive Rays These are moving (in straight line) positive bullet or stone in the body.
ions of the gas filled in the discharge tube and having X-rays are used to cure cancer like diseases.
mass nearly equal to the mass of the atoms of gas. These X-rays can be diffracted by crystal following the Bragg’s
rays are deflected in magnetic field and can effect law given by
photographic plates and produce fluorescence and
2d sin θ = n × λ where, n = 1, 2, 3…
phosphorescence.
where , d = spacing between crystal planes
Laws of Photoelectric Effect θ = angle of diffraction.
– The rate of emission of photoelectrons from a metal surface is X-rays are used to detect gold and other costly metals
directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
hidden in sealed parcels or human body.
– The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons does not
depend on the intensity of incident light. X-rays are used in study of crystal structure and for
– Maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons increases detection of pearls in oysters.
with increase in frequency of incident light. Electromagnetic Spectrum An arranged array of
– If the frequency of incident light is below, than a certain electromagnetic radiation in the sequence of their
minimum value called threshold frequency then no emission wavelength or frequency, is called electromagnetic
of photoelectrons takes place from the metal surface. spectrum.
– There is no time lag between the incidence of light and
Radio and micro waves are used in radio and TV
emission of photoelectrons from the metal surface.
communication.
Electromagnetic Waves Infrared rays are used
Electromagnetic waves are those waves in which electric – to treat muscular strain
and magnetic field vectors change sinusoidally and are – for taking photographs in fog or smoke
perpendicular to each other as well as perpendicular to – in green house to keep plants warm
the direction of propagation of wave. – in weather forecasting through infrared photography
in night vision apparatus.
These waves are produced by accelerating charge
–

particles. Ultraviolet rays are used

in the study of molecular structure
These waves are transverse in nature. –
– in sterilising the surgical instruments
These waves do not require any medium for their
– in the detection by forged documents, finger prints
propagation.
– in the water purification system to kill harmful micro organism
The speed of electromagnetic waves in free space is given by in water.
1
c=
µ 0 ε0 Devices Based on
where, ε 0 = permittivity of free space and Electromagnetic Radiations
µ 0 = permeability of free space. Breath Analyser It is a device used by police to detect and
catch people driving under the influence of alcohol.
X-rays Infrared radiation can pass through dry air but cannot
When cathode rays strike on a heavy metal having high pass through water vapour. If infrared radiations are
melting point, then a part of energy of cathode rays passed through a sample of a person’s breath, who has
converts into a new type of rays called X-rays. consumed alcohol, then transmission is altered.
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of wavelengths ranging By infrared photography people suffering from H1N1 (swine
from 0.1 Å to 100 Å and frequencies ranging from 1016 Hz
flue) are detected at airports. Photographic film sensitive
to 1018 Hz.
for infrared radiation shows different colours for different
Soft X-rays have greater wavelength of the order of 4 Å temperatures. A thermographic scanner produces a TV
and lower frequency. like picture of the infrared radiations emitted by different
Hard X-rays have lower wavelength of the order of 1 Å and bodies. Any person suffering from fever have higher body
higher frequency. temperature than other and therefore, it can be easily
X-rays are produced in coolidge tube. detected in a crowd at airport.
A microwave oven is utilised to cook food using Uses of Masers

microwaves. A magnetron produces microwaves of The masers are used to detect the actual position of the
frequency 2450 MHz. When the microwaves are incident on artificial satellites, fighter planes, unwanted missiles etc.
food stuff, these are absorbed by water, sugar, fat and In ocean water, masers are today utilised to
certain other molecules. These molecules vibrate and communicate some important messages.
produce heat. Microwaves are not absorbed by air, glass,
paper etc, and hence do not heatup. Therefore, cooking
time is reduced. Electronics
Metallic utensils block the microwaves therefore, cannot be The properties of semiconductor (which is normally
used in microwave oven. insulator at room temperature, but where ever
CT scan (Computed Tomography Scan) is a medical temperature is increases, it behaves like a conductor)
imaging method employing tomography. This technique is and its devices are studied under the topic electronics.
used to diagnostic studies of internal bodily structures such Impurity is added to increase the conductivity.
as tumours. These are generally extrinsic, but when dopped (i.e.
In this method, a number of X-ray beams and a set of X-ray impurity is added to it) these becomes intrinsic.
detectors is fixed around the patient and X-ray images are Intrinsic semiconductor are of two types
taken around a single axis of rotation of the inside body part – p-type Majority charge carriers are holes and minority
and then a three-dimensional image is obtained. charge carriers are electrons.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a medical test used – n-Type Majority charge carriers are electrons and minority
charge carriers are holes.
by doctors to diagnose and treat diseases that cannot be
accurately diagnosed by X-ray, ultrasound or CT scanning.In
MRI, a powerful magnetic field and radio frequency pulses
Semiconductor Devices
are used and a detailed picture of organs such as heart, p-n Junction Diode An arrangement consisting a p-type
kidney, liver, pancreas etc., are obtained on a computer and a n-type semiconductor brought into close contact,
screen. This image can be printed or copied on a compact called p-n junction and device containing it is called p-n
disc (CD). Junction diode.
A TV remote control is an electronic device containing an IC Types of Diodes
(integrated circuit) and few other components. When a key LED (Light Emitting Diode) It
on a remote control is pressed, it emits infrared signals. generally made of GaAsP, GaP etc
These signals are received by the electronic circuit of the and used in electronic gadgets as Symbol
TV and desired operation is performed. indicator light.
Zener Diode It can not be damaged,
Radar
but reverse current works in that Symbol

It is an abbreviation of Radio Detection and Ranging. It is situation. It is used as voltage regulator.
used to locate, guide or identify the objects such as Photo Diode If external load is
aeroplanes, ships, missiles etc. A continuous or pulse radio connected to it, the photo current
waves are sent towards the object and receive back after its flows through the load. Whenever
reflection from the objects. the light incident on the diode.
Symbol
Uses of Radar
To detect and measure the position and distance of the Terms related to diode
cloud.
◆
Depletion Layer A region in between p-n Junction, where
To explore the evidence of any metal or oil reserve. there is no charge carriers.
To detect the outer layer of the atmosphere. ◆
Potential Barrier The potential difference across
depletion layer. The barrier potential for Ge is 0.3 V and for
Maser Si is 0.7 V.
It is an abbreviation of Microwave Amplification by ◆
Forward Biasing When p-side of a diode is connected to
Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a device used for positive terminal of a battery.
producing an intense source of coherent microwave ◆
Reverse Biasing When p-side of a diode is connected to
radiation. Masers, like lasers, operate by population
negative terminal of a battery.
inversion and stimulated emission.
There are eight planets in solar system

Transistors
– Mercury – Venus
It is a combination in which p-n Junctions are joined in
– Earth – Mars
series.
– Jupiter – Saturn
These are of two types
– Uranus – Neptune.
E C E C * The ninth planet Pluto is now taken as a dwarf planet.
(Emitter) (Collector)
The four planets nearest the sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth
and Mars, are called terrestrial planets.
These planets have well defined surface of rocks and soil.
B (Base) B The four planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are
n-p-n transistor p-n-p transistor called jovian planets.
The combination of transistors forms an IC (integrated These planets do not have a solid surface.
circuit) and it is a multifunctional device. The Mercury is the closest planet to the sun.
The combination of IC’s are called microprocessor, which The Venus is the closest planet to the earth. It is the hottest
are now a days used in electronic devices. planet of our solar system.
The Mars is also called red planet.
Digital Circuit The Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system.
It is a electronic circuit that responds to discrete value of The Saturn is the second largest planet of the solar system.
input voltage and produces discrete output voltage level. Asteroids and Meteoroids
Usually two levels are used in it
The small, rocky, irregularly shaped objects revolving
– 0 (OFF)
around the sun, are called asteroids or minor planets.
– 1 (ON)
There is a belt of asteroids between the orbits of Mars and
The digital circuit constitutes gate basically of three types
Jupiter.
A
Y
A
Y A Y The largest asteroid is Ceres.
B B
Asteroids can have the moon too.
OR-gate AND-gate NOT-gate
Small pieces of rock travelling through space, are called
meteoroids. These are fragments from an asteroid, a comet,
the moon, mars etc.
Universe When a meteoroid enters the earth’s atmosphere, it heats
The universe is commonly defined as the totality of up due to friction. The hot vapours give off light before
existence including the planets, stars galaxies and all cooling down. A streak of light caused by a vaporising
matter and energy. meteoroid, is called a meteor or a shooting star.
A meteoroid that hits the ground, is called a meteorite.
Solar System
The sun and all the objects moving around it taken

together, is called solar system. Comets
The sun is a star of mass 2 × 10 30
kg and radius Comets are objects which move in highly elongated orbits around
1.4 × 106 km. the sun. They are made up of frozen gases and rocks. They have a
long tail which always points away from the sun.
The source of the sun’s energy is the process of nuclear
fusion taking place in it.
The photosphere It is the inner part of the sun which Structure of the Earth
appears as a bright disc. It is a denser mixture of gases Inner structure of the earth is made up of three different
and vapours. Its thickness is about 500 km and its layers
temperature is about 6000 K. – Crust It is the thinnest and outermost layer. It is about 10 km
The chromosphere It is the outer part of the sun, just thick under the oceans and could be upto 45 km thick under
the continents.
above the photosphere. It is a rarer mixture of gases and
– Mantle It lies below the crust. It extends upto a depth of about
vapours.
3000 km. The temperature inside the mantle is about 1000°C.
Planets – Core It is the inner most part of the earth. It is made up of
iron mostly. The outer part of core is in molten state have a
The heavenly bodies which revolve around the sun in a
temperature about 4000°C and inner part is in solid state
fixed orbit, are called planets. because of very high pressure.
Black Hole This region continues contraction due to gravitational pull

It is a region in space in which the gravitational force is and heat up. When temperature of central region reaches
so great that no object can escape from it. about 107 K , nuclear fusion reaction starts and a star is
born.
Galaxy A group of stars forming a recognisable pattern, is called a
A huge group of stars and other celestial bodies bound constellation.
together by gravity, is called a galaxy. Few constellations are Ursa Major (great bear), Leo (lion),
There are over 100 billion (1011) galaxies in the Pisces (fish), Taurus (bull), Hercules (a hero), Orion
universe. (a hunter) etc.
Our galaxy is called milky way galaxy. Ursa Major have seven brightest stars forms a shape of
There are over 250 billion stars in our milky way galaxy. great bear.
Constellation
Nebula When gases and dust particles collect to form The Big-Bang Theory
a cloud, it is called nebula. About 15 billion years ago, the whole matter of the universe was
A star is born in nebula. Due to gravitational attraction, concentrated in a highly dense small region. A sudden explosion
these particles are pulled towards the centre and the broke this region into pieces which start to move away from each
kinetic energy of particles converted into heat and other. The instant of this explosion is called the big-bang.
increases the temperature of the central region. Therefore, the universe is expanding continuously.
Self Check
1. What is the role of Ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the water Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
purification system? (a) Only I (b) Only II
1. It inactivates/kills the harmful micro organisms in water. (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
2. It removes all the undesirable odours from the water. 7. Consider the following statements
3. It quickens the sedimentation of solid particles, removes
A person in a spaceship located half way between the
turbidity and improves the clarity of water.
earth and the sun will notice that the
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 1. sky is jet black.
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
2. stars do no twinkle.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
3. temperature outside the spaceship is much higher than
2. To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that on the surface of the earth. [IAS 2008]
that India should pursue research and development on Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this (a) Only 3 (b) 1 and 2
context, what advantage does thorium hold over (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
uranium?
1. Thorium is far more abundant in nature that uranium. 8. Which are the materials generally employed as solder in
soldering operations in electronics? [IAS 2006]
2. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral thorium
can generate more energy compared to natural (a) Iron and tin (b) Lead and tin
uranium. (c) Aluminum and lead (d) Aluminum and iron
3. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to 9. Consider the following statements
uranium. Statement I In nuclear reaction there is conversion of
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? mass-energy only.
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 Statement II γ–rays are having most penetrating power.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Statement III Nuclear force is a long range force.
3. The function of heavy water in a nuclear reactor is to Statement IV Gamma rays are fast moving electron.
[IAS 2011]
(a) slow down the speed of neutrons Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(b) increase the speed of neutrons (a) I and II (b) I and III
(c) cool down the reactor (c) III and IV (d) I and IV
(d) stop the nuclear reaction 10. Consider the following statements
4. Consider the following statements 1. Energy is continuously generated in the sun due to the
Statement I In the process 31 T → 32He + X, X is electron. centrifugal force alone.
2. Cadmium is a radioactive element.
Statement II In the transformation sequence
A−4 A−4 A−4
3. Photoelectric effect is based on particle nature of light.
A
Z X→ Z−2 Y→ Z−2 Z→ Z −1 K 4. Cathode rays are not effected by magnetic field.
The decays in the order α , γ , β. Which of the statements given above are correct?
Which of the above statements is/are correct? [IAS 2010] (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
11. Consider the following statements?
5. Which one of the following types of waves are used in a 1. In a semiconductor the uppermost band is the valence
night vision apparatus? band.
(a) radio waves (b) Microwaves 2. All semiconductors are electrically neutral.
(c) Infrared waves (d) None of these 3. With increase of temperature, the resistivity of a
6. Consider the following statements semiconductor decreases
Statements I In the visible spectrum of light red light is 4. Addition of a small amount of impurity of a III or V group
element to a pure semiconductor increases its resistivity.
more energetic than green light.
Statements II The wavelength of red light is more than Choose the correct statements.
that of green light. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b)
Chemistry
Chapter one
General Chemistry
Matter Classification of Solids
Chemistry is the branch Everything in the universe is made up of True or Crystalline Solids
of science in which we material which scientists have named They have regular arrangement
‘matter’. The air we breathe, the food we of their constituent particles. Due
study about the law of eat, water, books, clouds, plants and to which, they are hard and
mutual composition of animals etc., everything is matter. In other have sharp melting and boiling
the matter, the effect of words, anything which has mass and point.
thermal energy on the occupies space, is matter. For example
Matter is made up of small entities – Ionic solids
matter, the synthesis of Covalent solids
(atoms or molecules). These entities attract –
compounds, the Molecular solids
each other with a force called inter-
–
Metallic solids
separation of the molecular force. The space between any
–
simplified and pure two entities is called intramolecular space. Amorphous or Pseudo Solids
substances from the In these solids, only a short range
complex substance. Classification of Matter order of arrangement of constituent
particles, is found.
The matter has been divided into two
categories Due to which, their melting points
are not sharp, i.e. they melt over a
On the basis of physical composition, the
range of temperature.
matter is divided into three states, i.e. solid,
liquid and gas. They have a property to flow, so
also regarded as supercooled
On the basis of chemical composition
liquids, eg. glass, rubber, plastic,
matter can be classified as
proteins, starch etc.
Matter
Liquid State
Pure substance Mixtures
Liquid state has a variable shape
Homogeneous and a fixed volume. The particles in
Compounds
Elements Heterogeneous liquids are loosely packed, free to
Metals Organic move around and compress only
Non-metals Inorganic slightly.
Metalloids
Gaseous State
Solid State In this state, tiny particles of matter
are widely spaced apart and
Solid state has a fixed shape and a fixed
uniformly distributed throughout the
volume. The particles in solids are tightly
container.
packed, held in rigid positions and cannot
The gases are highly compressible.
be compressed together.

Magbook ~ General Chemistry 55
Gas Laws – The cane juice contains sugar in water. The presence of
sugar increases its boiling point.
Name Relation Constant term – At high altitude, food cooks late due to the decrease in
Boyle’s law 1 T boiling point (or decrease in pressure).
p ∝
V – In pressure cooker, food cooks early due to elevation in
Charles’ law V ∝T p boiling point (or increase in pressure).
Gay Lussac’s law p ∝T V If the conversion of a liquid into vapours takes place
Avogadro’s law V ∝n T, p at room temperature, then it is called vaporisation.
Graham’s law of 1 The rate of vaporisation increases with increase in
r ∝
diffusion d temperature, surface area and speed of air. While
putting clothes for drying up, we spread them out
Dalton’s law of p total = p1 + p2 + p3
partial pressure + K pn because evaporation of water increases with increase
in surface area. The process of conversion of a gas
where p, V and T represent pressure, volume and temperature of into liquid, is called condensation.
gas respectively. Evaporation
Liquid - Gas (vapours)
Ideal and Real Gases Condensation
Gases which follow gas laws at all conditions of temperature The process of conversion of a liquid into a solid by
and pressure, are called ideal gases. Real gases follow gas laws cooling, is called freezing and the temperature at which
(behaves ideally) only at high temperature and low pressure. a liquid converts into solid, is called its freezing point.
Freezing point of a substance decreases on addition of
impurities in it.
Plasma and BEC – Ethylene glycol is used as an antifreeze at cold places.
– Sea water remains liquid at temperature below 0° C
There are two more states of matter but these occur only in
(32 F) due to the presence of salt.
extreme conditions of temperature and pressure.
The process of transition of a substance from the solid
Plasma phase to the gas phase without passing through an
It consists of super energetic and super excited particles. These intermediate liquid state, is called sublimation. The
particles are in the form of ionised gases. The sun and stars glow substance showing this phenomenon, is called
because of the presence of plasma in them. sublimate, e.g. camphor, naphthalene, ammonium
Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) chloride.
Fusion Vaporisation
The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about Solid Liquid Gas
Solidification Condensation
one-hundred-thousandth the density of normal air, to super low
Sublimation
temperatures. Condensation
Flow chart showing interconversion
of three states of matter
Interconversion of States of Matter
The process of conversion of a solid into a liquid by heating, is Substances
called melting and the temperature at which a solid starts A chemical substance is a form of matter that has
melting, is called its melting point. Melting point of a constant chemical composition and characteristic
substance decreases on the addition of impurities in it. properties.
The heat absorbed by a solid without showing any rise in Different types of substances
temperature in order to overcome the forces of attraction, is The substance which absorbs moisture and form
called latent heat. This is the reason for the fact that the saturated solution is called deliquescent, e.g. NaOH,
particles of liquid have more energy than the particles of solid KOH, anhydrous CaCl2 . Substances which form their
if kept at the same temperature. As the pressure increases, hydrates or hydroxides but do not form saturated
more particles come closer, i.e. interparticle forces of solution, are called hygroscopic, e.g. quick lime,
attraction increases and interparticle space (space between anhydrous Na2 CO3 . Substances which lose their water
the particles) decreases and finally a state is reached at which of crystallisation if kept in air, are called efflorescent,
vapours condensed to give liquid or liquid solidified into solid. e.g. Na2 CO3 ⋅ 10H2O.
The process of conversion of a liquid into vapours by heating,
is called boiling and the temperature at which liquid starts
Elements
boiling, is called its boiling point. Boiling point of a substance An element is the simplest form of matter and
increases on the addition of impurities. Boiling point of water therefore, cannot be split into simpler substances by
is 100°C. any chemical or physical method.
There are 118 elements known at present, out of which 94 dissolving it in water and filtering the solution. The
elements occur in nature while the remaining 23 elements industrial and common applications of this process are
have been prepared artificially (except one). Elements may purification of river water for domestic supply. River water
be classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids. is purified by filtering it through a layer of sand and gravel
Sodium, copper, silver, hydrogen and oxygen are some in a filter bed. In car engines, solid particles from engine
examples of elements. oil are removed by air filters.
Compounds Crystallisation
This method is used to purify solids. The salts obtained
A compound is made up of two or more elements from sea water is impure. It is purified by the
combined in a fixed ratio. It cannot be separated into its crystallisation. In this method, impure salt is dissolved in
components by physical methods. The properties of a minimum amount of water. Impurities are then filtered out
compound are entirely different from those of its and water is evaporated from filtrate to get a saturated
constituent elements. It has a fixed melting and boiling solution. Pure crystals are obtained by cooling the filtrate
point. It is a homogeneous substance. Water, ammonia, slowly.
carbon dioxide, sugar are some examples of compounds.
Evaporation
Mixtures It is the process used to separate the volatile component
(solvent) from its non-volatile solute.
A mixture is a substance made up of two or more elements
e.g. When we heat the blue or black ink indirectly (by the
or compounds, chemically combined together in any ratio.
help of water bath), evaporation of the solvent takes place
It can be separated into its constituents by the physical
and coloured dye is obtained as a residue.
methods. It does not have a fixed melting point, boiling
point etc., and shows the properties of its constituents. It Centrifugation
does not have a definite formula. It is the process used to separate the cream from
full-cream milk by the use of milk churner. Milk churner
Types of Mixtures is just like centrifuging machine. In centrifuging machine,
On the basis of the composition of the mixture, it is the denser particles in a mixture are forced towards the
categorised into two groups bottom and the lighter particles stay at the top when spun
rapidly. Toned and double toned varieties of milk are
Homogeneous Mixture obtained by this technique.
The mixture in which every part has the same composition
Sublimation
and properties as that of its component elements, is called
It is used to separate sublimable volatile substances such
homogeneous mixture. The examples of homogeneous
as ammonium chloride (NH 4Cl) from non-sublimable
mixture are the electrolyte of sugar in water, the electrolyte
substance such as sodium chloride (NaCl). Examples of
of sulphur in carbon disulphide, the electrolyte of NH3 in
sublimable substances are iodine, naphthalene, camphor.
air, etc.
Heterogeneous Mixture Distillation

It is used to separate
The mixture in which every part has not the same
– volatile component from non-volatile component and
composition and the properties as that of its component
– liquids having sufficient difference in their boiling points.
elements, is called heterogeneous mixture. The examples
e.g., Chloroform (bp 334K) and aniline
of heterogeneous mixture are colloidal solutions, i.e. (bp 457K) are easily separated by distillation. It is used to
mixture of salt and sugar, suspensions etc. prepare distilled water from ordinary water.
Fractional Distillation
Separation of Components of It is used when difference in boiling points of the liquids
the Mixture is small. Industrially, this process is used in refining of
crude petroleum and manufacturing of alcoholic
A number of methods or techniques like filtration,
beverages such as rum, gin, whisky, etc.
crystallisation, evaporation, sublimation, distillation etc.,
are used for the separation of mixture. The selection of the Steam Distillation
method depends on the type of mixture and the nature of It is used to purify those substances which are steam
each component to be separated. volatile and are immiscible with water, e.g. aniline.
Filtration Vacuum Distillation
It is used to separate an insoluble solid component of the It is used to purify those substances which decompose
mixture from the soluble component in a given solvent, at or below their boiling points, e.g. purification of
e.g. a mixture of naphthalene and urea is separated by glycerol.
Magbook ~ General Chemistry 57
Solubility of substances increases with increase in

Reverse Osmosis temperature but in some cases, solubility of substances
It is the technique in which solvent molecules move from the such as CaO, CaCO3 , CaSO4 decreases with increase in
solution of higher concentration to the solution of lower temperature because their dissolution takes place with
concentration separated by semipermeable membrane and excess the evolution of heat. Dissolution of NaOH takes place
pressure is applied to the solution of higher concentration, is called with the evolution of heat but its solubility increases with
reverse osmosis. It is used for the desalination of sea water.
temperature. Solubility of gases in water decreases with
increase in temperature because their dissolution takes
Differential Extraction place with the evolution of heat.
It is used to extract an organic compound present in water by
using another immisible liquid in which organic compounds Colloidal Solution
are more soluble, e.g. iodine in water is extracted by using A colloidal solution is a heterogeneous system in which
chlorofom. one substance is dispersed as very fine particles in
Chromatography another substance, called dispersion medium. For
It is used to separate mixture into its components to purify colloidal particles, the range of diameters is between
compounds and also for testing the purity of compounds. 1 nm to 100 nm. A solution of soaps or detergents in
Pigments from natural colours and drugs from blood are water at higher concentration, is a colloidal solution.
separated by this technique. Colloidal solution is stable because colloidal particles do
not settle down when left undisturbed. Colloidal particles
Solution can easily scatter a beam of visible light. This scattering
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect.
substances, e.g. lemonade, soda water. Lemonade tastes
Types of Colloidal Solutions
the same throughout. It means particles of sugar or salt are
evenly distributed in the solution. Solutions are of various Dispersed Dispersing Type of Example
types. Alloys are the examples of solid solutions, soft drinks phase medium Solution
is the example of liquid solution and air is the example of Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist
gaseous solution. Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust
A binary solution has a solvent and a solute as its Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
components. The component which is present in more Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream
quantity, is usually called the solvent and other is the solute. Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud
If the proportion of the solute is small, the solution is called Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice
dilute solution whereas if the proportion of solute is larger, it Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
is called a concentrated solution. Solid Solid Solid sol Coloured gem stone, milky glass
A solution in which more amount of the solute can be
dissolved at a particular temperature, is called unsaturated Colloids Around Us
solution. A solution in which no more solute can be Clouds These are aerosols having small droplets of water
dissolved at a particular temperature, is called saturated suspended in air.
solution. A solution having more amounts of solute than its Blue colour of the sky Dust particles along with water
saturated solution, is called supersaturated solution.
suspended in air, scatter blue light which reaches our
Concentration of Solution eyes and the sky appears blue to us.
Term Definition Blood A colloidal solution of an albuminoid. The stoppage
Molarity (M) The moles of solute present in per litre volume of bleeding by applying ferric chloride solution, is due to
Molality (m) The moles of solute present in per kilogram of solvent coagulation of blood forming a clot.
Normality The gram equivalent mass of solute dissolved in per Delta formation River water is a colloidal solution of clay.
(N) litre volume
A number of electrolytes are present in sea water. When
Parts per One milligram of solute present in one litre of solvent
the river water comes in contact with it, the electrolytes
million (ppm)
present in sea water coagulate the colloidal solution of
Mole fraction The moles of a constituents of a solution present in
(χ ) total moles of solution clay resulting in its deposition with the delta formation.
Emulsions
Solubility These are the colloids in which the dispersed phase as
The amount of solute dissolved in 100 g of a solvent to well as the dispersion medium both are liquids, e.g. milk,
form a saturated solution at a given temperature, is called cod liver oil.
its solubility.
Self Check
1. Consider the following statements 6. Consider the following statements

1. The process of conversion of a liquid into vapours at room 1. During the pressure of osmosis, the solvent travels from
temperature is called vaporisation or by heating, it is the concentrated solution to the dilute solution.
called boiling. 2. In the reverse osmosis, external pressure is applied to the
2. Vaporisation is a surface phenomenon. dilute solution.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 (a) Only 1
(c) Only 2 (d) None of these (b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. Compounds are made up of two or more elements
combined in a fixed ratio. 7. Consider of following statements
2. All compounds are the homogeneous mixture of elements. 1. As pressure increases, volume increases at constant
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? temperature.
(a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 2. As pressure increases, volume decreases at constant
(c) Only 2 (d) None of these temperature.
3. As temperature increases, pressure decreases at
constant volume.
1. Solubility of substance always decreases with increase in
4. As temperature increases, pressure increases at
temperature.
constant volume.
2. Solubility of CaCO 3 decreases with increase in
Which of the above is a correct statement of Gay-Lussac’s law
temperature.
describing the behaviour of a fixed amount of gas?
3. Solubility of CaSO 4 increases with increase in (a) Only 1
temperature. (b) Only 2
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) Only 3
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (d) Only 4
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
4. Which of the following substances given below are 1. The particles of nail polish remover pour on your plam, the
deliquescent? particles gain energy from your palm or surroundings and
1. Glycerol 2. Sodium hydroxide evaporate causing the palm to feel cool.
3. Calcium chloride 4. Sodium chloride 2. After a hot sunny day, people sprinkle water on the roof or
5. Sugar 6. Aluminium chloride open ground because the large latent heat of vaporisation
Choose the correct option. of water helps to cool the hot surface.
(a) 1, 4 and 5 (b) 1, 2 and 3 Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(c) 2, 4 and 6 (d) 2, 3 and 6 (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) 1 and 2 (d) None of these
1. Gases are compressible fluids. 9. Consider the following statements
2. The molecular interaction energy practically over powers 1. Amorphous solids do not have sharp melting points.
the thermal energy in solid state. 2. Amorphous solids are regarded as supercooled liquids.
3. Molecular interactions between molecules are identical in 3. Amorphous solids have same mechanical strength,
steam water and ice. electrical and optical properties in all directions.
4. Liquid is incompressible fluid. Which of the above is/are true about amorphous solids?
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are false? (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (d)

Chapter two
Atomic Structure and
Chemical Bonding
Electron was identified by Joseph John
Atoms
Thomson. It is negatively charged

and Molecules ( −1.6 × 10−19 C) particle with mass 9.11 × 10−28 g.
Atom is the smallest particle of The charge on an electron was determined by
The discoveries related
Mullikan in his oil drop experiment.
an element (or matter) that takes
to atom, atomic Proton was identified by Ernest Rutherford. It is
part in a chemical reaction.
structure, subatomic Atoms are made up of electrons, positively charged ( + 1.6 × 10−19 C) particle with
particles and protons and neutrons. mass 1.673 × 10−24 g.
radioactivity have Molecule is the smallest particle Neutron was discovered by James Chadwick. It
unleashed huge of a substance that does not take is neutral particle with mass 1.675 × 10−24 g.
part in a chemical reaction.
potential for mankind. Except hydrogen atom, the atoms of all other
Molecules are made up of two

This potential has been elements including deuterium and tritium,
(or more) same (or different) type
and would be realised, contain all the three particles.
of atoms. When molecule
for the constructive consists only same type of atoms, Subatomic Particles
purposes in the fields of is called homoatomic molecule.
e.g. O2, H2, N2 etc. Particle Discoverer Charge Mass
energy and medicine Electron Thomson − 1
When molecule consists different
etc., and for the Proton Rutherford + 1836
type of atoms, is called
destructive purposes heteroatomic molecule. Neutron Chadwick 0 1836
such as making of atom e.g. HCl, N2O, CO2 etc. Meson Yukawa + , 0, − 273.8
and hydrogen bombs. Positron Anderson + 1
Fundamental and Neutrino Fermi 0 < 0.04
Subatomic Particles Mass is with respect to electron.

of an Atom Positron was discovered by Anderson in 1932. It
is the positive counterpart of electron.
Electron, proton and neutron are
Neutrino and antineutrino were discovered by
the fundamental particles but

Fermi in 1934. These are the particles of small

according to latest research, all
mass and zero charge.
particles electron, proton,
neutron, meson, positron and Meson particles have a mass intermediate
neutrino are called subatomic between that of electron and proton. These are
particles. of three types; neutral, positively and negatively
charged mesons. All mesons are unstable.
Bosons are subatomic particles. They may be – All the atoms of a given element have identical properties
either elementary like photons or composite like mesons. All including identical mass.
particles heavier than the proton, are called baryons. – Atoms combine in small whole numbers to form compound.
– Chemical reactions involve only combination, separation or
Quark is one of the subatomic particle. They join together to rearrangement of atoms.
form hadrons such as protons, neutrons. The anti-particle of
quark is antiquark. Thomson’s Atomic Model
Some Important Every atom consist of uniformly positively charged
sphere having radius in the order of 10−10m in which
Terms related to Atom entire mass is uniformly distributed and negatively
The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of charged electrons are embedded randomly. The atom as
protons present inside the nucleus of its atom. a whole is neutral.
For an isolated atom,
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons Limitations of Thomson’s Atomic Model
It could not explain the origin of spectral series of
= Number of electrons

hydrogen and other atoms. It could not explain large
The atomic weight is also called relative atomic mass. angle scattering of α-particles.
Weight of one atom of an element
Atomic weight =
1 Rutherford’s Atomic Model
× Weight of one atom of carbon (C − 12)
12
The entire positive charge and almost entire mass of the
Mass number is the sum of nucleons
atom is concentrated at its centre in a very tiny region of
(protons and neutrons).
the order of 10−15 m, called nucleus.
Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
The negatively charged electrons revolve around the
* The total number of atoms present in one molecule is nucleus in different orbits.
called atomicity. For example, the atomicity of nitrogen The total positive charge on nucleus is equal to the total
( N2 ) is 2 and of ammonia (NH3 ) is 4.
negative charge on electron. Therefore, atom as overall
* One mole of a substance contains 6.023 × 1023 atoms or is neutral. The existence of nucleus was proved by
molecules. This number is called Avogadro’s number. Rutherford in his α-particle scattering experiment.
Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones A nucleus consists of positively charged protons and
electrically neutral neutrons. The charge on an
Atoms of the same element having same atomic number electron is 1.67 × 10−19.
but different mass number, are known as isotopes of that
The centripetal force required by an electron for
element, e.g. C - 12 and C - 14 are isotopes of carbon, 11H,

2 3
revolution, is provided by the electrostatic force of
1 H, and 1H are the isotopes of hydrogen atom. attraction between the electrons and the nucleus.
The atoms of different elements which have the same mass
Limitations of Rutherford’s Atomic Model
number but different atomic number, are called isobars,
40 40
Ar, 19 K and 40 According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave theory, an
20 Ca are the isobars.

e.g. 18
accelerated charged particle emits its energy in the form
The atoms of different elements which have the same of electromagnetic waves. Therefore, an electron in its
number of neutrons but different atomic number, are called orbital motion under centripetal acceleration will also
isotones, e.g. 136 C and 147 N are the isotones. emit its energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Due to which the radius of its path will decrease
Atomic Models gradually and ultimately, it will fall in the nucleus.
To show how the fundamental particles arranged in atom, Electromagnetic Radiations

several models, called atomic models, were proposed.
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy transported
Some important of these are
in the form of waves. These radiations are associated
Dalton’s Atomic Theory with both electric as well as magnetic fields.
There are many types of electromagnetic radiations. In
It was based on laws of chemical combination.
vacuum, all types of electromagnetic radiations,
The different assumptions of this theory are
regardless of their wavelength travel at the same speed,
– All matter are made up of atoms which are indivisible and
i.e. 3.00 × 108 ms−1.
indestructible.
Magbook ~ Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding 61
Radio frequency region around 106 Hz, is used for broadcasting.

Microwave region around 1010 Hz, is used for radar. Infrared Shell
region around 1013Hz, is the heat radiation. Ultraviolet region The electron has a definite energy, characteristic of
around 1016Hz, is a component of the sun’s radiation. The small the orbit in which it is moving. These orbits or
region around 1015Hz, is called visible light. energy levels or shells, therefore also known as
When certain metals like potassium, rubidium and caesium etc., stationary orbits.
are exposed to light of appropriate frequency, the electrons are n = 1, 2, 3, 4
ejected from their surface. This phenomenon is known as Shell = K, L, M, N
photoelectric effect. The shell with n = 1 is closest to the nucleus and an
electron in this level has the lowest possible energy
Planck’s Quantum Theory as it is closest to the positive charge of the nucleus.
Planck in 1900 gave a new revolutionary theory of radiation
known as quantum theory of radiation. Distribution of Electrons into
According to this theory Different Orbits of an Atom
– Radiant energy is not emitted or absorbed continuously but
discontinuously in the form of small packets of energy known as
It was suggested by Bohr and Burry. The rules are
photons (quanta). – The maximum number of electrons present in a shell,
– The amount of energy associated with a quantum of radiation, is is given by the formula 2n 2 (where, n = 1 , 2 , 3 and
proportional to the frequency of radiation. 4 for K , L, M and N shells respectively).
Energy (E ) ∝ Frequency(ν) – The maximum number of electrons that can be
E = hν accommodated in the outermost orbit, is 8.
where, h = Planck’s constant – The shells are filled in a step-wise manner.
Bohr’s Model Electronic Configuration

It was based on quantisation of energy. It is the arrangement of electrons in various shells,
The various postulates of the model are subshells and orbitals in an atom. It is written as
– The electrons keep on revolving in any one of the several fixed
2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32 or nl x (where, n indicates the
circular orbits around the nucleus without losing or gaining energy. principal quantum number, l indicates the
– The electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular azimuthal quantum number or subshell and x is
momentum is an integral multiple of h / 2π or it is quantised. the number of electrons).
– The electron has a definite energy, characteristic of the orbit in which Number of electrons in n shell = 2n 2
it is moving. As long as the electron remains in an orbit, it does not
e.g. In second shell, the number of electrons
lose energy. An electron in n = 1, has the lowest possible energy.
= 2 × 22 = 8
– The absorption or emission of energy can occur only by the transition
of electron from lower to higher energy or vice-versa.
Filling of Orbitals in Atoms
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle The filling of electrons into orbitals of different
According to this principle, “it is impossible to simultaneously atoms takes place according to the Aufbau
measure the position while determining the velocity or Principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle and Hund’s
momentum of a microscopic particle”. rule of maximum multiplicity.
Heisenberg principle is not applicable to macroscopic objects According to Aufbau principle in the ground state
(i.e. large objects). of an atom, electron enters the orbital of lowest
energy first and subsequent electrons enter in the
order of increasing energies.
de-Broglie Concept
Lower the value of (n + l ) for an orbital, lower is its
◆
de-Broglie suggests that matter possesses dual nature, i.e. wave energy. If two orbitals which have same (n + l )
nature as well as particle nature and the wavelength (λ ) of an value, the orbital with lower value of n has lower
electron (or any microscopic particle) is inversely proportional to its energy.
momentum (p).
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity deals with the
h h
i.e. λ= = (Qp = mv ) filling of electrons into the orbitals belonging to the
p m ⋅v same sub-shell. According to this rule, electron
where, p = momentum, m = mass of an electron pairing will not take place in orbitals of same
v = velocity and h = Planck’s constant energy until each orbital is first singly filled with
parallel spin.
Quantum Numbers Soddy Fajan’s Group

Each electron in an atom is characterised by a set of definite Displacement Law
values of three quantum numbers. In addition to these three This law states that the emission of an α-particle by
numbers, fourth quantum number is also needed which
an element results in the formation of a new element
specifies the spin of the electron.
which lies at two place to the left of the parent
Principal quantum number (n ) determines the main energy element and the emission of a β-particle results in the
level or shell in which the electron is present. The various formation of a new element which lies at one place
values of n are 1, 2, 3 and 4 etc., also known as K , L, M and right of the parent element in the periodic table.
N etc., respectively. As the value of n increases, energy of 215 − α 211 −β 211
84 Po  → 82 Pb  → 83 Bi
electron also increases.
Group-16 Group-14 Group-15
Azimuthal quantum number (l ) determines the sublevel or
Emission of 1 β-particle always results in the formation
sub-shell (s , p, d and f ) in a given principal energy level or
of an isobar. While emission of 1 α-particle followed by
shell to which an electron belongs.
the emission of 2 β-particles results in the formation of
Magnetic quantum number (m) gives the information about an isotope.
the orientation of the orbital. 238 −α 234 −β 234 −β 234
92 U → 90 Th  → 91 Pa  → 92 U
Spin quantum number (s) describes the spin orientation of the
electron. The electron can spin only in two ways, i.e. 238
U and 234
are isotopes while 234 234 234
92 92 U 90 Th, 91 Pa and 92 U
clockwise and anticlockwise.
are isobars.
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle Nuclear isomers are the atoms having same atomic
Pauli’s Exclusion principle was proposed by the Austrian number and same mass number but with different
scientist Wolfgang Pauli in 1952. It states that no two radioactive properties.
electrons in an atom can have same set of four quantum e.g. Uranium (t1/ 2 is 14 min) and uranium (t1/ 2 is 6.7 h)
numbers. Isodiaphers are the atoms having same difference of
neutrons and protons or same isotopic number.
Radioactivity e.g. 235 231
92 U and 90 Th
Radioactivity is a very important nuclear property of atoms of Thorium is considered as the future fuel of nuclear
some elements (it is given in detail in our physics section). energy due to its advantage hold over uranium. It is
Here, we are discussing only some theory related to laws of 4 times more abundant in nature and can generate
radioactivity and application of radioisotopes. 8 times more energy per unit mass as compared to
The phenomenon of disintegration of heavy elements into natural uranium. It produces less harmful waste.
comparatively lighter elements by the emission of radiations, Synthetic elements or Transuranic elements do not
is called radioactivity. occur in nature. These are produced in laboratories by
This phenomenon was discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896. artificial transmutation. All the elements after uranium
The types of radiations emitted by radioactive elements are have been prepared by artificial transmutation.
(i) α-rays (ii) β-rays (iii) γ-rays e.g. 238 1 239
92 U + 0 n → 93 Np + −1 e
0
– α-rays consists of α-particles which are doubly ionised helium ion.

– β-rays consists of fast moving electrons. Applications of Radioactivity
– γ-rays consists of electromagnetic rays. and Radioisotopes
When an α-particle is emitted by a nucleus, its atomic
Carbon dating It has been developed to find out the

number decreases by 2 and mass number decreases by 4.
α-particle
age of archaeological objects such as animal fossils
A –4
ZX
A
 
→ Z – 2Y and wood plant fossils. This was given by Willard libby
When β -particle is emitted by a nucleus, its atomic number and he was awarded Nobel prize. By knowing the
increases by 1 and mass number remains unchanged. equilibrium concentration of C-14 in living plants and
β-particle C-14 in dead plants, the age can be calculated.
ZX
A
 
→ Z +1Y
A
Magbook ~ Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding 63
Geological dating The radioactive properties of

uranium are used to determine the approximate Chemical Bonding
age of rocks and minerals. We can determine the Constituents (atoms, molecules or ions) of different elements
age of the rock by measuring the ratio of 238
92 U except noble gases, do not have complete octet so they combine
and 206
82 Pb because 238
92 U after a series of decay with other constituent atoms by chemical bonds to achieve
206 complete (stable) octet. The process of their combination is called
gives stable isotope 82 Pb as the end product.
chemical bonding. Chemical bonding depends upon the valency of
Tracer technique In this technique, a radioactive atoms.
isotope is added and its path is studied by
measuring radioactivity. Radioactive tracers are Valency
used in medical diagnosis and in studying the The capacity of an atom or an element to form chemical bonds, is
reaction mechanism. known as its valency. Valency of a metal is equal to the number of
In the treatment of diseases valence electrons in its atom. Valency of a non-metal is equal to
Co-60 is used for the treatment of cancerous tumors. the 8 − number of valence electrons in its atom.
P-32 is used in blood cancer (Leukemia).
I-131 is used in detection and cure the disorder of Ions
thyroid. An ion is an electrically charged specie. A positively charged ion is
Na-24 helps to locate the defect in blood circulations. called cation while a negatively charged ion is called anion.
Re-59 is used to detect the cases of anaemia.
A cation contains less electrons than a normal atom (e.g.
Se-79 is used in the detection of disorder in pancreatic
gland. Na+ , H+ , Mg 2+ ) while an anion contains more electrons than a
Neutron activation analysis This technique is normal atom (e.g. F− , Cl− , O2− ).
used for measuring the concentrations of
elements present in very small amount. In this Types of Chemical Bond
technique, sample is not destroyed. They are divided in the following types depending upon the mode
In agriculture P − 32 is used to study the uptake of electron transferred or shared electrons or forces of attraction
of phosphorus by plants and transportation of – Electrovalent or ionic bond – Covalent bond
mineral salts within plants. – Coordinate or dative covalent bond – Hydrogen bond
– van der Waals’ forces
Nuclear Hazards and Safety
Electrovalent Bond
Measures The bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to
Human bodies as well as the materials including another is called electrovalent bond and the compound is called
buildings are seriously affected by nuclear electrovalent compound or ionic compound. These bonds are
radiations. The effects are devastating during formed between metals and non-metals.
nuclear blasts. Plants and animal life are equally Electrovalent compounds are made up of electrically charged
destroyed. In general, there are two kinds of atoms or group of atoms. These are usually crystalline solid.
health effects, i.e. somatic and genetic.
These have high melting point and boiling point. These conduct
Somatic effects lead to increased chance of electricity when dissolved in water and also soluble in water. These
deadly disease such as cancer which shortens are insoluble in organic solvents like alcohol etc.
lives of people. Genetic effects have far reaching If the electronegativity difference of two atoms is 1.7, the bond
consequences. The genes of an exposed person
between them is fifty per cent ionic.
are changed for the worse and these may be
passed onto the next generation. Some Electrovalent Compounds (Ionic Compounds)
In nuclear reactors a lot of radioactive material is Name Formula Ions present
continuously produced. The nuclear fuel rods
Aluminium oxide Al2O3 Al3 + and O2 −
become highly radioactive on use. Spent nuclear (Alumina)
fuel rods are stored at safe places. Care is Ammonium chloride NH4 Cl NH+4 and Cl−
needed to ensure that there is no leakage in the
moderator or cooling water of nuclear plants. It Calcium chloride CaCl2 Ca2+ and Cl−
can otherwise contaminate water bodies and soil, Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3 )2 Ca2+ and NO−3
which can cause major problems in human life, Copper sulphate CuSO4 Cu2+ and SO2−
4
plant and animal life.
Magnesium chloride MgCl2 Mg2+ and Cl−
Name Formula Ions present Compounds Containing

2+ 2−
Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Magnesium oxide MgO Mg and O
Name Formula
Potassium chloride KCl K + and Cl−
Potassium cyanide KCN
Sodium chloride NaCl Na + and Cl−
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na + and OH−
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Covalent Bond Compounds Containing
The bond is formed by the sharing of electrons Covalent and Coordinate Bonds
between two atoms of same (or different) elements,
Name Formula
is called covalent bond and the compound is called
covalent compound. Carbon monoxide CO
Covalent bond may be single, double or triple Ozone O3
depends upon the number of sharing pairs of Dinitrogen oxide N2O
electrons. Dinitrogen trioxide N2O3
Covalent compounds are usually liquids or gases Nitric acid HNO3
having low melting point and boiling point. These do
Compounds Containing Electrovalent,
not conduct electricity and are insoluble in water but Covalent and Coordinate Bonds
dissolve in organic solvents.
Name Formula
Some Covalent Compounds Ammonium chloride NH4 Cl
Name Formula Element’s part Ammonium bromide NH4 Br
Alcohol (Ethanol) C2H5OH C,H and O Hydrogen Bond
Ammonia NH3 N and H The electrostatic force of attraction between hydrogen atom
Acetylene (Ethyne) C2H2 C and H (which is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom)
Carbon dioxide CO2 C and O and any other electronegative atom which is present in the
same or different molecules, is known as hydrogen bond.
Carbon disulphide CS 2 C and S
It is maximum in the solid state and minimum in the gaseous
Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 C and Cl
state. It is mainly of two types
Cane sugar C12H22O11 C, H and O
– Intermolecular H-bonding (e.g. HF, water (H2O) molecule) It occurs
Ethane C2H6 C and H between different molecules of a compound and results in
Glucose C6H12O6 C, H and O increasing solubility in water and high boiling point.
Intramolecular H-bonding (e.g. o -nitrophenol) It occurs within
Ethylene C2H4 C and H
different parts of a same molecule and results in decreasing
Methane CH4 C and H solubility in water and low boiling point.
– Molecules having O—H, N—H or H—F bond show abnormal
Coordinate or Dative Bond properties due to H-bond formation. For example
The bond is formed by one sided sharing of one pair – Glycerol is viscous and has very high boiling point due to the
presence of intermolecular H-bonding.
of electrons between two atoms. The necessary
– H-bonding also plays an important role in biological system and
condition for the formation of coordinate bond is that
stability of proteins and nucleic acids.
octet of one atom should be complete, having atleast
one lone pair of electrons and other atom should van der Waals’ Forces
have a deficiency of atleast one pair of electrons. The sum of attractive or repulsive interactions between
The atom having complete octet which provides the molecules other than those due to covalent bonds or to the
electron pair for sharing, is known as donor. The electrostatic interaction of ions with one another or with neutral
other atom which accept the electron pair, is called molecules, are called van der Waals’ forces.
the acceptor. These are relatively weak as compared to the normal chemical
Bonding between A and B is predominantly bonds. It is of three types, i.e. dipole-dipole interaction, London
– Ionic if there is large difference in electronegativity. dispersion force and debye force.
– Covalent if both A and B have approximately same value – The ability of geckos (lizard) which can hang on a glass surface
of electronegativity. using only one toe to climb on sheer surfaces had been attributed
– Coordinate if lone pair on A (or B) is donated to electron to the van der Waals’ forces between these surfaces and their
deficient B (or A). foot-pads.
Self Check
1. To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that 7. Which of the following statements regarding
India should pursue research and development on thorium sub-atomic particles is incorrect?
as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this context, what (a) Positron is the antiparticle of electron
advantages does thorium hold over uranium? [IAS 2012 ] (b) All mesons are unstable
1. Thorium is far more abundant in nature than uranium. (c) Bosons may be either elementary like photons or
2. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral, thorium can composite like mesons
generate more energy compared to natural uranium. (d) Electrons, protons and neutrons are the fundamental
3. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to uranium. particles not subatomic particles
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 8. All types of electromagnetic radiations have
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these different wavelength and frequency but travel with
the same speed. The frequency for different
2. The function of heavy water in a nuclear reactor is to wavelength are as around
(a) slow down the speed of neutrons [IAS 2011] 1. 106 Hz for radio-frequency
(b) increase the speed of neutrons 2. 1010 Hz for microwave
(c) cool down the reactor
3. 1013 Hz for infrared
(d) stop the nuclear reaction
4. 1015 Hz for visible light
3. Which of the following statements regarding Bohr‘s atomic Which of the above is used for radar?
model is correct? (a) Radio-frequency region (b) Microwave region
(a) The electrons keep on revolving in any one of the several fixed (c) Infrared region (d) Visible region
circular orbits around the nucleus without losing or gaining
energy
(b) The electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular 1. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and
h the electrons are embedded in it.
momentum is an integral multiple of or it is quantised
2π 2. The negative and positive charges are equal in magni-
(c) The absorption and emission of energy can occur only by the tude. So, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
transition of electron from lower to higher energy or vice-versa Which of the statements given above is/are correct about
(d) All of the above Thomson’s model of an atom?
4. Consider the following statements (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
1. P-32 is used in blood cancer.
2. Fe-59 is used in detection of disorder in pancreatic gland. 10. Which of the following statements with regard to
isotopes and isobars is/are correct?
3. Na-24 helps to locate the defect in blood circulations.
1. Isotopes have same mass number.
4. I-131 is used in detection and cure the disorder of thyroid.
2. Isobars have same atomic number.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are incorrect?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(c) 3 and 4 (d) All of these (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
5. Glycerol is viscous and has high boiling point because
1. it has low molecular mass.
11. Match the Column I with Column II and select the
correct answer using the codes given below.
2. it forms intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
3. it forms intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Column I Column II
The correct reason for very high boiling point of glycerol is A. Ionic bond 1. NaCl
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 B. Covalent bond 2. Diamond
(c) Only 3 (d) 1 and 2 C. Molecular bond 3. Iodine
6. An atom of sodium loses one electron and chlorine atom D. Hydrogen bond 4. NH3
accepts one electron. This results in the formation of
Codes
sodium chloride molecule. This type of molecule will be
A B C D A B C D
(a) coordinate (b) covalent (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) electrovalent (d) metallic bond (c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 4 1 2 3
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (a)
Chapter three
Classification of Elements
Evolution of Modern Periodic Law
Periodic Table Moseley (1913) modified Mendeleef’s periodic
law and proposed modern periodic law as
The periodic table After the discovery of large number of “the physical and chemical properties of the
provides a way of elements and their compounds, the elements are periodic function of their atomic
study of these elements and compounds numbers.’’ He discovered that atomic number
organising the
individually became difficult. So, it was has more fundamental property than atomic
elements so that it is felt that these elements should be mass.
possible to make classified into a few groups to make their
certain predictions study more systematic and easier. Long Form of
about their chemical Several attempts were made to classify Periodic Table
the elements like, Prout unitary theory,
and physical properties Long form of periodic table or Bohr's table is
Dobereiner's triads law, Newland's law of
based on their position octaves, Lother Meyer's curve but all based on Bohr-Burry concept of electronic
in the table. The gaps these are unable to arrange all the configuration. It contains 7 periods (horizontal
known elements. rows) and 18 groups (vertical columns).
in the periodic table
The first impressive attempt in this The number of period denotes the number of
suggests that
outermost shells of that element.
direction was given by Mendeleef, who
as-yet-unknown arranged the elements in the increasing The first element of each period (except I
elements exist with order of their atomic masses. period) is an alkali metal and the last element
properties appropriate is an inert gas.
to fill those gaps. Mendeleef’s Periodic Description of the Periods
Table (1869)
I period Very short period 2 elements
The periodic table is based upon the
II and III Short periods 8 elements
Mendeleef's periodic law which states
periods
that, “the physical and chemical
properties of elements are the periodic IV and V Long periods 18 elements
periods
function of their atomic masses.”
VI period Very long period 32 elements
It contains 7 periods and 8 groups, but
0 group (inert gases) is absent in this VII period Incomplete Very long period
table. It contains gaps (free space) for
the elements not known at that time, Lanthanoids and actinoids belonging to VI and
e.g. Eka-boron, Eka-aluminium and VII periods, are placed in two separate rows at
Eka-silicon, the properties of which had the bottom of the periodic table. All the
been found similar to the scandium, members of a particular group have similar
gallium and germanium are discovered outershell electronic configuration.
later. The elements of groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16,
It has no fixed position for hydrogen, no 17 and 18 are known as normal or
space for isotopes and not a regular representative elements. The elements of
arrangement of atomic masses. That’s groups 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 are
why, its modification was necessary. known as transition elements.
Magbook ~ Classification of Elements 67
It is just graphical representation of Aufbau principle. It is Elements of this block are called inner-transition elements
based on the electronic configuration of the elements and and present in IIIB(3) group only.
contains 118 elements.
At a difference of 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32 electrons, the New Super Heavy Element 117
elements have same properties, thus elements with
atomic number 3, 11, 19, 37, 55 and 87 belong to the Researchers at the ‘‘GSI Helmholtz center for Heavy Ion
same group.
Research’’, an accelerator laboratory located in Darmstadt,
Germany, say they have created and observed several atoms of
Characteristics of Periods element 117, which is temporarily named ununseptium. In the
The general characteristics of periods are periodic table, ununseptium is located in group 17, all previous
The number of valence electrons in elements increases
members of which are halogens. However, ununseptium is likely
to have significantly different properties from the halogens,
from 1 to 8 on moving from left to right in a period.
although a few key properties such as the melting point, boiling
The elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers. point, ionisation potential etc., are expected to follow the
The valency of element increases from 1 to 4 and then periodic table.
decreases to 0 (zero) on moving from left to right in a
period with respect to hydrogen.
Periodic Properties
Characteristics of Groups The properties which are repeated at regular intervals are
The main characteristics of groups or vertical columns are known as periodic properties, i.e. periodic properties show
All the elements of a group of the periodic table have the a regular order along a group and period. Some important
same number of valence electrons and hence, have periodic properties are
almost similar chemical properties.
Ionisation enthalpy
Block Elements It is the minimum energy required to remove an electron
The elements can be classified into following four blocks from an isolated gaseous atom of an element to form a
positive ion. It increases along a period but boron and
s-Block elements oxygen have smaller ionisation energy than beryllium and
It contains groups 1 and 2 i.e. hydrogen and alkali metals nitrogen respectively due to stable electronic
(Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) and alkaline earth metals (Be, Mg, configuration. Ionisation enthalpy decreases down the
Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) with general configuration ns 1 − 2 . These group.
elements are soft metals, electropositive and form basic
Electron gain enthalpy
oxides.
It is the energy released by an element when an extra
p-Block elements electron is added to its neutral gaseous atom. It increases
It comprises the last six groups i.e. 13 to 18 groups along the period and decreases down the group with
(according to IUPAC numbering) with general some exception.
configuration ns 2np1 − 6 . It is the only block which contains Electronegativity
metals, non-metals and metalloids.
It is the ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of
Heavier elements of this block show inert pair effect, i.e. electrons towards it. It increases along a period and
their lower valency becomes more stable. decreases down the group.
d-Block elements Metallic character
It comprises groups 3 to 12 with general configuration It is the tendency of an element to form cation by the loss
(n − 1) d1− 10 ns 1− 2 . These elements are called transition of electrons. It decreases along a period and increases
elements (except group-12). Elements of this block down the group.
contain unpaired electrons and are paramagnetic.
Oxidising and reducing character
These elements show variable valency due to less Reducing character decreases along the period and
difference in the energy of outer and penultimate shell. increases down the group while oxidising character
These are generally coloured and used as catalyst. increases along the period and decreases down the group.
f-Block elements Valency
It usually offset below the rest of the periodic table, Valency with respect to hydrogen increases from 1-7 but
comprises two rows of 14 elements called the lanthanides with respect to oxygen first increases from 1-4 and then
and actinides respectively with general configuration decreases to one (except OF 2 ). Valency remains same in
(n– 2)f 1– 14(n– 1)d 0 – 1ns 2 . a group.
Basic nature of oxides Drinking water is purified by boiling, chlorination,

It decreases along a period while acidic nature increases. ozonisation or ultraviolet radiations. Ultraviolet
Down the group, basic nature of oxides increases while acidic radiations inactivates the harmful microorganisms in
nature decreases. water and becomes safe for drinking.
Types of Water
Hydrogen Water which forms lather with soap is called soft
It is a non-metal which became metallic at very high pressure. water and which does not form lather with soap is
It forms about 10% of the weight of the living organism. called hard water. Hardness of water is due to the
It is the most abundant element in universe (70% of the presence of bicarbonate of calcium or magnesium
universe's total mass). In the combined state, it is the third (called the temporary hardness) or due to the
most abundant element on the Earth's crust. The basic presence of chlorides or sulphates of calcium or
constituent of sun and star are hydrogen. magnesium (permanent hardness).
Various Forms of Hydrogen

Degree of Hardness
Nascent hydrogen In the process of chemical reaction,
It is defined as the number of parts of CaCO 3 or equivalent
suddenly emerged hydrogen is called nascent hydrogen. This
to various calcium or magnesium salts present in106 parts
hydrogen is more reactive than molecular hydrogen.
of water by mass.
Atomic hydrogen The hydrogen obtained by the
decomposition of molecular hydrogen, is called atomic
hydrogen. Heavy water (D2O)
Ortho hydrogen The form of hydrogen in which nuclei of the
It was discovered by Urey and Washburn (1932).
atoms of the molecular hydrogen revolve in the same About 6000 parts of ordinary water contains one part
direction, is called ortho hydrogen. heavy water. It is colourless, odourless, tasteless
liquid. It has maximum density (1.1073 g/mL) at
Para hydrogen The form of hydrogen in which nuclei of the
11.6°C (water at 4°C).
atoms of the molecular hydrogen revolve in the opposite
direction, is called para hydrogen.
Nearly all physical constants of D2O are higher than that
of ordinary water because nuclear mass of deuterium is
Isotopes of Hydrogen greater than that of H-atom and H-bonding is stronger
in heavy water (D2O) than that in ordinary water (H2O).
There are three isotopes of hydrogen
1
Chemically heavy water ( D2O) reacts more slowly than
Protium (1H ) It has equal atomic number and mass number
water ( H2O) due to isotopic effect.
which is equal to 1.
Effects of heavy water
Deuterium (1H2 ) This is called heavy hydrogen and it has
Biochemical reactions are greatly affected by heavy
atomic number = 1, mass number = 2. It was invented by water.
Urey Brickwedde and Murphy in 1931. It is utilised in – Seeds do not germinate in heavy water.
explaining the mechanism of organic reactions and as
– Rate of fermentation decreases.
bombarding particles of nuclear reactions.
– Growth of bio-organisms is retarded.
Tritium (1H3 ) It is a rarely occurring isotope of hydrogen and a
– Aquatic animals like tadpoles, fish etc., die in heavy water.
beta emitter or radioactive substance. Atomic number and
mass number of it, are 1 and 3 respectively while its half-life Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
period is 12.4 years. It was discovered by Thenard and is also called
oxygenated water. It is found in atmosphere, plants,
Compounds of Hydrogen rains, snow etc., in trace amounts.
Various compounds of hydrogen are as follows It decomposes in the presence of light, so it is stored
in dark coloured bottles of plastic or wax-lined bottles,
Water (H2O)
as rough surface of glass also catalyses its
It constitutes about 65% (human) to 95% (some hydrophytes)
decomposition.
of living beings. In nature, it exists in three physical states
which are ice (solid), water (liquid) and water vapours (gas).
30% hydrogen peroxide (perhydrol) is used as
It is colourless, mobile, volatile liquid with many unique – Germicide and antiseptic for wounds, ears and teeth.
properties. These properties are a result of extensive hydrogen – Preservative for milk and protein.
bonding between water molecules. – A bleaching agent for wool and other soft materials.
Self Check
1. Which of the following statements is/are incorrect 2. Hydrogen as a fuel has many advantages over
regarding periodic properties? conventional fuel in that, it is not polluting and it can be
(a) Electronegativity increases along a period stored and transported easily.
(b) Electron gain enthalpy increases along a period Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(c) Ionisation enthalpy increases along a period (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(d) Reducing character increases along a period (c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Both 1 and 2
2. Consider the following statements, 7. What is the role of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the water
1. Oxygen has smaller first ionisation energy than nitrogen purification systems? [IAS 2012]
due to stable configuration of nitrogen. 1. It inactivates/kills the harmful microorganisms in water.
2. Oxides of nitrogen are more acidic than oxides of 2. It removes all the undesirable odours from the water.
aluminium.
3. It quickens the sedimentation of solid particles, removes
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? turbidity and improves the clarity of water.
(a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
(c) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
3. Which isotopes of hydrogen has no neutron? (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Protium 2. Deuterium
8. Consider the following statements with reference to the
3. Tritium periodic table of chemical element,
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 1. lonisation potential gradually decreases along a period.
(a) Only 1 (b) Both 1 and 3 2. Atomic size increases along a period.
(c) Only 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3 3. In a given period, electronegativity decreases as the
4. Consider the following statements regarding hard water, atomic number increases.
1. Water free from calcium and magnesium salts like Which of the statement (s) given is/are correct?
bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates, is called hard (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
water. (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
2. Hard water does not give lather with soap. 9. Consider the following statements,
3. Hard water is harmful for boilers. 1. In modern periodic table, the number of periods are 7.
Which of the statements given above is/are incorrect? 2. In modern periodic table, the number of groups are 18.
(a) Only 3 (b) Only 2 3. The long form of periodic table was developed by Range
(c) Only 1 (d) None of these and Werner.
5. Hard water is harmful for boilers. Why? Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
1. The salts present in hard water deposited in the inner (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
surface of boilers and decreases the efficiency of boilers. (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3
2. The salts present in hard water deposited in the outer 10. Consider the following statements,
surface of boilers and decreases the efficiency of boilers.
1. Liquid hydrogen is used as a rocket fuel.
2. Nascent hydrogen is not reactive and powerful oxidising
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 agent.
3. In ortho hydrogen, spins of both the nuclei are in the same
6. Consider the following statements regarding hydrogen direction.
economy, Which of the statement (s) give above is/are correct?
1. The main aim of hydrogen economy is to transmit energy (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
in the form of hydrogen, not as electric power. (c) Both 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (c)
Chapter four
Chemical Reactions and
Equations
A freshed cut piece of apple turns
Physical and
brown after sometime. The cooking and
Chemical Change digestion of food also involves chemical
reactions.
We would not be alive if The change that only affect physical
properties like colour, density, hardness, Magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling
chemical reactions do
melting point etc., of matter but the white flame and changes into a white
not occur. Hydrogen powder. This powder is magnesium
chemical composition remains
and oxygen chemically unchanged, are called physical change. oxide.This is an example of a chemical
reacted together to form These can be reversed by changing the reaction.
water which is very conditions of temperature and pressure, 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
essential part of life in e. g. crystallisation, sublimation, boiling, Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide
144
42444
3 (Product)
vaporisation, cutting of trees, dissolving Reactants
living beings. Each common salt in water, burning of wax, A chemical reaction can be observed
human cell performs melting of ice etc. with the help of any of the following
millions of chemical The change which affect the composition observations
reactions per second. All as well as chemical properties of matter – Change in state
and result in the formation of a new – Change in colour
matter, whether Evolution of a gas
substance is called a chemical change. –
gaseous, liquid or solid, Change in temperature
Chemical changes are generally
–

is a chemical or mixture irreversible i. e. cannot be reversed by A chemical reaction involves bond
of chemicals. changing the conditions of temperature breaking or bond formation between
and pressure. Some examples of any two atoms to produce new
chemical changes are burning of candle substances.
(gases), photosynthesis, ripening of
fruits, electrolysis of water, digestion, Types of Chemical
burning of paper, souring of milk etc. Reactions
Combination Reactions
Chemical Reactions Take a small amount of calcium oxide in
A chemical reaction involves a chemical a beaker and add water. Calcium oxide
change in which substances react to reacts vigorously with water and
produce new substances. produce slaked lime with the release of
In our daily life, we come across many a large amount of energy.
different types of chemical reactions. This is an example of combination
e.g. If milk is kept at room temperature reaction. In a combination reaction, two
for a few hours during summer, it or more substances combine to form a
becomes sour and turns into thick curdy single product.
mass. CaO(s ) + H2O (l ) → Ca(OH)2 (aq )
Iron articles when exposed to humid Calcium Water Calcium hydroxide
oxide
atmosphere, they get rusted.
Magbook ~ Chemical Reactions and Equations 71
Decomposition Reactions Reversible and Irreversible Reactions

In a decomposition reaction, a single compound splits up Reversible reactions are those which occurs in forward as
into two or more simpler substances. well as in backward direction but never go to completion.
∆ Irreversible reactions occur only in forward direction and
e.g. 2FeSO4 (s )   → Fe2O3 (s ) + SO2 ( g ) ↑ + SO3 ( g ) ↑
reaches to completion.
Ferrous sulphate Ferric oxide Sulphur dioxide Sulphur trioxide
(light green) (brown)
These reactions need energy in the form of heat, light or
Redox Reactions
electricity. Hence, decomposition reaction are of three types : Oxidation and reduction reaction form an important
thermal decomposition, photolysis and electrolysis. All three class of reactions. A large number of chemical and
reactions are given below respectively biological reactions fall in this category.
Burning of different types of fuels to obtain energy for
CaCO3 (s ) Heat
→ CaO(s ) + CO2 ( g ) ↑

Calcium oxide Carbon dioxide

domestic, transport or industrial purpose; various
Calcium carbonate
electrochemical processes such as manufacturing of
Sunlight sodium hydroxide, photosynthesis in plants digestion of
2AgCl (s )  → 2Ag(s ) + Cl2 ( g ) ↑
Silver chloride Silver Chlorine food in animals; dry and wet batteries and corrosion of
Electric current metals are diverse examples of oxidation and reduction
2NaCl (l )  
→ 2Na (s ) + Cl2 ( g ) ↑
Sodium
reactions.
Molten sodium Chlorine
chloride (At cathode) (At anode) The reactions which involve oxidation and reduction as
Dissociation Reactions its two half-reactions, are called redox reactions.
These are those reversible reactions in which a molecule
dissociates into two or more simple molecules by heat or Oxidation and Reduction
light. Originally oxidation of a substance was defined as the
e. g. 2HI s H + I addition of oxygen to it.
2 2
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Iodine
iodide 2Mg(s ) +O2 ( g ) ↑ → 2MgO(s )
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide
Displacement Reactions
Later on, removal of hydrogen from a substance was
When a clean iron nail is dipped in a copper sulphate
also considered as oxidation.
solution for about 20 minutes, the iron nail becomes
brownish in colour and the blue colour of copper sulphate 2H2 S( g ) +O2 ( g ) → 2S(s ) + 2H2O(l )
Hydrogen Oxygen Sulphur Water
solution fades. This reaction indicates that iron has displaced sulphide
copper from copper sulphate solution. This is an example of Role of electrons in oxidation
displacement reaction.
Mg + Cl2 → MgCl2
e.g. Fe(s ) + CuSO4 (aq ) → FeSO4 (aq ) + Cu(s ) Magnesium Chlorine Magnesium
Iron Copper sulphate Ferrous sulphate Copper chloride
During displacement reactions, usually a colour change is Mg + S → MgS
observed and a more reactive metal/non-metal displaces a Magnesium Sulphur Magnesium
less reactive metal/non-metal from its salt solution. sulphide
When a sodium sulphate solution is added to barium In the above oxidation reactions, Mg is converted into
chloride solution, a white substance which is insoluble in Mg 2 + ion and in the process it loses two electrons.
water is formed. This insoluble substance is called Therefore, in oxidation reactions electrons are lost.
precipitate and reaction is called precipitation reaction. This The term reduction was initially introduced for the
reaction is an example of double displacement reaction. e.g, processes in which metal oxides were converted to
Na2 SO4 (aq ) + BaCl2 (aq ) → BaSO4 (s ) ↓ + 2NaCl(aq ) metals with the help of hydrogen, carbon or carbon
Sodium sulphate Barium chloride Barium sulphate Sodium chloride monoxide.
(precipitate)
In a displacement reaction, exchange of ions between the CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
reactants take place to produce new substances. Cupric oxide Hydrogen Copper Water
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions Removal of oxygen from a substance was considered
Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation as reduction.
of products, are called exothermic reactions. Burning of fuel Role of electrons in reduction In the above reduction
is an example of exothermic reaction. reaction, Cu2 + is converted into Cu and in this process
Reactions in which heat is absorbed, are known as it gains two electrons. Therefore, in reduction reactions
endothermic reactions. electrons are gained.
Oxidation and reduction take place together in an

equivalent amount in the redox reaction. Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
Oxidising agent (Oxidant) It is a substance which accepts First law states that the quantity of elements separated by
electron in the chemical reaction i.e. electron acceptors passing an electric current through a molten or dissolved salt is
are oxidising agents. All the positively charged species proportional to the quantity of electric charge passed through
behave as oxidising agents. Oxidising agents are Lewis the circuit.
acids. W ∝ Q ,W = ZQ = Zit
Reducing agent (Reductant) The substance which (Q charge = current, i × time, t)
donates electron in a chemical reaction, is called reducing where, Z = electrochemical equivalent
agent, i.e. electron donors are reducing agents. All the Second Law states that the masses of the resulting separated
negatively charged species behave as reducing agents. elements is directly proportional to the atomic masses of the
Reducing agents are Lewis base. elements when an appropriate integral divisor is applied.
W E
Rules for Determining the W ∝ E or 1 = 1
W2 E 2
Oxidation State
– The oxidation state of an element in its free or uncombined
When metals are arranged in the increasing order of their
state is zero. standard reduction electrode potential, a series is
– Oxidation state of hydrogen is generally plus one +1 but in obtained which is called electrochemical series.
hydrides it is –1. Electrochemical series
– Oxidation state of oxygen in most of its compounds is −2 but in K < Ca < Na < Mg < Al < Zn < Cr < Fe <
peroxides it is –1. Ni < H < Cu < Hg < Ag < Pd < Pt < Au
– Oxidation state of elements of IA, IIA and IIIA sub group Electrochemical cell is a device that produces an electric
elements in their compounds are +1, + 2 and +3 respectively. current from energy released by a spontaneous redox
– Oxidation state of any ion is equal to its charge. reaction (in short which converts chemical energy into
– The algebraic sum of oxidation states of all elements in the electrical energy).
neutral molecule is zero.
– The algebraic sum of the oxidation states of all elements
present in polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion. Batteries
– The oxidation states of all the halogens in their binary These convert chemical energy into electrical energy. These
compounds, known as halides is −1. are used on a large scale in various instruments and devices.
– Oxygen shows positive oxidation state in OF2 . A battery should be reasonably light and compact. Its voltage
should not vary appreciably during the use.
Mainly two types of batteries are used, i.e. primary and
Electrolysis secondary.
Electrolysis is carried out in an electrolytic cell. In an
electrolytic cell, external source of voltage is used to bring Primary Batteries
about a chemical reaction. A simple electrolytic cell In the primary batteries, reaction occurs only once and after
consists of two copper strips dipping in an aqueous a period of time battery becomes dead.
solution of copper sulphate.
On applying DC voltage to the two electrodes, copper metal Dry Cell or Leclanche Cell
is deposited on cathode and copper is dissolved at anode. It consists of a zinc container that acts as anode and the
cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by powdered
The applications of electrolysis are
manganese dioxide and carbon.
– In the purification of impure metals, e.g. impure copper is
converted into copper of high purity (electrolytic purification of A moist paste of ammonium chloride (NH4 Cl) and zinc
impure copper). chloride (ZnCl2 ) is used as an electrolyte. Dry cell is
– In the extraction of metals, e.g. sodium and magnesium metals
commonly used in our transistors and clocks.
are produced by the electrolysis of their fused chlorides and Mercury Cell
aluminium is produced by the electrolysis of molten aluminium
It is commonly used in low current devices such as hearing
oxide in the presence of cryolite. In the preparation of organic
compounds.
aids, watches etc. The cell consists of zinc-mercury amalgam
as anode and a paste of mercuric oxide (HgO) and carbon as
– The blocks used in typing industries are prepared by
the cathode.
electrolysis.
– Steel is coated with zinc metal during the process of
The electrolyte is a paste of potassium hydroxide (KOH) and
galvanisation. zinc oxide (ZnO).
Magbook ~ Chemical Reactions and Equations 73
Secondary Batteries Catalysis

A secondary cell after use can be recharged by passing A catalyst is a substance which alter the rate of reaction.
current through it in the opposite direction so that it can be The catalyst itself does not alter during the reaction and is
used again. removed as such after the completion of the reaction.
Lead Storage Battery The phenomena in which the rate of reaction is altered by
the presence of a substance (catalyst) is known as
It consists of a lead as anode and a grid of lead packed
catalysis.
with lead dioxide (PbO2 ) as cathode.
A catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical
A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte.
composition.
On charging the battery, the reaction is reversed and
A catalyst does not initiate a reaction. When a catalyst is
lead sulphate gives lead on anode and cathode is
solid, it is usually more efficient when used in finely
converted into lead dioxide respectively.
divided form.
Nickel Cadmium Cell Generally, a catalyst does not change the nature of
It has longer life than the lead storage cell. It consists of a products. Catalysts are specific in their action.
cadmium as anode and nickel dioxide as cathode. The A catalyst does not change the equilibrium state of a
electrolyte is a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution. reversible reaction, only brings it quickly.
The main function of a catalyst in a reaction is to decrease
Fuel Cells the activation energy.
Fuel cells convert energy from the combustion of fuels
such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane directly Applications of Catalysts in
into electrical energy. Industrial Processes
A fuel cell with hydrogen and oxygen has been used for Haber process for ammonia—Iron is used as a catalyst and
electric power in Apollo Space Programme. molybdenum is used as a promoter of catalyst iron.
In H2 –O2 fuel cell, H2 and O2 are bubbled through porous Contact process for sulphuric acid—Vanadium pentoxide
carbon electrodes into concentrated aqueous sodium is used as a catalyst.
hydroxide solution. Catalysts such as palladium or
Ostwald process for nitric acid—Platinum gauze is used as
platinum are used to increase the efficiency of electrodes.
a catalyst.
A hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is a non-polluting clean fuel Deacon process for chlorine—Cupric chloride is used as a
since, the only combustion product is water.
catalyst.
Working efficiency of these cells is about 70-75%. These Synthesis of petrol—Nickel, iron, cobalt and alumina is
supply energy continuously.
used as a catalyst.
Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) Enzyme Catalysis

Microbial fuel cells is a bioelectrochemical device. MFCs are The increase in the rate of reaction by the enzymes is
being used in the water treatment process to harvest energy known as enzyme catalysis. They are biocatalysts, all are
utilising anaerobic digestion a method used in the microbial proteins in nature.
fuel cells to collect bioenergy from waste water.
Enzymes are highly specific in their nature. They are
highly sensitive to temperature, i.e. the temperature at
Corrosion which enzymes are maximum active (optimum
Surface of many metals are easily attacked by air and temperature), varies between 25 – 37°C.
water. Iron is one of them. The rates of enzymatic reactions are very much affected
When iron is exposed to moist air for a long period of by pH change.
time, its surface acquires a coating of brown flaky Some important enzyme catalysis reactions are as follows
substance called rust. Rust is mainly hydrated iron (III) Diastase
– Starch → Maltose
oxide (Fe2O3 ⋅ xH2O). H2 O
The rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver and formation of Maltase
– Maltose → Glucose
green coating on copper or bronze are some of the H2 O
examples of corrosion. In corrosion, a metal is oxidised by Zymase
the loss of electrons to oxygen and form oxide. – Glucose → Ethyl alcohol
The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling Invertase
– Sucrose → Glucose + Fructose
and greasing, galvanising (by coating iron objects with Urease
zinc), chrome plating etc. – Urea → Ammonia + Carbon dioxide
H2 O
Self Check
1. With reference to ‘fuel cells’ in which hydrogen-rich fuel Which of the statements given above is/are correct.
and oxygen are used to generate electricity, consider the (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
following statements [IAS 2015] (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
1. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat and 7. Consider the following statements regarding
water as by-products. electrolysis,
2. Fuel cells can be used for powering building and not for small 1. Electrolysis is carried out in an electrolytic cell.
devices like laptop computers. 2. Aluminium is produced by the electrolysis of molten
3. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating Current aluminium oxide in the presence of cryolite.
(AC). Therefore, electrolysis is very useful in the extraction
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? of metals.
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2. Which of the following is/are the example(s) of chemical (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
change? [IAS 2014] (c) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. Crystalisation of sodium chloride 8. Consider the following statements regarding corrosion,
2. Melting of ice 3. Souring of milk 1. Surface of copper acquires a green coating of basic
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. copper carbonate in moist air.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3 2. The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling
(c) All of these (d) None of these and greasing, by coating iron object with zinc and
chrome plating etc.
3. Microbial fuel cells are considered as the sources of
sustainable energy. Why? [IAS 2011] Which of the statements given above is/are correct
regarding corrosion?
1. They use living organisms as catalysts to generate electricity (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
from certain substrates. (c) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.
3. They can be installed in waste water treatment plants to 9. Ammonia is prepared by Haber process. In this
cleanse water and produce electricity. process, N2 reacts with H2 in the presence of catalyst
iron. In this process, which metal is used as a
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these promoter of catalyst iron?
(a) Cupric chloride (b) Molybdenum
4. In a dry cell (battery), which of the following are used as (c) Platinum gauze (d) Cobalt
electrolytes? [IAS 2009]
(a) Ammonium chloride and zinc chloride 10. Consider the following statements regarding
(b) Sodium chloride and calcium chloride enzyme catalysis,
(c) Magnesium chloride and zinc chloride 1. The rates of enzymatic reactions are very much
(d) Ammonium chloride and calcium chloride affected by pH change.
2. Enzyme catalysts are not specific in their reactions.
5. Consider the following statements regarding redox reaction
Which of the statements given above is/are incorrect?
1. In redox reaction, oxidation and reduction reactions take (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Neither 1 nor 2
place simultaneously. (c) Only 1 (d) Only 2
2. Oxidising agents are Lewis acids and reducing agents are
Lewis bases. 11. Which of the following statements is/are true?
Which of the statements given above is/are incorrect? 1. Pure water does not conduct electricity because it is
(a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 almost unionised.
(c) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 2. When iron rusts, its weight increases.
3. A chemical reaction becomes faster at higher
temperature.
1. Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation
4. At higher temperature, molecular motion becomes
of products, are called exothermic chemical reactions.
more rapid.
2. Reactions in which energy is absorbed, are known as
Choose the correct option.
endothermic reactions.
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d)
Chapter five
Elements and Compounds
Metals
Elements and compounds Metals are generally good conductors of Metallic sodium is prepared by the
heat and electricity. Silver is the best electrolysis of molten mixture of 40%
are the pure substances.
conductor of heat followed by copper. sodium chloride and 60% calcium
Elements are further Aluminium is also a good conductor of chloride in a Down’s cell.
classified into metals, heat. That is why cooking utensils and Sodium chloride (NaCl), common
non-metals and metalloids. water boilers are generally made up of salt is used in our daily diet as a
copper and aluminium. Mercury offers a preservative for pickles, meat and
Compound is made up of
very high resistance to the passage of fish. It is also used in the
two or more elements electric current. manufacturing of sodium hydroxide
combined in a definite Metals are generally hard but sodium and (NaOH), chlorine (Cl 2 ) gas and soap.
proportion by mass. Each potassium are so soft that they can be In Nelson cell or in Castner-Kellner
element has its own easily cut with a knife. cell, NaCl is used as starting material
Metals are malleable and ductile. Gold and for the manufacturing of caustic soda.
importance and it certainly
silver are most malleable and best ductile Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), caustic
plays a crucial role in our
metals. Metals are solids at room soda is used in the soap, dyes and
daily lives. They usually temperature except mercury (mp −39°C) artificial silk industries and in the
make up just about which is liquid, caesium (mp 28.4°C) and refining of bauxite mineral.
everything in the world. gallium (mp 29.8°C) are liquid above Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3 ),
30°C. baking soda is used in effervescent
Metals are electropositive in nature, they drinks and fruit salts in fire
ionise by the loss of electrons and form extinguishers and it is also used in
positive ions. the form of sesquicarbonate. It is
Almost all the metal oxides are basic in used for wool washing.
nature but zinc oxide and aluminium oxide Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 ⋅ 10H2O)
are amphoteric. washing soda is used in the
manufacturing of glass, soap,
Alkali Metals and their washing powder and for softening
Compounds hard water.
Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and Mixture of sodium carbonate and
caesium are alkali metals. Alkali metals are potassium carbonate is known as
stored under kerosene or liquid paraffins fusion mixture.
to protect them from action of air. Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4 ⋅ 10H2O) is
The solubility in water, base strength and Glauber’s salt. It is used as purgative.
thermal stability of alkali metal hydroxides Sodium thiosulphate
increases from lithium hydroxide (LiOH) to (Na2S2O3 ⋅ 5H2O) or Hypo It is used in
caesium hydroxide (CsOH). the photography as a fixing agent.
Potassium superoxide (KO2) used in space capsules, Calcium carbide ( CaC2 ) is used in the preparation of
submarines and breathing masks as it produces oxygen acetylene and as a reducing agent in metallurgical
and removes carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. operations.
Potassium cyanide (KCN) is used in the extraction of Barium sulphate (BaSO4 ) is used as a white pigment
silver, gold and as a germicide in agriculture. KCN is either as such or mixed with zinc sulphide
more poisonous than sodium cyanide. (BaSO4 + ZnS − lithopone ).
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is known as caustic potash
used in the preparation of soft soap. Its aqueous Some Important Metals
solution is known as potash lye. and their Uses
Potassium carbonate (K 2CO3) is potash or pearl ash. Boron (B)
Potassium sulphate (K 2SO4) is used as fertiliser for It is a semimetal (metalloids). In the nature, it occurs in
tobacco and wheat, for the manufacturing of potash combined state as borax (Tincal metalloids), colemanite,
alum and glass. boric acid and kernite etc.
Boron and boron carbide rods are used to control the
nuclear reactions.
De-icing of Roads after Snowfall Boron carbide (B4C) is hardest, known as an artificial
De-icing is the process of removing ice from a surface by using substance after diamond and is known as Norbia.
salts on the surface, e.g. NaCl (sodium chloride), sand (lowers Borax (suhaga, Na2B4O7 ⋅ 10H2O) is used in borax bead test
temperature upto −18o C). The salts used are corrosine in in qualitative analysis, as antiseptic, in making optical and
nature. So, pre-unix (sodium chloride /calcium chloride blend) is borosilicate glass and impregnating matchsticks to prevent
used to protect the environment. Now-a-days, liquid CaCl2 and after glow.
MgCl2 are also used for this purpose.
Orthoboric acid (H3BO3 ) is used as an antiseptic and eye
wash under the name boric lotion.
Alkaline Earth Metals and their Aluminium (Al)
Compounds It is a third most abundant element of Earth’s crust. It is
extracted from bauxite (Al2O3 ⋅ 2H2O). It is cheap and light
Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and
metal, so it is used for making utensils, frames, bodies of
radium are collectively known as alkaline earth metals.
automobiles, aircraft etc. Aluminium powder is used in
Calcium of this family is most abundant element in
fireworks, flash light powder, thermite welding. Aluminium
Earth crust. Be (OH)2 is amphoteric in nature. Mg (OH)2
acetate (red liquor) is used as a mordant in dyeing and
is called milk of magnesia and used as an antacid.
calico printing.
Calcium oxide (CaO) is also called quick lime. It is used
Ammonal (a mixture of aluminium powder and ammonium
in the manufacturing of glass, calcium chloride, cement,
nitrate) is used as an explosive.
bleaching powder, calcium carbide, slaked lime, in the
extraction of iron and as a drying agent for ammonia Ruby and sapphire are essentially Al2O3. Ruby is red due to
and alcohol. the presence of Cr and sapphire is blue due to Fe and Ti.
Emerald is green, it contains Ca/Cr and aluminium silicates
Calcium hydroxide, slaked lime [Ca(OH2 )] is used in the
( Al2SiO3 ).
manufacturing of caustic soda, sodalime and for
softening of hard water. Tin (Sn)
Calcium sulphate, gypsum (CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2O ) loses a part
The important ore of tin is cassiterite (SnO2) or tin stone. Tin
has maximum number of natural isotopes. In cold countries,
of its water of crystallisation when heated upto 120°C to
white tin is converted to grey tin (powder), the process is
form [CaSO4 ]2 ⋅ H2O which is known as plaster of Paris.
known as tin disease or tin plague. Tin plating is done to
Gypsum is used in the preparation of building plaster, prevent the rusting of iron. Tin amalgam is used in making
anhydride CaSO4 and is used for the manufacturing of mirrors. Pentahydrate of stannic chloride (SnCl4 ⋅ 5H2O), is
ammonium sulphate (Sindri fertiliser) and sulphuric called butter of tin used as mordant in dyeing.
acid.
Lead (Pb)
Plaster of Paris is a white powder, which sets into hard Lead is mainly found in the form of sulphide ore called
mass on wetting with water and it is used in making galena (PbS). Lead is used in making chambers in chamber
statues, toys etc., in medical applications of setting
process of sulphuric acid (H2SO4), lead pigments, bullet,
fractured bones in right positions and in dentistry.
lead accumulator etc. Lead blocks are used to protect
Magbook ~ Elements and Compounds 77
harmful emissions from radioactive minerals. A buff Iron (Fe)

coloured crystalline lead monoxide (PbO) is litharge while a It is extracted from its haematite ore. It is a reactive
yellow powder is massicot. Red lead (minium or sindhur) is metal and do not occur in free state.
Pb3O4 used for making protective paint for iron and in
Cast iron is extracted from its oxide ore haematite. It is
match industry.
the most impure form of iron and contains 2.5–4%
Lead acetate is known as sugar of lead. Its aqueous solution carbon.
is sweet in taste but poisonous. It is used in medicine for
Wrought iron or Malleable iron is the purest form of iron
curing skin disease. Basic lead carbonate is white lead.
and contains minimum amount of carbon (0.12–0.5%).
Titanium (Ti) Iron (II) is present in haemoglobin (blood).
It is silvery white metal, extremely hard, have high melting Mild steel contain 0.25–0.5% carbon while hard steels
and boiling point and resistant to corrosion. contain 0.5 − 1.5% carbon. Soft steels contain carbon
It is used as a structural material in the construction of jet upto 0.25%.
engines, aircraft frames, turbine engines and marine Stainless steel is an alloy of iron (Fe), chromium (Cr)
equipments. Titanium chloride (TiCl4) is used in making and nickel (Ni). It is used for making automobile parts
screens. and utensils. Ferric chloride (FeCl3 ) is used as stypic to
stop bleeding from a cut. Ferrous sulphate (FeSO 4) is
Zirconium (Zr)
used in making blue black ink.
It is used for making core of nuclear reactors and for
making pumps, valves and heat exchangers. Nickel and Platinum (Ni and Pt)
Nickel is silvery white soft metal. Finely divided nickel
Vanadium (V)
adsorb hydrogen in large amount. Molten nickel
It is specially used in high speed tool steels, exhaust valves
occludes 17 times, hydrogen of its volume. Nickel is

and springs.
used as anode in Edison batteries.
Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is a very good catalyst for
Colloidal platinum is an effective catalyst. Platinum

manufacturing of sulphuric acid by contact process.
black is used as adsorbent of gases like hydrogen,
Chromium (Cr) oxygen etc. Platinum is used in jewellery, dentistry.
It is one of the important constituent of stainless steel and
chrome steel and it is also used for coating iron articles.
Copper, Silver and Gold (Cu, Ag and Au)
Potassium dichromate (K 2Cr2O7 ) is used in qualitative, ◆
These are called coinage metals. Gold and silver are not
quantitative estimations as well as oxidising agent and in affected by air, copper on long exposure is coated with
photography for hardening of gelatin. greenish film. These metals form alloys with each other as
Molybdenum and Tungsten (Mo and W ) well as with other metals. These metals are commonly used
in jewellery, making coins and decorative pieces.
Molybdenum is used as a promoter for iron in Haber’s
process of ammonia.
◆
Silver and gold are used in Ayurvedic medicines, silver is used
as amalgam for filling teeth and in silvering mirrors. Silver
Steel containing Mo (molybdenum) or W (tungsten) is bromide (AgBr) is used in photography. AgNO 3 is called lunar
extremely hard and used in making cutting tools. caustic used in preparing marking inks and hair dyes.
Tungsten filaments are used in electric bulbs. Calcium ◆
Copper sulphate (CuSO 4 ) solution + lime, is known as
tungstate is used in X-ray tube. bordeaux mixture used as fungicide. CuSO 4 ⋅ 5H2O is called
Manganese (Mn) blue vitriol or nila thotha and CuFeS 2 is called fool’s gold.
It is used in forming different alloys, e.g. manganin
◆
Purity of gold is expressed in carat. Pure gold is 24 carats.
(Cu + Mn + Ni alloy) which has very low resistance Purple of cassius is a colloidal solution of gold.
coefficient, thus used in making resistance coils.
Manganese steel is very hard and resistant to wear and tear Mercury (Hg)
and is used for making rock crushers, rails, armour plate, It forms alloys with all metals except iron and platinum,
burglar proof safe. Pure manganese dioxide (MnO2 ) is used so it is transported in iron containers.
as depolariser in dry cell, decolouriser in glass. Mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate is HgCl2. It is
Ferromanganese (Fe + Mn), manganese bronze poisonous and best antidote for it, is egg white.
(Mn + Cu + Zn) and spiegel (Fe + Mn + C) are useful alloys. Mercuric sulphide (HgS) is used as a cosmetic in
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ) is used as disinfectant in Ayurvedic medicine as Makardhwaja.
water.
Zinc (Zn) Metal Ores Chemical composition

Impure zinc is used as spelter, it is used in Silver Silver glance Ag2S
galvanisation to prevent rusting of iron. Zinc sulphide Horn silver AgCl
is used in the preparation of X-ray screens. Zinc Ruby silver Ag2S ⋅ Sb2S 3
sulphide containing traces of radium salt is used as
Gold Calverite AuTe2
luminous paint for watch dials.
Sylvanite AuAgTe4
Zinc oxide is known as philosopher’s wool. It is used
Zinc Zinc blende ZnS
for cosmetic powders, creams as zinc ointment in
Calamine ZnCO3
medicine. Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4 ⋅ 7H2O) is white
vitriol. It is used as mordant in dyeing, eye lotion and Zincite ZnO
for zinc plating. Franklinite ZnO ⋅ Fe2O3
Mercury Cinnabar HgS
Metallurgy Tin Cassiterite SnO2
Lead Galena PbS
The process of extraction of metals from their ores is
Cerrusite PbCO3
called metallurgy.
Anglesite PbSO4
Minerals, Ores and Gangue
The natural substance in which metals and other Steps Involved in the
impurities found in combined state, are called minerals. Extraction of Metals
The minerals from which metal can be extracted Ores Gravity separation (based
conveniently and beneficially, are called ores. All ores upon the difference in
Crushing of Ore
are minerals but all minerals are not ores. Gangue or Process of
densities of ore and impurity)
matrix are the impurities associated with the ore. removal of

Concentration of Ore
Froth floatation method
gangue from (Used for sulphide ores)
crushed ore
Some Important Ores Magnetic separation
(Used for ore having
Metal Ores Chemical composition Ore magnetic behaviour)
Highly Moderately
Sodium Rock salt NaCl reactive metals reactive metals Roasting
[K, Na, Mg, Al] [Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb]
Chile salt petre NaNO3
Metal Refining of metal
Borax Na2B 4 O7 ⋅ 10H2O Electrolysis of
Potassium Carnallite KCl ⋅ MgCl2 ⋅ 6H2O fused metals Carbonate ore Sulphide ore
Sylvine KCl Pure metal Calcination Roasting

Magnesium Carnallite KCl ⋅ MgCl2 ⋅ 6H2O [heating ore in the absence [heating ore
of air below its melting point] in excess of air]
Magnesite MgCO3
Liquation [used for low
Asbestos CaSiO3 ⋅3MgSiO3 Smelting [Reduction melting metals like
with coke, charcoal Metal Oxide Bi, Sn, Pb, Hg etc.]
Calcium Lime stone CaCO3 or carbon monoxide] Electrolysis [Used
Gypsum CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2O for Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Pb]
Reduction of Metal Oxide
Fluorspar CaF2 Aluminothermic Poling [Used for Copper]
process [Used to
Aluminium Bauxite Al2O3 ⋅ 2H2O reduce oxides of Impure Metal Zone refining method
Cr, Fe, and Mn] [Used for Cr, Si, B, In, etc.]
Cryolite Na 3AlF6
Refining of impure Metal Mond’s process
Feldspar KAlSi3O8 [Used for nickel]
Manganese Pyrolusite MnO2 van Arkel’s process
Pure Metal
Manganite Mn2O3 ⋅ H2O [Used for Zr, and Ti]
Manganese blende MnS

Some Important Alloys and their Uses
Iron Haematite Fe2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4 Alloys Composition Important uses
Iron pyrites FeS2
Solder Tin and lead Soldering
Siderite FeCO3
Bronze Copper and tin Making utensils, statues, coins etc
Copper Copper glance Cu2S
Copper pyrites CuFeS2 Type metal Tin, lead and antimony Used in printing
Malachite Cu(OH)2 ⋅ CuCO3 Bell metal Copper, tin Making bells
Azurite 2CuCO3 ⋅ Cu(OH)2 Gun metal Copper, tin and zinc Gears and bearing
Alloys Composition Important uses Large amount of graphite are prepared artificially by
Acheson process. It is a good conductor of heat and
Pewter Tin, lead Making utensils electricity. It is used in nuclear reactor as moderator. It is
Brass Copper, zinc Utensils, condensor, also used as a dry lubricating agent, electrodes in pencils,
tubes, cartridge caps etc. crucibles etc.
Aluminium Copper and Coins, pictures, flames,
bronze aluminium cheap jewellery Fullerene (C 60 )
German silver Copper, zinc, nickel Utensils, resistance wires Looks like a soccer ball or bucky ball. It contains 20 six
membered and 12 five membered rings of carbon atoms.
Constantan Copper, nickel Electrical apparatus
It acts as wonderful lubricant and the alkali metal
Dental alloy Silver, mercury, For filling teeth compounds of (C60) are used as superconducting
tin, zinc substance at the temperature range of 10-40 K.
Stainless steel Iron, chromium, Utensils, bicycle parts
nickel etc
Graphene
Alnico Iron, aluminium, Permanent magnets
It is an allotrope of carbon. Its structure is one-atom-thick with
nickel, cobalt
planar sheets of carbon atoms that are densely packed in a
Magnalium Magnesium and Automobile and honeycomb crystal lattice. The term graphene was coined as a
aluminium aeroplane parts combination of graphite and the suffix-ene by Hanns-Peter
Duralumin Aluminium, copper, Aeroplanes and Boehm who described single-layer carbon foils in 1962. It is a
magnesium, manganese automobile parts two dimensional substance with good conductivity. It is a
Delta metal Copper, zinc, iron Bearings, fans in ships strong substance and used as a conducting material for touch
screen, LCD and LED.
Monel metal Copper, nickel, iron Sheets, wires, vessels
Phosphorus Copper, tin, Gears, bearing and
bronze phosphorus springs
Compounds of Carbon
Carbon monoxide (CO) It is colourless, odourless, neutral
Wood’s metal Cadmium, tin, lead Metallic patterns
and highly poisonous gas in nature. CO combines with
and bismuth diaphragm
haemoglobin to form cherry coloured
carboxyhaemoglobin which is not able to absorb oxygen
Non-Metals and as a result of this, suffocation takes place (Asphyxia).
Low level poisoning results in headache and drowsiness
These may be solid, liquid or gas (bromine is the only and high level poisoning may cause death.
liquid non-metal).
The death of persons in closed rooms with wood, coal or
Other important characteristics of non-metals are as
coke fires and in closed bathrooms with gas geyser is due
follows
to the formation of carbon monoxide.
– These are soft, non-lustrous, brittle, non-sonorous and
non-conductor of heat and electricity. These have low melting Carbon dioxide (CO2) occurs in the air to the extent of
and boiling points. These form oxides with oxygen which are 0.03-0.05 per cent. It is found in caves, mines and comes
generally acidic. Their examples include noble gases, i.e. out from volcanoes. It comes in air from burning of carbon
helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and carbonaceous matter, decay of vegetable matter and
and some other p-block elements like chlorine (Cl 2 ), bromine
from animal breathing.
(Br2 ) and phosphorus (P) etc.
Solid CO2 is known as dry ice. It is soft, white snow like
Carbon (C) substance. It is used in refrigerators under the name
Carbon belongs to the group 14 or IV A of periodic table. drikold. It is used in transport of perishable food materials
Carbon occurs in free state (as coal, diamond and as it provides cold as well as the inert atmosphere which
graphite) as well as in combined state (as carbonates, helps in killing bacteria, fungi, moulds etc.
carbon dioxide, petroleum etc). Carbon has two crystalline Carbon dioxide goes to the atmosphere by the process of
allotropes diamond and graphite. respiration, combustion, fermentation and decay of plants
and animals. In the presence of sunlight, green plants take
Allotropes of Carbon CO2 from atmosphere and water from soil and convert it
Diamond is the purest form of carbon. It is hardest into glucose, starch, cellulose with the help of chlorophyll.
substance and is a bad conductor of electricity. It is used This process is known as photosynthesis. In this process,
in making jewellery, cutting glass and an abrasive oxygen is released in the atmosphere. In this way, the
graphite. percentage of CO2 remains constant in the atmosphere.
Carbides are the compounds of carbon with metals or Ammonia is colourless gas with characteristic pungent
electronegative elements. Carbides which contain C4− ions, odour and highly soluble is water. Its aqueous solution is
are called methanides because on hydrolysis, they produce alkaline in nature.
methane, e.g. beryllium carbide and aluminium carbide. Ammonia is used in
Carbides which contain C2−
2 ion are called acetylides – refrigeration.
because they produce acetylene on hydrolysis, e.g. – manufacturing fertilisers and explosives etc.
calcium carbide, magnesium carbide. – Nitrogen fixation involves the fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrate by lightning and by nitrogen fixing
Silicon (Si) bacteria.
Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide are formed by the reaction
Silicon occurs in nature abundantly in the form of sand and

between nitrogen and oxygen at the time of lightning.
stone but never found in free state. This is a non-metallic
These oxides reach the soil along with rain water, where
element which also exhibits the characteristic of allotropy.
they are neutralised by lime in the soil with the formation
The hydride of the silicon is called silane. On the Earth’s
of nitrate of calcium (which is consumed by plants).
surface (crust), it is the second abundantly occurring
element after oxygen and it is nearly 26%. Nitrogen Cycle
Pure silicon is used as a superconductor, in making The symbiotic bacteria present in the root nodules of
computer chips, used in semiconductor devices, in making leguminous plants convert the atmospheric nitrogen to
alloys, in making acid resistant steel or iron, in making compounds of nitrogen. Some bacteria such as
polymer like silicon, in silica gel as a drying agent, in azobacter present in the soil, converts these nitrates into
making silica garden etc. nitrogen which goes into the atmosphere.
Compounds of Silicon Plants take nitrogen from the soil in the form of nitrates
and convert it into plant proteins. Herbivorous animals
Silicon carbide is an artificial diamond called carborendum.
take these plants as their food.
Silica (SiO2 ) is also called sand which exists most
By the decay of dead remains of plants and animals or
abundantly in solid state in the nature and it is frequently animal excreta, they are decomposed into nitrates by the
used in the production of glass, cement etc. The substance action of bacteria. In this way, nitrogen cycle continues
like Quartz is a crystalline form of SiO2. in nature.
Nitrogen (N2 ) Phosphorus (P)

Nitrogen is an important constituent of air (79% by It is highly reactive non-metal, so it occurs only in
volume). It is an essential constituent of plants and animal combined state as phosphates in rocks, soil and as
proteins. It is colourless, odourless and non-poisonous gas. phosphoproteins in all living beings.
In combined state, nitrogen is found as nitrates (Chile salt Phosphorus is an essential constituent of bones, teeth,
petre—sodium nitrate (NaNO3), Indian salt blood and nerve tissues. It is also necessary for plants
petre—potassium nitrate (KNO3) and ammonium salts. growth. Bone ash contains about 80% of phosphorus.
It is neutral towards litmus and is chemically inert. It reacts It has the following allotropes
with other elements only at high temperatures. – White phosphorus – Red phosphorus
Uses of nitrogen – Black phosphorus – Scarlet phosphorus
– In the manufacturing of nitric acid, ammonia and other – Violet phosphorus
nitrogen compounds. White phosphorus (P4 ) It is the most common form and
– As a refrigerant in liquid form.
it is chemically reactive.
– To provide inert atmosphere in different metallurgical
operations. Phosphine (PH3 ) It is an important compound of
– In the manufacturing of gas thermometers and for filling electric phosphorus.
bulbs. In laboratory, phosphine is prepared by boiling yellow
Compounds of Nitrogen phosphorus with concentrated sodium hydroxide in an
inert atmosphere.
Ammonia is an important compound of nitrogen. On
commercial scale, it is prepared from nitrogen and It is colourless gas with unpleasant odour of rotten fish.
hydrogen by Haber's process. It is poisonous in nature. It is used in making Holme’s
signals, smoke screens in warfare etc.
Ordinary sulphur melts at 114° C to a pale yellow mobile

Oxygen (O 2 )
liquid. On further heating, it becomes thicker and colour
Oxygen is an important constituent of atmosphere changes to reddish brown and then to almost black.
(21% by volume), ocean and Earth’s crust. Almost all
At about 180° C, it becomes so viscous that it does not fall
oxygen of the atmosphere is generated by the
even on inverting the test tube.
photosynthesis of green plants.
On heating above 200° C , viscosity began to decrease and
Oxygen exists in two molecular allotropic forms; most
it starts boiling at 444° C .

stable form is diatomic molecule (O2 ) and less stable
Sulphur is used in match industry, fire works and rubber
form is triatomic molecule O3 (ozone).
industry. It is also used in skin ointments, as insecticides in
Dioxygen is colourless, odourless, tasteless,
agriculture and as a disinfectant.

non-inflammable gas but a supporter of combustion.
Oxygen forms various compounds by combining with Compounds of Sulphur
different elements. Sulphuric acid is also known as oil of vitriol or king of
All living being obtain oxygen from air. Inhaled oxygen chemicals. It is manufactured by two processes; lead
dissolved in the blood (as oxyhaemoglobin) and reaches chamber process and contact process.
to each and every cell of the body where it helps in Sulphuric acid acts as a strong oxidising agent. It has a great
carrying out the metabolic activities of the body. affinity for water and thus it acts as a powerful dehydrating
Oxygen is used for life supporting system (in hospitals agent.
and in underwater diving for divers, for miners and Cloth, wood, sugars, paper and starch are all charred in
mountainers. concentrated sulphuric acid.
Liquid oxygen mixed with freshly divided carbon, is Corrosive action of sulphuric acid on skin is also due to its
used in place of dynamite in coal mining. dehydrating action. It is used
– In the manufacturing of fertilisers, explosives, coal tar dyes,
drugs and many important chemicals.
Ozone (O 3 ) – In refining of petroleum, leather industry for tanning.
◆
It is formed in the upper layer of atmosphere by the action of – As a pickling agent (for cleansing metal surfaces before
UV rays from the sun on oxygen. It protects the life on the electroplating, galvanising etc)
earth by not allowing UV rays to reach the Earth. The
common refrigerants, chlorofluoro carbons deplete this Hypo (Sodium thiosulphate)
ozone layer.
It is mainly used in photography as a fixing agent. It is used to
◆
Ozone is used as a bleaching agent for oils, flour, ivory and remove undecomposed silver halide on photographic paper or film.
delicate fabrics. Its bleaching action is due to its oxidising It is used as an antichlor for removing excess chlorine in bleaching
action on the organic matter. industry.
◆
Ozone is also used as a germicide and disinfectant, for
sterilising water and for detecting position of double bond
in unsaturated organic compounds. Halogens
Halogen is derived from Greek words Hals— sea salt,
gennao-producer, therefore fluorine, chlorine, bromine and
Sulphur (S) iodine are collectively known as halogens as they react with
It occurs in free state in volcanic region of Sicily, metals to produce salts.
Louisiana, Japan and Mexico etc., and in combined Halogens are highly reactive elements and therefore, they do
state as sulphides and sulphates. not exist in free state but exist only in combined form.
Organic compounds of plant and animal origin such as Halogens have highest electron affinity so they act as strong
onion, garlic, eggs, proteins, hairs, wool, mustard etc., oxidising agent. Their oxidising power decreases from
contain sulphur. fluorine to iodine.
Sulphur is found in five allotropic forms. These are
rhombic sulphur (or octahedral or α-sulphur),
Chlorine (Cl 2 )
monoclinic sulphur (or prismatic or β-sulphur), plastic Chlorine was first discovered by Scheele (1774) by the
sulphur, milk of sulphur and colloidal (or δ-sulphur). action of hydrogen chloride on manganese dioxide.
Rhombic sulphur is the most stable form at ordinary Chlorine is present in nature always in combined state as
temperature and all other forms gradually change into chlorides like sodium chloride, potassium chloride and
this form. magnesium chloride etc. These chlorides are found in sea
water and rocks.
Chlorine is commercially manufactured by electrolysis

of brine or molten sodium chloride. It is yellow, green,
Noble Gases
pungent smelling toxic gas and has toxic effect on Helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe)
nose, throat and lungs. and radon (Rn) are known as inert gases or noble gases or
rare gases.
In the presence of moisture, chlorine acts as a
bleaching agent. Chlorine reacts with water to form These elements have completely filled valence shell and so
HCl (hydrogen chloride) and HClO (hypochlorous these do not form chemical bonds. These are always present
acid). HClO on decomposition gives nascent oxygen in free state due to chemically inert nature. Radon is not
which is responsible for bleaching and oxidising found in atmosphere.
property of chlorine. In atmosphere, argon is most abundant noble gas but in
Chlorine is used as a germicide, disinfactant, oxidising universe, helium is most abundant gas. Natural gas is the
agent, bleaching agent in paper and textile industry. most important source of helium, He (5-7%) and neon, Ne
(in trace amounts).
Bleaching Powder (CaOCl 2 ) Minerals of helium are monazite, clevite pitch blende and
uranite. It is used in gas cooled atomic reactors as a heat
◆
It is obtained by passing chlorine over dry slaked lime
transfer agent.
powder. On standing, it decomposes and chlorine
percentage decreases regularly. Due to this, its The mixture of helium and oxygen is used for artificial
germicidal nature is lost. breathing of asthama patients. 85% helium + 15% hydrogen
is used for filling in balloons and airships. Mixture of helium
and oxygen is used for respiration by sea divers. Helium is
Bromine (Br 2 ) used as pressuring agent in rockets to expel liquid oxygen
Bromine is found in combined state in sea water as and liquid hydrogen. Neon is used in neon discharge lamps
sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium and signs for advertising purposes.
bromides (in minute amounts). Sodium and Xe is also known as stranger gas and Xe-Kr is used in high
magnesium bromide are also found in small amounts intensity photographic flash tubes.
in mineral spring and salt lakes. A mixture of argon with 15% nitrogen, is filled in electric bulb.
Bromine is reddish brown, poisonous, heavy mobile Krypton is used in high efficiency miner’s cap lamps. Radon
liquid. It is weaker bleaching agent than chlorine. is used in the preparation of ointment for the treatment of
It is used cancer.
– As germicide, bleaching agent, oxidising agent etc.
– In the manufacturing of ethylene bromide (used as a
component of anti-knock gasoline).
Metalloids
– To test the unsaturation of organic compounds as 5% These have properties of metals as well as non-metals.
bromine in carbon tetrachloride. There is no standard definition of metalloid, nor is there
Iodine (I 2 ) complete agreement as to which elements are appropriately
classified as such.
Iodine is found in combined state in sea water as
iodides of sodium, potassium and magnesium. Deep The six commonly recognised metalloids are boron, silicon,
sea weeds of Laminaria species contain 0.5% of germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium. Elements less
iodine in their ashes as iodide. commonly recognised as metalloids include carbon,
aluminium, polonium and astatine.
Chile saltpetre or caliche contains iodine as sodium
iodate (5-20%). Oil well brine also contain iodine as On a standard periodic table, all of these elements can be
sodium iodide. found in a diagonal region of the p-block, extending from
boron at one end to astatine at the other.
Iodine is black, shining solid with metallic lustre which
sublimes readily below its melting point. Typical metalloids have a metallic appearance but they are
brittle and only fair conductors of electricity. Chemically, they
It turns starch solution blue. Solution of KI/ I2 is used
mostly behave as (weak) non-metals. They can form alloys
in the treatment of goitre. It is used as an antiseptic
with metals. Most of their physical and chemical properties
as tincture of iodine.
are intermediate in nature.
Iodine is slightly soluble in water and its solubility
They and their compounds are used in alloys, biological
increases in water in the presence of potassium
agents, flame retardants, glasses, optical storage,
iodide due to the formation of potassium triodide
pyrotechnics, semiconductors and electronics.
complex.
Acid and Base Name of acid

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
Found in
Amla, citrus fruits
In our daily life, we use a large number of substances such
Tartaric acid Tamarind, grapes, unripe mangoes
as lemon, tamarind, common salt, sugar, baking soda and
Calcium hydroxide Lime water
vinegar. Sour substances are called acids
Ammonium hydroxide Window cleaner
(Acid is derived from Latin word acere which means sour).
Sodium hydroxide/ Soap
On the other hand, some substances like baking soda are
potassium hydroxide
bitter in taste and when we rub the solution of baking
Magnesium hydroxide Milk of magnesia
soda between fingers, it feels soapy. These bitter
substances are basic in nature. These substances are
known as bases. Indicators
Acids which are obtained from plants and animals, are We cannot test every substance. Therefore, special types
called organic acids, e.g. lactic acid, oxalic acid, acetic of substances are used to test whether a substance is
acid, uric acid etc. Acids which are obtained from acidic or basic. These substances are known as
minerals, are called mineral acids, e.g. sulphuric acid indicators. Indicators change their colour when added to a
(H2SO4 ), phosphoric acid (H3PO4) etc. solution containing an acidic or a basic substance.
Turmeric, litmus (extracted from lichens), China rose petals
Arrhenius Concept of (gudhal) etc., are some of the naturally occurring indicators.
Acids and Bases Some common acid-base indicators are methyl orange,
Acid is a substance which is capable of furnishing H+ ions methyl red, phenolphthalein, litmus, bromocresol green.
in aqueous solution, e.g. hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
Phenolphthalein is not suitable if base is weak like
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) etc.
ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) and methyl orange is not
Base is a substance which is capable of furnishing OH− suitable when acid is weak acetic acid (CH3COOH).
ions in aqueous solution, e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Acid and base indicators are used to distinguish between
and ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) etc.
an acid and a base but acidic or basic strength of a
Bronsted Lowry Concept of solution is expressed on a scale known as pH scale.
Acids and Bases
An acid is a molecule or ion which is capable of donating pH Scale
a proton and a base is a molecule or ion which is capable pH value is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an
of accepting a proton. aqueous solution. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said
e.g. NH3 + H2O a NH+4 + OH− to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are
Base Acid Conjugate Conjugate base basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH very close to 7.
acid of NH3 of H2 O
Approximate Values of pH for
Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases Some Familiar Solutions
According to Lewis, “An acid is a specie which can accept
1 M NH3 (household NH3 ) 11.6
an electron pair and a base is a specie which can donate
Saturated Mg(OH)2 (milk of magnesia) 10.5
an electron pair.’’ Compounds in which the central atom
does not have a complete octet, are called Lewis acids. Tears 7.4
Examples of Lewis acids are boron fluoride (BF3 ), Blood 7.3 – 7.5
aluminium chloride (AlCl3 ) , carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and Saliva 6.5 – 7.5
sulphur dioxide (SO2 ). Urine 5.5 – 7.5
Examples of Lewis bases are fluoride (F– ) , chloride (Cl– ), Coffee 4.5 – 5.5
iodide (I– ), bromide (Br – ) ions, water and alcohols etc. Beer 4.0 – 5.0
Tomato juice 4.0 – 4.4
Acid, Base and their Occurrence
Wine 2.8 – 3.8
Name of acid Found in
Vinegar 2.4 – 3.4
Acetic acid Vinegar
Lemon juice 2.2 – 2.4
Formic acid Ant’s sting
Gastric juice 1.0 – 3.0
Citric acid Citrus fruits
Battery acid 0.5
Lactic acid Curd
Oxalic acid Spinach 1 M HCl 0
Soft drinks 2.0 – 4.0
The pH of a solution is defined as “the negative

logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion
Types of Salts
concentration in gram ion or mole per litre” i.e. Normal salts do not contain a replaceable hydrogen or a
pH = − log [H+ ]. hydroxyl group, e. g. sodium chloride (NaCl) , sodium nitrate
(NaHSO4 ) etc.
Plants and animals are pH sensitive as they survive
within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
Acidic salts contain one or more replaceable hydrogen
atoms, e. g. sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3 ) ,
pH has a great importance in agriculture. Soil is tested
sodium hydrogen sulphate (NaHSO4) etc.
to determine whether acidic or basic fertilisers are
required for a particular crop. Basic salts contain one or more replaceable hydroxyl
groups, e.g. magnesium hydroxyl chloride [Mg(OH)Cl] and
Human blood has pH value 7.36 – 7.42. A change in pH
zinc hydroxyl chloride [Zn(OH)Cl] etc.
by 0.2 units results in death.
Double salts are obtained by the combination of two
The pOH value of an aqueous solution may be defined as
simple salts, e. g. Mohr’s salt, ferrous ammonium sulphate
the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration.
[FeSO4(NH4 )2SO4 ⋅ 6H2O] and potash alum
i.e. pOH = −log [OH− ] or pH + pOH = 14 [K 2SO4 ⋅ Al2(SO4 )3 ⋅ 24H2O] etc.
Complex salts are formed by the combination of simple
Buffer Solutions salts, e. g. potassium ferrocyanide is obtained by the
The solutions which resists the change in its pH value combination of ferrous sulphate and potassium cyanide in
on addition of a small amount of acid or base, are called their aqueous state.
buffer solutions. Mixed salts give more than one cation or more than one
These solutions have a definite pH value. anion on dissolution in water, e.g. bleaching powder
Acidic buffer solutions have pH value less than 7 (CaOCl2 ).
(equimolar mixture of acetic acid CH3COOH + sodium
acetate CH3COONa). Salt Hydrolysis
Basic buffer solutions have pH value more than 7 The interaction of a salt with water to give acidic, basic or
(equimolar mixture of ammonium hydroxide NH4OH + neutral solution is called salt hydrolysis.
ammonium chloride NH4Cl). Salt of a strong acid and a strong base does not undergo
pH of blood is maintained with the help of H2CO3 / HCO3− hydrolysis in water and the solution will be neutral.
buffer inspite of many acidic foods we eat. – Sodium chloride (NaCl) A salt of strong base, i.e. sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and strong acid i.e. hydrochloric acid (HCl).
– Potassium chloride (KCl) A salt of strong base i.e. potassium
Salts hydroxide (KOH) and strong acid i.e. hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Acids turn blue litmus red and bases turn red litmus blue. Salt of a strong acid and a weak base undergoes hydrolysis
When an acid solution and a base solution are mixed in in water to give acidic solution.
suitable amounts, both the acidic nature of the acid and – Ferric chloride (FeCl 3 ) A salt of a weak base i.e. ferric hydroxide
the basic nature of the base are destroyed and salt is [Fe(OH) 3 ] and a strong acid i.e. hydrochloric acid (HCl).
formed. This is known as neutralisation reaction. In – Copper sulphate (CuSO4 ) A salt of weak base i.e. copper hydroxide
neutralisation reaction, salt and water are produced with [Cu(OH) 2 ] and a strong acid i.e. sulphuric acid (H2 SO4 ).
the evolution of heat. Salt of a weak acid and a strong base undergoes hydrolysis
– When an ant bites, it injects the acidic solution (formic acid) in water to give basic solution.
into the skin. Its effect can be neutralised by rubbing moist – Sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO3 ) A salt of a strong base i.e. sodium
baking soda or calamine solution which contains zinc
hydroxide (NaOH) and a weak acid i.e. carbonic acid (H2 CO3 ).
carbonate.
– Sodium acetate [CH3 COONa] A salt of a strong base i.e.
– In our stomach, hydrochloric acid is produced to digest
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and a weak acid i.e. acetic acid
food. But too much acid in the stomach causes acidity. To
(CH3 COOH).
remove acidity, we take an antacid such as milk of magnesia
which contains magnesium hydroxide. It neutralises the Salt of a weak acid and a weak base undergoes hydrolysis
effect of excessive acid. in water to give acidic or basic or neutral solution.
– Excessive use of chemical fertilisers makes the soil acidic. For example, ammonium acetate (CH3COONH4) on
Plants do not grow well when soil is either too acidic or too hydrolysis gives neutral solution. It is a salt of weak
basic. If the soil is acidic, it is treated with base such as acid i.e. acetic acid and weak base i.e. ammonium
quick lime or slaked lime and vice-versa. hydroxide.
Self Check
1. Chlorination is a process used for water purification. 9. Which of the following substances are found in the beach
The disinfecting action of chlorine is mainly due to sands of many parts of Kerala? [IAS 2009]
[IAS 2010] 1. IImenite 2. Zircon
(a) the formation of hydrochloric acid when chlorine is 3. Sillimanite 4. Tungsten
added to water
Select the correct answer.
(b) the formation of hypochlorous acid when chlorine is
added to water (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) the formation of nascent oxygen when chlorine is (c) 3 and 4 (d) All of these
added to water 10. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is its
(d) the formation of hydrogen when chlorine is added to importance?
water 1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical
2. What are rubies and sapphires chemically known as? conductivity.
[IAS 2008] 2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so
(a) Silicon dioxide (b) Aluminium oxide far.
(c) Lead tetroxide (d) Boron nitride 3. It is entirely made of silicon and had high optical
transparency.
3. What is the pH level of blood of a normal person? 4. It can be used as ‘conducting electrodes’ required for touch
[IAS 2008]
screens, LCDs and organic LEDs.
(a) 4.5-4.6 (b) 6.45-6.55
(c) 7.35-7.45 (d) 8.25-8.35 Which of the statement(s) given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 and 4
4. Which one of the following is also called stranger gas? (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
[IAS 2008]
(a) Argon (b) Neon 11. Consider the following statements regarding pH value,
(c) Xenon (d) Nitrous oxide 1. Plants and animals are pH sensitive as they survive within
the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
5. Which one of the following pairs of metals constitutes 2. Human blood has pH value 7.36-7.42.
the lightest metal and the heaviest metal respectively?
3. A change in pH of blood by 0.2 units results in death.
[IAS 2008]
(a) Lithium and mercury Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct.?
(b) Lithium and osmium (a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 3
(c) Aluminium and osmium (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Aluminium and mercury
12. Consider the following statements,
6. Which one among the following is called philosopher‘s 1. The mixture of helium and oxygen is used for artificial
wool? [IAS 2007] breathing of asthama patient.
(a) Zinc bromide (b) Zinc nitrate 2. Solution of KI/I2 is used in the treatment of goitre.
(c) Zinc oxide (d) Zinc chloride
7. Which one of the following does not contain silver? (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
[IAS 2007] (c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Both 1 and 2
(a) Horn silver (b) German silver
13. Consider the following statements about calcium,
(c) Ruby silver (d) Lunar caustic
1. It forms basic oxide with air.
8. Which are the materials generally employed as solder 2. It floats over water.
in soldering operation in elelctronics? [IAS 2006] 3. It replaces sodium from sodium chloride.
(a) Iron and tin
The incorrect statement(s) is/are
(b) Lead and tin
(a) 1 and 3 (b) Only 3
(c) Aluminium and lead
(c) Only 2 (d) 1 and 2
(d) Aluminium and iron
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (b)
Chapter six
Organic Chemistry
Organic Compounds
Organic compounds The compounds of mainly carbon and hydrogen or compounds of carbon and hydrogen
form the basis of all with other elements like phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens, etc., are called
organic compounds.
earthly life. They are
Organic Compounds
structurally diverse. The
range of application of Open chain Cyclic
compounds compounds
organic compounds is
enormous. They form Saturated Unsaturated
compounds compounds
the basis of all
important constituents Homocyclic Heterocyclic
compounds compounds
of many products
including plastics, drugs, Alicyclic Aromatic Alicyclic Aromatic
compounds compounds compounds compounds
petrochemicals, food, e.g. cyclohexane e.g. benzene e.g. epoxy e.g. furan
explosive materials ethane
and paints.
Berzellius Hypothesis
or Vital Force Theory
In the earlier period of development of chemistry, it was thought that organic
compounds cannot be synthesised in laboratory because they require the presence of
vital force which exists only in the living organisms.
Urea was the first organic compound prepared in laboratory. It was prepared by Wohler
(1828) from inorganic compound i.e. ammonium cyanate.
Acetic acid was the first organic compound synthesised from the elements by Kolbe.
Functional group It is an atom or group of atoms in a molecule, which is responsible for
the chemical properties of the molecules. OH is alcoholic group, CHO is aldehyde
group, >C== O is keto group, COOH is carboxyl group and O  is ether group.
Homologous series It is a series of compounds in which adjacent members differ by a
CH2 unit (14 unit mass). All members of a homologous series have same functional
group and same chemical properties.
Isomers Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures, e.g.
C2H6O can have the structure, i.e. CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether) and C2H5OH (ethanol).
Magbook ~ Organic Chemistry 87
It is used in oxy-acetylene blow pipe (for cutting and welding),

Hydrocarbons as an illuminant for artificial ripening of fruits, in the
These are the compounds of only carbon and hydrogen. manufacturing of solvents such as Westron (CHCl2  CHCl2 )
These are of three types and Westrosol (CCl2 == CHCl). A number of polymers such as
Saturated hydrocarbons They contain only single plastics, synthetic rubber and synthetic fibre are obtained by
bonds. These are also called alkanes or paraffins and acetylene.
have general formula CnH2n + 2 , where n = 1, 2, 3. Benzene (C6H6 ) It is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. It
Methane is the first member of this group. was discovered by Faraday in 1825. He obtained it by the
Unsaturated hydrocarbons They have general formula destructive distillation of whale oil. It is used as a solvent for
CnH2n for alkene and CnH2n − 2 for alkynes. These have fats, resins etc., in dry-cleaning and it is also used as a motor
atleast one double ( == ) or triple ( ≡≡ ) bond and are fuel under the name benzol.
called alkenes and alkynes respectively. Toluene (C6H5 CH3 ) It was first obtained by the dry distillation
Aromatic hydrocarbons They have ring structure with of Tolu Balsam. It is used as a commercial solvent in the
alternate double bonds and (4n + 2) πe − (Huckel’s manufacturing of explosive (TNT), drugs (chloramine-T) and
rule), e.g. benzene. dyestuffs. It finds use in the manufacturing of saccharin and
printing inks. With petrol and benzene, toluene is used as
Important Hydrocarbons and their Uses
antifreeze.
Methane (CH4 ) It is a colourless, odourless gas. It is
Xylene (C8H10 ) It is used in the manufacturing of lacquers
also known as marsh gas or damp fire. Natural gas
and as solvents for rubber.
contains mainly 90% methane along with ethane,
propane, butane etc. Rice agriculture is a big source Naphthalene (C10H8 ) It constitutes about 6 − 10% of coal tar.
of atmospheric methane. Its mixture with air is It is colourless crystalline solid with strong characteristic
explosive in nature. odour. It is used for preventing moths in clothes, as an
It is the cause of occurrence of the explosions in insecticide and in the manufacturing of azodyes, eosin,
mines. indigo.
It is used as a fuel gas in making carbon black
(carbon black is used in tyre industry), various organic
Halogen Derivatives of Hydrocarbons
compounds and in various industrial preparation. Ethyl bromide (C2H5Br) It is a colourless, pleasant smelling
liquid. It is used as a local anaesthetic and in organic
synthesis.
Biogas
It is a mixture of gases produced during decay of biomass in
the absence of oxygen. Methane (75%) is the main Chloroform (CHCl3 )
constituent of biogas. It is an excellent fuel and burns It was discovered by Liebig in 1831. It is a colourless, mobile liquid
without producing smoke. with sweet sickly odour and taste. It is stored in closed dark coloured
bottles completely filled because it is oxidised by air in the presence
Ethane (C2H6 ) Natural gas contains approx. 10% of sunlight to an extremely poisonous gas phosgene (COCl2 ). It reacts
ethane. It is used as a fuel and in making some with conc. HNO 3 and form chloropicrin (Cl3C − NO 2 ). Chloropicrin is
organic compounds. Its hexachloro derivative C2 Cl6 is an insecticide and also used as poisonous gas at the time of war.
used as an artificial camphor. It is used as a solvent for fats, alkaloids, iodine and other substances.
Butane (C4H10 ) It is the main constituent of LPG The major use of chloroform today is in the production of the freon
refrigerant, R-22. It was once used as a general anaesthetic in
(liquefied petroleum gas). It is also present in small
surgery but has been replaced by less toxic ether. Chronic chloroform
amount in natural gas. It is used as a fuel.
exposure may cause damage to the liver and kidneys.
Ethylene (CH2 == CH2 ) In World war I (1914-18), it was
used for the manufacturing of mustard gas (poisonous Iodoform (CHl3 )
gas). It is used as an anaesthetic for the preservation It is a pale yellow crystalline solid with characteristic unpleasant
and artificial ripening of green fruits and also used in odour. It is insoluble in water but soluble in ethyl alcohol and ether. It
the manufacturing of ethyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, is used as an antiseptic. Its antiseptic properties are due to
polythene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) etc. liberation of free iodine.
Acetylene (CH ≡≡ CH) A colourless gas with sweet
smell. The characteristic odour associated with Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4 ) It is a colourless, heavy liquid. It
acetylene is due to phosphine present as an impurity. is extensively used as an industrial solvent for fats, oils,
It is dangerously explosive in liquid state, so its use or resins, lacquers and as a fire extinguishers under the name
storage is prohibited by law. pyrene.
proportions. It is an important beverage. It is used as a

Freon solvent in paint industry and in the preparation of a
The chlorofluoro carbon compounds of methane and ethane are number of organic compounds.
collectively known as freons. These are usually produced for Ethylene glycol (CH2OH ⋅ CH2OH) It is the simplest and
aerosol propellants, refrigeration and air-conditioning purposes. In most important dihydric alcohol. It is sweet in taste. It is
stratosphere, freon can upset the natural ozone balance. used as a solvent preservative, antifreeze in automobile
radiators and as a cooling agent in aeroplanes instead of
Dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane (DDT) It was the first water. Its dinitrate is used as an explosive with
chlorinated organic insecticides and originally prepared in trinitroglycerine.
1873. The effectiveness of DDT as an insecticide was Glycerol (CH2OH ⋅ CHOH ⋅ CH2OH) It is an important
discovered by Paul Muller and he was awarded the Nobel trihydric alcohol known as glycerine. It is present in
prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1948. The use of DDT almost all the animal and vegetable oils and fats as
increased enormously after World war II because of its glycerides. It is a colourless, odourless syrupy liquid,
effectiveness against mosquito and lice. It is highly stable sweet in taste. It is very hygroscopic in nature. It is used
and is not easily decomposed in the environment, so its use in the manufacturing of cosmetics and transparent
is banned in many countries. soaps, as a lubricant for watches and clocks, in
Benzene hexachloride (BHC) The trade names of BHC are medicines, in the preparation of a number of organic
lindane and gammaxane. Commercially, it is prepared by compounds such as formic acid etc., and as a
the addition of chlorine to benzene in the presence of sweetening agent in confectionary and beverages. It is also
ultraviolet rays. It is used as a pesticide in agriculture. used in the manufacturing of nitroglycerine (an explosive).
Chlorobenzene (C6H5 Cl) It is colourless, pleasant smelling Phenol (C6H5OH) It is a monohydric benzene derivative. It
liquid used for the manufacturing of phenol, aniline and is commonly known as carbolic acid or benzenol.
DDT (chlorobenzene on heating with chloral in the presence Commercially, it is prepared from the middle oil fraction
of conc. H2 SO4 gives DDT). of coal tar. It is used as an antiseptic and disinfectant. It
is used in the preparation of drugs such as salol, aspirin,
p-dichloro benzene (C6H4 Cl2 ) It is a white volatile solid, salicylic acid and phenacetin. It is used for the
readily sublimes. It is used as general insecticide, manufacturing of bakelite, picric acid (an explosive)
germicide, soil fumigant, deodorant and moth repellent. phenolphthalein (an indicator) and other dyestuffs.
Perfluoro carbons (PFC’s) These are non-toxic, non-flammabl
e, non-corrosive, extremely stable and unreactive gases,
Ethers
liquids or solids. These are used as electrical insulators, Diethyl ether (C2H5 O  C2H5 ) It is the most important
lubricants, dielectrics, heat transfer media in high voltage member of ether series and is often known as ether. Its
electrical equipment. They find several applications in health vapours produce unconsciousness, so it is used as
care and medicine. anaesthetic in surgery. It is also used as an industrial
solvent for oils, gums etc.
Alcohols Aldehydes
Methyl alcohol (CH 3OH ) Formaldehyde (HCHO) It is the first member of the
It is also known as wood spirit or wood naphtha as the aldehyde series. Its 40% dilute solution known as
earliest method for its preparation by the destructive formalin, is used as an antiseptic, germicide and
distillation of wood. (Pyroligneous acid is obtained by the preservative for biological specimens. It is used in
destructive distillation of wood. It contains methyl alcohol, leather industry for tanning and in the manufacturing of
acetone and acetic acid). synthetic dyes and bakelite. Urotropine (hexamethylene
Methyl alcohol is colourless, inflammable liquid, poisonous tetramine), a drug used for gout, rheumatism and as a
in nature and when taken internally it can cause blindness urinary antiseptic is obtained by the reaction of
and even death. With air, its vapours form explosive mixture. formaldehyde and ammonia.
It is used as solvent for paints, varnishes, gums and Acetaldehyde (CH3 CHO) It is used in the preparation of
celluloid etc. It is used for denaturing alcohol (methylated paraldehyde (sweet smelling liquid used in medicine as
spirit is denatured ethyl alcohol). hypnotic), metaldehyde (used as a solid fuel in spirit
It is used as alcohol-petrol fuel, automobile antifreeze lamp), acetic acid, ethyl acetate and butyl alcohol etc. It
mixture and in the manufacturing of drugs, dyes and is also used in silvering of mirror.
perfumes etc. Chloral or Trichloro acetaldehyde (CCl3 ⋅ CHO) It is a
Ethyl alcohol (C 2H 5OH) colourless, heavy, oily, pungent odour liquid. Industrially,
it is prepared by chlorination of ethyl alcohol. It is used
It is simply known as alcohol, spirit of wine or grain alcohol.
in making DDT. Chloral hydrate is used as a hypnotic
It is colourless, inflammable liquid with a spirituous odour
(sleep producing drug) and as a powerful stimulant.
and burning taste. It is miscible with water in all
Acrolein or Acraldehyde (CH2 == CH⋅ CHO) It is used as a Tartaric acid (HOOC ⋅ CHOH ⋅ CHOH ⋅ COOH) It is a
tear gas and as a warning agent to find out leakage if any dihydroxy dicarboxylic acid. Tartaric acid as such or as
of methyl chloride. its potassium salt occurs in grapes, tamarind and berries.
Benzaldehyde (C6H5 CHO) It is a colourless oily liquid having It is a colourless, crystalline solid. Cream of tartar
(potassium acid tartrate) is used in dyeing and making
almond like odour. It is used as an important flavouring
baking powders. Sodium potassium tartrate (Rochelle
agent in perfume industry, in the manufacturing of dyes
salt) is used in the preparation of Fehling’s solution.
and in the preparations of cinnamic acid, cinnamaldehyde,
benzoyl chloride etc. Citric acid [(HOOC CH2 (OH) ⋅ COOH ⋅ CH2 COOH)] It is a
monohydroxy tricarboxylic acid. In free state, it is found
Ketones in citrus fruits such as lemon, lime, orange and galgal.
Lemon juice contains 6–10% citric acid. It is used in
Acetone or Dimethyl ketone (CH3 COCH3 ) It is the first
making beverages (lemonades), as a mordant in dyeing

member of keton series. It is used in the manufacturing of and calico-printing. Its salts such as sodium or
cordite (a smokeless powder) and sulphonal as a solvent potassium citrate, magnesium citrate are used as
for cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate, celluloid and medicines.
lacquers etc., and for storing acetylene. It is one of the Benzoic acid (C6H5 COOH) It is an aromatic carboxylic
constituent of a nail polish. Chloretone used as a medicine
is obtained by the reaction of acetone with chloroform in acid. Sodium salt of benzoic acid is used as a food
the presence of potassium hydroxide. preservative. Esters of benzoic acid are used in
perfumery. Benzoic acid and some of its salts are also
used as urinary antiseptics. Vapours of benzoic acid and
Carboxylic Acids steam are inhaled for disinfecting bronchial tubes.
Formic acid (HCOOH) It is the first member of the acid Salicylic acid (C6H4 (OH)COOH) Ortho isomer of hydroxy
series. It occurs in red ants (in Latin, formicus means red
benzoic acid is salicylic acid. It occurs as methyl
ant) in the stings of bees and wasps and in the bristles of
salicylate in many essential oils. It is a colourless,
stinging nettles. It is colourless, pungent smelling liquid. It is
crystalline solid. It is poisonous and has antiseptic
corrosive and produces blisters on the skin.
property. It is used in the preparation of azo dyes, aspirin
It is used as an antiseptic and in preservation of fruits, in
and salol.
leather tanning, in textile industry, in coagulating rubber
Aspirin is acetyl salicylic acid and it is used for relieving
and as a medicine for the treatment of gout.
pain, salol is phenyl salicylate and it is used as an
Acetic acid (CH3 COOH) It is prepared by the fermentation internal antiseptic.
process (oxidation of fermented liquors containing 10–15% Acetyl chloride (CH3 COCl) It is the most important acid
alcohol) and from pyroligneous acid (Pyroligneous acid chloride. It is used for acetylation of alcohols and amines
contains acetic acid 9–10%, methyl alcohol 2–3% and and in organic synthesis (e.g. acetamide and acetic
acetone 0.5%). anydride).
It is used in the manufacturing of rayon, rubber, plastics
Acetic anhydride [(CH3 CO)2 O] It is obtained from acetic
and silk industries. Its organic esters are generally used as
acid by the removal of water from two molecules of
perfumes. Dilute acid is used as vinegar and concentrated
acetic acid. It is used as an acetylating agent, for
acid is used as solvent.
detection of hydroxy and amino group and in
Oxalic acid [(COOH)2 ] It is one of the most important manufacturing of aspirin, dyes and acetate rayon from
dicarboxylic acids. It occurs in rhubarb, sorrel and other cellulose.
plants of oxalic group in the form of its potassium salts. It Acetamide (CH3 CONH2 ) It is a colourless, crystalline
is found in the form of calcium oxalate in some plants and solid, used in softening leather, in the manufacturing of
animals. methyl amine and diethyl bromo acetamide (used in the
It is used to remove ink stains from cloth. Its salt, preparation of neuronal medicine).
potassium ferrous oxalate is used in photography as a
Acetoacetic acid It is a colourless liquid. On
developer. Its antimony salts are used as mordants in
decomposition, it gives acetone and CO2 . It occurs in
printing and dyeing.
excess in urine of diabetic patients.
Lactic acid (CH2 CHOH⋅ COOH) It is a monohydroxy acid. It
is present in milk (in Latin, lac means milk).
It is prepared by the fermentation of sugar with lactic bacilli
Ethyl acetate (CH3COOC 2H5 )
in the presence of powdered chalk. It is a colourless neutral liquid with a characteristic fruity
When anaerobic respiration takes place in our muscles odour. It is largely used as a solvent, nail polish remover, in the
during vigorous muscular activity, lactic acid is formed as manufacturing of medicines, perfumes and in the preparation
end product. It is used in dyeing industry and for removing of acetoacetic ester.
lime from hides. Calcium lactate is used in medicine.
Nitro Compounds Bioactive Compounds

Nitrobenzene (C6H5NO2 ) It is a pale yellow oily
liquid with a strong smell of bitter almonds. It is
Alkaloids
also known as oil of mirbane. It is used in the These are generally nitrogenous compounds of vegetable origin
manufacturing of aniline, benzidine, 1, 3, 5-trinitro and these are derived from pyrrole, pyridine, quinoline or similar
benzene and azodyes etc., for scenting cheap soap cyclic nitrogenous nuclei, e.g. coniine, piperine, nicotine,
and shoe polishes and as a solvent. atropine, morphine, reserpine, cocaine etc.
1,3,5-trinitrobenzene [(C6H3 (NO2 )3 )] or TNB It Piperine occurs in pepper especially black pepper (7-9%).
has a greater explosive power than Nicotine is the chief alkaloid of the tabacco plants (0.6-8%). It has a
1,3,5-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and is used in making burning taste and is very poisonous.
explosives. Quinine and cinchonine are two most important alkaloids present
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) It is a pale yellow crystalline in the bark of cinchona tree. Quinine kills the microorganisms
solid prepared by nitrating toluene with fuming that cause malaria.
nitric acid and fuming sulphuric acid mixture. It is Morphine present in opium obtained from poppy. It is commonly
used as an explosive in bombs, shells and used in medicine for the alleviation of pain.
torpedoes. On mixing with ammonium nitrate, it
forms the explosive amatol. Terpenes and Terpenoids
These are essential oils obtained from different parts of plants by
Amines steam distillation. These essential oils are the mixtures of
Aniline (C6H5NH2 ) It is an aromatic amino terpenoid hydrocarbons and their oxygenated derivatives.
compound. It was first prepared by Unverdorben Citral occurs in oil of lemon grass and oils of lime, lemon etc.,
(1826). He obtained it by distilling indigo and used as a flavouring agent and in preparing synthetic perfume.
named it as aniline (Portugese word anil = indigo). Menthol is the chief constituent of oil of pipermint. It is used as
It is used in the preparation of dyes, synthetic an antiseptic in ointment, nasal spray’s and gargles and in
drugs and as an accelerator in the vulcanisation of perfume industry. Limonene occurs in lemon, orange bergamot
rubber. and celery oils. It is used as a flavouring agent in beverages and
Urea (NH2 CONH2 ) It is the final decomposition foods.
product of proteins and occurs in urine. It is the Tepentine oil is obtained from coniferous trees. It is used
first organic compound synthesised in the medicinally and in making paints and varnishes.
laboratory by Wohler. An adult excrete about 30 g Camphor is obtained from leaves of camphor laurel. It is used as
urea per day in urine. It is used as a fertiliser in the a moth repellant, as a preservative in cosmetics, in medicine etc.
manufacturing of hydrazine, formaldehyde urea
plastics and medicines such as veronal. Tannins
These are biologically active polyphenols. These are used against
Sulphonic Acids
diarrhoea, as diuretics, antiseptic etc.
Benzene sulphonic acid (C6H5SO3H) It is formed by
the replacement of one hydrogen atom of benzene Carotenoids
nucleus by a sulphonic acid group ( SO3H). These are polymers of hydrocarbon isoprene. β-carotene is an
Benzene on heating with concentrated sulphuric important member of carotenoids occurs in carrots and green
acid (H2SO4 ) gives benzene sulphonic acid. It is leaves, vitamin-A is a derivative of β-carotene.
used in the preparation of a number of organic
compounds such as sulpha drugs, saccharin Steroids
and dyes.
These are also widely distributed in animals and plants.
Methyl isocyanate Cholesterol, ergosterol, calcipherol (vitamin D), testosterone,
(CH3NCO) progesterone etc., are some examples of steroids.
Methyl isocyanate gas known as MIC was used to Coumarins

manufacture the insecticide carbaryl, marketed under
the commercial name, sevin in Union Carbide Ltd. These are widely distributed in higher plants and show various
Leakage of this gas is responsible for Bhopal gas biological activities such as anticoagulant, platelet and lipoxy
tragedy. genase inhibitory activities and anti HIV activity, e.g. graveolone,
aseculetin, scopoletin etc.
Flavonoids Fractional Distillation of Coal Tar

These are found in all vascular plants and in Fractional distillation of coal tar produces
some mosses. These are responsible for the – Light oil It contains benzene, toluene, xylene.
colouration of flower petals, the fertility and – Middle oil or Carbolic oil It contains phenol, naphthalene, pyridine.
germination of pollen and the activation of – Heavy oil or Creosote oil It contains methyl and higher alkyl phenols
bacterial nodulation gene. These are the naphthalene and naphthols etc.
functions as antioxidants and anticarcinogenic – Green oil or Anthracene oil It contains anthracene and phenanthrene.
agents in human beings. Their examples include – Pitch (residue) It contains 92-94% carbon and it is used for making
quercetin, myricetin, tricetin, catechin etc. black paints, varnish and for waterproofing.
Coal Biomass gasification

It is believed that it was formed beneath the The process of partial combustion of biomass to produce combustible gases
Earth’s surface by the slow decomposition of as CO, H2 and methane (CH4 ), is called biomass gasification.
vegetable matter over the years (carbonisation).
The mixture obtained is called producer gas. Biomass materials used for
It is also known as a fossil fuel. Different
power generation include rice husk, straw, cotton stalk, cotton shells etc.
varieties of coal are anthracite (90% carbon),
bituminous (70% carbon), lignite (40% carbon)
and peat (10-15% carbon).
Coal contains a number of aromatic
Petroleum
hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, xylene, Petroleum (Petra = rock, oleum = oil) is a fossil fuel with the
naphthalene etc. These aromatic hydrocarbons mixture of hydrocarbons. It is a dark viscous liquid. It occurs at
are obtained by destructive distillation of coal. various depths under the crust of the Earth.
On heating at 1270-1675 K in the absence of It is believed that it was formed beneath the Earth strata by the
air, coal decomposes and gives the following decomposition of dead remains of organisms living in the sea. When
products these organisms died, their bodies settled at the bottom of the sea
– Coke is the solid residue left after the distillation. It and got covered with many layers of sand and clay. Over the years,
is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in these dead organisms transformed into petroleum and natural gas
different metallurgical processes. due to the absence of air, high temperature and pressure.
– Coal tar is a thick black viscous liquid with It is obtained by drilling holes in the Earth’s crust. The World’s first
unpleasant odour. It is a mixture of about 700 oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA in 1859. Eight years later
substances. Products obtained from coal tar, are in 1867, oil was struck at Makum in Assam. In India, petroleum is
used as starting material for manufacturing various found in Assam, Mumbai High, Gujarat and in the river basins of
substances used in everyday life and in industry, Godavari and Krishna.
like synthetic dyes, drugs, explosives, perfumes,
plastics, paints, photographic materials, roofing
materials etc. Brent crude
Now-a-days bitumen, a petroleum product, is It is a major trading classification of sweet light crude oil that serves as a
used in place of coal tar for metalling the roads. major benchmark price for purchases of oil world wide. This grade is light
The most significant characteristics of Indian because of its relatively low density and sweet because of its low sulfur
coal are its high ash content, entrained gasifires content. It is extracted from the North sea and comprises Brent Blend,
and low sulphur content. Forties Blend.
Fly ash
Refining of Petroleum
It is the residue, generated by combustion of coal. All
fly ash contain substantial amount of silica, alumina Petroleum gas, light petrol, petrol, kerosene oil, fuel oil (diesel oil),
and calcium oxide. The uses of fly ash are concrete lubricating oil, paraffin wax are the various constituents of
production, as aggregate substitute materials, e.g. for petroleum.
brick production, mineral filler in asphatic concrete The process of separation of various constituents/fractions of
etc. petroleum is known as refining. It is carried out in a petroleum
refinery.
Various fractions of petroleum and their Uses Fuels differ in their efficiency and cost. Fuel
efficiency is expressed in terms of its calorific value
Boiling which is expressed in units of kJ/g.
Fractions Composition Uses
range (K)
Gaseous C1 - C4 upto 303 As fuel gas after Calorific values of different fuels
hydrocarbons liquefaction, carbon
Name of the fuel Calorific value (kJ/g)
black.
Crude naphtha C5 - C10 303-423 As a solvent in varnish Charcoal 33
(Petroleum and rubber industry for
Coal 25-33
ether, petrol, dry-cleaning, motor fuel.
benzene Wood 17
Kerosene oil C10 - C13 423-513 As a fuel, manufacturing Cow dung cake 7-8
of oil gas.
Kerosene 48
Fuel oil (gas oil, C13 - C18 513-623 Fuel for diesel engines,
diesel, furnace cracking stock for Fuel oil 45
oil) gasoline. Ethyl alcohol 30
Lubricant oil C15 - C18 above 543 Paint oil, transformer
(medicinal oil, oil, lubrication. Hydrogen 150
motor oil and Methane 55
grease)
Butane 55
Paraffin wax C18 - C30 673 Ointments, paints, water
(petroleum jelly, upward proofing, solid fuel, Biogas 35-40
petroleum wax, candles etc.
petroleum coke) Wood, coke, coal, charcoal etc., are solid fuels.
Heavy fuel oil C30 onwards forms Paints, road surfacing. Petroleum products such as kerosene, diesel, petrol,
and bitumen residue spirits, etc., are liquid fuels. Water gas, producer gas,
coal gas, oil gas, natural gas, LPG gas, biogas are
gaseous fuels.
Knocking Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and
In a petrol engine, vapours of petrol and air are first nitrogen. Water gas is mixture of carbon monoxide
compressed to a small volume and then ignited by a spark and hydrogen.
from the spark plug. If the quality of petrol is not good, it leads Coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen, methane, carbon
to the pre-ignition of fuel in the cylinder. This causes loss of monoxide, ethane, acetylene, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
energy and also gives rise to a metallic sound known as and oxygen.
knocking. Knocking can be reduced by adding antiknock
compounds to petroleum.
Oil gas and petrol gas is a mixture of methane,
ethylene and acetylene etc., and is obtained by
Tetraethyl lead (TEL) and Benzene - Toluene -Xylene (BTX) cracking of kerosene. Natural gas consists of mainly
are common antiknock compounds. TEL creates pollution, so methane (85%).
its use has been stopped in India.
Diesel is an oily liquid mixture of hydrocarbons
Octane number obtained by fractional distillation of crude oil
The antiknocking property of petrol is measured in terms of (petroleum). It is cheaper than petrol and used as fuel
octane number. Higher the octane number, better is the for diesel engine.
quality of fuel. Gasoline used in automobiles has an octane Green diesel is a high quality diesel and its quality is
number 80 or higher while in aeroplane, it has an octane according to Euro-4 standards.
number100 or over higher. LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) The term LPG refers
to the mixtures of hydrocarbons containing three or
Fuels four carbon atoms such as propane, propene,
n-butane, isobutane and various butene with small
Substances such as wood, charcoal, kerosene etc., are used amount of ethene.
as sources of heat energy for domestic and industrial
The major sources of LPG are natural gas and from
purposes. These substances are called fuels.
refining and cracking of petroleum.
An ideal fuel is cheap, readily combustible and easy to
LPG is mainly used for the manufacturing of
transport. It has high calorific value. It does not produce
chemicals, as a fuel for households and petrochemical
gases or residues that pollute the environment.
industries.
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) It is highly compressed

form of natural gas, octane rating of CNG is 130. Many
Rocket Fuel
vehicles are designed to operate on CNG. It produces less The fuel used in rockets is called rocket propellant. It is
harmful gaseous pollutants therefore, it is a better fuel a combination of an oxidiser and a fuel which on
than petrol or diesel. combustion releases large quantities of hot gases.
Gasohol It is a mixture of ethyl alcohol(10%) and Liquid propellants are alcohol, liquid hydrogen, liquid
petrol(90%). It was discovered in Brazil. It is environmental ammonia (NH3 ), kerosene oil, hydrazine, hydrides of
friendly fuel. boron, methyl nitrate, nitromethane and hydrogen
peroxide.
Solid propellants are polybutadiene and acrylic acid used
Flame along with oxidisers such as aluminium per chlorate,
It is the hot part of fire and has three parts nitrate or chlorate. Some additives like finely divided
◆
Innermost region of flame It is black because of the aluminium and magnesium is added to the propellant
presence of unburned carbon particles. It has the lowest mixture (composite propellants).
temperature. Nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose contain both the
◆
Middle region It is yellow luminous due to partial oxidisers and the fuel elements in the same molecule
combustion of fuel. (double base propellants).
◆
Outermost region It is blue (non-luminous) due to Hybrid propellant consists of a solid fuel and liquid
complete combustion of fuel. It is the hottest part of flame oxidisers. A mixture of acrylic rubber (fuel) and liquid
and is used by the Goldsmith to heat the gold. N2O4 (oxidisers) belongs to this class.
Self Check
1. Biomass gasification is considered to be one of the Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
sustainable solutions to the power crisis in India. In this (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
context, which of the following statement(s) is/are (c) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
correct? [IAS 2012]
7. Which of the following statement(s) is/are true?
1. Coconut shells, groundnut shells and rice husk can be (a) Light oil is obtained during the fractional distillation of
used in biomass gasification. coal tar. It contains benzene, toluene and xylene
2. The combustible gases generated from biomass (b) The process of separation of various constituents of
gasification consist of hydrogen and carbon dioxide only. petroleum is known as refining
3. The combustible gases generated from biomass (c) TEL is common antiknock compound
gasification can be used for direct heat generation but not (d) All of the above
in internal combustion engines.
8. Consider the following statements regarding rocket
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
fuel,
1. Liquid propellants are alcohol, liquid hydrogen, liquid
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
ammonia etc.
2. In the context of global oil prices, ‘Brent crude oil’ is 2. Hybrid propellant consists of a solid fuel such as acrylic
frequently in the news. What does this term imply? rubber and liquid oxidisers such as liquid N 2O 4 .
1. It is a major classification of crude oil. [IAS 2011] Which of the statement(s) given above is/are incorrect?
2. It is sourced from North Sea. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
3. It does not contain sulphur. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 9. Which of the following is correct?
1. Full form of CNG is compressed natural gas.
2. Full form of LPG is liquefied petroleum gas.
3. Mixture of which one of the following pairs of gases is Choose the correct option.
the cause of occurrence of most of the explosions in (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
mines? [IAS 2008] (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Hydrogen and oxygen
10. Consider the following statements regarding
(b) Oxygen and acetylene
biocatalysts,
(c) Methane and air
(d) Carbon dioxide and methane 1. Biocatalysts are enzyme.
2. All proteins are biocatalysts.
4. Which one of the following is the correct sequence in 3. Biocatalysts are minerals.
the increasing order of molecular weights of the
hydrocarbons? [IAS 2006]
(a) Only 2 (b) Only 3 (c) Only 1 (d) All of these
(a) Methane, ethane, propane and butane
(b) Propane, butane, ethane and methane 11. Consider the following statements,
(c) Butane, ethane, propane and methane 1. Ethyl acetate is a colourless neutral liquid with a
(d) Butane, propane, ethane and methane characteristic fruity odour.
5. Consider the following chemicals, [IAS 2006] 2. Urea is the final decomposition product of proteins and
occurs in urine.
1. Benzene 2. Carbon tetrachloride
3. Sodium carbonate 4. Trichloroethylene Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
Which of the above is/are used as dry cleaning chemicals? (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) All of these 12. Consider the following statements,
1. Wood, coal and charcoal are solid fuels.
2. Methane, butane and hydrogen are gaseous fuels.
1. The trade names of benzene hexachloride are lindane and
3. Kerosene, petrol and ethyl alcohol are liquid fuels.
gammaxane.
2. Gammaxane is used as a pesticide in agriculture. Which of the following fuel has maximum calorific value?
(a) Kerosene (b) Petrol (c) Hydrogen (d) Wood
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (c)
Chapter seven
Environmental Chemistry
Ozone is formed when UV light strikes
Environment
oxygen molecule and splits it into individual
The presence of The physical and biological world around oxygen atoms (O) which combine with
us is called environment. It includes three undissociated oxygen.
unwanted substances in
main components, viz Since, O 3 is unstable and again splits into
water, air and soil is – Abiotic or non-living components O 2 and O, a dynamic equilibrium exists
called pollution and – Biotic or living components between production and dissociation of
these unwanted – Energy components ozone molecule.
UV light
substances are called O2 ( g )   → 2O( g )
Abiotic Component UV light
pollutants. Pollutants Abiotic components or abiotic factors are O ( g ) + O2 ( g ) O3 ( g )
may be solids, liquids or those non-living chemical and physical
parts of the environment that affect the Thus, this region contains dinitrogen,
gases. These pollutants
ecosystems. It includes atmosphere, oxygen, ozone, and little water vapours.
are produced by human hydrosphere and lithosphere. Ozone layer absorbs about 99.5% of
activities and destroy harmful UV radiations coming from the Sun
Atmosphere and thus, protects human and other living
our environment
It provides us gases such as oxygen, things from it.
day-by-day. nitrogen, carbon dioxide etc., which – Mesosphere is the region above stratosphere
are essential for life. Oxygen is extends from 60-85 km. In this region, again
essential for the respiration in plants temperature decreases with height and
and animals, carbon dioxide is reaches to − 100°C. That's why, when any
required for photosynthesis. It is a meteors enter in mesosphere, it burns up.
carrier of water vapours which are – Thermosphere is the region above mesosphere
responsible for rain. It prevents the which extends upto 640 km. In this region,
although the temperature can rise to 1500°C,
entry of harmful rays (UV rays) and
a person would not feel warm because of
saves life from highly energetic the extreme low pressure. The international
radiations. It maintains the space station orbit is also in this layer.
temperature of the surface of the
Earth. It envelops the Earth. Thermosphere
(O2+, O+, NO+) 350 km
It is divided into following layers
– Troposphere The lowest layer of Mesopause
atmosphere, reaches upto a height of Mesosphere
18 km. It is a turbulent and dusty zone (N2, O2, O2, NO+)
which contains air (N2 , O2 , CO2 ), much
water vapours and clouds. Stratopause
– Above the troposphere, stratosphere lies
between 18-60 km above sea level. In
this region, temperature starts to rise,
90 km (N2, O2, O3, O-atoms)
therefore tropopause is the point at Ozone
50 km Stratosphere
which temperature inversion occurs. In layer
(or ozonosphere)
stratosphere at about 20 to 40 km, there Tropopause
11 km (N , O , CO ,
is a part of relatively high ozone 15 km 2 2 2
Troposphere water vapours)
concentration, called ozone layer. Due to Earth
such a high concentration of ozone, this
Various regions of the Earth's atmosphere
region is also known as ozonosphere.
The highest region of atmosphere is known as exosphere

(500-1600 km) is present which also contains ionised gases.
Major Gaseous Air Pollutants
Beyond this region, an unbounded area called interstellar space, Major gaseous air pollutants are oxides of sulphur,
is present. nitrogen, carbon and hydrocarbons.
Hydrosphere Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 )

It includes all water sources present on Earth such as ocean, rivers, It is highly toxic for both animals and plants. Its
lakes, ponds etc. Ocean water contains about 3.5% dissolved salts, so very low concentration can cause several
it is not fit for drinking. respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, asthma,
emphysema. It also causes eye and throat
Lithosphere
irritation and breathlessness.
The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet. This
In plants, sulphur dioxide reduces the rate of
crust is inorganic and is composed of minerals. It covers the entire
formation of chloroplast and thus, causes
surface of the Earth from the top of the Mount Everest to the bottom of
chlorosis. SO2 is highly corrosive and damage
the Mariana Trench.
buildings, marbles (Taj Mahal) and textiles.
In the presence of particulate matter and NO2 or
Biosphere H2O2 (promoter), SO2 is oxidised to SO3 which
It is that part of abiotic components (lithosphere, hydrosphere reacts with water to give H2 SO4 .H2 SO4 remains
and atmosphere) where living organisms live and interact with suspended in the air as droplets or come down in
these components. the form of acid rain.
Oxides of nitrogen
Biotic Component Among the oxides of nitrogen, nitric oxide (NO), a
Biotic components are the living things that shape an ecosystem. A colourless, odourless gas and nitrogen dioxide
biotic factor is any living component that affects another organism, (NO2 ), a brown gas with pungent odour act as
including animals that consume the organism and the living food that tropospheric pollutants.
the organism consumes. Each biotic factor needs energy to do work NO2 is highly toxic for living tissues. Its higher
and food for proper growth. concentration causes leaf fall and retards the rate
of photosynthesis. It is a corrosive oxide and helps
Atmospheric Pollution in the formation of smog.
NO2 produces irritation in eyes and can affect liver
Atmospheric pollution is defined as ‘‘the presence or addition of
and kidneys. In the presence of oxygen, NO2
some undesirable substances, which have adverse effect on
reacts with water or moisture and produces nitric
plants and animals including human being into the atmosphere
acid (HNO3 ) which is an important factor for
either due to some natural phenomenon or due to human
making acid rain.
activity.’’
Atmospheric pollution is of two types; tropospheric pollution and Carbon monoxide (CO)
stratospheric pollution. Tropospheric pollution may be gaseous or It is highly poisonous to living beings because it
particulate atmospheric pollution. has an ability to form more stable
The substance which causes pollution is known as pollutant. carboxyhaemoglobin complex with haemoglobin
Pollutants are of two types due to which the delivery of oxygen to the organs
– Primary pollutants persist in the environment in the form, they are and tissues is blocked.
produced, e.g. sulphur dioxide (SO2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) etc. The carboxyhaemoglobin complex is about 200
– Secondary pollutants are the products of reaction of primary times more stable than the oxygen haemoglobin
pollutants, e.g. peroxyacetye nitrate (PAN), ozone (O3 ), aldehyde etc. complex. If the concentration of
carboxyhaemoglobin complex in blood reaches
about 3-4%, the oxygen carrying capacity of blood
Pollutants from steel/iron industry is reduced greatly which results in headache,
The iron and steel industry causes pollution of air, water as well nervousness, muscular weakness, weak eyesight
as soil which has a significant effect on environmental media. In and asphyxia.
air, the pollutants added to these industry include Microorganisms present in the soil acts as a sink
CO 2 , SO 2 , NO x , CO, H2S, PAN, Pb, Ni, Cd, etc., with water, are for carbon monoxide.
organic matter, oils, metals, acids, sulphides, sulphates etc.
Magbook ~ Environmental Chemistry 97
Hydrocarbons Acid rain dissolves heavy metals such as lead, copper,

These compounds consist only carbon and hydrogen. mercury and aluminium from soils, rocks and sediments.
These are obtained by the incomplete combustion of Due to this, the ions of these metals enter into well water
fuels in automobile engines and by anaerobic and produce a variety of toxic effects.
decomposition of organic matter. Lead is also discharged from exhaust pipes of automobiles.
Out of the hydrocarbons, methane (CH 4 ) is the most It is highly toxic and causes anaemia, brain damage,
abundant hydrocarbon pollutant. Higher concentrations convulsions and death.
of hydrocarbons gives carcinogenic effect, i.e. are cancer – Certain metals cause problems of kidney, liver, circulatory
producing. They cause ageing of plants, breakdown of system and nervous system. Many fungicides cause nerve
damage and death.
plant tissues and shedding of leaves. Hydrocarbons react
with oxides of nitrogen to form secondary pollutants. – Some pesticides, such as DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl
trichloroethane) are very toxic, enter into our food chain and
Prevention and Control of Air Pollution accumulate in our body, causing kidney disorders and
problems of brain and circulatory system.
Organic pollutants are converted into less harmful carbon
dioxide (CO2 ) and water (H2O) by combustion.
One or more pollutants present in gaseous effluents, are The Taj Mahal and Marble cancer
removed by passing gaseous effluents through absorbers. India’s most famous tourist attraction, Taj Mahal located in Agra
The gases containing dust, are passed through fabric has become a matter of concern. Experts have warned that
filters. Particles are trapped and collected in the filters pollutants in air are discolouring its white marble.
and gases freed from particles are discharged. The industries located in and around Agra are responsible for
A gas containing aerosols in the form of dust, fumes or producing pollutants like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
mists, is passed through electrostatic precipitator, the These gases cause acid rain. Acid rain corrodes the marble of the
aerosol particles get precipitated on the electrode and monument. This phenomenon is known as marble cancer.
gases freed from particles are discharged. The Supreme Court has taken several steps to save the Taj. It has
ordered industries to switch over to cleaner fuels like CNG and
Consequences of Atmospheric LPG. Moreover, the automobiles should switch over to unleaded
Pollution petrol in the Taj zone.
These are as follows Particulates
Global warming and Green house effect These are minute solid particles and liquid droplets
The Earth’s atmosphere allows most of the sunlight that dispersed in air, e.g. mists, dusts, smoke, fumes,
fall on it to pass through and heat the surface. But green bacteria etc.
house gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and water Diseases caused by particulate
vapours trap the heat radiated from Earth. This leads to
an increase in Earth’s temperature. This heating up of Diseases Cause
Earth and its objects due to the trapping of infrared Pneumoconiosis Due to inhalation of coal dust
radiation by green house gases in the atmosphere, is Silicosis Due to inhalation of free silica (SiO2)
called green house effect. Black lung disease Found in workers of coal mines
Green house effect is very essential for the existence of White lung disease Found in textile workers
life because in its absence, Earth would be converted Byssinosis Due to inhalation of cotton fibre dust
into extremely cold planet. When concentration of green
house gases increases, green house effect also Smog
increases. This is known as global warming. Global It is of two types
warming may cause melting of ice caps and glaciers
resulting in rise of sea levels. Classical smog
These occur in cool, humid climate. Sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) and
Acid rain particulate matter from fuel combustion are the main
It is caused by the presence of oxides of nitrogen and components of classical smog. Classical smog is chemically
sulphur in the air. These oxides dissolve in rain water and reducing.
form nitric acid and sulphuric acid respectively. The rain
carrying acids, is called acid rain.
Photochemical smog
These occur in warm, dry and sunny climate. It consists of a
The resulting acid reacts with marble of monuments

mixture of primary pollutants (nitrogen oxides and carbon
(such as Taj Mahal), buildings and statues. The soil also
monoxides) and secondary pollutants (ozone, formaldehyde).
becomes acidic. The cumulative effect is the gradual
Photochemical smog occurs generally in those cities which
degradation of soil and decline in forest and agricultural
have large populations and high vehicular density.
productivity.
It is an oxidising smog. Photochemical smog is due to nitrogen In water, some Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is also
oxides, ozone and organic matter (formaldehyde, acrolein etc). present. For a healthy aquatic life, the optimum
Ozone provides pungent smell to smog and causes various value of DO is 5-6 ppm. If DO is below 5 ppm, the
respiratory diseases. growth of fishes is inhibited.
Ozone also damage rubber articles. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the total
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and aldehydes present in smog amount of oxygen (in mg) required by microbes to
causes irritation in eyes. PAN has the highest toxicity to plants. decompose the organic matter present in 1L of water
It attacks younger leaves and causes bronzing and glazing of sample while Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) refers
their surfaces. to the total amount of oxygen (in ppm) consumed by
the pollutants in a water sample.
It can be controlled by certain compounds which act as free
Amount of oxygen required (in mg)
radical traps. When these compounds are sprayed in BOD =
atmosphere, they generate free radical which reacts with free Volume of water sample (in L)
radical precursors of photochemical smog. For clean water, BOD is less than 5 ppm while for
Installation of efficient catalytic converters in automobiles highly polluted water, it is 17 ppm or more.
prevents the release of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons to Ganga action plan was an ambitious plan, launched
atmosphere. in 1985 to reduce the pollution level in the river.
Soil pollution
Stratospheric Pollution It is alteration in soil composition. If the productivity
In stratosphere, ozone layer absorbs the ultraviolet radiation of of soil is reduced due to the addition of undesirable
the Sun which are harmful to living organisms. substances like fertilisers, pesticides, air pollutants
Depletion of ozone layer causes skin cancer and cataract in etc., it is called positive soil pollution and if
human and reduction of planktons in ocean and depletion of productivity is reduced due to soil erosion and over
plants. use, it is called negative soil pollution.
Depletion of ozone layer is caused by chlorofluoro carbons Conversion of a fertile land to barren land due to
which are used in refrigeration, fire extinguishers and aerosol dumping of wastes is called landscape pollution.
sprayers, in the production of plastic foam and tubeless tyres Pesticides like insecticides (e.g. DDT, BHC),
and in electronic industry for cleaning purposes. herbicides (e.g. NaClO 3 , Na 3 AsO 3 ), fungicides (e.g.
These compounds persist in the atmosphere for years and organomercury compounds) and fertilisers are the
enter in upper layers. Powerful UV rays decompose them and main sources of soil pollution.
produces more chlorine atoms. Soil conditioners (e.g. compounds of As, Hg, Pb etc)
It has been shown that one thousand ozone molecules can be and solid wastes such as industrial waste, farm
destroyed by one chlorine free radical. waste, radioactive waste etc., also cause soil
In stratosphere, the depletion of ozone layer leading to ozone pollution.
hole has been mainly observed in the stratosphere of
Antarctica.
Green chemistry
The formation of this hole occur due to the accumulation of
special clouds in the region called Polar Stratospheric Clouds This new branch of chemistry deals with processes and
(PSCs) and inflow of chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs). products that reduce or eliminate the use and generation
of hazardous substances.
Ozone depletion over Antarctica occurs during spring time and
gets replenished after spring time. Applications of green chemistry are
◆
Development of processes using carbon dioxide as the
Water pollution blowing agent for the manufacturing of polystyrene foam
Water pollution is due to the presence of foreign substances sheet packaging material. This technology allows the
like sewage, algae, soluble salt etc., in water. The foreign elimination of chlorofluoro carbon as a blowing agent
substances are called water pollutants. (which are responsible for ozone depletion).
In some part of India, drinking water is contaminated by the ◆
Development of a safer marine antifouling compound
impurities of arsenic, fluoride, uranium, etc. ‘sea-nine’ that degrades more rapidly than organotins
Pathogen (like bacteria) organic wastes (like leaves, grass etc) which persist in the marine environment and cause
and chemical pollutants (like metals from industrial wastes, pollution.
petroleum etc) are the major water pollutants.
Magbook ~ Environmental Chemistry 99
Oil Zapping It is a new technique of using the bacteria

Strategy for Control of Pollution
to get rid of oil spill. It is a bioremediation technique
Recycling It is an important process that converts the waste involving the use of ‘Oil Zapping’ bacteria, which was
into useful products. employed to clean up the Mumbai shoreline affected
For example by the oil spill (August 2010).
– The use of scrap metal in the manufacturing of steel.
– The recovery of energy from burning combustible waste.
Sewage treatment The dumping of sewage sludge must be Electronic waste
controlled or it should be treated before it is discharged into It is defined as discarded computers, office electronic
the river or ocean. equipments, entertainment electronic devices; mobile
Incineration It converts organic materials to carbon dioxide phones, television sets and refrigerators.
and water which are harmless. It is used to destroy household Computer components contain many toxic substances like
wastes, chemical wastes and biological wastes. The volume of dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), cadmium,
waste can be reduced by burning it at more than 1000°C and chromium, radioactive isotopes and mercury. A typical
in excess of oxygen. monitor may contain more than 6% lead by weight, much of
Digestion from biodegradable waste, biogas and manure can which is in the lead glass of the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
be prepared. It can be used to treat sewage sludge.
Self Check
1. Which of the following are some important pollutants 7. The jet aircrafts fly very easily and smoothly in the
released by steel industry in India? [IAS 2014] lower stratosphere. What could be the appropriate
1. Oxides of sulphur 2. Oxides of nitrogen explanation? [IAS 2011]
3. Carbon monoxide 4. Carbon dioxide 1. There are no clouds or water vapour in the lower
Select the correct answer using the codes given below stratosphere.
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 2. There are no vertical winds in the lower stratosphere.
(c) 1 and 4 (d) All of these Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
used computers of their parts, which of the following are
released into the environment as e-waste? [IAS 2013] 8. Human activities in the recent past have caused the
1. Beryllium 2. Cadmium increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the
3. Chromium 4. Heptachlor atmosphere but a lot of it, does not remain in the lower
atmosphere because of [IAS 2011]
5. Mercury 6. Lead
7. Plutonium 1. its escape into the outer stratosphere.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. 2. the photosynthesis by phytoplankton in the oceans.
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7 (b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 3. the trapping of air in the polar ice caps.
(c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 (d) All of these Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) Only 3
3. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the
drinking water in some parts of India? [IAS 2013] 9. Recently ‘oilzapper’ was in the news. What is it? [IAS 2011]
1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol (a) It is an ecofriendly technology for the remediation of oily
3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde sludge and oil spills
(b) It is the latest technology developed for under sea oil
5. Uranium
exploration
(c) It is a genetically engineered high biofuelyielding maize
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2, 4 and 5
variety
(c) 1, 3 and 5 (d) All of these
(d) It is the latest technology to control the accidentally caused
4. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of environment by flames from oil wells
(a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen [IAS 2013]
10. The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic region has
(b) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide been a cause of concern. What could be the reason for
(c) ozone and carbon dioxide the formation of this hole? [IAS 2011]
(d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide
(a) Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence and inflow
5. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is of chlorofluorocarbons
slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, (b) Presence of prominent polar front and stratospheric clouds
because it absorbs [IAS 2012] and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons
(a) the water vapour of the air and retain its heat (c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds and inflow
(b) the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation of methane and chlorofluorocarbons
(c) all the solar radiation (d) Increased temperature at polar region due to global
(d) the infrared part of the solar radiation warming
6. Consider the following statements, Chlorofluorocarbons 11. Consider the following statements [IAS 2011]
known as ozone-depleting substances, are used 1. Ultraviolet rays coming from Sun causes skin cancer.
1. in the production of plastic foams. [IAS 2012] 2. Carbon monoxide is harmful to human beings as it is with
2. in the production of tubeless tyres. higher affinity for haemoglobin as compared to oxygen.
3. in cleaning certain electronic components. 3. Taj Mahal is threatened by pollution from sulphur dioxide.
4. as pressurising agents in aerosol cans. 4. BOD is Biological Oxygen Demand.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) Only 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (a) 1 and 3 (b) 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (d)
Chapter eight
Chemistry in Everyday Life
Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand,
Synthetic Materials
gravel or small pieces of stone and

Humans use chemicals in The materials created by man using the water. It is used for the construction of
their daily lives for natural materials, are known as synthetic floors.
various purposes like materials. These materials are cement, The structure having iron rods
glass, fertilisers, pesticides, explosives, embedded in wet concrete, is known as
soaps for cleaning cloths,
polymers, beverages, soaps, detergents, reinforced concrete. These structures
medicine for curing medicines, dyes, cosmetics, and other have great strength and used for
diseases as their simple chemicals used in food. construction of roofs ,bridges, gutters
uses and on the other etc. Sometimes asbestos, wire mesh,
hand, chemicals are also
Cement bamboo etc., are used for reinforcing
used in complex activities It is a greyish heavy powder that concrete.
contains calcium aluminates and
for making explosives etc. silicates. It was discovered by an English Glass
The knowledge of Mason, Joseph Aspdin in 1824. He It is a hard and brittle material usually
chemistry and various called it Portland cement because he transparent and amorphous in nature.
chemical compounds thought that it resembled the limestone It is a supercooled liquid of silicates.
found in Portland.
helps human in making The average composition of ordinary
their life simpler and Approximate Composition of glass (soda glass) corresponds to the
Portland cement formula, Na2O ⋅ CaO ⋅ 6SiO2 . Raw
comfortable.
Calcium oxide (CaO) 60-70% materials used for the formation of
glass are sodium carbonate, calcium
Silica (SiO2 ) 20-25%
carbonate and sand.
Alumina (Al2O3 ) 5-10%
Finely powdered mixture known as
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3 ) 2-3%
batch, is mixed with cullet (broken
The important raw materials required for glass pieces) and then fused in a tank
the manufacturing of cement are; furnace at 1673 K. The cullet increases
limestone (provides lime), clay (provides the fusibility of the glass produced.
alumina and silica), gypsum (reduces After few hours, molten glass is
the setting time of cement). obtained.
When water is mixed with cement and Molten glass is cooled slowly and
left as such for sometime, it becomes a uniformly. If cooled suddenly, it
hard mass. This is known as setting of becomes brittle and if cooled very
cement. It is an exothermic process, slowly, it becomes opaque. The process
therefore cement structures have to be of slow and uniform cooling is known
cooled upto 7 days by sprinkling water. as annealing.
Mortar is a mixture of cement , sand Coloured glass is obtained by adding
and water. It is used for plastering walls certain metallic oxides or salts to the
and binding bricks and stones. molten mass.
Different addition may produce different Optical fibres are extensively used in telecommunication,
coloured glasses surgical operations etc. Optical fibres can transmit
images round corners.
Substance used Colour of glass Lead crystal glass It is obtained by fusing a mixture of
Cuprous oxide Red potassium carbonate,lead oxide (PbO) and sand. Lead
Cupric oxide Peacock blue glass has a high refractive index. So, it is used for
Potassium dichromate Green or Greenish yellow making expensive glass ware.
Ferrous oxide Green Crown glass It is obtained by fusing potassium oxide,
Ferric oxide Brown barium oxide and silica. It is used in making lenses for
Manganese dioxide Light pink, in excess black spectacles.
Cobalt oxide Blue * Etching of glass Glass is attacked by
Gold chloride Ruby hydrofluoric acid (HF), therefore it is used in the
Cadmium sulphide Yellow etching of glass.
Carbon Amber colour
Coloured glasses are used in the manufacturing of fancy
Manure and Nutrients
articles, artificial gems etc. Manure contains organic matter in large quantities and it
supplies small quantities of nutrients to the soil. The bulk
Variety of glass and Uses of organic matter in manure helps in improving the soil
Soft glass (Soda glass) It is a mixture of sodium or structure. Compost and vermicompost are the two types
calcium silicates. It fuses at comparatively low of manure.
temperatures. It is brittle and breaks easily. It is used in Soil supplies 13 mineral nutrients to the plants. Nitrogen,
making window glass, mirrors and common glass wares phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and
etc. sulphur are macro nutrients because they are required in
Hard glass It is a mixture of potassium and calcium large quantities while iron, manganese, boron, zinc,
silicates. It is more resistant to the action of acids and used copper, molybdenum and chlorine are micronutrients
for making hard glass apparatus. because they are required in small quantities.
Flint glass It is mainly a mixture of sodium,potassium and Continuous growing of crops makes the soil poorer in
lead silicates.It is clear and transparent.It is used in making certain nutrients. Therefore, farmers have to add manure
bulbs and optical instruments. and fertilisers to replenish the soil with nutrients.
Pyrex glass (Borosilicate glass) It is obtained by fusing a
mixture of sand ,lime, borax (Na2B4O7 ⋅ 10H2O) and alkali Chemicals in Agriculture
carbonates. It has good chemical durability and resistant to Fertilisers
heat. It is used in making pharmaceutical containers, lab These are the chemical substances which are rich in a
apparatus and oven ware. particular nutrient. They supply nitrogen phosphorus and
Quartz glass (Silica glass) It is used in the preparation of potassium. Continuous use of fertiliser in an area, can
chemical apparatus and optical instrument. destroy soil fertility. A chemical fertiliser should be
Crookes glass It is a special type of optical glass. It completely soluble in water, easily assimilated by plants
contains cerium oxide which cuts of UV-rays. It is used for and stable so that elements are retained in the soil for
making lenses for spectacles. longer duration. It should not disturb the pH of the soil.
Photochromatic glass On exposure to bright light, Major nitrogenous fertilisers are ammonium sulphate,
photochromatic glass darkens temporarily. So, it is very calcium cyanamide, basic calcium nitrate, calcium
useful as a Sun shield. ammonium nitrate and urea.
Safety glass A layer of transparent plastic with a suitable Urea is the best fertiliser as it leaves only carbon dioxide
adhesive is placed between two layers of glass.The three after ammonia, has been assimilated by plants. It has
layers are joined together by the action of heat and 46.6% nitrogen and it does not alter the pH of the soil.
pressure.It does not break easily under impact and is used Mixture of Ca(CN)2 and C is known as nitrolim.
in auto vehicle wind shield. Commercially, calcium nitrate is known as Norvegian salt
Optical glass It is free of stains and defects.It is used for petre.
making lenses for microscope, telescope and spectacles. Calcium superphosphate, nitro phosphate, triple
Glass fibres Glass wool is an excellent heat insulator. It is phosphate and phosphatic slag (Thomas slag) are some
used as insulating material in oven, refrigerator etc. important phosphatic fertilisers.
Magbook ~ Chemistry in Everyday Life 103
The mixture of nitrogenous, phosphatic and potash

fertilisers in suitable amounts, is called NPK fertilisers.

Explosives
These are the substances that contain a great amount of
NP fertilisers prepared by mixing nitrogenous and

stored energy that can produce an explosion.
phosphatic fertilisers in a definite ratio. Dihydrogen
ammoniated phosphate and calcium superphosphate are A sudden expansion of the materials after initiation leads
the examples of NP fertilisers. to the production of light, heat, sound and pressure.
A chemical explosive may consist of either a chemically
Pesticides pure compound, such as nitroglycerine or a mixture of a
Pesticides are the chemicals which are applied to crops, fuel and an oxidiser.
e.g. DDT and malathion to kill those pests which adversely
Explosives are of three types
affect the growth and strength of plants.
Primary explosives such as acetone peroxide,
These are subdivided according to function
azo-clathrates, silver azide, ammonium permanganate
– Insecticides kill those insects which attack crops, livestock,
etc., are extremely sensitive. A relatively small amount of
buildings and to human beings.
energy is required for initiation. These are used in
– Fungicides control parasitic and saprophytic fungi live at the
expense of growing and stored crops. detonators.
– Nematicides kill eelworms which feed on growing crops. Secondary explosives are less sensitive and require more
– Molluscicides kill slugs and snails and are usually active after energy for initiaion. RDX and TNT are the examples of
ingestion. secondary explosives.
– Herbicides These are also commonly known as weed killers and Blasting agents are tertiary explosives. These are used in
are pesticides used to kill unwanted plants. The first widely large scale mining, construction operation and in
used herbicide was 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, often
terrorism, e.g. ANFO (ammonium nitrate and fuel oil).
abbreviated 2,4-D. Atrazine and glyphosate are other examples.
Phenoxy herbicides are often contaminated with dioxins such as Some of the examples are
TCDD. Researcher has suggested such contamination results in Nitroglycerine Highly unstable and sensitive liquid also
a small rise in cancer risk after exposure to these herbicides. known as Noble’s oil.
– Pediculicides These are the substances used to treat lice. The
Acetone peroxide A very unstable white organic
only agent approved by the FDA for the treatment of pediculosis
are lindane and malathion. peroxide.
– Rodenticides This is a category of pest control chemicals Nitrocellulose A nitrated polymer can be high or low
intended to kill rodents. Rodents are difficult to kill with poisons explosive depending upon nitration level and conditions.
because their feeding habits reflect their place as scavengers. TNT (Trinitrotoluene) These are yellow insensitive crystals.
They will eat a small bit of something and wait and if they don’t
get sick, they continue. An effective rodenticide must be RDX (Research and development explosive) is a very
tasteless and odourless in lethal concentrations and have a powerful explosive. Its chemical name is
delayed effect. cyclotrimethylene trinitramine. It can be used pure or in
plastic explosives. It is known as cyclonite in USA,
hexogen in Germany and T4 in Italy.
Difethialone C–4–An RDX plastic explosive plasticised to be adhesive
It is considered a second generation anticoagulant rodenticide. and malleable.
Vitamin K has been suggested and successfully used, as Dynamite A mixture of highly sensitive nitroglycerine
antidote for pets or humans accidentally or intentionally (poison
with saw dust, powdered silica or most commonly
assaults on pets, suicidal attempts) exposed to anticoagulant
diatomaceous Earth, which act as stabilisers.
poisons.
Fire cracker
– Metal phosphides have been used as a mean of killing rodents ◆
A fire cracker is a small explosive device primarily designed
and are considered single-dose fast acting rodenticides (death to produce a large amount of noise, especially in the form of
occurs commonly within 1-3 days after single bait ingestion). a loud bang; any visual effect is incidental to this goal.
– Zinc phosphide is typically added to rodent baits in a ◆
Fire crackers are generally made up of card board or plastic
concentration of 0.75% to 2.0%. The tablets or pellets (usually
with black powder as the propellant. Black powder or gun
aluminium, calcium or magnesium phosphide for
fumigation/gassing) may also contain other chemicals which powder contains potassium nitrate (KNO 3 ), charcoal and
evolve ammonia which helps to reduce the potential for the sulphur. The entire fire cracker must be very tightly packed in
spontaneous ignition or explosion of the phosphine gas. order for it to work best.
Polymers Types of Polymerisation

There are two types of polymerisation
The word polymer comes from two Greek words;
‘poly’ means many and ‘mer’ means unit or part. Addition Polymerisation
So, a polymer is made up of many repeating units. In addition polymerisation, simple monomers are united together
These are used to manufacture plastic toys, cups, without loss of small molecules like ethylene etc.
buckets, synthetic clothing materials, machine Some important addition polymers are
parts, automobile tyres, gears and seals, electrical Polyethylene or Polythene is obtained by polymerisation of
insulating materials etc. ethene. It is used in the insulation of electricity carrying wires and
Polymers are the backbone of four major manufacturing of squeeze bottles, toys, flexible pipes and buckets
industries; plastics, fibres, elastomers, paints and etc.
varnishes. Teflon is obtained by the polymerisation of tetrafluoro ethylene. It is
A polymer is a compound of high molecular used for manufacturing of squeeze bottles, pipes, flooring etc.
weight formed by the union of a larger number of Thermocol is polystyrene formed with pentane vapours.
molecules of one or two types of low molecular Polypropylene is obtained by the polymerisation of propylene. It is
weight (known as monomers) and the process
used in indoor/outdoor carpetting, upholstery.
involving the formation of a polymer, is called
Orlon or Acrilon (Polyacrylonitrile) is a polymer of acrylonitrile. It is
polymerisation.
used as a substitute for wool in making commercial fibres.
Types of Polymers Carbon fibres are stronger than steel, stiffer than titanium and
There are two types of polymers lighter than aluminium. These can be made by thermal
1. Natural polymers are found in nature, e.g. decomposition of fibres of polyacrylonitrile.
cellulose, starch, rubber, wool, silk etc. Carbon fibres are mainly used in (i) general engineering sector
2. Synthetic polymers are made by human beings, including sports, transportation and chemical fields.
e.g. polythene, nylon, orlon, dacron and melamine (ii) biomedical fields (iii) high technology sector including
etc. aerospace, military and nuclear fields.
They are prepared chemically by human beings.
In India, carbon fibres are mainly used in defence sector as nose
These are of two types; thermoplastic and tips and head shields of missiles (such as in Agni).
thermosetting plastics.
Condensation Polymerisation
Thermoplastics soften on heating and become
hard on cooling. So, they can be remoulded, In condensation polymerisation, simple monomers are joined
recast and reshaped. These are formed by together with loss of small molecules like water (H 2 O) and ammonia
addition polymerisation of the compounds having (NH 3 ) etc.Some important condensation polymers are
terminal double bonds, e.g. polythene, nylon, Bakelite is obtained by the condensation polymerisation of phenol
celluloid, polystyrene etc. and formaldehyde. It is used for making combs, phonograph
Thermosetting plastics can only be moulded into records, handles of various utensils and electrical switches.
desired shape on heating once. These cannot be Sulphonated bakelites are used as ion-exchange resins for
reused because on heating, they become hard softening hard water.
and on prolonged heating, they start burning. Melamine-formaldehyde polymer is obtained by condensation
These are formed by condensation polymerisation, polymerisation of melamine and formaldehyde. It is used for
e.g. glyptal, bakelite, melamine, terylene etc. making unbreakable crockery.
Glyptal is obtained by the polymerisation of ethylene glycol and
phthalic acid. It is used in the manufacturing of paints and lacquers.
Rayon Urea-formaldehyde polymer is obtained by the polymerisation of
It is semisynthetic polymer (obtained from urea and formaldehyde. It is used in making utensils.
natural polymers). It is obtained by chemical Nylon was first fully synthetic fibre (1931). It is prepared by
treatment of wood pulp (cellulose). It is also
condensation polymerisation of an organic compound containing
known as artificial silk because its properties
two amine (—NH2 ) groups with an organic acid containing two
are similar to that of silk. It is mixed with cotton
carboxyl groups (—COOH). It is a polyamide fibre. Its each unit
to make bed sheets or mixed with wool to
contains amide group (NH — CO) and is repeated again and
make carpets.
again.
It is used in making socks, ropes, tents, tooth brushes, car Alcoholic beverages are used for drinking purposes.
seat belts, sleeping bags, curtains, parachutes and ropes for These are prepared from different materials and
rock climbing. A nylon thread is actually stronger than a contain different percentage of alcohol.
steel wire. These are of two types : distilled and undistilled.
Dacron or Terylene is a polyester fibre. It is prepared by Some common beverages
heating a mixture of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid at
420 to 460 K in the presence of catalyst. It increases Name Source Alcohol content
resistant and is used in blending with cotton and wool fibres. Whisky Malt 40-55%
Polycot is a mixture of polyester and cotton. Polywool is a Rum Molasses 40-55%
mixture of polyester and wool. Brandy Grapes 40-50%
Polyurethanes are used for heat and sound insulation in the Gin Maize 35-40%
form of foam. Mattresses, cushions, pillows made up of Cidar Apples 2-6%
polyurethane, are washable and long lasting.
Beer Barley 4-8%
Epoxy resins are used for making adhesives such as araldite, Wine Grapes 8-10%
M-seal and in making fibre glass.
Port and Sherry Grapes 14-20%
Polycarbonates has high optical transparency, high impact
strength. So, it is used for making bullet proof glass, food Whisky, rum, brandy and gin are distilled beverages
processor jar, fridge containers etc. while beer, cidar, wine, port and sherry are undistilled
Rubber beverages.
– Whisky is made by distilling the fermented juice of cereal
Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene (2–methyl-1,
grains such as corn, barley.
3-butadiene). It is also called as cis-1,4-polyisoprene. It is
– Rum is made from fermented molasses or sugar cane juice
obtained from latex from the bark of rubber tree.
and is aged for atleast three years. Caramel may be used
Vulcanisation of rubber is heating of rubber with sulphur. It for colouring.
makes rubber hard, strong and more elastic. – Brandy is distilled from fermented fruit juices and aged in
Rubber made with 1-3% sulphur, is soft and stretchy and oak casks.
used in making rubber bands while rubber made with 3-10% – Gin is a combination of alcohol, water and various flavours.
sulphur, is more rigid and is used in the manufacturing of Liquors are prepared by adding sugars and flavouring
tyres. like fruits, herbs or flowers to brandy or to a
Synthetic rubber was discovered by Mathews and Harris. combination of alcohol and water. They usually contain
Neoprene, Buna-N, Buna-S, thiokol are some examples of 20-65% alcohol.
synthetic rubber. Absolute alcohol is 100% pure ethyl alcohol. The
– Neoprene (Polychloroprene) has a superior resistance to fractional distillation of aqueous solution of ethyl alcohol
vegetable and mineral oils. It is used for manufacturing conveyor gives a constant boiling azeotropic mixture containing
belts, hoses and gaskets. 95% ethyl alcohol. To get 100% ethyl alcohol, a small
– Buna-N is a copolymer of butadiene and styrene. It is resistant to amount of benzene is added and then distilled. Pure
the action of petrol, lubricating oil and organic solvents. It is used ethyl alcohol is distilled as the last fraction at 351.1 K.
in making oil seals, tank lining etc.
Methylated spirit or denatured alcohol is 95% ethyl
– Buna-S is a copolymer of 1, 3-butadiene and styrene. It is also
known as SBR. It is used in the manufacturing of automobile alcohol. To avoid its misuse, it is made unfit for
tyres, rubber soles etc. drinking purposes by adding methyl alcohol, pyridine or
– The nobel Prize in Chemistry 2016 is awarded to Jean-Pierre copper sulphate. The process is called denaturing of
Sauvage, Sir J.Fraser Stoddart and Bernard L. Feringa for their alcohol.
dasign and production of Molecular Machines. They have Power alcohol is a mixture of 20% ethyl alcohol and
developed molecules with cantrollable movements i.e., A tiny lift,
50% gasoline. Industrial alcohol does not mix with
arificial muscles and minuscule motors.
petrol. In the presence of benzene or ether, industrial
Alcoholic Beverages alcohol mixes with petrol. Thus, alcohol used for the
generation of power is called power alcohol.
The slow decomposition of organic matter into simpler
substances in the presence of enzymes, is known as Rectified spirit is also known as commercial alcohol. It
fermentation. contains 95.6% ethyl alcohol and 4.4% water.
It was used to prepare alcoholic beverages from grape juice Ethyl alcohol is known as grain alcohol because it is
and other fruit juices in the presence of yeast. The liquid obtained from starch enriched substances.
appears as boiling (in Latin, ferntre means to boil) due to Methyl alcohol is known as wood spirit because it was
release of CO2 gas. first obtained by the destructive distillation of wood.
Soaps Difference between soaps and detergents

Soaps can be used in soft water while detergents can be
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids,
used both in soft and hard water as they form foam even
such as oleic acid (C17H33 COOH), stearic acid
in hard water.
(C17H35 COOH) and palmitic acid (C15H31COOH) etc. Soaps
are prepared by saponification of glycerides. Detergents are more efficient than soaps as they do not
react with calcium and magnesium ions present in water
Esters of higher fatty acids with glycerol are known as
while a part of soap is used to react with these ions.
glycerides. Glycerides are present in oils and fats.
Wetting property of soaps is less than that of detergents.
Only sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water
and are used for cleaning purpose. Some important soaps Soaps are biodegradable while detergents are
are sodium palmitate (C15H31COONa), sodium stearate non-biodegradable and cause environmental (water)
(C17H35 COONa) and sodium oleate (C17H33 COONa). pollution.
Oil or fat on heating with 20% NaOH solution gives soap.
Some sodium chloride (NaCl) is also added to the mixture Chemicals in Medicines
to separate out the soap. Drugs are the chemicals of low molecular masses. These
Perfumes, disinfectants and medicines are also added to interact with macromolecular targets and produce a
the soap to give it the desired characteristics. biological response. When biological response is useful,
An important by-product of saponification reaction is these chemicals are called medicines. These are used in
glycerol. It is a useful chemical. diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases.
Builders such as sodium carbonate and trisodium Analgesics (Pain relievers)
phosphate make the soaps more active. These reduce pain without causing disturbance in nervous
– Toilet soaps are prepared by using better grades of fats and system. These are of two types; non-narcoti analgesic and
oils. Colour and perfumes are also added to make these more
narcotic analgesic.
attractive.
– Transparent soaps are prepared by dissolving the soap in Aspirin and paracetamol are non-narcotic analgesics.
ethanol and then evaporating excess ethanol. Aspirin reduces fever, prevents platelet coagulation, check
– Medicated soaps containing substances of medicinal value. pregnancy related complications, viral inflammation in
– Shaving soaps contain glycerol to prevent rapid drying. Rosin AIDS patients, Alzheimer’s disease and cancer. It is used
is also added to it. It forms lathers well. in prevention of heart attacks due to its antiblood clotting
– Laundry soaps contain sodium rosinate, sodium silicate, borax action. However, it is toxic to liver and causes bleeding
and sodium carbonate. from stomach wall. Naproxen, ibuprofen and
dichlorofenac sodium are some commonly used
Detergents analgesics.
Synthetic detergents are soapless as they do not contain Narcotic analgesics are chiefly used for the relief of post
any soap. These are cleansing agents and have all operative pain, cardiac pain and pains of terminal cancer
properties of soaps. Detergents contain a sulphonic acid and in child birth. In medicinal doses, these relieve pain
group (  SO3H) instead of a carboxylic acid group and produce sleep. In poisonous doses, these produce
(COOH) on one end of the hydrocarbon chain. stupor, coma and ultimately death, e.g. morphine, heroin
Detergents get preference over soaps because they work and codeine.
even in hard water.
Tranquilisers
Detergents with straight chain of hydrocarbons are
These are used for treatment of stress and mild or even
preferred over branched chain as the latter are
severe mental diseases. They form an essential component
non-biodegradable and cause environmental pollution.
of sleeping pills. Different types of tranquilisers function by
Detergents are of three types anionic detergents (sodium different mechanisms. For example
lauryl sulphate and sodium dodecyl benzene sulphonate) – Iproniazid and phenelzine are used as antidepressant drugs.
cationic detergent (cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide) Chlorodiazepoxide and meprobamate are mild tranquilisers
and non-ionic detergent (polyethylene glycol stearate). and used for relieving tensions.
– Equanil is used in controlling depression and hypertension.
Cleansing action of soaps and detergents
– Derivatives of barbituric acid such as luminal, amytal etc., are
It follows the same principle (surface tension). Soap and known as barbiturates. These are hypnotic (sleep producing
detergent molecules consist of a large hydrocarbon tail agents).
with negative charged head. When a soap or detergent is Serpasil is another powerful tranquiliser. It is obtained
dissolved in water, their molecules form clusters called from Rauwolfia serpentina as Indian medicinal plant.
micelles in water. These micelles remove the dirt from the
Hashish and Charas also belong to this category of drugs.
object (fabric or skin).
Anaesthetic Antacids
These drugs are generally administered by an anaesthesia They remove the excess acid and raise the pH to
provider in order to reduce or maintain general anaesthesia appropriate level in the stomach. Sodium hydrogen
(reversible loss of consciousness) to facilitate surgery. carbonate, a mixture of aluminium and magnesium
These are given as gases (or vapours) or by injections hydroxide (gel), is used as antacids. However,
(intravenous desflurane, isoflurane and sevoflurane are the excessive use of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3 ) make
most widely used volatile anaesthetics today). These are the stomach alkaline and trigger the production of even
combined with nitrous oxide. more acid.
Anaesthetists prefer to use intravenous injections as they are Antihistamines
faster. The most widely used drugs are propofol, etomidate, Allergic reactions are caused by generation of
barbiturates and benzodiazepine etc. histamine in the body and the drugs used against these
Antibiotics reactions, are known as antihistamines (antiallergic).
These drugs are used to treat infections. Initially, these are Some important antihistamines are cimetidine (used in
produced from microorganisms. These have either killing treatment of hyperacidity), ranitidine (Zantac),
effect (cidal effect) or inhibitory effect (static effect) on brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine
microbes. Paul Ehrlich got Nobel prize for medicine in 1908 (Seldane).
from the discovery of salvarsan (an antibiotic used against
Antifertility drugs
syphilis).
They are mostly harmonal contraceptives. Birth control
Some commonly used antibiotics are sulphanilamide, pills essentially contain a mixture of synthetic estrogen
sulphapyridine, penicillin, chloramphenicol, vancomycin, and progesterone derivatives. Norethindrone and
ofloxacin and dysidazirine etc. ethynylest radiol (novestrol) are most widely used as
Alexander Fleming isolated penicillin from penicillium fungus antifertility drugs.
(1929). Penicillin-G is effective against short range of
bacteria (narrow spectrum antibiotics). Ampicillin and Chemicals in Food
amoxycillin are synthetic modifications of penicillins. These
Chemicals are added to food for adding nutritive value,
are effective against wide range of bacteria (broad spectrum
enhancing their appeal and their preservation are
antibiotics).
called food additives. Some important food additives
Chloramphenicol is a broad spectrum antibiotic, isolated in are food colours, flavours and sweeteners, fat
1947. It can be taken orally in case of typhoid, acute fever, emulsifiers and stabilising agents, flours
dysentry, meningitis, pneumonia and certain form of urinary improvers—antistaling agents and bleaches,
infections. preservatives, antioxidants, nutritional supplements.
Sulpha drugs These food additives except nutritional supplements
Sulphanilamide and sulphapyridine are sulpha drugs. These increase the shelf life of stored food and are also used
contain mainly sulphur and nitrogen. These antibiotics are for cosmetic purposes. Minerals, vitamins and amino
effective against microorganisms. acids are used as nutritional supplements.
Aspartame, saccharin, sucralose and alitame are some
Antiseptics and Disinfectants of the examples of artificial sweeteners.
These are the chemicals which either kill or prevent the Ortho sulphobenzimide commonly known as saccharin,
growth of microorganisms. Antiseptics are applied to living
is the first popular artificial sweetening agent. It was
tissues while disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects
discovered in 1879 and it is about 550 times as sweet
such as floors, instruments etc.
as cane sugar.
Some examples of antiseptics are (i) Furacine and Aspartame is 100 times as sweet as cane sugar. It is
soframicine. Dettol is a commonly used antiseptic. It is a
used in cold foods and soft drinks because it is
mixture of chloroxylenol and terpineol. Bithionol is added to
unstable at cooking temperature.
soap due to its antiseptic properties. Tincture of iodine-2-3%
Sucralose is trichloro derivative of sucrose. Its taste and
solution of I2 in alcohol-water mixture. Boric acid in dilute

appearance is like sugar. It is stable at cooking

aqueous solutions used as an antiseptic for eyes.
temperature.
Some examples of disinfectants are 1% solution of phenol,
Artificial sweetening agents do not provide calories,
0.2 to 0.4 ppm of chlorine in aqueous solution (disinfectant

therefore used by the people who need to control

for drinking water), sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) in very low
intake of calories and by diabetic persons.
concentration (preservation of squashes).
Food preservatives prevent spoilage of food due

to microbial growth. Salt, sugar and vegetable oils
Dyes
are most commonly used preservatives. Sodium These are the coloured substances used for colouring textiles,
benzoate is used in limited quantities and is foodstuffs, silk, wool etc. All coloured substances, however are not
metabolised to hippuric acid and excreted in dyes.
urine. Salts of propionic acid and sorbic acid are For a substance to act as a dye, it must fulfil the following
also used as preservatives. requirements. It must have a suitable colour and able to fix itself
to the material from the solution must be fast to light and
The chemicals which are used for imparting colour
washing, must resist the action of water, acids and alkalies.
to the food and to increase the eye appeal are
called edible colours. The common natural colours On the basis of their constitution, dyes are as follows
are chlorophyll, saffron, caramel, turmeric, etc. – Azo dyes These dyes contain the azo group ( N == N ). These are
Some important synthetic colours are amaranth, formed during coupling reaction, e.g. congo red, orange I and orange
indigo carmine, ponceau, erythrosin, etc. II.
– Phthalein dyes These dyes contain phthalein group as the functional
Antioxidants group, e.g. phenolphthalein.
These are used to prevent auto-oxidation and – Indigoid dyes These dyes contain indigoid group in their molecules,
spoilage of food. Addition of antioxidants to many e.g. indigo.
foods allow long term storage. – Anthraquinone dyes These dyes contain anthraquinone group in their
Butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) and butylated molecules, e.g. alizarin.
hydroxy anisole (BHA) are important additive – Triphenylmethane dyes These dyes contain triphenylmethane group in
their molecules, e.g. malachite green.
antioxidants.
– Triphenylmethane dyes These dyes contain triphenylmethane group in
Sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) and sodium sulphite their molecules, e.g. malachite green.
(Na2 SO3 ) are useful antioxidants for wine and
On the basis of their applications, dyes can be classified as
beers, squashes, peeled fruits, vegetables and
– Acid dyes These dyes are used as their sodium salts which are soluble
sugar syrups.
in water. These are used to dye wool, silk and nylon directly but are
not used for dyeing cotton as these do not have any affinity for cotton,
Fire Extinguisher e.g. orange I, orange II, methyl red, methyl orange and congo red.
For combustion to take place, three essential – Basic dyes In acidic medium, these dyes are used to dye modified
requirements are fuel (combustible substance), air nylons and polyesters, e.g. aniline yellow and malachite green.
(to supply oxygen) and ignition temperature. – Direct dyes These dyes can be applied to the fabric from their
aqueous solution. These are used to dye cotton, rayon, silk, wool and
Fire can be controlled by removing one or more of nylon effectively, e.g. martius yellow, congo red.
these requirements. The job of a fire extinguisher – Disperse dyes These dyes are used to dye polyesters, nylons and
is to cut off the supply of air or to bring down the polyacrylo nitrile, e.g. celliton fast pink B.
temperature of the fuel or both. – Vat dyes These are water insoluble dyes. These dyes are applied to
Fire extinguishers are of different types fibre (cotton) in their reduced (colourless) form. The parent dye is
– Water as fire extinguisher The most common fire regenerated by oxidation, e.g. indigo.
extinguisher is water. But water works only when
things like wood and paper are on fire. Chemicals in Cosmetics
– Soda-acid fire extinguishers These are used to
Coal tar is an important source of various chemicals used in
extinguish fire caused by oil burning. These release
carbon dioxide and also cools the burning cosmetics such as perfumes, deodorants, creams, nail polish etc.
substance. Carbon dioxide is the best extinguisher
because it is heavier than oxygen and it covers the Chemicals Cosmetics
fire like a blanket. As the contact between the fuel Acetone Nail polish remover
and oxygen is cut off, the fire is controlled. Benzaldehyde Vaseline, shaving cream, perfumes etc
– Foams extinguishers These are used in case of Benzoic acid Cream and lotion
burning oils. Foam is lighter than oil, so it rests on Benzyl acetate Perfumes, deodorants, soaps, detergents
the oil surface and cuts off the supply of oxygen.
Benzyl alcohol Cologne, fabric softner
– Electrical fire extinguishers Water and foam
Cetyl alcohol Moisturising creams
conduct electricity, so these cannot be used in case
Camphor Perfumes, nail polish
of electrical fire. Carbon tetrachloride is heavier than
Ethyl alcohol Perfumes, hair spray, shampoo
air, non-combustible and non-supporter of
Hydroquinone Moisturising creams
combustion, so it is used as a electrical fire
extinguisher.
Toluene Lacquers and nail polish
Self Check
1. Aspartame is an artificial sweetener sold in the market. Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
It consists of amino acids and provides calories like (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Only 3 (d) All 1, 2 and 3
other amino acids. Yet, it is used as a low-calorie
sweetening agent in food items. What is the basis of this
1. Alpha-naphthyl urea is used to kill rats.
use? [IAS 2011]
2. Rats not only destroy stocks of food, they also spread
(a) Aspartame is as sweet as table sugar but unlike table
diseases.
sugar, it is not readily oxidised in human body due to lack
of requisite enzymes Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(b) When aspartame is used in food processing, the sweet (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
taste remains but it becomes resistant to oxidation (c) Only 2 (d) None of these
(c) Aspartame is as sweet as sugar but after ingestion into 8. Consider the following beverages
the body, it is converted into metabolites that yield no 1. Rum 2. Cidar 3. Beer 4. Brandy
calories
Which of the above is/are distilled beverages?
(d) Aspartame is several times sweeter than table sugar,
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
hence food items made with small quantities of
(c) Only 4 (d) All of these
aspartame yield fewer calories on oxidation
9. The hair dye available in the market contains two
2. Which one of the following is used as an explosive?
bottles, one containing dye and other containing
(a) Phosphorus trichloride (b) Mercuric oxide [IAS 2009]
hydrogen peroxide. The bottles are mixed before
(c) Graphite (d) Nitroglycerine
applying the dye. The function of hydrogen peroxide is
3. Regular intake of fresh fruits and vegetables is rec- (a) to dilute the dye
ommended in the diet since they are the good sources of (b) to oxidise the dye to give desired colour
antioxidants. How do antioxidants help a person to (c) to reduce the dye to give desired colour
maintain health and promote longevity? [IAS 2011] (d) to acidify the dye solution
(a) They activate the enzymes necessary for vitamin
synthesis in the body and help to prevent vitamin
1. Hard soaps (common bar soaps) are the sodium salts of
deficiency
fatty acids.
(b) They prevent excessive oxidation of carbohydrates, fats
2. Soft soaps are the potassium salts of fatty acids and
and proteins
semi-solid in nature.
(c) They neutralise the free radicals produced in the body
during metabolism Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(d) They activate certain genes in the cells of the body and (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
help to delay the ageing process (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
4. Which one of the following types of glass can cut off 11. Consider the following statements,
ultraviolet rays? [IAS 2007] 1. Buna-S is known as valcanised rubber and used in the
(a) Soda glass (b) Pyrex glass manufacturing of automobile tyres.
(c) Jena glass (d) Crooks glass 2. Carbon fibres are stronger than steel and used in
defence sector.
Which of the statements given above is/are incorrect?
1. Baking soda is used in fire extinguishers. (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Neither 1 nor 2
2. Quick lime is used in the manufacturing of glass. (c) Only 1 (d) Only 2
3. Gypsum is used in the manufacturing of plaster of Paris.
12. In the labels of the bottles, some soft drinks are claimed
to be acidity regulators. They regulate acidity using
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
1. Carbon dioxide
6. Consider the following statements, 2. Bicarbonate salts
1. Molten glass is cooled slowly and uniformly. 3. Carbon dioxide and lime
2. The process of slow and uniform cooling is known as Select the correct option.
annealing. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
3. Soda glass is a mixture of sodium or calcium silicates. (c) 1 and 2 (d) Only 3
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (b)
Biology
Chapter one
Cell Biology
Biology : An Introduction
The aim of Biology is to Biology is the branch of science, that deals with the study of living organisms (both plants
explain the living world and animals). Aristotle known as the father of Biology. The term ‘biology’ was first coined by
Lamarck and Treviranus in 1802.
in terms of scientific
The living and non-living beings at sub-atomic level are basically similar and the fundamental,
principles. The chemical and physical principles are equally applicable to both of them.
invention of microscope
in the 17th century Branches of Biology
resulted in the The development of a variety of tools and techniques has given rise to many branches of
biology. These are:
beginning of new
branch of biology, I. Basic Biology
called cytology which It is the study of basic principles of living organisms, i.e. their structure and functions, to gain
knowledge about life. It includes botany, zoology and microbiology.
deals with the study of
a. Botany
cells and related area.
Theophrastus is known as the Father of Botany. He wrote a book Historia Plantarum, in
Biology is the science, which he presented the account of about 500 plants.
that deals with the
Branches of Botany
study of different
aspects of living beings Agronomy Study of crops
Anthology Study of flowers
like structure, activities,
Dendrochronology Study of age of trees
organisation, evolution
Dendrology Study of trees and shrubs
and interaction with the Ethanobotany Study of plants by tribes
environment. Modern Exobiology Study of organisms present on other planets
biology is vast and Histology Study of tissues
eclectic field with many Horticulture Study of fruits, vegetables and garden crops
branches and Mycology Study of fungi
sub-disciplines. It Palaeobotany Study of plant fossils
Parasitology Study of parasites
recognises the cell, as
Pedology Study of soil formation
the basic unit of life,
Phycology Study of algae
genes, as the basic unit
Pomology Study of fruits
of heredity, that propels Silviculture Care and cultivation of forest trees
the synthesis and Spermology Study of seeds
creation of new species. Tissue culture Growth of tissue in synthetic medium
b. Zoology
Aristotle is also called as the Father of Zoology, who elaborated the structure of animals, their
nature, classification, reproduction, etc., (of about 500 animals) in his book Historia
Animalium. He is also called as Father of Embryology.
Magbook ~ Cell Biology 111
Branches of Zoology
Misuse of Biology
Archnology Study of spiders
Various biological techniques have been used against the human race. These are
Biochemistry Study of chemical composition of
Amniocentesis A technique which detects the foetal abnormalities by analysing
body
chromosomal defects or aberrations at the foetus stage. This test could reveal the
Ethology Study of animal behavior
sex of the foetus, which has increased the case of abortion in India.
Eugenics Study of improvement of human
race by the use of genetics
Bioweapons These are antibiotic resistant microorganisms with increased
infertility. These are used as an agent of effective weapon of bioterrorism.
Euthenics Study of improvement of human
race by altering protein chain
Entomology Study of Insects Characteristics of Living Beings
Gerontology Study of changes in organism with
age The living organisms have some unique characteristics, which differentiate
them from non-living organisms.
Haematology Study of blood and its diseases
Haerpetology Study of reptiles and amphibians I. Cellular Structures
Ichthyology Study of fishes Cell is the building block of living body. It is the structural and functional unit
Myology Study of muscles of life. This complex arrangement lacks in non-living organisms.
Odontology Study of teeth II. Metabolism
Ornithology Study of birds It is the salient dynamic feature of all living beings. It is the sum total of all
Osteology Study of bones chemical reactions occurring in the body of an organism. Metabolism can be
Ophiology Study of snakes categorised into two halves or phases.
Phylogeny Developmental history of a genus a. Anabolism
Taxonomy Study of classification It is the constructive phase, as in this phase, protoplasm and other complex
c. Microbiology It is the branch of science that substances are formed, which help in growth and development of the body,
deals with the study of microorganisms like e.g. protein synthesis from amino acids, glucose formation from
bacteria, viruses, etc. photosynthesis, etc.
Branches of Microbiology b. Catabolism

Bacteriology Study of bacteria It is the destructive phase in which complex molecules (nutrients) are
broken down into simpler ones, resulting in the release of energy, e.g.
Virology Study of viruses
breakdown of starch to form glucose, which later on, broken into water
II. Applied Biology (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and releases energy.
It is the application of principles of biology for III. Nutrition
the welfare of human kind. It includes All living organisms require nutrition for growth and development. Intake of
agriculture, medical science, veterinary science food particles to provide energy and material for its life sustaining activities is
and pharmacy. called nutrition.
(a) Agriculture It is the branch of applied
science that deals with the science or practice of IV. Growth and Development
farming, including cultivation of the soil for the The life of every organism begins from a cell. It further divides to form many
growing of crops and the rearing of animals to cells, tissues, which forms organs, organ system and finally a complete body.
provide food, wool and other products. This phenomenon is called growth, which is the distinctive feature of an
(b) Medical Sciences It is the branch of applied organism. Following points differentiate the growth in living and non-living
science that deals with the studies related to being.
human health and diseases, thier causative
V. Reproduction
agents, prevention, control or treatment of these
diseases. It is the salient feature of living organisms. Every organism reproduces for
maintaining the continuity of life, e.g. plant produces seeds, which germinate
(c) Veterinary Science It is the branch of applied
to produce the same plant again, likewise mammals give birth to the child.
science that deals with the study of animals.
(d) Pharmacy It is the branch of applied VI. Sensitivity
science that deals with the study of medicines, All organisms are sensitive towards environmental changes. They have
i.e. their nature, production, effect, distribution, consciousness for their protection, feeling of hot and cold, withdrawl of
etc. organs after pinching off thorns and touch with acid. These act are also
Hippocrates is known as the father of medicine. known as excitability.
VII. Adaptation These structures are living in nature. The

Adjustment of an organism in response to external environmental cytoplasm and nucleoplasm in cumulative form
changes is called adaptation, e.g. fishes are adapted to live in water, inside the cell is called protoplasm. It is called
while frogs are adapted to live on land and in water both. the physical basis of life. The non-living
inclusions of a cell are collectively called
deutoplasm.
The Cell
In 1665, the English scientist Robert Hooke saw small chamber-like Cell Theory
structures during the observation of cork. He termed these chambers M Schleiden, a German Botanist and
as cell. Cell is the fundamental, structural and functional unit of all
T Schwann, a British Zoologist together
living organisms. Some organisms are made up of single cell
formulated cell theory. Another scientist
(unicellular) while, other organisms such as human are made up of
Rudolf Virchow also contributed for the
billions of cell (multicellular).
development of cell theory. The main
All cells contain three basic structures, i.e. plasma membrane, principles of cell theory are
cytoplasm and nucleus. – All living organisms are composed of cells and
Cell products of cells.
– All cells arise from pre-existing cells (Omnis
Plasma Membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus cellula e cellula).
Outer most covering, of Fluid-like substance that Nucleus is one of the most – Cells are basic building units of life.
lipids (fats) and proteins. contains cytosol and cell important part of the cell that
Major functions are organelles (small compartment bears genetic material (material – Viruses do not follow cell theory.
structural support, transport within the cell performing that transmit parental characters Cells present in plants have some differences
of nutrient or ions from different functions) such as, to their offspring, i.e. DNA). Fluid
external environment to mitochondria, chloroplast, inside the nucleus is called
with the cells present in the animals.
inside the cell endoplasmic reticulum, etc. nucleoplasm.
These differences can be easily visualised by the following diagrams
Detailed Structure of Plant and Animal Cell

Animal Cell Plant Cell
Mitochondria Surrounded by two membranes and is called
the power house of the cell as it is responsible for energy
production in the form of ATP. Found both in plant and
animal cells.
Plasma Membrane Double layered, formed of lipid and Ribosomes

proteins, responsible for regulating transportation of Spherical body found on
molecules of the cell. Found both in plant and animal cells. endoplasmic reticulum of both
Endoplasmic Reticulum plant and animal cells, majorly
It is the membrane system of involved in protein synthesis.
cell that is involved in protein
and lipid synthesis and
transport in both plant and
animal cells. Cell Wall
Exclusively found in plant cell.
Golgi Body It is very rigid and made up of
cellulose. Provides mechanical
Sac-like body involved in
support to the cell and is
protein secretion, found both
involved in water movement in
in plant and animal cells.
and out of the cell.
Centriole
Chloroplast
Only found in animal cell
Double membrane structure
and is involved in cell division.
They form fibres that found in plant cell only and
attach with chromosome responsible for photosynthesis.
and separate them at the time Have its own DNA.
of cell division.
Plasmodesmata
Lysosome Small pore found on cell wall.
Simple spherical sac-like They communicate between
body involved in digestion two cells by exchanging
of big molecules,foreign molecules.
bodies and other cell or
glands. Also known as
suicidal bag or atom bomb
of the cell. Found Large Central Vacuole
both in plant and animal cells. Nucleus Largest cell organelle having two membranes. It contains Acts as a major organelle that
the genetic material, i.e. DNA in the condensed form as chromosomes. stores and regulate the
Outer membrane is called nuclear membrane which has pores for transport of water and
communication with cytoplasm. Nucleolus is small spherical body found minerals. Only found in plant
in nucleus. It was discoverd by Fontana (1781) and acts as a site for cell.
synthesis of ribonucleic acid. Chromosomes are made up of nucleic acid
(DNA) and proteins (histone protein). Found both in plant and animal cells.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016 is Karyotype and Idiogram

awarded to Yochinori Ohrumi, Heis a Japanese cell A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the
biologist specializing in autophagy. It is the process nucleus of an eukaryotic cell. This term is also used for the complete
through which cells use to destroy and recycle set of chromosomes, while idiogram is the diagrammatic
cellular components with the help of lysosomes. representation of chromosomes of a species or a population.
Basic Types of Cells Cell Cycle and Cell Division

There are two primary types of cells, i.e. prokaryotic The cell cycle is an ordered set of stages of cell growth and
and eukaryotic cells.
division into daughter cells. The stages, are in the sequence
Differences between Prokaryotic and G1 → S → G2 → M.
Eukaryotic Cells The G1-stage stands for ‘GAP 1’. The S-stage stands for ‘Synthesis’.
This is the stage when DNA replication occurs. The G2 -stage
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
stands for ‘GAP 2’ and the M-stage is division phase.
Nucleus without nuclear Nucleus with nuclear
membrane. membrane. During M-stage the division of nucleus, i.e. karyokinesis takes
place, which is followed by division of cytoplasm, i.e. cytokinesis.
Membrane bound Membrane bound organelles
organelles are absent. like endoplasmic reticulum, Cells that do not enter in cell cycle again gets arrested in G0 -stage
Golgi complex and (quiescent stage).
mitochondria are present. G
0 -p
Ribosomes are 70S type Ribosomes are 80S and 70S ha
Cell growth se
only. type. During G0 -phase,
Enzymes of respiration Enzymes of respiration are G1-phase the cell shows a
are associated with present in cytoplasm and prominent change
Cy and become
plasma membrane. mitochondria. tok
in stable
Telo esis
Vacuole is generally Vacuole is generally present. pha
se
absent. Anapha
se Cell
Cell division
Metaphase division
Both transcription and Transcription occurs in
e
S-phase
translation occur in nucleus while, translation has
Prop
cytoplasm. occurs in cytoplasm.
Chromosome G2 -phase
Chromosomes are the condensed form of DNA. The
condensation is caused by special protein called
histones. When DNA is not condensed, it is called
Cell Cycle
chromatids.
During cell division chromosomes show chromatids Cell division is of following two types
held together at a point called centromere. Telomere – Mitosis and meiosis.
are the end of chromosome. On the basis of position,
centromere can be metacentric (present at centre), Major differences between Mitosis and Meiosis
submetacentric (little away from centre), acrocentric
Mitosis Meiosis
(situated close to its end) and telocentric (terminal
centromere). Mitosis takes place within Meiosis takes place within gamete cells
somatic cells (cells that make (sex cells).
Types of Chromosome up the body).
Lampbrush Chromosome It was first discovered
One single division of the Two divisions of the mother cell result into
by Balbiani in 1882 and resemble the shape of a mother cell results into two four meiotic products or haploid gametes.
lamp brush. daughter cells.
Polytene Chromosome It was discovered by A mitotic mother cell can A meiotic mother cell is always diploid.
Balbiani in 1881 in salivary gland of Chironomus either be haploid or diploid.
larvae.
The number of chromosomes The meiotic products contain a haploid ( n )
Genes per nucleus remains the same number of chromosomes in contrast to the
after division. (2n ) number of chromosomes in mother cell.
Chromosome also contain various genes. Gene acts
as a unit of inheritance in living organisms. It It is preceded by S-phase in In meiosis, only meiosis-I is preceded by a
controls the transfer of genetic information from one which the amount of DNA is S-phase.
generation to the next generation. duplicated.
Mitosis Meiosis and triglycerides are an exception to the term polymer.

Lipids perform many important functions in biological systems
During prophase, there is no During prophase-I,
pairing of homologous complete pairing of all – Contributing to the structure of membranes that enclose cells and
chromosomes. homologous chromosomes cell compartments.
take place. – Protection against dessication (drying out).
– Storing concentrated energy.
There is no exchange of DNA There is atleast one
– Insulation against cold.
(crossing-over) between crossing-over or DNA
chromosomes. exchange per homologous – Absorbing shocks.
pair of chromosomes. – Regulating cell activities by hormone actions.
The centromeres split during The centromeres do Steroids

anaphase. separate during These functions both as hormones (such as the sex hormones
anaphase-II, but not during
anaphase-I. oestrogen and testosterone) and as structural material (such as
cholesterol, an integral part of animal cell membranes).
The genotype of the daughter Meiotic products differ in
cells is identical to that of the their genotype from the
Now a days unsaturated fats are very famous as many
mother cells. mother cell. companies are selling it by making a good marketing of it.
Unsaturated fats are liquid at room/body temperature and are
After mitosis, each daughter After meiosis, each
cell has exactly same DNA daughter cell has only half
good for health. Trans fats are artificially produced unsaturated
strands. of the DNA strands. fats.
A transcriptome is the full range of messenger RNA. Carbohydrates

Molecules expressed by an organism. The term
Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbon, so named because of the
transcriptome can be used to describe the array of

mRNA transcripts produced in a particular cell or structural formula, i.e. typically (CH2O)n, where n is an integer
tissue. such as 5 (C5H10O5 ), 6 (C6H12O6 ), etc. Although this formula
might suggest that carbon atoms are joined to water, the actual
molecules are more complicated.
Biomolecules Like most of the classes of biological molecules, carbohydrates
Biomolecules are chemical compounds found in all occur as both monomers and polymers. Small carbohydrates are
living organisms. These include chemicals that are called as sugars, which commonly include monosaccharides
composed of mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, (single sugars) and disaccharides (two sugars linked together).
nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. Biomolecules Larger carbohydrates are called as polysaccharides (many
are the building blocks of the life and perform sugars linked together).
important functions in living organisms.
Functions of carbohydrates include
Even though there are thousands of different types – Serving as precursors for building many polymers.
of molecules in a cell, there are only few basic – Storing short-term energy.
classes of biomolecules. – Providing structural building materials.
Monomer Polymer – Serving as molecular tags that allows recognition of specific cells and
molecules, (i.e. cell signalling).
Monosaccharide Polysaccharide
Amino acid Polypeptide (protein) Proteins
Nucleotide Nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) Proteins are polymers of specific acids called amino acids.
Proteins typically make up about half of the total weight of
Lipids biomolecules in a cell (excluding water). Deficiency of protein
Lipids include a variety of molecules, such as leads to serious disorders collectively termed as Protein Energy
neutral fats, oils, steroids and waxes. These have Malnutrition (PEM), e.g. Kwashiorkor, marasmus, etc.
only one common, characteristic i.e. their Proteins play a wide variety of functional roles including
hydrophobic nature. – Enzymes as catalysts, Such as ribonuclease, that accelerate specific
Two or three fatty acids are usually polymerised with chemical reactions upto billion times faster than they would
spontaneously occur, one cell may contain thousand different types
glycerol to form fats and oils, but other lipids, such
of enzymes at a time.
as steroids, do not form polymers. Diglycerides and
– Structural materials, Including keratin (the protein found in hair and
triglycerides are made by dehydration synthesis
nails) and collagen (the protein found in connective tissue).
from smaller molecules. This is not the same kind
– Specific binding, Molecule such as antibodies that bind specifically
of end-to-end linking of similar monomers that to foreign substances (antigens) to identify them to the body's
qualifies as polymerisation. Therefore, diglycerides immune system.
– Specific carriers, Including membrane transport proteins There are six broad groups of enzymes in this system as shown
that move substances across cell membranes and blood in table given below:
proteins (such as haemoglobin) that carry oxygen, iron
All enzymes are proteins (with exceptions of some RNase) and
and other substances inside the body.
their function is determined by their complex structure. The
– Contraction, Such as actin and myosin fibres that
interact in muscle tissues for contraction and relaxation.
reaction takes place in a small part of the enzyme called active
site, while the rest of the protein acts as ‘scaffolding’.
– Signalling, Including hormones such as insulin that
regulate sugar levels in blood. The complete active enzyme with its cofactor is called a
holoenzyme, while just the protein part without its cofactor is
Nucleic Acids called the apoenzyme.
Nucleic acids are the polymers of the subunits called A theory to explain the catalytic action of enzymes was
nucleotides. proposed by the Swedish chemist Savante Arrhenius in 1888.
Each nucleotide has three main components He proposed that the substrate and enzyme forms some
– A ring-shaped molecule belonging to the class of intermediate substance, which is known as the enzyme
nitrogenous base. substrate complex. The reaction can be represented as
– A 5-carbon pentose sugar. S + E → ES → P + E
– One or more phosphate groups. Substrate Enzyme Enzyme − Product Enzyme
substrate
There are two types of nucleic acids complex
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Which serves as a Factors Affecting Rate of Enzyme Reaction
cellular database by storing an immense amount of
Temperature
information about all the proteins. There are five
types of DNA present in biological kingdom. These Enzymes have an optimum range of temperature (35-40°C) to
are A-type, B-type, C-type, D-type and Z-type. Out of work. Rate of reaction increases with increasing temperature
which the B-type is the major one (found in humans) upto a certain level.
and Z-type (zig-zag helix) is the most recent one. pH
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) these occurs in several Enzymes have an optimum pH (7-8) range to work properly.
different forms and is needed to convert DNA’s Rate of reaction increases at a certain level when pH
information into proteins. In some viruses, RNA increases.
serves as the primary genetic material. Certain RNAs
Enzyme Concentration
have catalytic ability similar to that of protein
enzymes called as ribozymes. Rate of reaction increases linearly with the increase in enzyme
On the basis of their structure the RNA can be concentration. But after a certain period of time, rate becomes
divided into following three types constant.
– t-RNA (transfer RNA), r-RNA (ribosomal RNA) and Substrate Concentration
m-RNA (messenger RNA). Rate increases when substrate level or concentration increases.
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts. There are about Inhibitors
40,000 different enzymes in human cells, each These are the substances that inhibit the activity of enzymes by
controlling a different chemical reaction. They reducing the rate of their reactions. They are found naturally, but are
increase the rate of reactions by a factor of 10-12 also used artificially as drugs, pesticides, research tools, etc.
times, allowing the chemical reactions to take place
at normal temperature. They were discovered in Human Genome Project-Write
fermenting yeast by Buchner in 1900 and the name The Human Genome Project-Write formally announced on 2nd
enzyme means ‘in yeast’. Apart from catalysing all June, 2016, is a ten year extension of the Human Genome
the metabolic reactions of cells (such as respiration, Project, to synthesize the human genome. The human Genome
photosynthesis and digestion), they also act as consists of three billion DNA nucleotides, which have been
promotors, membrane pumps and receptors. described in the Human Genome Project-Read Program,
The latest systematic nomenclature system known as completed in 2003. The researchers expect that the ability to
the International Enzyme Commission (IEC) system synthesize large portions of the human genome would result in
is based upon the type of reaction catalysed. many scientific and medical advances.
Self Check
1. A company marketing food products advertises that 7. Consider the following statements
its items do not contain trans fats. What does this I. Fatty acids should be a part of the balanced human diet.
campaign signify to the customers? [IAS 2011] II. The cells of the human body cannot synthesise any fatty
I. The food products are not made UP of hydrogenated oils. acid.
II. The food products are not made UP of animals fats/oils. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
III. The oils are not likely to damage the cardiovascular (a) I and II (b) Only II
health of the consumers. (c) Only I (d) Neither I nor II
Which of the statement(s) given above are correct?
8. Which one of the following statement is not correct?
(a) Only I (b) II and III
(a) Milk contains none of the vitamin-B.
(c) I and III (d) I, II and III
(b) Vitamin-A (retinol) deficiency leads to dry and scaly skin.
2. Which cell component among the following is (c) One of the symptoms of scurvy is pain in the joints.
responsible for the process of detoxification of foreign (d) Vitamin-B1 (thiamine) deficiency can lead to heart failure.
substances using cytochrome P450 in mammalian liver?
(a) Mitochondria [IAS 2010]
I. Unsaturated fats are more reactive when compared to
(b) Smooth endoplamic reticulum
saturated fats.
(c) Lysosomes
II. Unsaturated fats have only single bond in their structure.
(d) Peroxisomes
3. Consider the following statements related to mitosis of (a) Only II (b) I and II
an animal cell. [IAS 2010] (c) Only I (d) Neither I nor II
I. Cells have least amount of DNA in G1 period.
II. The amount of DNA throughout interphase is not 10. Plasma membrane is the covering of cell and responsible
constant for the transport of substance across the cell. It is made
III. A G2 nucleus has maximum amount of DNA. up of lipid and protein in the form of
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) Lipid bilayer only (b) Lipid bilayer with protein
(a) I and II (b) I and III (c) Biprotein layer (d) None of the above
(c) II and III (d) I, II and III 11. Consider the following statements.
4. Mitosis Promoting Factor (MPF) has two key subunits I. Prokaryotic cells have primitive nucleus (without nuclear
one is catalytic and the other is regulatory. Which one membrane)
of the following is the regulatory subunit? [IAS 2010] II. Eukaryotic cells have true nucleus (with nuclear membrane)
(a) Cdk (b) Cyclin Which of the following option is correct?
(c) Dynein (d) Dynactin (a) Only I is correct (b) Only II is correct
(c) I and II are incorrect (d) I and II are correct
5. Which one of the following cell organelle oxidises very
long fatty acid chains? [IAS 2009] 12. Which of the following statement is correct about cell
(a) Peroxisome (b) Nucleosome divisions?
(c) Dictyosome (d) Golgi apparatus (a) Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces two cells.
(b) Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces four cells.
6. Consider the following statements regarding the inner (c) Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces two cells.
membrane of the mitochondria. [IAS 2009]
(d) Cells produced by meiosis have same genetic material in
I. It keeps a high concentration of H+ in the comparison to parents.
intermembrane space.
II. It helps to arrange the different molecules of the 13. Consider the following statements
electron transport chain in the right order. I. Chloroplast is involved in photosynthesis.
III. It has proteins and phospholipids. II. Mitochondria is considered as powerhouse of the cell.
Which of the statements given above are correct? III. Ribosomes are involved in water movement in the cell.
(a) I and II only Which of the following option is correct?
(b) II and III only (a) Only I (b) I and II
(c) I and III only (c) II and III (d) I, II and III
(d) I, II and III
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (b)
Chapter two
Biological Classification
Classification of Systems of
Living Organisms Classification
Living organisms are divided into following
Biological or scientific In the 18th century, a Swedish biologist
categories
Carolus Linnaeus developed a scheme
classification in biology Carolus Linnaeus (1758) placed all the
of scientific classification and devised a
is a method of scientific system of scientific nomenclature. living organisms in two major kingdoms,
taxonomy used in According to him, all organisms have i.e. Plantae for plants and Animalia for
some important characteristics in animals. This system is also known as
grouping or categorizing Two Kingdom System of classification. In
common and different from others in
organisms into groups this categorisation, the position of some
one or more ways are placed in a
such as genus or species. category termed as species, i.e. cat, organisms like Euglena, blue-green
These groups are known monkey, housefly, frog, etc. algae, fungi, etc., was debatable.
as taxa. Different species having certain Ernst Haeckel placed all the organisms
common characters are placed in a into three groups, i.e. Protista, Plantae
genus. In the same manner different and Animalia. It is also known as Three
genus are placed in family. The order is Kingdom System of classification.
as under Copeland (1956) divided the organisms
Species (Lowest level) → Genus → into four kingdoms, i.e. Monera (bacteria
Family → Order → Class → Phylum → and blue-green algae), Protista (red and
Kingdom (Highest level). brown algae, fungi and Protozoa),
Plantae and Animalia. It is known as
Four Kingdom System of classification.
Binomial Nomenclature In it, the position of fungi in Protista was
Proposed by Linnaeus in his book Species debatable.
Plantarum. The scientific name of each First well accepted classification of
organism is composed of two names, i.e. a organisms was given by RH Whittaker
generic name and a species name. The generic (1969) who classified the organisms into
name begins with a capital letter and five major kingdoms, i.e. Monera,
species name begins with a small letter, i.e. Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia on
Zoological name of the common housefly is the basis of cell structure, plant body
Musca domestica and that of human is organisation, nutrition mode,
Homo sapiens. The botanical name of wheat reproduction and ancestral relationships.
is Triticum aestivum. It is called Five Kingdom System of
classification. This was the first kingdom
system classified the debatable organism
in proper place.
Comparison of Five Kingdom Proposed by Whittaker (1969)

Features Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Type of cell Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
(nucleus without (nucleus with
nuclear membrane) nuclear membrane)
Cell wall Noncellulosic present Present in some Present and Present and Absent
and made from made from chitin made from
polysaccharide (polymer cellulose
of glucose)
Organisation Cellular level Cellular level Multicellular Tissue/organ Tissue/organ/
of body but loose tissue level organ system level
Membrane Absent and Present Present Present Present
around nucleus nucleoid is present
Type of nutrition Autotropic mode present Autotrophic Autotrophic Autotrophic Autotrophic mode
(preparation mode present mode absent mode present absent
of food by own)
Heterotrophic mode Heterotrophic Heterotrophic Heterotrophic Heterotrophic
present (depend for food mode present mode present mode absent mode present
on others)
Example Bacteria Plant, fungus and Various fungus Algae, moss, fern, All animals
animal like organism gymnosperm and
flowering plants
Six Kingdom System

Latest system of classification is Six Kingdom System which divides Monera into archaebacteria and eubacteria. This system is based
on comparison of RNA (ribonucleic acid) a single-stranded genetic material present mostly in lower organisms proposed by
C Woose, O Kandler and MC Wheelis in (1990).
Kingdom–Monera
Kingdom–Monera constitutes bacteria, archaebacteria, Capsule
mycoplasma, actinomycetes, cyanobacteria and rickettesia. Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Bacteria are major/main organisms of this kingdom. They
Ribosomes
lack true nucleus and present in each and every habitat Cytoplasm
including some extreme area like hot springs, snow and Nuclear area (nucleoid)
deep oceans. containing DNA
Inclusion
Bacteria are of two types Plasmid
Archaebacteria These are primitive bacteria which mostly
inhabited in extreme habitats. Archaebacteria can be
Flagella
categorised into three types, i.e. Methanogens (methane
Fimbriae
producing bacteria), e.g. Methanobacterium, etc.,
Mesosome
Halophiles (marine bacteria), e.g. Halobacterium and
Thermoacidophiles (sulphur bacteria) e.g. Sulfolobus, etc.
Eubacteria These are true bacteria which have cellulosic cell Eubacterial cell
wall. Their structure is shown in side-wise figure.
Three basic shapes of eubacteria are Cocci (spherical), Bacillus (rod-shaped) and Spirillium (spiral and helical-shaped).
Presence of flagella is an important feature of bacteria. Flagella are thread-like structures meant for movement. Flagellar
arrangement on bacteria may be atrichous (without flagella, e.g. Lactobacillus), monotrichous (single flagella at one end,
e.g. Xanthomonas), amphitrichous (one flagella at each end, e.g. Alkaligens), lophotrichous (group of flagella at one end,
e.g. Spirillium) and peritrichous (flagella on whole body, e.g. Proteus).
Magbook ~ Biological Classification 119
Mycoplasma (Joker of Microbiology)

Plasmid (Extra DNA in Bacteria) It was discovered by Nocard and Roux (1898).
Plasmid is very important in biotechnology as it is used as a very These are smallest, lack cell wall, aerobic,
important tool. Due to its small, highly replicating nature it is used to non-motile, pleomorphic (can change their shape)
transfer and cloning of the desired gene. Due to this nature it is also and prokaryotic organism, contains both RNA and
called cloning vector. DNA. These are also called PPLO, i.e.
pleuropneumonia like organisms.
Staining of Bacteria Economic Importance of Bacteria

Christian Gram, a Danish bacteriologist in 19th century Bacteria causes number of diseases in plants,
developed a method to differentiate bacteria by colouring them. animals, human, etc.
On the basis of colour adaptation he divided the bacteria into Human Diseases Caused by Bacteria
Gram Positive and Gram Negative bacteria.
Diseases Pathogens
Comparison of Gram Positive and
Cholera Vibrio cholerae
Gram Negative Bacteria
Bacterial dysentery Shiegella dysenteriae
Characteristic Gram Positive Gram Negative
Plague Yersinia pestis
Gram reaction Achieve violet or purple Achieve red colour in
colour in colouring colouring (staining) Rheumatic fever Streptomyces sp.
(staining) process. process. Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Lipid, protein and Very low to low High Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae
carbohydrate content
Typhoid Salmonella typhi
Harmful products Exotoxins (toxin act Endotoxin (toxin act in
(toxins) outside the body) side the body) Jaundice Leptospiraictero haemorrhagiae
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Nutrition in Bacteria
Gastroenteritis Escherichia coli
On the basis of their energy requirements and ability to
synthesise essential metabolites, the bacteria may be Syphilis Treponema pallidum
autotrophic (self food producing) or heterotrophic (taking food Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrhoeae
from other)
Bacterial conjunctivity Haemophilus influenzae
On the basis of behaviour of nutrition, heterotrophic bacteria are
divided into Tetanus Clostridium tetani
– Saprophytic bacteria, (i.e. depends on dead organic matter) Diarrhoea Bacillus coli
– Symbiotic bacteria, (i.e. bacteria establish association with other
organisms). Plant Diseases Caused by Bacteria
– Parasitic bacteria, (i.e. bacteria getting food from other organisms).
Diseases Pathogens
Reproduction in Bacteria Leaf spot of cherry Coccomyces hiemates
Like other living organisms, bacteria also reproduce through Ring spot of potato Xanthomonas solanacearum
various methods.
Blight of walnut Xanthomonas juglandes
Asexual reproduction takes place in bacteria by vegatative
method and spore formation. The common means of vegetative Blight of paddy Xanthomonas oryzae
reproduction in bacteria is binary fission. Some bacteria multiply Bacterial spot of peach Xanthomonas prunii
by budding. Citrus canker Xanthomonas citri
Lederberg and Tatum (1946) proved that sexual reproduction
Angular leaf spot of cotton Xanthomonas malvacearum
takes place in bacteria. There are three methods of sexual
reproduction in bacteria. Blight of bean Pseudomonas phaseolicola
Bacteria reproduce by Transformation, the process explained by Crown gall of sugarbeet Agrobacterium tumefaciens
F Griffith (1928) in which bacteria exchange their genetic Wilt of tobacco Phytobacterium solanacearum
material through conjugation tube. During conjugation, [given by
Soft rot of mango Bacterium cartovorus
Lederberg and Tatum (1946)] bacteria exchange their genetic
material through sex pili. For the process of transduction, Tundu of wheat Corynebacterium tritici
[explained by Zinder and Lederberg (1952)] the bacteria
Bacteria are also very useful for obtaining good
exchange their genetic material through bacteriophages.
products.
Some important products obtained from bacteria are as under Some Important Industrial and
Some Important Antibiotics other Products and their Sources
and their Sources Important Industrial Products Sources
Antibiotics Sources Acetic acid Acetobacter aceti
Gramicidin and tyrocidine Bacillus brevis Acetone and butanol Clostridium acetobutylicum
Cerexin, biocerin, etc. B. cereus Lactic acid Streptococcus lacti
Bacitracin, licheniformin, etc. B. licheniformis Synthetic rubber Acetobacter
Polymixin-B B. polymyxa Vitamin-B Clostridium acetobutylicum
Bacitracin, eumycin, bacillomycin, etc. B. subtilis Flavouring of tea Bacillus megaterium
Kanamycin Streptomyces kanomyceticus and tobacco
Terramycin S. rimosus Milk products Various lactobacillus
Chloromycetin S. venezuelae Methane (used as biogas) Methanobacillus
Kingdom–Protista
Protista contains all eukaryotic single-celled organisms that resembles with plants, animals and fungi. They have well
defined nucleus and other membrane bound organelles. Members of this kingdom are mostly marine and contains
chrysophytes, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, slime moulds and protozoa.
Kingdom–Protista
Chrysophytes Dinoflagellates Euglenoid Slime Moulds or Protozoa or

or Golden algae, or Protists with flagella Photosynthetic Protists Fungi like protists Animal like protists
e.g. Diatom (algal like) e.g. Gonyaulax e.g. Euglena e.g. Fonticula e.g. Amoeba
Economic Importance of Protista

Protistans cause several diseases in human being, a list of some disease with their general details are given as under
Pathogenic Protozoans of Humans

Parasite Habitat Disease and Distribution Mode of Transmission
Balantidium coli Large intestine Ciliary dysentery and World-wide. By taking cysts with food and drink.
Entamoeba histolytica Large intestine Amoebic dysentery and World-wide. By swallowing cysts with food and drink.
Giardia intestinalis Upper part of human Flagellate diarrhoea and World-wide. By taking cysts with food and water.
small intestine
Leishmania donovani Cells of liver, spleen, Kala-azar and India By bites of sandfly (Phlebotomus
lymph glands and WBCs argentipes).
L. tropica Endothelial cells of skin Cuteneous oriental sore, By bites of sandfly (Phlebotomus sergenti).
capillaries Persia and Arabia
Plasmodium vivax Liver cells Benign tertian malaria. By bites of female Anopheles mosquito.
P. malariae –do– Quartan malaria and Tropical countries. –do–
Trypanosoma Initially blood and later Gambian sleeping sickness and By bites of tse-tse fly (G. pulpiness).
gambiense cerebrospinal fluid Central Africa.
T. rhodesiense Initially blood and later Rhodesian sleeping sickness and By bites of tse-tse fly (G. palpalis and
cerebrospinal fluid South Eastern Africa. G. morsitans).
T. cruzi Blood South American trypanosomiasis (Chagas By contamination of wounds with faeces of
disease), Central and South America. triatomid bugs.
Trichomonas vaginalis Vagina Leucorrhoea and World-wide. By coitus (sexual intercourse).
T. hominis Large intestine Mild diarrhoea and World-wide. By taking active trophozoites deposited on
food by flies.
Kingdom–Fungi Plant Diseases Caused by Fungi

Fungi is a group of unique organism having cell wall of Plant Disease Fungus
chitin and heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Body is Wart disease of potato Synchytrium endobioticum
made up of filaments (thread-like) called hyphae, which Stem rot of papaya Pythium aphenodermatum
form a network called mycellium. Reproduction takes
Late blight of potato Phytophthora infestans
place by fragmentation, by asexual and sexual spores.
Fungi are classified on the basis of morphology of Powdery mildew of peas Erysiphe polygoni
mycelium and mode of spore formation. Powdery mildew of wheat Erysiphe polygoni
Fungi Downy mildew of peas Peronospora pisi
White rust of crucifers Albugo candida
Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deuteromycetes Green ear of bajra Sclerospora graminicola
or Algae like fungi, or Sac fungi, or Mushrooms, or Imperfect fungi, Black rust of wheat
e.g. Mucor and e.g. Neurospora,
Puccina graminis tritici
e.g. Agaricus, e.g. Alternaria and
Rhizopus, Albugo. Claviceps. Ustilago and Puccinia. Trichoderma. Flag smut of wheat Urocystis tritici
Loose smut of wheat Ustilago tritici
Covered smut of barley Ustilago hordei
Mushroom
Loose smut of barley Ustilago nuda
These are used as food due to their flavour, protein and
Covered smut of barley Ustilago kolleri
vitamin contents. Their edible part is basidicarp (has fleshy
stalk and umbrella-shaped cap or pileus). Agaricus Whip smut of sugarcane Ustilago scitamineae
campestris is common edible mushroom whereas, Amanita Grain smut of jowar Sphacelotheca sorghii
phylloidos poisonous in nature. Smut of bajra Tolyposorium penicillari
Early blight of potato Alternaria solani
Economic Importance of Fungi
Tikka disease of groundnut Cercospora personata
Fungi are beneficial as well as harmful.
Red rot of sugarcane Colletotrichum falcatum
Several diseases caused by fungi are explained as follows:
Blast disease of rice Pyricularia oryzae
Human Diseases Caused by Fungi Wilt of arhar Fusarium udum
Human Diseases Fungus Club root disease of crucifers Plasmodiophora brassicae
Aspergillosis Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus and A. niger Stem gall of coriander Protomyces macrosporus
Blastomycosis Blastomyces dermatitidis Leaf rust of coffee Haemelia vastarix
Candidiasis Candida albicans Fungi are also used as food for obtaining important products.
Chromomycosis Cladosprium corrionii Penicillium It is a fungi which includes number of species, few
Coccidiomycosis Coccidiodes immitis species are saprophyte and few are parasites, e.g. Penicillium
Cryptococcosis Lipomyces neoformans notatum is known for the production of antibiotics.
Geotrichosis Geotrichum candidum Some commercially important products obtained from fungi and
Histoplasmosis Histoplasma capsulatum their resources are as under
Neuritis Mucor pusillus Some other Important Products
Onychomycosis Trichophyton purpureum and their Source Fungi
Sportotrichosis Sportotrichum schenkii Important Products Source Fungi
Mushrooms (edible fungi) Various Agaricus sp.
Some Animal Disease Caused by Fungi Vitamin-B and D Yeast
Animal Diseases Fungus Colvacin (Anti cancer drug) Calvatia
Athelete foot Tinea rubrum Ethyl alcohol Yeast
Ringworm Trichophyton, Microsporum Flavoured cheese Penicillium
and Epidermophyton Citric acid Aspergillus
Mucomycosis Mucor and Rhizopus Fumaric acid Rhizopus
Aspergillosis Aspergillus Gibberellic acid (plant hormone) Fusarium
Penicillosis Penicillium
Various enzymes Aspergillus
Aflatoxins are naturally occuring mycotoxins, which are produced by Algae

many species of Aspergillus, fungus. Fungus can be considered as a Algae are mostly aquatic (freshwater and
type of mould. Aflatoxins are toxic and are among the most marine), autotrophic, chlorophyll bearing
carcinogenic substances known. thalloid plants. They ranges from unicellular,
Symbiotic Association of Fungi colonial to filamentous forms. Reproduction
takes place by vegetative (fragmentation),
Lichens
asexual (flagellated zoospores) and sexual
Mycorrhiza
(Algae + fungi) (Fungi + roots of higher plants) (fusion of two gametes, isogamy, anisogamy
Grow in humid and and oogamy) means.
uninhabited places. Algae show rapid reproduction and make a
Algae provide food to fungi. Ectomycorrhiza Endomycorrhiza
Fungi anchors and absorbs (Fungi, on surface of root) (Fungi, inside root) huge colony in the water. This massive growth
H2O and minerals from SO2. Plant provides shelter and food to fungi. is called algal bloom. Algal bloom caused by
Are bioindicaters for air Fungi helps plant in following ways : red algae is called red tide. Rapid growth
pollutants (sulphur dioxide). Abosrbs H2O and minerals specially H2 and P
Ramalina and Evernia are from soil due to the presence of phase.
exhaust the nutrient from the environment and
used to prepare dhup, Provides growth promoting and antimicrobia affect other organisms (Eutrophication). Algae
cosmetic, soaps, etc. substances enables plant to tolerate extremes are also very important for obtaining
of pH.
economically important substances.
Kingdom–Plantae Algae can be classified as
Kingdom–Plantae includes chlorophyll containing eukaryotic organisms. Algae
But some plants are insectivorous (insect eating plants, bladder wort
and venus fly trap) and parasite (Cuscuta). Major characteristic of Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae
plants is the presence of cell wall made up of cellulose. (green algae) (brown algae) (red algae)
Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
Some important Algal member are as follows:
angiosperms. C Linnaeus (1758) divided these group of plants into
cryptogams (without visible sex organs and phanerogams (with visible Some Important Algae used as Food
sex organs). Engler divided the plants into Thallophyta (embryo stage Laminaria Nostoc and Durvillea
absent) and Embryophyta (Embryo stage present). Alaria Codium
Theophrastus is known as the Father of Botany. His famous book is Monostroma Chondrus
Undaria Spirulina
Historia Plantarum.
Ulva Scenedesmus
Thallophyta Undifferentiated plant body that has no roots, stems or Chlorella Porphyra, Gracilaria and Gelidium
leaves is called Thallophyta, (i.e. Cladophora).
Some other Economically Important
Tracheophyta (also called vascular plants) Those plants that have
Products and their Source Algae
lignified tissues for conducting water and minerals throughout the
plant, (i.e. Fucus alba). Important Product Source Algae
O2 production for Chlorella and
Some Important Antibiotics and their Sources astronauts Synechococcus
Antibiotic Source Chlorellin (antibiotic) Chlorella
Penicillin Penicillium notatum and P. chrysogenum Agar-agar (Jelly-like Gelidium and Gracilaria
Ergotine Claviceps purpurea (sclerotia); Given after childbirth material)
Griseofulvin Penicillium griseofulvum; in skin diseases (ringworm) Iodine Laminaria and Macrocystis
Citrinine Biofertilisers Nostoc, Anabaena, etc.
P. citrinum
Campestrin Psaliotta campestris (Agaricus campestris) Some algae also cause several diseases in plants
Baccatin-A Gibberella baccata and animals as Cephaleuros virescens causes red
rust of tea and Nostoc and other brown algae
Glyotoxin Trichoderma sp.
cause death of aquatic animals.
Proliferin Aspergillus proliferans
Bryophytes
Chaetomin Chaetomium cochloides
Commonly called as amphibians of plant
Jawaharine Aspergillus niger
kingdom as they are found both in dry and
Fumigallin Aspergillus fumigatas niger moist area. Mostly found in hilly area. Body
Clavicin Aspergillus clavatus have root-like, stem-like and leaf-like structure,
Flavicin Aspergillus flavus and A . fumigatus no true organs.
Main plant body (gamete producing or Angiosperms

gametophyte) → Male and female gametes → Angiosperms are flowering plants hence, flower is the most
Fertilisation (water required) → Sporophytic body important feature of this group of plants as it contains/bears
(spore producing body, divided into foot, seta and male (pollen grain) and female (embryo sac) gametophyte in
capsule) → Spores → Germination → New Plant specialised structures called androecium and gynoecium
body (gametophytic). respectively. Fruit is the another major character of
Pteridophytes angiosperms. These ranges from microscopic Wolfia to tall trees
Eucalyptus.
Pteridophytes are first terrestrial plants possessing
vascular tissue, i.e. xylem and phloem. Major Angiosperms are recently evolved plants. Body is sporophytic
habitats are cool, shady places but some ones are and differentiated into true root, stem and leaves. Plants are
also found in sandy soil. Used as ornamental plants. annual, biennial and perennial. Found in many habitats and
some forms show hydrophic (present in water) nature, parasitic
Main plant body (spore producing or sporophyte) →
nature (Cuscuta) and epiphytic (present on other plant for food
Spores → Spore germinate → Prothallus → Bear
and shelter) nature.
male and female gametophyte → Produces male
and female gametes → Fertilisation → Main plant Angiosperms are divided into dicots and monocots based on the
body (Sporophytic). presence of cotyledons (part of embryo). Dicots have two, while
monocots have one cotyledon.
Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are plants with naked ovules. They Kingdom–Animalia
include medium size tree to giant redwood tree Animals are heterotrophic and multicellular organisms with organs
Sequoia. Plant body is diploid and divided into true or tissues. Most are mobile or have a mobile life stage. All have a
root, stem and leaves. Root system is generally tap larval or embryonic stage of development. Animals also exhibit
roots but in some plant such as in Pinus fungal different kinds of symmetry, i.e. asymmetrical, spherical, radial
association is in the form of Mycorrhiza and in and bilateral.
Cycas, N2 fixing cyanobacteria in coralloid roots are Animals can be invertebrate (no backbone) or vertebrates (with
found. Stem is erect and leaves are pinnate in backbone).
Cycas and needle like in conifers (Pinus). Infact vertebrates have two large groups, i.e. Pisces and
Heterospory is found in gymnosperms. These Tetrapoda.
consist of two types of spores microspores and Pisces (fishes) show locomotion via fins and can be
megaspores. Male plant bear male cone which in categorised to
made up of microsporophylls. – Cyclostomata jawless fishes with 6-15 pairs of gill slits. They are
Each microsporophyll contains microsporangia devoid of scales and have cartilagenous endoskeleton.
which forms microspore. Microspore develops into – Chondrichthyses jaw bearing cartilagenous fishes like dogfish,
reduced male gametophyte (pollen grain) within electric ray or shark.
microsporangia. Female plant bears – Tetrapods show locomotion via limbs and can be categorised to
megasporophylls that bear ovules. In ovules, Amphibia tetrapods, thin, moist skin, use external fertilisation,
megasporangium develops female gametophyte that ectothermic, three-chambered heart and have a brain, eyes and
bear archaegonia. Unlike bryophytes, in tympanum.
pteridophytes separate free living gametophytic Reptilia live on land, have dry thick skin, internal skeleton,
stage is not found. Fertilisation takes place that internal fertilisation, well developed kidneys that excrete uric
leads to the formation of zygote. Zygote lead to the acid to conserve water, some with four-chambered heart
formation of embryo. Ovules converted into seeds (crocodile), ectothermic and breath through lungs only.
that are not covered. Aves feathers made up of keratin for insulation, bones are
Cycas It is a woody gymnosperm with natural seeds, honey-combed, four-chambered heart, excrete uric acid,
which bears male and female cones on separate exceptional vision and enlarged sternum.
plants. Mammalia hair made up of keratin and protein, mammary
Mycorrhizae is a symbiotic association between a glands, have teeth, well developed diaphragm, breath through
fungus and the root of vascular plants. lungs only and well-developed hormonal system.
In a nutshell these can be classified as

COVID 19
Animal Kingdom
It is an infectious disease that is caused by
Cellular Level of organisation Tissue level of organisation a coronavirus known as Sars Acute
Respiratory Syndrome Corona virus 2
Porifera
(SARS-Cov-2). The outbreak of this disease
No body cavity between Pseudocoelom Coelomate
epidermis and gastrodemis began in Wuhan, China, in December 2019.
Coelenterata and Platyhelminthes
Nematoda Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses
which causes illness in animals or humans.
Mesodermal cells Coelom formed from In humans, coronaviruses cause infections in
from a single cell during pouches pinched off the respiratory system. These can be
growth of the embryo from the endoderm
common cold or more harmful diseases like
Annelida, Mollusca and as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
Arthropoda Notochord absent Notochord present (MERS).
Echinodermata Chordata The COVID 19 disease is caused by a new
type of coronavirus, also known as Novel
Notochord present in Notochord replaced by
atleast larval forms vertebral column in adults
Corona Virus that has been recently
but very rudimentary discovered and was never found earlier in
Protochordata Vertebrata Humans.
Causes and Symptoms
Exoskeleton of scales, Gills in larva, Exoskeleton of Exoskeleton of Exoskeleton of
endoskeleton of bone/ lungs in most scales and lay eggs feathers, lay hair, external ears and
◆
It is widely believed that new coronavirus
cartilage breathing adults and slimy skin outside water eggs outside water, mostly giving birth has come from a species of bats and
through gills flight possible to live youngones
pangolins.
Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia ◆
The COVID 19 disease is spread from
e.g. Sea horse and e.g. Salamander e.g. Snake, lizard e.g. Parrot, owl e.g. Sea cow,
common crap frog and crocodile and penguin sea lion and man person to person through small droplets
Classificiation of animals released from the nose or mouth when
someone coughs or sneezes. People
Disease Carrier Insects (Vectors) become infected if they inhale these
Insects Diseases Insects Diseases droplets or touch objects or surfaces then
Housefly Diarrhoea, leprosy, Rat flea Bubonic plague touches his/her mouth, eyes or nose.
typhoid, cholera, etc. Sand fly Kala-azar ◆
The symptoms take 5-14 days to occur.
Mosquitoes Malaria, filariasis, dengue Tse-tse fly African sleeping sickness The most common symptoms of the
fever, yellow fever, etc. Bed bug Typus fever disease are fever, dry cough, and
Kissing bug Chagas disease tiredness, other symptoms include aches
and pains, nasal congestion, headache,
Viruses conjunctivitis, sore throat, diarrhoea, loss
The term ‘virus’ was given by Pasteur. It was discovered by Ivanowski in of taste or smell or a rash on skin or
diseased tobacco plant. They are obligate parasites. They lack enzymes discoloration of fingers or toes.
necessary for the generation of energy. Remedies
These are considered as non-living and are dependent on the host for their ◆
There are no specific treatments,
survival. They exist as crystal like forms outside the host and once get medicines or vaccines available for COVID
inserted, lead to dangerous and lethal infections which lead to death of the 19. Only the symptoms of COVID 19
individual. Most of the viruses are known to possess small fragment of DNA disease can be treated. The most
or RNA in single or double-stranded forms and are capable to insert into appropriate remedies for treatment of
the DNA of the host organism. symptoms include resting, taking plenty of
Types of viruses on basis of genetic material
fluids, maintaining a healthy diet and
proper sleep.
– ds DNA viruses (e.g. Adenoviruses, Herpes viruses and Pox viruses).
– ss DNA viruses (+ ) sense DNA (e.g. Parvo viruses).
◆
Prevention is considered as the best
– ds RNA viruses (e.g. Reoviruses). medicine for the COVID 19 disease. It
– (+ ) ss RNA viruses (+ ) sense RNA (e.g. Picornoviruses, Tongoviruses). includes properly washing hands, wearing
– (−) ss RNA viruses (−) sense RNA (e.g. Orthomyxoviruses, Rhabdoviruses). a mask or face cover, maintaining 1-3
– ss RNA-RT viruses (+ ) sense RNA with DNA intermediate in life cycle (e.g.
metre distance from each other, avoiding
Retroviruses). touching eyes, ears, nose or mouth,
– ds DNA-RT viruses (e.g. Hepadnaviruses). maintaining personal health and hygiene.
Viral Diseases of Human Beings

Disease Pathogen Reservoir Vector/Epidemiology
AIDS HIV Humans Spread through contact with infected body fluids. Destroys immune
defence, resulting in death by infection or cancer. Over 39.5 million
people and 3.6 million were infected in India by 2007.
Chickenpox Human herpes virus Humans Spread through contact with infected individuals rarely fatal. Vaccine
(Varicella zoster) approved in US in early 1995.
Ebola Filoviruses unknown Acute haemorrhagic fever; virus attacks connective tissue leading to
massive haemorrhage and death. Peak mortality is 50-90%, if the
disease is untreated. Outbreaks confined to local regions of central
Africa.
Hepatitis-B (viral) Hepatitis-B Virus Humans Highly infectious through contact with infected body fluids. Vaccine
(HBV) available, can be fatal.
Herpes Herpes Simplex Humans Fever, blasters; spread primarily through contact with infected saliva.
Virus (HSV) Very prevalent worldwide. Exhibits latency-the disease can be dormant
for several years.
Influenza Influenza viruses Humans and ducks Historically, a major killer (22 million died in 18 months in
1918-1919); Wild asian ducks, chicken and pigs are major reservoirs.
The ducks are not affected by the flu, virus, which shuffles its antigen
gene, while multiplying within them, leading to new flu strains.
Measles Paramyxoviruses Humans Extremely contagious through contact with infected individuals.
Vaccine available, Usually contracted in childhood, when it is not
serious; more dangerous to adults.
Mononucleosis Epstein-Barr Virus Humans Spreads through contact with infected saliva. May last for several
(EBV) weeks; common in young adults. Rarely fatal.
Mumps Paramyxovirus Humans Spreads through contact with infected saliva. Vaccine available; rarely
fatal.
Pneumonia Influenza virus Humans Acute infection of the lungs, often fatal without treatement.
Polio Poliovirus Humans Acute viral infection of the CNS that can lead to paralysis and is often
fatal. Salk’s vaccine.
Rabies Rhabdovirus Wild and domestic An acute virul encephalomyelitis transmitted by the bite of an infected
Canidae (dogs, foxes, animal. Fatal if untreated.
volves and coyotes),
bats and raccoons.
Smallpox Variola virus Formerly humans, now Historically, a major killer; the recorded case of smallpox was in
only exists into 1977. Last case of smallpox was found in 1984 but not confirmed, in
research labs-may be Bangladesh. A worldwide vaccination compaign wiped out the disease
eliminated completely.
Yellow fever Flavivirus Humans and Spread from individual to individual by mosquito bites; a notable
mosquitoes cause of death during the construction of the Panama canal. If
untreated, this disease has a peak mortality rate of 60%.
Chikungunya Chickeengunya virus Arthralgia (joint pain), sudden onset fever caused by the bite of Aedes
oegypti (mosquito).
Swine flu H1 N1 virus Similar to influenza and spread through sneeze of the infected person.
Dengue Dengue virus High fever, rashes on face, severe eye pain, joint pain caused by the
(flaviribo virus) bite of Aedes aegypti, Aedes allopictus and culex fangans. Torniquet
test for diagnosis.
HPV Papilloma Human Keratinocytes of the skin or muscons membranes.
virus
Self Check
1. H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with 7. Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been used in
reference to which one of the following diseases? rehabilitating degraded sites because mycorrhiza
(a) AIDS (b) Birds flu [IAS 2015] enables the plants to [IAS 2012]
(c) Dengue (d) Swine flu I. resist drought and increase absorptive area.
2. Improper handling and storage of cereal grains and II. tolerate extremes of pH.
oilseeds result in the production of toxins known as III. resist disease infestation.
aflatoxins, which are not generally destroyed by normal Select the correct answer using the codes given below
cooking process. Aflatoxins are produced by [IAS 2013] (a) Only I (b) II and III
(a) Bacteria (b) Protozoa (c) Mould (d) Viruses (c) I and III (d) All of these
3. Which of the following diseases can be transmitted 8. Consider the following statements
from one person to another through tattooing? I. Dengue is a protozoan disease transmitted by
[IAS 2013] mosquitoes.
I. Chikungunya II. Hepatitis-B II. Retro-orbital pain is not a symptom of dengue.
III. HIV-AIDS III. Skin rash and bleeding from nose and gums are some of
Select the correct answer using the codes given below the symptoms of dengue.
(a) Only I (b) II and II (c) I and III (d) All of these Which of these statements given above is/are correct?
(a) I and II (b) Only III
4. Which of the following statements is/are correct? (c) Only II (d) I and III
[IAS 2013]
I. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of 9. Consider the following statements
energy. I. The common blue-green algae, Spirogyra and Ulothrix
II. Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium. are found in both freshwater ponds and oceans.
III. Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by II. The Chameleon can look ahead with one eye and at the
biological vectors only. same time look behind with another.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) I and III (d) All of these (a) Only I (b) Only II
5. Consider the following animals [IAS 2013]
I. Sea cow II. Sea horse 10. Bacteria are very useful now-a-days as many technique
were developed to utilise them for extraction of useful
III. Sea lion
products. Which of the following bacteria are used for
Which of the following is/are mammal/mammals? the synthesis of antibiotics?
(a) Only I (b) I and III
I. Bacillus II. Streptomyces
(c) II and III (d) I, II and III
III. Lactobacillus
6. Government of India encourages the cultivation of ‘Sea Codes
buckthorn’. What is the importance of this plant? (a) Only I (b) I and II
[IAS 2012] (c) II and III (d) None of these
I. It helps in controlling soil erosion and in preventing
dessertification.
11. Sphagnum is an important bryophytes. Consider the
following statements about it;
II. It is a rich source of biodiesel.
I. It is a chief constituents of peat.
III. It has nutritional value and is well adopted to live in cold
II. Very useful in transportation of wet or moisture requiring
areas of high altitudes.
products.
IV. Its timber is of great commercial value.
III. Also used for synthesis of antibiotics.
Which of these statements given above is/are correct? Codes
(a) Only I (b) II, III and IV (a) I and II (b) Only III
(c) I and III (d) I, II, III and IV (c) II and III (d) Only I
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (a)
Chapter three
Structural Organisation
of Plants and Animals
Morphology of Plants
The complex body of Morphology is the branch of biology dealing with the study of form and structure of
multicellular plants organisms and their specific structural features. It includes the external structure of plant
like root, stem, leaves, etc.
and animals perform
specific functions Morphology of Roots
with the help of Radicle of embryo leads to the formation of primary roots which further develops root from
different group of lateral side which are called secondary and tertiary roots. These roots form a system of
cells in a well roots called tap root system. In monocots, a large number of roots arise from the lower part
co-ordinated manner. of the stem called fibrous root system. In some cases like Monstera, grasses, banyan tree,
etc., roots arise from other than radicle and are called adventitious roots.
Different organs
show great variety of Modifications of Tap Roots
similarities or
Conical Napiform Fusiform Pneumatophore
dissimilarities in cone-shaped, extremely spherical, thick and roots arise upward
origin and function of e.g. Carrot e.g. Turnip and beet root tapering, from ground for
e.g. Radish getting O2 for respiration,
cells to perform e.g. Rhizophora
specific functions.
The cells form tissue, Modifications of Adventitious Roots
tissue system, organ, Roots Examples Roots Examples
organ system and Fibrous root Onion Assimilatory root Tinospora
finally organism. Leafy root Bryophyte Parasitic root Cuscutta
Climbing root Betel leaf and Pothos Moniliform root Grapes and bitter gourd
Buttress root Terminalia Nodulose root Mango and turmeric
Sucking root Cuscuta Prop root Banyan tree
Respiratory root Juicia Stilt root Maize and sugarcane
Epiphytic root Ferns Fasciculated root Dahlia
Aerial root Orchids – –
Other Root Modifications

Some roots produce suckers from adventitious buds like growth that grows into aerial
shoots capable of independent existence and serve to propagate the plant.
Many flowering plants develop as parasite on the other plants by producing haustoria that
penetrate the tissues of the host and connect to their vascular system.
Morphology of Stem Modification of leaves are as under

Modifications of Leaves
Stem is the ascending organ of the plant
which is formed by the elongation of
plumule. Spines Stipules Bracts Tendrils
Sharp Leaf-like scales Modified leaves This modified
Modification of Stem outgrowths at the base at the base leaf tissue is meant
of leaf tissue, of petiole, of flowers, for support
Underground Modification e.g. Cactus e.g. Black locust e.g. Poinsettia e.g. Cucumber
Underground stem stores food and
becomes thick and tuberous,
e.g. Stem tuber : Potato Morphology of Flower
Bulb : Onion Flower is basically a modified shoot. Their arrangement on floral axis is
Corm : Gladiolus
termed as inflorescence. Inflorescence is basically of two types one is
Rhizome : Ginger
racemose where main axis continue to grow and second one is cymose,
Sub-aerial Modification where main axis terminates to grow as a flower.
Modification of stem above the ground
The morphology of floral parts is depicted in the diagram given below:
but not completely formed,
e.g. Runner : Gram roots Aborted pollen tube
Germinating
Stolon : Mint pollen grain
Androecium or
Offset : Water hyacinth male sex organ,
Sucker : Roses develop pollen Anther
grain and may
Aerial Modification
Stamen
Pollen Gynoecium or
be found in Stigma
Modification of stem that are mono (one
tube female sex organ.
Develop egg cell,
completely aerial, bundle), di
Filament Style may be free
(two bundles)
Pistil
e.g. Stem tendril : Grapes and poly (apocarpous) and
Stem thorn : Lemon condition Ovary syncarpous
Phylloclade : Cactus (fused). Ovule
Ovule becomes seed
Bulbils : Ruscus and ovary
Morphology of Leaves
Leaves are flattened structure borne Petals or corolla
coloured, attract
on stem at nodes. The joining points pollinator and Sepals or calyx
contain axillary bud that develop a new may be free outer protecting
branch. Leaves originate from shoot (gamopetalous) Nectary green covering,
or fused
apical meristem and arranged in (Polypetalous)
may be free
(gamosepalous)or
acropetal order. Peduncle Receptacle
(stalk supporting (stem of flower) united (poly
Leaf is made up of leaf base, petiole and flower structure) sepalous)
lamina. At the base of leaf small leaf-like

Flower Parts
structures called stipules are present.
Arrangement of veins (vascular tissue) Fruit and Seed
and veinlets in the leaf is called Fruit is the ripened ovary developed after fertilisation. It is made up of
venation and these are of two types, pericarp outer covering may be dry or fleshy. Seeds are mature ovule
i.e. reticulate (branched) and parallel. developed after fertilisation. Based on number of cotyledons in embryo of
Leaves may be simple (contain full seed, it may be dicotyledonous (two cotyledon) or monocotyledonous
lamina) or compound (contain leaflets (one cotyledon).
instead of full lamina).
Magbook ~ Structural Organisation of Plants and Animals 129
Types of Fruits and their Edible Parts (Ripened ovary with ripened ovules)
Simple Fruits Aggregate Fruits Composite Fruits

(made from single ovary of one flower) (made from many ovaries of one flower) (made from many ovaries of many flowers)
Legume Pea (whole seed is edible) Aggregate Achenes Fleshy Sorosis Jack fruit and
Caryopsis Grain (whole fruit is edible) thalamus and seeds are edible pineapple (fleshy axis,
bracts and perianth are edible)
Nut Litchi (cotyledon, aril and thalamus are edible) Aggregate Drupes Black
Berry Tomato, brinjal and grapes (pericarp and berry and raspberry Syconus Peepal, banyan and
placenta are edible) fig (fleshy receptacle or
Aggregate Berries Custard apple
thalamus are edible)
Pepo Cucumber and watermelon (inner type of pericarp and thalamus)
(mesocarp, endocarp and seeds are edible)
Pome Apple and walnut (fleshy thalamus is edible)
Anatomy of Plant
The study of internal structure of an organism is called anatomy. In plant anatomy, the study of various tissues is the major
point to be focused. Tissue is a group of cells having common origin and function.
Meristematic Tissues
Meristematic tissues or simply meristems are tissues in which the cells remain forever young and divide actively
throughout the life of the plant. Meristematic cells are generally small and cuboidal with large nuclei, small vacuoles and
thin walls.
Meristem is of two types, i.e. primary (formed early) and secondary (formed later) meristem. Primary meristem may be
apical (at root and stem tips) and intercalary (found between mature tissues) meristem. Secondary meristem may be
vascular (found between xylem and phloem) and cork cambium (found in the outer side of stem).
Permanent or Mature Tissues

Meristematic tissue after cell division and differentiation produce permanent tissue. The shape, size and function are
defined in permanent tissue. Unlike meristematic tissue, permanent tissue are of three types
– Simple Permanent Tissue All the cells of simple permanent tissue are of similar and one type only. Simple permanent tissue may be
of three type, i.e. parenchymatous thin walled living cells, involves in storage and photosynthesis, collenchyma (thick-walled, meant
for mechanical support of plant) and sclerenchyma (most thick-walled, meant for mechanical support of plant organs and plant both).
– Complex Permanent Tissue are made up of more than one type of cells and perform similar function. Xylem and phloem are two
types of complex permanent tissue. Xylem conducts water, while phloem conducts food/sap.
Tracheids Vessels Simple

Elongated tube Long cylindrical perforation
like cells provide structure made plant
mechanical up of vessel
support elements
Sieve Tube Phloem Parenchyma

made from cells in this is for storage
Border sieve elements. of food and organic
pits substance like
tannis, resins, etc.
Components
of
Xylem
Xylem fibres Xylem Parenchyma

Thick walled cells provide living cells with Phloem fibres
mechanical support. this wall, mainly Companion
are elongated
responsible for cell are thin-walled
Ray cells sclerenchymatous
storing food. living cells.
cells, provide support.
(absent in
pteridophytes
and gymnosperms)
Xylem Phloem
Special tissues are also called as secretory tissue. They are involved in secretion of substances. There are two types of
special tissue, i.e. glandular and laticiferous (latex secreting tissue).
Tissue System in Plants

Epidermal Tissue Location in Plants Features of Cell Tissue Present in Tissue System
Epidermal tissue system Outer part of root and stem provide Cuticle (outermost) is waxy. Epidermis is a continuous layer of
covering. parenchyma cell. Sometimes epidermis broken by pores called
stomata. Stomata exchange gases with environment.
Ground tissue system Between the epidermal and vascular Mainly made up of parenchyma cell divided into cortex, pericycle
tissue provide support. and medulla or pith.
Vascular tissue system In the centre of root and stem. Conduct Made up of xylem and phloem. Vascular cambium is also found
or transport water and food. between xylem and phloem. Vascular cambium increases the
girth (circumference) of root and stem.
Increase in the diameter of plant is called secondary growth. Due to differential activity of cambium it results to annular
rings in general. Thus, we can say secondary growth in a plant results to the formation of wood.
Wood
Wood consists of xylem. The central, hard, tough and darker region of wood constitutes heart wood, while peripheral portion
constitutes the sap wood.
Main Differences between Sapwood and Heartwood

Sapwood Heartwood
Sapwood represents the outward wood of the plant. It is Heartwood represents the central wood of the plant. It is
light in colour and lighter in weight. Consists living cells. dark in colour and heavier in weight. Living cells are absent.
Tannis, resins, gummy substances are not deposited in Tannins, resins and gummy substances are deposited in
tracheary elements. tracheary elements.
Economically not important because of being easily Economically very important because of being resistant to
attacked by pathogens and insects. pathogens and insects.
It is not durable. It is durable.
Gymnosperm wood is soft and lacks vessels and composed entirely of trachieds, while angiosperm wood is harder wood
because of the presence of numerous fibres.
Growth Rings The climates that alternate favourable with unfavourable seasons for plant growth in which the xylem cells
produced by the cambium vary in size throughout the growing season, resulting in rings with visible differences. If there is
one growing seasons per year, the rings are annual rings and a simple count gives the age of the tree and the science
dendrochronology is the study of growth rings to date past events and climates.
Anatomy of Animals
Animal tissues are of four types, i.e. epithelial, connective, nervous and muscular tissue. Embryonic tissue give rise to
ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. Ectoderm further generates skin and nervous system; mesoderm leads to the
formations of connective tissue, muscles, skeleton, kidney, circulatory and reproductive organs, while endoderm form gut,
respiratory tract, glands and urinary bladder.
Magbook ~ Structural Organisation of Plants and Animals 131
Tissue System of Animals

Tissues Location and Functions Type of Tissue and its Features
Epithelial tissue Present in the outer and inner side of the Squamous tissue is made of flat cell, found in walls of blood vessels,
body such as skin, lining of gut and lungs, etc., permits diffusion of substances.
respiratory system. Cuboidal tissue is made from cube-shaped cells, found in tubules of
kidney and perform secretion and absorption. Columnar tissue is
made of elongated cells, found is intestine and performs secretion and
absorption.
Connective tissue Most abundant and widely distributed in Loose connective tissue have loosely arranged cells and fibres, found
body. They link and supports the body beneath the skin, e.g. areolar and adipose tissue. Dense connective
organs. tissue have compactly packed cells and fibres. Specialised connective
tissue are cartilage, bones and blood.
Muscle tissue Forms framework of body with bones and Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones and Smooth muscles are
supports the whole body movements. found in blood vessels, intestine, etc. Cardiac muscles are present
only in the heart. Minerals like calcium and sodium are necessary for
the muscle contraction.
Neural tissue Involves in the co-ordination of body parts. Neurons are the main cells of neural tissue and transmit the signal
from one body part to the other.
Some Specialised Tissue Structures of Animals

1. Glands
Glands are the major secretory units of our body. All the glands are made up of epithelial tissue. According to the number
of cells which take part in secretion, glands can be either unicellular (one cell takes part in secretion), e.g. goblet cell or
multicellular (many cells are organised to secrete juice). These are of two types
– Endocrine gland Hormones are directly discharged into blood, e.g. thyroid gland.
– Exocrine gland Hormones are discharged with the help of ducts, e.g. salivary glands.
2. Blood
Blood is chief conducting tissue of our body. It is composed of matrix called plasma, RBC (Red Blood Cells) containing
haemoglobin, WBC (White Blood Cells) and platelets. Plasma contains proteins, salts and hormones. Blood clotting is the
transformation of blood into a jelly-like substance within 3-10 minutes of exposure to air. Blood transfusion involves the
safe blood transfer through intravenous line. For successful transfusion of blood, donor’s antigen should be compatible
with recipient’s antibody.
Blood Groups
Carl Landsteiner discovered different blood groups according to the presence or absence of antigens and antibodies on
the surface of RBCs and plasma respectively.
Blood Group Antigen Antibody Donor Groups

A A Anti-b A and O
B B Anti-a B and O
AB Both A and B None A, B and A B
O None Both anti-a and anti-b O
From the above given groups AB is known as the universal recipient and O is known as universal donor.
Another method of classifying blood group is presence or absence of Rh factor (a specificity found in Rhesus monkey).
The presence of Rh-factor is denoted as (+) ve and absence as (–) ve.
Comparison between Plasma and Lymph

Plasma Lymph
It flows in blood vessels It flows in lymphatic vessels.

It is cell-free part of blood and takes It supplies nutrition to tissue devoid of blood supply.
part in excretion, respiration, etc.
3. Bone Articular Ligament

Synovial fluid
It is hardest tissue of our body. It consists of four parts.
Periosteum thick, tough envelope around bone. Epiphysis
Articular cartilage
Matrix composed of protein ossein.
Spongy bone
Endosteum are present outer to bone marrow cavity.
Marrow cavity
Bone marrow soft, semisolid and fatty neurovascular tissue.
Marrow
Bone marrow is of two types Shaft
– Red bone marrow are present in spongy part of bone.
– Yellow bone marrow are present in shaft of long bone.
Compact bone
The major function of bone is to support various organs in our body.
It is a strong and inelastic structure. These join skeletal muscles to bones. These are Periosteum
composed of fibrous tissues.
Blood vessel
It is an elastic structure and has considerable strength. These contain very little matrix.
These strengthen joints and permit normal movements. Strain is caused if excessive
The cancellous and compact
pulling of ligaments occurs.
bone regions
Some Important Features of Animals

Level of Embryonic Layers Digestive System Circulatory System Symmetry Coelom
Organisation Develop
Cell level, tissue During embryo It is complete when Transport food, Animals may be asymmetrical It is the body cavity
level, organ development, ecto both pores mouth minerals and gases radial covered by
level and organ derm, mesoderm and and anus are to body parts with (can be divided into two parts mesoderm. Animal
system level. endoderm are three present, while the help of fluid that bilaterally symmetrical that do not possess
layers. Animal that incomplete when (e.g. blood). only one plane divide the body coelom are called
posseses ecto and only one pore act as into two part). acoelomate, while
endoderm are mouth and anus. that bears coelom
diploblastic and those are symmetrical
possess all three layers called coelomate.
are called triploblastic. Pseudocoelomates
Radial Bilateral
symmetry symmetry have false coelom.
Self Check
1. Consider the following minerals [IAS 2013] 9. Consider the following statements.
I. Calcium II. Iron III. Sodium I. Parenchyma are living cell with thick cell wall.
Which of the minerals given above is/are required by human II. Collenchyma are thick-walled cells meant for support
body for the contraction of muscles? III. Sclerenchyma are living cells with thin-wall.
(a) Only I (b) II and III (c) I and III (d) All of these Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) Only I (b) I and II (c) Only II (d) II and III
2. Oxygen transportation in a human body takes place
through 10. Xylem and phloem are type of complex permanent tissue.
I. blood II. lungs III. tissue Which of the following statement is true about it?
The correct sequence of transportation is (a) Xylem meant for food conduction, while phloem for water
(a) I, II and III (b) III, I and II conduction
(c) II, I and III (d) I, III and II (b) Xylem is made up of sieve tube and companion cells
(c) Phloem is made up of tracheids and vessels
3. Following are some examples of modified tap roots
(d) Xylem is major part of wood
I. Conical II. Napiform III. Fusiform
Which of the above is found in beet root? 11. Consider the following statements
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) I and II (d) II and III I. Squamous tissue is made up of flat cells meant for diffusion.
II. Loose connective tissue is found in tendons and ligaments.
4. Which of the following is true about underground
Which of the above statements is/are true?
modification of stem?
(a) Only I (b) Both I and II
(a) It is found above the ground level
(c) Only II (d) Neither I nor II
(b) Potato is an example of underground modification
(c) Runner and stolon are underground modifications stem 12. Following are some examples of connective tissue
(d) They are not important for human being I. Cartilage II. Bone III. Blood
5. Which of the following is an example of leaf modification? Which of the above is not found in liquid stage?
I. Radish II. Bracts (a) Only I (b) Only II (c) I and II (d) All of these
III. Stipules IV. Tendrils 13. Which of the following statements is incorrect?
Codes (a) Stem tendrils are found in grapes
(a) Only I (b) I, II and III (b) Stipules are the small leaf-like structures
(c) II, III and IV (d) All of these (c) Tendrils are modified leaf tissues in cucumber
(d) Jack fruit is an aggregate fruit
6. Which of the following statement is true about gynoecium
(female sex organ of flower)? 14. Statement I Bone is the hardest tissue of the body.
(a) It is the outer most part of flower. Statement II Hardness of the bone is due to the
(b) It is brighly coloured and attract insects. calcification of its matrix.
(c) It contains ovary, which gets converted into fruit. (a) Both statements are correct
(d) It has no role in fertilisation. (b) Statement I is correct but statement II is wrong
(c) Statement II is wrong but statement I is correct
7. Following are some examples of simple fruits
(d) Both statements are false
I. Legume II. Caryopsis
III. Nut IV. Berry 15. The main function(s) of root is
Which of the above is major fruit of grain? I. absorption of water and minerals
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) I and IV (d) II and III II. to provide proper anchorage of plant
III. to store reserve food material and synthesis of plant growth
8. Which of the following is true about fruits? regulators
(a) It is the ripened androecium of flower
Codes
(b) Simple fruits are made from many ovaries
(a) I and II (b) II and III (c) I and III (d) All of these
(c) Aggregate fruits are made from one ovary
(d) Composite fruits are made from many ovaries of many
flowers
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (d)
Chapter four
Human Physiology
Nutrition in Animals
Human physiology is Nutrition in animal is of heterotrophic type in which food is obtained from other
organisms. The substance which provide the nutrition to organisms is known as nutrients.
the science of
There are several categories of nutrients which are present in animals Some of them are
mechanical, physical, as follows
bioelectrical and Carbohydrate Energy yielding substances, also called as saccharides, e.g. glucose,
biochemical functions fructose, starch, etc.
of human. It focuses Proteins Function as structural material in human body. Made up of amino acids, e.g.
keratin, renin, trypsin, etc.
principally at the level
Lipids These substances playes both structural and energy giving function in human
of organs and their body. They are produced by the fusion of fatty acids.
related system. These Vitamins The name vitamin is derived from the Latin words vita meaning life and amine
systems are concerned an organic chemical nitrogen containing molecule. Polish biochemist Kasimir Funk
isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex B and named
with different functions vitamin in 1912. Biochemical functions of vitamins are
like digestion, —As a hormones (e.g. vitamin-D)
—Antioxidants (e.g. vitamin-E)
excretion, etc.
—Mediators of cell signalling
—Regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (e.g. vitamin-A)
—Largest number of vitamins (e.g. B-complex vitamin) function as precursors for co-enzymes.
Vitamins and Their Diseases Due to Deficiency or Over Dosage

Vitamins Chemical Name(s) Solubility Deficiency Disease
Vitamin-A Retinoids (retinol and carotenoids) Fat Night-blindness and keratomalacia
Vitamin-B1 Thiamine Water Beri-beri
Vitamin-B 2 Riboflavin Water Ariboflavinosis
Vitamin-B 3 Niacin and niacinamide Water Pellagra
Vitamin-B5 Pantothenic acid Water Paresthesia
Vitamin-B 6 Pyridoxine, pyridoxamine and pyridoxal Water Anaemia
Vitamin-B 7 Biotin Water Dermatitis and enteritis
Vitamin-B 9 Folic acid and folinic acid Water Deficiency during pregnancy is
associated with birth defects, such
as neural tube defects
Vitamin-B10 Folic acid Water Ulceration of mouth, diarrhoea, etc.
Vitamin-B12 Cyanocobalamin, hydroxycobalamin and Water Megaloblastic anaemia
methylcobalamin
Vitamin-C Ascorbic acid Water Scurvy
Vitamin-D Ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol Fat Rickets and osteomalacia
Vitamin-E Tocopherols and tocotrienols Fat Deficiency is very rare, mild haemolytic
anaemia in newborn infants
Vitamin-K Phylloquinone and menaquinones Fat Bleeding diathesis
Magbook ~ Human Physiology 135
The alimentary canal shows two basic

Digestion in Humans types of movements during the process
Human beings depend on other organisms for food therefore are called of digestion
heterotrophic organisms. In human beings a complete digestive system Mixing movements mixes juices with
performs the function of acquiring food from the environment breaking it down food.
into small molecule and absorption of the same. Digestion without absorption is Peristalsis help to move the food
incomplete because digested nutrients have to reach the cell by crossing the forward along alimentary canal.
cell barrier, enter the blood stream and reach the final destination. This is
called absorption.
Following figure gives a basic idea about digestive system of human beings
Egestion
The part of food which is not digested or
absorbed in small intestine, moves to the
Mouth last part of alimentary canal, i.e. large
Bears teeth and intestine. The walls of large intestine
salivary glands. absorb water and some minerals and the
Food is broken
down and made
semi solid food or faecal matter moves to
Oesophagus
slimy due to the A tube that passes rectum where it is stored and expelled
secretion of saliva. the broken food in through anus, i.e. defecated.
to the stomach.
Liver
Very important organ
of digestive system, Stomach Disorders of Digestive
secretes bile juice
which is involved in
Secrete acids and
enzymes that helps
System
the digestion of fats. in food digestion. Vomiting Expulsion of food from mouth
due to irritation in stomach.
Gall bladder
Stores bile. Small intestine Diarrhoea Infectious disease resulting
Involved in
absorption of food.
in loose frequent bowel.
Large Intestine Jaundice Yellow colouration of skin and
involved in Rectum mucous membrane.
absorption of water. Stores and expel
faeces. Gall stone Cholesterol crystalises to
form gall stone.
A Summary of Various Processes of Digestion Constipation Difficulty of defecation
due to decreased mobility in large
Region of Name of Enzyme Substrate Product intestine.
Digestion Secretion Appendicitis Inflammation in appendix.
Mouth Saliva Salivary Starch Maltose
amylase
Stomach Gastric juice Pepsinogen and Protein, milk Peptone and
Respiration in
lipase and fatty acids Humans
fats/lipids Respiration is visible sign of life.
Pancreas Pancreatic Trypsin, Protein, starch Polypeptide, Respiration can be either aerobic, i.e.
juice amylase, and disaccharides in the presence of oxygen or anaerobic,
nuclease and nucleoside trisaccharide and
i.e. in the absence of oxygen.
lipase nucleotide
Unlike plants, in human being
Small Intestinal Peptidase, Peptides, Amino acid, glucose,
respiration occurs at two level, i.e. at
intestine juice maltose, lactose, maltose, glucose + galactose,
sucrose, lipase lactose, glucose + fructose, fatty organ level in lungs (by taking O2 in
and nucleoside sucrose, fat acid+glycerol and CO2 out, also called as breathing)
and nucleotide and at cell level (cellular respiration,
same as in plants).
Following figure can give a brief idea of human respiratory system Respiratory
Nose
Take O2 in and gives Trachea
Quotient (RQ)
out CO2 out. Bears Directs the O2 Respiratory quotient is the ratio of
hairs and cilia towards lungs and
to avoid/trap foreign CO2 towards nose. volume of CO2 released to volume of
particles. O2 is absorbed.
Volume of CO2 released
RQ =
Lung Volume of CO2 utilised
Made of UP branches
of tubular bronchi RQ of carbohydrate = 1
Ribs
Cage of ribs contains
that finally divides RQ of protein = 0.80
into alveoli to
bags and save them increase the surface It is determined by Ganong’s
from shocks. area of lung and respirometer.
increase absorption
of O2.
Disorders of
Respiratory System
Alveoli End branches Asthma Caused by various
[Diaphragm] of bronchioles where inflammatory stimuli or blockage of air
gaseous exchange
occurs. way resulting in coughing, difficulty in
breathing, etc.
Human Respiratory System
Pneumonia Acute infection or
Air or oxygen cannot reach these alveoli directly. It has to pass through a inflammation of alveoli.
conducting system Tuberculosis Inflammation of lungs
Nostril → Nasal cavity → Larynx → Trachea (wind pipe) → Bronchi → or pleural membrane. The symptoms
Bronchioles → Alveoli→Blood capillaries → Tissues are fatigue, weight loss, fever,
coughing, etc.
Mechanism of Breathing
Breathing is brought about by alternate contraction and relaxation of Transportation in
dome-shaped structure called diaphragm and coastal muscles inserted in ribs.
Humans
During Inspiration (intake of air) During Expiration (exhale of air) Food and gases absorbed by humans
Flattening of diaphragm + rib cage move Rib cage move inward and downward + via intestine and lungs, respectively is
outward and upwards + expand the thoracic reduction in thoracic cavity. transported to each and every part of
cavity. body through a dedicated
transportation system mediated by a
Oxygen Transport fluid called blood. Blood itself do not
Once the atmospheric air reaches the alveoli, the exchange of respiratory move to different parts rather it is
gases occur through diffusion. The partial pressure of O2 in inspired air is pumped by a pumping organ of body
100 mmHg therefore, oxygen diffuses (high pO2 ) to blood vessels. Partial called heart.
pressure of O2 is low in blood (40 mmHg) only as it contains more
It is a hollow, muscular structure
concentration of carbon dioxide.
located between the lungs towards
98.5% of oxygen is transported by blood with the help of respiratory pigment the left side. It weighs 280-340g in
haemoglobin present in RBCs. One molecule of haemoglobin can carry as males and 230-280g in females. Its
much as four oxygen molecules. outer covering is called pericardium
Carbon Dioxide Transport and internally it contains two atria and
two ventricles. Hence, human heart is
About 1% of CO2 is transported as dissolved in plasma, 23% as
four-chambered.
carbamino-haemoglobin and 70% as bicarbonates.
R
Following diagram gives a brief idea of transport system in Ventricular
humans depolarisation
Ventricular
Lungs Atrial repolarisation
depolarisation
Left Atrium T
Receives oxygenated P
Right Atrium blood from lung
Receives blood to heart
with CO2 from Left Ventricle
P. R. Q S.T.
body part. Pump the blood
Interval Interval
Right Ventricle to all body S
Pump the blood Heart (Four chambered) parts except Q.T.
the lungs QRS
with CO2 towards Interval
Complex
the lungs.
An electrocardio graph
Body Parts
Receives O2 from blood and Cardiovascular Diseases or
gives waste CO2 to blood
Diseases of Transport System
Double circuit human transport system
Arteriosclerosis It is the hardening of the arteries due to the
Important Facts About formation of plaques and calcification in their walls.
Transport System Atherosclerosis It is the deposition of cholesterol in the walls
In contrary to open circulatory system where blood flows of arteries due to which they become narrow and hinder the
in open spaces, humans possess closed circulatory blood flow across them.
system where blood flows through a closed network of Heart attack It is caused due to sudden decrease in blood
blood vessels. supply to heart which leads to the damage of heart muscles.
Heart as the pumping organ works in rhythmic cyclic Angina pectoris It means ‘the pain in the chest’ which is
manner with systole (decrease in volume) and diastole caused when enough oxygen does not reach the heart
(increase in volume). A heart beat consists of both of muscles.
these and in humans it lasts for 0.8 second.
Blood It is a type of connective tissue which is made up of

plasma and blood cells (RBC and WBC). Platelets are

Excretion in Humans
type of blood cells that are responsible for checking The waste products made in the human body are expelled
leakage of blood and blood coagulation during injury. out from the body and this process is called excretion.
Blood Pressure The force that blood exerts against the wall Nitrogen in the form of urea is the waste product of
of blood carrying tube is called blood pressure. It is high human being which is excreted by the dedicated
in the tubes which carry blood to the body parts (systolic excretory system.
pressure) while low in tubes which carry blood to the heart Following diagram gives a brief about excretion system
(diastolic pressure). The average value of BP (blood
pressure) is 120-80mm of Hg.
Blood vessels The tubes which carry the blood are called Urinary duct
that transports urine Kidney
blood vessels. Vessels that carry blood to the body part are to urinary bladder. Very vital organ of
the human body that
called artery (except pulmonary artery) and those that filters blood and
carry the blood towards heart are called veins (except Urinary bladder excretes water and
other toxic substances.
pulmonary vein). It collects the urine
Water is again
upto a certain level absorbed by the
and when it becomes small tubes of kidney
Wireless Pacemaker full it gives a signal and only a small
to brain for micturition fraction is excreted
It is the pacemaker that regulates the heart by wireless pulses (excretion of urine). as urine.
of ultrasound from outside the organ. It is beneficial over
conventional pacemaker as the leads can fail and requiring the
Each bean-shaped kidney is made up of highly coiled
additional surgery to replace them.
similar units called nephron. Each nephron consists of
Electrocardiogram (ECG) (i) Blood vascular component consisting of glomerulus.
(ii) Tubular component comprises of Bowman’s capsule,
The graphical record of chemical exchanges to produce convulated distil tubules and a collecting duct.
electric current within the heart is called ECG.
The process of urine formation in Important Bones in Human Skeleton

kidney involves Part of Body Part of Endoskeleton Region Name of Bones Number
Glomerular filtration Movement of
Axial Skeleton
blood and minerals from
glomerulus to Bowman’s capsule Head Skull Cranium Occipital 1
through filtration slits. The fluid Parietal 2
after filtration is called Frontal 1
ultrafilterate. Temporal 2
Tubular reabsorption 99% of Sphenoid 1
water filtered through glomerulus Ethmoid 1
is reabsorbed. Solutes like vitamin Facial region Nasal 2
glucose, etc., are also reabsorbed Vomer 1
and they enter the blood stream.
Turbinal 2
M Antidiuretic hormone opposes urine Lacrymal 2
formation and helps kidney to Zygomatic 2
excrete concentrated urine and
Palatine 2
hence, conserve water for scarcity.
Formation of concentrated urine is Maxila 2
carried out by counter current Mandible 1
mechanism. Ear Malleus 2
Ossicles Incus 2
Disorders of Stapes 2
Excretory System Hyoid Hyoid body 1
The crystals of salts present in Back bone Vertebral column Neck Cervical vertebrae 7
urine occasionally solidify and Thorax Thoracic vertebrae 12
precipitate causing intense pain Waist Lumbar vertebrae 5
and blockage of ureters.
Sacrum Sacral vertebrae Sacrum 1
Diabetes insipidus causes due to (5 in child)
the secretion of very low levels of Tail Caudal vertebrae or 1
ADH. coccyx (4 in child)
Uremia Presence of excess Thorax Sternum - sternum 1
amount of urea in blood. (Front) 24
Ribs - Ribs
Artificial Kidney Appendicular Skeleton
When a person’s kidney is Thorax Pectoral girdle Shoulder Scapula 2×2
diseased or injured the blood of (Back) Clavicle
the patient is cleaned artificially
Hip Pelvic girdle Pelvis Innominatum bone or 2
by dialysis. Artificial kidney called coxal bone
haemodialyser is a machine that
Forelimbs Upper arm Humerus 2
is used to filter blood.
Fore arm Radio-ulna 4
Wrist Carpals 16
Skeletal System Palm Metacarpals 10
Skeletal system is a framework of Fingers Phalanges 28
bones and cartilage which
Hindlimbs Thigh Femur 2
functions to support, protect and
Shank Tibio-fibula 4
maintenance of body form. It is
either external (exoskeleton) or Knee Patella 2
internal (endoskeleton). Ankle Tarsals 14
Further, endoskeleton is either Sole Metatarsals 10
axial (if present on median Fingers Phalanges 28
longitudinal axis) or appendicular Total 206
(if present at lateral sides).
Joints
Fibrous or Cartilaginous Synovial or

Immovable or Slightly movable Freely movable
Joints between bones of skull Joints between vertebral
Ball and Socket Hinge Pivot Saddle Gliding Ellipsoidal

between humerus between between atlas between metacarpal between radio-ulna between skull and
and glenoid cavity knee and ankle and axis and carpals of thumb and carpals first vertebrae
Disorders of Skeletal System

Arthritis It is caused by the inflammation of the joints.
Osteomalacia It is caused when bones contain insufficient amount of calcium and phosphorus.
Osteoporobis In this disease, bones lose minerals and fibers from its matrix.
Sprain It is a twisting of a joint which causes damage to ligaments (which connects one bone to another).
Neural Co-ordination in Humans

Each and every system in human body is so co-ordinated that the whole body works as a unit. This co-ordination is
maintained by two very important systems of the human body, i.e. neural (nervous) system and endocrine system.
Neural Co-ordination by Nervous System

Nervous system receives stimuli from every part of
the body with the help of long fibre like cells called
neurons. Neurons conduct the stimulus to brain and
after processing it, sends the concerned signals to
the body part again with the help of neuron. Basic
Cell body
structure of neuron is as side-wise.
Myelin
Synapse helps in the transmission of nerve impulse sheath
from one neuron to another. The membranes of pre Vesicle Axon
Dendrites
and postsynaptic neurons are separated by a
Neuro-
synaptic cleft.
transmitter Dendrites
Neurotransmitters present in the presynaptic Axon terminals molecule
neurons are released into these clefts and the signals
are transmitted. These neurotransmitters (e.g. Receptor site
plopamine and acetylcholine) binds to the specific Neuron Synapse
receptors in the postsynaptic membrane and transmits the signal.
Nervous system of human can be easily understood by following flow chart
Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Brain Spinal Cord Motor Neurons Sensory Neurons

Receives and processes Conducts signals to CNS to muscles Sensory organs
sensory information, and from the brain, and glands to CNS
initiates responses, controls reflex activities.
stores, memories,
generates thoughts Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System
and emotions. Controls voluntary Controls involuntary
movements responses
Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain

Memory and speech Vision and Muscular activities, Sympathetic Division Parasympathetic Division
hearing breathing, coughing, etc. Fight or Flight Rest or Digest
Important Functions of Brain Alzheimer’s Disease It is caused due to destruction of

many neurons in the hippocampus (part of forebrain)
Parts Functions due to which the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
Forebrain becomes deficient in brain and patient face trouble in
remembering recent events.
Olfactory region Smell
Myelodysplasia It is the abnormality in the development
Cerebrum Thinking, intelligence, memory,
of the spinal cord.
ability to learn from experience,
will power, skilled work, reasoning,
knowledge, conscious and speech
and controls laughing, weeping
Sense Organs
micturition (passing of urine), These are the receptors which receives stimuli (changes
defecation, voluntary forced in the environments) from outside or inside the animal
breathing and voluntary muscular and transmit it to the nervous system.
co-ordination. The various sense organs in human beings are as follow
Diencephalon Sensation of heat, cold and pain,
control centre of autonomic nervous Ears (Organs of Hearing and Equilibrium)
system, control hunger, thirst,
sweating, sleeping and sex. Each human ear consists of three portions as follows
Tympanic cavity remain covered by a tympanic
Hypothalamus Regulate body temperature so,
membrane or ear drum.
thermostat of body. Appetite and
satiety control emotions like love, Human Ear
anger, pleasure and satisfaction.
Control metabolism of
External ear Middle Ear Inner Ear
carbohydrate, fat and water.
Midbrain Reflex centre of visual and auditory
sensation. Pinna External Tympanic Ear ossicle Semicircular Cochlea
auditory cavity (MIS) ducts (hearing
Hindbrain Involuntary muscular co-ordination canal (balancing organ)
maintain posture, orientation and organ)
Cerebellum
equilibrium of the body. Malleus Incus Stapes
(largest bone) (smallest bone)
Medulla Regulate heart rate, involuntary
oblongata breathing, respiratory centre, blood Temporal bone
pressure (vasoconstriction and Pinna Malleus
vasodilation) gut peristalsis, food
Incus
swallowing, vomiting and gland
secretion.
Stapes in
oval window
Reflex Action
It is an autonomic response to a stimulus which is carried Cochlear
nerve
out without thinking. The reflex action is controlled by the
spinal cord, it is called spinal reflex action. Cochlea
Reflex arc is the path through which an impulse travels Tympanic
during reflex action. External membrane
auditory Eustachian
canal tube
Diseases of Nervous System Structure of Human Ear
Meningitis It is the inflammation of brain’s meninges
(covering or membranes), caused by viral or bacterial
Ear Diseases
infection and marked by intense headache and fever,
Tinnitus It is characterised by the roaring in ears due to
sensitivity to light and muscular rigidity.
loud noises or other causes.
Parkinson’s disease It is caused by the destruction of
Ear barotrauma It is an injury to ear due to changes in air
dopamine producing neurons. It affects the voluntary
or water pressure.
movements of patient.
Eyes (Organ of Sight)

Human eye is a three walled structure consisting of three coats, i.e.
Human Eye
Inner Nervous Coat Middle Fibrous Coat Outer Fibrous Coat
Retina
Contains photo sensitive cells Choroid Ciliary body Iris
rods and cones Helps to Holds the Control amount of
supply O2 and lens in place light entering the eye
nutrients to retina
Rods Cones Sclera Cornea
Sensitive to dim light, Provide coloured vision, Maintains Helps to focus
contain rhodopsin pigment contain iodopsin pigment shape of eye ball light waves in the eye
Sclera
Conjunctiva Choroid
Upper eye lid Retina
Ciliary body
Eye lash
Lens
Pupil Yellow spot (fovea)
Cornea Vitreous chamber
Aqueous chamber
Blind spot
Lower eye lid
Iris
Optic nerve
Structure of Eye
Eye Diseases
Myopia In this condition, image is not formed on retina, but formed in front of it. Due to this person face difficulty in seeing
distant objects but their near vision is clear, therefore it is known as near sightedness. It is corrected by concave glasses.
Hypermetropia In this condition, image is formed behind the retina due to which an individual find it difficult to see near
objects clearly but their distant vision is clear, therefore it is known as far sightedness. It is corrected by convex glasses.
Astigmatism It is caused due to irregular curvature of cornea or lens. It is corrected by using convex lenses.
Presbyopia It is caused due to the loss of flexibility of the lens. It creates difficulty in focussing on near objects and can be
corrected by using convex lenses.
Cataract It is caused due to the loss of transparency of the lens due to some disease or agency. It is corrected by the
surgical removal of opaque lenses and putting intraocular lenses.
Glaucoma It is caused due to eye pressure and peripheral vision loss which eventually can lead to blindness. The only
renedy of glaucoma is surgery through which the intraocular pressure can be reduced.
Tongue (Taste) and Nose (Smell)

Taste receptors of tongue are called gustatory receptors and those of nose are called olfactory receptors. Both the
receptors are stimulated by the molecules or ions reaching the tongue and nose.
Skin (Organ of Touch)

Human skin contains various receptors as follows
Receptor Functions
Ruffini corpuscles Sensitive to heat
Krause corpuscles Sensitive to pressure
Algesi receptors Sensitive to pain
Pacinian receptors Sensitive to vibrations
Chemical Co-ordination by Endocrine System

Endocrine system is made up of endocrine glands. Endocrine glands are those gland which do not possess duct and secrete
chemical that travel from one place of the body to other part. These chemicals are called hormones. Following table can give
an idea about hormones, their source glands and their site of action.
Hypothalamus
Gland Hormone Type Action Pituitary gland Pineal gland
Hypothalamus Oxytocin Peptide Moves to posterior pituitary
for storage
Antidiuretic hormone Peptide Moves to posterior pituitary
(ADH) for storage Parathyroid gland Thyroid gland
Regulatory hormones Act on anterior pituitary to

of anterior pituitary stimulate or inhibit hormone Thymus
hormones production
Pituitary Gland
Adrenal
Posterior Oxytocin Peptide Initiates labour and milk ejection
gland
Antidiuretic hormone Peptide Stimulates water resorption by
Pancreas
(ADH) kidneys
Anterior Growth hormone Protein Stimulates body growth
Prolactin Protein Promotes lactation
Follicle-stimulating Glycoprotein Stimulates follicle maturation
hormone and production of oestrogen.
Testis
Luteinising hormone Glycoprotein Triggers ovulation and
production of oestrogen and
progesterone by ovary.
Adrenocorticotropic Peptide Promotes release of
hormone glucocorticoid and androgens
from adrenal cortex
Ovaries
Endocrine System of Human
Thyroid-stimulating Glycoprotein Stimulates release of T3 and T4
hormone
Thyroid gland T3 (Triiodothyronine) Amine Increases metabolism, blood pressure and regulates tissue growth
T4 (Thyroxine) Amine Increases metabolism, blood pressure and regulates tissue growth
Calcitonin Peptide Childhood regulation of blood calcium levels through uptake by bone
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone Peptide Increases blood calcium levels through action on bone, kidneys and intestine
Pancreas Insulin Protein Reduces blood sugar levels by regulating cell uptake
Glucagon Protein Increases blood sugar levels
Adrenal glands
Adrenal Epinephrine Amine Short-term stress response: Increased blood sugar levels, vasoconstriction,
medulla increased heart rate and blood diversion
Norepinephrine Amine Short-term stress response: Increased blood glucose levels, blood volume
maintenance and immune suppression
Adrenal cortex Glucocorticoids Steroid Long-term stress response: Increased blood glucose levels, blood volume
maintenance and immune suppression
Mineralocorticoids Steroid Long term stress response: blood volume and pressure maintenance, sodium and
water retention by kidneys
Gonads
Testis Androgens Steroid Reproductive maturation and sperm production
Ovaries Estrogens Steroid Reproductive maturation and regulation of menstrual cycle
Progesterone Steroid Regulation of menstrual cycle
Pineal gland Melatonin Amine Circadian timing
Thymus Thymosin Peptide Development of T-lymphocytes
Self Check
1. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (d) Collecting duct
Vitamin Deficiency disease 8. Consider the following statements
I. Vitamin-C : Scurvy
I. Oesophagus passes the food to stomach.
II. Vitamin-D : Rickets
II. Stomach secrete HCI to digest the food.
III. Vitamin-E : Night blindness
Which of the following statements is/are true?
Codes (a) Only I (b) Only II
(a) I and II (b) Only III
(c) I and II (d) Neither I nor II
(c) All of these (d) None of these
9. Consider the following two statements about
2. Which of the following is not a function of sympathetic respiration
nervous system? I. Respiration uses lungs for exchange of gases.
(a) Increase in blood sugar
II. Lungs are situated within the cage of ribs.
(b) Rise in blood pressure
(c) Decrease in clotting time of blood Which of the above statements are true?
(d) Constriction of bronchi (a) Only I (b) Only II
(c) I and II (d) None of these
3. Consider the following events in muscle contraction
I. Action potential depolarises the T-tubules. 10. Consider the following statements about transportation
II. Calcium binds to troponintropomyosin complex. in human
III. Action combines with myosin ATP leading to cross-bridge I. Left atrium contains blood with CO2 .
activation. II. Right ventricle contains blood with O2 .
IV. Depolarisaton of T-tubules releases calcium from sarcoplasmic Which of the above statement/s is/are correct?
reticulum. (a) Only I (b) Only II
(c) Neither I nor II (d) I and II
What is the correct seqence of the above?
(a) II-I-III-IV (b) I-IV-III-II (c) I-IV-II-III (d) II-I-IV-III 11. Kidney is the main organ in human body that exrete
4. Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids especially cortisol waste product in the form of urine. Which of the
and cortisone causes following is a collecting organ of urine in human body?
(a) Urinary duct (b) Urinary bladder
(a) Addison’s disease (b) adrenogenital syndrome
(c) Urethra (d) None of these
(c) Cushing’s syndrome (d) testicular ferminisation
5. During transmission of nerve impulse, the membrane 12. Consider the following statements
potential inside the cell is I. Kidney is a major organ for respiration.
(a) first negative, then positive and back negative II. Nitrogen in the form of NH 3 is major waste product of humans.
(b) first negative, then positive and remains positive
(c) first positive, then negative and remains negative Which of the above statement (s) is/are true?
(d) first positive, then negative and back positive (a) Only I (b) Only II
6. Which one of the following does not happen when the
sympathetic nervous system is strongly activated? 13. Consider the following statements.
(a) Increased heart beat I. Parasympathetic division of ANS is meant for fight or flight.
(b) Secretion of sweat II. Sympathetic division of ANS is meant for rest or digest.
(c) Constriction of pupils
Which of the above statement is true?
(d) Decreased secretion of saliva (a) Only I (b) Only II
7. In the context of comparative study of excretory system (c) I and II (d) Neither I nor II
of vertebrates, which one of the following is a special 14. Which of the following is true about endocrine system?
device for water conservation in mammals?
(a) Made from endocrine glands that secretes neuro transmitter
(a) Bowman’s capsule
(b) Pituitary gland is present at above the heart
(b) Proximal convoluted tubule
(c) Hypothalamus controls pituitary gland
(c) Loop of Henle
(d) Thyroid gland secretes testosterone
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (c)
Chapter five
Plant Physiology
Nutrition in Plants
Plants carry out several Plant nutrition emphasize the study of chemical elements that are essential for plant growth.
physio-chemical There are generally two types of nutrition in plants as mentioned below :
processes like, Modes of Nutrition
photosynthesis, cell
respiration, transpiration, Autotrophic Heterotrophic
etc., which ultimately Plants that make their own food Few plants specially fungi cannot make their
by the mechanism of photosynthesis, own food and depend on others, Thus,
lead to its growth, are called autotrophs, which are are called heterotrophs, which are further
further divided into the following categories divided into the following categories
development and
reproduction thus,
Photoautotrophic Chemoautotrophic Parasitic Saprophytic Symbiotic Insectivorous
leading to completion of Pitcher plant
its life cycle. All green plants Nitrifying bacteria Monotropa Lichen Drosera
Purple, red and Iron bacteria Neottia Root Utricularia
green bacteria Sulphur bacteria Agaricus nodules Nepenthes
Rhizopus Mycorrhiza Dionea
Photosynthesis
It is a process by which plant utilise CO2 and H2O to prepare their food (carbohydrate) in
the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll (photosynthetic pigment).
During the process of photosynthesis,
Absorbtion of free energy of light by chlorophyll present in chloroplast → Conversion
of the absorbed radiant energy to chemical energy, i.e. ATP and NADPH → Fixation of
CO2 to carbohydrates, e.g. glucose, (i.e. potential energy stored)
The basic reaction of photosynthesis is as under.
Chlorophyll
6CO2 + 12H2O    
→ C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Sunlight Glucose
Photosynthetic Pigments
All green plants carry out the process of photosynthesis because of the presence of
green pigment in leaf. These are chlorophyll-a and b mainly along with some other
accessory pigments. These pigments have the ability to use light energy and convert it
into the chemical energy in the form of organic compounds (carbohydrates).
Respiration in Plants
The food material prepared during photosynthesis is broken down in cells in
mitochondria to obtain energy. This process is called cellular respiration.
Basic reaction of cellular respiration is as under
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
(Glucose) (Oxygen) (Carbon (Water)
dioxide)
Magbook ~ Plant Physiology 145
Thus the energy, released here is utilised by the plants

to synthesise other molecules that the cell requires.
Transpiration in Plants
Transpiration is the evaporative loss of water by plants. It
The cell respiration is of following two types
occurs mainly through the stomata in the leaves. Some amount
Aerobic Cell Respiration Anaerobic Cell Respiration of water is also lost by general body surface of the plants.
It occurs in the presence of O2 . It occurs in the absence of O2 . Several adaptations have been observed in plants to reduce the
excess transpiration. One of such adaptation can be seen in
There is complete burning of There is incomplete burning of
glucose molecule producing glucose molecule producing the plants of desert areas. Such plants (xerophytes) have thick
CO2 + H2O and energy. C2H5OH, H2O and CO2 + Energy. waxy cuticle, leaves modified into thorns and sometimes no
Energy production is high. Energy production is less. leaves to reduce transpiration rate.
C6H12O6 → 6CO2 C6H12O6 → C2H5OH + H2O
+ 6H2O + Energy (ATP) + CO2 + energy (ATP) Mineral Nutrition in Plants
Occurs in mitochondria Occurs mainly in yeast cells. Plant absorbs minerals in the form of ions from soil and
of all cells. incorporate into vital biomolecules.
Essential elements Some elements are absolutely necessary for
ATP normal growth, development and reproduction and are
non-replaceable. These are directly involved in the metabolism
Adenosine triphosphate acts as the energy currency of the cell.
of the plant. In the absence of these elements plants do not
Hydrolysis of one ATP molecule produces about 7.6 kcal or 31.8
complete their life cycle or set the seeds. Thus these are called
kJ energy to be used by the plant cell in other functions.
essential elements.
Essential elements are classified into two categories
Transportation in Plants – Macroelements C, H, O, N, S, P, K, Mg and Ca.
– Microelements Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, B, Cl and Mo.
The food preparing part of plants are leaves, while
water absorbing part of plants are root. After the Following table gives a brief information about above mentioned nutrients
preparation and absorption of food and water Element Absorbed Form Major Functions
respectively, these substances are transported to the Macronutrients
other parts by of plant transport system of plant. Nitrogen (N) NO−3 andNH4+ In proteins, nucleic acids, etc.
Xylem and phloem constitutes the transport −
andHPO24−

Phosphorus (P) HPO In nucleic acids, ATP,
system of plants. Xylem conduct water and 2 4
phospholipids, etc.
minerals from root to leaves, while phloem Potassium (K) K+ Enzyme activation, water
distribute food upto roots. balance, ion balance and stomatal
Transport of Water The xylem tissues (vessels, opening.
tracheid, etc.) of root, stem and leaves are Sulphur (S) SO2−
4
In proteins and co-enzymes.
interconnected to one another using the process of Calcium (Ca) Ca2+ Affects the cytoskeleton,
photosynthesis and transpiration. Due to which, membranes and many enzymes,
shortage of water occurs at leaves. This situation acts as secondary messenger.
creates a demand of water and create a pull which Magnesium (Mg) Mg2+ Present in chlorophyll, required
conduct the water movement from roots to leaves. by many enzymes stabilises and
ribosomes.
Transport of Food Besides the photosynthetic
Micronutrients
products, various other important materials of food
Iron (Fe) Fe2 + and Fe3+ Presents in active site of many
are distributed by phloem from leaves to the whole
redox enzymes and act as electron
plant body and specially to the storing organs such carriers in chlorophyll synthesis.
as roots, fruits, etc. Chlorine (Cl) Cl− Photosynthesis and ion balance.
Manganese (Mn) Mn2+ Activation of many enzymes.
Excretion in Plants Boron (B) B(OH)3 Pollen germination, cell
Plants excrete various waste products during several elongation, cell differentiation
life processes. These are gaseous waste products, and carbohydrate translocation.
(i.e. O2 and CO2 through stomata and lenticles), Zinc (Zn) Zn2 + Enzyme activation and auxin
liquid waste products, (i.e. excess of water through synthesis.
transpiration) and solid waste products, i.e. (get rid Copper (Cu) Cu2 + In active site of many redox
of there by dropping their leaves). Plants may also enzymes and electron carriers.
excrete some useful waste products which are Nickel (Ni) Ni2 + Activation of one enzyme.
beneficial to the human beings, i.e. essential oils, Molybdenum (Mo) MoO2−
4
Nitrate reduction.
gums, natural rubber, etc.
Nitrogen Metabolism Nitrogen is very essential macronutrient as it Growth is regarded as the irreversible permanent
is a major part of proteins and nucleic acid. This process is known increase in the size and biomass of the plant.
as biological nitrogen fixation, which occurs in the roots of Plant hormones influence the growth and
leguminous plants with a symbiotic association with Rhizobium development of the plant.
bacteria. The steps involved in biological nitrogen fixation are Following table gives a brief idea of action of
(i) Ammonification Conversion of dead organic matter to ammonia different plant hormones and their location.
by decomposing microbial activity.
Hormones Typical Activities Location
(ii) Nitrification Conversion of NH4 (NO−3) and nitrites (NO−2) by
in Plant
nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas) is called nitrification.
Auxins Promote stem elongation, Apical
(iii) Denitrification The process by which nitrogen is released back to adventitious root initiation meristems
atmosphere by the action of certain denitrifying bacteria like and fruit growth, inhibit
Pseudomonas is called denitrification. These bacteria act on dead axillary bud outgrowth
organic matter of plant and animal origin, decay them and and leaf abscission.
release N2. Cytokinins Inhibit leaf senescence, Root apical
Note : Burning of coal and other fossil fuels releases previously fixed promote cell division and meristems
nitrogen into the atmosphere in the form of nitrogen based trace gases axillary bud outgrowth and
such as nitric oxide. This is then returned to soil through N2-cycle. also affect root growth.
Gibberellins Promote seed germination, Root and
The fate of this fixed N2 can be easily understood by following diagram stem growth and fruit shoot tips,
Nitrogen fixing development, break seed seeds
Free bacteria dormancy and mobilise
Denitrifying Nitrogen
free bacteria
nutrient during seed
germination.
Plant
Protein Abscisic Maintains seed dormancy and Leaves,
acid winter dormancy, closure of fruits and
stomata, also called stress root caps
hormone.
Nitrates Animal
(NO3) Nitrogen Protein Ethylene Promotes fruit ripening and Roots,
Cycle leaf abscission, inhibits stem shoot and
elongation. apical
Denitrifying Dead remains
Nitrobacter meristems
bacteria of organisms
Excretion of
Nitrites
(NO2)
urea by animals
Photoperiodism
Fungal and Plants require a periodic exposure of light to
Nitrosomonas Ammonia bacterial decay
and Micrococcus (NH3) induce flowering depending upon the critical
exposure period of light, they are classified into
Nitrogen cycle
the following categories
– Long Day Plant (LDP) Plants requiring exposure
Plant Growth and Development light for a period exceeding a well defined critical
duration, e.g. spinach and sugarbeet.
A new plant is formed by the germination of seed. This process is – Short Day Plant (SDP) Plants requiring light
called seed germination. Until the seed start germinating it is kept exposure for a period less than a well defined
in dormant stage. Seed germination can be easily understood by critical duration. e.g. Xanthium and Dahlia.
following diagram – Day Neutral Plants (DNP) Light duration does not
play any role in flowering in these plants, e.g.
Epicotyl Hypocotyl
Tomato and Cotton.
Plumule
Seed coat – Vernalisation Plants for which flowering is
Cotyledons
either quantitatively or quantitatively dependent
Radicle
on exposure to low temperature. This
phenomenon is called vernalisation, e.g. chilling
treatment to certain wheat varieties reduces
vegetative growth period and induces flowering at
an early stage.
Germination in seed
Self Check
1. Carbohydrate is the product of photosynthesis. Which of 8. Nitrogen metabolism is the process of fixation of
the following are chief substrates of photosynthesis? atmospheric nitrogen. Which of the following is the
I. CO2 II. H2O process of denitrification?
III. Mitochondria (a) NH 3 → NO 2– (b) NO –2 → NO –3
Codes (c) NO 3 → N 2, NO –2 , NO –
(d) None of these
(c) I and III (d) I and II 9. Which of the following is not correct about growth
hormones of plants?
2. Which of the following is not correct about nutrition in (a) Auxins promote stem elongation
plants? (b) Gibberellins promote seed germination
(a) Plants are autotrophs (c) Ethylene inhibits fruit ripening
(b) Chlorophyll found in chloroplast is the chief pigment of (d) Cytokinins inhibit leaf senescence
photosynthesis
(c) Sunlight is not necessary for plant to prepare their food 10. Which of the following adds/add nitrogen to the soil?
(d) Oxygen is the byproduct of photosynthesis I. Excretion of urea by animals [IAS 2014]
II. Burning of coal by man
3. Consider the following statements.
III. Death of vegetation
I. Breaking down the photosynthetic product is called
respiration. Select the correct answer using the codes given below
II. Ethanol is the product of respiration in the presence of O2. (a) Only I (b) II and III
(b) I and III (d) All of these
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) I and II (b) Only I 11. Which of the following statements is true?
(c) Only II (d) None of these (a) Chloroplast is the main cell organelle for respiration
(b) Light is not required for photosynthesis
4. Which of the following statements is not true about ATP?
(c) Respiration is the process that provides energy to the
(a) ATP is the energy currency of the cell
cell
(b) It stores energy liberated during respiration
(d) In the presence of O 2, lactic acid is produced in the
(c) It is stored in the vacuoles
cellular respiration
(d) It is made up of nitrogenous base, sugar and phosphate
12. Which one of the following is the process involved in
5. Consider the following statements. photosynthesis? [IAS 2014]
I. Xylem conduct water from roots to other plant parts. (a) Potential energy is released to form free energy
II. Phloem distributes food from leaves to other plant parts. (b) Free energy is converted into potential energy and
Which of the above statements is/are correct? stored
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) Food is oxidised to release carbon dioxide and water
(c) I and II (d) Neither I nor II (d) Oxygen is taken and carbon dioxide and water vapour
are given out
6. Transpiration is the evaporation of
I. gases II. water 13. Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR) has the
III. food IV. solutes following range of wavelengths.
Codes (a) 400-700 nm (b) 450-950 nm
(a) I and II (b) I and III (c) 340-450 nm (d) 500-600 nm
(c) Only II (d) I, IIl and IV
7. Which of the following statements is not true? I. Drosera is an insectivorous plant.
(a) Nitrogen is a macronutrient II. Cytokinins inhibit leaf senescence.
(b) Phosphorus is absorbed as H 2 PO 4− and HPO −42 Select the correct answer using the codes given below
(c) Sulphur is a part of protein and co-enzymes (a) I and II (b) Only I
(d) Mg 2 + is involved in respiratory chain in mitochondria (c) Only II (d) None of these
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (a)
Chapter six
Reproduction in Plants
and Animals (Humans)
Spore formation Spores are condensed
Reproduction
protoplasmic bodies of main organisms
Reproduction is a Asexual Reproduction Do not involve the body that contain genetic material,
formation of gametes and fusion of separate from main body and germinate
fundamental feature of
gametes. into new organisms, e.g. algae and fungi.
all known life forms. Each
Sexual Reproduction Involves the
individual organism exists formation and fusion of gametes. Sexual Reproduction
as the result of Sexual reproduction takes place in
reproduction. It is the Asexual Reproduction adverse conditions among lower
biological process by It is the major type of reproduction and organism but many higher plants and
occurs in favourable conditions. animals have adapted this mode of
which offspring (young
reproduction as main mode of
ones) are produced from Modes of Asexual reproduction. During adverse conditions,
their parents. The known Reproduction in Plants and organisms protect their genetic and
methods of reproduction Animals protoplasmic material into very small
It is of following types bodies called gametes and transmit it to
are broadly grouped into
Fission Found in unicellular organisms. the suitable place for the purpose of
two main types, i.e. fusion with other gamete and formation
Fission leads to equal division of the
sexual and asexual. cell, e.g. Amoeba. of body of new organism. Gametes are
most important feature of sexual
Fragmentation By simple breaking of
reproduction. Gametes are formed in
body part and generation of whole body
reproductive organs.
by fragmented part, e.g. Spirogyra,
bryophytes, etc. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Regeneration Any part of body has the (Angiosperms)
ability to form the new part, e.g. Hydra. After germinating from seeds, plants
Budding A bud comes out the body grows through various phase, two
and capable to grow into full length body prominent phases are vegetative phase
of main organism, e.g. Hydra, yeast, etc. and reproductive phase. Plant hormones,
Vegetative propagation In many (i.e. auxin, gibberellin and abscisic acid,
plants, the vegetative parts of a plant etc.) play vital functions in plants.
like, root, stem and leaf have capacity to Flower is the reproductive organ of
develop new identical plants (also known plants. When flower contains both male
as clones), e.g. sugarcane, rose, etc. It and female reproductive organs, it is
can also be carried out artificially by called bisexual flower and when it
various methods such as grafting, contains only one either male or female
cutting, layering and micropropagation reproductive part it is called unisexual
(tissue culture). This can be practiced flower.
throughout the year.
Magbook ~ Reproduction in Plants and Animals (Humans) 149
Male reproductive organ is called androecium and female reproductive organ is called gynoecium.
Microspore formed in microsporangia of anther. Microspore Pollination Pollen grain reaches onto stigma of ovary by wind
gives rise to pollen grains that bear two male sperms. and from a tube by which male sperms reaches up to embryo sac.
Pollen sac
A bisexual flower bears 2
Meiosis Pollen grains (n)
androecium and Microspore
gynoecium. Androecium mother cell (2n)
is made up of anthers.
Gynoecium is made up
of ovary that bear ovules. Pollen grains
Microspores (n)
Anther Microspore Stigma
mother cell (2n) Pollen Sperm cells
Ovary Eight-nucleate embryo sac (n) tube cell
1
Ovule Meiosis Tube cells
Style nucleus
Carpel 4
3
Adult
sporophyte (2n) Pollen
with flowers tube Formation of
pollen tube (n)
Ovule contains
Embryo
megaspore that forms
embryo sac which Seed coat Polar nuclei
contains egg cell Endosperm (3n)
Egg
6
Seed (2n)
Young Double 5
embryo (2n) Fertilisation
Post fertilisation events After fertilisation zygote forms embryo, Fertilisation One male sperm fuses with egg to form
(3n) cells forms endosperm that nourishes the embryo. Whole zygote (2n) and other one fuses with secondary
ovule becomes seed and whole ovary becomes fruit. nucleus to form 3n cell that further form endosperm
Life cycle of an angiosperm plant
Pollination by various agents and their terms are as follows:

Pollination by wind — Anemophily Pollination by water — Hydrophily
Pollination by insect — Entomophily Pollination by birds — Ornithophily
Pollination by bats — Chiropterophily Pollination by snails — Malacophily
Pollination by ants — Myrmecophily
The fate of various parts of flower is given below :
Changes Take Place in a Fertilised Flower

Part Before Fertilisation Part After Fertilisation Part Before Fertilisation Part After Fertilisation
Flower Simple or aggregate fruit Inner integument Tegmen (delicate)
Calyx Fall off or remain attached as fleshy structure Nucellus Perisperm
Corolla Fall off Endosperm nucleus Endosperm
Stamens Fall off Egg cell Embryo
Ovary wall Pericarp of fruit Funiculus Stalk
Ovary Simple fruit Antipodals Degenerate
Ovule Seed Synergids Degenerate
Outer integument Testa (tough) — —
Sexual Reproduction in Humans

In humans only sexual mode of reproduction is found. Males and females are different from each other externally as well
as internally. Male reproductive system forms sperms (male gamete) while female reproductive system forms egg (female
gamete).
Comparison between secondary sexual character of man and woman is given below:
Secondary Sexual Features in Man and Woman
Characters Man Woman
General build up More muscular Less muscular
Aggressiveness More marked Less marked
Hair growth
(i) Facial Beard and moustache present Absent
(ii) Axillary Present Present
(iii) Chest Present Absent
Mammary glands Undeveloped Well developed
Skin More hairy and coarse Less hairy and coarse
Shoulder Broad Not broad
Pelvis Not broad More broad
Larynx More apparent Less apparent
Voice Low pitched High pitched
Breathing Predominantly abdominal Predominantly thoracic
Male Reproductive System

Seminal vesicle
Male reproductive system produces sperms. Sperm formation is called
Ureter
spermatogenesis, which occur in testis which are found outside the body Bladder
in the scrotum due to the reason the sperm formation require low
temperature. The sperms formed are delivered through vas deferens towards Prostate gland
urethra. Urethra is the common path for urine and sperms. Besides these Penis
organs, some accessary glands like prostate gland and seminal vesicles are Urethra
also found which take part in reproduction. After the formation of sperm in the Vas
deferens
seminal vesicle, they gets collected into the epididymis via rete testis.
To reach rete testis sperm takes following path Testis
Seminal vesicle → Rete testis → Vasa efferentia → Epidydimis → Urethra Scrotum
Male reproductive organ
Organs of Male Reproductive System
Type Organ Paired/ Description and Location Function
Unpaired
Glands Testis Paired Primary sex organs; posterior to the penis within Produces spermatozoa (sperm) and
the scrotum. testosterone (male sex hormone).
Seminal vesicle Paired Club-shaped glands posterior to the prostate, Secretes alkaline fluid containing nutrients
attached to the ejaculatory ducts. fructose and prostaglandins.
Cowper’s gland Paired Pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate; empty Secretes fluid that lubricates urethra and
into the membranous urethra. end of penis.
Prostate gland Unpaired Walnut-sized gland at the base of the urinary Secretes alkaline fluid that helps to
bladder, surrounding the prostatic urethra. neutralise acidic environment of the vagina
during copulation.
Ducts Epididymis Paired Mass of tubules attached to the posterior surface Site of sperm maturation and store
of the testis. spermatozoa.
Vas deferens Paired Ducts extending from the epididymies to the Store spermatozoa and transport
ejaculatory ducts. spermatozoa during ejaculation.
Ejaculatory Paired Short ducts between the ductus deferentia and the Receive spermatozoa and additives to
duct prostatic urethra. produce seminal fluid.
Supporting Scrotum Unpaired Pouch of skin and posterior to the penis. Encloses and protects testis.
structures Penis Unpaired Pendant organ anterior to the scrotum and Convey urine and seminal fluid to outside of
attached to the pubis. the body and organ of coitus.
Magbook ~ Reproduction in Plants and Animals (Humans) 151
Female Reproductive System

Organs of Female Reproductive System
Type Organ Paired/ Description and Location Function
Unpaired
Glands Ovaries Paired Primary sex organs; upper pelvic cavity on Production of ova (egg) and female sex
both lateral sides of uterus hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
Vestibular glands Paired Subcutaneous within the wall of the vaginal Secrete lubricating fluid into the vestibule and
opening. vaginal opening during coitus.
Mammary glands Paired Composed of lobes within the breasts. Produce and secrete milk for nourishment of
an infant.
Fallopian tube Paired Open-ended tubes that extend from the Convey ova toward uterus; site of fertilisation
ovaries to the uterus. and convey developing blastocyst to uterus.
Ducts Uterus Unpaired Hollow-shaped like an inverted pear; Site of implantation; ‘sustains life of embroys
maintained in position within the pelvic and foetus during pregnancy' plays active role
cavity by muscles and ligaments. in parturition.
Vagina Unpaired Hollow-positioned between the urinary Conveys uterine secretion to outside of body;
bladder and urethra anteriorly and the receives erect penis and semen during coitus;
rectum posteriorly. passageway for foetus during parturition.
Labia majora Unpaired Two longitudinal folds of skin that extend Form margins of pudendal cleft; enclose and
from the mons pubis to the perineum; protect other external reproductive organs.
separated longitudinally by the pudendal cleft.
Supporting Labia minora Unpaired Two longitudinal folds of skin medial to the Form margins of vestibule; protect openings
structures labia majora; separated longitudinally by the of vagina and urethra.
vaginal vestibule.
Clitoris Unpaired Rounded projection at the upper part of the Provides feeling of pleasure during sexual
pudendal cleft and sheathed by a prepuce. stimulation.
Eggs are produced by the female reproductive system. Production of eggs occur
Fallopian tube
in ovary. When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain and thousands of
immature eggs and they start maturing after puberty to form primary, secondary
and then tertiary follicles.
The tertiary follicles in the ovary transforms to mature Graafian follicle in response
to certain hormones. These have periodical arrangement of maternity and release Ovary Uterus
of eggs. This cycle of event is called menstruation (in humans it is of about 28 Endometrium
Cervix
days). The egg is carried out from ovary to the uterus via oviduct. Oviduct is the
place where fertilisation of egg with sperm takes place to form zygote which Vagina
afterwards move towards uterus and develops a new baby.
The fertilisation results in the formation of zygote, which start its development
through cleavage and soon reaches to three layered stage called gastrula. The Female reproductive system
fate of cells of these three layers (called primary germ layers) is given below:
Outer epithelium of body and its derivatives Hair, nails epithelial
Ectoderm glands, lining of mouth, enamel of teeth, lens of eye, inner ear, nasal
and olfactory epithelium
Neural tube Brain, spinal cord and motor nerves
Neural crest Sensory ganglia and nerves, adrenal medulla,
sympathetic ganglia, skull, gill arches and dentine of teeth
Notochord
Primordial
Lining of thoracic and abdominal cavities
germ cells
Gastrulation Mesoderm Circulatory system Blood, bone marrow, lymphoid tissue, endothelium
Zygote
of blood vessels and lymphatics
Cleavage Somites Skeletal muscle, bone cartilage of skeleton (except skull),
dermis and connective tissues
Organs of urogenital system Ureter, kidney, gonads and reproductive ducts
Epithelium of respiratory tract
Pharynx Pharyngeal pouches, thyroid and parathyroid
Endoderm Primitive gut
Liver and pancreas
Epithelium of urogenital system
Derivatives of the primary germ layers in mammals
Amniocentesis is a medical procedure used in prenatal

Reproductive Health
diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities and foetal
Reproductive health is defined as a state of physical, infections in which a small amount of amniotic fluid,
mental and social well-being in all matters relating to the which contains foetal tissues is extracted from the
reproductive system, at all stages of life. Men and women amnion or amniotic sac surrounding a developing foetus
should be informed about and have access to safe, and the foetal DNA is examined for genetic
effective, affordable and acceptable methods of family abnormalities.
planning of their choice and the right to appropriate
health-care services that enable women to safely go Sexually Transmitted Diseases
through pregnancy and childbirth. (STDs)
Barrier methods stop sperm from entering the uterus and
STDs or STIs (Sexually Transmitted Infections) are
reaching the egg. In general, barrier methods are less
infections/diseases that can be transferred from one
effective but have fewer side effects than hormonal
person to another through sexual contact. Some of the
methods or IUDs. Barrier methods include condoms (male
sexually transmitted infections are also transmitted
and female), diaphragms, cervical caps, contraceptive
through birth, intravenous needles or breast feeding.
sponges and Lea’s shields.
World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that more
The IUD (Intra Utrine Device) is a small plastic device
than one million new cases of curable,
containing—copper or hormones and is inserted into the
Sexually-Transmitted bacterial Infections (STIs) occur
uterus by a medical professional. The IUD does not stop
worldwide everyday.
the sperm from entering into the uterus, but rather it
changes cervical mucus decreasing the probability of
Adolescents and young adults (15-24) are the age groups
fertilisation and it changes the lining of the uterus at the greatest risk for acquiring a sexually Transmitted
preventing implantation and fertilisation. Disease (STD). STDs can have severe consequences if
not treated, especially in women.
Abstinence is the voluntary refraining from sexual activity. It
is the only contraceptive method that is 100% effective in
It is important to visit for STD testing whenever you
the prevention of both pregnancy and the transmission of suspect that you have contracted a sexually transmitted
sexually transmitted diseases. disease.
In India, the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases is
Withdrawl involves the removal of the erect penis from the

vagina prior to ejaculation. quite high. AIDS is a serious concern.
In acknowledgement of the need to strengthen the STD
Female sterilisation involves the surgical closing of the

control program, especially in the context of the recently
Fallopian tubes which carry the eggs from the ovaries to
launched AIDS control programme, efforts are being
the uterus. This procedure is referred to as a tubal ligation
made to extend the National STD Control Programme at
or tubectomy. Male sterilisation involves the surgical
the community level through existing private health care
closing of tubes that carry sperm. This procedure is
services in the country.
referred to as a vasectomy.
The most common STDs are chlamydia, gonorrhea,
Birth control pills are taken daily as prescribed by the
syphilis, genital herpes, human papilloma virus,
doctor. Hormone medications contain manufactured forms
hepatitis-B, trichomoniasis and bacterial vaginosis
of the hormones oestrogen and/or progesterone.
scabies, crabs, etc.
Self Check
1. Which of the following is not true about asexual 8. Pollination is transfer of male gametes or sperms upto
reproduction? the stigma of ovary. Which of the following is major
(a) It is most common form of reproduction agent for pollination in angiosperm?
(b) It is found unicellular to multicellular organisms (a) Water (b) Wind
(c) It involves formation of gametes (c) Sunlight (d) None of these
(d) It is the main mode of reproduction in lower organisms
9. Which of the following is not true about fertilisation?
2. Which of the following is not true about sexual (a) It takes place in ovary
reproduction? (b) Sperm fuses with egg
(a) It is an adaptation for adverse conditions (c) Sperm fuses with ovule
(b) It involves formation and fusion of gametes (d) Zygote forms after fertilisation
(c) It involves the development of sex organs
10. Which of the following is not true about post fertilisation
(d) It is a major mode of reproduction in lower organism
events?
3. Consider the following statement. (a) Egg converts into zygote after fertilisation
I. Fission is a major mode of reproduction in Amoeba. (b) Endosperm nourish zygote
II. Fragmentation is found in bryophytes. (c) Ovule form fruit
Which of the above statements is/are true? (d) Ovary form fruit
(a) Only I (b) I and II 11. Consider the following statements.
(c) Only II (d) Neither I nor II I. Spermatogenesis forms sperms in testis.
4. Which of the following statement is not true about II. Sperms are formed via meiosis.
asexual reproduction? Which of the above statements is/are true?
(a) Algae and fungi show asexual reproduction by spore (a) Only I (b) Only II
formation (c) I and II (d) Neither I nor II
(b) Vegetative reproduction is shown by sugarcane
12. Which of the following is not true about gametogenesis
(c) Hydra reproduces asexually by spores
in female of human?
(d) Spirogyra reproduces asexually by fragmentation
(a) It occurs in ovary
5. Consider the following statements. (b) It occurs via mitosis
I. Sexual reproduction involves fusion of gametes. (c) It involves meiosis-I and II
II. Sexual reproduction is main mode of reproduction in (d) It forms egg and polar bodies
angiosperm.
13. Which among the following is not the example of
Which of the above statements is/are true? sexually transmissible diseases (STDs)?
(a) Only I (b) Only II (i) HIV (ii) Trichomoniasis
(c) I and II (d) Neither I nor II (iii) Tuberculosis (iv) Hepatitis
6. In angiosperms, flowers are generally bisexual and bear Codes
both male and female reproductive organs. Which of the (a) Only I (b) Only III
following statement is true? (c) Both I and II (d) All of these
(a) Anther produces pollen grains
14. What is the term referred for chilled treatment to plant to
(b) Ovary bears microsporongia
induce early flowering?
(c) Male gametes or sperms are produced by megasporangia
(a) Photoperiodism (b) Vernalisation
(d) Egg is produced by calyx and corolla
(c) Dormancy (d) Photomorphogenesis
7. Which of the following in true about male reproductive
15. Consider the following kinds of organisms.
part of flower?
I. Bat II. Bee III. Bird [IAS 2012]
(a) It is called megasporangium
(b) It produces egg cell Which of the above is/are pollinating agent/agents.
(c) It bears anther that produces pollen grains (a) I and II (b) Only II
(d) It have no role in reproduction (c) I and III (d) All of these
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (d)
Chapter seven
Genetics and Evolution
called inheritance of one gene and cross
Genetics between plant is called monohybrid cross.
Genetics is the branch Parents transfer their characters to their Mendel has given two laws of inheritance for
of biology of genes, children and this phenomenon is called one gene. The inheritance of one gene can be
heredity and variation
inheritance of character. explained through monohybrid cross, which is
The character which are transferred called represented in the following diagram
in living organisms inherited characters/traits. Study of
and evolution is the inheritance of character and their
process by which deviation (variation) is called Genetics.
population adopt to Mendel selected pea plant due to its ability Parent
generation
their environment of self pollination and short life cycle. Gametes
He has given the term factor, which are
gradually. In order for Tall Dwarf
responsible for any character of organism. (TT) (tt)
evolution to work Factor was later termed as gene (a
genetics has to play its functional part of DNA). Gene present in
role. The changes two very similar forms called alleles.
brought about during F1 generation
inheritance if Gregor Johann Mendel
beneficial contribute (1882-84) F2 generation Selfing
Tall Tall
to evolution. Mendel is known as the Father of Genetics. He
was a student of science as well as worked
in a monastery. He worked on pea plant
and postulated some laws. Although at
that time their laws were not well accepted
but these laws become the basic laws of
genetics and called as Mendel’s law of Tall Tall Tall Dwarf
genetics/inheritance. Monohybrid cross
Mendel’s Law of Dominance

One allele is dominant over other and
Inheritance of One Gene reflected in the progeny after cross.
Mendel observed that there are some – Phenotypic 3 : 1
alleles which are dominant on others. – Genotypic 1 : 2 : 1
These dominating alleles are called
dominant alleles and the other one are Mendel’s Law of Segregation
called recessive alleles. Dominant alleles Alleles do not show mixing during cross and
are represented by capital letters and each characters is reflected by respective
other one are represented by small letters. allele. During gamete formation the two alleles
When only one character is considered present in parent are separated in gametes
during observation of inheritance, it is and one gamete contain only one allele.
Magbook ~ Genetics and Evolution 155
– P Generation Parental generation is called P generation. Here tall plants have both dominant alleles (TT) and dwarf plant have both
recessive alleles (tt).
– F2 Generation contains three tall and one dwarf plant which reflect, the dominance of tallness and no mixing of alleles.
– Gametes contain only one allele and as both plant have similar alleles. They produce only one type of gametes (T or t).
– F1 Generation is called first filial generation (first progeny) which have all tall plants.
Inheritance of Two Genes

When two characters are considered during inheritance, it is called inheritance of two genes and cross between two
plants is dihybrid cross. Mendel has given the law of independent assortment about inheritance of two genes. Inheritance
of two genes can be explained though dihybrid cross in which two characters are considered at a time. Law of
independent assortment is explained by dihybrid cross.
Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel’s law of independent assortment, states that allele pairs separate
P generation
independently during the formation of gametes. This means that traits Round yellow Wrinkled green
RR YY rr yy
are transmitted to offspring independently of one another.
Mendel formulated this principle after performing dihybrid crosses RY ry Gametes
between plants that differed in two traits, such as seed colour and pod
colour. After these plants were allowed to self pollinate, he noticed that Round yellow F1 generation
Rr Yy
the same ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 appeared among the offspring. Mendel Selfing
concluded that traits are transmitted to offspring independently.
Mendel observed that inheritance of one character does not affect the RY RY
inheritance of other character. Gametes Gametes
rY RRYY rY
Following diagram can show this concept
Ry Ry
– P generation contains seed with round/wrinkled shape and yellow/green colour. RrYY RrYY
Round shape is dominant over wrinkled and yellow colour is dominant over ry
RRYy rrYY RRYy
ry
green.
RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy
– F2 generation show a ratio of 9 (round yellow) : 3 (round green) : 3 (wrinkled F2 generation
yellow) : 1 (wrinkled green). rrYy RRyy rrYy
– If in F1 generation both dominant characters are represented and in Rryy Rryy

F2 generation a ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 is found. It reflects that both characters, i.e.
seed colour and seed shape are inherited separately and considering two rryy
characters has no role or no effect on its inheritance.
Dihybrid cross
Exceptions of Mendelism
Following table will give the idea of different crosses and their expected ratios
Characters Expected Ratios Example
Incomplete dominance 1:2:1 Mirabilis jalapa
Complementary genes 9:7 Lathyrus odoratus
Supplementary genes 9:3:4 Coat colour in mice
Modified supplementary genes (collaboration) 9:3:3:1 Poultry birds–comb pattern
Dominant epistasis 12 : 3 : 1 Fruit colour in Cucurbita
Recessive epistasis 9:3:4 Coat colour in mice/pigmentation in onion bulb
Duplicate genes 15 : 1 Fruit shape in Capsella bursa pastoris
Polymeric gene (duplicate genes with cumulative effect) 9 : 6 : 1 Cucurbita pepo
Dominant Suppression epistasis 13 : 3 Coat colour in Chickens
Sex Determination in Humans

In human 46 chromosomes are found and out of which Sperms are All eggs
44 are found in 22 pairs called autosomes and other of two types are of one
type
two chromosomes are called sex chromosomes. X Y X
The rest of the two chromosomes are same in females

and called X-chromosome (XX) and in males these two XY XX Zygote
chromosomes are different and called X and
XX XY
Y-chromosome. During reproduction females produces
one type of gametes containing 22 autosomes and one
Offsprings
X-chromosome, while males produces two types of Male Female
gametes/sperms one have 22 + X type chromosome and
other have 22 + Y type of chromosome. Female Male
Sex determination in human
Gene and Gene Concept

The small portion of DNA on chromosome which code for polypeptide is called gene. The above concept of gene is called one
gene-one polypeptide concept given by Lederberg and Tatum. During inheritance the genes show the tendency of being
together, it is called linkage and the generation of non parental gene combinations is called as recombinations.
Genetic Disorders
At the time of inheritance, due to various complexities, some genetic disorders can occur in progeny organisms lead to various
diseases. A list of these disorders, with their details in given below:
Genetic Chromosome Type of Expression of Gene Main Symptoms Defect

Disease/Disorder Affected Mutation
Gene Mutations
Sickle-cell anaemia 11 Substitution Codominant (sometimes Anaemia and interference Abnormal haemoglobin
described as recessive circulation molecule
autosomal)
Cystic fibrosis 7 In 70% of cases, deletion Recessive autosomal Unusually thick mucus Failure of chloride ion
of three bases occur clogs lungs, liver and transport mechanism in
pancreas membrane of epithelial
cells
PKU 12 Substitution Recessive autosomal Brain fails to develop Enzyme phenylalanine
(phenylketonuria) normally hydroxylase defective
Huntington’s 4 A newly discovered type of Dominant autosomal Gradual deterioration of Brain cell metabolism is
disease (chorea) mutation-the normal gene brain tissue starting on inhibited
has 10-34 repeats of CAG average in middle age
at one end, the HC gene
has 42-100 repeats of CAG
Haemophilia X Substitution Recessive sex-linked Blood does not clot Factor VIII or IX protein
defective
Red-green colour X Recessive sex-linked Unable to distinguish
blindness green colour
(i) Deutan variety Due to the absence of
green cone pigment.
(ii) Protan variety Due to absence of red Unable to distinguish red
cone pigment. colour.
Chromosome Mutations
Down's syndrome 21 Extra chromosome 21 – Reduced intelligence,
(trisomy 21) characteristic facial
features
Klinefelter's sex Extra X-chromosome in – Feminised male
syndrome male (trisomy)
Turner 's syndrome sex Extra X-chromosome in – Sterile female
female (monosomy)
Magbook ~ Genetics and Evolution 157
Genetic Code Theories of Evolution

These are the codes formed by three nitrogenous bases, Lamarck (1809) proposed a theory that living things changed
e.g. AUG, GUG, UUG, etc. These codes form various by inheriting acquired characteristics, e.g. giraffes stretched
amino acid and also helps in protein synthesis, (i.e. their necks to reach food and their offspring inherited
translation). The utility of genetic code is given under as stretched necks. This is now known to be wrong, since many
central dogma experiments (and experience) have shown that acquired
Gene characteristics are not inherited, but nevertheless Lamarck's
theory was the first to admit that species changes itself and
DNA tried to gave the explanation of same.
Charles Darwin (1859) published the book on the origin of
T A CC AC A A C T C G species, by means of natural selection or the preservation of
DNA template strand favoured races in the struggle for life, which has been
recognised as one of the most important books ever written.
Transcription A very similar theory was also proposed by Darwin and Alfred
Wallace agreed to publish it at the same time.
mRNA
A U GG UG U U G A G C In his book on the Origin of Species, Darwin present evidence
Triplet code in a sober manner for his descent by modification theory,
which has come down to us as the theory of evolution,
Translation on ribosomes although Darwin avoided the term ‘evolution’. Essentially,
Darwin suggested that random variations take place in living
Protein met val leu ser things and that some external agent in the environment selects
Amino acids those individuals better able to survive. The method of
selecting individuals is known as natural selection.
Transfer of information from
DNA to protein (an outline view) Mutation Theory of Hugo de Vries According to this theory,
sudden inheritable change takes place in genomes of an
D Baltimore (1970) also described the presence of reverse organism due to certain factors called Mutation. These
transcriptase enzyme in RNA tumour viruses. Its presence mutations lead to speciation (new species formation). Variation
changed the central dogma of protein synthesis into as the basis of evolution is the theme of Neo-Darwinism. It is
central dogma reverse, which looks like supported by mutation theory of Hugo de Vries.
Transcription Transcription Speciation is of following types, i.e. sympatric, allopatric and
DNA RNA Proteins
Reverse parasympatric
transcription
Evidences for Evolution
According to the data provided by Human Genome Project In his book, Darwin offered several pieces of evidence that
(HGP), the human genome is made up of around 40000 favoured evolution. In a subdued manner, he attempted to
genes that codes for various functions in humans. convince the scientific community for the validity of his theory.
Evidences for Evolution
Evolution
Evolution is the study of anatomical, biochemical or Plaeontology deals Comparative Anatomy deals with
behavioural changes over time that results from with the locating, comparison of anatomy of different
gene-environment interaction in a population of cataloging and interpreting organisms. These structures which
are originally different but look similar
organism. the life forms that existed
in previous millenia. Fossils due to similar function are analogous
Scientists hypothesised that the universe came into formed on the upper most rock organs, e.g. wings of insect birds
existence about 15 billion years ago with a colossal layer are most current, while and bats.
Homologous organs are vice-versa
explosion often referred to as the big bang. from deeper layers are
of analogous. Vestigial organs are
ancestor of modern forms.
About 3.8 billion years ago, earth’s atmosphere unless organs found in organisms
consisted of elements such as nitrogen, hydrogen, such as appendix, fused tail vertebrae
of human.
sodium, sulphur and carbon. Some of these elements
combined to form hydrogen sulphide, methane, water Connecting Links
Connecting links is one which exhibit
and ammonia. characteristic of more than one groups.
Intermediate Forms between two Groups of Dryopithecus This genus lived in Africa, China, India and
Organisms Europe. The genetic title Dryopithecus means oak wood
apes.
Organisms Connecting link between
Ramapithecus The first remains of Ramapithecus were
Virus Living and non-living discovered from Shivalik hills in Punjab and later
Euglena (Protozoa) Plants and animals discovered in Africa and Saudi Arabia. The region where
Proterospongia (Protozoa) Protozoa and Porifera Ramapithecines lived was not merely forest but open
grassland. Fossil evidence indicating adaptation including
Peripatus (Arthropoda) Annelida and Arthropoda
robust jaws, thickened tooth enamel and shorter canines.
Neopilina (Mollusca) Annelida and Mollusca Extrapolation regarding upright posture and the use of
Balanoglossus (Chordata) Non-chordata and Chordata hands for food and defense.
Dipnoi (Lung fish) Pisces and Amphibia Australopithecus This genus is the immediate forerunner
Reptiles and Aves of the genus Homo. The first Australopithecine find was
Archaeopteryx (Aves)
made in 1924 at Taung a limestone quarry site in South
Prototheria (Mammalia) Reptiles and Mammalia Africa by Raymond Dart. They walked erect, lived on the
ground and probably used stones as weapons to hunt
Mechanisms of Evolution small animals. They weighed 60 to 90 pounds and were
about 4 feet tall.
Evolution does not occur in individuals but in populations.
A population is an interbreeding group of individuals of
Homo erectus The first evidence of the Homo species was
one species in a given geographic area. A population discovered in Java by Eugene Dubois in 1891. He named
evolves because the population contains the collection of his find as Pithecanthropus erectus meaning the erect ape
genes called the gene pool. As changes in the gene pool man. It is said to be the missing link. Another find was
occur, a population evolves. made in China, South-West of Peking called Peking man.
These had larger cranial capacity than Australopithecus
Human Evolution lived in communal existence and used fire.
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis The Homo erectus
History of Man gradually evolved into the Homo sapiens. In this
Species Time period transitional event, two sub-species of the Homo sapiens
Ardipithecus ramidus 5-4 mya have been identified. One the primitive man who has been
labelled Homo sapiens, Neanderthal and the modern man
Australopithecus anamensis 4.2-3.9 mya
who is called as Homo sapiens sapiens. Most of the
Australopithecus afarensis 4-2.7 mya evidences about the primitive man that have been
Australopithecus africanus 3-2 mya unearthed are 75000 years old.
Australopithecus robustus 2.2-1.6 mya Homo sapiens sapiens The first skeletal remains of Homo
2.2-1.6 mya sapiens sapiens were found in Europe and were named
Homo habilis
Cro-magnon. In the Homo sapiens sapiens there is final
Homo erectus 2.0-0.04 mya
reduction of the jaws, the appearance of modern man’s
Homo sapiens archaic 400-200 thousand years ago chin and of the rounded skull. Mean cranial capacity was
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis 200-30 thousand years ago about 1350 cc. Modern man is very closely related to
200 thousand years ago to Cro-magnon. Their culture which dates back to 35,000
Homo sapiens sapiens
present years is also called upper paleolithic culture.
Kharai camel or swimming camels are found in Gujarat’s
During the Miocene epoch, the family–Hominoidea Bhuj area. This is adopted to extreme climate of Rann,
diverged into two sub-families the Pongidae (apes) and shallow seas and high salinity. Kharai camel can live in
the Hominidae (humans). The exact point of divergence both coastal and dry ecosystem. It grazes or
between the ape line and the human line is debatable. In saline/mangrove trees and it can swim up to three
general, Dryopithecus is considered to be ancestor of kilometres into the see in search of mangroves, their
both apes and humans. primary food. It lives in wild and domestic, both places.
Self Check
1. Consider the following statements 9. Consider the following statements about theories of
I. GJ Mendel is known as father of genetics. evolution
II. Major work of Mendel was on mango plant. I. Lamarck proposed theory of inheritance of acquired
Which of the above statement/s is/are correct? characters.
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) I and II (d) Neither I nor II II. Darwin proposed theory of natural selection.
Which of the above statements is/are not true?
2. Which of the following statements is not true? (a) Only I (b) Only II
(a) Pea plant have short life cycle
(b) Pea plant shows cross pollination
(c) The factor mentioned by Mendel are now called as gene 10. Which of the following is not true about theories of
(d) Mendel utilised pea plant for crossing evolution?
(a) Darwin wrote ‘on the origin of species’
3. Which of the following statements is/are true about one (b) Descent by modification rule is given by Hugo de Vries
gene inheritance?
(c) Survival of the fittest rule is given by Darwin
I. Gene has two form called alleles.
(d) Lamarck proposed law of inheritance of acquired
II. Alleles may be dominant or recessive. characters
Codes
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) I and II (d) Neither I nor II 11. Which of the following is not the true evidence of
evolution?
4. Law of dominance given by Mendel involves (a) Palaeontology deals with fossils
(a) only dominant allele (b) Analogous organs and homologous organs are studied in
(b) only recessive allele comparative anatomy
(c) interaction between dominant and recessive allele (c) Euglena is a connecting link between plant and animal
(d) Neither dominant nor recessive allele (d) Virus is a connecting link between prokaryotes and
5. Which of the following is not true about cross between eukaryotes
pea plants done by Mendel? 12. Consider the following statements
(a) P indicates parents I. Mutation is a sudden change in population gene pool.
(b) F1 and F2 generation indicates progenies (children) II. It is a communicable disease
(c) Dominant character found less in the population Which of the above statements is/are true?
(d) Recessive character found less in the population (a) Only I (b) Only II
6. Law of independent assortment given by Mendel states (c) I and II (d) Neither I nor II
(a) genes are found in two forms called alleles 13. Which chromosome carries the alleles for cystic fibrosis?
(b) one alleles is dominant over other
(a) 12 (b) 4
(c) during gamete formation alleles get separated
(c) 7 (d) 19
(d) inheritance of one character does not affect the
inheritance of other character 14. Consider the following statements
I. Peripatus is a connecting link between arthropods and
annelida.
I. Human contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.
II. Ratio obtained in dominant epistasis is 13 : 3.
II. 22 pairs are autosome and one pair of sex
chromosome. Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
III. Autosome decide the sex of new baby. (a) I and II (b) Only I
(c) Only II (d) None of these
Which of the above statements is/are true?
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) I and II (d) II and III 15. Which one of the following sets of elements was
primarily responsible for the origin of life on the earth?
8. Which of the following is not true about evolution?
(a) Hydrogen, oxygen and sodium
(a) It is anatomical, behavioural and biochemical change over time (b) Carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen
(b) It is a very rapid process
(c) Oxygen, calcium and phosphorus
(c) It involves interaction of organism with environment
(d) Carbon, hydrogen and potassium
(d) It changes the characters of organisms
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (b)
Chapter eight
Ecology
The word Ecology is Ecology is the study of interaction between organisms and with its environment. The
derived from the word keywords of ecology are as under
‘Oikos’ meaning Ecological Terms Definition/ Meaning/ Features

habituation and ‘logos’ Abiotic factors All non-living components of environment like temperature, water, light and
meaning study. It was soil.
described by Ernst Hackel Adaptation Acclimitisation (become familiar) about environment.
in 1866. Ecology is the Aestivation Prolonged dormancy of an organism in response to high temperature and arid
(summer sleep) conditions, e.g. snails and fishes.
scientific study of
Amensalism Product of one organism has a negative effect on other organism species
interactions among A ( − ) and B (0), e.g. Black walnut tree secretes a chemical that kills
organisms and their neighbouring plants.
environment, such as the Biodiversity Term given by Edward Wilson. The biological variation found in a defined
area.
interactions that
Biotic factors All living organisms of an environment that affect the life of a individual
organisms have with organism under study.
each other and with their Birth rate Rate at which individual of a population are born.
abiotic environment. It is Commensalism One organism benefits without affecting the other species A ( + ) and B ( − ),
an interdisciplinary field e.g. Barnacles on the back of whale are benefitted by its movement to
different locations for food and shelter while whales remain unharmed.
that includes biology and
Competition Symbiotic relationship between living things for resources, such as food,
Earth science. space, shelter, ate, etc. species A ( − ) and B ( − ).
Consumer Consumers are the organisms that depend on producers for their food
consumers can be categorised as
–Primary consumer—Feed on autotrophs
–Secondary consumer—Feed on primary consumer
Death rate Rate at which individual of a population die.
Decomposition Breaking down the organic molecules into inorganic molecules like CO2 ,
water, etc. Done by organisms called decomposers.
Decomposer Decomposers or saprotrophs are organisms that break down dead or decaying
organism, e.g. bacteria and fungi.
Ecological Gradual change in the species composition of a given area is called ecological
succession succession in a grassland, trees have already been cleared away due to fires in
the past, which also changes the ground composition. Without the trees to
hold them, water washes away most of the soil and the underlying ground
becomes rocky and barren.
After this lichens become the pioneer population, which is then replaced by
grasses. The grasses however absorb most of the water before it reaches the
roots of the shrubs. Thus, the ecological succession does not occur beyond the
grasses.
Magbook ~ Ecology 161
Ecological Terms Definition/ Meaning/ Features

Ecological productivity Refers to the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem. The sequence of different ecosystems in
decreasing order of productivity is mangroves (2500), grassland (500), lake (500), open ocean (125).
Environment Everything that surround an organism under study.
Emigration Number of individual that go out from a habitat.
Ecosystem Functional unit of nature where living organism interact with each other and with their environment.
Food web A food web is composed of different food chains depicting feeding connection interlinked together in an
ecological community.
Food chain A food chain can be defined as a linear sequence of links starting from a species (producers) and ends at
decomposers.
e.g. Terrestrial food chain
Plants → Insect → Frog → Bird
(Producer) e.g. grasshopper (Secondary Consumer) (Tertiary Consumer)
Aquatic food chain (Primary Consumer)
Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → Small Fish → Big Fish

e.g. Algae and diatoms e.g. Protozoans and crustaceans (Secondary Consumer) (Tertiary Consumer)
(Producer) (Primary Consumers)
Gross primary Rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis by producers, i.e. plant.
productivity
Hibernation Inactive state in response to low temperatures, characterised by low body temperature and slow
(winter sleep) physiological functions. e.g. bears, rodents and bats.
Immigration Number of individuals that come into a habitat.
Mutualism Two organisms benefit without affecting the other species A ( + ) and B ( + ).
e.g. Lichens (intimate relation between fungus and algae), mycorrhizae (association between fungi and
higher plant roots).
Symbiosis Relationship between two organisims which may or may not benefit one or both. e.g. Fungi, Protozoa and
cnidarians.
Mortality Number of death during a given period in the population.
Niche It refers both the ecological role and the space that an organism occupied in the community of an organism.
Nutrient cycling Movement of nutrient elements through the various components of an ecosystem is called nutrient cycling.
Net primary product Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses.
Natality Number of birth during a given period in the population.
Organism A living being.
Population interaction Interaction between the member of a species with another member of either same or of different species.
This may be beneficial ( + ) or harmful ( − ) for either one or both interacting species.
Population Group of species of a particular area.
Population type Expanding (increasing), stable and declining (decreasing).
Population density Number of individual of a population in an area.
Population growth Increase of the size of a population.
Primary productivity Amount of biomass produced per unit area over a time period.
Predation Predator prey (organism that hunts)- Prey organism that is hunted species A ( + ) and B ( − ).
Pollution Any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, land, water or soil.
Producer An autotroph or producer is an organism that produces complex compounds from simple substances present
in its surroundings.
Standing crop Mass of living organism (biomass) or number in a unit area.
Secondary productivity Rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers (that depend on producers)
Sex ratio Comparative percentage of males and females in a population.
Species Group of organism that can inter-breed.
Trophic levels Trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain.
Self Check
1. Which one of the following is the correct sequence of (c) Immigration is the out going of organisms from a habitat.
ecosystem in the order of decreasing productivity? (d) Emigration is the out going of organism from a habitat.
(a) Ocean, lakes, grasslands, mangroves [IAS 2013]
8. Which of the following statement is true about
(b) Mangroves, ocean, grasslands, lakes
population interaction?
(c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
(a) Predation is beneficial to both interacting organism.
(d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands
(b) Ammensalism effect both interacting organism.
2. With reference to food chains in an ecosystem, consider (c) Competition gives harmful effect to both participating
the following statements [IAS 2013] organism.
I. A food chain illustrates the order, in which a chain of (d) Commensalism gives benefit to both interacting
organisms feed upon each other. organisms.
II. Food chains are found within the population of a species. 9. What is the easiest term used for the living biomass or
III. A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism, which number present in an area?
are eaten by others. (a) Habitat (b) Standing crop
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) Ecotone (d) None of these
(a) Only I (b) I and II
(c) I, II and III (d) None of these
10. Which of the following is true about ecological
succession?
3. Which one of the following terms describes not only the (a) Sudden change in the gene pool of a population
physical space occupied by organism, but also its (b) Any undesirable change in physical, chemical or
functional role in the community of organism? [IAS 2013] biological characters of water, air and soil
(a) Ecotone (b) Ecological niche (c) Gradual change in the species composition of a given
(c) Habitat (d) Home range area
4. With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, which
of the following kinds of organism is/are known as 11. Consider the following statements
decomposer organisms? [IAS 2013] I. Any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological
I. Virus II. Fungi III. Bacteria characteristics of air, land, water or soil is called pollution.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below? II. Term biodiversity is given by Edward Wilson.
(a) Only I (b) II and III Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(c) I and II (d) I, II and III (a) Only I (b) Only II
5. Which of the following flow is correct about ascending
level of organisms in environment? 12. Consider the following statements
(a) Organism → Community → Species → Population I Bats II. Bears
(b) Community → Population → Species → Organism III. Rodents
(c) Organism → Species → Population → Community
The phenomenon of hibernation can be observed in which of
(d) Population → Species → Organism → Community
the above kinds of animals?
6. Consider the following statements Select the correct answer using the codes given below
I. Homo sapiens is a species. (a) I and II
II. Interaction between human and domestic animals (pets) is (b) Only II
studied at community level. (c) All of the above
(d) Hibernation cannot be observed in any of the above
(a) Only I (b) Only II 13. In the grassland trees do not replace the grasses as a
(c) I and II (d) None of these part of an ecological succession because of [IAS 2013]
(a) insects and fungi
7. Which of the following is not true about population
(b) limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients
characteristics?
(c) water limits and fire
(a) Natality is the number of birth during a given period.
(b) Mortality is the number of death during a given period.
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (c)
Chapter nine
Biology in Human Welfare
Economically Important Higher Plants
Biology is very Common Name Botanical Name Plant Part Uses
important as it tells us A. Food Yielding Plants
about the natural world (a) Cereals
around us. It makes 1. Wheat Triticum aestivum Caryopsis, a one Flour for bread and
us aware about the seeded fruit chapatis, suji and maida.
2. Rice Oryza sativa Caryopsis, a one Rice is staple food for 70%
physical make up seeded fruit of population of world,
of our bodies. straw-paper and mats.
Medical 3. Maize Zea mays Caryopsis, a one Mainly used as food and
seeded fruit fodder, also utilised in
science and
production of starch and
technology is based alcoholic beverages. Oi
upon the physical lextracted from maize is
also used as main feedstock
mechanisms of flora for biodiesel production.
and fauna. Zeatin, a cytokinin is
obtained from grains in
Biotechnology is
milk stage.
providing innovative
(b) Millets
solutions to full 1. Bajra (Pearl millet) Pennisetum Grows well in areas Food for poor.
spectrum of human typhoideum characterised by
drough, low soil
problems.
fertility and high
temperature.
Small sized grain
2. Jawar (Great millet) Sorghum vulgare Small sized grain Food for poor and also for
cattle.
3. Ragi (Finger millet) Eleusine coracana Small sized grain Flour used for preparing
cakes and pudding.
(c) Legumes
1. Matar (Garden pea) Pisum sativum Ovule or seed Eaten green or canned or as
vegetable.
2. Chana (Bengal gram) Cicer arietinum Seed Used as besan, bread and
also cattle feed.
3. Arhar Cajanus cajan Seed Dal, green manure and as
(Red gram cattle feed.
or pigeonpea)
4. Mung (Green gram) Phaseolus aureus Seed Dal and as cattle feed.
5. Urad (Black gram) Phaseolus mungo Seed Dal and as cattle feed.
6. Soyabean Glycine max Seed Eaten roasted or as milk.
Common Name Botanical Name Plant Part Uses

7. Mungphali Arachis hypogea Seed in Grows in arid or semi-arid areas, best in tropical
(Groundnut or Peanut) (Lomentum, areas. Rich in proteins. Eaten roasted or as
underground) vegetable ghee.
8. Lobia (Cow Pea) Vigna sinensis Young pods Used as vegetable.
and seeds
9. Masur (Lentil) Lens culinaris Seeds Used as dal.
10. Guar (Cluster Bean) Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Seeds Used as a vegetable and also have varied applications
in industries, food, medicines, etc. It’s seeds are used
in the production of gum. The gum made from guar is
used in the extraction of shale gas.
(d) Nuts
1. Almonds (Badam) Prunus amygdalus Seeds Used in the preparation of various dishes.
2. Green almond (Pista) Pistacia vera Seeds As flavouring material in ice creams, candy and
sweets.
3. Cashew nut (Kaju) Anacardium occidentale Kernels Sugared or salted kernels are consumed as table
nuts, also used in confectionary.
4. English walnut (Akhrot) Juglans regia Kernels Eaten raw, preparation of candy and ice creams.
B. Sugar Yielding Plants

1. Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum Stem Sugar, molasses, card board and paper. Bagasse, the
left over fibrous material after the extraction of
juice from sugarcane is used in the production of
energy, i.e. electricity. Molasses are used in the
production of ethanal and fertiliser.
2. Chukander (Beet sugar) Beta vulgaris Root Paper, sugar and salad.
C. Fibre Yielding Plants

1. Kapas (Cotton) Gossypium sp. Fruit capsule Cloth, cotton seed, oil cake and vegetable ghee.
contains seed with
epidermal fibres
2. Alsi (Flax) Linum usitatissimum Pericycle fibre Bags, ropes, carpets and paper.
3. Jute Corchorus capsularis, Pericycle fibre Bags and ropes.
C. olitorius
4. Sunn hemp (Sunn) Crotalaria juncea Fibres from Canvass, ropes and net.
region lying
outsides cambium
5. Nariyal (Coir) Cocos nucifera Fibrous mesocarp Coir rope, mats and carpets.
6. Bhang (Hemp) Cannabis sativa Fibres from bark Brush ropes, carpets, sail-cloth, sacs, bags and
cordage.
7. Munj Saccharum munja Lower portion of Used for making chairs, tables, baskets, screen and
stem, upper for cordage.
portion of stem
and leaves
D. Medicinal Plants
1. Sarpgandha Rauwolfia serpentina Root For blood pressure, snake bite and mental disorders.
2. Opium (Afeem) Papaver somniferum Latex from unripe Narcotic, sedative and in relieving pain.
fruit (capsule)
3. Quinine Cinchona officinalis Bark For malaria.
4. Belladona Atropa belladona Dried leaves and Narcotic, diuretic, antispasmodic and leaves
roots stimulant of CNS relieving pain.
5. Datura Datura stramonium Fruit juice For removing dandruff and for bronchial ailments.
Magbook ~ Biology in Human Welfare 165
6. Amla Emblica officinalis Fruit Diuretic, laxative for haemorrhage, diarrhea and
dysentery.
7. Kuchla Strychnos nux-vomica Seed In paralysis and mental disorders.
8. Isapgol Plantago ovata Seed husk For constipation and peptic ulcers.
9. Liquorice (Mulhati) Glycyrrhiza glabra Roots For cough and bronchitis.
10. Santonin Artemisia cina Flowers Anthelmintic and anti malarial, contains a variety of
steroidal.
11. Yam Dioscorea sp. Tubers Drugs, some of which are used to make birth control
pills.
12. Digitalis Digitalis purpurea Leaves Used as cardiac stimulant and toxic.
13. Sada bahar Catharanthus roseus Leaves Treatment of leukaemia and other cancers.
E. Timber Yielding Plants

1. Sisham Dalbergia sisso Wood Grows best in sandy well drained soil with hot
climate and moderate rainfall. For carved door
pans, wooden statue.
2. Rosewood D. latifolia Wood For furniture and houses.
3. Teak (Sagaun) Tectona grandis Wood Furniture.
4. Sal Shorea robusta Wood Door frame, beams and railway sleepers.
5. Mulberry Morus alba Wood Sports goods, mainly hockey sticks, tennis rackets
and cricket stumps.
6. Walnut (Akhrot) Juglans regia Wood Musical instruments and Rifle but.
7. White willow Salix alba Wood Cricket bats.
F. Oils
(a) Edible oils
1. Mungphali (Groundnut or Arachis hypogaea Seed yields edible oil, roasted seeds eaten, oil cake used as cattle feed
Peanut) and manure.
2. (i) Rape Brassica napus Seed oil used for cooking, oil cake a good manure and cattle feed.
(ii) Mustard B. campestris
3. Til (Sesame) Sesamum indicum Seeds yield cooking oil, oil also used for hairs as medicine.
4. Coconut Cocos nucifera Seeds yield cooking oil, also used as hair oil, for soaps and fruit husk
yields coir.
5. Cotton seed Gossypium sp. Oil is used as ghee and cake as fodder of animals.
(b) Non-edible oils
1. Castor Ricinus communis Numerous industrial uses and also as a medicine.
2. Neem Azadirachta indica Oil is used as pesticide to control mites and insects (only chewing and
sucking), in pharmaceutical industry. Neem seed are used in production
of biofuel and in hospital detergents.
G. Fruits
1. Mango Mangifera indica Raw fruit used as pickle, ripe fruit eaten and wood used as timber.
2. Banana Musa sapientum Ripe fruit eaten as fruit and raw fruit as vegetable and leaves used as
disposal plates.
3. Apple Pyrus malus Ripe fruit eaten fresh and pulp used for making jams.
4. Grapes Vitis vinifera Taken as fruit.
5. Citrus Citrus spp. Eaten fresh or as pickle.
6. Guava Psidium guajava Fruit contains considerable amounts of acid, sugar and pectin,
vitamin-A, B, C, fruit used for jellies.
H. Vegetables
1. Brinjal (Egg plant) Solanum melongena Cooked fruit or fried eaten.
2. Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum Fruit raw or cooked.
3. Okra (Bhindi) Abelmoschus esculentus or Boiled fruits edible.
Hibiscus esculentus
4. Onion Allium cepa Fleshy leaves eaten raw, boiled or in pickled form.
Storage life in cold chamber

Most rapidly maturing tropical fruits, soft fruits of all kinds and leaf vegetables with a large surface area tend to have high
respiration rates and consequently shorter storage lives.
In general, respiration rate is a temperature dependent phenomenon and these rates vary directly with temperatures. This
simply means organisms have high respiration rates at high temperature.
That’s why all storage techniques aim for reduction in temperature of the products, so that rate of respiration get decreased.
This in turn leads to longer storage lives.
Sea buckthorn berries are edible and nutritious in nature. Nutrients like Vitamin–C, Vitamin–E, Carotenoids. Amino Acids, etc.
are found in Sea buckthorn berries. Sea buckthorm withstand severe weather conditions and grow huge root system in poor soil
and in the process it helps in controlling soil erosion and in preventing desertification.
I. Spices and Condiments
1. Red pepper (Chillies) Capsicum sp. Dried pepper is used as powder with most of the Indian foods and fresh
also eaten.
2. Black pepper (Kali mirch or Piper nigrum Dried mature seeds used in cooking.
Black pearl)
3. Turmeric (Haldi) Curcuma domestica Dried rhizome is very aromatic and used to colour pickles, food stuffs
and also to prepare kumkum.
4. Cumin (Zira) Cuminum cyminum Aromatic fruits are used in soup, curries, cakes, pickles; oil is used for
flavouring beverages and other food stuffs.
5. Coriander (Dhania) Coriandrum sativum Fruits and leaves are aromatic, used in making soup, pickles, etc.
6. Clove (Laung) Syzygium aromaticum Dried unopened flower buds are very aromatic, fine flavoured and
imparts warming qualities.
7. Saffron (Kesar) Crocus sativus The dried stigma and tops of the styles make the saffron of commerce.
It possesses pleasant aroma, used as spice and dye stuff.
8. Cardamom (Chhoti ilaichi) Elettaria cardamomum Fruits and seeds are used for flavouring sweet dishes, beverages, etc.
9. Bengal cardamom (Bari Amomum aromaticum Fruits and seeds are chief ingredient of ‘garam masala’.
ilaichi)
10. Asafetida (Hing) Ferula asfoetida Resin obtained from the roots is used for flavouring food products.
J. Beverages (Non-alcoholic)
1. Tea Camellia sinensis Young leaves and shoot tips are processed to obtain tea.
2. Coffee (Cofea) Coffea arabica Roasted seeds are powdered, native or ethiopia.
3. Cocoa Theobroma cacao Beans are roasted in iron drums, seeds are ground seeds possess an
alkoloid-theobromine.
K. Essential Oil (Scented oil)
1. Camphor oil (Kapur) Cinnamomum camphora Wood and leaves In preparation of perfumes.
2. Citrus oil (Lime oil) Citrus aurantifolia Peels In toilet preparations, confectionary, etc.
3. Kasmine (Juhi) Jasminum auriculatum Flowers In preparation of hair oils and perfumes.
4. Khus Vetiveria zizanioides Roots In cosmetics, soaps and for flavouring sherbets.
5. Lavender Lavandula officinalis Fresh flowering In face and toilet powders and as odoriferant in
tops soaps and shaving creams.
6. Sandal wood (Chandan) Santalum album Roots and wood Major demand in perfumary trade.
Zaid crops Can tolerant severe sunshine and wind. More

Agriculture
humidity and precipitation is harmful to these crops, like
The term agriculture is originated from Latin word ager muskmelon, watermelon, cucumber, etc.
means field and culture means cultivation.
It is referred to as the science of producing crops and Agroforestry
livestock from the natural resources of the earth. It is an integrated approach of using the interactive benefits
from combining trees and shrubs with crops and/or
Agronomy livestock.
It is the branch of agriculture which deals with the The sustainable agriculture led to the emphasis over organic
production of field crop and soil management. methods of fertiliser production in which the vermi
Farming is referred as the practice of growing and composting, (i.e. using worms to convert organic waste into
managing agricultural crops. There are several farming nutrient rich fertiliser) and the formation of green manure,
system performed by farmers. (i.e. a manure crop, e.g. legumes, etc. are dumped into soil
– Mixed Farming Crop production is mixed with rearing of after specific period of growth, led to formation of manure).
livestock. Agricultural products can be obtained, processed and
– Ranching It is the practice of raising the grazing livestock marketed for commercial application.
such as cattle sheep and poultry.
– Terrace Farming It is a piece of sloped land which has been
landscaped in such a way that practice of farming can be Import of Inappropriate Use of
carried out. Nitrogenous Fertiliser
The most important farming is organic farming in which The excessive or inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertilisers in
the agriculture is relies on crop rotation, green manure, agriculture may lead to various consequences. These include
compost and biological pest control. The organic increase in the acidity of soil, leaching of nitrate to the ground
farming in India is supported by National Organic water, etc.
Programme.
The production of improved seed is the most important
step of agriculture. There are several types of seed as Biofertilisers
breeder’s seed, foundation seed and certified seeds Several microorganisms have capacity to fix the nitrogen
produced through various technologies. (e.g. Algae, BGA and bacteria). The mixture of these
National Seeds Policy, 2002 focus on sustained increase organisms which apply in soil for nutritional enrichment of
in agricultural productivity and provides policy plant are called biofertilisers. It is advantageous as it reduce
framework and programmatic interventions to be chemical pollution but because of high cost it can not be
adopted to stimulate varietal development of seeds. used by most of farmers.
There are MNCs which provide quality seeds for the
agriculture. Apiculture
The main constraint in the wider implementation of this
Apiculture is the rearing of honey bees for honey and wax,
policy is that there is a demand-supply gap regarding
honey bees also play a role in pollination and increased
quality seeds in case of low value and high volume
crop production.
crops.
Common Indian honey bees are
On the basis of season, the crops can be classified as: Apis mellifera, Apis florea, Apis cerana, Apis dorsata, etc.
Kharif crops Require more temperate and humidity at
the time of sowing and dry atmosphere at the time of Sericulture

maturity like-maize, bajra, red gram, cotton, groundnut,
Sericulture is the rearing of silkworms for the silk. Common
rice, etc.
Indian varieties of silk are
Rabi crops Requires low temperature at time of sowing (i) Mulberry (ii) Tropical Tasar (iii) Oak Tasar (iv) Eri
and more temperature and dry weather at the time of (v) Muga.
maturity like wheat, barley, Cicer, pea, green gram, etc. The farm Bombyx mori is used as silkworm.
Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the science of rearing, caring, feeding, breeding, improvement and utilisation of domesticated
animals.
Breeds of Indian Cow Breeds of Indian Sheeps

Breeds Distribution Breeds Name Distribution
Milch Breeds Chhota Nagpuri Chhota Nagpur, Ranchi,
Bihar and WB
Sahiwal Punjab, Haryana and
Uttar Pradesh Shahabadi All India
Deoni Andhra Pradesh Balangir Odisha and Southern India
Gir Gujarat and Rajasthan
Breeds of Indian Goats
Red Sindhi Andhra Pradesh
Breeds Name Distribution
Drought Breeds
Ganjam Odisha, Bihar and WB
Nageri Delhi, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh
Bengal West Bengal, Bihar, Asom and
Kangayam Tamil Nadu and other parts of South India Odisha
Malvi Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh Nubian All India
Hallikar Karnataka
Breeds of Indian Pigs
General Utility Breeds
Ongole Andhra Pradesh
Cantonese All India
Tharparkar Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat
Edelschwein All India
Haryana Haryana, Punjab, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh
Kankrej Gujarat Breeds of Indian Camels
Breeds of Indian Buffaloes
Jaisalmeri Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and
Breeds Distribution
Barmer
Jaffrabadi Gujarat
Kachchhi Gujarat state
Mehsana Gujarat
Mewari Mewar of Rajasthan
Nili Ravi Punjab and Haryana
Murrah Punajb, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh For the production of high yielding varieties of
Surti Rajasthan and Gujarat animals, various processes of breeding are used.
Bhadawari Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh
To overcome infertility among animals (including
humans) the methods like embryo transfer and
Nagpuri or Ellichpuri Central and South India
artificial insemination are employed.
Some Freshwater Fishes

Zoological Name Common Name Areas of Availability Improved or Exotic Breeds
Heteropneustes Singhi All over India The term ‘Improved’ is applied generally to the exotic
heteropneustes and comparatively modern breeds of chickens.
Clarias batrachus Magur All over India Polymoth rock, Wyandotte, New Hampshire, Rhode
Island Red are some of the American breeds, whereas
Catla catla Catla All over India
Brahma, Cochin, Langshan are Asiatic breeds and
Labeo rohita Rohu North, East and South India Sussex, Cornish, Dorking, Repcap are English breeds.
Mystus singhara Singhara All over India The first cross of both the pure hen and pure cock is
the best egg laying but should never be used for
Wallago attu Lachi or Malii North, East and South India
further breeding.
Labeo calbasu Calbasu All over India
Some Varieties Developed through

Plant Breeding Interspecific Hybridisation
The chief objective of plant breeding is to develop
Crop Varieties
such improved varieties of crop plants that will be
commercially successful, i.e. they become more Cotton Gossypium hirsutum × Gossypium arboreum → Deviraj
desirable, agronomincally and economically. Gossypium hirsutum × Gossypium herbaceum → Devitej
Various methods of plant breeding has been utilised Potato Solanum eurtilobatum × Solanum andigenum × Solanum
for improving the varieties of plant. Few important are tuberosum → Kufri Kuber
plant introduction, selection and hybridisation. Tomato Lycopersicom esculentum × Lycopersicom pimpinellifolium
Some of the Improved Plant Varieties → Pusa red plum
Showing Good Performance in India Oat Avena sativa × Avena byzantina → Clinton oat
Crop Variety Introduced From Rice Oryza sativa × Oryza perennis → Co 31
Wheat (i) Sonara 63 USA
(ii) Sonara 64 USA
The Improved Varieties Developed
by Clonal Selection
Pea Rimpus Germany
Crop Varieties
Tomato Sioux USA
Potato Kufri Red and Kufri Safed
Onion (i) Taxas USA
Orange Yuvraj and Blood Red
(ii) Granary USA
Grape Beauty seedless USA
Vaccination
Sweet potato FA 17 China
Any foreign particle that enter into the body either bacteria or
Rice IR 8 Philippines virus stimulate the immune system and called as antigen.
Maize Dixie 11, 12 USA The body produces defence proteins called antibody to
capture and destroy antigens. This quality of human body is
Some Improved Varieties Via Selection used to produce antibody for commonly occurring diseases
by giving a small portion of antigen. This process is called
Crop Varieties vaccination. Vaccine is the term used for non-harmful
Wheat NP 4, NP 6, K 13, Kalyan Sona and antigens. Vaccine and vaccination terms were given by Louis
Sonalika Pasteur. Edward Jenner prepared first vaccine of smallpox in
Rice Co 4, Co 10 and Mu 3 1796.
Small pox has been completely eradicated through
Cotton Co 2, RC 50, Gourani, Nandyala 14 and
vaccination, while Polio and Diptheria are on the verge of
Cocanada 1
eradication in the upcoming years.
Tobacco NP 28 and T 59 Mission Indradhanush was launched on 25th December,
2014. It aims to immunise all children under the age of 2
Some Varieties Improved by years and pregnant women against seven vaccine
Interparietal Hybridisation preventable diseases namely diphtheria, whooping cough,
Crop Varieties tetanus, poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, measles and Hapatitis B
by 2020.
Wheat NP 52 × NP 165 → NP 170
Virus are very tiny, they can only be seen with the help of
Cotton Malvi 8 × Jarlia → Maljari
electron microscope. Virus is not able to metabolise but must
Grade 1 × Co 2 → Laxmi
take over a host cell that provides these functions. Virus can
Tomato Sioux × Meeruti → Pusarubi infect every organism like, bacteria, plant, fungi, etc.
Maize Ganga Hybrid, Ganga Safed, Ranjit Hybrid Recombinant Vector Vaccines These vaccines are developed
and Histarch through application of Genetic Engineering. Bacteria and
viruses are used as vectors.
Principal Vaccines Used to Prevent Bacterial Diseases in Human

S.No. Diseases Vaccine Recommendation Booster
1. Cholera Crude fraction of Vibrio cholerae For people who work and live in Every 6 months as needed
endemic areas
2. Diphtheria Purified diphtheria toxiod For children 2 months to 16 years Every 10 years for adults
3. Meningococcal Purified polysaccaride from For people with substantial risk of Need not established
meningitis Neisserio meningitidis infection
4. Pertusis Killed whole or fragments of Children prior to school age For high-risk adults
(whooping cough) Bordetella pertusis
5. Plague Crude fraction of Yersinia pestis For people who come in regular Every 6 to 13 months for
contact with wild rodents in continuing exposure
endemic areas
6. Pneumococcal Purified polysaccharide from For adults with certain chronic Normally not recommended
pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae diseases, people over 65
7. Tetanus Purified tetanus toxoid For both children and adults Every 10 years for adults
8. Typhoid fever Killed or attenuated Salmonella For people in endemic areas or Every 3 years with killed,
typhi areas having outbreak every 5 years with
attenuated
9. Hemophilus influenzae Polysaccharide from Haemophilus Depending on patients Non recommended
and B. meningitis influenzae-B conjugated with
protein to enhance effectiveness
Principal Vaccines Used to Prevent Viral Diseases in Human

S.No. Diseases Vaccine Recommendation Booster
1. Influenza Killed For chronically ill people, especially with Annual
respiratory diseases, or for healthy people over
65 years old
2. Measles Attenuated virus For infants 15 months old At high risk condition
3. Mumps Attenuated virus For infants 15 months old Duration of immunity is not
known
4. Rubella Attenuated virus For infants 15 months old, for females of child Duration of immunity is not
bearing age who are not pregnant known
5. Poliomyelitis Attenuated or killed virus For children, for adults, as risk to exposure Duration of immunity is not
(enhanced potency type) warrants known
6. Rabies Killed virus For field biologists in contact with wildlife in Every 2 years
endemic areas and for veterinaries
7. Yellow fever Attenuated virus For people travelling to endemic areas, Every 10 years
for military personnel
8. Hepatitis-B Antigenic fragments of virus For children, for adults, especially health care Duration of protection at least
workers, homosexual males, injecting drug users, 7 years, need for boosters,
heterosexual persons with multiple partners and uncertain
household contacts of hepatitis-B carriers
Self Check
1. What can be the impact of excessive/inappropriate use this has assumed significance. Which one of the following
of nitrogenous fertilisers in agriculture? [IAS 2015] statement is correct in this context? [IAS 2014]
I. Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in soil can (a) The oil extracted from seeds is used in the manufacture of
occur. biodegradable plastics
II. Increase in the acidity of soil can take place. (b) The gum made from its seeds is used in the extraction of
III. Leaching of nitrate to the groundwater can occur. shale gas
(c) The leaf extract of this plant has the properties of
anti-histamines
(a) I and III (b) Only II
(d) It is a source of high quality biodiesel
(c) II and III (d) I, II and III
7. With reference to the usefulness of the byproducts of
2. Which of the following is the chief characteristic of sugar industry, which of the following statements is/are
mixed farming? [IAS 2012]
correct? [IAS 2013]
(a) Cultivation of both cash crops and food crops
I. Bagassse can be used as biomass fuel for the
(b) Cultivation of two or more crops in the same field
generation of energy.
(c) Rearing of animals and cultivation of crops together
II. Molasses can be used as one of the feedstocks for the
production of synthetic chemical fertilisers.
3. Government of India encourages the cultivation of III. Molasses can be used for the production of ethanol.
‘sea buckthorn’. What is the importance of this plant? Select the correct answer using the codes given below
[IAS 2012]
(a) Only I (b) II and III
I. It helps in controlling soil erosion and in preventing (c) I and III (d) All of these
desertification.
II. It is a rich source of biodiesel. 8. In the context of food and Nutritional Security of India,
III. It has nutritional value and is well-adapted to live in cold enhancing the ‘Seed Replacement Rates’ of various
areas of high altitudes. crops helps in achieving the food production targets of
the future. But what is/are the constraint/constraints in
IV. Its timber is of great commercial value.
its wider/greater implementation? [IAS 2014]
Which of the statement(s) given below is/are correct? I. There is no National Seeds Policy in place.
(a) Only I (b) II, III and IV
II. There is no participation of private sector seed
(c) I and III (d) All of these
companies in the supply of quality seeds of vegetables
4. Consider the following statements with reference to and planting materials of horticultural crops.
Neemtree. [IAS 2014] III. There is a demand supply gap regarding quality seeds in
I. Neem oil can be used as a pesticide to control the case of low value and high volume crops.
proliferation of some species of insects and mites. Select the correct answer using the codes given below
II. Neem seeds are used in the manufacture of biofuels (a) I and II (b) Only III
and hospital detergents. (c) II and III (d) None of the above
III. Neem oil has applications in pharmaceutical industry.
9. Consider the following crops. [IAS 2013]
Which of the statement(s) given below is/are correct?
I. Cotton II. Groundnut
(a) Only III (b) I and II
III. Rice IV. Wheat
(c) I and III (d) All of these
Which of these are Kharif crops?
5. Consider the following statements. [IAS 2014] (a) I and IV (b) II and III
I. Maize can be used for the production of starch. (c) I, II and III (d) II, III and IV
II. Oil extracted from maize can be a feedstock for
10. Fruits stored in a cold chamber exhibit longer storage
biodiesel.
life because: [IAS 2013]
III. Alcoholic beverages can be produced by using maize
(a) exposure to sunlight is prevented
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (b) concentration of carbon dioxide in the environment is
(a) Only I (b) I and II increased
(c) II and III (d) All of these (c) rate of respiration is decreased
6. In India, cluster bean (guar) is traditionally used as a (d) there is an increase in humidity
vegetable or animal feed, but recently the cultivation of
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)
Science & TEchnology
Chapter one
Computer and
Information Technology
decision maker. But it is still dependent
Computer on instructions provided by human
being.
A computer is general
History – Self Care Computer cannot take care of
The earliest known tool for computation itself like a human. It is dependent on
purpose device that can human beings for this purpose.
was the Abacus. It was developed in China.
perform operations – Retrieval of Memory Computer can
Blaise Pascal invented the second real
automatically. Modern retrieve data very fast but this technique
mechanical calculator called Pascaline. is linear. Human mind does not follow
computers based on Charles Babbage is considered as the this rule.
integrated circuits, these ‘father of computer’ because he invented – Sensation Computer cannot feel like a
circuits are millions to difference engine in 1822 and then human.
analytical engine in 1837 which can store
billions of times more Generations of Computer
the information on punch cards.
capable than the early Alan Turing is regarded as father of First Generation (Vacuum Tubes)
machines and occupy a ‘modern computer’. 1940-56
fraction of space. Simple Technology Use of vacuum tubes in
computers are small
Characteristics of electronic circuit
Computer Internal Operating Speed
enough to fit into mobile
Characteristics of computer are as follows: (IOS) Milliseconds
devices, and mobile
– Speed The computer uses the electronic Operating Systems (OS) Batch
computers in their various pules, the speed of those pules are virtually processing
forms are icons of the instantaneous and process the inputs in
micro, nano or picoseconds.. Languages Machine language
Information Age. – Storage It is also called as ‘memory’. It Examples UNIVAC-I, IBM-701
consists of computer components and
recording media used to retain digital data. Second Generation (Transistor)
– Accuracy Computers are error free and most 1956-63
of the errors are due to human negligence. Technology Use of transistor and diodes
– Versatility Computers are multi-tasking in IOS Microseconds
nature. OS Time sharing
– Automation It is a field where the computer Languages Assembly language, high
self executes all tasks automatically when
level language
inputs are provided to it.
Examples UNIVAC-1004, IBM-1401
Limitations of a Computer Third Generation (Integrated
– No Self Intelligence Though computer is Circuits) 1964-71
programmed to work efficiently, fast and
Technology Use of integrated circuits
accurately but it is programmed by human
beings to do so. IOS Nano seconds
– Decision Making The concept of artificial OS Real time system
intelligence shows that the computer is the
Magbook ~ Computer and Information Technology 173
Languages High level language (FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC) – Mini Computer These computers are smaller in size, faster
and cost lower than mainframes computer.
Examples UNIVAC-1100, IBM-360, PDP-8
– Mainframe Computer They are powerful computers used
Fourth Generation (Microprocessors) 1971-89 primarily by corporate and governmental organisations for
Technology Use of large integrated circuit critical applications, bulk data processing such as census,
industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource
IOS Picoseconds
planning and transaction processing.
OS Time sharing – Super Computer The super computers remain at the top of
Languages High level language (Java, C++, Python etc) the heap in power and expense. They are used for the tasks
Examples ALTAIL-8800, IBM-370, PDP-8 etc. that require massive calculations, like engineering design and
testing, weather forecasting, economic forecasting, serial
Fifth Generation (Artificial Intelligence) 1989 decryption etc.
It is the realm of programming where devices are able to
think and react to the environment around them. The fields Pratyush Super Computer
of gaming, robotics, voice recognition and real life simulation, India’s fastest and first Multi-Petaflops (PF) supercomputer
centre on perfecting the science of artificial intelligence. named Pratyush was unveiled at Pune base IITM. Pratyush has
In this period, computing technology has achieved greater 6.8 PF computational power installed at two MOES Institutes,
superiority and parallel processing, which was until limited 4.0 PF HPC facility at IITM, Pune and 2.8 PF facility at
to vector processing and pipelining. Thus, hundreds of NCMRWF, Noida. Pratyush is fourth fastest supercomputer in
processors could all work on various parts of a single the world dedicated for weather and climate research.
programme. Quantum computation, nanotechnology and
supercomputing are going to enhance the fifth generation of Top-10 Super Computers of the World
computing.
Rank Computer Speed Country
Brain Sourcing 1. Fugaku-Fujitsu 220 PFLOPS Japan
2. Summit-IBM 148.6 PFLOPS US
Researchers have developed a technique, using artificial
3. Sierra-IBM 94.64 Petaflops US
intelligence to analyse opinions and draw conclusions using the
brain activity of group of people. This can be used to classify 4. Sunway Taihulight 93 Petaflops China
images or recommend content, something that has not been 5. Tianhe-2A 61.44 Petaflops China
demonstrated before. 6. HPC5 35450 Teraflops Italy
7. Selene 27580 Teraflops US
Classification of Computer 8. Trinity 25456 Teraflops US
9. Marconi 21640 Teraflops Italy
Based on Size 10. Piz Daint 21.23 Petaflops Switzerland
Size based are as follows :
– Nano Computer It is a computer whose physical dimensions are Based on Work
microscopic. Work based classification of computer are as follows :
– Micro Computer It is a complete computer and is generally a – Digital Computer It operates on data, including symbols,
synonym for Personal Computer or PC. letters and magnitudes that are expressed in binary form by
– Laptop A laptop has most of the components as of a desktop using only the two digits i.e. 0 and 1.
computer, including a display, keyboard, pointing device such as – Analog Computer An analog computer is a form of
touch pad and a pointing stick and speakers into a single unit. computer that uses continuously variable mechanical,
– Net Book It is a small, light weight and inexpensive laptop hydraulic or electrical quantities to simulate the problem
computer suited for general computing and accessing web being solved, rather than symbolic numerical values of
based applications. digital computers.
– Palmtop/PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) These are very small – Hybrid Computer It is a computer that accepts analog
computers that have been designed to allow people to keep signals and converts and processes them as digital signals.
necessary information at hand.
– i Pad It is a line of tablet computers designed and marketed by
Other Kinds of Computer
Apple corporation. Other Kinds of computer are as follows :
– i Pod It is a line of portable media players designed and – Optical or Photonic Computer It is a device that uses the
marketed by Apple corporation. photons in visible light or infrared (IR) beams, rather than
– Simputer It is a low cost portable alternative to PCs, by which electric current to perform digital computations.
the benefits of IT can reach the common man. – Virtual Computer It allows different OS to run in the same
– Tablet Computer It is a mobile computer larger than a mobile computer at the same time without interfering each other.
phone or personal digital assistant, integrated into a flat touch – Chemical Computer It is an unconventional computer based
screen and operated by touching the screen rather than using a on semi-solid chemical soup where data is representated by
physical keyboard. varying concentrations of chemicals.
– DNA Computer It uses DNA, biochemistry and molecular

biology hardware instead of traditional silicon based computer
Output Device
technologies. In computing, an output device is any piece of computer
– Neuro Computer It is also known as Wetware computer/Organic hardware equipment used to communicate the results of
computer/ Artificial Organic Brain. It is built from living neurons. data processing carried out by a computer to the outside
– Quantum Computer It uses the quantum mechanical world.
phenomenon such as superposition and entanglement to – Visual Display Unit (VDU) It is also called monitor. It
perform operations on data. displays what computer is doing.
– Embedded Computer System It is designed for specific control – Printers It is a peripheral which produces a text or graphics
functions within a larger system. It is embedded as a part of a of documents or pictures stored in electronic form, usually
complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. on physical print media such as paper or transparencies.
– Plotters It is a kind of printer that interprets commands from
Hardware a computer to make line drawings on paper. Plotters are
used in engineering applications e.g. drawing maps and
It is the collection of physical elements, which comprises a technical drawings.
computer. On the basis of the work, hardware can be – Graphic Display Device It is the video terminal capable of
divided into following parts: displaying graphs and pictorial data.
– Input device – Output device – Speech Output Unit It is the one which reads the strings of
– Memory – Central Processing unit characters stored in the computer’s memory and converts
them into spoken sentences.
Input Device
Memory
In computing an input device is any peripheral (piece of
computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and
It stores all the data and the programmes. It receives,
control signals to a computer. holds and delivers data according to the instruction from
the control unit. It is of two types:
– Keyboard A keyboard is a human interface device which is
represented as a layout of buttons. Primary Memory
– Mouse It is the most commonly used input pointing device.
It is the computer’s memory which is accessible directly by
processing unit. It is basically of two types which are as
Membrane Computing follows:
It is an area within computer science that seeks to discover new (i) Read Only Memory (ROM) It is non-volatile and resident
computional models from the study of biological cells, particularly memory of the computer. The information and
the cellular membranes. instructions needed to operate a computer is present in
it. Types of ROM are as follows:
– Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) It is used to read – Programmable ROM (PROM) It is a form of digital memory,
the characters which are written in the magnetised ink. where the setting of each bit is locked by a fuse or anti-fuse.
– Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) It is used to read the special It is a Programmable ROM but not alterable.
pre-printed forms designed with boxes marked by a dark pencil – Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) It is non-volatile
or pen. memory. It can be erased by exposing it to strong ultraviolet
– Optical Character Recognition (OCR) It is an optical scanner light source.
used to read an image, convert it into a set of 0s and 1s and – Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM) The
store that in computer’s memory. electric pulse is used to erase the ROM instead of ultraviolet
– Bar Code Reader In this method, the optical reader recognises (UV) light.
the small bars of varying thickness and spacing printed on (ii) Random Access Memory (RAM) It is a temporary and
packages, badges, tag and converted into electrical pulses. volatile memory. Its contents are lost when power is
– Speech Input Unit It is an input unit to take in the input in the switched off. It is also called as temporary memory.
form of spoken words and convert them to a form which can be
understood by a computer. Types of RAM
– Touch Screen The touch screen makes selection by just Static RAM (SRAM) A bit of data is stored using the
touching the screen. state of a flip-flop. It has no need to refresh the memory.
– Trackball Instead of moving the whole mouse around, the user Dynamic RAM (DRAM) It stores a bit of data using a
rolls the trackball only, which is on the top or side. It is mainly transistor and capacitor pair which together comprise a
used in laptops.
memory cell. It must be periodically refreshed to access
– Joystick It gives a more natural feeling of control for motion in
a data.
games, especially when we are flying a plane or spaceship.
Cache Memory Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It is a RAM that a computer can access more quickly than it can It is the brain of the computer. It handles all the instructions
access regular RAM. This memory is typically integrated given to your computer.
directly with the CPU chip. CPU is divided mainly into two parts
(i) Control Unit (ii) Arithmetic Logic Unit
Secondary Memory
It differs from primary memory in the sense that it is not
directly accessible by the CPU. Secondary memory is Dual Core Technology
non-volatile and it does not lose the data when the It basically consists of two processors running parallel to each
power is switched off. other. Multicore is an expansion to the dual core technology which
allows for more than two separate processors.
Types of Secondary Memory
Types of secondary memory are as follows:
– Magnetic Storage It refers to any type of data storage using a Software
magnetised medium. Two types of magnetic polarities are It is a set of instructions that directs the computer to
used to read the binary information representing either zero
process information.
or one. Types of magnetic storage are as follows
It can be classified into three types
– Hard Disk Drive (HDD) It is a data storage device used for
storing and retrieving digital information using rapidly (i) System software (ii) Utility software
rotating discs (plotters) coated with magnetic material. (iii) Application software
Generally the capacity of HDD is 512 GB to many TB.
– Micro SD (Storage Disk) Card It is a non-volatile card format System Software
for use in portable devices such as mobile phones, digital
It is computer software designed to operate and control the
camera, GPS navigation devices and tablet computers.
computer hardware and to provide a platform for running
– Floppy Disk (FD) It is a disk storage medium composed of a
application software.
disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage medium, sealed in
a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes System software can be divided into two parts
dust particles. (i) Operating system (ii) Language translator
– Optical Storage It stores the information in deformities on
the surface of a circular disc and reads this information by
Operating System
illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the An Operating System is the most important software that
reflection. Four types of optical storage media which are as runs on a computer. It manages the computer’s memory,
follows: processes and all of its software and hardware.
(i) Compact Disc (CD) It is an optical disc used to store Functions of Operating System
digital data. – Process Management – Device Management
(ii) Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) It is an optical disc – Memory Management – Application Program Interface
storage format. DVDs offer higher storage capacity Types of Operating System
than compact disks while having the same – Real-time operating system
dimensions. – Multi-tasking and single-tasking operating system
(iii) Blu-ray Disc (BD) It is an optical disc storage – Distributed operating system
medium designed to supersede the DVD format. – Network operating system
The term Blue-ray is used to refer the blue laser,
Some of the operating systems are as follows:
which is used to read the disc.
Disk Operating System (DOS) It is a single user, single
(iv) Holographic Versatile Disc It is an optical disc
tasking operating system with basic Kernel’s functions and
technology that can store 1 TB, of data on an optical
only one program at a time can run on it.
disc of 10 cm in diameter.
Other types of storage media are as follows: Unix It is a multi-tasking, multi-user computer operating
– USB Flash Drive It is a data storage device that includes system, that is widely used in work stations and servers.
flash memory with an integrated Universal Serial Bus (USB) GNU It is a Unix like computer operating system developed
interface. by the GNU project and a complete Unix compatible
– Tertiary Storage or Tertiary Memory It provides a third level software system.
of storage and involves a robotic mechanism which will
mount (insert) and dismount (remove) mass storage media
Linux It is a Unix like computer operating system
according to the system’s demand. assembled under the model of free and open source
software development and distribution.
Mac OS It is a line of open core graphical operating Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
systems developed marketed and sold by Apple It is a larger computer network that usually spans a city or a
Incorporation. Unlike its predecessor, Mac OS is a larger campus (5 to 15 km).
Unix based operating system.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Microsoft Windows It is a graphical interface
It is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e. any
operating systems developed, marketed and sold by
network whose communications links cross metropolitan,
Microsoft.
regional or national boundaries).
Windows 10 It Released in July 2015, Windows 10 is
a computer operating system, having universal Personal Area Network (PAN)
application architecture can be run accross PCs, It is the interconnection of information technology devices or
tablets, small phones, Xbox One, etc gadgets within the environment of an individual user. (typically
Windows Server 2012 Formerly code named within 10 metres).
Windows Server 8, it is the current release of Windows Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
Server. It is a network operating system. It is a PAN carried over wireless network technologies such as
Language Translator Infrared Data Association (IRDA), Bluetooth, Wireless USB,
Assembler An assembler translate the symbolic codes Z-Wave, ZigBee or even Body Area Network.
of programs of assembly language into machine Body Area Network (BAN)
language. It is the application of wearable computing devices. It enables
Compiler It is a program that translates whole source wireless communication between several miniaturised body
program written in some high level language into sensor units, worn on human body.
machine code at a time.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
Interpreter A program that executes the instructions
It is a technology for using the Internet or another
written in a high level language into machine code as
intermediate network to connect computers to isolated remote
line by line instructions.
computer networks that would otherwise be inaccessible.
MANTRA Ethernet Networking

It provides the local area networking technology that has
MANTRA Rajbhasha is a MAchiNe Assisted TRAnslation
spread the Internet throughout our offices and cities.
Tool, which translates documents pertaining to Personnel
Administration, Finance, Small Scale Industries, Agriculture,
Information Technology, Health Care, Education and Banking Cyber Crimes
domains from English to Hindi. Cyber Crimes can involve criminal activities that are traditional
in nature, such as theft, forgery, defamation and mischief, all
Utility Software of which are subject to the Indian penal code.
– The computer as a target using a computer to attack other
Utility software helps to manage, maintain and control computers e.g. hacking, virus/worm attacks, Denial of Service
computer resources. Examples of utility software are (DoS) attack etc.
as follows: – The computer as a weapon using a computer to commit real world
– Antivirus software crimes. i.e. cyber terrorism, IPR recognitions, credit card frauds,
– Disk tools electronic fund transfer frauds, pornography etc.
– Backup software
Computer Virus
Application Software A computer virus is a malware program that, when executed,
It is user defined specific of computer software that replicates by inserting copies of itself into other computer
employs the capabilities of a computer directly to a programs, data files or the boot sector of the hard drive.
task that the user wishes to perform. When this replication succeeds, the affected areas are then
said to be infected.
Computer Networks
Famous Computer Viruses
Local Area Network (LAN)
It is a computer network covering a small physical Stuxnet
area (one km or less) like a home, office or small It is a microsoft windows computer worm discovered in June
groups of buildings, such as school or an airport. 2010, that targets industrial control systems.
Malware Internet in India

It is a malicious software designed to infiltrate a
The history of internet in India started with the launch of
computer system without the owner’s informed consent.
internet services by Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL)
Malware’s most common pathway from criminals to
on 15th August, 1995.
users is through the internet, primarily by e-mail and
World Wide Web. In 2004, Government formulated its Broadband Policy,
which defined the broadband as an always on internet
Important Malwares connection with download speed of 256 kbit/s or above.
Botnets From 2005 onwards the growth of broadband sector in the
Nagware/Begware/Annoyware/ Nag scrum country attained acceleration.
Trojan Horse
Digital India
Web Crawler/Spider
Approved by Government of India, Digital India is an umbrella
Grayware
programme that covers multiple Government Ministers and
Flame/Flamer/Skywiper/Skywlper Departments.
Root kits
The vision of Digital India is to cover three key areas:
* Firewall The primary objective of a firewall is to (i) Infrastructure
control the incoming and outgoing network traffic by (ii) Governance and service
analysing the data packets and determining whether it (iii) Digital empowerment of citizens
should be allowed through or not based on a
pre-determined rule set. Date of Launch : 1st July, 2015.
Website : digitalindia.gov.in
Security Management Mission statement : ‘Power to Empower’
Facial Recognition A facial recognition system is a
computer application for automatically identifying or Protocol
verifying a person from a digital image or a video frame Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) It
from a video source. is the basic communication language or protocol of the
Biometric Passport A biometric passport, also known as Internet.
an e-passport or a digital passport is a combined paper Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) It is the underlying
and electronic passport that contains biometric protocol used by the World Wide Web.
information that can be used to authenticate the identity Gopher Protocol It is a TCP/IP application layer protocol
of travellers. designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving
Iris Recognition It is an automated method of biometric documents over the internet.
identification that uses mathematical pattern-recognition File Transfer Protocol (FTP) It is a standard network
techniques on video images of the Iris of an individual’s protocol used to transfer files from one host to another host
eyes, whose complex random patterns are unique and over a TCP based network, such as the internet.
can be seen from distance.
Telnet It is a network protocol that allows one to connect to
Smart Card A smart card, chip card, on Integrated remote computers over a TCP/IP network (such as the
Circuit Card (ICC) is any pocket sized card with Internet).
embedded integrated circuits. Smart cards are made of
Usenet It is a world-wide distributed discussion system. It
plastic, generally polyvinyl chloride.
consists a set of newsgroups with names that are classified
hierarchically by subject.
Ransomware
It is a type of malicious software that threatens to publish the Internet Connection
victims data or block it unless a ransom is paid. It is carried out
Broadband It commonly refers to high speed internet
using a Trojan.
because it usually has a high rate of data transmission
relative to dial-up access over a modem. In general, any
Internet connection to the customer of 256 Kbps or more is
considered broadband internet.
The APPANET in particular led to the development of
Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) It is a technology that allows an
protocols Internet working, where multiple separate
electronic device to exchange data wirelessly (using radio
networks could be joined together into a network of
waves), over a computer network including high-speed
networks.
internet connections.
WiMax (World Wide Interoperability for Microwave P-Commerce

Access) It is a wireless communications standard, Place commerce is especialised form of mobile commerce
designed to provide 30 to 40 Mbps data rates upto 1 that uses mobile internet access, Global Positioning System
Gbps for fixed stations. It is a part of a 4G of wireless (GPS) information and bluetooth to assist and enhance the
communication technology. WiMax far surpasses the 30 retail shopping experience of customer based on their
metre wireless range of a conventional Wi-fi Local Area location and individual shopping behaviour.
Network (LAN).
Video Conferencing or Videotele Conference
LiFi This is a system that allows us to conduct meeting or
LiFi technology is a ground-breaking light based trainings at different places simultaneously. It incorporates
communication technology, which makes use of light audio and video so that we could talk and send data.
waves instead of radio technology to deliver data. Using
the visible light spectrum, LiFi technology can transmit Important Terms
data and unlock capacity which is 10,000 times greater World Wide Web (WWW) The web was developed in 1989.
than that available within the radio spectrum. People use the terms internet and World Wide Web or just the
Internet Telephony or VOIP web interchangeably but the two terms are not synonymous.
A category of hardware and software that enables people Archie The very first tool used for searching on the internet
to use the internet as the transmission medium for was Archie.
telephone calls.
Internet telephony products are sometimes called IP
Social Networking Sites
A social networking service is an online service, platform or
telephony, Voice over Internet (VoI) or Voice over IP
site that focuses on facilitating the building of social
(VoIP) products.
networks or social relations among people who, share
Wireless (Mobile) Internet interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections.
Wireless internet protocols are the suite of wireless Some social networking sites are as follows:
protocols after Wireless Application Protocol 2.0 (WAP).
Facebook It is a social networking service launched in
Remote Area Business Message Network February 2004, owned and operated by facebook
(RABMN) incorporation. Facebook was established by the Mark
It provide instant data communication between Zuckerberg.
computers and data terminals. It is satellite based LinkedIn It is a social networking website for people in
network that provides communication to any remote part professional occupations.
of India.
Myspace It is a social networking that allows its users to
ERNET create webpages to interact with other users.
This is the short form of Education and Research Twitter It is an online social networking service and micro
Network. It combines the main educational institution blogging service that enables its user to send and read text
and research centres of country. based message of upto 280 characters known as tweets.
Cloud Computing Tumblr It is a microblogging platform and social networking
Cloud computing means storing and accessing data and website founded by David Karp.
programs over the internet instead of your computer’s
hard drive. Web Search Engine
It is designed to search for information on the World Wide
Service Models of Cloud Computing Web. Following are the main search engines:
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – Google It is a web search engine owned by Google
Platform as a Service (PaaS) incorporation. Google search is most used search engine on the
Software as a Service (SaaS) Internet.
– Google + It is a multilingual social networking and identity
Important Services of Internet service owned and operated by Google Incorporation.
– Google Earth It is a virtual globe map and geographical
E-mail (Electronic Mail)
information program that was originally called Earth Viewer 3D
It is a method of exchanging digital messages from one and was created by Keyholr Incorporation.
person to another. It is a part of the standard TCP/IP set – Youtube It is a video sharing website under the Google
of protocols. Incorporation, developed in 2005.
Other Search Engines – e-Government It is short for electronic government. The

provision of government services available on Internet is known
Some other search engines are as follows:
as e-Government.
– Lycos It is a search engine and web portal established in
– e-Parliament It is a non-profit organisation that links together
1994.
the world’s democratic members of Parliament and Congress
– Altavista It helps you find exactly what you are looking for. It into a single forum.
provides information in all languages.
– Hot Bot It is mainly used to search media files, Digital Signature
geographical websites and multimedia files. It is an electronic method of signing on electronic document
– Bing It is a web search engine developed by Microsoft and ensuring that the original content is unchanged.
Incorporation.
Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET)
Information Technology It is an autonomous Inter-University Centre (IUC) of the
IT, new mantra well known for India, which has its root University Grants Commission (UGC) of India. It is involved
in the strategic infection started by the success of India’s in modernising university libraries in India and connecting
export led software industry. The Information Technology them.
industry in India has gained its brand identity. Digital Library
National Informatics Centre (NIC) It is a library in which collections are stored in digital
It is a premier organisation in the field of Information formats and accessible via computers. A digital library is a
Technology (IT) in India. It provides state of the art type of information retrieval system.
solutions to the information management and decision Augmented Reality
support requirements of the government and corporate It refers to live direct or indirect view of a physical
sectors. real-world environment whose elements are augmented by
computer generated sensory input like sound, video,
Bio-Tecnology Information System Network
graphics or GPS data.
(BTISNET)
It established on the basis of Database and Network Virtual Reality (VR)
Organisation by the Bio-Technological Department of It is an artificial environment created with software and
Indian Government. The main centre of BTISNET, found presented to the user in such a way that the user accepts it
in New Delhi, coordinates all these activities. as a real environment.
NICNET (NIC Network) Difference between Augmented and

NICNET was designed and implemented by NIC using Virtual Reality
state-of-the art satellite based computer communication AR allows individual to be present in the world and improve
technology. It ensure extremely cost effective and the experience using the camera of smartphone or PC.
reliable implementation. VR allows the world and transposes an individual, providing
Nixi (National Internet Exchange of India) Nixi is the complete immersion experience.
neutral meeting point of the ISPs (Internet Service
Providers) in India. Its main purpose is to facilitate Internet of Things (IoT)
exchange of domestic internet traffic between the It is a network in which all physical objects are connected to the
peering ISP members. This enables more efficient use of Internet through network devices and exchange data. IoT is to
International bandwidth, saving foreign exchange. extend to Internet connectivity from standard devices like
Software Technology Parks of India (STPI) computer, mobile, tablet to relatively dumb devices like a tester.
It is a government agency in India, established in 1991,
under the Ministry of Communications and Information Robotics
Technology. Its objective is to set-up and manage
It is the branch of technology that deals with the design,
infrastructure facilities and provide services like
construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture
technology assessment and professional training.
and application of robots and computer systems for their
National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) control, sensory feedback and information processing.
NeGP is a plan of the Government of India to make all
government services available to the citizen of India via Robot
electronic media. It is a system that contains sensors, control systems,
– e-Learning It includes all forms of electronically supported manipulators, power supplies and software all working together to
learning and teaching, including education technology. perform a task.
Important Robots and their Functions

Following are the main Robots and their Fuctions:
Robotics in India
– Advanced Step in Innovation Mobility (ASIMO) It is a The Robotics Society of India (RSI) is an academic society aimed
humanoid robot created by Honda. It was created as at promoting Indian Robotics and automation activities by serving
a helper to people. as bridge between research centres and industries
– Femi Sapien It is a female humanoid robot. It can
respond to sight, sound and touch and can be Manav
programmed with a sequence of movements.
Manav is India’s first humanoid robot which was developed in the
– HRP-2M Choromet It runs on Linux. It recognises
laboratory of A-SET Training and Research Institutes by Diwakar Vaish in
objects, performs human motions and follows
commands using sensors.
late December 2014.
– Ibn Sina Robot It is the world’s first android robot Rashmi
with Arabic language conversational abilities. Rashmi is world first Hindi speaking realistic humanoid robot and India’s
– Swarm Robotics It is the coordination of multi-robot first lip-syncing robot. The Ranchi based software engineer Ranjit
systems which consist of large numbers of mostly Srivastava has developed it.
simple physical robots.
– Bionic Man Scientists have developed the world’s
first human robot made entirely of prosthetic parts
Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act, 2000)
and it can walk, talk and even has a beating heart. It is an Act of the Indian Parliament fortified on 17th October,
– Sophia It became the first robot to receive citizenship 2000
of any country. It has been developed by Hong Kong This Act addresses the following issues:
based company Hanson Robotics. – Legal recognition of electronic documents.
Famous Robotic Machines – Legal recognition of digital signatures.
Following are the famous Robotic machines: – Offenses and contravention.
– Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) UAV, also known as – Justice Dispensation Systems for cyber crimes
drone is an aircraft without a human pilot on board. Its This Act has been amended in 2008. Changes in the amendment
flights are controlled either autonomously by computers
include redifining terms such as ‘communication device’ to reflect
in the vehicle or under the remote control of a pilot on
the ground or in another vehicle. current use, validating digital signatures and contracts, making the
– Curiosity (rover) It is a car-sized robotic-rover
owner of a given IP address responsible for content accessed or
exploring Gale Crater on Mars as part of NASA’s Mars distributed through it and making corporations responsible for
Science Laboratory Mssion. implementing effective data security practices and liable for
– Kirobo It is Japan’s first robot astronaut, to breaches.
accompany Koiche Wakata, the first Japanese National Cyber Security Policy, 2013
commander of the International Space Station.
It is a policy framework by Deptt of Electronics and Information
– Telerobotics It is the area of robotics concerned with
the control of robots from a distance, chiefly using Technology, Governnment of India. It aims at protecting the public
wireless connections (like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, the Deep and private infrastructure from cyber attacks. The policy also
Space Network and similar), ‘tethered’ or the intends to safeguard information such as personal information (of
Internet. web users), finance and banking information and sovereign data.
Self Check
1. Consider the following statements Select the correct answer using the codes given below
1. Tianhe-2 is the fastest super computer in the world. (a) 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
2. It has been built by China. (c) Only 4 (d) None of these
3. Its operating system is linux. 6. Which of the following is not secondary memory of
Which of the statements given above are correct? computer?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these 2. Floppy Disk (FD)
3. Cache Memory
2. Digital computer refers to
(a) a computer which operates on data, including symbols, 4. Compact Disk (CD)
letters and magnitudes that an impressed in binary form by Select the correct answer using the codes given below
using only the two digits i.e. 0 and 1 (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3
(b) a computer that uses continuously variable mechanical, (c) 2 and 3 (d) None of these
hydraulic or electrical quantities to simulate the problem
being solved 7. Which of the following is not an internet protocol?
(c) it is a computer that accepts analog signals and converts 1. TCP/IP 2. HTTP
and processes them in the form of digital signal 3. Gopher 4. STPI
(d) it describes a unitary action or object that is essentially Select the correct answer using the codes given below
indivisible, unchangeable whole and irreducible (a) 1 and 4 (b) 3 and 4
3. Which of the following is not an input device as far as (c) 4 and 3 (d) Only 4
computer is concerned? 8. Consider the following statements about Wi max
(a) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) 1. It stands for World Wide Interoperability for Microwave
(b) Optical Mark Reading and Recognition (OMR) Access.
(c) Bar Code Reader (BCR) 2. Wi max surpasses the 30 m wireless range of a
(d) Plottors conventional Wi-Fi Local Area Network (LAN) offering a
4. Consider the following steps metropolitan area network with a maximum signal radius
1. RAM is temporary and volatile memory. of 5 km.
2. Static RAM is used to store a bit of data using transistor 3. It has been designed to provide 30 to 40 MBPS data
and capacitor pair which together comprise a memory rates up to 1 GBPS for fixed stations.
cell. Which of the statements given above are correct?
3. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) stores a bit a data using the stats (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
of a flip-flop. (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these
4. The speed of cache memory is extremely slow compared 9. Consider the following statements
to the access time of main memory.
1. The narrowband ISDN is based on the use of a 64 KBPS
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? channel as the basic unit of switching while broadband
(a) Only 1 (b) 1, 2 and 3 ISDN supports very high data rates (100s of Mbps).
(c) 2 and 4 (d) None of these 2. Narrowband ISDN has a circuit switching orientation
5. Which of the following is not true for Read Only Memory which broadband ISDN has a packet switching
(ROM)? orientation.
1. It is a non-volatile and resident memory of the 3. Broadband refers to telecommunication in which a wide
computer. band of frequencies is available, information can be
multiplexed and sent on many different frequencies or
2. It is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes.
channels within the band concurrently.
3. Programmable ROM (PROM) is a form of digital
memory, where the setting of each bit is locked by a Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
fuse or anti-fuse. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
4. PROM is alterable in nature. (c) Only 3 (d) All of these
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (d)

Chapter two
Telecommunication
Establishing a comprehensive data
Telecommunication
protection regime for digital
Telecommunication plays It is a key of country’s economic and communications that safeguards the
social development. First experimental privacy, autonomy and choice of
an important role in our electric telegraph started in India between individuals is also a goal.
life today. Generally Calcutta and Diamond Harbour in 1850. It will thus enforce accountability
telecommunication is the through appropriate institutional
transmission of signal National Telecom Policy, 2012 mechanisms, to assure citizens of safe
over a distance for The government has approved the and secure digital communications
National Telecom Policy, 2012 on 31st infrastructure and services.
purpose of sending
May, 2012. As part of the new Policy, the Telecom
information. It introduces unified license and Commission is to be re-designated the
Telecommunication is authorised the development of “Digital Communications Commission”.
now understood as a telecommunications to finalise the new
Telecom Regulatory Authority of
system consists of three unified licensing regime with the
approval of Ministry of Communication India (TRAI)
elements: a transmitter, a The TRAI was established in 20th
and IT.
transmission medium and February, 1997 by an Act of the
a receiver. National Digital Communications Parliament, called Telecom Regulatory
Policy-2018 (NDCP-2018) Authority of India Act, 1997 to regulate
Government of India brought new telecom services, including
communication policy replacing National fixation/revision of tarrifs for telecom
Communication Policy 2012. services which were earlier vested in the
Central Government.
Key Features
The government aims to provide TDSAT
universal broadband connectivity at 50 The TRAI Act was Amended by an
Mbps to every citizen. ordinance, effective from 29th May,
It has kept a target of providing 1 Gbps 2000, establishing a Telecommunication
connectivity to all Gram Panchayats by Dispute Settlement and Appellate
2020 and 10 Gbps by 2022. (Right now, Tribunal (TDSAT) to take over the
average broadband speeds in the adjudicatory and disputes functions
country are 5-6 Mbps). from TRAI.
The policy will work towards ensuring Generation of Network
connectivity to all uncovered areas. 1G refers to the first-generation of
Measures will be taken to attract wireless telephone technology, mobile
investments of $100 billion in the Digital telecommunications. These are the
Communications Sector. analog telecommunications standards
The policy includes the objective of that were introduced in the 1980s and
training one million manpower for continued until being replaced by 2G
building New Age Skill. digital telecommunications.
It also aims at expanding the Internet of 2G is short for second-generation
Things ecosystem to 5 billion connected wireless telephone technology. All text
devices.
Magbook ~ Telecommunication 183
messages sent over 2G are digitally encrypted, allowing signals over it and to share its capacity, Fundamental types
for the transfer of data in such a way that only the of channel access schemers are described below :
intended receiver can receive and read it. – Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) It is based on the
3G stands for third-generation and refers to technology Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) scheme which
that allows mobile phones to access the internet-from provides different frequency bands to different data streams.
surfing web pages to making video calls and – Wavelength Division Multiple Access (WDMA) It is a channel
access method based on wavelength division multiplexing.
downloading music.
– Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) It is
4G is the fourth-generation of mobilephone mobile a multi-user version of the popular Orthogonal Frequency
communication technology standards. A 4G system Division Multiplexing (OFDM) digital modulation scheme.
provides mobile ultra-broadband Internet access. – Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) It provides different
Conceivable applications include amended mobile web time slots to different data streams in a cyclically repetitive
access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition frame structure.
mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D television, and cloud – Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) In this each
computing. transmitter is assigned a code to allow multiple users to be
5G (5th generation mobile networks or 5th generation multiplied over the same physical channel.
wireless systems) projects to denote the next major – Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) It is
phase of mobile telecommunications standards beyond developed to replace the First Generation (1st G) analog
cellular networks. The GSM standard is a digital circuit
the current 4G/IMT-Advanced standards. 5G is also
switched network optimised for full-duplex voice telephony.
referred to as beyond 2020 mobile communications
– Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) It is a family of technologies that
technologies. provides digital data transmission over the wires of a local
NATGRID telephone network.
The National Intelligence Grid or NATGRID is an
integrated intelligence grid that will link the databases of SIM
several department and ministries of the Government of
A Subscriber Identity Module or Subscriber Identification Module
India so as to collect comprehensive patterns of
(SIM) is an integrated circuit that securely stores
intelligence that can be readily accessed by intelligence
the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) and the
agencies.
related key used to identify and authenticate subscribers on
Mobile Telephony mobile telephony devices (such as mobile phones and computers).
It is the phone which may move around freely rather
than stay fixed in one location. Mobile phones connect to
a terrestrial cellular network of base stations (cell sites), Mobile Operating Systems
where as satellite phones connect to orbiting satellites. It is the operating system that controls a mobile device
Mobile Surveillance similar in principle to an operating system such as Linux or
window that controls a desktop computer or laptop. The
It is the act of performing surveillance of phone
most common mobile operating system used by modern
conversation, location tracking and data monitoring of a
smart phone includes Apples iOS, Goggle’s Android,
phone. Before the era of mobile phones, these were
Microsoft’s window phone, Nokia’s Symbian.
used for tapping of phone lines via method called wire
– Android It is a linux based operating system for mobile
tapping.
devices such as smart phones and tablet computers. It is
Cell Phone/Mobile Phone Jammer developed by open handset alliance led by Google and other
A mobile phone jammer is an instrument used to prevent companies. The current stable version is Android 10 released
on 3rd September, 2019.
cellular phones from receiving signals from base stations.
– iOS It is a mobile operating system developed and distributed
Bluetooth by Apple Incorporation. iOS is derived from OSX and is a Unix
It is an open wireless technology standard for exchanging based operating system. It is a mobile operating system and
data over short distances (using short length radio computing platform designed for smart phones and currently
waves) from fixed and mobiles devices, creating Personal maintained by Accenture.
Area Networks (PANs) with high level of security. – Windows Phone It is a mobile operating system developed by
microsoft and is successor to its windows mobile platform.
Channel Access Methods – Windows Phone 8-Apollo Windows phone 8 is the second
generation of the Windows phone mobile operating system, as
Channel access method in telecommunication and officially confirmed by Microsoft at Microsoft Developer Network
computer works allow the several terminals connected to (MSDN) seminar in August 2011.
the same multi-point transmission medium to transmit
Generation of Mobile Phone Television

Mobile radio telephone systems preceded modern Television is a telecommunication media for transmitting
celluar mobile telephoney technology. Since, they were and receiving moving images with accompanying sound.
the predecessors of the first generation of cellular Paul Nilkow was the first person to discover Television’s
telephones. These systems are sometime retroactively scanning principle.
referred as pre-cellular systems:
– General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) It is a packet Types of Television
oriented mobile data service on the 2G and 3G cellular
communication system for mobile communication. It is now There are many types of television some of them are as
maintained by the Third Generation Partnership Project follows :
(3GPP). Digital Television (DTV)
– Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) It is a It is the transmission of audio and video by digital signals in
digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data contrast to the analog signals used by analog TV.
transmission rates as a backward compatible extension of
GSM.
High Definition Television (HDTV) It is a video having
resolution substantially higher than traditional SDTV
– High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) It is an amalgamation of
two mobile telephony protocols, High Speed Downlink (Standard Definition TV) systems. HDTV has one or two
Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink Packet million pixels per frame roughly five times that of SD.
Access(HSUPA), that extends and improves the
Satellite Television
performance of existing third generation mobile
telecommunication networks utilising the WCDMA protocols. It is the television delivered by means of communication
– HSPA + (High Speed Packet Access Plus) It is also known satellite and received by an outdoor antenna, usually a
as HSPA Evolution and Evolved HSPA. HSPA + was the parabolic mirror (satellite dish) and as far as household
first standardised in 3GPP Release 7 and standardisation usage is concerned, a satellite receiver either in the form of
has continued through Release 10. an external set-top box or a satellite tuner module built into
– Long-Term Evolution (LTE) It is a standard for wireless a TV self.
communication of high-speed data for mobile phones and
data for mobile phones and data terminals. Internet Television (Online TV)
– VoLTE It is a HD voice calling services over 4G LTE rather It is a television service distributed via the Internet using
than 2G/3G network present in specific region and location. IPTV.
Internet Protocol Television (IPTV)
Other Modes of Communications It is defined as multimedia services such as television/
Satellite Radio video/audio/text/graphic/ data delivered over IP based
It is an analog or digital radio signal that is related networks managed to provide the required level of quality of
through one or more satellites and thus can be received service and experience, security, interactivity and reliability.
in a much wider geographical area than terrestrial FM
Hybrid IPTV
radio stations.
It is combination of traditional broadcast TV services and
Satellite Telephone video delivered over either managed IP networks or the
It is a type of mobile phone that connects to orbiting public Internet.
satellites instead of terrestrial cell sites. Depending on
Interactive Television
the architecture of a particular system, coverage may
include the entire Earth or only specific regions. It represents a continuum from low (TV on/off, volume,
changing channels) to moderate interactivity (simple movies
Wireless Local Loop (WLL) on demand without player controls) and high interactivity in
It is a term used for the wireless communications link as which for e.g. an audience member affects the programme
the connection for delivering Plain Old Telephone Service being watched.
(POTS) and/or broadband internet to
Three-Dimensional (3D) Television
telecommunications customers.
It is a television set that employs depth per caption
Very Small Aperture Radar (VSAR) techniques of 3D presentation such as stereoscopic
It is a two way satellite ground station or a stabilised capture, multi-view display or 2D plus depth and a 3D
maritime antenna with a dish antenna that is smaller display which is a special viewing device to project a
than 3 meters. television programme into a realistic three-dimensional field.
Magbook ~ Telecommunication 185
Satellite Media (SM) OLED

It is a technique used by corporations (primarily) to An Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) is a
provide an ‘expert’ of choosing local television news Light-Emitting Diode (LED) in which the emissive
broadcasts for oftern-live interaction with the goal of electro-luminescent layer is a film of organic compounds
getting out a specific message. which emit light in response to an electric current.
Direct-To-Home (DTH) Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV)
DTH satellite television is becoming a buzz word in the It is for the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a
satellite broadcast industry due to the fact that DTH offers specific place, on a limited set of monitors.
immense opportunity to both broadcasters and viewers.
Laser Video Display or Laser TV
Smart TV A laser TV requires lasers in three distinct wavelengths,
A Smart TV device is a television set with integrated red green and blue. It is a rear-projection television that
internet capabilities on a set-top box for television that replaces the conventional high intensity discharge lamps
offers more advanced computing ability and connectivity with three coloured lasers.
than a contemporary basic television set.
Ferro Liquid Display/Ferro Electric Liquid
Display (FLD)/Ferro Fluid Display (FFD)
Various Types of Television It is based on ferro electric properties of certain liquids
Presentation Technique and all such fluids are not crystal but they are generally
Plasma Display Panels (PDPs) referred to as Ferro Liquid Crystal Display (FLCD).
It was introduced firstly by Fujitsu in 1997. A panel Interferometric Modulator (IMOD) or Mirasol
typically has millions of tiny cells in compartmentalised
It represents one of the foremost examples of
space between two panels of glass.
Micro-Electromechanical Systems (MEMS) based device.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCDs) It is a technology used in electronic display that can
A LCD is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the create various colours through interference of reflected
light modulating properties of liquid crystals. It is a light.
Emerging Technology of Television display. Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diode Display
A Light-Emitting Diode (LED) (QD-LED)
It is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as an Quantum Dots (QD) or semiconductor nano crystals are a
indicator lamps in many devices and are in creasingly form of light emitting technology and consist of nano scale
used for lighting. crystals that can provide alternative for display
LED-backlit LCD TVs are considered a more sustainable technology.
choice, with a longer life and better energy efficiently than * TV Tuner Card It is a kind of television tuner that
plasma and conventional LCD TVs. allows television signals to be received by a computer.
Self Check
1. Consider the following statements about ISDN Select the correct answer using the codes given below
1. It stands for integrated service digital network. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
2. The main advantage of ISDN is to allow multiple data (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All of these
transmission over internet. 6. Which of the following statement(s) is/are not true for
3. Broadband ISDN is able to support transmission rates of EDGE?
maximum 100 kbps. 1. It stands for enhanced data rates for GSM evolution.
Which of the statements given above are correct? 2. It allows improved data transmission rates as a
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these back-ward- compatible extension of GSM.
2. Which of the following statements are not correct about 3. EDGE is a subset to GPRS and cannot function on any
optical fibre? network with GPRS deployed on it.
1. It is a flexible, transparent fibre made of glass (silica) or Select the correct answer using the codes given below
plastic slightly thicker than the human hair. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
2. It permits transmission over longer distances and at (c) 1 and 3 (d) Only 3
higher bandwidth (data rates) than other forms of 7. Consider the following statements about optical
communications. computing
3. It works on the principle of total internal reflection that 1. An optical computer is a device that uses the photons of
helps in maintaining less loss and also provides immunity visible light or infrared (IR) beams rather than electrons in
to electromagnetic interference. an electric current to perform digital computations.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below 2. Photons create substantially less heat than electrons, on
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
a given size scale.
(c) All of these (d) None of these
3. Due to optical computing, the development of powerful
3. Consider the following properties of Whats App processing systems becomes possible.
Messenger Which of the statements given are correct?
1. It is a proprietary, cross- platform instant messaging (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
subscription services for smart phones. (c) All of these (d) None of these
2. This facility can be used for sending text messaging, 8. Consider the following statements
images, video and audio media messages.
1. Plasma Display Panel (PDP) are called plasma displays
3. Whats App is social networking platform that can be
because the technology utilises small cells containing
accessed on internet.
electrically charged ionized gases.
Which of the above pertaining to Whats App are correct?
2. A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
3. Plasma display panel are more energy efficient than LCD.
4. Consider the following statements about GSM (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
1. It stands for geosynchronous mobile technology. (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
2. The GSM standard is a digital cricuit switched network 9. Consider the following statements about ERNET
optimised for full duplex voice telephony.
1. ERNET stands for education and research network.
3. The GSM standard is more improved after the development
2. ERNET India is an autonomous scientific society under
of third generation (3G) Universal Mobile Telecommunication
the administrative control of ministry of Human
System (UMTS).
Resources and Development Government of India.
3. ERNET India is serving more than 1300 institutions in
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
various sectors, namely health, agriculture, higher
education schools and science and technology.
5. Which of the following are mobile operating systems? Which of the statements given above are correct?
1. Android 2. Bada (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
3. iOS 4. Symbian (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (c)

Chapter three
Biotechnology
Microorganisms
Biotechnology is a field Microorganisms are vital to humans and the environment as they participate in the
of applied biology that Earth’s element cycle, such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle, as well as fulfilling
other vital roles in virtually all ecosystems.
involves the use of
Microorganisms or microbes are microscopic, single or multicellular organisms. Today,
biological agents in microorganisms are exploited in biotechnology, both in traditional and modern ways.
engineering, technology,
Uses in Food
medicine and other
Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) are used to make yoghurt, cheese, sour cream, buttermilk
useful applications. In and other fermented milk products. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is used in
modern time, similar manufacturing of beer and wine through fermentation and for baking of breads.
terms include genetic Bacteria are also used in separation of fibre, hemp and jute.
engineering as well as Important Acids, their Sources of Microbes and Applications
cell and tissue culture Organic Acid Source Applications
technologies. Citric acid Penicillium sp. In flavouring extracts, confectionary, dyeing, medicine,
and Aspergillus sp. soft drink, etc.
Oxalic acid Aspergillus niger Organic acids used in medicines and many industries.
Itaconic acid Aspergillus terreus In plastic, glass industries and jewellery.
Kojic acid Aspergillus oryzae As antiseptic and in preparation of many chemicals.
Uses in Waste Water Treatment

Biological organisms, usually microorganisms are used to remove contaminants from
polluted water in the process known as Bioremediation. Another process called
Bioaugmentation is used for biological treatment of sewage and industrial waste
effluent.
Uses in Energy
Microbes are used in fermentation to produce ethanol and in biogas reactors to produce
methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels and
bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into usable fuels.
Uses in Production of Chemicals and Enzymes

Many microbes are used for commercial and industrial production of chemicals,
enzymes and other bioactive molecules, e.g. cyclosporine A and streptokinase, etc.
Uses in Health and Medicine

Microorganisms are used to develop antibiotics and vaccines, e.g. fungus Penicillium
notatum is used to produce penicillin. In forensic science, biotechnology techniques are
used for DNA fingerprinting. Biotechnology is also used to study many diseases such as
SARS, influenza, etc.
DNA Profiling/Sequencing Recombinant DNA Technology

DNA profiles are encrypted sets of numbers that reflect a Recombinant DNA is a DNA that has been created
person’s DNA makeup, which can also be used as the artificially. For this DNA from two or more sources is
person’s identifier. It is used in, e.g. parental testing and incorporated into a single recombinant molecule.
criminal investigation. This technology allows scientists to find individual genes,
cut them out and insert them into the genome of another
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) organism. rDNA technology has applications in health and
It is a scientific technique to amplify a single or a few nutrition.
copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of
magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of Genetic Engineering
a particular DNA sequence. It was developed by Kary It is the direct human manipulation of an organism’s genome
Mullis in 1983.
using modern DNA technology. It involves the introduction of
foreign DNA or synthetic genes into the organism of interest.
Human Genome Project (HGP)
It is an international scientific research project from Cloning
1990 to 2003 with the primary goal of determining the It is the process of producing similar populations of
sequence of chemical base pairs and mapping the genetically identical individuals asexually.
approximately 20000-25000 genes of human genome Cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves four steps
from both a physical and functional standpoint. —Fragmentation Breaking apart a strand of DNA.
—Ligation Gluing together pieces of DNA in a desired sequence.
Benefits of Human Genome Project —Transfection Inserting the newly formed recombinant DNA into
It is anticipated that detailed knowledge of the human host cells.
genome will provide new avenues for advances in —Screening and Selection Selecting out cells that were
medicine and biotechnology. It will be used in genetic tests successfully transfected with the new DNA.
that can show predisposition to a variety of illness, Cloning Vector
including breast cancer, homeostasis disorders, cystic
fibrosis, liver diseases and many others.
It is a small piece of DNA into which a foreign DNA
fragment can be inserted.
Genome India Project Types of Cloning Vector
It was launched in 2020 by Department of Biotechnology
Plasmid An extrachromosomal circular DNA molecule that
autonomously replicats inside the bacterial cell. These can
to collect and analyze samples of 10,000 person from all
be important in public health, since some types possess
over the country to form a grid that will enable the
genes for antibiotic resistance and can be quickly
development of reference genome. The outcome of the
transferred to different types of host cell, thus spreading
project will help in development of predictive and
resistance very rapidly.
preventive healthcare.
Phage Derivatives of bacteriophage lambda, linear DNA
molecules, whose region can be replaced with foreign DNA
MANAV-Human Atlas Project without disrupting its life cycle.
The MANAV project aims to create an open and Cosmids An extrachromosomal circular DNA molecule that
inter-reactive atlas of human biology, compiling, curating combines features of plasmids and phage.
and synthesising data of the molecular, cellular, tissue Bacterial Artificial chromosomes (BAC) is a DNA construct
and organism level. The project was launched at New based on bacterial mini F-plasmids present usually in E.Coli.
Delhi on May 10, 2019. Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YAC) An artificial
chromosome that contains telomeres, origin of replication,
Genomics a yeast centromere and a selectable maker for
It was established by Fred Sanger when he first sequenced the identification in yeast cells.
complete genomes of a virus and a mitochondrion. Now, The various applications of cloning are :
genomics is a discipline in genetics that applies recombinant (a) Molecular Cloning
DNA, DNA sequencing methods and bioinformatics to
It is used in a wide array of biological experiments and
sequence, assemble and analyse the function and structure of
practical applications ranging from genetic fingerprinting to
genomes.
large scale protein production.
Magbook ~ Biotechnology 189
(b) Organismal Cloning (Reproductive Cloning) CRISPR Cas-9

It is a procedure of creating a new multicellular CRISPR (Short for Cluster Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic
organism, genetically identical to another. This form of Repeats), technology is new and most efficient tool for gene
cloning is an asexual method of reproduction, where editing developed in last one decade. The technology replicates a
fertilisation or intergamete contact does not take place. natural defence mechanism in bacteria to fight virus using a
Dolly was the first mammal to have been successfully special protein called Cas 9.
cloned from an adult cell by differentiation.
(c) Human Cloning Types of Gene Therapy
It is the creation of a genetically identical copy of an It may be classified into two following types
existing or previously existing human. There are two (i) Somatic Gene Therapy In this, the therapeutic genes are
types of human cloning transferred into somatic cells or body of a patient. Any
—Therapeutic Cloning Involves cloning adult human cells for modification and effect will be restricted to the individual
use in medicine and is an active area of research. patient only.
—Reproductive Cloning involves making cloned humans. (ii) Germ Line Gene Therapy In germ line gene therapy, germ
The 1st hybrid human clone was created in November, cells, i.e. sperm or eggs are modified by the introduction
1998, by advance cell technologies. of functional genes, which are integrated into their
genomes.
Stem Cells Germ cells combine to form a zygote, which in turn divides
to produce all cells of an organism. Thus, if a germ cell is
Stem cells are special human cells that are able to
genetically modified–all cells of the organism will inherit the
develop into many different cell types. This can range
modified gene and the traits become heritable too.
from muscle cells to brain cells. In some cases, they can
also fix damaged tissues. Latest Biotech Innovation
Properties Biosensors The devices which are used to detect the presence
Stem cells require two properties or concentration of a biological analyte, such as bio-molecule, a
biological structure or an organism are called biosensors.
(i) Self-renewal The ability to go through numerous cycles
Biosensors are biologically derived material or component.
of cell division, while maintaining undifferentiated state.
(ii) Potency The capacity to differentiate into specialised cell Bio-plastics With the help of bio-technology, the bio-plastic is
types. made from plant or other biological material instead of petroleum.
It is biodegradable in nature.
Types
3-D Bio-printing It is an additive manufacturing process where
In mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells: bio-materials such as cells and growth factor are combined to
(i) Embryonic Stem (ES) Cells They are cultures of cells create tissue like structure.
derived from the epiblast tissue of the Inner Cell Mass
(ICM) of a blastocyst or earlier morula stage embroys.
Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent. Pluriopotency Genetically Modified
means that they can turn into more than one type of
cells.
Organism (GMO)
(ii) Adult Stem (AS) Cells They are undifferentiated cells GMO or Transgenic organism is an organism whose genetic
and found throughout the body after embryonic material has been altered using genetic engineering
development. They are multiplied by cell division to techniques. Organisms that have been genetically modified
replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues. include microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, plants,
They are more likely to generate only certain type of fish and mammals.
cells. For instance, a stem cell that comes from liver will Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of
only make more liver cells. genes, which is done by methods like:
Gene Therapy (i) Gene Gun or Biolistic Particle Delivery System It is
originally designed for plant transformation. It is a device
It is the use of DNA as a pharmaceutical agent to treat for injecting cells with genetic information. This technique
disease. It is a collection of methods that allows correction is often simply referred to as bioballistics or biolistics.
of a gane defect that has been diagnosed in a child or (ii) Microinjection In this method recombinant DNA is
embryo. In this the inserted gene take over the function directly injected into the nucleus of animal cell using
of and compensate for the non-functional gene. micro-needles or micro-pipettes.
Uses of GMOs Cisgenic Plants (Intragenesis)

GMOs are used in biological and medical research, production
It is a product designation for a category of
of pharmaceutical drugs, experimental medicine (e.g. gene genetically engineered plants.
therapy) and agriculture (e.g. golden rice). The term genetically
modified organism includes the targeted insertions of genes from Tissue Culture
one species to another. The term tissue culture is commonly used in a very
wide sense to include in vitro culture of plant cells,
Genetically Modified Crops tissues as well as organ, but in a strict sense, tissue
They are created to possess several desirable traits, such as culture denotes in vitro cultivation of plant cells in
resistance to pests, herbicides or harsh environmental conditions, an unorganised mass. A different term, cell culture
improved product shelf life, increased nutritional value or production is used for in vitro culture of single or relatively
of valuable goods such as drugs (pharming). small groups of plant cells.
Some popular Genetically modified crops are:
(i) Golden Rice It is produced through genetic engineering to
Application of Plant Tissue
biosynthesise betacarotene, precursor of vitamin-A in the edible Culture
parts of rice. —Micropropagation is widely used in forestry and in
(ii) Golden Rice 2 It produces upto 23 times more beta -carotene floriculture.
than the original variety of golden rice. Carotene gives carrots —A plant breeder may use tissue culture to screen cells
their orange colour and is the reason why genetically modified rather than plants for advantageous characters.
rice is golden. —Large scale growth of plant cells in liquid culture in
(iii) Flavr Savr By the use of antisense RNA technology the enzyme bio-reactors is used for production of valuable
polygalactouronase, which causes damage to pectin is compounds.
deactivated and the tomato is kept fresh for a longer duration. —To cross distantly related species and tissue culture, the
resulting embryo which would otherwise normally die.
(iv) Canola It is the kind of either rapeseed or field mustard. Its
—Tissue culture is used to screen cells rather than
seeds are used to produce edible oil suitable for consumption
complete plants for advantageous characters and for
by humans and live stock.
selection of virus- free and other disease-free plants.
—Some other useful applications include:
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
(a) Embryo Preservation
Bt It is a Gram positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, commonly used as a The young embryos can be frozen and stored in
biological pesticide and the cry toxin found in the bacterium is extracted
liquid nitrogen for up to 10 years or more and used
and used as a pesticide.
on a subsequent date. The frozen embryos are for
Cry toxin is only toxic to organisms with a ‘basic’ rather than acidic easier to transport and present negligible quarantine
digestive system. Thus, ‘cry ’ is toxic to insects but does not affect problems as compared to the animals themselves.
mammals like humans.
(b) Meristem Culture
Bt Brinjal It is a transgenic brinjal (also known as an egg or aubergine)
created by inserting a crystal protein gene (Cry 1C) from the soil Meristem is tissue in plants that contain
bacterium Bt into the genome of various brinjal varities. undifferentaited or meristematic cells. They are
Bt Cotton It was developed to reduce heavy reliance on pesticides. Bt found in zones where growth can take place. For
naturally produces cry toxin harmful to insects. It is only genetically culture of excised meristems on suitable nutrient
engineered crop to be commercialised in India. media under aseptic conditions the stem apex is
usually used.
Controversies behind Bt in India
◆
Bt technology lowers rather than raises on farm yields on the long (c) Endosperm Culture
run. For culture of mature endosperm, fruits are surface
◆
Bt adoption drives farmers into debt because of high seeds prices and sterilised and endosperm plus embryo are dissected
agronomic failure. out under aseptic conditions.
◆
Bt technology is not tested on human that might have detrimental For culture of immature endosperm, entire seeds
effect. are sterilised and the endosperm tissue is carefully
◆
Safety related to long-term impact on human health and environment. excised under aseptic conditions using a
stereoscopic microscope.
◆
Lack of clear consensus among scientific community.
◆
Lack of a global precedent.
Terminator Gene Vaccines
It is a specific genetic sequence inserted into a seed’s DNA. It represents another application of recombinant DNA
Terminator gene causes the second generation seeds to be technology. For instance, the hepatitis-B vaccine now in
sterile. It is not commercially available yet. One advantage of use is composed of viral protein manufactured by yeast
terminator gene is that it could prevent escape of genes to wild cells, which have been recombined with viral genes. The
relatives and thus prevent impact on biodiversity. India and vaccine is safe because it contains no viral particles.
Brazil have passed loss to prohibit this technology. Patented by Humulin
the USDA and Delta and Pine Land Co, now owned by Monsanto, In 1983, an American Company Eli Lilly, produced the
this terminator technology has no agricultural or economic
first genetically engineered insulin by first synthesising
benefits for farmers or consumers.
two DNA sequences corresponding to A and B insulin
Biodiesel (Biofuel) chains.
It is made from vegetable oils, e.g. jatropha, neem seeds, maize, Biochips
some genetically modified crops, animal fats or recycled greases.
DNA chips are single-stranded DNA chains or repetitive
Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but
DNA segments firmly struck to silica (glass chips) for
it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce leveles of
matching and studing DNA components to know about
particulates, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons from diesel.
hereditary superiority, hereditary defects, presence of
Powered vehicles esterification. Brazil is leading producer.
disease through hyperactivity or inactivation of specific
genes and development of drug based new genes.
Artificial DNA Nanotechnology
It was first created in, January, 2000 in University of Texas. It is an engineering science which makes use of very
It is known as Synthetic Organism-1 and man-made long small particles called nanoparticles usually < 500 nm in
chain of DNAs, which have thousands base pairs. Synthetic diameter. These particles are used in biotechnology as
organism is a microorganism whose function is not known. particular carrier systems for drug delivery.
Benefits of Artificial DNA Biometrics
In production of designer bugs which act on targeted It refers to the identification of humans by their
tissues. Tumours can be destroyed by it. characteristics or physical traits, e.g. fingerprint, iris,
retina, noise, etc. Biometrics is used in computer science
It is also used in intestine to create vitamin-C.
as a form of identification and access control.
Drawbacks of Artificial DNA
Biosignature
Main threat from this is emergence of microbe master race,
Biomarkers are biological indicators obtained through assays

which can cause harm to man and animals. Mutations (such as blood sample) which can be used to ascertain facts
cannot be detected in easy way. about an individual’s health and disease state.
RNAi Genetic Testing
RNA interference is a method of blocking gene function by Recombinant DNA and biotechnology have opened a
inserting short sequence of Ribonucleic Acid that match part new era of diagnostic testing and have made detecting
of the target genes sequence, thus no protein are produced. many genetic diseases possible. The basic tool of DNA
analysis is a fragment of DNA called DNA probe.
Biotechnical Applications in Medicine Radiography
Cryotherapy It is the use of X -rays to view a non-uniformaly
It is the local or general use of low temperatures in medical composed material such as the human body. By using
therapy. Cryotherapy is used to treat a variety of benign and the physical properties of the ray an image can be
malignant tumours, tissue damage (medically called lisions), developed, which displays areas of different density and
etc. composition.
Enzyme-Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA) Angiography or Arteriography
The ELISA is a test that uses antibodies and colour change
It is a medical imaging technique used to visualise the
inside or lumen of blood vessels and organs of the body,
to identify a substance. It is a popular format of a ‘wet-lab’
with particular interests in the arteries, veins and the
type analytical assay that uses one sub-type of
heart chambers.
heterogeneous, solid-phase Enzyme Immuno Assay (EIA) to
X-ray Computed Tomography It is a medical imaging
detect the presence of substance in a liquid sample or wet
procedure that utilises computer-processed X -rays to
sample. One prominent use of ELISA is detection of HIV
produce tomographic images or ‘slices’ of specific areas
antibodies in blood samples.
of the body.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Ayush
It is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to ◆
The Department of Ayurveda, Yogas and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and
visualise internal structures of the body in detail. MRI Homoeopathy is called Ayush. Department of Indian Systems of
makes use of the property of Nuclear Magnetic Medicine and Homoeopathy (ISM and H) was created in March, 1995
Resonance (NMR) to image nuclei of atoms inside the and re-named as Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy,
body. Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) in November, 2003 with a
view to provide Healthcare, Education and Research in Ayurveda,
Positron Emission Tomography Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy Systems.
It is a nuclear medical imaging technique that produces ◆
The department continued to lay emphasis on improving healthcare
a three dimensional (3-D) image or picture of functional facilities, upgrading Ayush Educational standards and also creating
processes in the body. awareness about Ayush.
Sonography
Image Guided Radiation Therapy (IGRT)
It is an ultrasound based diagnostic imaging technique
used for visualising subcutaneous body structures It is the process of frequent 2 and 3 dimensional imaging,
including tendons, muscles, joints, vessels and internal during a course of radiation treatment used to direct radiation
organs for possible pathology or lesions. therapy utilising the imaging coordinates of the actual
radiation treatment plan.
Prosthesis
It is an artificial device extension that replaces a Electrovirus 71 (EV71)
missing body part. It is a part of the field of It is a virus of the genus Electrovirus in the Picornaviridae
biomichatronics, the science of using mechanical family notable for its etiological role in epidimics of severe
devices with human muscle, skeleton and nervous neurological diseases in children.
systems to assist or enhance motor control lost by
Plasma Pyrolysis System
trauma, disease or defect.
Pyrolysis is the thermal disintigration of carbonacious
Defibrillation material into fragments of compounds in an oxygen starved
It is the definitive treatment for the life threatening environment. Plasma Pyrolysis (also called plasma
cardiac arrhythmias, ventricular fibrillation and gassification) exploits the thermochemical properties of
pulseless ventricular tachycardia. plasma. The kinetic energy in the form of heat is used for
dicomposing chemicals.
Angioplasty
It is the technique of mechanically widening narrowed Progeria
or obstructed arteries, the latter typically being a result It is a syndrome that is an extremely rare genetic disease
of atherosclerosis. wherein symptoms resembling aspects of ageing are
Hormone Therapy or Hormonal Therapy manifested in early age. Those born with Progeria typically
live to their mid-teens and early 20s.
It is the use of hormone in medical treatment.
Treatment with hormone antagonists may also referred
Biotechnology Information System
to as hormonal theraphy. Network (BTIS Net)
Immuno Therapy Recognising the importance of information technology for pursuing
It is a medical term defined as the treatment of disease advanced research in modern biology and biotechnology, a bioinformatics
by inducing, entrancing or suppressing an immune programme, envisaged as a distributed database and network
response. organisation, was launched during 1986-87.
Biotech Parks and Incubations
Vascular Grafting
The Biotechnology Parks and Biotech Incubation Centers established
It is the use of transplanted or prosthetic blood vessels under this programme provided a good template for the promotion of
in surgical procedures. PTFE and Dacron are some of Biotech start up companies and the promotion of Public Private
most commonly used grafts. Partnerships. Biotech Park and Incubation Centers have been
established at Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh and Shapoorji Pallonji Biotech
Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery
Park Genome Valley, Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh). Besides other
It is a surgical procedure performed to relieve angina places such as in Guwahati, Cochin, Bengaluru etc.
and reduce the risk of death from coronary artery disease.
Designer Baby Dermatographics
Advanced reproduction technologies allow parents and It is the scientific study of fingerprints and can be traced
doctors to screen embryos for genetic disorders and back to 1892 when one of the most original biologists of his
select healthy embryos. time Sir Francis Galton, Published his new classic work on
fingerprints.
DNA Typing Phytoremediation
It is a procedure where in DNA extracted from a biological It describes the treatment of environment problems
sample obtained from an individual is analysed. The DNA is through the use of plants that mitigate the
processed to generate a pattern for each person that is environmental problem without the need to excavate
generally terms as a ‘DNA profile’. the contaminant material and dispose of it elsewhere.
Organ Transplantation Adenovirus

Adenovirus is medium sized, non-eveloped virus
It is the moving of an organ from one body to another or from
containing a double stranded DNA genomes. It can
a doner site to another location on the patient’s own body, for the
cause cold like symptoms, fever, sore throat, pneumonia,
purpose of replacing the recipient’s damaged or absent organ.
etc.
In Vitro Fertilisation Retrovirus
In vitro fertilisation could be performed by collecting the It is a virus that uses RNA as its genetic material. It
contents from a woman’s Fallopian tubes in uterus after contains single stranded DNA genomes and is a major
natural ovulation mixing it with semen and inserting into the cause for AIDS and some forms of cancer.
uterus.
Inter-Related Fields of
Egg Retrieval Biotechnology
The ability to collect mature eggs from a woman’s ovaries for
Bioinformatics The field may also be referred to as

fertilisation outside the body is referred as egg retrieval. Egg computational biology and can be defined as
retrieval is a vital step in the In Vitro Fertilisation process. conceptualising biology in terms of molecules and
Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) then applying information techniques to understand
ICSI is an Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) used to and organise the information associated with these
treat sperm related infertility problems. ICSI is used to molecules on a large scale.
enhance the fertilisation phase of In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) by Blue Biotechnology It is a term that has been used to
injecting a single sperm into a mature egg. describe the marine and aquatic applications of
biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT)
Green Biotechnology It is biotechnology applied to
It is the transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into agricultural process. An example would be the selection
fallopian tube of another female who cannot produce ova, but and domestication of plants via micropropagation.
can provide suitable environment for fertilisation and further Red Biotechnology It is applied to medical processes.
development of embryo. Some examples are the designing of organisms to
Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT) produce antibiotics and the engineering of genetic
ZIFT is an assisted reproductive procedure similar to In Vitro cures through genetic manipulation.
Fertilisation and embryo transfer, the difference being that the White Biotechnology It is applied to industrial
fertilised embryo is transferred into the Fallopian tube instead processes. An example is the designing of an
of the uterus. organism to produce a useful chemical.
Environmental Biotechnology It is biotechnology that
Three Parent Babies used to study the natural environment. Environmental
It is treatment using DNA from three people, designed to biotechnology could also imply that one try to harness
enable women carrying hereditary disease to have healthy biological process for commercial uses and exploitation.
children. It utilises maternal spindle transfer technique. It has been shown to play a significiant role in
agroecology in the form of zero waste agriculture and
Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy most significantly through the operation of over
It is a form of In Vitro Fertilisation where faulty Mitochondrial DNA 15 million biogas digesters worldwide.
of mother is replaced with healthy Mitochondria from a donor Science for Women
women. It can be done by two methods - pronuclear transfer and
spindle transfer. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely
Knowledge Involvement in Research
from mother. Advancement through Nurturing (KIRAN)
This scheme was launched in 2014, to encourage
Biostimulators or Bioaugnerters women to foster their career by undertaking research
in Science and Technology. It’s component Women
They are added to soil and water to accelerate the rate of
Scientist Scheme (WSS) addresses challenges faced
degradation. They are used when the depth of contamination
by qualified women primarily due to social
is huge.
responsibilities.
Self Check
1. What do you understand by bioaugmentation? Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) DNA from two or more sources is incorporated into a (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
single recombinant molecule (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
(b) Use of specially cultured microbes for biological 6. Golden rice
treatment of sewage and industrial waste affluent
1. is produced through genetic engineering to biosynthesis
(c) Monitoring a woman’s ovulatory process, removing egg
beta-carotene.
or eggs from the woman’s ovaries
2. has been developed as a fortified food to be used when
(d) In vitro cultivation of plant cell in an unorganised mass
there is a shortage of dietary vitamin-B complex.
2. Consider the following facts about Human Genome 3. is a variety of Oryza sativa rice.
Project (HGP) Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
1. The human genome project is originally aimed to map (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
the nucleotide contained in a human genome. (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these
2. It will be used in the genetic tests that can show
7. Tissue culture
predisposition to a variety of illnesses, including breast
cancer, homeostasis disorders, etc. 1. is the growth of tissue or cells.
3. It was initially headed by Ari Patrinos. 2. is an important tool for the study of biology of cells from
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? multicellular organisms.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 3. in plants is concerned with the growing of entire plants
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these from small pieces of plant tissue cultural in medium.
3. Consider the following facts about recombinant DNA (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
technology (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
1. Recombinant DNA is DNA that is naturally present in the
body. 8. Which of the following statement(s) about biodiesel
is/are not correct?
2. In this, DNA from two or more sources is incorporated into
a single recombinant molecule. 1. It is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled
3. In medicine, it is used to create pharmaceutical products greases.
such as human insulin. 2. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? form, but is usually used as a diesel additive.
(a) 1 and 2 3. Brazil is the leading producer of biodiesel.
(b) 2 and 3 Select the correct answer using the codes given below
(c) 1 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(d) None of the above (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these
4. In vitro fertilisation refers to 9. Prosthesis is
(a) a process by which an egg is fertilised by sperm outside (a) the moving of an organ from one body to another or from
the body a donor site to another location on the patient’s own body
(b) creation of a genetically identical copy of an existing or (b) an ultrasound-based diagnostic imaging technique used
previously existing human for visualising subcutaneous body structure
(c) use of DNA as a pharmaceutical agent to treat disease (c) an artificial device extension that replaces a missing body
(d) identification of human by their characteristics or traits part
(d) the technique of mechanically widening narrowed or
5. Consider the following statements about Genetically obstructed arteries
Modified Organism (GMO)
1. It is an organism whose genetic material has been altered 10. The objective of Bt brinjal is
using genetic engineering techniques. (a) to make it pest resistant
2. GMOs are the source of genetically modified foods. (b) to improve its taste and nutrition
3. Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of (c) to make its shelf life longer
genes. (d) to make it drough resistant
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (a)
Chapter four
Indian Space Programme
Department of Application of INSAT Satellites
Telecommunication These have contributed
The Indian space Space
to the communication revolution in India.
programme is aimed at It is responsible for India’s space Television INSAT has been a major catalyst
promoting the programme. The responsibility for space for the rapid expansion of television coverage
research and peaceful uses of outer in India.
development and
space was given to the Department of Educational TV It has been one of the high
application of space Atomic Energy (DAE) then under the

priority areas for Doordarshan.
science for the leadership of Dr Homi J Bhabha, in
Satellite News Gathering It has been used
1961. The DAE had set-up the Indian

socio-economic
several times via the INSAT transponders to
benefit of the nation National Committee for Space Research
enable real time news coverage from the field.
(INCOSPAR) in 1962, with Dr Vikram
through establishment Sarabhai as a Chairman to organise a Radio Networking INSAT has been designed
of operational space National Space Programme. to provide reliable high fidelity 10/15 KHz
services in a self-reliant programme channels for national as well as
ISRO regional networking of radio programmes.
manner. The Indian
Mobile Satellite Service With the launch of
space programme was ISRO is responsible for the planning, INSAT-2C, on S-band Mobile Satellite Service

launched in 1962, execution and management of space (MSS) has been added to the INSAT system.
when the Indian research activities and space application
programmes. The ISRO has headquarters
Satellite Navigation It is on service which is
National Committee at Bengaluru. The father of Space expected to become operation in many
for space research was Programme is Vikram Sarabhai. advanced countries in the next 5 years.
International Civil Aviation Organisation has
formed. This was India’s first satellite communication
made satellite navigation equipment
reorganised by station was set-up at Arvi, near Pune.
mandatory of all civilian aircrafts.
forming the Indian The first Indian Satellite, Aryabhatta was
launched on 19th April, 1975 GRAMSAT Satellites has evolved, keeping in
Space Research from Baikonur (Kazakhstan, erstwhile mind the urgent need to eradicate illiteracy
Organisation in 1969. USSR) over the years, India has in the rural belt, which is necessary for the
established two major space systems. all round development of the nation. This
programme is in operation in Gujarat,
INSAT Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Odisha.
The salient features of GRAMSAT project
(Indian National Satellite) which are as follows:
System for communication, television – The communications networks at the state
broadcasting and meterological services. level connecting the state capitals to districts
Established in 1983, INSAT satellite and blocks and enabling a reach to villages.
provide transponders in various bands – Providing computer connectivity
– TV broadcasting facilities
(C,S, Extended C and Ku) to serve the
– Teleconferencing
television and communication need of
– Disaster management
India. – Rural education broadcasting
HAMSAT It is a microsatellite designed to provide RISAT Series

satellite based Radio Amateur Services to Indian as well
It is type of synthetic-aperature radar imaging satellite for
as International HAM (Amateur Radio Operators
reconnaissance built by ISRO. The fourth and latest satellite
Community) HAMSAT was launched by PSLV-C6 in
in this series RISAT-2BR1 was launched on 11th December
2006.
2019. It was 50th launch of polar satellite launch vehicle
BHUVAN It is a software application which allows users and 75th launch from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
to explore a 3D representation of the surface of the
Earth. Bhuvan allows users to view 2D and 3D images, SCATSAT Series
alongwith information on soil, wasteland and water
resources on the Indian subcontinent.
Scatterometer satellite provides weather forecasting, cyclone
prediction and tracking service to India. Before launch of
VHRR The heart of INSAT’s weather monitoring payload
this satellite on 26th September, 2016 India was depended
is an instrument called Very High Resolution
on NASA’s ISS-Rapidscat for cyclone forecasting and
Radiometer. It is basically a telescope with a scan
weather prediction.
mirror, which can receive images invisible and infrared
wavelengths.
Satellite on the Basis of
METSAT (Kalpana-I) It carries a Very High Resolution
Radiometre (VHRR), capable of imaging the Earth in the
Orbiting Path
visible, thermal infrared and water vapour bands. It also Low Earth Orbit Satellite
carries a data relay transponder for collecting data from They are functional in an elliptical orbit of about 160-600 km.
unattended meterological platforms.
Sun Synchronous Satellite
Indian Remote Sensing These orbits allow a satellite to pass over a section of Earth
at the same time of the day.
Satellite (IRS) System Geosynchronous Satellite
The IRS (Indian Remote Sensing) satellites are state of Also known as geostationary satellite, which orbits in
the art satellites, indigenously designed and put into elliptical orbit of 36,000 km altitude. It revolves with the
polar orbit for useful remote sensing applications. It was same speed as the rotation of the Earth hence from the
commissioned with the launch of IRS-1A, in 1988. IRS is point of observation, it occurs to be stationary.
the largest civilian remote sensing satellite constellation in Long Elliptical Molniya Orbit/Highly Elliptical Orbit
the world. It is at the altitude of 504 km to 39834 km.
Oceansat Series Space Centres and their Places

Launched in 1999, it was first Indian satellite built for Space Centres Places
ocean applications. Part of (IRS) series, it carried ocean Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) Thiruvananthapuram
colour monitor and a multi-frequency scanning
ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC) Bengaluru
microwave radiometer to study physical and biological
aspect of ocean. Subsequently Oceansat-2 and 2B were Space Application Centre (SAC) Ahmedabad
launched in 2009 and 2010 respectively. Sriharikota High Altitude Range Sriharikota, Nellore,
(SHAR) or Satish Dhawan Space Centre Andhra Pradesh
Cartosat Series Master Control Facility (MCF) (a) Hassan (Karnataka)
They are sterescopic Earth observation satellite in (b) Bhopal
Sun-Synchronous orbit. The latest satellite in this series Liquid Probulsion System Centre Valiyamala Thiruvanan-
is Cartosat-3 which was launched on 27th November, (LPSC) thapuram, Bengaluru,
2019, it is imaging satellite with highest resolution in the Mahendragiri
world. It’s potential application includes weather Physical Research Laboratory Ahmedabad
mapping, cartography, defence etc.
National Remote Sensing Centre Hyderabad
Resourcesat Series ISRO Telemetary Tracking and Bengaluru (Main Centre)
Command Network (ISTRAC) Lucknow, Mouritius,
This series of remote sensing satellite will provide
Sriharikota.
regular micro and macro information on land and water
bodies below, farm land and crop extent, forest, mineral Antrix Bengaluru
deposits etc. The latest satellite of this series New Space India Limited (NSIL) Bengaluru
Resourcesat-2A was launched on 7th December, 2016.
Magbook ~ Indian Space Programme 197
Some Early Satellites Generations of Launch Vehicles

SLV (First Generation of Vehicle)
Aryabhatta SLV stands for Space Launch Vehicle. SLV 3 is
It was India’s first satellite launched by the Soviet Union on 19th India’s first experimental satellite launch vehicle. It
April, 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Cosmos-3M launch was successfully launched on 18th July, 1980 from
vehicle. It was built by the ISRO to gain experience in building SHAR centre, Sriharikota, when Rohini Satellite RS-I
and operating a satellite in space. was put into orbit.
Bhaskara ASLV (Second Generation of Launch Vehicle)
Bhaskara I and II satellites were built by the ISRO and formed
ASLV stands for Augmented Satellite Launch
India’s first low orbit Earth Observation Satellite.
Vehicle. It was developed to act as a low cost
Rohini intermediate vehicle to demonstrate and validates
Rohini series consisted of 4 satellites viz Rohini Technology critical technologies ASLV-D3 was first successful
Payload, (RTP) RS-1, RS-D1 and RS-D2 which were launched launch on 20th May, 1992.
by the Indian Space Research Organisations Satellite Launch PSLV (Third Generation of Launch Vehicle)
Vehicle (SLV) in 1980 and 3 of which made it successfully to
PSLV stands for Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle. It is
orbit.
the first operational launch vehicle of ISRO. PSLV
The series was mostly experimental satellites launched on the has 4 stages using solids and liquid propulsion
experimental launch vehicle, SLV. systems alternately. The PSLV project was initiated
Experimental Satellites in 1982.
ISRO has launched many small satellites mainly for
Modified PSLV is meant for launching satellite into
experimental purposes, which includes remote sensing, the low Earth orbit. ISRO scientists successfully
atmospheric studies, payload development, orbit controls and modified a PSLV to launch a satellite into
recovery technology etc. geostationary orbit.
West opposes India’s development of PSLV, because
Indian Experimental Satellites it confers ICBM status to India.
Satellites Launched on
GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Arya Bhatta 19th April, 1975 Vehicle)
RTP 10th August, 1979 INSAT GSLV is an expandable launch system
RS-1 18th July, 1980 operated by ISRO. It was developed to enable India
to launch its INSAT-type satellites into geostationary
Apple 19th June, 1981
orbit and to make India less dependent on foreign
SRE-1 10th January, 2007 rockets. All GSLV launches have been conducted
ANUSAT 20th April, 2009 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.
EDUSAT 12th July, 2010 GSLV Mark II
YOUTHSAT 20th April, 2010 This variant uses an Indian Cryogenic engine and is
capable of launching 2500 kg into geostationary
SRM SAT 12th October, 2011
transfer orbit.
Jugnu 12th October, 2011
GSLV Mark III
INS-IC 12th January, 2018
It is a heaviest launch vehicle developed by ISRO.
It is designed to be a 3 stage vehicle with 42.4 m
Launch Vehicles Programmes height and a lift-off weight of 630 tonnes. It is
Launch vehicles are used to transport and put satellites or capable of launching 4 tonne class of
spacecrafts into space. In India, the launch vehicles communication satellite.
development programme began in early 1970s.
Indian Regional Navigational GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation)

Satellite System (IRNSS) GAGAN is a satellite based augmentation system,
implemented jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI).
IRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite
The main objectives of GAGAN are to provide satellite
system. It is designed to provide position accuracy better
based navigation services with accuracy and integrity
than 10 m over India and the region extending about 1500
required for civil aviation applications and to provide
kms around India. It will provide an accurate real time
better air traffic management over Indian airspace.
Position, Navigation and Time (PNT) services to users on a
variety of platforms with 24 × 7 service availability under all Geographical Information System (GIS)
weather conditions. A GIS is a computer based tool for mapping and analysing
IRNSS constellation consists of 7 satellites. The navigation things that exist and events that happen on the Earth. GIS
software for IRNSS is being indigenously developed at ISRO technology integrates common data base operations such
Satellite Centre. as query and statistical analysis with the unique
IRNSS will provide two types of services, namely, Standard visualisation and geographic analysis benefits offered by
posting service which is provided to all users and Restricted maps.
service which is an encrypted service provided only to Application of GIS
authorised users.
– Business Many businesses are using GIS for target
Launch of Indian Regional Navigation Satellite marketing, competitive analysis, demographic analysis,
System (IRNSS) risk management, route planning and expansion analysis.
– Healthcare The health industry uses GIS for marketing and
Navigation Date Satellite promotion, research and planning, facilities management
and finance.
IRNSS-1A July 2013 PSLV-C 22
– Government Local, state and federal governments use GIS
IRNSS-1B April 2014 PSLV-C 24 for economic development legislative reforms, voter
registration and land use controls etc.
IRNSS-1C October 2014 PSLV-C 26 – Agriculture GIS is being used in agricultural business for
IRNSS-1D 28th March, 2015 PSLV-C 27 production analysis, precision farming, regulatory
compliance and financial modelling.
IRNSS-1E 20th January, 2016 PSLV 31 – Education Higher education and school education use GIS
for administration, school district mapping and student
IRNSS-1F 10th March, 2016 PSLV-C 32 assignment.
IRNSS-1G 28th April, 2016 PSLV-C 33 – Telecommunication For targeting markets, wireless
engineering, customer support, outside plant engineering
IRNSS-1H Planned, Aug 2017 PSLV-C 39 etc.
IRNSS-1I April, 2018 PSLV-C 41 – Petroleum For retail distribution, facilities management and
exploration.
– Environment Management For site remediation, natural
International Navigational System resource management, waste management, water quality
and ground water modelling and vegetation mapping.
– Global Position System (GPS) It is funded and controlled by the
– Public Safety Emergency response mechanism, in real
US Department of Defence (DoD). GPS is widely used in
time emergency response.
navigation and is a useful tool for map making, land surveying,
commerce, scientific uses, tracking and surveillance and in
geo-catching and way marking. Prominent Space Missions
– Glonass It is a radio based satellite navigation system,
developed by Russia to provide real time position and velocity
of India
determination.
– Galileo It is a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Chandrayaan-I
operated by the European Union (EU) and European Space This was India’s first unmanned lunar probe. It was
Agency (ESA). launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation in
– BeiDou It is satellite navigation system of China. It has total 22 October, 2008 and operated untill August, 2009. The
operational satellites in orbit and the full constellation is
mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor. India
scheduled to comprise 35 satellite. The BeiDou 2 also known
as compass completed global service by December, 2018. On
launched the spacecraft with a modified version of the
23rd June 2020, the BeiDou 3 constellation deployment is fully PSLV, PSLV C 11 on 22nd October, 2008, from Satish
completed. Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
The mission had the following stated scientific objectives Aditya Mission
which are as follows:
Aditya-I or Aditya is the first Indian space based solar
– To design, develop, launch and orbit a spacecraft around the
Moon using an Indian-made launch vehicle. coronagraph to study solar corona in visible and near
– The preparation of a 3-D atlas of both the near and far sides of
IR bands. The main objectives are to study the Coronal
the Moon. Mass Ejection (CME) and consequently the cruicial
– Chemical and mineralogical mapping of entire lunar surface. physical parameters for space weather such as the
coronal magnetic field structures, evolution of the
Mars Orbiter Mission coronal magnetic field etc. ISRO plans to carry out the
mission by the year 2019-20.
Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or Mangalyan, was launched by
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) on 5th
November, 2013, its spacecraft bound for Planet Mars, from
Gaganyan
Shriharikota. This is India’s first interplanetary project. Prime Minister Narendra Modi, on the eve of
Independence day in 2018 announced launch of
Objectives of Mars Mission Gaganyan Programme. This programme is India’s
Finding methane on the Martian surface. Maiden Human Space Flight, scheduled for 2022.
Exploring the mineral composition of the surface.
India’s capability to design, develop, test and manage the
Mission Shakti
operations of an interplanetary mission. On 27th March, 2019 India conducted Mission Shakti,
Deep space communication. an anti-satellite mobile test, from the Dr APJ Abdul
Kalam Island launch centre. This mission was carried
Chandrayaan-II out by DRDO. With this test, India joined an exclusive
group of space faring nation consisting of USA, Russia
Fully indigenous, the second Lunar exploration mission failed and China.
to make soft landing on the Lunar South pole on 6th
September, 2019. It carried an orbiter, Lander (Vikram) and
Rover (Pragyan). It was launched by GSLV MK III - MI.
Satellite Launch Pads All
If completed successfully, India would had became 4th Over the World
country to soft land on lunar surface besides becoming the Kennedy Space Centre, Florida-USA
first one to have soft landing on Moon's South polar mission.
Vanderberg Air Force Base, California-USA
Edward Air Force Base Station, California-USA
Chandrayaan-III
Wallops Island, Virginia-USA

The third Lunar mission with an estimated cost around 600
Cape canaveral Air Force station, Florida-USA
crore has been approved. It will have a lander, rover and a
Kagoshima Space Centre, Tanegashima Island-Japan
propulsion module and will likely attempt another soft
landing on lunar surface.
Sriharikota Space Centre, India
Kourov French Guiana Space Centre-European Space
Space Capsule Recovery Agency (ESA)
Woomera spaceport-Australia.
Experiment (SCRE)
Alcantara launch Centre-Brazil

It is an Indian experimental spacecraft which was launched Jiuquan space launch centre (shuang cheng
on 10th January, 2007 from Sriharikota by the ISRO. The Tzu-China)
launch was conducted using PSLV-C7 rocket, alongwith three
Xichang space launch Centre-China
other satellites. It was designed to demonstrate the capability
Hammaguir, Algeria and Kourou, French Guiana-France
to recover an orbiting space capsule and the technology of
an orbiting platform for performing experiments in micro
Palmachim Air Base in the Xledger Desert-Israel
gravity conditions. Volgograd station, Baikonur cosmodrome, Plesetsk
Cosmodrome, Svobodny cosmodrome-Russia.
AVATAR
Aerobic Vehicle for Hypersonic Aerospace Transportation was a concept development effort for a single stage reusable
space plane capable of horizontal take off and landing by India’s DRDO alongwith ISRO and other research institutions.
GSLV-D5
ISRO on 5th January, 2014 successfully launched GSLV-D5 which is powered by an indigenous cryogenic engine, from
the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota. With the launch of GSLV-D5, India is joining countries like US, Russia
Japan, France and China which have successfully developed their own cryogenic engines.
Cryogenic Technology
Cryogenic pertains to liquified gases, i.e. helium, nitrogen, CO 2 , which are all inert and extremely cold, i.e. − 27%. Others
are reactive i.e. hydrogen. In this technology propellants are used in liquid form. Main feature of this technology is the
thrust produced by the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. In 2006, India’s indigenously developed cryogenic engine was
successfully tested in Liquid Propulsion System Centre (LPSC), Tamil Nadu. With cryogenic technology, India is included
among other 6, countries, which have indigenously developed it. Others are US, Russia, China, Japan, Europe.
Other Space Related Developments

GEMINI Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation and Information (GEMINI) will provide satellite based advisory
service for deep sea fisherman. It has been launched recently in 2019.
Indian Data Relay Satellite System (IDRSS) This new planned satellite series will be used for space to space tracking and
communication of India’s space assets. It will significantly reduce the dependence on the ground station in tracking
satellite.
UNISPACE Nanosatellite Assembly and Training Programme (UNNATI) It is capacity development programme on
nanosatellite development under ISRO. Launched to commemorate the 50th anniversary of first UN conference on outer
space, it will provide opportunities to the participating developing countries to strengthen their capabilities in nanosatellite.
NISAR NASA-ISRO synthetic aperture radar is the first dual band radar imaging satellite. It will provide means of resolving
highly spatial and temporally complex process regarding ecosystem disturbance, ice-sheet collapse as well as data from
natural hazards such as tsunami and earthquake.
Major Mission of the World
Mission Space Agency/ Country Objective
Insight Mission NASA First mission for search and exploration of Martian surface
It detected quakes and magnetic pulses beside evidence of water on Mars
Dragon Fly Mission NASA To study Titan, the largest Moon of Saturn
This programme also included
— New Horizon Mission - Pluto and Kuiper Belt
— Juno Mission - Jupiter
— OSIRIS-Rex Mission - Bennu asteriod
Starliner NASA Built by Boeing, it will ferry astronauts to International space station
Solar Parker Probe NASA Study the Sun atmosphere
It became closet satellite to reach the Sun
Voyager-2 NASA Only satellite to study all four giant planets of Solar System - Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
Changee’4 China First mission to land on the far side of the Moon
Remove Debris Programme University of Surrey (UK) Satellite research project to demonstrate various space debris removal
technologies
Hope Mission UAE Mars mission of UAE scheduled to be launched in 2020
Raavana-1 Sri Lanka First satellite designed and developed by Sri Lanka, launched successfully
with the help of Japan
International Space Station (ISS)

It is a space station or a habitable artificial satellite in low Earth orbit. The ISS includes contribution from 15 nations.
NASA (US), ROSCOSMOS (Russia) and the European Space Agency are the major partners of the space station who
contribute most of the funding.
Major Space Missions
S.No. Telescope Countries Notes
1. James Webb Space Telescope US To study every phase of history of Universe
2. Thirty Meter Telescope US Observation of cosmic objects
3. Himalayan Chandra Telescope India Observation of Astronomical events
4. Event Horizon Telescope Worldwide First ever to capture image of Black hole
5. Hubble Sapce Telescope US First major optical telescope to the placed in space
6. Five Hundred Meter Aperture Spherical China World’s largest filled-aperture radio telescope
Radio Telescope (FAST)
Self Check
1. Consider the following statements with regard to Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
Geosynchronous Satellite (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
1. It is also known as Geostationary Satellite. (c) Only 1 (d) Only 3
2. It orbits in circular orbit of 36000 km altitude. 5. Match the following
3. It revolves with the same speed as the rotation of the
List I List II
Earth and hence appears stationary from the point of
(Navigation System) (Country of Origin)
observation.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? A. Glonoss 1. China
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 B. Galileo 2. Russia
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these C. GPS 3. European Union
2. Match the following D. Beidou 4. USA
List I List II Codes

(Space Centres) (Places) A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 1 3 4
A. Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre 1. Ahmedabad (c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 2 3 4 1
B. Space Application Centre 2. Bengalurn
C. National Remote Sensing 3. Thriruvananthapuram
1. GAGAN stands for GPS Aided GEO Augmented
Centre
Navigation.
D. ISRO Satellite Centre 4. Hyderabad
2. It is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS)
Codes implemented jointly with Indian Railways.
A B C D A B C D 3. Its main objective is to provide better Air Traffic
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 1 3 2 4 Management over Indian Airspace.
(c) 3 1 4 2 (d) 4 2 1 3
3. Consider the following statements with regard to (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
IRNSS-1B (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these
1. It stands for Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System 7. Consider the following statements about Aditya Mission
1B. of ISRO
2. It was 24th successful launch of PSLV. 1. Aditya-I is a spacecraft whose mission is to study the
3. IRNSS-1B is the second satellite of IRNSS constellation of Sun.
seven satellites. 2. It will study the Coronal Mass Ejection (ECME).
4. Its applications include terrestrial, aerial and marine 3. A corona is a type of plasma that lies deep inside the Sun
navigation, disaster management, vehicle tracking and and other celestial bodies.
fleet management etc. Which of the statements given above are correct?
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 4 and 3
8. Consider the following statement
4. Consider the following statements 1. GEMINI (Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for
1. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was Navigation and Information) will provide support to Indian
developed to enable India to launch its INSAT- type fisherman.
satellites into geostationary orbit. 2. NISAR, a joint project of Russia and India is first dual band
2. All GSLV launches have been conducted from Vikram Radar Imaging Satellite.
Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) Thiruvananthapuram. 3. HOPE Mission is Mars mission of Saudi Arabia.
3. GSLV is a three stage launch vehicle with the first stage Which of the statement given above are correct?
being croyogenic in nature. (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
(c) Only 3 (d) All of the above
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b)

Chapter five
Indian Nuclear Programme
Atomic Energy
India’s three-stage nuclear It is energy produced by atoms. It is also referred as nuclear energy. It is created
power programme was during nuclear reactions. It is obtained by the either Nuclear fission or fusion.
formulated by Dr Homi Nuclear Fission
Bhabha in the 1950 to It is the process in which a heavy nucleus is broken down into two or more medium
secure the country’s long heavy fragments. It is used in nuclear reactor and atom bomb.
term ‘energy independence'
through the use of uranium Nuclear Fusion
and thorium reserves found The process which involves fusion of two or more lighter nuclei to give a heavier
nuclei, is called nuclear fusion. It only occurs at extremely high temperatures
in monazite sands of (> 106 K ) and hence, they are called Thermonuclear Reactions.
coastal regions of South
Hydrogen bomb contains a mixture of Deuterium Oxide (DO) and Tritium Oxide (TO)
India. The ultimate focus of in a space surrounding an ordinary atom bomb.
the programme is on
enabling the thorium Nuclear Reactor/Atomic Reactor
reserves of India to be All nuclear reactors are devices designed to maintain a chain reaction producing a
utilised in meeting the steady flow of neutrons generated by the fission of heavy nuclei. In terms of purpose,
country’s energy they are either research reactors or power reactors.
requirements.
Research Reactors
These are operated at universities and research centres in many countries. These reactors could
have multiple purposes, including producing radio pharmaceuticals for medical diagnosis and
therapy, testing materials and conducting basic research. Cirus, Dhruva and Kamini are the
examples of Indian research reactors.
Nuclear Chain Reactions

A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission produce an
additional fission in atleast one further nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces
neutrons and the process repeats. The process may be controlled (nuclear power) or
uncontrolled (nuclear weapons). It can be understood through the following:
– A Uranium- 235 atom absorbs a neutron and fissions into two new neutrons and a large
amount of binding energy.
– One of those neutrons is absorbed by an atom of U-238 and does not continue the
reaction. Another neutron leaves the system without being absorbed.
– Both of these neutrons collide with U-235 atoms each of which fissions and release a few
neutrons, which can then continue the reaction.
Mechanism of Nuclear Power Generation India’s Three Stages Nuclear

In nuclear power plants, uranium fuel undergoes nuclear Power Programme
fission and generates an enormous amount of heat. The heat
The three stage Indian Nuclear Programme charted
makes high-temperature and high-pressure steam that rotates
by Dr Homi J Bhabha, aimed at establishing nuclear
turbines to generate electricity.
power with domestic resources comprises the
LWRs use light water (normal water) as coolant and
following guidelines:
moderator. Coolant removes heat produced during nuclear
fission from a reactor core. Moderator reduces the speed of Stage I Pressurised Heavy Water
neutrons produced in nuclear fission to facilitate further fission Reactor (PHWR)
reaction and sustain a chain reaction. In the first stage of the programme, natural uranium
A control rod controls the power of a nuclear reactor. By fueled Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)
inserting control rods, excessive fission is prevented. A reactor produce electricity, while generating plutonium-239
containment vessel, made of steel, accommodates a reactor as a by product.
pressure vessel. The primary water loop transmits heat
through the tubewalls to the surrounding water of the
Stage II Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
secondary cooling system to generate steam and rotate A breeder reactor is a reactor that produces more
turbines. fissile material than it consumes.
Doubling time → Amount of time required to extract
Parts of Nuclear Reactor as output double the amount of fissile material that
Formation of nuclear energy takes place through nuclear was fed as input.
reactors which have five different parts: In the second stage, Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)
Fuel It is the most important part of reactor uranium 235 or would use a mixed oxide fuel made from
plutonium 239 are used as fuel. plutonium-239, recovered by reprocessing spent fuel
Moderator A moderator increases the power of the reactor by from the first stage and natural uranium.
causing fast neutrons that are released from fission to In (FBRs), plutonium-239 undergoes fission to
lose energy and become thermal neutrons. produce energy, while the uranium-238 present in the
Coolant Often the neutron moderator and the coolant are the mixed oxide fuel transmutes to additional
same, usually purified water. plutonium-239. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) was not
Shield of Most nuclear reactors use thick concrete shield to adopted by India because the uranium was to be
protector create a bioshield with a thin water cooled layer of lead imported from America on higher cost. The raw
on the inside to protect the porous concrete from the
coolant inside. This shield is needed to stop different
material used in it is enriched uranium and heavy
types of rays emerging during nuclear fission. water (D 2 O). This technique can also be used in
Speed of nuclear fission controlled by controlling rods,
Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor.
Controller
which are made of boron and cadmium. Stage III Thorium based Reactor
A stage-III reactor or an advanced nuclear power
Development of Nuclear system involves a self-sustaining series of
thorium-232, uranium-233 fuelled reactors.
Energy in India
With the enactment of the Atomic Energy Bill in 1948, the Nuclear Research Reactor
Atomic Energy Commission was established on 10th August, in India
1948. Apsara Oldest, designed by BARC and built with the
Dr Homi J Bhabha as its first Chairman. The commission was assistance of UK. It is at Trombay. It was permanently
entrusted with the formulation and implementation of the shut down in 2010.
policy of the government in all matters concerning atomic Cirus It is at Trombay, was built with assistance of
energy. Subsequently the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) Canada. It was also permanently shut down in 2010.
was set-up on 3rd August, 1954, under the direct charge of
Zerlina India’s third research reactor. This zero energy
the Prime Minister through a presidential order.
experimental reactor was indigenously built. It was
On 3rd January, 1954, Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay decommissioned in 1983.
(AEET) was established by Atomic Energy Commission, the
Kamini It is a research reactor at IGCAR in
AEET was renamed as Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in
Kalpakkam, India. It was first reactor in the world
1967. It consolidates all nuclear reactor research and
designed specifically to use U-233 as fuel.
technology related developments in India.
Magbook ~ Indian Nuclear Programme 205
Dhruva The Dhruva reactor is India’s largest research Under Construction Projects (5300 MW)
reactor and primary source of weapons- grade plutonium. Total
Fast Breeder Test Reactor It is jointly designed by BARC Names Operaters States Types Units Capacity
and IGCAR. The FBTR is a liquid metal (liquid sodium) (in MW)
Fast Breeder Reactor based on the French Rapsodie Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu VVER 1000 × 2 2000
design. Kalpakkam BHAVINI Tamil Nadu PFBR 500 × 1 500
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 700 × 2 1400
The advanced heavy water reactor will use thorium based Rawatbhata NPCIL Rajasthan PHWR 700 × 2 1400
mixed oxide fuel with a small feedstock of plutonium to Gorakhpur NPCIL Haryana PHWR 700 × 2 1400
generate power. This research included the development
of indigenous equipment for the production of thorium
dioxide powder and trials with uranium dioxide. It will be Atomic Energy Centres in India
particularly relevant for the future construction of 500 MW Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology – Mumbai
PHWRs. (BRIT)
Types of Nuclear Power Reactors Bhabha Atomic Research Centre – Trombay near
(BARC) at Mumbai
Reactor types Coolant Moderator Fuel
Indian Rare Earths Limited – Mumbai
Pressurised Water Light Water Light Enriched Atomic Mineral Directorate – Hyderabad
Reactor (PWR) Water Uranium Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research – Kalpakkam
Boiling Water Light Water Light Enriched Variable Energy Cyelotron Centre – Kolkata
Reactor (BWR) Water Uranium
Centre for Advanced Technology – Indore
Pressurised Heavy Heavy Water Heavy Natural Heavy Water Board Mumbai-NPCIL (Nuclear
Water Reactor Water Uranium Power Corporation of India Limited)
(PHWR)
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research – Mumbai
Gas Cooled CO2 Graphite Natural or Nuclear Fuel Complex – Hyderabad
Reactors Enriched
Uranium
Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics – Kolkata
Institute of Plasma Research – Ahmedabad
Light Water Pressurised Graphite Enriched
Graphite Reactors Boiling Uranium
Reactor
The Planned Projects
India’s Atomic Energy Reactors (At Present) Total
Power
Operaters States Types Units Capacity
Stations
Capacity (MW)
Plants Units Types
(MWe) Gorakhpur NPCIL Haryana PHWR 700 × 2 1400
Tarapur Atomic Power Station 4 2BWR, 2 160, 160, Chutka NPCIL Madhya PHWR 700 × 2 1400
(TAPS), Maharashtra PHWR 540, 540 Pradesh
Rajasthan Atomic Power 6 PHWR 100, 200, Mahi NPCIL Rajasthan PHWR 700 × 4 2800
Station (RAPS), Rajasthan 220, 220, Banswara
(Rawatbhata) 220, 220, Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PHWR 700 × 2 1400
Madras Atomic Power Station 2 PHWR 220, 220 Kudankulam — Tamil Nadu VVER- 1000 × 2 2000
(MAPS), Tamil Nadu 1000
(Kalpakkam) Jaitapur — Maharashtra EPR 1650 × 6 9900
Narora Atomic Power Station 2 PHWR 220, 220 Kovvada — Andhra ESBWR 1100 × 6 6600
(NAPS), Uttar Pradesh Pradesh
Kakrapar Atomic Power 2 PHWR 220, 220 Kavali NPCIL Andhra VVER 1000 × 6 6000
Station (KAPS), Gujarat Pradesh
Bhimpur NPCIL Madhya PHWR 700 × 4 2800
Kaiga Generating Station 4 PHWR 220, 220, Pradesh
(KGS), Karnataka 220, 220
Madras BHAVINI Tamil Nadu FBR 600 × 2 1200
Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu 2 VVER 1000 × 2
Tarapur — Maharastra AHWR 300 × 1 300
Development of Higher Applications of Radioisotopes

Technology Medicine Diagnosis and treatment of diseases, sterilisation
of products frequently used in clinical and surgical
Accelerator environment etc.
With the help of atomic accelerators, the speed is Industry and Technology Review of materials and welding
provided to the atomic particles, which reach the state of in construction, control of productive processes, research
excitation and can be utilised in radio isotopy and etc.
formation of isotops. Agriculture Plague control, food conservation etc. Art
Pulse Electron Accelerator restoration of art objects, verification of historic or artistic
objects etc.
These type of accelerators are used for X-ray and high
frequency microwave. e.g. KALI-500. Archaeology Geological event dating etc research
universe, industry, medicine etc.
Radio Telescopy Pharmacology The study of the metabolism of drugs
The Research and Development of Radio Telescopy is before they are authorised for public use.
studied at National Centre for Radio Astrophysics in Pune.
It works under Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Radiocarbon Dating
(TIFR). Radiocarbon Dating It is a method of estimating the age of
organic material. Some examples of the types of material
Agricultural Nuclear Technology
that radiocarbon can determine the ages of, are, wood,
Nuclear isotopes are present in soil, plants, animals, air charcoal, marine and freshwater shell, bone and antler
and subsequently in the food we eat. Scientists use them and peat and organic bearing sediments.
in a number of ways in the food and agriculture sector. Age Determinations It can also be obtained from
Exposing plants to small dose of radiation helps change carbonate deposits such as calcumte, dissolved CO2 and
the genetic make-up of plants and leads to improved carbonates in ocean, lake and groundwater sources.
varieties. Radiation Counters These are used to detect the electrons
given off by decaying carbon - 14 as it turns into nitrogen.
Radioactivity In order to date the artifact, the amount of carbon - 14 is
compared to the amount of carbon - 12 to determine how
The process of spontaneous disintegration of nucleus is called much radiocarbon has decayed.
radioactivity. It was discovered by Henry Becquerel, but term
radioactivity was coined by Madam Curie. It is measured by Tokamak
Geiger counter. It is a nuclear phenomenon, thus remains
unaffected by external factors like temperatures, pressure etc. It A tokamak is a device using a magnetic field to confine a
involves emission of α, β and γ-rays/particles. plasma in the shape of a torus. Achieving a stable plasma
equilibrium requires magnetic field lines that move around
the torus in a helical shape. Such a helical field can be
generated by adding a toroidal field and a poloidal field.
Radio Isotopes In a tokamak, the toroidal field is produced by
In an unstable atom, the nucleus changes by giving off a electromagnets that surround the torus and the poloidal
neutron to get back to a balanced state. As the unstable field is the result of a toroidal electric current that flows
nucleus changes, it gives off radiation and is said to be inside the plasma. Tokamaks were invented in the 1950s
radioactive. Radioactive isotopes are often called by Soviet physicists lgor Tamm and Andrei Sakharov. It is
radioisotopes. All elements with atomic numbers greater the short form of Toroidal Chamber Magnetic in Russian
than 83 are radioisotopes meaning that these elements language.
have unstable nuclei and are radioactive.
Elements with atomic numbers 83 and less, have isotopes ITER
(stable nucleus) and most have at least one radioisotope ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor)
(unstable nucleus). As a radioisotope tries to stabilise, it is an international nuclear fusion research and
may transform into a new element in a process called engineering project, which is currently building the world’s
transmutation. Radioisotopes are isotopes that are unstable largest experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor in
and release radiation. All isotopes are not radioisotopes. France.
Magbook ~ Indian Nuclear Programme 207
Aims of ITER’s Mission Intermediate-Level Waste (ILW) It contains higher amounts

ITER’s mission is to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion of radioactivity and some requires shielding.
power and prove that it can work without negative High-Level Waste (HLW) It arises from the burning of
impact. uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor.
* Aditya is a medium size tokamak installed at the Nuclear Tests of India

Institute for Plasma Research in India.
India became the sixth nuclear power in the world having
Various diagnostics used in Aditya include electric and the capability of manufacturing nuclear weapons.
magnetic probes, microwave interferometry, Thomson Pokhran I
scattering and charge exchange spectroscopy.
On 18th May, 1974, at Pokhran Rajasthan, the first
Nuclear Test explosion by India was conducted, which was
Nuclear Waste Management also the first confirmed test by a nation outside the
Disposal of radioactive waste is a complex issue, not only 5 permanent members of the United Nations Security
because of the nature of the waste, but also because of the Council. It was coded as ‘Smiling Buddha.’
stringent regulatory structure for dealing with radioactive Pokhran II
waste. India has achieved self-reliance in the
It is the test explosion of 5 nuclear devices, three on 11th
management of all type of radioactive waste.
May and two on 13th May, 1998. It was code named as
Following the March, 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster operation ‘Shakti’. The tests conducted were with a fission
in Japan, populations around proposed Indian NPP sites device, a low yield device and a thermonuclear device.
have launched protests against the French-backed 9900
MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and Regulation and Safety
the 2000 MW Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil
Nadu. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
It is an international organisation that seeks to promote the
Stages in Nuclear Waste peaceful use of nuclear energy. India also contributes to
Management the IAEA’s Nuclear Security Fund. Yukiya Amano is Director
General of IAEA. The IAEA has 162 member states.
Partitioning
Partitioning of high level nuclear waste is the process
The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board
(chemical or electrochemical) of separation of short life
(AERB)
ratio nuclides (mainly the fission products) from the It was formed in 1983 and comes under the Atomic Energy
long-life radio nuclides. Commission. AERB also set-up an institute at Kalapakkam,
to promote safety related research in nuclear
Transmutation establishments becoming only second in the world after
Transmutation of high level nuclear waste is the process France to do so.
of changing long-lived radio nuclides into other,
shorter-lived radio nuclides by radioactive bombardment. Nuclear Supplier Group (NSG)
It was established in 1974. This is a group of 48 nuclear
Conditioning
supplier countries, which seek to contribute to the
Operations that render nuclear waste suitable for handling, non-proliferation of nuclear weapons through the
transportation, storage and disposal. Conditioning may implementation of guidelines for nuclear exports.
include the conversion of the radioactive waste to a solid NSG relaxed its guidelines only for India, without India
form, enclosure of the radioactive waste in containers.
having to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty.
Types of Radioactive Wastes The Nuclear Power Corporation of India
Exempt Waste and Very Low Level Waste (VLLW) It Limited (NPCIL)
contains radioactive materials at a level which is not It is responsible for design, construction, commissioning
considered harmful to people or the surrounding and operation of thermal nuclear power plants.
environment.
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
Low-Level Waste (LLW) It is generated from hospitals
The treaty on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons is
and industry as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. It
commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Its
comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters etc. Which
objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and
contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity.
weapons technology, to promote co-operation in the
peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the goal responsible for the administration of the nuclear forces and
of achieving nuclear disarmament and in general will be actually tasked with the firing of nuclear.
complete disarmament. In this regard, India, Russia and Bangladesh sign pact for
The treaty entered into force in 1970. On 11th May, development of nuclear power plant in Bangladesh.
1995 the treaty was extended indefinitely. The 5 nuclear
weapon states, the United States, Russia, UK, France CTBT and India
and China have joined the treaty. The treaty calls for an The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a
implicit balance among non-proliferation disarmament multilateral treaty by which states agree to ban all nuclear
and the right to peaceful use of nuclear technology. explosions. It was adopted by the United Nations General
India along with Pakistan, Israel and South Sudan have Assembly on 10th September, 1996, but it has not entered
never signed the treaty. into force due to the non-ratification of 8 specific states.
India, Pakistan and North Korea have not signed the treaty.
The Civil Liability for A further 6 States–China, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Israel and
Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 USA-have signed, but not ratified the treaty.
◆
This act aims to provide civil liability for nuclear damage India’s Points of Objections on CTBT
and prompt compensation to the victims. The CTBT should prevent horizontal and vertical proliferation
◆
It make amendments in the Atomic Energy Act 1962, and and should not perpetuate a division of the world into two
allows private investment in the Indian Nuclear Programme. categories of nations; the nuclear haves and have nots.
◆
It provides for maximum amount of liability for each nuclear No test should be carried out under the pretext of safety
accident at USD 210 million to be paid by operator of the purposes and nuclear weapon test sites should be closed.
nuclear plant, and if cost of damage increases, special India was also concerned about the intrusive nature of the
drawing rights up to 300 million will be paid by the Central verification regime being developed and expressed early
government. reservations on the use of national technical means,
including satellites, for verification.
India’s Nuclear Doctrine
There are basic principles of India’s Nuclear Doctrine
Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant
which are as follows: Controversy
No First Use The nuclear doctrine states that India is A joint Russia-India Project, it is a nuclear power station in
commited to a no first use of nuclear weapons. Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu.
Credible Minimum Deterrent The concept of minimum People around Kudankulam are protesting against the plant.
nuclear deterrent will include sufficient survivable and They are worried that hot water discharged from plant will
operationally prepared nuclear forces a robust command adversely affect the marine life.
and control system, effective intelligence and early
warning capability and comprehensive planning and Treaty on the Prohibition of
training for operations. Nuclear Weapons, 2017
Nuclear Command Authority Also called as Nuclear Ban Treaty, is the first legally binding
On 4th January, 2003 India reveled a three tire Nuclear international agreement to comprehensively prohibit nuclear
Command Authority (NCA) to manage its nuclear weapons.
weapons. Passed on 7th July, 2017, it needed ratification by at least
The NCA comprises of (a) Political Council, (b) Executive 50 countries to come into effect. As of June, 2020 only 38
Council and (c) Strategic Forces Command. Political states have ratified the treaty.
Council is headed by the Prime Minister. It is the body This treaty was convened under the aegis of UN General
which authorises the use of nuclear weapons. Executive Assembly on 23rd December, 2016.
Council is headed by the national security advisor to the
Prime Minister. Its function is to provide inputs for India Signed Action Plan with the
decision given to it by the Political Council. Russian Federation
The Executive Council may comprise of the chiefs of During the visit of Vladimir Putin, President of Russia, India
defense services, the Cabinet Secretaries, heads of signed Action Plan for Priortization and Implementation of
intelligence agencies and Secretaries of Ministers Co-operation Area in the Nuclear Field on 5th October, 2018.
represented in the Cabinet Committe of Security (CCS). The two countries intent to develop a project of six nuclear
The Strategic Force Command (SFC) would be plant in India.
Self Check
1. Consider the following statements Codes

1. Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic A B C D A B C D
nuclei join together to form a single heavier nucleus. (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 1 3 2 4
2. Hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fission. (c) 2 3 1 4 (d) 2 1 3 4
3. Fusion is the process that powers activate stars. 5. Consider the following statements about Nuclear Tests
Which of the statements given above are correct? of India
(a) 1 and 2 1. The first Nuclear Test explosion by India was conducted
(b) 1 and 3 on 18th May, 1974. It was code named Smiling Buddha.
(c) 2 and 3 2. Operation Shakti was code named to Pokharan II.
(d) All of the above
2. Which of the following statements about enrichment of (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
uranium is incorrect? (c) 1 and 2 (d) None of these
1. Enriched uranium is a critical component for both civil 6. Consider the following statements
nuclear power generation and military nuclear weapons.
1. Little boy was the name given to the bomb dropped on
2. International Atomic Energy Agency attempts to monitor Hiroshima on 6th August, 1945.
and control enriched uranium supplies and processes.
2. Crude uranium oxide is known as yellow cake.
3. 235 U is the only nuclide existing in nature that is fissile
3. Hydrozen bomb employs hydrogen fusion.
with thermal neutrons.
4. Fissile material is less capable of sustaining a chain
Which of the statement (s) given above is/are correct? reaction of nuclear fission than fissionable material.
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 2
7. Which of the following is not correct about the
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)?
1. Thorium based reactors.
1. CTBT was adopted in 1996, it has still not entered into
2. Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR). force.
3. Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR). 2. Only India and Pakistan have not signed the treaty.
Which of the following is correct sequence of India’s stage 3. China and USA have signed it, but not ratified it.
Nuclear Programmes?
(a) 1, 2, 3
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(b) 2, 3, 1
(c) 1, 3, 1
(d) 3, 2, 1 8. Consider the following statements regarding NPT
(Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty)
4. Match the following
1. NPT aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and
List I List II weapons technology.
2. It was opened for signature in 1968, but entered into force
A. Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre 1. Mumbai
in 1970.
B. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic 2. Kolkata
3. Four UN member, India, Israel, Pakistan and South Sudan,
Research
have never joined the NPT.
C. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre 3. Kalapakkam
D. Vranium Corporation of India 4. Jaduguda
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Limited
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d)

Chapter six
Indian Defence Programme
DRDO Major Laboratories Under DRDO
Since independence, the DRDO (Defence Research and Aeronautical Development Establishment
Development Organisation) It was (ADE), Bengaluru.
country has been tackling
established in 1958. It works under Aerial Delivery Research and Development
a large number of security Establishment (ADRDE), Agra.
Department of Defence Research
cases, both external and and Development of Ministry of Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics
internal. There are many Defence. (CAIR), Bengaluru.
trends that will impinge on DRDO’s Vision Centre for Air Borne Systems (CABS),
the security of India in the Make India prosperous by Benguluru.
next decade. These establishing world class science Defence Research and Development
and technology base and provide Laboratory (DRDL), Hyderabad.
includes terrorism global,
our defence services decisive edge Defence Research and Development
regional as well as local. by equipping them with Establishment (DRDE), Gwalior.
Economic and military internationally competitive systems Defence Avionics Research Establishment
strengths are corner stone and solutions. (DARE) Bengaluru.
of Indian power. Sustained, DRDO’s Mission
Other Military Establishments
equitable and balanced Design, develop and lead to Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers Ltd.
economic growth are production state of the art sensors,
HQ- Kolkata (established in 1934).
weapons, systems, platforms and
necessary for removing the Bharat Electronics Ltd, HQ-Bengaluru
allied equipment for our defence
hollowness of military, with services. (established in 1954).

infusion of modern Provide technological solutions to Goa Shipyard Ltd. HQ- Vasco-da-Gama
weapons and equipment. the defence services to optimise (established in 1957).
combat effectiveness and to Madgaon Dock Ltd HQ-Mumbai
promote well-being of the troops. (established in 1960).
Develop infrastructure and Bharat Earth Movers Ltd.
committed quality manpower and HQ-Bengaluru (established in 1964).
build strong technology base. Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. HQ-Bengaluru
Chief of DRDO is Scientific Advisor (established in 1964).
of Defence Minister. Presently, Shri Bharat Dynamics Ltd. HQ-Hyderabad
S Christopher is Chief of DRDO (established in 1970).
who is also Secretary Department
of Defence R and D, DG (Director Types of Missile
General) R and D (Research and
Development). Famous scientist, Surface to Surface Missiles (SSMs)
Dr D S Kothari was the first head SSM (also known as, Ground to Ground
of DRDO. Missile, GTGM) is a guided projectile launched
from a hand held, vehicle mounted, trailer
mounted or fixed installation or from a ship.
Magbook ~ Indian Defence Programme 211
Surface to Surface, missiles are usually classified into Agni Missile Series
following types: Agni Missile was originally termed as a re-entry technology
– Ballistic Missile It travels in a high trajectory; motor burns demonstrator and it was first tested at the interim test
out partway through flight. range in Chandipur in1989 and was capable of carrying a
– Cruise Missile It travels in a relatively lower trajectory; motor conventional payload of 1000 kg or a nuclear warhead.
burns during entire flight; typical range 2500 km.
The Agni series of missiles have very high accuracy and
– Anti-tank Guided Missile It travels lower towards the ground and
are guided by Ring Laser Gyro (RLG) based Inertial
may or may not burn motor through the flight; typical range is 5
km.
Navigation System (INS) and the most modern and
accurate Micro Navigation System (MINS).
– Anti-ship Missile It travels lower towards the ground and sea
and often pops up or jinks before striking ship; typical range Agni-I This is a two-stage Agni technology demonstrator,
is 130 km. with a solid-fuel first stage. It is capable of carrying a
conventional payload of 1000 kg. Agni-I has a range of
Surface to Air Missiles (SAMs)
700-1250 km.
SAM or Ground-to-Air Missile (GTAM) is a missile
designed to be launched from the ground to destroy
Agni-II It is the improved version of Agni-I. It uses solid
aircraft or other missiles. propellant in both of its two stages. Agni-II has a range of
2000-3000 km. It can carry a payload of 750-1000 kg.
Man-Portable Air Defence Systems (MANPADS) are the
smallest of SAMs and are capable of being carried by
Agni-III It uses solid propellant in both stages. Agni-III has
soldiers. a range of more than 3000 km and can take a warhead of
1.5 tonnes.
India’s Missile Development Agni-IV It has a range of 2500-4000 km. This missile can
carry nuclear payload weighing close to a tonne.
Programme
Agni-V It is a solid fueled Inter Continental Ballistic Missile
India’s political and scientific leadership, which included (ICBM) developed by Defence Research and Development
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, decided that all the Organisation (DRDO) of India. It has a range of 5000-5500
technologies (in the fields of propulsion, navigation and km and can carry a nuclear warhead of 1500 kg.
manufacturing of materials) should be consolidated.
Agni-VI It is being developed by DRDO. Agni-VI is an Inter
This led to the birth of the Integrated Guided Missile Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) reported to be in early
Development Programme. Dr Abdul Kalam, who had stages of development by India. It is to be the latest and
previously been the project director for the SLV-3 most advanced missile among the Agni (missile)
programme at ISRO, was inducted as the DRDL director programme. It will be capable of being launched from
in 1983 to conceive and lead it. 4 projects, to be pursued submarines as well as from land and will have a
concurrently, were born under the IGMDP. strike-range of 8000-10000 km with MIRV warheads.
– Short range surface to surface missile (Prithvi).
– Short range low level surface to air missile (Trishul).
MTCR
– Medium range surface to air missile (Akash).
The Missile Technology Control Regime is a multilateral export
– 3rd generation anti-tank missile (Nag).
control regime. It is an informal and voluntary partnership among
The Agni missile was initially conceived in the IGMDP as 35 countries to prevent the proliferation of missile and
a technology demonstrator project in the form of a unmanned aerialvehicle technology carrying above 500 kg
re-entry vehicle and was later upgraded to a ballistic payload for more than 300 km. India joined its membership in
missile with different ranges. As part of this programme, October 2016.
the Interim Test Range at Balasore in Orissa was
developed for missile testing. Akash
Prithvi Missile Series This is a medium range surface to air missile defence
system developed by the DRDO. It can target aircraft up to
Prithvi is a tactical surface to surface, Short Range
30 km away.
Ballistic Missile (SRBM) developed by DRDO. Developed
as a battlefield missile, it can carry a nuclear warhead. Akash flies at supersonic speed, reaching around Mach
2.5. The missile is supported by a phase-arrayed fire
Range Payload control radar called the Rajendra.
Prithvi I 150 km 1000 kg Recently, DRDO launched Akash-15, which is surface to
Prithvi II 250 km 500 kg air supersonic missile, fitted with indigenous seeker, it can
Prithvi III 350 km 500 kg strike upto 25 km and carry 60 kg fragmentation warhead.
Trishul Missile System Prahaar It is a solid fuelled surface to surface guided

Trishul (means trident) is the name of a short range short range tactical ballistic missile developed by DRDO.
surface to air missile. It has a range of 12 km. It is Operational Range-150 km.
designed to be used against low level (sea skimming) Sagarika /K-15 It is a nuclear capable Submarine
targets at short range. Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) with a range of 700
km. It belongs to the K Missile family. It will be integrated
Nag Anti-Tank Missile System
with India’s nuclear powered Arihant class submarine.
Nag is India’s 3rd generation fire and forget type anti-tank
Operational Range - 700 km with 1000 kg warhead and
missile. It is an all weather top attack missile. The missile
1900 km with 180 kg warhead.
can engage targets at ranges 3-7 km.
Shaurya Missile It is a canister launched hypersonic
Various variants of Nag are as follows:
surface to surface tactical ballistic missile developed by
– Land Version It has to be carried by a tracked vehicle known
the DRDO. Operational range 600 km with 700 kg
as NAMICA (Nag Missile Carrier). With the IR (Infra-Red), the
warhead and 1900 km with 180 kg warhead.
land version of the missile acquires target using a thermal
sight and then uses the nose-mounted IIS (Imaging Infrared Dhanush (Means Bow) It is a naval variant of the surface
Seeker) to surface Prithvi II missile with an operational range up to
– Namica It is Nag Missile Carrier, produced as Sarath in India. 350 km. It is capable of carrying both conventional as
– Helina (Helicopter launched Nag) It has a range of 7-8 km well as nuclear warheads with payload capacity of 500 kg
and is to be launched from twin tube stub wingmounted and can be launched from ships.
launchers on board the armed HAL Dhruv and HAL Light Barak It is an Israeli designed missile. India purchased
Combat Helicopter.
this missile system from Israel. It is a Surface to Air
– Air Launched Nag It is a 10 km range variant launched from
missile meant to protect ships against aircraft, anti-ship
tactical interdiction aircraft like the upgraded Jaguar IS.
missiles, UAV’s etc.
– Man Portable Nag It is in the developmental stage and will weight
less than 14 kg. BrahMos It is a supersonic cruise missile that can be
launched from submarines, ships, aircraft or land. It
Ramjet Engine travels at speeds of Mach 2.5 to 3.0 and has a maximum
range of 290 km. It is the world’s fastest cruise missile
Ramjet, Stovepipejet and Athodyd is a form of air-breathing jet and can also evade enemy radar by skimming close to the
engine using the engine’s forward motion to compress incoming land and sea surface.
air, without a rotary compressor.
Pranash DRDO is developing the 200 km strike range,
Scramjet (Supersonic Combustion Ramjet) It is a variant of a
Pranash ballistic missile for tactical missions. It will be
ramjet air-breathing combustion jet engine, in which the
surface to surface ballistic missile and will be used by
combustion process takes place in supersonic airflow.
Army as well as Air Forces for destroying enemy targets at
Some Strategically Important Missiles Outside short range. This non-nuclear missile will be propelled by
the IGHDP a single stage solid propellant engine.
Astra It is an active radar homing Beyond-Visual-Range
Air to Air Missile (BVRAAM) developed by the DRDO. Ballistic Missile Defence
Range 80-110 km. Speed Mach 4+. Programmes (BMD)
Maitri It is a short range (15 km) Quick Reaction Surface Ballistic Missiles have high trajectory (to maximize range).
to Air Missile (QRSAM) with a lethal 100% kill probability. BMD systems detect incoming ballistic missiles and shoot
The naval and air force variants will be called Revati and them down.
Rohini respectively.
Prithvi Air Defence (PAD)/Pradyumna
Nirbhay It is a long range, subsonic stealth cruise missile
It is an anti-ballistic missile developed to intercept
and will arm 3 services, the Indian Army, the Indian Navy
incoming ballistic missiles outside atmosphere
and the Indian Air Force. Nirbhay will supplement
(Exo-atmosphere). PAD is based on the Prithvi missile
BrahMos in the sense that it would enable delivery of
and has two stages with a maximum interception altitude
warheads further than the 290 km range of BrahMos.
of 80 km. PAD has capability to engage 300 to 2000 km
Novator K-100 It is an Air to Air missile designed as an class of ballistic missiles at a speed of Mach-5. The
AWACS killer for ranges up to 300-400 km. It is likely to Prithvi Air Defence missile has been named as
be used in India’s Su-30 MKI aircraft. It has the joint Pradyumna.
venture project of India and Russia.
Advanced Air Defence (AAD) INS Delhi It is the lead ship of her class of guided
It is an anti-ballistic missile designed to intercept incoming missile destroyers of the Indian Navy. It was built at the
ballistic missiles in endo atmosphere at an altitude of 30 Mazagon Dock Limited in Mumbai.
km. Due to its interception ability, the AAD missile would be INS Airavat It is also known as Asian Elephant. It is a
modified into a new extended range (up to 150 km). Shardul class landingship of the Indian Navy.
Surface to Air missile that could be possibly named as INS Sunayna Indian Navy has inducted into service its
Ashvin. largest Offshore Patrol Vessel (OPV), INS Sunayna, at
Southern Naval Command at Kochi.
Radar Systems
Rajendra Radar INS Vikramaditya It is a modified Kiev class
It is developed by the DRDO. It is multi-functional radar,
aircraft carrier which entered into service with the
Indian Navy in 2013. The ship has been renamed
capable of surveillance, tracking and engaging low radar
in honour of Vikramaditya, a legendary 1st century
cross section targets. It is the heart of the Akash
BC emperor of Ujjain, India.
Surface-to-Air missile system Rajendra's multi-element
antenna arrangement folds flat when the vehicle is in motion.
INS Vikrant It is the first Vikrant class aircraft
carrier built by Cochin Shipyard limited for the
Indian Doppler Radar (INDRA) Indian Navy and the first aircraft carrier built in
It is a series of 2D radars developed by DRDO : India.
– Indra I It is a 2D mobile surveillance radar for low level target INS Kolkata It is commissioned on 16th August, 2014
detection. The radar is housed in two wheeled vehicles. into the Indian Navy at a glittering ceremony held at the
– Indra II It is a variant of Indra radar for ground controlled Naval Dockyard, Mumbai. It is the leadship of the
interception of targets. indigenously designed and constructed Kolkata-class
Swordfish Radar guided missile destroyers.
It is an Indian long range tracking radar specifically INS Sumitra India’s largest Naval Offshore Patrol Vessel
developed to counter ballistic missile threat. Swordfish is an (NOPV), INS Sumitra was commissioned into Indian
acknowledged derivative of the Israeli Green Pine long Navy on 4th September, 2014. It is the forth in the
range radar. series of indigenous NOPV developed for Indian Navy.
Swathi WLR INS Kamorta The first indigenously built stealth
anti-submarine warfare corvette, was commissioned at
Weapon Locating Radar is a mobile artillery locating phased
Visakhapatnam Naval Dockyard on 23rd August, 2014.
array radar developed by India. This counter battery radar is
INS Kamorta is well equipped to fight in Nuclear,
designed to detect and track incoming artillery and rocket
Biological and Chemical warfare conditions.
fire, to determine the point of origin for counter battery fire.
INS Astradharini INS Astradharini is an indigenously
Aparna designed and built torpedo launch and recovery versel
It can detect the enemy ship and can give warning to ship built by shoft shipyard for the Indian Navy. It was
regarding self-defence. It is already commissioned in Indian commissioned to Navy service on 6th october, 2015 at
Navy. the Naval Base in Visakhapatnam. the versel is a
Rohini replacement of INS Astravahini.
This is a 3-D radar developed by DRDO for use with Akash INS Nilgiri Recently commissioned, It is first of seven
Sam (Surface to Air Missile) capable of tracking 150 targets. new stealth frigates under project 17 Alfa. It is the first
The Rohini is the Indian Air Force Version, while Revathi is major warship in India which is built using an integrated
the Indian Navy Variant. construction methodology that involves constructing
AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System) small modules and assembling them together.
An airborne early warning and control system is an airborne Varunastra (Torpedo) The Varunastra is an Indian
radar pickel system designed to detect aircraft, ships and advanced heavyweight anti-submarine torpedo,
vehicle at long ranges. It is also referred as NETRA Airborne developed by DRDO for the Indian Navy. The ship
Early Warning and Control System. launched variant of Varunastra torpedo was formally
inducted in the Indian Navy on 26th June, 2016. It has
Indian Navy Ships advanced autonomous guidance algorithms with low
INS Mumbai It is the 3rd of the Delhi class guided missile drift navigational aids, insensitive warhead which can
destroyers in active service with the Indian Navy. INS operate in various combat scenarios. It is the only
Mumbai was built at Mazagon Dock Limited. torpedo in the world to have a GPS-based locating aid.
INS Karna Indian Navy has commissioned INS Karna, an Pinaka

independent base of Marine Commandos (MARCOS) at Multi-Barrel Rocket Launcher Pinaka is a multiple
Bheemunipatanam, Naval Base, Visakhapatnam, Andhra rocket launcher developed by the DRDO for the Indian
Pradesh. The commissioning of a new base to the special Army. There are two version with maximum range of
forces of the Indian navy will play important role to 40 and 75 km respectively.
safeguard our nation’s vast maritime interests.
Arjun Mark II
INS Kadmatt INS Kadmatt, second ship of project 28 (P28)
This is an upgraded version of Arjun Tank. It will have
class Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) corvettes. It is
night vision capabilities, advanced air defence gun, a
indigenously designed by the Indian Navy’s in-house
modified hull etc.
organisation, Directorate of naval design and constructed by
Garden Peach Shipbuilders and Engineers Limited, Kolkata. BMP-2 Sarath
It is an Indian license produced variant of the BMP-2,
Submarines built by ordinance factory, Medak.
Arihant BMP-2 (Boyevaya Mashina Pekhoty) is a 2nd
(means ‘Slayer of Enemies’) class submarines are nuclear generation, amphibious infantry combat vehicle
powered ballistic missile submarines being developed for introduced in the 1980s in the Soviet Union.
the Indian Navy. Arihant class submarines were designed T-90 ST (Bhishma Tank)
and constructed as a part of the Indian Navy’s Advanced It is a medium category tank (less than 50 tonne
Technology Vessel (ATV) project. Arihant class will be armed
weight). The tank uses French Catherine-FC thermal
with the existing 750 Km K-15 Sagarika SLBM and under
sights and Russian explosive reactive armoured plates.
development K-4, an SLBM version of Agni-III.
Muntra
K-152 Nerpa
It is an unmanned armoured vehicle developed by
It is an Akula II type nuclear powered attack submarine.
DRDO. It has three variant :

The submarine was leased to the Indian Navy and
– Muntra S - For Surveillance
recommissioned as the INS Chakra. [leased from Russia for
– Muntra M - For Mine Cleaning
10 years].
– Muntra N - Operating Nuclear or Chemical Contaminated
Scorpene Class Zones
These are a class of diesel electric attack submarine jointly
developed by French and Mazgaon Dock Limited under Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
Project 75 for construction and transfer of technology for six Lakshya It is an Indian remotely piloted high speed
Scorpene class submarines. The first submarine INS Kalvari target drone system developed by the Aeronautical
was commissioned in 2017 while other two, INS Khanderi Development Establishment (ADE) of DRDO. The drone
and INS Karanj are in advanced stage to join navy fleet. provides realistic towed aerial sub-targets for live fire
Other three are INS Vela, Vagir and Vagsheer. training. Range 150 Km.
Sindhughosh Class Nishant It is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
These are Indian variants of the kilo class diesel electric developed by ADE. The Nishant UAV is primarily tasked
submarines in active service with the Indian Navy. They with intelligence gathering over enemy territory and also
have a displacement of 3000 tonnes, a maximum diving for reconnaissance, surveillance, target designation,
depth of 300 m, top speed of 18 knots. artillery fire correction and damage assessment. Range
160 km
Shishumar Class Vessels
Rustom (means Warrior) It is a Medium Altitude Long
These are diesel electric submarines, currently in active
Endurance Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (MALE-UAV) being
service with Indian Navy.
developed by DRDO for the 3 defence services. It can
fly at the maximum speed of 225 km/h and has the
Tank and Armoured Vehicles operational range of 350 km.
Arjun Tank AURA (Autonomous Unmanned Research Aircraft)
It is a 3rd generation Main Battle Tank (MBT) developed by design work is being carried out by ADE. The ADE
DRDO. It can achieve a maximum speed of 77 km/h. It is describes the AURA as a self defending high speed
protected by the Kanchan armour developed by DRDO. reconnaissance UAV with a weapon firing capability.
Aircrafts and Helicopters Dsault Rafale

It is a French twin engine, multi role fighter aircraft.
Dhruv India will buy 36 Rafale aircraft.
This helicopter is developed by India’s Hindustan Aeronautics
Limited. It was designed with the assistance of Germany. Apache Helicopters
India inducted Eight US made most advanced
Rudra multirole heavy attack helicopter in the world.
It is an armed version of HAL Dhruv. It is equipped with forward Besides delivering a variety of weapons in swift
looking infrared and thermal imaging sights interface, turret gun, deployment, it is also suitable for modern warfare
rocket pods, anti-tank guided missiles and Air to Air missiles. capabilities.
Kiran MK II S-400 Triumf Missile
It is an Indian two-seat basic jet trainer built by Hindustan ◆
The S-400 is one of the world’s most advanced
Aeronautics. It is used by the Indian Air Force aerobatic team
long-range air defence systems, capable of destroying
Surya Kiran and Indian naval aerobatic team Sagar Pawans.
cruise, ballistic missiles.
Advanced Jet Trainer ◆
S-400 radar can track targets 600 km away.
The BAE System Hawk is a British single-engine, advanced jet ◆
Manufactured by the Russian government-owned
trainer aircraft. On 23rd February 2008, the Hawk MK 132 arms company Almaz-antey, Recently India decided to
formally entered service with the Indian Air Force. procure S-400 to boost its defence capabilities.
AH-64 E(1)- Apache Guardian Helicoptor Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
The AH -64 E Apache is one of the leading multi role helicoptors ◆
Terminal High Altitude Area Defense or THAAD is an
globally. It is even dubbed as the flying tank. India acquired it anti-ballistic missile system of the US army that can
from America. shoot down short, intermediate and mdedium range
ballistic missiles in their terminal phase. The missile
MiG-29
system uses a hit-to-kill approach. It doesn’t carry a
The Mikoyan MiG-29 is a jet fighter aircraft designed in the warhead, rather depends on the impact’s kinetic
Soviet Union. India was the first international customer of the energy to annihilate the income missile.
Mig-29. Since, its induction into the IAF in 1985, the aircraft has
undergone a series of modifications with the addition of new Dhanush Artillery Guns
avionics, sub-systems, turbofan engines and radars. ◆
Dhanush is the indigenously upgraded version of the
Swedish Bofors gun procured in the 1980s.
Mirage-2000 ◆
Dhanush is a 155 mm, 45-calibre towed artillery gun
It is a French multirole, single engine fourth generation jet fighter
with a range of 36 km and has demonstrated a range
manufactured by Dassault Aviation. The Indian Air Force has of 38 km with specialised ammunition.
named the Mirage the ‘Vajra’. ◆
It is an upgrade of the existing 155m, 39 Calibre
LCA Tejas Bofors FH 77 gun.
It is a light combat aircraft developed indigenously by India. It M 77 Ultra Light Howitzer
will be a tailless, delta-wing aircraft powered by a single engine. ◆
It is a 155 mm, 39-calibre towed artillery gun made of
Tejas Mark-II will be an advanced 4.5 generation aircraft.
titanium and aluminium alloys.
Su-30 MKI ◆
It has a range of 2.4 to 30 km, depending on the type
It is an air superiority fighter jointly developed by Russia and of ammunition used.
India. It is an upgraded version of the Su-30 aircraft. It integrates K9-Vajra-T guns
Indian, French and Israeli subsystems with the Russian plane. ◆
It is a 155-mm, 52-calibre self-propelled gun with a
Sukhoi Pak-FA maximum range of 40 km.
It is a fifth-generation fighter programme for Russian Airforce. ◆
Its fire control system has been customised for desert
The T-50 is the aircraft designed by Sukhoi for the Pak-FA conditions.
programme. ◆
It has been customised from the original K9 Thunder.
In 2007, Russia and India agreed to jointly develop the fifth ◆
K9 Vajra has three types of firing mode.
generation fighter aircraft programme.
Self Check
1. Consider the following facts 5. Match the following

1. Prithvi is a short range surface to surface missile.
List I List II
2. Trishul is a short range low level surface to surface (Missiles) (Properties)
missile.
A. Sagarika 1. A naval variant of the Prithvi II with an
3. Akash is a medium range surface to air missile. operational range up to 350 km.
4. Nag is a third generation anti-tank missile. B. Sharrga 2. Nuclear capable submarine-launched
Which of the statements given above are correct? ballistic missile.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 C. Dhanush 3. Solid fuelled surface to surface guided
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) All of these short range tactical ballistic missile.
2. Consider the following statements with regard to D. Prahoar 4. It is a canister launched hypersonic
Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme surface to surface tactical ballistic
1. It is a two tiered system consisting of two interceptor missile.
missiles. Codes
2. Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) missile is for high altitude A B C D A B C D
interception which the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 1 3 2 4
Missile for low altitude interception.
(c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 4 2 3 1
3. Exo-atmospheric range varies between 50 to 80 km
approximately while indo-atmospheric range is upto 6. Consider the following statements about Nishant
50 km approximately. 1. It is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV).
Which of the statements given above are correct? 2. Nishant is primarily tasked with intelligence gathering over
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 enemy territory and also for recomaissance.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these 3. It is capable of being catapult launched and recovered by
suing parachute.
3. Consider the following statements about Astra missile
1. It is an active radar Beyond Visual Range (BVR) Air to Air
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Missile (AAM) developed by the DRDO.
2. Its operational range beyond 300 kms.
3. Its is a solid fuel rocket. 7. Which of the following is/are not an UAV?
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 1. Lakshya 2. Nishant
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 3. Rustom 4. Tejas
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these Select the correct answer using the codes given below
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 3 and 4
4. Which of the following statements is/are not true about
(c) Only 4 (d) Only 2
Nag Missile?
1. It is India’s third generation fire and forget type anti-tank 8. Which of the following statement(s) is/are not true about
missile. BrahMos?
2. Its land version is to be carried by a tracked vehicle 1. It is a supersonic cruise missile.
known as NAMICA. 2. It is the world’s fastest cruise missile and can also evade
3. It can engages targets at ranges of 20-25 km. enemy radar.
4. Helina stands for Helicopter launched Nag. 3. It has a maximum range of 700 km.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below Select the correct answer using the codes given below
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4 (c) Only 3 (d) 1 and 3
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c)

Appendix
Units of Measurement
Quantity Unit (SI) Quantity Unit (SI)
¡ Length Metre ¡ Viscosity Poise
¡ Time Second ¡ Surface tension Newton/Metre
¡ Mass Kilogram ¡ Heat Joule
¡ Area Square metre ¡ Temperature Kelvin
¡ Volume Cubic metre ¡ Absolute temperature Kelvin
¡ Velocity Metre/second ¡ Resistance Ohm
¡ Acceleration Metre/second 2 ¡ Electric current Ampere
¡ Density Kilogram/metre 3 ¡ Electromotive force Volt
¡ Momentum Kilogram metre/second ¡ Electrical conductivity (Ohm-metre) –1
¡ Work Joule ¡ Electric energy Kilowatt hour
¡ Energy Joule ¡ Electric power Kilowatt or watt
¡ Force Newton ¡ Magnetic intensity Orsted
¡ Pressure Pascal or Newton/metre 2 ¡ Charge Coulomb
¡ Frequency Hertz ¡ Magnetic induction Gauss
¡ Power Watt ¡ Luminous flux Candela
¡ Weight Newton ¡ Intensity of sound Decibel
¡ Impulse Newton-second ¡ Power of lens Dioptre
¡ Angular velocity Radian /second ¡ Depth of sea Fathom
Important Laws/Theories and their Scientist

Laws/Theories Scientist
¡ Gravitational Law, Laws of Motion Newton
¡ Theory of relativity A. Einstein
¡ Discovery of X-ray WC Rontgen
¡ Principle of Lever, Relative Density Archimedes’
¡ Kinetic Theory of Temperature Kelvin
¡ Theory of an Atom Dalton
¡ Laws of Electrolysis M Faraday
Important Scientific Instruments

Instrument Use
¡ Altimeter It measures altitudes and is used in aircrafts.
¡ Ammeter It measures strength of electric current (in ampere).
¡ Audiometer It measures intensity of sound.
¡ Barometer It measures atmospheric pressure.
¡ Binocular It is used to view distant objects.
¡ Calorimeter It measures quantity of heat.
¡ Cardiogram It traces movements of the heart, recorded on a cardiograph.
¡ Chronometer It determines longitude of a place kept onboard ship.
¡ Cinematography It is an instrument used in cinema making.
¡ Dynamo It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
¡ Dynamometer It measures electrical power.
¡ Electrometer It measures electricity.
¡ Electroscope It detects the presence of an electric charge.
¡ Endoscope It examines internal parts of the body.
¡ Fathometer It measures the depth of the ocean.
¡ Galvanometer It measures the electric current of low magnitude.
¡ Hydrometer It measures the specific gravity of liquids.
¡ Hygrometer It measures humidity in air.
¡ Hydrophone It measures sound under water.
¡ Lactometer It determines the purity of milk.
¡ Manometer It measures the pressure of gases.
¡ Mariner’s compass It is an instrument used by the sailors to determine the direction.
¡ Microphone It converts the sound waves into electrical vibrations.
¡ Microscope It is used to obtain magnified view of small objects.
¡ Odometer It is an instrument by which the distance covered by wheeled vehicles is measured.
¡ Phonograph It is an instrument for producing sound.
¡ Photometer This instrument compares the luminous intensity of the source of light.
¡ Periscope It is used to view objects above sea level (used in sub-marines).
¡ Radar It is used for detecting the direction and range of an approaching plane by means of radio microwaves.
¡ Radiometer It measures the emission of radiant energy.
¡ Seismograph It measures the intensity of earthquake shocks.
¡ Salinometer It determines salinity of solution.
¡ Spectrometer It is an instrument for measuring the energy distribution of a particular type of radiation.
¡ Speedometer It is an instrument placed in a vehicle to record its speed.
¡ Sphygmomanometer It measures blood pressure.
¡ Spherometer It measures the curvatures of surfaces.
¡ Stereoscope It is used to view two dimensional pictures.
¡ Stethoscope An instrument which is used by the doctors to hear and analyse heart and lung sounds.
¡ Stroboscope It is used to view rapidly moving objects.
¡ Tachometer An instrument used in measuring speeds of aeroplanes and motor boats.
¡ Telescope It views distant objects in space.
¡ Thermometer This instrument is used for the measurement of temperatures.
¡ Thermostat It regulates the temperature at a particular point.
¡ Voltmeter It measures the electric potential difference between two points.
Magbook ~ Appendix 219
Inventions and Discoveries

Invention Year Inventor Country
¡ Adding machine 1642 Pascal France
¡ Aeroplane 1903 Orville & Wilbur Wright USA
¡ Air conditioning 1902 Carrier USA
¡ Airplane (Jet engine) 1939 Ohain Germany
¡ Airship (Non-rigid) 1852 Henri Giffard France
¡ Atomic bomb 1945 J Robert Oppenheimer USA
¡ Ball-point pen 1888 John J Loud USA
¡ Barometer 1644 Evangelista Torricelli Italy
¡ Battery (Electric) 1800 Alessandro Volta Italy
¡ Bicycle 1839-40 Kirkpatrick Macmillan Britain
¡ Bicycle tyres (Pneumatic) 1888 John Boyd Dunlop Britain
¡ Bifocal lens 1780 Benjamin Franklin USA
¡ Bleaching powder 1798 Tennant Britain
¡ Bunsen burner 1855 R Willhelm von Bunsen Germany
¡ Burglar alarm 1858 Edwin T Holmes USA
¡ Camera (Kodak) 1888 Walker Eastman USA
¡ Car (Steam) 1769 Nicolas Cugnot France
¡ Car (Petrol) 1888 Karl Benz Germany
¡ Carburetor 1876 Gottlieb Daimler Germany
¡ Cassette (Videotape) 1969 Sony Japan
¡ Cement (Portland) 1824 Joseph Aspdin Britain
¡ Cinema 1895 Nicolas & Jean Lumiere France
¡ Clock (Mechanical) 1725 I-Hsing & Liang Ling-Tsan China
¡ Clock (Pendulum) 1656 Christian Huygens Netherlands
¡ Compact disc 1972 RCA USA
¡ Compact disc player 1979 Sony, Philips Japan, Netherlands
¡ Computer (Laptop) 1987 Sinclair Britain
¡ Computer (Mini) 1960 Digital Corp USA
¡ Diesel engine 1895 Rudolf Diesel Germany
¡ Dynamo 1832 Hypolite Pixii France
¡ Electric flat iron 1882 H W Seeley USA
¡ Electric lamp 1879 Thomas Alva Edison USA
¡ Electric motor (DC) 1873 Zenobe Gramme Belgium
¡ Electric motor (AC) 1888 Nikola Tesla USA
¡ Electric iron 1882 Henry W Seely USA
¡ Electric washing machine 1906 Alva J Fisher USA
¡ Electro-magnet 1824 William Sturgeon Britain
¡ Electron 1897 Thomson J Britain
¡ Electroplating 1805 Luigi Brugnatelli Italy
¡ Electronic computer 1824 Dr Alan M Turing Britain
¡ Facsimile machine 1843 Alexander Bain Britain
¡ Fibre optics 1955 Kepany Britain
¡ Film (Moving outlines) 1885 Louis Prince France
¡ Film (Talking) 1922 J Engl, J Mussolle & H Vogt Germany
¡ Galvanometer 1834 Andre-Marie Ampere France
¡ Gramophone 1878 Thomos Alva Edison USA
¡ Helicopter 1924 Etienne Oehmichen France
¡ Hydrogen bomb 1952 Edward Teller USA
¡ Intelligence testing 1905 Simon Binet French

¡ Jet engine 1937 Sir Frank Whittle Britain
¡ Laser 1960 Theodore Maiman USA
¡ Launderette 1934 J F Cantrell USA
¡ Lift (Mechanical) 1852 Elisha G Otis USA
¡ Lighting conductor 1752 Benjamin Franklin USA
¡ Loudspeaker 1900 Horace Short Britain
¡ Machine gun 1718 Richard Gatling Britain
¡ Magnetic recording tape 1928 Fritz Pfleumer Germany
¡ Microphone 1876 Alexander Graham Bell USA
¡ Microscope (Comp.) 1590 Z Janssen Netherlands
¡ Microscope (Elect.) 1931 Ruska Knoll Germany
¡ Microwave oven 1947 Percy LeBaron Spencer USA
¡ Motor cycle 1885 G Daimler Germany
¡ Movie projector 1893 Thomas Edison USA
¡ Neon lamp 1910 Georges Claude France
¡ Neutron bomb 1958 Samuel Cohen USA
¡ Optical fibre 1955 Narinder Kapany Germany
¡ Pacemaker 1952 Zoll USA
¡ Photoelectric cell 1893 Julius Elster, Hans F Geitel Germany
¡ Photography (On metal) 1826 J N Niepce France
¡ Photography (On paper) 1835 WH Fox Talbot Britain
¡ Photography (On film) 1888 John Carbutt USA
¡ Piano 1709 Cristofori Italy
¡ Pistol, revolver 1836 Colt USA
¡ Radar 1922 A H Taylor & Leo C Young USA
¡ Radiocarbon dating 1947 Libby USA
¡ Radio telegraphy 1864 Dr Mohlon Loomis USA
¡ Radio telegraphy (Trans Atlantic) 1901 G Marconi Italy
¡ Rayon 1883 Sir Joseph Swan Britain
¡ Razor (Electric) 1931 Col Jacob Schick USA
¡ Razor (Safety) 1895 King C Gillette USA
¡ Refrigerator 1850 James Harrison, Alexander catlin USA
¡ Rubber (Latex foam) 1928 Dunlop Rubber Co. Britain
¡ Rubber (Tyres) 1846 Thomas Hancock Britain
¡ Rubber (Vulcanised) 1841 Charles Goodyear USA
¡ Rubber (Waterproof) 1823 Charles Macintosh Britain
¡ Safety pin 1849 Walter Hunt USA
¡ Ship (Steam) 1775 I C Perier France
¡ Ship (Turbine) 1894 Hon Sir C Parsons Britain
¡ Steam engine 1698 Thomas Savery Britain
¡ Steam engine (Piston) 1712 Thomas Newcomen Britain
¡ Steam engine (Condenser) 1765 James Watt Britain
¡ Steel (Stainless) 1913 Harry Brearley Britain
¡ Stethoscope 1819 Laennec French
¡ Submarine 1776 David Bushnell USA
¡ Super computer 1976 J H Van Tassel USA
¡ Tank 1914 Sir Emest D Swington Britain
¡ Tape recorder 1899 Fessenden Poulsen Denmark
¡ Telegraph 1787 M Lammond France
¡ Telegraph code 1837 Samuel F B Morse USA
Magbook ~ Appendix 221

¡ Telephone (Cellular) 1947 Bell Labs USA
¡ Telephone (Imperfect) 1849 Antonio Meucci Italy
¡ Telephone (Perfected ) 1876 Alexander Graham Bell USA
¡ Telescope 1608 Hans Lippershey Netherlands
¡ Television (Mechanical) 1926 John Logie Baird Britain
¡ Television (Electronic) 1927 P T Farnsworth USA
¡ Television (Colour) 1928 John Logie Baird Britain
¡ Transformer 1831 Michael Faraday Britain
¡ Transistor 1948 Bardeen, Shockley & Brattain USA
¡ Transistor radio 1955 Sony Japan
¡ Uranium Fission (Atomic reactor) 1942 Szilard Fermi USA
¡ Vacuum cleaner (Elec.) 1907 Spangler USA
¡ Video tape 1956 Charles Ginsberg USA
¡ Washing machine (Elec.) 1907 Hurley Machine Co. USA
¡ Watch 1462 Bartholomew Manfredi Italy
¡ Wireless (Telegraphy) 1896 G Marconi Italy
Industrial Names of Some Important Compounds

Industrial Name Chemical Name and Formula Industrial Name Chemical Name and Formula
¡ Alum Potassium aluminium sulphate ¡ Marble or chalk Calcium carbonate (CaCO3 )

[K 2SO4 ⋅ Al2(SO4 )3 ⋅ 24 H2O] or pearl
¡ Alcohol Ethyl alcohol (C2H5 OH) ¡ Marsh gas Methane (CH4 )
¡ Baking powder Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3 ) ¡ Mohr’s salt Ferrous ammonium sulphate,
¡ Blue vitriol Copper sulphate (CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2O) (NH4 )2SO4 ⋅ FeSO4 ⋅ 6H2O
¡ Bleaching powder Calcium chlorohypochloride (CaOCl2 ) ¡ Mosaic gold Stannous sulphide (SnS2 )
¡ Borax Sodium tetraborate decahydrate ¡ Muriatic acid Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
(Na 2B 4 O7 ⋅ 10H2O) ¡ Pearl ash Potassium carbonate (K 2CO3 )
¡ Brine or salt Sodium chloride (NaCl) Calcium sulphate hemi hydrate
¡ Calomel Mercurous chloride (Hg2Cl2 or HgCl) Plaster of paris  CaSO ⋅ 1 H O
 2 
¡
¡ Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide (KOH)  4
2 
¡ Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) ¡ Quicklime Calcium oxide (CaO)
¡ Chile salt petre Sodium nitrate (NaNO3 ) ¡ Red lead Lead peroxide (Pb3 O4 ) or 2PbO ⋅PbO2
¡ Chloroform Trichloromethane (CHCl3 ) ¡ Rock salt Sodium chloride (NaCl)
¡ Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide (CO2 ) ¡ Ruby or sapphire Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
¡ Epsum Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4 ⋅ 7H2O) ¡ Sand Silicon dioxide (SiO2 )
¡ Glauber’s salt Sodium sulphate decahydrate ¡ Sal ammoniac Ammonium chloride (NH4 Cl)
(Na 2SO4 ⋅ 10H2O)
¡ Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
¡ Green vitriol Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4 ⋅ 7H2O)
¡ Spirit Methyl alcohol (CH3 OH)
¡ Gypsum Calcium sulphate (CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2O)
¡ Soda ash Sodium carbonate (Na 2CO3 )
¡ Hypo Sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate
(Na 2S2O3 ⋅ 5H2O) ¡ Vinegar Acetic acid (CH3 COOH)
¡ Laughing gas Nitrous oxide (N2O) ¡ Vermilion Mercuric sulphide (HgS)
¡ Litharge Lead oxide (PbO) ¡ Washing soda Sodium carbonate decahydrate
¡ Lunar castic Silver nitrate (AgNO3 ) (Na 2CO3 ⋅ 10H2O)
¡ Magnesia Magnesium oxide (MgO) ¡ White vitriol Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4 ⋅ 7H2O)
Types of Antibiotic with their Source and Action

Antibiotics Source Action
Penicillin Penicillium chrysogenum, Tonsilitis, Sore Throat, Gonorrhea, Rheumatic Fever, some
P notatum + Phenyl Acetic Acid. Pneumonia types
Griseofulvin Penicillium griseofulvum Antifungal, especially for Ringworm
Nystatin Streptomyces noursei Antifungal for Candidiasis and overgrowth of Intestinal Fungi during
excessive antibiotic treatment.
Hamycin Streptomyces pimprei Antifungal for Thrush
Fumagillin Aspergillus fumigatus Broad spectrum antibacterial especially against Salmonella and Shigella.
Bacitracin Bacillus licheniformis Syphilis, Lymphonema or Reticulosis.
Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus Meningitis, Pneumonia, Tuberculosis and Local Infection. Toxic in
some through eighth cranial nerve.
Chloramphenicol Streptomyces venezuelae, Typhoid, Typhus, Whooping cough, Atypical Pneumonia, Bacterial
Chloromycetin S.lavendulae, now synthetic Urinary Infections.
Tetracyclines/ Streptomyces aureofaciens Viral pneumonia, Osteomyelitis, Whooping Cough. Eye infections.
Aureomycin Chlorotetracycline → Hydrogenation
Oxytetracycline/ Streptomyces rimosus Intestinal and Urinary Infections (Spirochaetes, Rickettsiae, Viruses)
Terramycin
Erythromycin Streptomyces erythreus Typhoid, Common Pneumonia, Diphtheriae, Whooping Cough etc.
(= S erythraeus)
Gentamycin Micromonospora purpurea Effective against Gram (+) bacteria
Polymixin Bacillus polymyxa Antifungal
Practice Set
1. Four wires of same material and dimensions as
ANALYSE YOURSELF
6. Nuclear fusion refers to

1
mentioned below are stretched by a load of same (a) a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom
magnitude separately. Which one of them will be splits into smaller parts
elongated maximum? (b) a nuclear reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei
(a) Wire of 1 m length and 2 mm diameter join together to form a single heavier nucleus
(b) Wire of 2 m length and 2 mm diameter (c) a method of estimating the age of organic material
(c) Wire of 5 m length and 105 mm diameter (d) operations that render nuclear waste suitable for
(d) Wire of 1 m length and 1 mm diameter handling, transportation, storage and disposal
2. Consider the following statements, 7. Consider the following statements about the sound
1. The magnitude of vector is always a scalar. passing through a gas,
2. The total path length is always equal to the 1. The pressure of the gas at a point oscillates in time.
magnitude of the displacement vector of a particle. 2. The position of a small layer of the gas oscillates in time.
3. The average speed of a particle is either greater or Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
equal to the magnitude of the average velocity of the (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
particle over the same interval of time. (c) Only 2 (d) None of these
4. Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add upto 8. Consider the following statements about cell
give a null vector. organelles of the organisms,
Which of the statements given above are correct? 1. A mitochondrion contains outer and inner
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers and
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) All of these proteins.
3. Consider the following statements, 2. Chloroplasts are the food producers of the cell.
1. Litmus solution is a purple dye which is extracted from 3. The chloroplasts help in the synthesis of the
lichen and is commonly used as an indicator. chloroplast fatty acid.
2. Red cabbage leaves, turmeric, coloured petals of Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
some flowers etc., indicate the presence of acid or (a) Only 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
base in a solution.
9. Medicines are more effective, if they are used in
3. Some substances whose odour changes in acidic or
1. Gaseous state 2. Colloidal state
basic medium, are called olfactory indicators.
3. Solid state 4. Solution state
Select the correct option.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(a) Only 1 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
(c) Only 2 (d) 1 and 3
10. Two atoms are said to be isotopes, if
1. Carolus Linnaeus is the Father of Binomial
(a) they have the same atomic number but different mass
Nomenclature of organisms.
numbers
2. Linnaeus is also known as the Father of Indian (b) they have the same number of neutrons but different
Systematic Botany. mass numbers
3. The word ‘Taxonomy’ was coined by De Candolle. (c) the sum of the number of protons and neutrons is same
Which of the statements given above are correct? but the number of protons is different
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (d) they have the same number of neutrons but different
Practice Set 1
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these modes of radioactive decay
5. The advantage of using fuel cell in a motor car could 11. Consider the following functions of xylem,
be 1. Conduction of water 2. Conduction of minerals
1. low initial cost 2. emissionless operation 3. Mechanical support
3. light weight 4. freedom from refueling Which of the function(s) of xylem given above is/are
Select the correct option. correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (a) Only 1 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) Only 3
12. Consider the following statements, Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. An atom bomb is based upon the principle of (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
nuclear fission. (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Hydrogen bomb is based upon the principle of 18. Consider the following statements,
nuclear fusion. 1. In Amoeba, the interchange of gases takes place
3. Nuclear reactor is based upon the principle of through general body surface.
controlled nuclear fission. 2. The excess of water in Amoeba is controlled by
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? contractile vacuole.
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
13. ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
Reactor) does not include which of the following? (c) Only 2 (d) None of these
(a) It is an international nuclear fusion research and 19. Consider the following statements,
engineering project 1. Cryotherapy is the general use of low temperatures in
(b) Currently, it is building the world's largest experimental medical therapy.
to kamak nuclear fusion in Bern (Switzerland)
2. It is used to treat a variety of benign and malignant
(c) ITER’s mission is to demonstrate the feasibility of
lesions.
fusion power
(d) It aims at verifying tritium breeding concepts Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
14. Consider the following statements, (c) 1 and 2 (d) None of these
1. Technetium was the first element to be made
artificially.
1. Dry ice is the solid form of CO 2 .
2. The non-metals are poor conductors of heat and
2. Dry ice is used primarily as a cooling agent.
electricity.
3. Simple ice is colder than dry ice.
3. Hydrogen has a single positive charge, like the alkali
metals but at room temperature, it is a gas that Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
doesn’t act as labelled metal. Therefore, hydrogen (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
usually is a non-metal. 21. Consider the following statements,
Which of the statements given above are correct? 1. In a motion picture, usually 24 frames are projected
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these every second over the whole length of the film.
15. Cosider the following statements, 2. An image formed on the retina of eye persists for
1. Amphibians have evolved from fishes. about O/s after the removal of stimulus.
2. Archaeopteryx is a fossil linking fishes and Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
amphibians. (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) Only 2 (d) None of these
(a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 22. Consider the following,
(c) Only 2 (d) None of these 1. Vitamin-A 2. Protein
16. Match the following. 3. Enzyme 4. Hormone
Which of the above are formed in our body?
List I List II (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
Research Centre Location (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
A. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre 1. Kolkata
B. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic 2. Mumbai 23. In Nuclear Waste Management, Transmutation refers
Research to which of the following?
C. Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre 3. Kalpakkam (a) Process of separation of short life radio nuclides from
D. Uranium Power Corporation of 4. Jaduguda the long life radio nuclides
India Ltd. (b) Process of changing long-lived radio nuclides into
other, shorter-lived radio nuclides by radioactive
Codes bombardment.
A B C D A B C D (c) Operation that render nuclear waste suitable for
Practice Set 1
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 1 3 4 handling, transportation, storage and disposal.

(c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 2 3 1 4 (d) A process used to detect the electrons given off by
decaying carbon-14 as it turns into nitrogen.
1. A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter when 24. Consider the following statements,
we connect a low resistance in parallel. 1. Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes which decay
and give out radioactive emissions.
2. A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter when
we connect a high resistance in series. 2. Radioisotopes detecting leaks in underground
pipeline.
3. The conductivity of superconductor is infinite.
Magbook ~ Practice Set 1 225
3. Nuclear medicine is a branch of medicine that uses 3. Neils Bohr’s model proposed that electrons are
radiation to provide information about the function of distributed in different shells with discrete energy
the specific organs of a patient or to treat disease. around the nucleus. If the atomic shells are complete,
Which of the statements given above are correct? then the atom will be stable and less reactive.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
25. Maximum photosynthetic activity occurs in
(a) blue and red region of light 32. The seeds of certain plants fail to germinate if they
(b) green and yellow region of light do not pass through the digestive tract of fruit-eating
(c) blue and orange region of light birds. This is due to
(d) violet and orange region of light (a) hibernation (b) seed coat impermeability
(c) infertility (d) vegetative reproduction
26. At normal temperature due to a puncture, the
compressed air inside the tube of a car wheel 33. Which of the following is not correct about Nuclear
suddenly starts coming out. Then, the air inside the Command Authority (NCA)?
tube (a) It is a three tier authority to manage India’s nuclear
(a) starts becoming hotter weapons
(b) starts becoming cooler (b) President of India is head of Nuclear Command
(c) remains at the same termperature Authority
(d) may become hotter or cooler depending on the (c) The directives of NCA are to be operationalised by
amount of water vapour present in the air strategic forces command
(d) It has its headquarter in New Delhi
1. Particles of matter are continuously moving. 34. The pressure in a liquid at a given depth below the
2. As the temperature rises, particles move faster. surface
3. With increase in temperature, the kinetic energy (a) is same in all directions
of particles also increases. (b) is always exerted downward
(c) equals to the total weight of liquid above the depth
(d) depends on the amount of liquid below the depth
35. With reference to lattice energy, consider the
28. A ball P is dropped vertically and another ball Q is
following statements,
thrown horizontally with the same velocities from the
1. Lattice energy is defined as the amount of energy
same height and at the same time. If air resistance is
neglected, then released when free ions in gaseous state combine to
(a) ball P reaches to the ground first form one mole of a crystalline solid.
(b) ball Q reaches to the ground first 2. Lattice energy depends on the size of the ions and
(c) both balls reach to the ground at the same time their charges.
(d) the respective masses of both balls will decide the time Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
29. Statement I Insects, birds and most reptiles are (c) 1 and 2 (d) None of these
uricotelic in excretion.
Statement II In uricotelic animals, excretory organs 36. Assertion (A) Pearl is produced from bivalvia or
are Malpighian tubules. Pelecypoda under controlled conditions.
(a) Both the statements are true and Statement II is the Reason (R) Pearl is made up of magnesium carbonate.
correct explanation of Statement I (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both the statements are true but Statement II is not the (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct
correct explanation of Statement I explanation of A
(c) Statement I is true but Statement II is false (c) A is true but R is false
(d) Statement I is false Statement II is true (d) A is false but R is true
30. Canola refers to special type of oilseed mustard 37. Consider the following statements,
varieties breed for human consumption. The main 1. Silver articles become black after sometime when
characteristics of this variety is that the exposed to air because they reacts with sulphur in the
(a) seed have very high oil content air to form a coating of silver sulphide.
(b) oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids
Practice Set 1
2. Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in the air

(c) oil has long and shelf life and loses its shiny brown surface and gains a green
(d) oil has very low erucic acid content coat of copper carbonate.
31. Consider the following statements, 3. Iron when exposed to moist air for a long time,
1. JJ Thomson proposed that electrons are embedded acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance called
in a positive sphere. rust.
2. Rutherford’s model of the atom proposed that a very Which of the statements given above are correct?
tiny nucleus is present inside the atom and electrons (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
revolve around this nucleus. (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
38. Consider the following statements, Which of the statements given above are correct?
1. Ginseng is a Chinese medicinal drug. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
2. Ephedrine obtained from Ephedra is used as cold and 45. Roasting is carried out to
cough remedy. 1. convert sulphide to oxide and sulphate.
3. Reserpine is obtained from roots of Rauwolfia serpentina. 2. remove water of hydration. 3. melt the ore.
Which of the statements given above are correct? 4. remove arsenic and sulphur impurities.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
39. Consider the following statements about the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty, 46. Consider the following statements,
1. The treaty obligates the five acknowledged nuclear- 1. Thermal radiation are electromagnetic waves.
weapon states not to transfer nuclear weapons, other
2. Thermal radiations are reflected from mirror.
nuclear explosive devices or their technology to any
non-nuclear weapon state. 3. All bodies emit thermal radiations at all temperatures.
2. Israel, India and Pakistan have never been signatories 4. Thermal radiations of all wavelengths travel in free
of the treaty. space with same velocity.
3. In 2003, North Korea withdrew from the treaty. Which of the statements given above are correct?
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these 47. Consider the following statements,
40. In order that a floating object be in stable equilibrium, 1. Agni Missile was originally termed as a re-entry
its centre of buoyancy technology demonstrator.
(a) should be vertically below its centre of gravity 2. The Agni series of missiles are guided by Ring Laser Gyro
(b) should be horizontal in line with its centre of gravity based on Inertial Navigation System.
(c) should be vertically above its centre of gravity 3. Agni V has a range of 8000-10000 km.
(d) may be anywhere Which of the statements given above are correct?
41. Consider the following statements, (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
1. White phosphorus has garlic like smell. 48. Consider the following statements,
2. White phosphorus kept in the light, it turns yellow and 1. Acid rain is caused by emission of carbon dioxide,
thus it is called as yellow phosphorus. sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide.
3. White phosphorus produces yellowish green light when 2. The most important gas which leads to acidification, is
kept inside the dark and this phenomenon is called sulphur dioxide.
phosphorescence Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
42. Consider the following breeds, 49. Identify the correct order of velocity (speed) of sound given
1. Haryana 2. Vechur 3. Ongole 4. Jaffarabadi vO 2 = velocity of sound in O 2 gas
Which of the breeds given above represent cows? vN 2 = Velocity of sound in N 2 gas
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All of these vH 2 = Velocity of sound in H 2 gas
vCl 2 = Velocity of sound in Cl 2 gas
43. The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the
(a) vH 2 > vN 2 > vO 2 > vCl 2 (b) vH 2 = vN 2 = vO 2 = vCl 2
surface of metals when light of suitable wavelength
falls on it, is known as (c) vCl 2 > vO 2 > vN 2 > vH 2 (d) vN 2 = vCl 2 > vO 2 > vH 2
(a) electrolysis (b) ionisation 50. Consider the following statements about pollination,
(c) photoelectric effect (d) None of these 1. The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to ovules
44. Consider the following statements, in the same flower or a different flower, is called
1. Missile Development Programme is considered pollination.
brainchild of Dr APJ Abdul Kalam. 2. The pollination by wind is called anemophily.
2. The Integrated Guided Missile Development 3. Pollination by birds is known as ornithophily.
Programme (IGMDP) was formed in 1983 with the aim 4. Pollination is a prerequisite for seed and fruit
development in all flowering plants.
Practice Set 1
of self- sufficiency in missile development and

production. 5. Seeds may develop in some water ferns without pollination.
3. Under IGMDP, Prithvi, Akash, Prahaar and Nag missile Which of the statements given above are correct?
were developed. (a) 1, 2 and 5 (b) 2, 3 and 5 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 5
Answers
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (d) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (d) 25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (c) 29. (c) 30. (b)
31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (d) 39. (d) 40. (a)
41. (d) 42. (c) 43. (c) 44. (a) 45. (c) 46. (d) 47. (a) 48. (c) 49. (c) 50. (c)
Practice Set ANALYSE YOURSELF 2
1. Consider the following statements, 5. Consider the following statements,
1. Silviculture is the branch of Botany in which we study 1. Fluid mosaic model was proposed by Singer and
about development of forest. Nicholson.
2. Branch of Agriculture concerned with the production 2. The ‘mosaic’ is the intricate composition of proteins
of crops is called as Agronomy. and lipids of the membranes.
3. Agrostology is the study of grass. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
4. Spermology is the study of soil. (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
Which of the statements given above are correct? (c) Only 2 (d) None of these
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 6. Consider the following statements,
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All of these 1. Compound microscope has objective lens with a
2. Consider the following statements, very short focal length.
1. In a semiconductor, the uppermost band is the 2. Simple microscope consists of a strong converging
valence band. lens system.
2. All semiconductors are electrically neutral. 3. Television camera converts the optical images into
3. With the increase of temperature, resistivity of a electrical video signals.
semiconductor decreases. 4 . Hypermetropia is corrected by using a diverging lens.
4. Addition of a small amount of impurity of a III or V Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
group elements to a pure semiconductor, increases (a) Only 4 (b) 2 and 3
its resistivity. (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All of these
Which of the statements given above are correct? 7. Consider the following statements,
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 1. Liquid sodium is employed as a coolant in nuclear
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 reactors.
3. Consider the following statements, 2. Calcium carbonate is an ingredient of toothpaste.
1. Ballistic Missile travels in relatively lower trajectory and 3. Bordeaux mixture consists of sodium sulphate and
motor burns during entire trajectory. lime.
2. Cruise Missile travels in a high trajectory, motor burns 4. Zinc amalgams are used as a dental filling.
out part way through flight. Which of the statements given above is correct?
3. Ant-tank Guided Missile travels lower towards the (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
ground and may or may not burn motor through the (c) Only 3 (d) Only 4
flight, typical range is 5 km.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 1. Ozone is used as germicide, air and water purifiers, in
(a) 1 and 2 making artificial silk etc.
(b) 2 and 3 (c) Only 3
2. Bitterness in the onions is due to the presence of
(d) None of these
sulphur compounds.
4. Consider the following statements, 3. Helium is used in filling the tyres of the aircraft.
1. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and Which of the statements given above are correct?
the electrons are embedded in it. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Practice Set 2
2. The negative and positive charges are equal in (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is electrically
neutral.
1. Tendons connect bone to muscles.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct about
2. Bone forming cells are osteoblasts.
Thomson’s model of an atom?
(a) Only 1 3. Ligament connect bone to bone.
(b) Only 2 Which of the statements given above are correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(d) None of the above (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of these
10. Consider the following statements, 3. It is the hardest substance.

1. When a beetle moves along the sand within a few 4. It burns to produce carbon dioxide.
tens of centimetres of a sand scorpion, the Which of the statements given above are correct?
scorpion immediately turns towards the beetle and (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4
dashes towards it. (c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
2. When a beetle distrubes the sand, it sends pulses 16. Two bodies A and B are of same mass and same
along the sand’s surface. One set of pulses is amount of heat is given to both of them. If the
longitudinal while the other set is transverse. temperature of A increases more than that of B
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? because of heat addition, then
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (a) the specific heat capacity of A is more than that of B
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these (b) the specific heat capacity of A is less than that of B
(c) both A and B have the same specific heat capacity but
A has greater thermal conductivity
1. The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than that of
(d) both A and B have the same specific heat capacity but
solids. B has greater thermal conductivity
2. In the liquid state, particles move freely and have
greater space between each other as compared to 17. Consider the following statements,
particles in the solid state. 1. Sea mouse belongs to Annelida.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 2. In sea mouse, the haemoglobin is dissolved in the
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 plasma of blood.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
12. Consider the following statements, (c) 1 and 2 (d) None of these
1. Atavism is the reappearance of disappeared
ancestral characters. 18. Match the following.
2. Third molars and hair on body are the examples of
List I List II
atavism.
3. Atavism is the disappearance of the vestigial A. Namica 1. A long range, subsonic stealth
structures. Cruise Missile.
B. Nirbhay 2. It is Helicopter launched version of
Which of the statements given above is/are true?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Nag.
(c) Only 1 (d) 1 and 3 C. Helina 3. Nag Missile carrier
D. Prahaar 4. Surface to surface guided short
13. Consider the following statements, range tactical Ballistic Missile
1. The susceptibility of a paramagnetic material varies
inversely with the temperature. Codes
A B C D A B C D
2. The susceptibility of a diamagnetic material is small
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 3 2 4 1
and negative.
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 2 3 1 4
3. The relative permeability of a diamagnetic material is
less than unity. 19. Consider the following statements,
4. The relative permeability of a paramagnetic material 1. Gasoline used as fuel in the motor vehicles, is a
is greater than unity. mixture of petrol and alcohol.
Which of the statements given above are correct? 2. Petroleum is also known as liquid gold.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 3. The various components of the petroleum substance
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) All of these are separated through fractional distillation.
14. Which of the following is not correct about Akash
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
Missile?
(a) This is a medium range surface to Air Missile defence
system developed by DRDO. 20. Consider the following statements,
(b) Akash flies at supersonic speed, reaching around 1. Yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in
Practice Set 2
Mach 2.5. baking industry.

(c) The missile is supported by a phase-arrayed fire 2. The CO2 formed during fermentation caused bread
control radar called the Rajendra. dough to rise by thermal expansion.
(d) It can target aircraft upto 100 km away.
15. Consider the following statements regarding (a) Both 1 and 2
diamond (b) Only 1
1. It is an allotrope of silicon. (c) Only 2
2. It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity. (d) None of the above
1. Average velocity is the path length divided by the 1. The neutron was discovered in 1932 by bombarding
time interval. beryllium with α-rays.
2. In general, speed is greater than the magnitude of 2. The electron and proton have equal but opposite
the velocity. electronic charges.
3. A particle moving in a given direction with a 3. The neutron is not charged.
non-zero velocity, can have zero speed. Which of the statements given above are correct?
4. The magnitude of average velocity is the average (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
speed. (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
Which of the statements given above are incorrect?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
1. Leguminous plants are nitrogen fixers.
2. Leguminous plants have Rhizobium in their root
22. Retina of the eye is comparable to which of the nodules.
following parts of a traditional camera?
(a) Film (b) Lens (a) Both 1 and 2
(c) Shutter (d) Cover (b) Only 1
23. Consider the following statements, (c) Only 2
1. Dhanush is a naval variant of the surface to surface (d) None of the above
Prithvi II Missile. 29. Which of the following is not correct about Tejas
2. It has an operational range of 700 km. Mark II?
3. It is capable of carrying both conventional as well as (a) It is a light combat aircraft developed indigenously by
nuclear warheads. India
Which of the statements given above are correct? (b) It will replace Mig-21 of Indian Air Force and Sea Harries
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 of Indian Navy
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these (c) Tejas Mark-II will be an advanced 4.5 generation aircraft
(d) It will be available only in single seat
1. The work done by a body against friction always 30. An explosion takes place on the surface of moon. An
causes a loss in the kinetic energy. astronaut at some distance from the site of explosion
2. Both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved will
in elastic as well as inelastic collision. (a) observe light and hear sound caused by the
explosion
3. Total kinetic energy is not conserved but momentum
(b) observe light but not hear sound caused by the
is conserved in inelastic collision explosion
Which of the statements given above are correct? (c) hear sound but not observe light caused by the
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) Only 3 explosion
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these (d) neither hear the sound nor observe the light caused by
the explosion
25. Enzyme and protein can be correlated with each
other in following ways, 31. Consider the following plants,
1. All proteins are enzymes. 1. Bougainvillea 2. Carnation
2. All enzymes are proteins. 3. Cocoa 4. Grapes
3. All enzymes are not proteins. Which of the plants given above are propagated by stem
4. All proteins are not enzymes. cuttings?
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) All of these
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
32. Water is a good solvent. This is due to high
26. A magnetic field (a) dielectric constant of water
1. never exerts a force on a charged particle. (b) surface tension of water
2. always exerts a force on a charged particle. (c) specific heat of water
Practice Set 2
(d) heat of fusion of water

3. exerts a force on a charged particle if it is moving
across the magnetic lines of force. 33. Consider the following statements,
4. exerts a force on a charged particle if it is moving 1. The temperature of water at the bottom of a waterfall,
along the magnetic lines of force. is higher than that at the top because kinetic energy
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? of falling water is converted into heat.
(a) Only 3 2. Transfer of heat energy from a heater coil to the
(b) Only 4 cooking vessel takes place through the process of
(c) 1 and 2 radiation and convection only.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 40. Consider the following statements,
(a) Both1 and 2 (b) Only 1 1. Oil from Jatropha curcas seeds, is used for making
(c) Only 2 (d) None of these bio diesel fuel.
34. Consider the following statements, 2. The stems of Jatropha are used for basket making.
1. A real gas can be approximated as an ideal gas when 3. Jatropha also contains some toxic compounds.
it is highly dilute. Which of the statements given above is/are correct about
2. Only monoatomic gases can be approximated as Jatropha?
ideal gases. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
3. An ideal gas does not undergo phase transitions. (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
Which of the statements given above are correct? 41. Which of the following is not true about Cryogenic
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 Engine in Indian Context?
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these (a) Cryogenic Engines work at low temperature
(b) ISRO is developing Cryogenic engines for GSLV
35. A spherical body moves with uniform angular velocity
launch vehicles and Chandrayaan-2 Moon mission
(ω) around a circular path of radius (r), which one of
(c) Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen are used as
the following statement is correct?
oxidiser and fuel respectively for Cryogenic engines
(a) The body has no acceleration
(d) Currently, 6 countries viz USA, European Space
(b) The body has a radial acceleration ω 2r directed towards
Agency, Russia, China, India and Japan have
the centre of path
2 successfully deployed Cryogenic Rocket Engines
(c) The body has a radial acceleration ω 2r directed away
5 42. Consider the following statements,
from the centre of the path 1. Radioactive decay is the process by which unstable
(d) The body has an acceleration ω 2 tangential to its path atomic nuclei emit subatomic particle or radiation.
36. Consider the following statements about Mangalyaan, 2. When a radioactive nucleus decays, its nucleus
1. Mangalyaan or Mars Orbiter Mission is the first mission breaks up, emits an alpha particle or beta particle
of India for Mars. and energy, and forms a new atom of a different
2. Its scientific objective is exploration of Mars surface element.
features, morphology, mineralogy and Martian Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
atmosphere by indigenous scientific instruments. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
3. It was launched by PSLV-C 24. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 1. By roughening the surface of a glass sheet, its
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these transparency can be reduced.
37. Consider the following breeds of buffaloes, 2. Glass sheet with rough surface absorbs more light.
1. Surti 2. Mehsana 3. Jaffarabadi 3. The clouds in sky generally appear to be whitish.
Which of the breeds given above belongs to Gujrat? 4. Diffraction due to clouds is efficient in equal
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 measure at all wavelengths.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
38. Consider the following statements about d-block (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) All of these
elements,
1. They all are metals. 44. Consider the following statements
2. All of them are not coloured. 1. Auxins promotes flowering in pineapple.
3. They show variable valency. 2. IAA is naturally occurring auxin.
4. Most of them form simple salts. 3. Auxin promote apical growth.
Which of the statements given above are correct? 4. Auxin used to produce seed less fruits.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 Which of the statements given above are correct about
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4 auxin?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
39. vrms , vav and vmp are root mean square, average and
Practice Set 2
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of these

most probable speeds of molecules of a gas obeying
Maxwellian velocity distribution. Which of the 45. Consider the following statements,
following order is correct? 1. Albo iron does not rust in vacuum because air is
(a) vrms < vav < vmp necessary for rusting.
(b) vrms > vav > vmp 2. Rust is faster in sea water because of dissolved salts.
(c) vmp < vms < vav
(d) vmp > vrms > vav
46. The pressure of the Earth’s atmosphere at sea level is Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
due to the (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(a) heating of the atmosphere by the Sun (c) Only 3 (d) All of these
(b) fact that most living things constantly breathe air 49. Consider the following statements about ionic bond,
(c) evaporation of water from the seas and oceans
1. Ionic bond comes into existence by the transference
(d) gravitational attraction of the Earth for the atmosphere
of electrons between the participating atoms.
47. Consider the following statements, 2. The atom losing electron changes into cation while
1. A large amount of caffeine is found in coffee seeds. the other atom gaining electron converted into
2. Alkaloid present in tobacco is nicotine. anion.
3. Theobromine is the primary alkaloid found in cocoa Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
and chocolate. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) 1 and 2 (d) None of these
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of these
1. Kerosene oil rises up in the wick of lantern because of
48. Consider the following statements about Bhuvan, surface tension.
1. Bhuvan is a software application which allows 2. When some detergent is added to water, the surface
users to explore a 3D representation of the surface tension decreases.
of the Earth. 3. If a liquid wets a solid surface, the angle of contact is
2. ISRO has launched the beta version of Bhuvan in less than 90°.
2009. Which of the statements given above are correct?
3. National Remote Sensing Agency is not involved in (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
the development of Bhuvan. (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answers
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (a)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (b) 36. (a) 37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (d)
41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (c) 44. (a) 45. (c) 46. (d) 47. (c) 48. (b) 49. (c) 50. (d)
Practice Set 2
Practice Set
ANALYSE YOURSELF 3
2. Compass system is not an extension to the previously
1. Glass wool has greater tensile strength than steel. deployed Bei Dou-1, a new Global Navigation
2. Glass wool is fire proof. Satellite System (GNSS).
3. Glass wool has high electrical conductivity and 3. The new system will be a constellation of 35 satellites.
absorbs moisture. Which of the statements given above are correct?
4. Glass wool is used to prepare fibre glass. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(a) 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 6. Consider the following statements,
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) All of these 1. In a charged capacitor, energy is stored in the
2. Consider the following statements, electric field between the plates.
1. The focal length of the objective of a microscope is 2. The dielectric constant of metals is infinite.
less than the focal length of the eyepiece. 3. The field intensity on the surface of a charged
2. The minimum distance between an object and its conductor is directed normally to the surface.
real image formed by a convex lens of focal length f, 4. Kirchhoff’s voltage law is based on the law of
is equal to 24C. conservation of energy.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) All of these

1. Branch of Science that deals with the improvement 1. Meiosis takes place in pollen mother cells.
of human race by providing better environmental 2. Each pollen mother cell produces four haploid pollen
conditions, is called Euthenics. grains.
2. Study of typical behaviour of organisms in their Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
natural habitats, is called Ethology. (a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1
3. Branch of Science which deals with the study of (c) Only 2 (d) None of these
various aspects of different races of mankind, is 8. Consider the following statements,
called Ethnology. 1. H 2O exists in liquid state whereas H 2S in gaseous state
Which of the statements given above are correct? because hydrogen bond exists in water and does not
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 exist in H 2S.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these 2. The dipole moment helps to predict whether a
4. Which of the following statements are valid for a molecule is polar or non-polar.
solution containing a non-volatile solute? 3. Alcohol is a polar solvent.
1. The solution exhibits a lower vapour pressure than that 4. Ionic compounds are insoluble in non-polar solvent.
of the pure solvent. Which of the statements given above are correct?
2. The solution exhibits a higher vapour pressure than (a) 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 3
that of the solvent. (c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
3. The freezing point of the solution is less than that of
the solvent.
1. The velocity at which the observer approach a
Practice Set 3
4. The freezing point of the solution is more than that of stationary sound source so that the apparent
the solvent. frequency of sound should appear double the actual
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. frequency, is v (v is velocity of sound).
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3 2. Change in frequency due to Doppler’s effect, is
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4 produced when there is a relative motion between
5. Consider the following statements, the source and the observer.
1. Compass system is an independent global satellite Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
navigation system of China. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
10. Consider the following statements, 2. Evaporation increases with increase in surface area,
1. In mitrochondria, succinate dehydrogenate is increase in temperature and decrease in
located in outer membrane. intermolecular attractive forces.
2. Mitrochondria have their own separate protein 3. Boiling point of a liquid increases with increase in
synthesising machinery independent of nuclear external pressure.
control. Which of the statements given above are correct?
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 16. Haemophilia is a genetic disorder which lead to
11. Consider the following statements about MAVEN, 1. decrease in haemoglobin level.
1. It stands for Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution 2. rheumatic heart disease.
Mission. 3. decrease in WBC.
2. It will provide first of its kind measurements and 4. non-clotting of blood.
address key questions about Mars. Which of the statements given above is/are correct for
3. It is a project of European Space Agency. haemophilia?
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) Only 4
(c) Only 2 (d) All of these 1. Gaseous substances whose critical temperatures are
12. Consider the following statements, above room temperatures, can be liquefied by
1. The maximum static frictional force is equal to the applying sufficient pressure to the gas.
area of surface in contact. 2. Gaseous substances whose critical temperatures are
2. The maximum static frictional force is independent of below room temperature, can be liquefied by the
the area of surface in contact. application of pressure and lowering of temperature
3. The limiting friction is always greater than the below Tc.
dynamic friction. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
4 The coefficient of friction between two surfaces (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
increases as the surface in contact are made rough. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
Which of the statements given above is/are not correct? 18. Consider the following statements about
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 recombinant DNA technology,
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 3 and 4 1. Recombinant DNA is DNA that has been created
artificially.
2. In this, DNA from two or more sources are
1. JJ Thomson was the first one to propose a model for
incorporated into a single recombinant molecule.
the structure of an atom.
3. Hepatitis B infection is controlled through the use of a
2. Rutherford designed an experiment for the arrangement
recombinant Hepatitis B vaccine.
of electrons within an atom. In this experiment, fast
moving alpha particles were made to fall on a thin gold Which of the statements given above are correct?
foil. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 19. Consider the following statements,
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these 1. The quality of a musical note depends upon its
harmonic content.
14. Which is not correct from the point of Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI)? 2. A wave undergoes reflection from a rigid boundary.
(a) It is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to One of its characteristic parameters that changes, is
visualise internal structures of the body. phase.
(b) MRI makes use of the property of Nuclear Magnetic 3. Stationary waves are so called because in them
Resonance (NMR) to image nuclei of atoms inside the there is no flow of energy.
body. Which of the statements given above are correct?
Practice Set 3
(c) In MRI, magnetic field is used to align the (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
magnetisation of some atomic nuclei in the body. (c) 3 and 1 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) By doing MRI, blockage in arteries can also be found.
20. Mosquito
15. Consider the following statements, 1. Culex causes filaria.
1. Liquid state is intermediate between solid state and
2. Aedes causes dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever.
gaseous state regarding interparticle force of
3. Anopheles causes malaria.
attraction, packing of particles, etc.
Which of the statements given above are correct about 3. Chlorine is mixed in water so that bacterias are killed.
mosquito? 4. Hydrofluoric acid is not preserved in glass bottle
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 because it reacts with silica of glass.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these Which of the statements given above are correct?
21. Consider the following statements, (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
1. Density of water is maximum at 277 K. (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
2. Density of water increases from 273 to 277 K and 27. Which of the following is not a normal function of the
beyond this, decreases as expansion predominates. human kidney?
3. Due to extensive hydrogen bonding, water has a very (a) Regulation of water level in the blood
high heat capacity. (b) Regulation of sugar level in the blood
Which of the statements given above are correct? (c) Filter out urea
(a) 1 and 2 (d) Secretion of several hormones
(b) 2 and 3 28. Consider the following statements,
(c) 1 and 3 1. If a body completely gains its original shape after the
removal of forces, it is an elastic body.
22. Consider the following statements, 2. The property to restore the natural shape of a body, is
1. According to de-Broglie hypothesis, particles have elasticity.
wave-like characteristics. 3. When a body partially regains its original shape after
2. When an electron and proton have the same the removal of deforming force, it is partially elastic.
de-Broglie wavelength, they will have equal Which of the statements given above are correct?
momentum. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
29. Coke is one of the materials of the charge added to
blast furnace for the production of steel/iron. Its
23. Consider the following statements, function is to
1. Hepatitis-B causes several times more infectiors than 1. act as a reducing agent.
HIV/AIDS. 2. remove silica associated with the iron ore.
2. Hepatitis-B can cause liver cancer. 3. function as fuel to supply heat.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 4. act as an oxidising agent.
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 Which of the statements given above are correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 and 4
1. Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) is an 30. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) includes which of
organism whose genetic material has been altered the following?
using genetic engineering techniques. 1. It is a scientific technique to amplify a single or a few
2. GMOs are used in biological and medical research, copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of
production of pharmaceutical drugs etc. magnitude generating thousands or millions of
3. Plants including algae, jatropha, maize etc., have copies of a particular DNA sequence.
been genetically modified for the use in producing 2. DNA clearing for sequencing is based on Polymerase
fuel, known as bio-fuel. Chain Reaction.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 3. PCR method relies on thermal cycling that consist of
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 cycles of repeated heating and cooling of the
(c) Only 3 (d) All of these reaction.
25. A closed bottle containing water at room
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
temperature is taken to the moon and then the lid is
opened. The water will (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
(a) boil 31. Consider the following statements,
Practice Set 3
(b) freeze 1. Kidney failure is treated with haemodialysis.

(c) decompose into hydrogen and oxygen 2. Kidney stones are madeup of calcium oxalate.
(d) not change at all
3. Urine is yellow in colour due to urochrome pigment.
1. Sea weeds are important sources of I 2 . (a) 2 and 3
2. Bleaching powder is obtained by the interaction of (b) 1 and 2
Cl 2 and dry slaked lime. (c) All of the above
1. Methyl alcohol is also called wood spirit because in (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
early stage, it was prepared by the destructive (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
distillation of wood.
2. Ethyl alcohol is also called grain alcohol because it is 1. The conductivity of electrolyte increases with rise in
obtained by the starch enriched substance. temperature.
3. Rectified spirit is also called commercial alcohol. 2. Voltameter is used in the process of electrolysis.
Which of the statements given above are correct? 3. Electrolysis of water is also called hydrolysis.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these (a) Only 3 (b) 1 and 2
33. Rainbow is produced when sunlight falls on drops of (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
rain. Which of the following physical phenomena are 39. Consider the following statements,
responsible for this? 1. Stem develops from plumule.
1. Dispersion
2. Roots develops from radicle.
2. Refraction 3. Phylloclade is a modification of stem.
3. Internal reflection Which of the statements given above are correct?
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) 1 and 2
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (c) 1 and 3
(d) All of the above (d) All of the above
1. Hardness of water depends upon its soap consuming 1. In railway track or road, the inner track/edge is
power. comparatively less in height than the outer.
2. Temporary hardness is due to bicarbonates of 2. Washing machine is working on the principle of
magnesium and calcium. centrifugation.
3. Permanent hardness of water is due to sulphate 3. A car takes a turn on level road. It may be thrown
and/or chloride of calcium and magnesium. outwards because of the lack of centripetal force.
4. Permanent hardness can be removed by boiling. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) Only 3 (b) 1 and 3
(a) 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these 41. Consider the following statements,
35. Consider the following hormones, 1. Anthrax is a bacterial disease.
1. Cytokmin 2. Auxin 2. Swine flu is a viral disease.
3. Gibbereilin 4. Abscissic acid 3. Anaplasmosis is a fungal disease.
4. Ringworm is a protozoal disease.
Which of the hormones given above stimulates the plant
cells to grow in a manner such that the plant appears to be Which of the statements given above are correct?
bent towards light? (a) 1 and 2
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) Only 3 (d) 3 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 4
1. A thermoelectric refrigerator works on Peltier effect. 42. Consider the following statements,
1. Boric acid is a mild antiseptic and is used as a food
2. The electrolyte in the dry cell is ammonium chloride.
preservative.
3. The electrolyte in a car battery, is sulphuric acid.
2. Borax and other borates are used in water-treatment,
4. When a metal is heated, its resistance increases.
timber preservation, glass manufacture.
Which of the statements given above are correct? 3. Sodium peroxoborate is an important constituent of
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 washing powder.
Practice Set 3

37. Consider the following with regard to Positron (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Emission Tomography, (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
1. It is a Nuclear Medical Imaging Technique that
43. In an experiment to determine the Young’s modulus
produces a three-dimensional image or picture of
of a material, the suspended mass is doubled. Then,
functional process in the body. the Young’s modulus of the wire
2. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted (a) becomes double (b) becomes four times
indirectly by a positron emitting radionuclide (tracer). (c) remains unchanged (d) beocmes holy
44. Match of the following. 47. A pair of chromosomes in fruit fly and humans
determine sex. These are referred to as sex
List I List II chromosomes. What is the name given to other
Institute Centre chromosomes?
A. National Brain Research Centre 1. Imphal (a) Allosomes
(b) Autosomes
B. National Institute of Plant Genome 2. Manesar
(c) Heterosomes
Research
(d) Homosomes
C. Institute of Bioresources and 3. Pune
Sustainable Development 48. The refractive index of a medium is 3. Which one of
D. National Centre for Cell Science 4. New Delhi the following is correct?
(a) The sine of angle of incidence is 3 times the sine of
Codes angle of refraction
A B C D A B C D (b) The angle of incidence is twice the angle of refraction
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 1 3 4 (c) The sine of angle of refraction is 3 times the sine of
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 2 4 1 3 angle of incidence
(d) The angle of refraction is twice the angle of incidence
45. Which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. The group of buffalo is herd. 49. Consider the following statements,
2. The group of sheep is flock. 1. The positive charge is essentially immovable
3. The group of goat is tribe. because it contains practically all the mass of the
4. The group of horse is pack. atom.
2. Atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element
which takes part in a chemical reaction.
(a) Only 1 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
46. Consider the following statements, (c) Both 1 and 2
1. Gold is the most ductile metal. (d) None of the above
2. The best conductors of heat are silver and copper.
50. Glucose occurs in nature in the combined form as
3. Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) are so soft
polysaccharides which on hydrolysis yield glucose.
that they can be cut with a knife.
These polysaccharides are
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) amylose and amylopectin
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (b) glycogen and cellulose
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these (c) starch and cellulose
Answers
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (d) 16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (d)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (d)
31. (c) 32. (d) 33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (c) 36. (d) 37. (c) 38. (a) 39. (d) 40. (d)
41. (a) 42. (d) 43. (c) 44. (d) 45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (a) 49. (c) 50. (d)
Practice Set 3
1. Consider the following statements, 2. Whenever light goes from one medium to another, the
1. In a healthy human eye, the focussing is done by frequency of light and phase do not change. However,
the change in the convexity of the lens through the velocity of light and the wavelength change.
ciliary muscles. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2. Hypermetropia is corrected by using a converging (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
lens. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
3. Human eye is most sensitive to red colour. 6. Consider the following statements,
Which of the statements given above are correct? 1. Significance of mitosis cell division is producing cell
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 genetically similar to parent cell.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Meiosis division is also known as reduction division.
2. Consider the following statements, 3. As compared to mitosis, meiosis has exchange of
1. If the length of tube is less and cannot chromatid segments.
accommodate the maximum rise of liquid, then Which of the statements given above are correct about cell
the meniscus will adjust itself so that the water does division?
not spill. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
2. The shape of a non-wetting liquid placed in a (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
capillary tube is convex upwards. 7. Which of the following is/are part(s) of central
3. For a liquid which is rising in a capillary, the angle of Processing Unit (CPU) of computer?
contact is obtuse. 1. Control unit 2. Arithmetic logic unit
Which of the statements given above are correct? 3. Memory
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
3. Consider the following statements, (c) All of these (d) None of these
1. Branch of Biology in which we study about the 8. Consider the following statements about oxidation.
treatment of mental disease, is called Psychiatry. It is the process which involves
2. Ophthalmology is the branch of science in which 1. removal of oxygen.
we study about the eye.
2. addition of hydrogen.
3. Nephrology is the study of kidney.
3. removal of an electropositive element.
4. Study of pulse and arterial blood pressure is called
4. addition of an electronegative element.
Sphygmology.
Which of the statements given above is/are false about
reduction?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
4. Consider the following statements, 9. Consider the following sentences,
1. A bond formed by the transfer of electrons between
1. In ordinary bulbs, only 5% to 10% electrical energy is
the atoms of the element is called ionic bond.
converted into light energy.
2. A bond formed by the sharing of electrons between
2. Tungsten has very high melting point as 3422°C, the
the atoms of the elements is called covalent bond.
filament of bulb is made of it.
Practice Set 4
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 3. The mica has good electrical resistance.
4. The electric bulb was first invented by Thomas Alva Edison.
5. Consider the following statements about the laws (a) 1 and 3
of refraction, (b) 3 and 4
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and normal to (c) All of the above
the interface at the point of incidence, all lie in the (d) None of the above
same plane.
1. Epithelium tissue forms protective layer of body. 1. Ore is heated generally in the absence of air, then
2. Transmission of stimuli from one part of body to other process is called calcination.
part takes place through nervous tissue. 2. Ore is heated generally in the presence of air, then
3. Blood is an example of tissue. process is called roasting.
Which of the statements given above are correct about 3. Reduction of oxide with carbon at high temperature,
tissue? is called smelting.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 Which of the statements given above are correct?
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
1. Acetylene is utilised in the form of anaesthesia, in the 17. Which of the following is not correct about optical
welding and cutting the metallic bodies, in the storage?
ripening of fruits etc. (a) It stores the information in deformities on the surface
2. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is used in the form of of a circular disk.
solvent, coolent and preservator. (b) It reads this information by illuminating the surface with
3. Benzene is used in dry cleaning of woolen garments, a laser diode and observing the reflection.
in the manufacturing of explosive. (c) Optical disc is volatile.
Which of the statements given above correct? (d) An optical drive is a device in a computer that can read
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 CD-ROMs or other optical discs.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these 18. Consider the following statements,
12. Consider the following statements, 1. Azolla is aquatic fern.
1. If ν1 and ν 2 are the frequencies of two tuning forks, 2. Equisetum contains silica spores.
then the beat frequency is ν1 + ν 2 . 3. Sphagnum also called as peatmoss, is used in
2. To hear distinct beats, difference in frequencies of transportation.
two sources should be less than 10. Which of the statements given above are correct?
3. More the number of beats per second, more difficult (a) 1 and 2
to hear them. (b) 2 and 3
Which of the statements given above are correct? (c) 1 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (d) All of the above
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 19. Consider a vehicle going on a horizontal road
13. Consider the following statements, towards East. Neglect any force by the air. The
frictional force on the vehicle by the road
1. In humans, female sex is determined by
XX-chromosomes. (a) is zero if the vehicle is moving with a non-uniform
velocity
2. Male sex is determined by XY-chromosomes.
(b) is towards East if the vehicle is accelerating
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) must be towards East
(a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 (d) must be towards West
(c) Only 2 (d) None of these
14. Consider the following statements, 1. Radioactivity tracers are commonly used in the
1. An electronic emission spectrum will contain more medical field and also in the study of plants and
lines than the corresponding absorptions. animals.
2. In any p-orbital, there are maximum of six electrons. 2. Radiation is used and produced in nuclear reactors,
3. Absolute value of the charge of the electron was which controls fission reactions to produce energy
determined by Milikan. and new substances from the fission products.
4. Electron in the H-atom in its ground state can absorb 3. Radiation is also used to sterilise medical instrument
energy but can’t emit energy. and food.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) All of these (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
Practice Set 4
15. The acceleration due to Earth’s gravity, decreases if 21. Consider the following statements,
1. we go up from the surface of the Earth. 1. Transfer of pollen grain from pollen sac to stigma is
2. we go from the equator towards the pole. called pollination.
3. the rotation speed of the Earth is increased. 2. Anemophily pollination takes place by wind.
4. we go down from the surface of the Earth towards its 3. Entomophily pollination occurs with the help of insects.
centre. Which of the statements given above are correct about
Which of the statements given above are correct? pollination?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) All of these (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
22. Consider the following statements, 28. Rutherford’s model of atom is considered unsuitable
1. Alpha rays emitted from a radioactive substance, are because
helium nucleus. 1. a positively charged nucleus remain separated from
2. Beta rays emitted by radioactive substance, are negatively charged electrons.
charged particles emitted by the nucleus. 2. an accelerated electron would continuously lose
3. Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves. energy in the form of radiation.
4. The nuclear force is a short range force. 3. nuclear mass is not sufficiently heavy to keep the light
Which of the statements given above are correct? electron in its orbit.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 4. the centre of gravity of the system would be within the
(b) 2, 3 and 4 volume of the nucleus.
(c) 1, 2 and 4 Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(d) All of the above (a) 2 and 3 (b) Only 2
(c) Only 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
23. Consider the following statements about smart
cards, 29. Consider the following statements,
1. A smart card is any packet sized card with 1. All radioactive elements decay exponentially with time.
embedded integrated circuits. 2. Half-life time of radioactive element is the time
2. Small cards are madeup of plastic, generally required for one-half of the radioactive atoms to
polyvinyl chloride. disintegrate.
3. Smart cards can provide identification arthentication, 3. Age of the Earth can be determined by radiocarbon
data storage and application processing. dating.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 4. Half-life time of a radioactive element is 50% of its
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 average life period.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
1. Chlorophyll appears green.
2. It absorbs light mainly in the green region of light 30. Consider the following statements,
spectrum. 1. WiMax (World wide Interoperability for microwave
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? access) is a wireless communication standard.
(a) Both 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 2. It is designed to provide 30 to 40 Mbps data rates up
(c) Only 2 (d) None of these to glops for fixed stations.
3. Mobile WiMax is a replacement candidate for cellular
25. Consider the following statements, phone technologies such as GSM and CDMA.
1. Among the fertilisers used, urea contains maximum
percentage of N.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
2. The mixture of calcium sulphate and calcium
dihydrogen phosphate, is known as super phosphate
of lime. 31. Consider the following statements,
3. Potassium magnesium sulphate is called the muriate 1. A black board is an example of ideal black body.
of potash. 2. Silver in the best conductor of heat.
Which of the statements given above are correct? 3. Clear nights are colder than cloudy nights.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 Which of the statements given above are correct?
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
26. Consider the following statements about a liquid (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
allowed into a tube of truncated cone shape, 32. Consider the following statements,
1. The speed is high at the wider end and low at the 1. Crystalline solids do not have sharp melting points.
narrow end. 2. Amorphous solids are isotropic.
2. The speed is low at the wider end and high at the 3. Crystalline solids have short range order of
narrow end. arrangement of constituents.
3. The speed is same at both ends in a stream line flow. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Practice Set 4
4 The liquid flows with non-uniform velocity in the tube. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
Which of the statements given above are correct? (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4 33. Consider the following statements,
1. Lateral outgrowths of leaf base are called stipules.
27. The human eye is like a camera and hence, it contains 2. Leaf with stipules, called as stipulate.
a system of lens. The eye lens forms 3. Leaf without stipules, called as exstipulate.
(a) a straight or upright real image of the object on the retina Which of the statements given above are correct?
(b) an inverted, virtual image of the object on the retina (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) an inverted, real image of the object on the retina (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
(d) a straight or upright real image of the object on the iris
1. As pressure increases, volume increases at constant (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
temperature. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
2. As pressure increases, volume decreases at constant 40. Given below are the functions of calcium for body
temperature. regulation, which is/are incorrect function(s) among
3. As temperature increases, pressure decreases at them?
constant volume. 1. Bone, teeth formation and growth
4. As temperature increases, pressure increases at 2. Acid and base regulation
constant volume. 3. Digestion
Which of the statements given above is a correct statement 4. Regulation of heart beats
of Gay Lussac’s law describing the behaviour of a fixed
amount of gas?
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 3 and 4
(c) Only 3 (d) Only 4
41. Consider the following statements about laughing
35. Consider the following statements, gas (N2O),
1. A body i.e. a good radiator, is also a good absorber
1. It is used as a propellant for whipped ice-cream.
of radiation at a given wavelength.
2. It is used as an anaesthetic.
2. According to Kirchhoff’s law, the absorptivity of a
3. It is used for the preparation of N 3H.
body is equal to its emissivity at a given wavelength.
4. It is used as fuel for rockets.
3. A perfectly black body has absorptive power equal
to unity. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3 42. Consider the following statements,
1. Pilot tube is an instrument and is based upon
Bernoullis theorem by which the rate of flow of the
1. Taproot develops from radicle.
gas is measured.
2. Adventitious root develops from other parts of plants.
2. The coefficient of viscosity is the only parameter
Which of the statements given above is/are correct about through which the viscosity of the fluid is measured.
root?
3. Negative sign of coefficient of viscosity indicates that
the viscous force opposes the relative motion.
37. Which of the following is/are the service models of (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
cloud computing? (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
43. Consider the following compounds with the
2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
reference to constituent of dettol,
3. Software as a Service (SaaS)
1. Chloroxylenol 2. Tarpineol
4. Desktop virtualisation.
Which of the compounds given above is/are correct?
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
44. Consider the following statements about the video
38. Consider the following statements, conference,
1. Galvanic cell converts chemical energy into 1. This is a system that allow us to conduct meetings or
electrical energy. training at different places simultaneously.
2. In a galvanic cell, the electron flow from anode to 2. It includes the codic unit, i.e. brain and heart of video
cathode occurs through the external circuit. conforming system.
3. Galvanic cell converts metal from its elemental state 3. It does not connet individuals on real-time basis.
to the combined state.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2
Practice Set 4
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these (c) 1 and 3
39. Consider the following statements, (d) None of the above
1. The space surrounding a charge in uniform motion, 45. Consider the following statements,
has only magnetic field. 1. The sugar present in RNA, is ribose.
2. The core of an electromagnet is madeup of soft iron 2. The pyrimidines found in RNA are thymine.
because soft iron has large susceptibility and large
3. The genomic RNA is double stranded in wound
retentivity.
tumour virus and retrovirus.
Which of the statements given above are correct about 49. In a nuclear reactor, self-sustained chain reaction is
RNA? possible because
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 1. more neutrons are released in each of the fission
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these reactions.
46. Mud houses are cooler in summer and warmer in 2. the neutrons immediately take part in the fission
winter because process.
(a) mud is superconductor of heat 3. the fast neutrons are slowed down by graphite.
(b) mud is good conductor of heat 4. every neutron released in the fission reaction initiates
(c) mud is bad conductor of heat further fission.
(d) None of the above Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3
47. Which of the following is/are not search engine (s)? (c) 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
1. Laicos 2. Altavista
3. Telnet 4. Archic 50. Consider the following statements,
Choose the correct options from the codes given below. 1. National Informatics Centre (NIC) is a premier
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 3 and 4 organisation that has set-up a satellite based nation
(c) 1 and 2 (d) None of these which computer communication network called NIC
NET.
48. Consider the following plant products, 2. NIC is a part of Ministry of Science and Technology.
1. Apple 2. Plum 3. NIC has developed network based application for
3. Potato 4. Strawberry general Election in India.
Which of the above are rich sources of antioxidants? Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
Answers
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (d) 24. (b) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (b) 29. (c) 30. (d)
31. (b) 32. (b) 33. (d) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (d) 40. (d)
41. (c) 42. (d) 43. (c) 44. (a) 45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (d) 49. (a) 50. (d)
Practice Set 4
1. Consider the following statements, 3. Digital library of India has been hosted by Indian
1. Mercury is found in liquid state at room temperature. Institute of Science, Banglore in co-operation with
2. The property of metals by which they can beaten into other major participating centres.
thin sheets, is called malleability. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
3. The property of metals by which it can be drawn into (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
wires, is called ductility. (c) Only 3 (d) None of these
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 1. The size of atom is of the order of 10 −10 m.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. The size of atomic nucleus is of the order of 10 −15 m.
2. Consider the following statements, 3. The electron emitted in beta radiation originates
1. If an oscillator executing SHM passes through a fixed from decay of a neutron in a nucleus.
point (mean position), then the potential energy of Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
the oscillator is zero but the kinetic energy is (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
maximum. (c) Both 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
2. If an oscillator executing SHM passes through the 7. Consider the following statements,
extreme (end point), then the oscillator 1. Centriole takes part in spindle formation.
instantaneously comes to rest (its velocity becomes 2. Centrioles are found in animals.
zero) thus, kinetic energy becomes zero. But its
potential energy is maximum.
centriole?
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) 1 and 2 (d) None of these
3. Consider the following statements, 1. Euchlorine is a mixture of Cl 2and CO2 .
1. Jonas Salk developed polio vaccine.
2. Bromine gas turns starch iodine paper red.
2. Selman Waksman discovered streptomycin from
3. Photographic plates are coated with a film of AgBr.
Streptomyces griseus.
3. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin from
(a) Only 1
Penicillium notatum. (b) 1 and 2
Which of the statements given above are correct? (c) Only 3
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3
4. Consider the following statements 1. A heat engine is a device which converts heat
1. Neutral fats such as butter and vegetable oils are energy into mechanical energy.
mostly triglycerides. 2. A heat engine essentially consists of source of heat
2. Triose sugars are simplest sugars and not found in at higher temperature, working substance and sink
nature. These are produced as intermediate in of heat at lower temperature.
metabolic pathway like glycolysis. 3. In a diesel engine, a mixture of fuel vapours and air
Practice Set 5
acts as the working substance.

(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 4. Efficiency of a petrol engine is greater than that of
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these diesel engine.
5. Consider following statements in the context of Which of the statements given above are correct?
Digital Library, (a) 1 and 2
1. It is a library in which collections are stored in digital (b) 1 and 3
formats. (c) All of the above
2. The digital content cannot be accessed remotely via (d) None of the above
computer.
1. Bones and blood are mesodermal in origin. 1. Ohm’s law is not applicable at very low and very high
2. Mast cells are modified basophils that secrete temperature.
heparin. 2. Ohm’s law is applicable to semiconductor.
3. Adipose cells store fat. 3. Ohm's law is not applicable to electron tubes,
Which of the statements given above are correct? discharge tubes and electrolytes.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 4. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance and is
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of these measured in siemens.
11. Consider the following statements, Which of the statements given above are correct?
1. Galvanisation is the method of protecting steel and (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
iron from rusting by coating them with a thin layer of
zinc. 17. Consider the following statements,
2. Pure iron is very soft but if it is mixed with a small 1. The energy of the electrons in the orbit is quantised.
amount of carbon, it becomes hard and strong. 2. Electrons revolve only in those orbits for which angular
3. When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium, we get momentum is not an integral multiple of h / 2 π.
stainless steel which is hard and does not rust. 3. The electrons don’t revolve in different orbits around
Which of the statements given above are correct? the nucleus.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 4. The electrons emit energy during revolution due to the
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 presence of coulombic forces of attraction.
12. Virtual reality refers to Which of the statements given above is/are correct about
(a) a branch of science which deals with helping Bohr's model of atom?
machines, find solutions to complex problems in a (a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 4
more human-like fashion (c) Only 4 (d) 2 and 3
(b) computer-simulated environments that can simulate 18. Consider the following statements,
physical presence in places in the real world as well 1. Bryophytes are amphibians of plant kingdom.
as in the imaginary world
2. They are found in swamps, the areas where water and
(c) a specialised form of mobile commerce that uses
land meet.
mobile internet access, global positioning system etc
(d) a facility that provides computing and storage Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
capacity services to heterogeneous community of (a) Both 1 and 2
end-recipients (b) Only 1
(c) Only 2
13. If a pendulum clock is brought on the Moon, then the (d) None of the above
period of oscillation of the pendulum clock
(a) decreases (b) increases 19. Which of the following statements is correct?
(c) zero (d) infinite (a) Two isobars always have the same mass number
(b) Two isotopes always have the same mass number
14. Which of the following pairs is correctly matched? (c) Two isotones always have same mass number
1. Isotopes : Atoms with same atomic number but (d) Two isobars always have same atomic number
different atomic mass.
2. Isobars : Atoms with same number of neutrons but
20. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) refers to
(a) a form of spread spectrum signalling where each
different atomic number.
transmitter is assigned a code to allow multiple users to
3. Isotones : Atoms with same mass number but be multiplened over the same physical channel
different atomic number. (b) a strategy that provides different time slots to different
Codes data streams in a cyclically repetitive frame structure
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) Only 1 (c) a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly
(c) 1 and 2 (d) Only 2 switching a carrier among many frequency channels
15. Consider the following statements, (d) a wireless broadband technology originally developed
by Array Communication
1. The sickle cell anaemia is a genetic disease
Practice Set 5
common in tropical and sub-tropical countries. 21. Which of the following statements about the
2. The sickle cell anaemia is due to mutation in commonly used automobile battery are true?
β-globulin gene. 1. It is usually a lead-acid battery.
3. Due to the sickle-shaped anaemia, oxygen carrying 2. It has 6 cells with a potential of 2V each.
capacity of the haemoglobin decreases. 3. Its cells work as galvanic cells while discharging power.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 4. Its cells work as electrolytic cells while recharging.
(a) Only 1 (b) 1, 2 and 3 Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) Only 3 (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
22. Consider the following statements, 28. Long term evaluation

1. The force by which water move upwards into 1. standard for wireless communication of high speed
tracheary element of xylem in the root region is root data for mobile phones and data terminals.
pressure. 2. is based on GSM/EDGE technology.
2. Root pressure is measured by manometer. 3. does not support mobile TV.
3. Water will be absorbed by root hairs when the Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
external medium is hypotonic. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
4. Cohesion Tension theory for ascent of sap was given (c) All of these (d) None of these
by Dixon and Jolly.
Which of the statements given above are correct? 1. Light of longer wavelength is scattered much more
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 than the light of shorter wavelength.
(b) 2, 3 and 4
2. The speed of visible light in water is 0.95 times the
(c) 1, 2 and 3
speed in vacuum.
3. Radio waves are produced by rapidly oscillating
23. Consider the following statements, electrical currents.
1. Both primary and secondary rainbows are virtual 4. To detect the overspeeding vehicles, police use the
images. Doppler effect of reflected short radiowaves.
2. A red object appears dark in the yellow light. Which of statements given above are correct?
3. The red colour is scatter less. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
4. Sodium lamps cannot be used in foggy conditions.
1. Photorespiration occurs in chloroplast, peroxisome
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 4
and mitochondria.
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
2. Photorespiration is discovered by Deiner and Tijo.
24. Which of the following pairs of chemical compounds 3. Glycolate is the substrate for photorespiration and
has the potential for carbon capturing by chemical phosphoglycolate is the first product.
process to reduce the global warming?
(a) Potassium oxide and sodium oxide
photorespiration?
(b) Magnesium oxide and calcium oxide
(c) Magnesium oxide and potassium oxide
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Calcium oxide and potassium oxide
31. Consider the following statements with reference to
the periodic table of chemical element,
1. Glucogen secreted by α-cells of islets.
1. Ionisation potential gradually decreases along a
2. Insulin secreted by β-cells. period.
3. Insulin deficiency causes diabetes mellitus. 2. In a group of elements, electron affinity decreases as
Which of the statements given above are correct about the atomic weight increases.
pancreatic hormones? 3. In a given period, electronegativity decreases as the
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
atomic number increases.
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 1 and 3
Which of statements given above is/are correct?
26. Consider the following statements, (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
1. Electromagnetic waves cannot propagate without (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
medium.
32. A small drop falls from rest from a large height h in
2. Radiowaves has the maximum wavelength. air, the final velocity is
3. All components of the electromagnetic spectrum in (a) almost independent of h
vacuum, have the same energy. (b) directly proportional to h
Which of the statements given above are incorrect? (c) inversely proportional to h
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (d) directly proportional to h2
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Practice Set 5
27. Consider the following statements, 1. Phylloclades is cylindrical green photosynthetic stem
1. Cluster of atoms that act as an ion, is called with unlimited growth.
polyatomic ion. 2. Cladode is green photosynthetic stem with limited
2. In ionic compounds, the charge on each ion is used growth.
to determine the chemical formula of the Which of the statements given above is/are correct about
compound. aerial shoot modification?
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
(c) 1 and 2 (d) None of these
34. Consider the following statements, (c) high temperature, volcanic storms, non-reducing
1. Atmospheric pressure is less at the top of a mountain atmosphere
than at sea level. (d) high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing
atmosphere containing CH 4 ,NH 3, etc
2. Gases are much more compressible than solids and
liquids. 41. Which of the following are the types of connective
3. When the atmospheric pressure increases, the height tissues?
of the mercury column rises. 1. Bone 2. Tendons
Which of the statements given above are correct? 3. Squamous 4. Ligaments
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 5. Chordata 6. Areolar
(c) 1, 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 7. Ablesia
35. Consider the following statements about Plaster of Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Paris (POP), (a) 2, 3 and 7 (b) 1, 4 and 7
1. It is homohydrates of calcium sulphate. (c) 1, 2, 4 and 6 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7
2. It has half the water of crystallisation as that present in 42. Consider the following statements,
gypsum. 1. Jute is mainly lignin in nature.
3. It is an allotrope of gypsum. 2. Jute is also known ‘Golden fibre’.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2 (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
36. Which of the following is not due to total internal 43. Consider the following statements,
reflection? 1. Taking into account, the fact that any object which
(a) Mirage on hot summer days floats must have an average density less than that of
(b) Brilliance of diamond water during world war I, a number of cargo vessels
(c) Difference between apparent and real depth of a pond were made of concrete.
(d) Working of optical fibre
2. Concrete cargo vessels were filled with air.
37. With reference to the blood in a normal person, which 3. A ship floats higher in the water on a high pressure
one of the following statements is correct? day than on a low pressure day.
(a) Compared to arteries, veins are less numerous and 4. Floating of ship in the water is not possible because of
hold less of the body’s blood at any given time buoyancy force which is present due to pressure
(b) Blood cells constitute about 70% of the total volume of difference.
the blood
(c) White Blood Cells (WBC) are made by lymph nodes
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 ,3 and 4
only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(d) The blood has more platelets than WBCs
38. Atmospheric ozone layer which protect us from UV-B 44. Which of the following is/are the source(s) of
and C is getting depleted most by addition of radioactive pollution?
1. Production of nuclear weapon
(a) chloroflurocarbon
(b) carbon monoxide 2. Decommissioning of nuclear weapons
(c) carbon dioxide 3. Mining of radioactive ore
(d) sulpur dioxide 4. Coal ash
39. A moving charge is subjected to an external Select the correct option.
magnetic field. The change in the kinetic energy of (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 4
the particle (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All of these
(a) depends upon whether the field is uniform or 45. Consider the following statements,
non-uniform 1. Rust is formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in
(b) is always zero the presence of water or air moisture.
(c) increases with the increase in the field strength
2. In salt water, iron tends to rust more quickly.
(d) Both (a) and (c)
Practice Set 5

40. In 1953, SL Miller created primitive Earth conditions (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
in the laboratory and gave experimental evidence for (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of these
origin of first form of life from pre-existing non-living
organic molecules. The primitive Earth conditions 46. Middle aged Indian women are most vulnerable to
created include oste oporosis because
(a) low temperature, volvanic storms, atmosphere rich in 1. they have genetically weaker bones.
oxygen 2. of post-menopausal decline in levels of estrogens.
(b) low temperature, volcanic storms, reducing 3. of increase in levels of calcitonin.
atmosphere 4. deficiency of Ca + + in bones.
Select the correct option. 49. The tissue that is involved in the transport of food
(a) Only 2 (b) 1and 3 material in plants, is called
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 4 (a) parenchyma
47. Transverse waves can propagate (b) phloem
(c) sclerenchyma
(a) in a gas but not in a metal
(d) xylem
(b) both in a gas and in a metal
(c) not in a gas but in a metal 50. In 2015, Nobel Prize in the field of Medicine is given
(d) neither in a gas nor in a metal for the discovery of a drug ‘‘Artemisinin’’ that has
significantly reduced the mortality rates for people
48. Consider the following gases,
suffering from malaria. It is discovered after the
1. Water vapour 2. Nitrous oxide
failure of which medicine?
3. CFC 4. Methane 1. Quinine 2. Chloroquine
Which of the gases given above are Green House Gases 3. Digitalis 4. Liquorice
(GHGs)?
(a) 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) Only 3
Answers
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (d)
31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (d) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (d)
41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (c) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (d) 49. (b) 50. (b)
Practice Set 5
PREVIOUS YEARS' QUESTIONS
SOLVED PAPERS
Set 1
1. Which one of the following is used in preparing a 3. The number of Bharat Ratna Awards is restricted to a
natural mosquito repellent? [IAS 2021] maximum of five in a particular year.
(a) Congress grass (b) Elephant grass Which of the above statements are not correct?
(c) Lemongrass (d) Nut grass (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Exp. (c) Lemongrass is an herb with a subtle citrus flavour. It (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
is a popular ingredient in tea and several Asian cuisines. In a Exp. (d) All of the given statements are incorrect.
2015 study, researchers found that a combination of Statement 1 is incorrect as Article 18(1) prohibits any title except
lemongrass essential oil and olive oil provided 98.8% that for military and academic purposes. Thus, Padma Awards
protection against the southern house mosquito. Other and Bharat Ratna are not titles within the meaning of Article 18.
research source found that topical application of lemongrass Statement 2 is incorrect as Padma Awards were instituted in
essential oil provided 74–95% protection for 2.5 hours against the year 1954 and are announced every year on the occasion
some types of mosquito during a field study. of Republic Day. However, there was a brief interruption during
the years 1978, 1979, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996 and 1997.
2. Which of the following have species that can establish
Statement 3 is incorrect as the number of Bharat Ratna Awards
symbiotic relationship with other organisms? [IAS 2021]
is restricted to a maximum of three in a particular year.
1. Cnidarians 2. Fungi 3. Protozoa
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. 5. Consider the following statements in respect of the
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 Laureus World Sports Award which was instituted in the
Exp. (d) Symbiosis is a close ecological relationship of two year 2000. [IAS 2021]
organism of diffrent species. Cnidarians are mostly marine 1. American golfer Tiger Woods was the first winner of this
animals. The relationship between Cnidarians and award.
dinoflagellate algae is termed as symbiotic because both the 2. The award was received mostly by Formula One' players
animals are host and algaes are benefiting from the so far.
association. 3. Roger Federer received this award maximum number of
Fungi and protozoa show symbiotic relation as fungi shows times compared to others.
association with algae such as lichens and with roots of Which of the above statements are correct?
higher plants called mycorrhiza. This type of symbiotic (a) 1 and 2 only
relation is called mutualism. (b) 2 and 3 only
Similarly some protozoa like sporozoans complete their life (c) 1 and 3 only
cycle in two host i.e., male and female Anopheles. This type (d) 1, 2 and 3
of symbiotic relationship is called parasitism. Exp. (c) In the given statements, (1) and (3) are correct.
3. With reference to India, the terms ‘Halbi, Ho and Kui’ American golfer Tiger Woods was the first winner of this award
pertain to [IAS 2021] in 2000. In 2018, Tennis legend Roger Federer became the
most accomplished winner in the history of the Laureus World
(a) dance forms of Northwest India
(b) musical instruments Sports Awards after his sixth award.
(c) pre-historic cave paintings (d) tribal languages Statement 2 is incorrect as Tennis players have won this award
a maximum number of times.
Exp. (d) Halbi, Ho, Kui are tribal languages spoken by tribal
people in regions of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. Halbi 6. Consider the following statements in respect of the 32nd
and Ho tribal languages belong to Indo-Aryan tribal Summer Olympics [IAS 2021]
languages. Kui belongs to the Dravidian group of languages. 1. The official motto for this Olympics is ‘A New World’.
4. Consider the following statements in respect of Bharat 2. Sport Climbing, Surfing, Skateboarding, Karate and
Ratna and Padma Awards. [IAS 2021] Baseball are included in this Olympics.
1. Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards are titles under the
(a) Only 1
Article 18(1) of the Constitution of India .
(b) Only 2
2. Padma Awards, which were instituted in the year 1954,
(c) Both 1 and 2
were suspended only once.
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Exp. (b) In the given statements, (2) is correct. The Tokyo 10. In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the
Olympics added six new sports that were not included in Rio following statements. [IAS 2021]
Olympics, 2016. Baseball and Softball, Surfing, 1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child
Skateboarding, Karate and Sports Climbing became part of can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement therapy
the Olympic roster in Tokyo. either before or after in vitro fertilisation of egg.
Statement 1 is incorrect as the Tokyo Olympic motto was 2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from
‘Faster, Higher, Stronger - Together.’
mother and not from father.
7. Consider the following statements in respect of the ICC Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
World Test championship [IAS 2021] (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
1. The finalists were decided by the number of matches they (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
won. Exp. (c) Both statements (1) and (2) are correct. Mitochondrial
2. New Zealand was ranked ahead of England because it diseases are inherited entirely from mother only because the
won more matches than England. mitochondrial DNA comes from mother only.
Which of the above statements is/are correct? 11. In a pressure cooker, the temperature at which the food
(a) Only 1
is cooked depends mainly upon which of the following?
(b) Only 2 [IAS 2021]
(c) Both 1 and 2 1. Area of the hole in the lid
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. Temperature of the flame
Exp. (d) Both statements (1) and (2) are incorrect. 3. Weight of the lid
The finalist was chosen after considering the percentage of Select the correct answer using the codes given below
points earned by teams during the championship and not (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
through a maximum number of matches won. (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
New Zealand was at the second spot with 70 percent of points
Exp. (d) The temperature at which the food is cooked
with 7 wins and 4 losses whereas England was at 4th with 61
depends upon area of the hole in the lid, temperature of the
percent of points including 11 wins and 7 losses.
flame and weight of the lid. As temperature of the flame
8. At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to increases, area increases because both length and width
ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes increases, and as a weight is placed on the vent litting out
and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of iteam, the pressure inside the cooker builds up if we keep
Forest Rights) Act, 2006? [IAS 2021] supplying heat from below.
(a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj
12. Consider the following. [IAS 2021]
(c) Ministry of Rural Development 1. Bacteria 2. Fungi 3. Virus
(d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs Which of the above can be cultured in artificial/ synthetic
Exp. (d) When Scheduled Tribes and the Traditional Forest medium?
Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 was enacted (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
in 2006, the same year, the Union government made an (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
amendment to the Allocation of Business Rules, 1961, Exp. (a) Bacteria and fungi can be grown in artificial/synthetic
assigning the Ministry of Tribal Affairs as the nodal Ministry for mediums but virus cannot be grown because it need a host to
overall policy, planning, and coordination of programs of multiply.
development for the Scheduled Tribes.
13. Consider the following statements. [IAS 2021]
9. With reference to recent developments regarding 1. Adenoviruses have single-stranded DNA genomes
Recombinant Vector Vaccines, consider the following whereas retroviruses have double-stranded DNA
statements. [IAS 2021] genomes.
1. Genetic engineering is applied in the development of 2. Common cold is sometime caused by an adenovirus
these vaccines. whereas AIDS is caused by a retrovirus.
2. Bacteria and viruses are used as vectors. Which of the statements given above is /are correct?
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct? (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(b) Only 2 Exp. (b) Only statement (2) is correct as common cold is
(c) Both 1 and 2 sometime caused by an adenovirus and mostly by rhinovirus.
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 The AIDS virus i.e., HIV is a single stranded RNA virus
Exp. (c) Both statements, (1) and (2) are correct as genetic (retrovirus). Adenovirus is a linear double stranded DNA virus
engineering is applied in the development of recombinant whereas, retroviruses are single stranded RNA viruses.
vectors vaccine and bacteria are viruses are used as vector.
These are called second generation vaccine. They have the
14. Consider the following rivers [IAS 2021]
gener insected for the surface protein of a pathogen that elicit 1. Brahmani 2. Nagavali
immunity but do not cause infection. 3. Subarnarekha 4. Vamsadhara
Magbook ~ Solved Paper 1 249
Which of the above rise from the Eastern Ghats? Low density polythylene and polytheyele terephthalate are
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3 used for packaging bottles while polyvinyle chloride is used for
Exp. (b) In the given statements, (2) and (4) are correct. making building and construction products.
The origin of Nagavali River lies in the Eastern slopes of the 18. ‘Triclosan’, considered harmful when exposed to high
Eastern Ghats near Lakhbahal, located at an altitude of 1,300 levels for a long time, is most likely present in which of
metres in the Kalahandi district of the Indian state the following? [IAS 2021]
Odisha.Vamsadhara river rises in the Eastern Ghats on the (a) Food preservatives (b) Fruit-ripening substances
border Kalahandi district and Rayagada district of Odisha. (c) Re-used plastic containers (d) Toiletries
15. Water can dissolve more substances than any other Exp. (d) Triclosan is an ingredient added to many consumer
liquid because [IAS 2021] products intended to reduce or prevent bacterial
(a) it is dipolar in nature contamination. It is added to soaps and body washes, tooth
(b) it is a good conductor of heat pastes and some cosmetics.
(c) it has high value of specific heat
(d) it is an oxide of hydrogen
19. Which one of the following is a reason why astronomical
distances are measured in light-years? [IAS 2021]
Exp. (a) Water can dissolve many substances because it (a) Distances among stellar bodies do not change
contains extremely polar hydrogen bonds. Water molecules (b) Gravity of stellar bodies does not change
have a polar arrangement of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms. (c) Light always travels in straight line
On one side (hydrogen) has a positive electrical charge and (d) Speed of light is always same
the other side (oxygen) had a negative charge. This allow the
water molecule to become attracted to different types of
Exp. (d) Light travels at the speed of about 300,000 km per
second and it is always the same throughout the Universe. A
molecules.
light year is the distance that light travels in one Earth year.
16. With reference to street-lighting, how do sodium lamps
differ from LED lamps? [IAS 2021]
20. In the context of recent advances in human reproductive
technology, ‘Pronuclear Transfer‘ is used for [IAS 2020]
1. Sodium lamps produce light in 360 degrees but it is not so
(a) fertilisation of egg in vitro by the donor sperm.
in the case of LED lamps.
(b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells.
2. As street-lights, sodium lamps have longer life span than
(c) development of stem cells into functional embryos.
LED lamps.
(d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in offspring.
3. The spectrum of visible light from sodium lamps is
almost monochromatic while LED lamps offer significant Exp. (d) Pronuclear transfer involves the transfer
colour advantages in street-lighting. (replacement) of pronuclei from one zygote with affected
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. mitochondria (having mtDNA mutation) to another zygote with
(a) Only 3 (b) Only 2 normal mitochondria after in-vitro fertilisation. mtDNA
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 mutations are maternally transmitted by mitochondria of ovum
Exp. (c) In the given statements (1) and (3) are correct. LED and are cause of many genetic diseases which are hard to
lamps have 180 degree bulb angle to preserve light efficiency cure. Thus, this technique prevents transfer of mitochondrial
and allow for target lighting over areas. On the other hand, diseases in offspring.
sodium lamps produce light in 360 degrees. This technique first requires in-vitro fertilisation of healthy
The spectrum of visible light from sodium lamps is almost donated egg (provided by the normal mitochondrial donor)
monochromatic as they are known for their warm yellow glow. with the intending male parent sperm.
On the other hand, LED lamps offer significant colour Simultaneously, the intending mother’s affected oocytes are
advantages in street lighting. LEDs offer variety of colour fertilised to with the intending father’s sperm. Both set of
options providing better lighting solutions then high pressure fertilised oocytes are allowed to develop to the early zygote
sodium counterpart. stage where the pronuclei are visible. Using micromanipulation
High pressure sodium lamps tend to have a lifespan equipment, the pronuclei of zygotes formed from donated
averaging 24 × 10 3 hours whereas, LED lamps have lifespan oocytes are removed within a karyoplast and discarded.
Therapeutic pronuclear transfer involves the movement of two
range from 25 × 10 3 hours to 2 × 10 5 hours. Hence, as
pronuclei from the affected zygotes (also in the form of a
street-lights, sodium lamps have smaller life span than LED karyoplast), into the enucleated healthy zygotes. The result
lamps. Therefore, statement 2 is incorrect. zygotes contain nuclear DNA from each of the intending
parents and a donor’s mtDNA.
17. Bisphenol A (BPA), a cause of concern , is a
structural/key component in the manufacture of which 21. With the present state of development, Artificial
of the following kinds of plastics? [IAS 2021] Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?
(a) Low-density polyethylene (b) polycarbonate [IAS 2020]
(c) polyethylene terephthalate (d) polyvinyl chloride 1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units.
Exp. (b) Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical used to make 2. Create meaningful short stories and songs.
polycarbonate plastic.Polycarbonate plastic is used to make 3. Disease diagnosis.
hard plastic items, such as baby bottles, re-usable water 4. Text-to-Speech Conversion.
bottles, food containers, pitchers, tableware and other storage
5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy.
containers.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: 23. With reference to ‘Blockchain Technology’, consider
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only the following statements: [IAS 2020]
(c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
1. It is a public ledger that everyone can inspect but which
Exp. (d) Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of no single user controls.
human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think
2. The structure and design of blockchain is such that all
like humans and mimic their actions. AI has various
the data in it are about cryptocurrency only.
applications in today’s society, in multiple industries, such as
3. Applications that depend on basic features of
Healthcare, entertainment, finance, education, etc.
blockchain can be developed without anybody’s
AI has been used in disease diagnosis, creating songs, and
permission.
creating short stories and fictions. AI has been used in Text -to
-Speech Conversion, e.g. Cerewave AI. Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
Artificial Intelligence has also found use in power industry, e.g. (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
Machine-learning assisted power transfer (based on AI) using (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3 only
magnetic resonance and AI used for energy efficiency. Exp. (d) A blockchain is a decentralised, distributed, and
Hence all the options are correct. oftentimes public, digital ledger consisting of records called
blocks that is used to record transactions across many
22. With reference to Visible Light Communication (VLC) computers so that any involved block cannot be altered
technology, which of the following statements are retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks.
correct? [IAS 2020] This allows the participants to verify and audit transactions
1. VLC uses electromagnetic spectrum wavelengths 375 to independently and relatively inexpensively. A blockchain
780 nm. database is managed autonomously using a peer-to-peer
2. VLC is known as long-range optical wireless network and a distributed time stamping server. They are
communication. authenticated by mass collaboration powered by collective
self-interests.
3. VLC can transmit large amounts of data faster than
Such a design facilitates robust workflow where participants’
Bluetooth.
uncertainty regarding data security is marginal. The great
4. VLC has no electromagnetic interference. advantage to an open, permission less, or public, blockchain
Select the correct answer using the code given below: network is that guarding against bad actors is not required
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only and no access control is needed.
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 2, 3 and 4 only This means that applications can be added to the network
Exp. (c) The signals in the 380-780 nm wavelength interval of without the approval or trust of others, using the blockchain
the electromagnetic spectrum are the light signals that can be as a transport layer. Statement 2 is clearly wrong, Blockchain
detected by the human eye. It is possible to achieve illumination can be used for a variety of purposes of which
and data transfer simultaneously by means of LEDs that is the cryptocurrency is only one of them.
prominent lighting equipment lately. By this way, both interior
24. With reference to Carbon nanotubes, consider the
lighting of a room and data transfer will be achieved without the
following statements: [IAS 2020]
need of an additional communication system. This technology
is given the name of Visual Light Communication. Hence l. They can be used as carriers of drugs and antigens in
statement 1 is correct. the human body.
The light can transmit information either directly or reflected 2. They can be made into artificial blood capillaries for an
from a surface. It can do so while dimmed. However, light injured part of human body.
cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls. Thus for wireless 3. They can be used in biochemical sensors.
communication purposes VLC cannot be used for long 4. Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable.
-distances. Hence statement 2 is not correct.
While Bluetooth transmits data at the rate of 300 kbps (kilobytes (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
per second), VLC can transmit data in the range between mbps
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
-gbps (megabytes per second to gigabytes per second). Hence
statement 3 is correct. Exp. (d) Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical molecules
Technological advances allow to modulate the light at higher that consist of rolled-up sheets of single-layer carbon atoms
frequencies, allowing richer information. Light can be (graphene). They can have a diameter measured to less than
transmitted across a free space (e.g., lasers communicating 1 nanometer (nm). They are very lightweight, almost 1/6th of
between two buildings) or across a medium (e.g., fiber optics). the steel with a mechanical tensile strength of almost 400
With the advent of LED, a new idea in VLC is to use general times that of steel. They were discovered independently in
lighting to communicate with users in a space as a replacement 1993 by Iijima and Ichihashi and Bethune et al.
or supplement to Wi -Fi. While traditional light sources present CNTs can be used as carriers of drugs and antigens in the
practical limitations, LED lighting can be modulated at very high human body. The main applications of CNTs in pharmacy
frequencies, with a cycle as short as nanoseconds. and medicine include delivery of drugs, biomolecules,
This concept, called Li -Fi, could be a solution to RF bandwidth genes, etc to cells or organs, tissue regeneration, and
limitations as the visible light spectrum is 10,000 larger than the biosensor diagnostics and analysis. CNTs can be used as
radio spectrum. As a bonus, VLC doesn’t cause drug carriers to treat cancer tumours.
electromagnetic interference. Hence statement 4 is correct.
In case of diabetes, the high electrochemically accessible 27. Consider the following statements: [IAS 2020]
surface area, high electrical conductivity and useful structural
1. Genetic changes can be introduced in the cells that
properties of CNTs are highly sensitive and non-invasive as
produce eggs or sperms of prospective parent.
glucose detectors.
2. A person’s genome can be edited before birth at the early
Carbon nanotubes can be made into artificial blood capillaries
for an injured part of human body as they are promising drug embryonic stage.
delivery platforms. Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable. 3. Human induced pluripotent stem cells can be injected
Bacteria, fungi and other multiple types of microbes have the into the embryo of a pig.
ability to degrade CNTs, Graphene (GRA) and their derivatives. Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
Therefore, all statements are correct. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
25. Consider the following activities: [IAS 2020]
Exp. (d) Genetic changes can be introduced in the diploid
1. Spraying pesticides on a crop field. mother cell of testes and ovaries which produce sperms and
2. Inspecting the craters of active volcanoes. egg cell, respectively by altering the genome of parents
3. Collecting breath samples from spouting whales for DNA through genetic engineering to cure or to prevent the transfer
analysis. of genetic disease in next generation or to produce a better
At the present level of technology, which of the above activities genetically modified organism. A person’s genome can be
Can be successfully carried out by using drones? edited before birth at the early embryonic stage as in this
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only stage embryonic cell (blastomeres) are not differentiated i.e.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3 they are totipotent.
Exp. (d) In aviation and in space, a drone refers to an unpiloted Thus, adopted genetic change will be expressed in all cells of
aircraft or spacecraft. Another term for it is an unmanned aerial our body. Pluripotent Stem Cells (PSCs) have the ability to
vehicle or UAV. On Earth, drones are often used for military undergo self-renewal and to give rise to all cells of the tissues
purposes because they don’t put a pilot’s life at risk in combat of the body. Large animals, such as pigs and monkeys, have
zones. In addition, drones don’t require rest, enabling them to been used in preclinical trials of PSCs, since they are more
fly as long as there is fuel in the craft and there are no predictive due to more physiological similarity with humans
mechanical difficulties. The various other commercial uses of and longer life span. Thus, human induced PSCs can be
small level drones are as follows injected into the embryo of pig.
Therefore, all statements are correct.
1. Drones are used for spraying pesticides on a crop field
through air. 28. What is the importance of using Pneumococcal
2. Drones can capture images of erupting craters. The main Conjugate Vaccines in India? [IAS 2020]
factor is the safe accessibility of dangerous terrain. 1. These vaccines are effective against pneumonia as well
Researchers from the German Research Centre for as meningitis and sepsis.
Geosciences, revealed amazingly detailed data from an 2. Dependence on antibiotics that are not effective against
active volcano using drones with visual and drug-resistant bacteria can be reduced.
thermal-imaging cameras. 3. These vaccines have no side effects and cause no allergic
3. Drones can be used for collecting breath samples from reactions.
spouting whales for DNA analysis without going near them
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
and risking our life. (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
26. “The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in Exp. (b) Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines are also known
formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has as PCV vaccines. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a leading
sides one million kilo metres long, with lasers shining cause of bacterial pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis in
between the craft.” The experiment in this question refers children. PCV vaccines are effective against pneumonia as
to [IAS 2020] well as meningitis and sepsis.
(a) Voyager-2 (b) New Horizons The additional benefits of PCV are tempering the threat of
(c) LISA Pathfinder (d) Evolved LISA antibiotic resistance bacteria and preventing of life-long
Exp. (c) LISA Pathfinder was proof of concept mission with disabilities. The vaccine is given in an infant stage or less
arm size reduced to 40 cm, as compared to the million km long than five years of children. This vaccine has some side
arm in the actual LISA. The Laser Interferometer Space Antenna effects. It is mentioned that children should not get the
(LISA) is a mission led by the European Space Agency to pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, if they have had a serious
detect and accurately measure gravitational waves (tiny ripples allergic reaction to a previous dose. Also, if they are
in the fabric of space-time) from astronomical sources. moderately or severely ill.
LISA would be the first dedicated space-based gravitational Therefore, statement 1 and 2 are correct.
wave detector. It aims to measure gravitational waves directly 29. In India, the term ‘Public Key Infrastructure’ is used in
by using laser interferometry. The LISA concept has a the context of [IAS 2020]
constellation of three spacecraft arranged in an equilateral (a) Digital security infrastructure
triangle with sides 2.5 million km long, flying along an Earth-like (b) Food security infrastructure
heliocentric orbit. The distance between the satellites is (c) Healthcare and education infrastructure
precisely monitored to detect a passing gravitational wave.
(d) Telecommunication and transportation infrastructure
Exp. (a) Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is a technology for 32. For the measurement/estimation of which of the
authenticating users and devices in the digital world. The basic following are satellite images/remote sensing data
idea is to have one or more trusted parties digitally sign used? [IAS 2019]
documents certifying that a particular cryptographic key 1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific
belongs to a particular user or device. location.
30. Which of the following statements are correct regarding 2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a
the general difference between plant and animal cells? specific location.
[IAS 2020] 3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location.
1. Plant cells have cellulose cell walls whilst animal cells do Select the correct answer by using the codes given below
not. (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
2. Plant cells do not have plasma membrane unlike animal (c) Only 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
cells which do. Exp. (d) Remote sensing is the acquisition of information
3. Mature plant cell has one large vacuole whilst animal cell about an object on Earth using satellites. Remote sensing is
has many small vacuoles. used for various applications such as
Select the correct answer using the code given below: l
Determining soil moisture.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only l
Determining the chlorophyll content in the vegetation on
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 the ground.
Exp. (c) A plant cell has a dead cell wall made up of cellulose, l
Used in measuring land surface temperature at some
but the animal does not have. It is the outermost protective specific locations.
covering of cell. Mature plant cell has a larger central vacuole, l
Measuring greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies
but animal cells have small, numerous and temporary vacuoles. of specific location, including the detection of emissions
Plant cells and animal cells both have plasma membrane, but of various chemicals in the atmosphere.
plant cell membrane is protected by outer cell wall and do not l
Weather forecasting including wind, temperature and
have cholesterol in the cell membrane unlike animal cells. atmospheric data.
Therefore, statement 1 and 3 are correct. l
Mapping soil types for planning agriculture.
l
Studying glacier melting.
31. Which of the following are the reasons/factors for l
Preventing the degradation and loss of wetlands etc.
exposure to benzene pollution? [IAS 2020]
1. Automobile exhaust 2. Tobacco smoke 33. In the context of which one of the following are the
3. Wood burning terms ‘pyrolysis and plasma gasification’ mentioned?
[IAS 2019]
4. Using varnished wooden furniture
(a) Extraction of rare Earth elements
5. Using products made of polyurethane (b) Natural gas extraction technologies
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (c) Hydrogen fuel-based automobiles
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (d) Waste-to-energy technologies
(c) 1,3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Exp. (d) Plasma gasification technique is used to treat
Exp. (d) Benzene is a colourless liquid with a distinctive smell. It municipal solid waste, biomass, industrial waste etc. It uses
evaporates easily and is highly flammable when heated or plasma at extremely high temperatures to convert waste into
exposed to flame. It is only slightly soluble in water, but mixes syngas (synthetic gas), which is primarily made up of
well with most organic solvents. Benzene is a part of the group hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
of compounds known as the Volatile Organic Compounds Pyrolysis is thermal decomposition of materials at very high
(VOCs). The main uses of benzene are for the production of temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It is used to convert
chemical substances such as dyes, detergents, coatings, biomass into syngas.
plastics, fibers, pesticides, adhesives, lubricants, dry cleaning
agents and in some types of rubber. It is also a constituent of 34. In the context of digital technologies for
petrol. entertainment, consider the following statements.
[IAS 2019]
The main sources of benzene are from vehicle exhaust and 1. In Augmented Reality (AR), a simulated environment is
other combustion processes and from industry producing or created and the physical world is completely shut out.
using it. Benzene is also released naturally from volcanoes and 2. In Virtual Reality (VR), images generated from a
forest fires. Benzene is a proven carcinogen. However, computer are projected onto real life objects or
exposure to normal environmental concentrations in air (from surroundings.
the vapourisation of petrol during re-fuelling of vehicles, from 3. AR allows individuals to be present in the world and
automobile exhaust, tobacco smoke, burning of wood, glues, improves the experience using the camera of
paint, furniture wax and varnish, detergents) is thought unlikely smartphone or PC.
to be dangerous in this respect. 4. VR closes the world and transposes an individual,
During fires, polyurethane foams burn rapidly and produce providing complete immersion experience.
dense smoke containing CO, benzene, toluene, nitrogen oxides
and hydrogen cyanide, etc. Inhalation of extremely high levels of (a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 and 4
benzene could be fatal and longer term exposure to lower (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) Only 4
concentrations may damage blood-forming organs.
Exp. (b) Augmented Reality is a technology where the objects It is a process that guarantees that the contents of a message
that reside in the real world are enhanced by have not been altered in transit. Once a digital signature has
computer-generated perceptual information. It allows been placed the document can not be altered any more.
individuals to be present in the world and improves the
38. In the context of wearable technology, which of the
experience using the camera of smartphone or PC.
following tasks is/are accomplished by wearable
Virtual reality is the use of computer technology to create a devices?
simulated environment. It immerses the user by making them
1. Location/identification of a person. [IAS 2019]
feel like they are experiencing simulated reality. It replaces the
user’s real world environment with a simulated one. Its 2. Sleep monitoring of a person.
applications include entertainment and educational purposes. 3. Assisting the hearing impaired person.
Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.
35. The world ‘Denisovan’ is sometimes mentioned in media (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
in reference to [IAS 2019] (c) Only 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) fossils of a kind of dinosaurs
Exp. (d) Wearable technology are smart electronic devices
(b) an early human species
that can be incorporated into clothing or worn on the body as
(c) a cave system found in North-East India
implants or accessories. A wearable device can be used for
(d) a geological period in the history of Indian subcontinent
l
Location/identification of a person.
Exp. (b) Denisovan or Denisova hominins are an extinct or l
Sleep monitoring of a person.
early species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus l
Collect data on user’s health including heart rate, steps
homo. These were firstly discovered in the year 2010. The
walked etc.
Jawbone discovered high on the Tibetan Plateau is the first l
Hearing aids.
Denisovan specimen found outside the Siberian cave.
l
Monitoring systems for assisted living and elder care.
36. With reference to the recent developments in Science,
which one of the following statements is not correct? 39. ‘RNA interference (RNAi)’ technology has gained
[IAS 2019] popularity in the last few years. Why? [IAS 2019]
(a) Functional chromosomes can be created by joining 1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.
segments of DNA taken from cells of different species. 2. It can be used in developing therapies for the treatment of
(b) Pieces of artificial functional DNA can be created in cancer.
laboratories. 3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.
(c) A piece of DNA taken out from an animal cell can be made 4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to
to replicate outside a living cell in a laboratory. viral pathogens.
(d) Cells taken out from plants and animals can be made to Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.
undergo cell division in laboratory petri dishes. (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
Exp. (a) With reference to the recent developments in Science (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 4
statement (a) is not correct. It is because the chromosome is a Exp. (a) RNA interference (RNAi) technology has gained
complex structure. It has packaging of functional DNA (genes) popularity in the last few years because it is used in
and non-functional DNA (junk or evolutionary DNA) very developing gene silencing therapies, treatment of cancer. It is
specific to a cell of a species. This packaging of DNA itself also used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral
takes place at different levels along with histone proteins and pathogens.
linkage of DNA proteins. The joining of DNA segments from In this technique, there is silencing of a specific mRNA due to
two cells of different species is possible but making a a complementary dsRNA molecule that binds to and prevents
functional chromosomes out of it has not been discovered. translation of the mRNA (silencing).
37. Consider the following statements. 40. Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant
A digital signature is [IAS 2019] ‘blackholes’ billions of light years away from the Earth.
1. an electronic record that identifies the certifying authority What is the significance of this observation? [IAS 2019]
issuing it. (a) ‘Higgs boson particles’ were detected.
2. used to serve as a proof of identity of an individual to (b) ‘Gravitational waves’ were detected.
access information or server on Internet. (c) Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through
3. an electronic method of signing an electronic document ‘wormhole’ was confirmed.
and ensuring that the original content is unchanged. (d) It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Exp. (b) Scientists observed that due to merging of giant
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 blackholes, billions of light years away from the Earth, then
(c) Only 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 immense amount of energy is released in the form of
Exp. (d) A digital signature is an electronic method of signing gravitational waves.
an electronic document. It ensure that the original content is Higgs boson particles were detected during quantum
unchanged. It identifies the certifying authority issuing it. It is excitation of the Higgs field. Hence, these particles are not
also used to serve as a proof of identity of an individual to detected during merging of giant black holes.
access information on internet.
The space between galaxies is called intergalactic space which 44. Which of the following adopted a law on data
is not related to merging of giant blackholes. protection and privacy for its citizens known as
Gravitational singularity is the centre of a black hole where ‘General Data Protection Regulation’ in April 2016 and
density and gravity becomes infinite. started implementation of it from 25th May, 2018?
[IAS 2019]
Hence, it is not possible to understand singularity during (a) Australia
merger of giant blackholes. (b) Canada
(c) The European Union
41. Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence (d) The United States of America
of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?
[IAS 2019]
1. Genetic pre-disposition of some people. Exp. (c) General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is a
regulation in European Union (EU) law on data protection and
2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases.
privacy for all individual citizens of EU and European
3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming.
Economic Area (EEA).
4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people.
It also addresses export of personal data outside EU and EEA
Select the correct answer by using the codes given below. areas. It gives control to individuals over their personal data
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
and simplifies regulatory environment for international
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
business by unifying regulations within EU.
Exp. (d) The reason for occurrence of multi-drug resistance in
microbial pathogen in India are : taking incorrect doses of 45. Recently, India signed a deal known as ‘Action Plan for
antibiotics to cure disease, use of antibiotics in livestock Prioritisation and Implementation of Cooperation
farming and multiple chronic diseases in some people. This Areas in the Nuclear Field’ with which of the following
occurs due to evolution of strain of pathogen which are countries? [IAS 2019]
multi-drug resistant. (a) Japan
(b) Russia
42. What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news? (c) The United Kingdom
[IAS 2019]
(d) The United States of America
(a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing.
(b) A bio-sensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens Exp. (b) During the visit of HE Vladimir Putin, President of
in patients. Russian Federation to India, ‘Action Plan for Prioritisation and
Implementation of Cooperation Areas in the Nuclear Field’
(c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant.
identified jointly by India and Russia was signed on5th
(d) A herbicidal substance synthesised in genetically modified
October, 2018 in New Delhi. For the New Nuclear Project in
crops.
India, Russia will offer the evolutionary WWER (Water-Water
Exp. (a) Cas9 protein has been in news for its property of Energetic Reactor) generation ‘3+’ technical solutions.
being molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing. It is
also known as CRISPR associated protein 9. It is heavily 46. With reference to the management of minor minerals in
utilised in genetic engineering application’s. It’s main function India, consider the following statements. [IAS 2019]
is to cut DNA. So it can alter cells genome. It plays an 1. Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law
important role in the immunological defense of certain bacteria in the country.
against DNA viruses. 2. State Governments have the power to grant mining
43. Which one of the following statements is not correct? leases of minor minerals but the powers regarding the
(a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV. formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals
(b) Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine. lie with the Central Government.
(c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis 3. State Governments have the power to frame rules to
B and C viruses are several times more than those prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.
infected with HIV. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do (a) 1 and 3
not show the symptoms for many years. [IAS 2019] (b) 2 and 3
(c) Only 3
Exp. (b) Hepatitis B is a viral infection that attacks the liver and (d) 1, 2 and 3
can cause both acute and chronic diseases. The virus of
Hepatitis B is transmitted through contact with the blood (much Exp. (a) Sand is a minor mineral as defined under Mines and
like HIV) or other body fluids of an infected person. Several Minerals Development and Regulation Act, 1957 (MMDR Act).
times the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C This act empowers State Government to make rules for
viruses more than those infected with HIV. Sometimes the regulating the grant of mineral concessions in respect of
person infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the minor minerals. Also, it empowers State Governments to
symptoms for many years. frame rules to prevent illegal mining, transportation and
The vaccines are available against Hepatitis B Virus Engerix B storage of minerals.
and Recombi Vax HB.
47. With reference to communication technologies, what 49. Consider the following. [IAS 2018]
is/are the difference/differences between LTE 1. Birds 2. Dust blowing
(Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term 3. Rain 4. Wind blowing
Evolution)? [IAS 2019]
Which of the agents given above are responsible for
1. LTE is commonly marketed as 3G and VoLTE is commonly dissemination of plant diseases?
marketed as advanced 3G. (a) 1 and 3 (b) 3 and 4
2. LTE is data-only technology and VoLTE is voice-only (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
technology. Exp. (d) Birds, nematodes, snails, and wild and domestic
Select the correct answer by using the codes given below animals often help dissemination of plant diseases .The spores
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 of many parasitic fungi are disseminated by air currents (wind
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 blowing) from diseased to disease-free host pathogens like,
Exp. (d) Both options are incorrect. LTE stands for Long-Term bacteria are often disseminated by splashing of raindrops, as
Evolution. It is a mobile internet technology standard. It is in case of Citrus canker disease. Soil and field operation also
commonly marketed as 4G. LTE supports download speeds of disseminate the diseases as they result in dust blowing.
upto 100 mbps whereas upload speed of upto 50 mbps.
50. What is Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD),
VoLTE stands for voice over LTE. VoLTE is a technology where
sometimes seen in the news? [IAS 2018]
we can simultaneously send voice and data over the network
(a) An Israeli Radar System
without reducing the quality of voice call. So, it not exclusively
for voice, both voice and internet data can be transferred through (b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme
VoLTE. (c) An American anti-missile system
(d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea
48. With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles,
consider the following statements. [IAS 2018] Exp. (c) Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD),
formerly Theater High Altitude Area Defense, is an American
1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources
anti-ballistic missile defense system designed to shoot down
monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch
short, medium, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles in their
communication satellites.
terminal phase (descent or re-entry) by intercepting with a
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently hit-to-kill approach
fixed in the first same position in the sky, as viewed from a
particular location on Earth. 51. 3D Printing has applications in which of the following?
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first 1. Preparation of confectionery items [IAS 2018]
and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second 2. Manufacture of bionic cars
and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. 3. Automotive industry
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 4. Reconstructive surgeries
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 5. Data processing technologies
(c) 1 and 2 (d) Only 3 Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Exp. (a) Both PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) and GSLV (a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 2,3 and 4
(Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle) are the satellite (c) 1 and 4 (d) 1,2,3,4 and 5
launch vehicles (rockets) developed by ISRO. PSLV is Exp. (d) 3D printing is any of various processes in which
designed mainly to deliver the ‘earth-observation’ or material is joined or solidified under computer control to create
‘remote-sensing’ satellites with lift-off mass of up to about 1750 a three-dimensional object, with material being added
Kg to Sun-Synchronous circular polar orbits of 600-900 Km together, in such as liquid molecules or powder grains being
altitude. The remote sensing satellites orbit the earth from fused together) in simple words, printing is an additive
pole-to-pole (at about 98 deg orbital-plane inclination). PSLV is manufacturing process that creates a physical object from a
a four-staged launch vehicle with first and third stage using digital design.
solid rocket motors and second and fourth stages using liquid In the current scenario, 3D printing has been used in
rocket engines. manufacturing, confectioneries, conducting medical surgeries;
The GSLV is designed mainly to deliver the developing artificial tissues and organs, data processing
communication-satellites to the highly elliptical (typically 250 x industry , automobile Industry and sociocultural sectors, etc.
36000 Km) Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO). Due to their
geo-synchronous nature, the satellites in these orbits appear to 52. With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite
remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as System (IRNSS), consider the following statements:
[IAS 2018]
viewed from a particular location on Earth, thus avoiding the
1. IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four
need of a tracking ground antenna and hence are useful for the
communication applications. satellites in geosynchronous orbits.
Two versions of the GSLV are being developed by ISRO. GSLV 2. Geosynchronous covers entire India and about 5500 sq.
Mk-III is a three-staged vehicle with first stage using solid Km beyond its border.
rocket motor and second stage using Liquid fuel and the third 3. India will have its own satellite navigation system with full
stage, called Cryogenic Upper Stage, using cryogenic engine. global coverage by the middle of 2019.
Which of the following statements given above is/are correct? 2. GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2 cross-pollination and hybridization.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) None of these 3. GM mustard has been developed jointly by the IARI and
Exp. (a) There are currently seven IRNSS satellites (1A to 1G) Punjab Agricultural University.
in orbit. A, B, F, G are placed in a geosynchronous orbit, which Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
means they seem to be at a fixed location above the earth and (a) 1 and 3
they orbit along with the earth. The remaining three, C, D, E, (b) Only 2
are located in geostationary orbit-they seem to be at a fixed (c) 2 and 3
location above the earth along the equator and orbit along (d) 1, 2 and 3
with the earth. It provides location tracking within 20 meters of Exp. (b) DMH -11 is transgenic mustard which had been
actual positions, especially in 1,500 km area around the developed by a team of scientists Centre for Genetic
country's borders. The Indian Space Research Organisation Manipulation of Crop Plants at Delhi University led by former
(ISRO) has successfully launched India's 7th navigation Vice-Chancellor Deepak Pental under government sponsored
satellite IRNSS 1G of the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite project. It is genetically modified variety of Herbicide Tolerant
in 2016 completing the NAVIC (Navigation with Indian (HT) mustard. (Not pest Resistant). It was created by using
constitution system. “barnase/barstar” technology for genetic modification by
adding genes from soil bacterium that makes mustard
53. Consider the following phenomenon: [IAS 2018]
self-pollinating plant. DMH -11 contains three genes viz. Bar
1. Light is affected by gravity.
gene, Barnase and Barstar sourced from soil bacterium. The
2. The universe is constantly expanding. bar gene had made plant resistant to herbicide named Basta.
3. Matter wraps its surrounding space - time.
Which of the above is/are prediction/predictions of Albert 56. Consider the following pairs. [IAS 2018]
Einstein's General Theory Of Relativity, often discussed in
media ? Term sometimes Context/Topic
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3 seen in news
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 1. Belle II Artificial Intelligence experiment
Exp. (d) According to Einstein's General Relativity Theory,light 2. Blockchain Technology Digital/Technolog Cryptocurrency
will be affected in the same way matter is affected by gravity. 3. CRISPR Cas9 - Particle Physics
This is because under this theory, we should think of gravity
not in terms of vector like forces, but as a consequence of the Which of the avove pairs is in correct?
"shape" of the universe.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Relativity implies that space and time can stretch to vast
dimensions from a tiny starting point. General relativity is Exp. (b) The Belle II experiment is a particle physics
Einstein's Law of Gravity, his explanation of that fundamental experiment designed to study the properties of Beta mesons.
force which holds us to the surface of the Earth. Gravity, Using CRISPR system, scientists can remove, add or alter
Einstein asserted, is caused by a warping of space and specific DNA sequences in the genome of higher organisms. It
time-or, in a language we physicists prefer, by a warping of has two components, a single-guide RNA (sgRNA) that
spacetime. contains a sequence that can bind to DNA, and Cas9 enzyme
which acts as a molecular scissor that can cut specific
54. Which one of the following links all the ATMs in India? sequence.
(a) Indian Bank's Association [IAS 2018]
(b) National Securities Depository Ltd. 57. Which of the following statements best
describes-carbon fertilisation? [IAS 2018]
(c) National Payments Corporation of India
(d) Reserve Bank of India (a) Increased Plant growth due to increased concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Exp. (c) National Financial Switch (NFS) is the largest network (b) Increased temperature of the Earth due to increased
of shared Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) in India. It was
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
designed, developed and deployed by the Institute for
(c) Increased acidity of oceans as a result of increased
Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT) in
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
2004, with the goal of inter-connecting the ATMs in the country
and facilitating convenience banking. It is run by the National (d) Adaptation of living beings on the Earth to the climate
Payments Corporation of India (NPCI). change brought about by the increased concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
55. With reference to the Genetically Modified Mustard (GM Exp. (a) Anthropogenic emissions add more carbon dioxide
Mustard) developed in India, consider the following to the atmosphere. Forests worldwide are using it to grow
statements. [IAS 2018]
faster, reducing the amount of CO2 that stays in the
1. GM mustard has the genes of the soil bacterium that give atmosphere. This effect is called carbon fertilisation.
the plant the property of pest-resistance to a wide variety The carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of
of pests. carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of
photosynthesis in plants.
58. When the alarm of your smartphone rings in the morning, Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
you wake up and tap it to stop the alarm which causes (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
your geyser to be switched on automatically. The smart (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
mirror in your bathroom shows the day's weather and Exp. (d)
also indicates the level of water in your overhead tank. l
Statement 1: GPS is widely used in mobile phone
After you take some groceries from your refrigerator for operations.
making breakfast, it recognises the shortage of stock in l
Statement 2: Global financial systems increasingly need
it and places and order for the supply of fresh grocery precise timing systems to schedule and prioritise local
items. When you step out of your house and lock the and international money transfers, settlements and
door, all lights, fans, geysers and AC machines get trades and to provide an audit trail for financial
switched off automatically. On your way to office, your transactions. e.g., the time signal provided by the atomic
car warns you about traffic congestion ahead and clocks on the GPS satellites is used by financial
suggests an alternative route, and if you are late for a institutions worldwide for providing date and time
meeting, it sends a message to your office accordingly. stamps for Electronic Fund Transfers.
In the context of emerging communication technologies, l
Statement 3: There are reports of GPS spoofing attacks
which one of the following terms best applies to the on power grids.
above scenario? [IAS 2018]
(a) Border Gateway Protocol 61. The terms WannaCry, Petya and Eternal Blue
(b) Internet of Things sometimes mentioned in the news recently are related
(c) Internet Protocol to [IAS 2018]
(d) Visual Private Network (a) Exoplanets (b) Cryptocurrency
(c) Cyber attacks (d) Mini Satellites
Exp. (b) The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical
devices, vehicles, home appliances and other items embedded Exp. (c) WannaCry is a ransomware worm that spread
with electronics, software, sensors and connectivity. They rapidly across a number of computer networks in May 2017.
enables these devices to connect and exchange data, creating Petya is a family of encrypting ransomware that was first
opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world discovered in 2016.
into computer-based systems, resulting in efficiency Eternal Blue is the name given to a software vulnerability in
improvements, economic benefits and reduced human Microsoft's Windows Operating System.
intervention. Thus, all three are related to cyber security.
Exoplanets are planets beyond our solar system, thousands
59. With reference to solar power production in India,
have been discovered in the past two decades, mostly with
consider the following statements. [IAS 20118]
Keplor space telescope.
1. India is largest in the world in the manufacture of silicon
wafers used in photovoltaic units. 62. Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in
2. The solar power tariffs are determined by the Solar Energy the desert areas to inhibit water loss? [IAS 2018]
Corporation of India. 1. Hard and waxy leaves 2. Tiny leaves
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 3. Thorns instead of leaves
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 Select the correct answer using the code given below
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) 2 and 3 only
Exp. (d) China is largest in the world in the manufacture of (b) only 2
silicon wafers used in photovoltaic units. As entrusted by the (c) only 3
electricity Act 2003, (d) 1, 2 and 3
Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC), is
Exp. (d) A xerophyte is a species of plant that has
designated a key regulator as of power sector in India which adaptations to survive in an environment with little liquid
determines the solar power tariffs. water, such as a desert. The plants have waxy, tiny leaves or
60. In which of the following area can GPS technology be few or no leaves. Some plants also have thorns instead of
used? [IAS 2018] leaves like cactus. This reduces the moisture loss from plants
1. Mobile phone operations 2. Banking operations because less surface area is available for transpiration to
occur.
3. Controlling the power grids
PREVIOUS YEARS' QUESTIONS
SOLVED PAPERS
Set 2
1. The terms ‘Event Horizon’, Singularity’, ‘String Theory’ 3. In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the
and ‘Standard Model’ are sometimes seen in the news in following to report on cyber security incidents?
the context of [IAS 2017] 1. Service providers 2. Data centres
(a) Observations and understanding of the Universe 3. Body corporate [IAS 2017]
(b) Study of the solar and the lunar eclipses Select the correct answer using the code given below :
(c) Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth (a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2
(d) Origin and evolution of living organisms on the Earth (c) Only 3 (d) 1,2 and 3
Exp. (a) The researchers, from the University of Cambridge Exp. (d) CERT(Computer Emergency Response Team )
and Queen Mary University of London, have successfully Rules gives every person, company or organisation the option
simulated a black hole shaped like a very thin ring, which gives to report cyber security incidents to the CERT-In. It also
rise to a series of 'bulges' connected by strings that become places an obligation on them to mandatorily report the
thinner over time. following kinds of incidents as early as possible:
These strings eventually become so thin that they pinch off into l
Targeted scanning/probing of critical networks/systems;
a series of miniature black holes, similar to how a thin stream l
Compromise of critical systems/information;
of water from a tap breaks up into droplets. l
Unauthorised access of IT systems/data;
Theoretical physicists have hypothesised that such a thing, l
Defacement of website or intrusion into a website and
called a naked singularity, might exist in higher dimensions. unauthorised changes such as inserting malicious code,
Using the COSMOS supercomputer, the researchers were able links to external websites, etc.;
to perform a full simulation of Einstein's complete theory in l
Malicious code attacks such as spreading of virus/worm/
higher dimensions, allowing them to not only confirm that these trojan/botnets/spyware;
'black rings' are unstable, but also to identify their eventual
The CERT Rules also impose an obligation on service
fate.
providers, intermediaries, data centres and body corporates
2. With reference to agriculture in India, how can the to report cyber incidents within a reasonable time so that
technique of ‘genome sequencing’, often seen in the CERT-In may have scope for timely action.
news, be used in the immediate future? [IAS 2017]
4. What is the purpose of ‘evolved Laser Interferometer
1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic Space Antenna (eLISA)’ project?
markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in (a) To detect neutrinos [IAS 2017]
various crop plants. (b) To detect gravitational waves
2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to (c) To detect the effectiveness of missile defence system
develop new varieties of crop plants. (d) To study the effect of solar flares on our communication
3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen relationship systems
in crops.
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
Exp. (b) The Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA), is a
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 proposed European Space Agency mission designed to detect
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 and accurately measure gravitational waves — tiny ripples in
the fabric of space-time — from astronomical sources. LISA
Exp. (d) Agrigenomics is a branch of genome sequencing would be the first dedicated space-based gravitational wave
study, consist of sequencing and genotyping technologies detector.
touch many steps of the Agrigenomics pipeline. It also involves It aims to measure gravitational waves directly by using laser
study of host pathogen relationship in crops for example, interferometry.
Genes related to insecticide resistance in Bactrocera dorsalis.
The LISA concept has a constellation of three spacecraft,
Decoding genome sequence of wheat can help in developing
arranged in an equilateral triangle with sides 2.5 million km
climate smart wheat.
long, flying along an Earth-like heliocentric orbit. The distance
A complete and accurate description of the wheat genome will between the satellites is precisely monitored to detect a
allow for the quick identification of critical genes that code for passing gravitational wave.
everything from drought resistance to stress resistance.
5. Which of the following statements is/are correct? Research Organisation (ISRO). It is India’s first interplanetary
Viruses can infect [IAS 2016] mission and ISRO has become the fourth space agency to
1. bacteria 2. fungi reach Mars, after the Soviet Space Programme, NASA and the
European Space Agency.
3. plants
It is the first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit, and the first
nation in the world to do so in its first attempt. The primary
objective of the Mars Orbiter Mission is to showcase India’s
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
rocket launch systems, spacecraft building and operations
Exp. (d) Viruses are too small to be seen by the naked eye. capabilities. Specifically, the primary objective is to develop
They can't multiply on their own, so they have to invade a the technologies required for designing, planning,
‘hots’ cell and take over its machinery in order to be able to management and operations of an interplanetary mission.
make more virus particles. T4 bacteriophage is a virus that The secondary objective is to explore Mars’ surface features,
looks like an alien landing pod with 6 legs, the bacteria morphology, mineralogy, and Martian atmosphere using
attaches to the surface of the much larger bacteria Escherichia indigenous scientific instruments.
coli (E coli). Plants are susceptible to viral diseases, just like
any living systems. 8. With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the
Viruses cause many plant diseases and are responsible for following statements is/are correct? [IAS 2016]
huge losses in crop production and quality in all parts of the 1. It uses light as the medium for high speed data
world. Viruses and other genetic elements are common transmission.
inhabitants of fungi. 2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than
As viruses have a small genome, increased virulence resulting ‘WiFi’.
from a chance mutation is likely. The viruses that have been Select the correct answer using the codes given below
detected in fungi are all thought to be double stranded RNA. A (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
protein coat may envelope the virion (nucleic acid). (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
6. India is an important member of the ‘International Exp. (c) LiFi technology is a ground-breaking light-based
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor ’. If this communication technology, which makes use of light waves
experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage instead of radio technology to deliver data. Using the visible
for India? light spectrum, LiFi technology can transmit data and unlock
(a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power capacity which is 10,000 times greater than that available
generation. [IAS 2016] within the radio spectrum.The visible light spectrum is plentiful,
free and unlicensed, mitigating the radio frequency spectrum
(b) It can attain a global role in satellite navigation.
crunch effect. The term was coined by Harald Haas and is a
(c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission
form of visible light communication and a subset of Optical
reactors in power generation.
Wireless Communications (OWC) and could be a complement
(d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation. to RF communication (WiFi or cellular networks), or even a
Exp. (d) International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor replacement in contexts of data broadcasting.
(ITER) is an international nuclear fusion research and mega
engineering project. This project aims at transition from
9. Why does the Government of India promote the use of
‘Neem-coated Urea’ in agriculture? [IAS 2016]
experimental studies of plasma physics to full scale electricity
producing fusion power station. (a) Release of Neem oil in the soil increases nitrogen fixation
They have designed to produce 500 Mw of output by by the soil microorganisms.
consuming input of 50 Mw. So, it will be producing great (b) Neem coating slows down the rate of dissolution of urea in
amount of energy in very less time and this has not been the soil.
achieved in any fusion reactor. In this project, seven members (c) Nitrous oxide, which is a greenhouse gas, is not at all
are participating (funding and running) -European Union, released into atmosphere by crop fields.
India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea and United States. (d) It is a combination of a weedicide and a fertiliser for
Focus of project is to develop a fusion reactor that used particular crops.
helium 3 and deuterium. Exp. (b) Coating urea with Neem oil or Neem cake has been
7. Consider the following statements [IAS 2016] proved to be an effective natural alternative to these
The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO chemicals. It has been scientifically established that Neem oil
1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission. serves as an effective inhibitor if coated on Urea. The other
commercially available Neem coating agents contain some of
2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit
the isolated compounds of Neem. But Nature Neem urea
the Mars after USA.
coating agents contain all natural unaltered form of nutrient,
3. made India the only country to be successful in making its which enables it to be an effective denitrifying agent and as well
spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt as a natural soil insecticide. Thus, the benefits are as follows
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Neem coating leads to more gradual release of urea, helping
plants gain more nutrient and resulting in higher yields.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Lower underground water contamination due to leaching of
Exp. (c) Mars Orbiter mission also called as Mangalyaan is a urea.
space probe orbiting Mars since 24th September, 2014. It was l
Neem serves as a natural insecticide.
launched on 5th November, 2013 by the Indian Space
l
Collection of Neem seeds is needed for manufacturing of Exp. (a) NASA Langley researchers designed and built a
Neem coated urea. This would generate employments in battery-powered, 10-engine remotely piloted aircraft. Called
rural areas. the Greased Lightning GL-10, the prototype has a 10-foot
l
Neem-coating will help check heavily subsidised urea’s wingspan and can take-off like a helicopter any fly efficiently
pilferage to chemical industry and other uses such as like an airplane.
making of adulterated milk. The full-scale GL-10 will be a diesel-electrical tilt-wing.
Currently, NASA has built a 50% scale 10-foot wing span all
10. ‘Project Loon’, sometimes seen in the news, is related to electric battery powered demonstrator. The wings and
(a) waste management technology [IAS 2016]
horizontal stabiliser rotate with fixed motor pods to facilitate
(b) wireless communication technology vertical flight.
(c) solar power production technology
(d) water conservation technology 14. H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with
Exp. (b) Project Loon is a research and development project reference to which one of the following diseases?
being developed by X (formerly Google X) with the mission of (a) AIDS (b) Bird flu [IAS 2015]
providing Internet access to rural and remote areas. (d) Dengue (d) Swine flu
The project uses high-altitude balloons placed in the Exp. (d) H1N1 flu is also known as swine flu. It’s called swine
stratosphere at an altitude of about 18 km (11 mi) to create an flu because in the past, the people who caught it had direct
aerial wireless network. It was named Project Loon, since even contact with pigs. That changed several years ago, when a
Google itself found the idea of providing Internet access to the new virus emerged that spread among people who hadn't
remaining 5 billion population unprecedented and crazy. been near pigs.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection and Acquired
11. ‘Net metering’ is sometimes seen in the news in the Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of
context of promoting the [IAS 2016] conditions caused by infection with the Human
(a) production and use of solar energy by the households/ Immunodeficiency Virus.
consumers. H5N1 is an avian (bird) flu virus that has caused outbreaks in
(b) use of piped natural gas in the kitchens of households. domestic poultry in parts of Asia and the Middle-East.
(c) installation of CNG kits in motorcars. Because H5N1 is so deadly to poultry, it is considered ‘highly
(d) installation of water meters in urban households. pathogenic’ or highly disease causing.
The Dengue virus is one of five serotypes, is the cause of
Exp. (a) Net metering allows residential and commercial
dengue fever. It is a mosquito-borne single positive-stranded
customers who generate their own electricity from solar power
RNA virus of the family-Flaviviridae; genus- Flavivirus. All five
to feed electricity they do not use back into the grid. Net
serotypes can cause the full spectrum of disease.
metering is a billing mechanism that credits solar energy
system owners for the electricity they add to the grid. 15. With reference to ‘fuel cells’ in which hydrogen-rich fuel
Net metering policies can vary significantly by country and by and oxygen are used to generate electricity, consider the
state or province: Most net metering laws involve monthly roll following statements, [IAS 2015]
over of kWh credits, a small monthly connection fee, require 1. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat
monthly payment of deficits (i.e. normal electric bill), and and water as by-products.
annual settlement of any residual credit. 2. Fuel cells can be used for powering buildings and not for
12. Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS small devices like laptop, computers.
Astradharini’, that was in the news recently? [IAS 2016] 3. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating
(a) Amphibious warfare ship Current (AC).
(b) Nuclear-powered submarine Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier Exp. (a) We know that Alternating Current is produced with
Exp. (c) INS Astradharini is an indigenously designed and the help of magnetic fields, so fuel cells cannot produce that.
built torpedo launch and recovery vessel built by Shoft This eliminates all the options except (a), which has to be the
Shipyard for the Indian Navy. It was commissioned to Navy answer. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits
Service on 6th October, 2015 at the Naval Base in heat and water as by-products. Fuel cells can be used for
Visakhapatnam. powering small devices like laptop, computers.
After commissioning, the ship entered the Eastern Naval Hence, option (a) is correct.
Command. The vessel is a replacement of INS Astravahini that 16. In which of the following activities are Indian Remote
was built by Goa Shipyard Limited and PS & Company for the Sensing (IRS) satellites used? [IAS 2015]
Indian Navy. It was decommissioned on 17th July, 2015 after
1. Assessment of crop productivity
31 years of service.
2. Locating groundwater resources
13. What is ‘Greased Lightning-10 (GL-10); recently in the 3. Mineral exploration
news? 4. Telecommunications
(a) Electric plane tested by NASA [IAS 2016] 5. Traffic studies
(b) Solar-powered two-seater aircraft designed by Japan Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(c) Space observatory launched by China (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 4 and 5
(d) Reusable rocket designed by ISRO (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Exp. (a) Data from Indian Remote Sensing satellites are used 20. The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee is
for various applications of resources survey and management constituted under the [IAS 2015]
under the National Natural Resources Management System (a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006
(NNRMS). (b) Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and
17. With reference to ‘Near Field Communication (NFC) Protection) Act, 1999
Technology’, which of the following statements is/are (c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
correct? [IAS 2015] (d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
1. It is a contactless communication technology that uses Exp. (c) The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee
electromagnetic radio fields. (GEAC) is an apex body constituted in the Ministry of
2. NFC is designed for use by devices which can be at a Environment and Forests under “Rules for Manufacture, Use,
distance of even a metre from each other. import, export and storage of Hazardous
3. NFC can use encryption when sending sensitive Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells,
information. under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. 21. In addition to fingerprint scanning, which of the
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 following can be used in the biometric identification of
Exp. (c) Near Field Communication (NFC) is the set of a person? [IAS 2014]
protocols that enable electronic devices to establish radio 1. Iris scanning
communication with each other by touching the devices 2. Retinal scanning
together or bringing them into proximity to a distance of typically 3. Voice recognition
10 cm or less. There can be secure communications by Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
applying encryption algorithm as it is done for Credit Card and if (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
it fits the criteria for being considered a personal area network. (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
Hence, option (c) is correct.
Exp. (d) Biometric Identification is the technology used for
18. What can be the impact of excessive/inappropriate use of identifying individuals through their physical traits and
nitrogenous fertilisers in agriculture? [IAS 2015] characteristics.
1. Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in soil can Iris scanning, retinal scanning, voice recognition, facial
occur. proportions, Signature (digital) are the components of
2. Increase in the acidity of soil can take place. Biometric Identification.
3. Leaching of nitrate to the groundwater can occur. 22. Which of the following is/are the example/examples of
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. chemical change? [IAS 2014]
(a) 1 and 3 (b) Only 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Crystallisation of sodium chloride
Exp. (c) The impacts of excessive use of nitrogenous fertilisers 2. Melting of ice
in agriculture are as follow 3. Souring of milk
Continuous use of nitrogen fertilisers causes decrease in soil Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
pH, i.e. increases acidity. When it is too much applied, it causes (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3
air pollution by nitrogen oxides emissions. (c) All of these (d) None of these
Nitrogen in agricultural areas reach the water environment by
Exp. (b) Crystallisation of sodium chloride is physical
three ways : drainage, leaching and flow. Nitrate leaching is
change and no chemical transformation takes place. Melting
particularly linked to agricultural practices such as fertilising and
of ice is also a physical change. It changes into other
cultivation. Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in soil,
physical form i.e. water. Souring of milk is a chemical
enhance the availability of nutrients, i.e. nitrogen.
change as bacteria activates the formation of lactic acid
Hence, option (c) is correct.
which turns milk sour.
19. With reference to the use of nanotechnology in health 23. Consider the following techniques/phenomena [IAS 2014]
sector, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Budding and grafting in fruit plants.
[IAS 2015]
1. Targeted drug delivery is made possible by 2. Cytoplasmic male sterility.
nano-technology. 3. Gene silencing.
2. Nanotechnology can largely contribute to genetherapy. Which of the above is/are used to create transgenic crops?
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Exp. (d) Transgenic crops are formed as a result of
introduction of transgene into the genome of plant through
Exp. (c) Targeted drug delivery is made possible by recombinant DNA technology. Budding or grafting method is
nanotechnology. Medical nanotechnology can largely contribute an example of vegetative propagation in plants. Cytoplasmic
to genetic therapy and improvement. Diseases can be easily male sterility is used in development of hybrids.
treated if approached at the genetic level. So, instead of treating
Gene silencing is used in r-DNA technology at times to
diseases based on the symptoms, nanotechnology will help
suppress the expression of unwanted genes in an
medical practitioners treat the problem by looking at the root
organism.
cause. Hence, option (c) is correct.
24. Consider the following diseases, [IAS 2014] (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
1. Diphtheria 2. Chickenpox 3.Smallpox (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Which of the above diseases has/have been eradicated in India? Exp. (a) Agni IV is a surface-to-surface missile which was first
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3 tested on 15th November, 2014. It has a range of 4000 km only.
(c) All of these (d) None of these It is a two stage missile passed by solid propellant.
Exp. (b) Smallpox, the only disease thus far eradicated from Hence, statements (2) and (3) are incorrect.
India. The last known indigenous smallpox case (an 8-year-old
boy) was reported from Pachera Village, Katihar district, Bihar 28. With reference to two non-conventional energy sources
on 17 May, 1975. An imported case from the Sylhet district of called ‘coalbed methane’ and ‘shale gas’, consider the
Bangladesh was detected with fever and rash at Karimganj following statements [IAS 2014]
railway station in Cachar district, Assam on 24 May, 1975. 1. Coalbed methane is the pure methane gas extracted from
Since then, no smallpox case has been reported in India. The coal seams while shale gas is a mixture of propane and
elimination of a disease from a nation butane only that can be extracted from fine-grained
as vast as India, having a population of 600 million in the sedimentary rocks.
1970s, and diverse and plentiful social, religious and 2. In India, abundant coalbed methane sources exist but so
geographic obstacles, was a historic achievement in public far no shale gas sources have been found.
health. Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
25. Consider the following animals, [IAS 2014] (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
1. Bats 2. Bears 3. Rodents (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
The phenomenon of hibernation can be observed in which of the Exp. (d) Shale gas is primarily methane, so option (a) is
above kinds of animals? wrong. Also, shale gas is found in India, though its utilisation is
(a) 1 and 2 very less. Thus, option (d) is correct.
(b) Only 2
(c) All of the above 29. Consider the following statements, [IAS 2014]
(d) Hibernation cannot be observed in any of the above 1. Maize can be used for the production of starch.
Exp. (c) Hibernation is the state of inactivity and metabolic 2. Oil extracted from maize can be a feedstock for biodiesel.
depression in endotherms. Hibernation can be seen in animals 3. Alcoholic beverages can be produced by using maize.
like Rodents, Bears and Bats (those living at high latitudes). Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
26. In the context of Food and Nutritional Security of India, (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
enhancing the ‘Seed Replacement Rates’ of various
crops helps in achieving the food production targets of Exp. (d) Corn is the most common material used for the
the future. But what is/are the constraint/constraints in production of starch. Maize is also used both in the production
its wider/greater implementation? [IAS 2014] of ethanol and biodiesel and serves as a substitute for the
fossil fuels. It is also used as the main feedstock in the
1. There is no National Seeds Policy in place.
production of biofuels as biomass and alcoholic beverages
2. There is no participation of private sector seed companies
such as corn liquid, corn beer. They may be both fermented
in the supply of quality seeds of vegetables and planting and non-fermented.
materials of horticultural crops.
3. There is a demand-supply gap regarding quality seeds in 30. There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles of
case of low value and high volume crops. some chemical elements that are used by the industry in
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. the manufacturing of various products. Why? [IAS 2014]
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3 1. They can accumulate in the environment and
(c) 2 and 3 (d) None of these contaminate water and soil.
2. They can enter the food chains.
Exp. (b) National Seeds Policy, 2002 focus on sustained
3. They can trigger the production of free radicals.
increase in agricultural productivity and provides policy
framework and programmatic interventions to be adopted to
stimulate varietal development of seeds. So, option (a) is (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3
wrong. (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
There are MNCs which provide quality seeds for various Exp. (d) Nanoparticles of chemical elements have properties
agriculture. So, statement 2 is wrong statement. like accumulation in environment because of its complex
Last statement brings out the problem with respect to seed structure. They also have the capability to enter food chains
industry problem. There is a demand-supply gap regarding and to trigger the production of free radicals.
quality seeds in case of low value and high volume crops.
31. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the
27. With reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following drinking water in some parts of India? [IAS 2013]
statement(s) is/are correct? [IAS 2014] 1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride
1. It is a surface-to-surface missile. 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium
2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only. Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2, 4 and 5
away. (c) 1, 3 and 5 (d) All of these
Exp. (c) Uranium has been found in the water in Punjab and After this, lichens become the pioneer population, which is
fluoride in Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Haryana, Odisha, Punjab then replaced by grasses. The grasses however absorb most of
etc. Arsenic has been found in Haryana and West Bengal. the water before it reaches the roots of the shrubs. Thus, the
Sorbitol, on the other hand is a bulk sweetener found in food ecological succession does not occur beyond the grasses.
products. Formaldehyde is an organic compound, which is
toxic to human beings. It is a gas at room temperature. It is not
36. Improper handling and storage of cereal grains and
a water pollutant in India.
oilseeds result in the production of toxins known as
aflatoxins, which are not generally destroyed by normal
32. Consider the following animals, [IAS 2013] cooking process? Aflatoxins are produced by [IAS 2013]
1. Sea cow 2. Sea horse 3. Sea lion (a) bacteria (b) protozoa
Which of the above is/are mammal/mammals? (c) moulds (d) viruses
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 3 Exp. (c) Aflatoxins are naturally occurring mycotoxins, which
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a fungus. Fungus
Exp. (b) Mammal is a class of animals, which is differentiated can be considered as a type of mould. Aflatoxins are toxic and
from other classes of animals such as reptiles, birds, fish etc., are among the most carcinogenic substances known.
by the presence of hair, three middle ear bones, mammary
37. Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from
glands in females among others. While sea cow and sea lion
one person to another through tattooing? [IAS 2013]
are examples of mammals, sea horse belongs to pisces.
1. Chikungunya 2. Hepatitis B
33. With reference to the usefulness of the by-products of 3. HIV-AIDS
sugar industry, which of the following statements is/are Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
correct? [IAS 2013] (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
1. Bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for the generation (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
of energy.
2. Molasses can be used as one of the feedstocks for the
Exp. (b) In tattooing, the needle is inserted into the skin to
deposit the ink. Both Hepatitis B and HIV can be transmitted
production of synthetic chemical fertilisers.
through these needles if the virus gets deposited on the
3. Molasses can be used for the production of ethanol.
surface of the needle. Chikungunya on the other hand is not
transmitted by needles.
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
Exp. (c) Bagasse is the fibrous material which is left over after 38. With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, which
juice is extracted from sugarcane. It is a good source of
of the following kinds of organism is/are known as
energy and usually produces enough electricity to power all of
decomposer organism/organisms? [IAS 2013]
the mill’s operations. Molasses are organic substances and 1. Virus 2. Fungi
can be used as organic fertiliser and not synthetic fertiliser. 3. Bacteria
Sugarcane ethanol is produced by the fermentation of Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
sugarcane and molasses. It is emerging as a leading additive (a) Only 1
to petrol based fuels in the transportation sector. (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
34. Consider the following, [IAS 2013] (d) All of the above
1. Electromagnetic radiation 2 Geothermal energy Exp. (b) Viruses are not decomposers. They are like parasites
3. Gravitational force 4. Plate movements and live off of a living organism. Fungi and bacteria on the
5. Rotation of the Earth 6. Revolution of the Earth other hand are decomposers and perform the important role
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic of breaking down the dead remains of plants and animals into
changes on the surface of the Earth? nutrients.
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3, 5 and 6
(c) 2, 4, 5 and 6 (d) All of these 39. Ball bearings are used in bicycles, cars etc., because
[IAS 2013]
Exp. (d)
(a) the actual area of contact between the wheel and axle is
35. In the grassland, trees do not replace the grasses as a increased
part of an ecological succession because of [IAS 2013] (b) the effective area of contact between the wheel and axle is
(a) insects and fungi increased
(b) limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients (c) the effective area of contact between the wheel and axle is
(c) water limits and fire reduced
(d) None of the above (d) None of the above
Exp. (c) In a grassland, trees have already been cleared away Exp. (c) The round bearings reduce the surface area of contact
due to fires in the past which also changes the ground between the object being moved and the one which is providing
composition. Without the trees to hold them, water washes the power. Reduced area means less friction and more
away most of the soil and the underlying ground becomes efficiency. This is the reason why the round bearings are used.
rocky and barren.
40. Rainbow is produced when sunlight falls on drops of because viruses can transfer from one organism to another
rain. Which of the following physical phenomena are not just through biological vectors but also through air, water,
responsible for this? [IAS 2013] soil etc.
1. Dispersion 2. Refraction 3. Internal reflection 42. Which of the following leaf modifications occurs/occur
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. in desert areas to inhibit water loss? [IAS 2013]
1. Hard and waxy leaves 2. Tiny leaves or no leaves
Exp. (d) 3. Thorns instead of leaves
41. Which of the following statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
[IAS 2013]
1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of Exp. (d) All of the above are the leaf modifications, which occur
energy. in desert areas which help the plants to inhibit water loss. Hard
2. Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium. and waxy leaves help to minimise water loss through diffusion,
3. Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by act as heat insulators and reflect light. Water loss is also
prevented by H 2O in the form of gummy substance in leaves
biological vectors only.
minimising the surface area to volume ratio of the leaves or by
getting rid of the leaves altogether in which case photosynthesis
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
is carried on by the stem. Thorns have a high surface area to
Exp. (a) Statement 1 is correct and viruses do not have the volume ratio but they help in water conservation in many other
capacity to survive on their own and they need a living host for ways. Firstly, they trap air creating a moisture layer which
survival. Statement 2 is incorrect. Viruses cannot grow in a reduces evaporation and transpiration. They also help in
synthetic medium. They need a host in which they can transfer condensing moisture from the air which then drips to the
their DNA and then replicate. Statement 3 is also incorrect ground and is absorbed by the roots.

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Coverage of Important Facts

from NCERT Books (Class 6-12)

All disputes subject to Meerut (UP) jurisdiction only.

ADMINISTRATIVE & PRODUCTION OFFICES

SALES & SUPPORT OFFICES

Published By Arihant Publications (India) Ltd.

2. Properties of Matter 13-18 2. Atomic Structure and Chemical

2. Biological Classification 117-126 9. Biology in Human Welfare 163-171

Fundamental Quantities in SI System

Scalar and Vector Quantities Distance and Displacement

 The velocity at an instant of time is known as Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Centrifugal Force Inertia of Rest

Rolling friction is lesser than sliding friction. Therefore, it

 If a coolie is carrying a load on his head and moving on a

anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. Fossil

 If after collision two colliding bodies gets sticked with each

Acceleration Due to Gravity of Earth Mass and Weight

Weather monitoring which is predicted on the basis of

It is that, state of matter which has definite shape

Types of Modulus of Elasticity

– Ice and large icebergs float on water surface as its

Surface Energy Viscosity

where, S = surface tension of the liquid Terminal Velocity

Flow of Fluid Magnus Effect : Motion of a Spinning Ball

Wave Definitions Related to Waves

their propagation, are called mechanical waves. Time period (T )

Noise Reduction in Doppler’s Effect

Coefficient of real expansion of a liquid

Real increase in volume

Latent Heat Humidity

First Law Transmission of Heat

Refraction of Light Atmospheric Refraction

The mid-point of a spherical mirror, is called its pole (P).

 When a parallel beam of light rays is incident on a spherical

Properties of Image Formed by a Plane Mirror

At infinity ( ∞ ) At focus Very small Real and inverted

Image Formed by a Convex Mirror

Image Formed by a Convex Lens  Rainbow is formed due to dispersion of the

Human Eye Pinhole Camera

Magnifying Power Scattering of Light

Electric Potential Electric Current

Magnetic Force Acting on a Charge

Coil Places in Uniform Magnetic Field Diamagnetic Substances

current. It is always connected in series. The resistance of T

 Alternating voltage is given by  An DC generator or dynamo contains slip rings or

fission of Pu239 or U233 , are called breeder reactors.

Dangers of Nuclear Leakage Fluorescence and Phosphorescence

particles. Ultraviolet rays are used

 A microwave oven is utilised to cook food using Uses of Masers

but reverse current works in that Symbol

There are eight planets in solar system

 The sun and all the objects moving around it taken

Black Hole  This region continues contraction due to gravitational pull

Heterogeneous Mixture Distillation

 Solubility of substances increases with increase in

1. Consider the following statements 6. Consider the following statements

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (d)

Thomson. It is negatively charged

Subatomic Particles  Mass is with respect to electron.

Fermi in 1934. These are the particles of small

 To show how the fundamental particles arranged in atom, Electromagnetic Radiations

Radio frequency region around 106 Hz, is used for broadcasting.

Bohr’s Model Electronic Configuration

The velocity at an instant of time is known as Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion

If a coolie is carrying a load on his head and moving on a

If after collision two colliding bodies gets sticked with each

When a parallel beam of light rays is incident on a spherical

Image Formed by a Convex Lens Rainbow is formed due to dispersion of the

Alternating voltage is given by An DC generator or dynamo contains slip rings or

A microwave oven is utilised to cook food using Uses of Masers

The sun and all the objects moving around it taken

Black Hole This region continues contraction due to gravitational pull

Solubility of substances increases with increase in

Subatomic Particles Mass is with respect to electron.

To show how the fundamental particles arranged in atom, Electromagnetic Radiations

Basic nature of oxides Drinking water is purified by boiling, chlorination,

Oxidation and reduction take place together in an

Hydrocarbons Acid rain dissolves heavy metals such as lead, copper,

VII. Adaptation These structures are living in nature. The

Aflatoxins are naturally occuring mycotoxins, which are produced by Algae

Main plant body (gamete producing or Angiosperms