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dSGJHpFDu8sN0484L13z7PeCjYdqiP2u7N13ooVSnBooUW0VLrShkCzukFWcbZHRG27SJY1WaZmil3jUIJSVCZsZUGJZi9NotJVLqvuYkA4isRxMEXTFYlq5XPQzkyyBxnRpoYZhCNsBDFbcJnVyMzpzQPD4WglHMhl2mqm3ZZfOo/50clzWp/pAFPsVAZy4gX9ZoYy9ta3Ffcc5K8JWJQCKoq9kVlaaQW8ALMcVzio2JR1eesrCD+55GHDQaJmLxVv25bHCFYJFcemoQOkQNGTgrUqTd51KFOipQJA1kV728q4QV6qG1W+nkplL489nQdnvFL3aMyKzSLanGJQu9qyuabFnCEVxTfPHtXT+97BesKheU8hZRk6Sw/NRW8z7lg5GVUfpEgyvBy96zVN5+l5P6SIpoLIB3Tq/lXAl8kJN4jNgslxPwQEspw5ABSyKLDTauUxQ5U99cjwVcSHy2zhTmak66qOZkXbhP6oYft3cWxKI3IbdZhU5/5qPJvhso8zm6YcogqzTvo7AAnj3Gjst88NkbDE9Z5W1mdyZqA8fPYZ5K7bJOwlPJzPrcphugU24AJ1j/7BR7bPLPZg74LroPSt1We3aYQ9/A+GPqSWgSzphIa1sLYBa96I6PGzhrmC6OMIjPWOlpIyvFWT64b8jGMT4Q6HCUOxcPWJ3zjb1bJrpYJr9EXPaV06qM6yRmFfNWGt1UhBEa3WiWGF0ZymVizJHlh7MpzEbIK90ClCZszNRauFz+RnIsq8ZFsgnW95E1NR+uihrjL4zZBZ9zbFAdGLnXzRZ866YXPGXc+VCd8KJ86J3VfFbPU4mn5QsRG576oKAPFlXSaUBuqRityXIdYGN/ZVaXRwSWcMNisIvSy9wTL6EpEvhxKsXUUM4QW++7yxEi3jkidZMzRhmKbDitTtYfMPMps0pVOHSzjtBm9ZVHD0ZN0JhY478j+XlJCv8wuOT1b3sNy0l1BXlX7LEVE4lx05J1HGqTQ7U3F6zQtM3KyoNI89AS8EPyRYNi9OEHAY4FFMNhdsXHsL0cBQmgg6Ec5rhQ/XwJvW8wIduzLEGWrp9nhw4vvRiA2+xzl+mqbpRHgPdFkIzIeJrvFjP3ofj6O5Uicc7kcDK4wAlPAYms72D5SjXMT4covXyOPgDzSOCHHNff5SIAeH0ijPnxCJH0cJB1nQXChjtd7+hSnzbDE6korEma/xLWjT7bYlDBHAzjo/LJMwhMdgNEDSwqJuv9QdWMV9LFCofiH+ZvWEaSF8jI42xbZA54dMK/K6rKwuJDlqQ+TYUmv7jn7O+PLad50pk9vS3qaoLGtd/v2w9Kkzd7sNh4c7ffyMgc5WENYlTsD7uriJ6hL2ZTOFc8GOpS4EGopZ6CFivxxms47F7sjB7ylq+ENJg/DT1GhkYy6j78A8nrz4nRXhQUlNJ7ZUKOLyftaVXRNE96ipRKd40WCZ0y75mLHZJpFORn+vlRRYKO1DiOanYMkJS1inovelwGNhJ5dvTazttUUfPRTR/yMglm8yrXzYNCbXf7Z5jl0LOCw/bzZut9MgNXW8WFKgCf9CYUICNzkcc/uKc32tZtsAJdfbT21A3Jzeo69G6SaHO+2tocJ31PUlr4ZOhwNdB/32BhItxqUb6BtcbeJFKJGfy5ioAphrjgVNfTchMe5pjh+T4uXyarHPZyWYv+qjkSanYY42JSU1MbpZVrFnn5qpURuFEcFBo2vaSTOZJaHdxuI5d3vS1mpSpNV2jUot+G7OMpAaFSsDHZ2E8GwMU/7rNh3b7aWaopElF1NGFX9yTfYgaUcm43/sHm+2rUPu+7b85H+ZusB4nyAzJhSNntTbLzVrtl5BhOnzzvj5R3Wb2P8E2PzOEmmQk9b/2f7HAqvdh+U9jCI3G0ldzNwzP1g+K3paVBdcYCsgeura7PvyR9oUVpBxBH+Q4asgSb1GxGDleHnoiamfTFOUuO2qL+lNlnkquQ7i8ldS2G5zker6oW4wBObLCeqNTq5PcpVNdKPrFyquuIAw6DzejAGLeY2HkfzshiEdZq1F7P+xcZZzUoXm++Pdg0U8M1er91Z9Wq/X02YK3V+ECy+gi3bWKgCv6VMyAT8HjbnYsrE+Id9/2Z/f0M7bXUv/sXWjzi60zAzSdzT3m+4x37/bK+f9tk/bZw7T1V3+w4x8+HRx+Rx2Pd0qOYsk82bqP9SLstM4IOxqi3nAQkyq314V367pfEoV9QNk8hOD+ISzydkT6JzEJOm5FjVnSgRjUPBuqduF+gVKw2myELA062vtumxJY88M2LbYnOedO6TBOCLjftmYzS7B152a17jfWv+flN754cZ2A+b/y/3zaDvHLWJp619XRyqnoYA5EA2D5Rxs9/drv3lvqh4dNDOYSCIwh+2xput7Z6qK9+8tdKTU/qEGAoDyYBrMzZb35vJ5DS5f9iczQz2tHsejL1lOB0Nl0cgxUJB0oCSrMoZkeK5j5d6aKz+RKB9c6GhpcHSk+IelTnrnKN4HMwwitf4YQU9jhjIA/M1zRBMZpEdjH1Tvneqm66ngzwX9JJVM+9ZCOeITU+7HB7X0xcdrHq3sW8dwm7p3TwFQrmZMX2pLkR418uE+28mDEDu3TziE8J5dsERtaK6lJAF7UZ0Kz87DDI3m38XdGavR5Iv/NOuqyboN67D2CxONtj6/wsxL4MouRdXawzfqxsXvPf3s5Gv/B17IeO/s5jyj+Sn2vsmlML5olOkkPXUAgh9zT4WT1HdpjIIXW/pp9NkUATYEDF7k4epSkBXX6a3QFlLjJfmT3Mq7zlfnulGkJ3jnJ+N5q33Jf1cgJe0cHTxFxAQTI2YZOt4Lw57HzbOL5bWwLs+27petv4fgBw4vxnBr0gbeFS+U/kNzWhGIvNePPUDCMRYtiZAMhQCKF2KnwNb9CDNy77fW6fXfNk8xWo4M2uCJom0q/5qL5yMnrwWOfR7uaXfbU2/mXKRqmDsP5q8sO7H+Ujfjfh8MQN7Wg59gE2bjk5wFApQKVyB8bRjUn1yjEsnPvWR4M8KeHOlxtO5LOukCbFQ5qoSUn/NPl90IaIVE0VmOba7zptiZh9eneOxZjxgY/fUtfA8DoSw2nwgDN8saBhlSb+akhfzNKQGn21OsMwbUgVbwx/Mig+j5FDMm+3RxEHvu9k98NSaPY4uagFhTiTJSOLv1WPXacZAr+vqvHTPJ1dTwH764a6bHtzE94euL8XrxTxthJYcq2Sv9EWHxrD177bGX23Nr4eFAZMpVWWh6ndbw3dDw52NbTH+0b3ozkLH+Q2dhBrPdIuaz55dUmK5X05zlck46annLDTf5zNxXocUi6yXagix3uumGdCRVfQl01pH62pDsm1CPjOEbUIza/xiSv0wsfzZWCgs+wZmZ7b+yQT6NC+GSO/22WfzgGLXfoVQER+RSKiaVLR+QC0tHbHOkOUBcmPL+oKHKDEnYphs1FftysXK1452mhfqYBhH8g7MZ/PID/pHI2NFHrktzrRLFBE69tRpYL8ZafmjyfV3pHPdx0Ouebdd/TfSI7bJlD8jXzSDXAY175GPqe43Wj8qUsfzdeXS/omHOXoc+dv93ivh6GoZxTPjKU3lrYJIwCi79N7vK2B2BtM8o6MHY17wuKwHZQxi/t1u/WYw9ck2Q+hMeP8kS3zogZS77ekvOrd6tBdj0g35XQfJOE1pmYn3ZxZydoaV1+GHmW+o1ti9h0LJgbSA3uTx3fuvnSSq8RmQrkNs7rFn8w7GapWd1WTHclrFERIYJTLR1XJIGE6RSF78HgaMvfzdNFflOA/ArJnF2Zwo8pkVPoSLGKhTvuPUlrueFCNoRArAwrGo/Dhyr9PcqzJRKkNHGbpqqPTol9+/Xc59skVVZm0yqDKPeJgn8PXKYx6LDtGCsfX2MCu1mIa0AEzP7n1ld/C7TmnBx+7299eaKdzFKiz4D/BaINTwcjOqd7C/0z3ixXhnccVc72QeB7DRWrI/R8jYZwJ80ZscaZqM/Za8toq4CUMCerBghQQ+CeTSi9Ug/F0YL4sfkTFVrGaoP0w28Oo/GRS/bD/w3LvJqVnTeLfuyjcztN1Czfk62URwwI5GbPTzwsTiSR7lX6zZqUjrh2KXS3Jd1GKpaTxxQ0LyUCU/qQvt8c2PbeQ0Ot46DAXj4SNqRUkrYC+r68B4VC1eGEwi37LvVhPkzea9CY5P5YmMoM3rofjsfV2cuNl8zbwRTLGxdGhCRtw074d3vZuxvtgrbEzOK/PIhfGMT2Hxb2M6sts9d9vLzfbcALNQlpipaib0eHjvHWMALvUQbQExAupUN9ijO+teAKsMTwfn3JAj2jVfzQeZbtgefphDHGY8jwPYEiemiroHRS0PFqdvE/Tj3D8fKAllJYfNpmanCsCeTohdruqiR100zowQQpd5zD2ONqiLUVUIBpUDVCEOIQ8Dm6QH2WvkVkgZKDj7+3Ei0UZpzLzPYgohjxDqp+5OsdzPLBfuIxTvZihvhhQYY2fKYCSiVo9RxdtFi+I3vkNcRSi7KX7SYLgdZ8DskZIodW//AYKtIIF1rYzL2ZkxUjRAN4tYWN/LxIVKz2mx13JHwHxBmuPpxFe75xcoM5+8Bt0gx7SsGuYabX6xxaTuQJw6q2VWP+K0VNImbBXt0Bn/6LwnJfnbMt8zppklo8UUPcLt8qQOcjoIFXlW9X+3BptDnGt271+L/2MKiB8QJkpmYJr0SqzBBILY1/gc/uGPNBR5ZUXkOagY/pMfDPGZdU0wRJ6qUNXpfPmRRKyaTTMzyjfWMfWUbEqEQLLhBUz3RehkZwmeB9KCAgGJkWdUpe16kAnK2tMnHtZyqEW3A2J42jUrD0tDiYVVHRjQZp78sMH/YTk7lL9bzGwWT5dRjA4PjCd64mhBnDXB63F+pMw+4ervGQe2SmvnE6VQLZ/YTTokrCAAd0ELKJhqPHVr2y7mBYhfO9snjZvmuQDULVkKMyLSKstUCyvxYJWIGSuTc3hm994JhfLJoP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StydPu97MllV6FNfRL3xT5bQoHoJtA+eyhzOSWoy5QWMwIeJETyILPn1H3wnirWny4DlB726KMmCmgacuTIke8Vp5b/Tq2cZ48mSErc8emnt8OvrCKZurR4U7vzHYOBL9tq7ifydJk7sgiehxnbktSYRzlTw1cWSNBUYb8bL1k7ZplTubWrtZOKjZR96FWUJYrpr4ew+wRSkxEzH6jybMQaX6JgMb7AmNFwIS/v1TTltWyWt2LDLnpcbWe3tplWEwxl46H2KOOgje8up4GnpwlvSYOXJzoCEWwv5Y02dVD6LXHyhHpnRTaMRYZPrUQ2x8qhkvksU3daNzoEMKFIrLuJLjKKDRO7vR4nfdMLyXfaWR8EmwwcqD91KI7MX3/9poXVKvQStpMgCxrXSJModbkzLI3+Ph+QYvJ5yr8wTF2hduhVMGU9Vyc7QqtF0DGF2B3ksqk7Uu2buzN5dWToD1LiJBd5pRZMvmXleiXwMelJjyUW5T/FiMvFDc1L0Jrfip09X42XiXwmTxpsdM42FurK9eF8bTwStWpM/nMkfScZk1wHfcc45qzxIncZ9l96dGntNeFFH8pj6eiiA4FeCCy29sK16usYA6XBrJcuHrV1DVyXIS5bZzyhbI+f/mhzf3GSDEPP6c6FhlAnK0o53pS8vx8+D36TOrJxIwrKZvoHyiBdgthPi8hLS242QlW7NIWyhIkQ1gTatV4RlBVMgrWfp8LwZ18X1Frx6Lg33d5USnZL1wc6lT5Y9GpnqTDctYnlZ/MRo38srr8KsKbmI6nQiBDnwhkdt2zHApardT76S3ZzH5duhmU4Q1NV44uRZTzHrqjzOH37l1Ywr1+c7nYaOWzPaiL5nqoNXL5EAExymfZa9B8hxvQ4WG7Z801k9qyIGxTsSWVl1wh1vA8GHrY7rDsc8mSWtZnVq5TYfSGHFgiehVAytheg0QnIczzYkos0dYqa7IDcYxTwblWFtYigZF7s9UD70M+Jg0Gpn+nRxa1ahYKpubr2WzOznd6z4jQFWF1LyXphS7GJAHOFAebTVe/7/C1Pfzcl1/v7nurbjT4/YvL7Ztt5fBy4uV7uDMqu3IrK2DPcUGwUFyqN19uqHe/5qe/6ITYQmMzmQx44OoIzGjCVk1WJSFLIncQ6CyyoWVCLmfNWHQuLd2Exi7tE9KeTZ2B8BpLFkbUUeArU8EvdAtlNNVNOWCUa8zZk+PQPM0s2cGnwSX7oi57UFYXoLVq3X6GvaT4aFRb7LHdyp9GRohEGxVYPZx+8X3gqv/v97u5YX7133/4Og83gDePQh1G6N73VtGYBfcZ0eXpx7z5708oEh7oaxgscVR++b2OGU7Sk0piSAPya+Hqq98mVsOyCM5psddzKYf8aBbo6ijAk2ZSbeMyT5OcKVaygzR+BXtRy4k6S3qnmP0iwrpkGdYuJU4U9yt/Kc9FQEGORO/yM85rl1nRpKOyO9HvZ7lhRQptF/RdTjKiRigsQrOtRkcGBMDmsnz4uajLdyHl/3Hvalr89w1Mz0ZR3nuEx2bRX9Wok6vDPdJf776vJ+ZeWFkgpCKEv+gouH4nlSZ5LWhbxUIIeKweX85o5lggLPgzmo2zZ7jNzVc5j8BNT8g8TwXRo/T26jM2MSbSVCTEwBE5TwPLUy9ueXa2iRTSTAU0SyuyJI9zj8r1ZPbhUU1e95pn62qoLutiTHJEMffNrW4Kk6P8QPhDHe+ff2vhWf/weu4btu83vhESuFf5uVDYzjUalQTAcu84x0FKztlMoWc/+0j8Y5p+cSW+POUcBu8EEwMvYDvHVsibyaYQjb0uLRQl84TX2wVA2Bku4Q0BxuoZVhPN5ihFTpRlvzCL65JI9eMvxbJOL4E46bViRUwEA+dKkJ9b5ONcAutRhErmrxBecI919dXCgIUQkceyNOJ2M3R2tr8QWd8cnDRf9+bXgKf9h8txd1nc8J7f9Ob3eNSYFzXxmrcJJUZUoYclZWeDeRL77y6Xjs9dSdXvd2ieKJq9rnTPgJ1dk9298wUq7XP1vViH9X5ac7vwhCavOI4Vhxf7Qhc5gsQl7TXO89jB3uL8wy6F9AwglKGQCO44IXyxchb+RfdFrlQoX+BiXEYkwmAsZ1Rxf0LzV+SrQ3l1ezvX1aYM5DJh17ez9mvBZVbXWnVPhFKgpA//6L/qrfz0Tv03t64/MD/j59C7OnJYo8K6r6eRLJ/lvrfyawDMGEPiplKh+/2qubchTPqaSZy1ICHIraDaeRkV95NAqrqo/DpgYkyJe4qQZR0GBgaNyuTcRP1EkR3ojh6a4ZV85WWYNrsPVs5xccR5XBOk9KodxaKMeXawsZbPXwprxwIILGWmxu9E99Fzn8fZ5KXCP07lFbng/T3KF7zVxaemgqpY/sxxNSmrImos8l7z83b//Zsr8oef860gXDbPU40g491lsAMVwj4shI3c1gFQfH9jd4TpCvnm177VclKBkWkLirX94eHxNZjXDpzj1914/cMV7Ep3Wf/m0akj/PoeCXKmuvEsdLMIhUAWFSZvaxIyGIrjOBumRflOwIHezNbTIxYI5QDO4xVyZm0rHEcHP9gUSyKaoXk/a0kVyVPAY/78GevSGjm1jDWgMzHVwikJZpR7SW7bGVGgsKSyFoqMELlCK3HAgyHt7qv/p9/nq1LMl4o6zYXrx9z9Xg8pj3d2xe0eWRBaNxNx41qtFgazZQcDyUCPNDSWWO6pw5gzWYIenQbwcnlUv97h13u5QbOwR0RwJaIm7KaRP/KX6VFEkTunrAi9Mdp3jicHw2+mgdiiMbdofsaE1hHvXYdSsfPkP8V5snZkaXKs/ltZAXwEumSIVGhFifH2Xv704MmM/LpKiMD3EYKzjqwiuTnLcytrEo8gRm0esPz0+J1p/oe3cLqHvX92sB3TSwKjUmCQbwiVfs5Xjic6KPF14DPiIT/urQb42moYfrPIlSYosLVZkt3ZuOaDShwsDeDBUwXA4SKrrA/hoUfF+9UzQtS7qBXJxNjSzbE6AIjZkQ9EgxV5QY2ct3pzWZwPCT6HZy9jEKUohWqIKNiHebI1BBAJerqUnoT2VF06g5WnMpsecuknMDIht3yyanmifqC0Li/D+5wRRY58D2GzmnqUd1f2N7/+3/2Y5i7kJJyHvsaabpO9vfu1Y/rCCFgQPu/+O4ALPAigHAppNTo91T1rg/AnvMvDbtRG9Fb1ySiH1ctFdqkJo/GpG4CezeCcFwNeGHtf4+GadprZlXi9FvSOGkxazlGFnJFJRFnlO1XWRbCiUXci48hJUdDnuEM5yxeSzpfR+wuHyFG7HsOttmZHsvBW+Fuj7BfvYrH1JhA0gr8kYLutuRMwHV8c1Hw/ankDu+/X+O4K+dIbeYcfft1thnE9bo1h8V4DZbr1l1ubwbIRrMT27/7+g2zRJIiJLfm/NUYkmF5bGBfy2Zj5HEhMKFBJNVDnYG0eGBTb29yI4QbwdBACfYptN8tcEXkB/bHIMSqaqwSc8yP5HoRJQFM1jY2FBSSfz48znxSBGLWLIvJlIWgap5NScki46PqqAwmioJt85iDJARsLLTKHsYpQ+yc9HWEbhXALJe9euN/9o6/++3f3ui+t0ougHOQzok3fy111MULmOwHIJDDBZTbu98Xj31DEsw9plM1ewcaEYqiMNX3mEmrhDKaQvLUwcCirqjuEY7tS0CGi48UPnEbbI8rAq3tRURktpFKyHzjFxjPftbZADXNXMh4J9JSLEl2inODxXk8R8ByXyTaNNtg4H7WayfjT449Q9AgCwPw6HFiyAFGLdKZXKQ+awMfrOJ/qzdpty+cIvP3i7+P2Dz/+q4v7uwsSgAS84heX0Hd51iavvgOQAB36e/euWg65x9dybxonmt1BTCMluJuivM3gAATsNvYzhRtYbqispcIi4iEk2hZemzM5lsbr8j/qYC5u+B37JG0Lco28Y7h4EMvjRH+vlwZlX+U6NhiDQOXSwtLjUfkMXLIqUFLOmqweY11etWZTGKEsQvimh0VxPsKeCz7WZsq9NYrynC0BBfbShDbZkf1cPzwRYMoBSfXPdt/uNzeGh9/333ugvJv/Abq8oYCu4XHwnreqEgBeiYdI2qRHYLrg4fcGukR+vG0y8j5Y77GHovmZ3gSpqmTkCmvMhcHM1FblPINlQ0XXBMi05qRBTNyBecE6phoNVY+cPQMWhGAjRO1xxzHWCH0Z6jSoR8fn21hTZVjQaALGyOkhtnIbR/KUywhiNb6wgEqNB4TDQOoKr6t0UBPYatIw6NkdES41uh6JQZ3yFS5vDGPV8x/y2Lvdy9+Ry0AH+/r+qFHLMRQChLgSdvdKT3EBWoAo3WBQDnTJ482PfwC+8z//zMMYivFOfRlZk2aR0+acaitOKhTHw2trS1AVvcghfpngHT3AF0BOXZih+u8In5unDuj543gRhR5HRkBcXyPnli2RZwgxhmoT5uOGQ48fl2BE1kOZR8yTlIj9Mxuio5wN4ewAZCE+z0bnvIKWnC8RVxoU0jyn2tDVTuSGTn4+kNPqWRrgffdaWjlbN738m7/+4fd98+u9o/j2BQKYoKhGePvNDQIw/QFPc0HDqyD4YF2CqwXy71WeQwYFZHOUDpvowp25fUYozVkdKLHb5fn8Ezs00Y/x/QvGFI1WEgyD4lhlVUxDdAvBNl8n8iHQbCcoEDhAKBLwjRhcD5YTdlMegZe2oemtfOYhOu+cVH7AO+3C0mhwh1GznohzqJOdqJYMDQpxwbjkMZOYpoI0T2LKf8hzr7EeDlkMC+B/BS/paNLP+ern/83PByD5UpHrIrc9/NiHawR85F0UGlLQAy0gD8ePDYW1W7+/htVvrIUPhslWAlkCYQKgqG/BaBK0rbHQnxZNWz3MJnhh6zHGqWiLX8i+HCOQLIyENNoI5IryBKLEwyw1+p3sH7CM4ETzhyw+h3rw6TM8h/J6hkt1PdmzqRvOPtkeD0rqCwzY22tRt022Pw71BgPdXp92CgNDt12TWyu8lBMgtb6oPOY3hFB6XzlnOslpbiFGz4k/PGT+zbXx8It883N/zE5vfPdrAS2+Izy6QuElNzEtG0ACwihmLTuE7cJUmNwBYHydaO8w5BlDFz25iVHpGtMPJ4Hi0MeLZ/gauM8UrUqKKCtiiwTTZYSnWpGnel5kGRItJxg27pvlBP56UvHiEG3lD+U6SBChk/kPhXMMMuXAqlW1XEbMlVoSzwZB/mKLifmNdJnKBHj1M77AYGp2ZXGu5ZU+V9Z3zdR6liu7FIRBYXp1siwaCuI4x15+99bRu1/vDwcuQJVvELQr6YESwK/9ZYt1vbkRIifeG5Gch9eNiuDjkAyDNbwB5YHf/6bBMgCtvUXY5FhEhtSqNDwETiJGxXiETRb1CqLKMFFOjDGFZjOrKC0gVDKbDG6/lsiNLDUIbOKBmL7KgXziFldHHQahEyw8JVbNiQp1ssZCG4qntpIPhLCjTgbltagzPiCy39aQ75pIq+fTqAhPDOVDs5y9nj3FJvaEa9RIRoIViwdHOhmUXv4TpLMfjx6ct1HpYe/wNEMLyL1tqxT67yWaoRAuvHPvVcjRiBQ768HwGow/bE+jV9UqLyImq38aQrAR4CWKc8kpjVLeE29EtRx57UwYePN1LFxe4tn5KLFGzsio4iLixXpXDyxpshxArWq3TI1RzLKaqIp0Z5gbyovyGD4TXs+5znhIRfP8+USsvsKjrAmzpvHD7SzwnUxmGZC8Z5LRbVOLyvOT/9681nv4IX/4uh9+TeS9391T3z2EfW2x0S+3LXKT3/cbcqIF1RVjm0aQshG8TBrcnYhzEBUSJa5+ZNFz/uFVtc8gFqZCY3L82fgXFGB7iIhT5dAY63mi/CaKIYYlHMU0RRl8s2XoXY+HRxjuzCm9lzU2l111WEKO1mlkgBNXowjmHzw26Eg9f2cBQmhP+Lahl5rCXTvivIvx3Km6bxXwiCGHuu01e3NTzEqE8ZKEO808QEt1suDNYfV/u8I2P+6rf/aDea2W33oP4SN/gYTuCIebyoQZc7giJfYWXhrPlVSG072Fz2xaCr2uRtJKCrKqMF9fiXMtpUUsWXLrNfzC9ERVkSHoIeNQ1gwl68Fs1p6JTFFWhDOUku2yHl3qCGmo+dadAGzAYpA9EeeJMPiM5/qCFC5Rw3G+pQV1luePY1ksitN48CTOi2cXlAe3CNO04r6XfGJ2lRRYJ1s8qbhOg2LJ7Oj4D2+7/MND4xeUCB5SfwP09/N/9+O+tnj88d2V9WYgnDeGyPsWtRoYFqBLlAw9azbdfq+2RkTLcSpkeYLAhiqB9cUddizOgd4FgUetnl8JMhffzisgf4ICn9HcJXF3BCDPcAmZtB590OD5LeTFEOrtk5JfbkNCWQ9oLDZcYRPvx+OrUpBoMdWRbP3ocSuGU9JoP0/EyQdD5W6wWnyDQ+96Hl0maklQ91V/ZkckpBRf29E4QFu9Y9C9RHDlsbXjnKZHkN0v/xsZ/xKzJnPwM0L+rg64RQ4BbVZLtHdQkzUqIkIYC/gyxZiUczBBCuYy51nCliEgoqE2VUhRlKnmTYWUVID8rKrerfk8Byd6L8+sWNSU63sDLLPMLP8C6EwbfdBEe2IAAAAASUVORK5CYII=)}80%{background-image:url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAHAAAAAuCAYAAADwZJ3MAAAACXBIWXMAAAsTAAALEwEAmpwYAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAB57SURBVHgBXVxrmuQ2cgRAkFXTI42kT5LtU/o6PqT9w96VpruLBOCMyEiAs73bquoqPoB8RkYmJ6f//K+RxpVSTon/aXjPP1IuJY3eUtqqf9Z7sg/s741/43/jOnV85nf58UgDx6TBa9gfKR2HnTv8MxyLc3GNgvMvXg/XSrifHZ/3PY3WUrbzxucnX/07u37Z0rD15IK12trsb64Jl687j+MfuD7Wi2OG/sYrfnUvrgXrxy+Px/Wqn4f1YlufH3Zd+2yc/l2TPHBM6vw/j8t2vdenrc32gutine9/2V4euq+v0YTNPYSMp1yxnlgf1pFd9pnrLH4ejsf1zhfPGbgNbsrNn6efzIsnF27SwvB3KEU3yvb3gLK5oOzHmODTw4Q9moRYXDA0CgkEl8O5WGTrUmhxXUtREGi2ewxbU348/Xvcc9spzHx+3gxtuACOh68R18Xv61zKw3WHDArCb6cZzmsKgusOxUJxoTxcbz98H3m7KSKMUYqgDCUfvO++/4x74QcypeEVV57d3z+XbPGD9UihQ8bN83mN7IrEuTC2oTXbOks6dr/hCGVturAsucs68R5Cwnd9uHKhOHgJBZNd6TAE3JQLbUuJ3KBfZnAx8qiUpzVls/ZctynLTMX1JbTiVs61RTQwD6Zt4nNGhuJWQiuWYcV3WM/pwgu58Q2MoeQlyDA6GBGNEfcqaW4gXmAAECiUjOPNwBhZwiFMDiPnea08ZNT1WN5HW2i+NsmL+06SJ7yaa8jLGHAOvXZLlRt+7H6T1FxIuBDDhp20PXxz+Pzz3TdXy7J6Wo6sUWF0CnxTyOmdnsStN4VMWBp/fVG5Xzq+6zLd12OL54bwHcP1tgTZXSBwbq6R38vw8CHCc5EwFKpdSJu8LLuimwRETwnvgvFcHl0u/K0wjSiAdfVbtIrzcQBCHHVyIcG4gcYPPau6woZib4TjXY6DdfI7N/IMPWjPSDeRrewLW1u3ozaFoAgV+IViuChp+nWuUKTPaGkIBcUtxYVxpR9yHwTKRbq3Ta8Yvpi5mn4xxlMgZp3Z1pKVzzKsFZaM89s1vY4b5FoGrZTrZEiUcIpyWld+V1jjWuM91ldkHFCIjG3+QCbwPkQXCHKTd+fq58Vv5N4qg0VkwTWHy4FeuJXlZcIRTEGQIV4RErEvGkCeTjMY0uXBuP7ji/b9ooFVT9xy8wh7EL6Bkbkp5B2EqqI8AONkPO70jgHrLLKmyDXY/PDkTCuGAUNgylW+Qc8bPAWLw0LPCLVuJFTs1WjNjKxQPkBMhP3IFczNZQEKKILXbDPcUMHcgwQaa6WAA8QI/EApWHTePY2cY+XrOC8MJbDDqQiANZpi8i0Uc22RE8MJIkUkheNbXB/2HfeYXdb5DpQAAot7ZXGr0GYl8BQIb/Sp3BHhp+QVg+2cESBitLUxhbiskAArGjgPQgkLxzVxvn1GuBSgZrhgBjedlbOGH7c5GMixaYd1vs7myC19fCwkF4Kl155TcBNE4HPmqkNKzuu8JI+H4AQkJpDB+yPQZVoIUuicBh9RCUEUx/Z+k4/yPgwWMjk87FIHUCTOl7EAxVI+Y4X2fDO6QtfFz9UmGqTnjVsojLxSFEKS8grz5kJELoAuo5ZHlrIWr+vnCJ3n5QoWSkuR8LFIyzUjrTyVea/E8oKfFSG0QIjJLT89FWJKWeFUG2ZexbmILhFxcO7rQ546lEqqFJeXUYfR4nfmYynuFA5I8uQioBLlAaPYvowGYRJ7LPUWxveFftsN6QJjTK/PHoKmrFrymBMlgGo0v6BACf5L7+teE9GaX36hTQKHRSuHp+pW6oAlwlfy8BhoFuhq2oEEbAJ0haUJJFhpcuE6GLXh5psYJnSE5CFUOT0MtkfDGLQt/rJeBRgSiBCwTGVfyoZQI29m5cgwOksVA2uqksl1TUdKYag4rsjTTykFxrBXAZTk4I+IE6lkd5ngnq/XknsAo0DyZZue5/dU3pVBF+aQyFe93ay3CwGpmD/sQkf1hTzl8lFD5fKDleC8HEka7yM8dEdrI+rEUEwX2mNINmFdyo2o17iO4kk7LNI2nFNTiQqPsK+OwlwFQJMDgEUEaUMlo8JiKIBGlf18GGR7LaPMOjf2tAnAsdwQ0gagYDjuOl7ph4m6SVkK7wHutltIh3IDJKW2vDjL85F6xljKTcIk02iySa/fiuoi9xe6HPSs4TfqXTE+uSfiB+EqzmGs93oICXgyLKzrhkN9WSbfIxGPtjy8OyrM4QWUqcqBdq7cHJaZb3kar6r1qGx4CxWutFBuAsj6xQ9CH84lGyMQASWmvLwoy86wBtpcXcaK0Iv8lRdqpJduZSkrwvYYC0zlMASF82CFita+lYnu6UThhUlRb4YaK+RzhMscVqjEOpkXbPTTz6Gr27FkR1Q8K8477fUhAedpcUN5aMQmlQ+AsFgaWLgbQ4W8CQeAJ+8Ox0eEscg9XWHcs7jnwxR5N8qD7mF5iESgUlR+ZEHygP/7MY3PPUGfRY0YIbSo9mURrjCINeL962PJivKTknbV1jUvVBwoPfIp5PHxfXlUrSt3nx8sE4iA8Yp77VWGJMO0e9QxVFNVQV7EZggJG2GoicS8rTonpbVB3XAEKAjAgo0g5MKisZnTlZ+L86eA/tmOGYdgOvIartGlgCQ0FzxlhEMYV3MFkVoLD8Q6Tt2raKP4e1ORfIqCqrpfFNKx5q1IccPTRRMKZgiVwKIkoZJPj3rHUwhUeSlkhDUHKoVxANQEUNy1Vu7xSJMXlWNNIERvlcJbk+fKWxWeCw/abiXELOq3BWTCgnDifkNT242JKLdQRaRV06xrovzAV1lhgSHP81YWG5EV3hgsoDgYRmxEaJKfR1K/XmtdXQLHYVcwK4ff+/19hfpx96yyGJVQFAQDxolWrlwXDFX8Mhfu4lhv+TYM4LF5CM8yxij26bUiQMB+CTzz+izovTj3yCGDuVZ64M+MGtriJISDwY+wRSblWqFreHjNEduVh4js8D1u1Pwa6CZ4odydVUkeOr18KI4cRzAootrAOhB92ZIAOnQe01V3iyagic5I0FYQjP0OsRVcM+koGdnQcRE5qDwZxFD9G54fRHZc17XiSm/iSCMsp2sJm2JrHnFCfpsASgCn17uH7yRUPkuLrjpQIRUezZDvBAqVDmXnvrwREQbnWAQq0wq7KKqscMpCfbu1jnxhI5QqqmwE+ctfbxMFE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MARIAN COLLEGE

CLIMACO ST., POBLACION, IPIL


ZAMBOANGA SIBUGAY - 7001 PHILIPPINES

BACHELOR OF ARTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE


(BAEL)

STUDENT’S LEARNING
MODULES

LANGUAGE OF NONLITERARY TEXT


ENGLISH 421

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LETTER TO STUDENTS

January 10, 2022

Dear students,

Peace and All Good!

Our world is experiencing an unprecedented health and economic crisis brought by the COVID 19
Pandemic. This current disruption distressed the workforce across socioeconomic strata,
metamorphosing the nature of work and the way we communicate with one another. Schools have
to make adjustment in the teaching and learning processes. Flexible Learning Modality is a proposed
mechanism to continue the delivery of educational services during this period of the pandemic. The
Commission on Higher Education suggested three Flexible Learning Modalities; namely, online, offline
and blended. Taking into account the availability of devices, internet connectivity, and level of digital
literacy, we decided to use blended learning as our flexible mode of delivering instruction and other
services. This module is designed to cater your needs who do not have access to digital technology.
Since it is blended, other students have the option to avail the online component of blended learning.

You are expected to read the contents of this module, study the examples, practice answering the
“Check your progress” portion and answer the exercises at the end of every module. I expect that you
will complete one module per week. Submit your output every Friday on the designated pigeonhole
boxes located at the College Gate.

For any queries with regards to the use of this module or you encounter difficulty understanding the
topic, please don’t hesitate to contact the undersigned on mobile phone number 09276056488. You
can also reach me in my messenger account Meri Lyn or send email in [email protected].

I will ask for your contact details during our course orientation so that I can personally monitor your
progress in this course.

In case the CHED, LGU and IATF will allow us to conduct in-campus/face-to-face teaching and
learning, we will inform you immediately through a text message or other medium of communication.

Stay safe always. God bless you and your family.

MERILYN T. CELECIOUS, MA, MAED

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COURSE DESCRIPTION:

This three-unit course that introduces students to the various approaches to the study of non-literary
texts using various theories in Stylistics as framework for analysis. As expressed by Jeffries and Mcintyre
(2010), one of the most significant developments in the field of Stylistics is probably the move from
being concerned solely with literary texts to seeing all texts as having the potential for stylistic (if not
aesthetic) effect. In addition, there is a large and growing number of researchers whose interest has
increasingly been on the process of reading, the interaction of text and reader to produce meaning,
and the effects of this process, whatever they maybe. Thus, the techniques of analysis developed in
recent years are as applicable to non-literary texts as well. The explanatory power of stylistics can also
help students to understand in more depth the ways in which style of texts can help to influence the
perceptions of readers in more everyday situation, such as listening to political speeches, responding
to advertisements and so on.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the pre-service teachers should be able to:
A. demonstrate a critical understanding of stylistic theories, concepts, and principles as applied to
nonliterary texts, and
B. apply knowledge, skills and understanding of the language of nonliterary texts through written
discourse.

WEEKS TOPIC Page


Numbers
WEEKS 1-2 A Review on Traditional Stylistics: Linguistic Description, 4-13
Foregrounding and the Grammatical Categories
Framework
WEEKS 3-4 Discourse and Context: Function 14-20
WEEKS 5-6 The Language of Conversation 21-32
WEEKS 7-8 The Language of Unscripted 33-41
Commentary
WEEKS 9-10 The Language of Religion 42-50
WEEKS 11-12 The Language of Newspaper 51-57
Reporting
WEEKS 13-14 The Language of Legal Documents & other Non- 58-70
literary texts

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LESSONS 1-2
Desired Learning Outcome/s:
At the end of lesson, the students should be able to write a simple stylistic analysis using traditional stylistics
framework.

The Traditional Approach to Style

The traditional, literary critical attitude towards ‘Style’ is subjective and unscientific, and considers it a writer’s
intuitive insight into aesthetics. This concept of style is essentially ambiguous because the reader may or may
not share with the writer and critic the level and delicacy of intuitive perception. It is, therefore, hegemonic,
undemocratic and imperialistic in its nature.

Style is a writer’s individual mode of expression, way of putting his conceptions into words. It involves a long list
of choices at paradigmatic and syntagmatic axes: choice of lexical items, use of tropes and figures of speech,
phrasal and syntactic structures and the shape of paragraphs. These choices make the writer an individual as
clearly discernible and differentiable as he is in the frequency and quality of his voice, in his behavioral
idiosyncrasies and ways of walking and laughing. It is the whole of man, the whole of his self that speaks through
his style: “The style is the man”, says Buffon (1). This is too sweeping a statement and carries us nowhere, though
some parts of the discussion prior to it are relevant to this research: lexical metaphors are specific paradigmatic
choices of the author that certainly influence and are influenced by syntagmatic axis. Following literary
references further clarify the traditional concept of style:

Chambers’ Twentieth Century Dictionary defines style as “A literary composition: manner of writing, mode of
expressing thought in language or of expression, execution, action, or bearing generally: the distinctive manner
peculiar to an author or other”. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English considers style sum of
“collective characteristics of the writing or diction or way of presenting things or artistic expression or decorative
method proper to a person or school or period or subject matter exhibiting these characteristics” . According to
Encyclopedia Britannica style does not “exist on paper at all; it is the way the mind of an author expresses in
words”. A Dictionary of Literary Terms defines style as

“The characteristic manner of expression in prose or verse; how a particular writer says things. The analysis and
assessment of style involves examination of a writer’s choice of words, his figures of speech, the devices (rhetorical
or otherwise), the shape of his sentences, and the shape of his paragraphs-- indeed, of every conceivable aspect
of his language and the way in which he uses it. Style defies complete analysis or definition… it is the tone and
voice of the writer himself; as peculiar to him as his laugh, his walk, his handwriting and the expression on his
face”.

Gray in his A Dictionary of Literary Terms writes about style that it is “the characteristic manner in which a
writer expresses himself—or herself—, or the particular manner of an individual literary work. Each writer’s style
is unique, but it may be a combination of many different factors, such as typical syntactical structures, a favorite
or distinctive vocabulary, kinds of imagery, attitude to subject matter, kind of subject matter, and so on”. This
definition comes closer to the purpose of this research though in a general way. It refers to syntactic structure,
vocabulary, imagery and attitude to subject matter, and all of these elements are part of a metaphor. Gray
says that “Criticism often consists in description of a writer’s style by analysis of syntax, tone imagery, point of
view and, indeed, every characteristic linguistic feature” (7). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
writes that style is “A particular way of doing something, or producing something, especially one that is typical
of a particular period of time or of a group of people … [It is] the particular way someone uses words to express
ideas, tell stories etc”.

Investigating English Style defines style from speech perspective. “Sense of style (implies) semi-instinctive
knowledge of linguistic appropriateness and (more important), of the taboo, which corresponds as closely as
possible to the fluent native speaker’s”. They consider the cliché observation that style is the man to be
‘mistaken’ and refer to it as “a selection of language habits, the occasional linguistic idiosyncrasies which
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characterize an individual’s uniqueness”. They give four senses of ‘style’: “some or all language habits of one
person”; “some or all language habits shared by a group of people at one time, or over a period of time”; “effect
of a mode of expression”, and fourthly, in evaluative literary sense with the previous three meanings
overlapping they find the first and second meaning nearest to their perception. “English Literature: A Student
Guide” writes that in its simplest form style is “the collective impression left fingerprint”. Again the phrases ‘the
collective impression’, ‘individual’s literary fingerprint’ or even the four senses given above because of their
impressionistic nature are off the point.

Havelock Ellis says that style is not merely an invisible transparent medium, not merely a garment of thought
but the thought itself. He considers it miraculous expression of spirit possible in no other way Henry Fielding’s
words are worth quoting: “there is no branch of criticism in which learning as well as good sense is more required
than to the forming an accurate judgment of style, though there is none, I believe, in which every trifling reader
is more ready to give his decision”. Ellis’s statement, despite its beauty, is very personal and subjective. Fielding’s
observation on style suggests a need for accurate judgment of the phenomenon and in this respect looks
forward to and anticipates linguistic treatment of the subject.

Subjectivity in Traditional Approach to Style


A cursory glance at some of the traditional definitions of style quoted above shows their impressionistic nature
that renders them unacceptable for and inapplicable to a linguistic analysis. Style is sum of collective
characteristics of writing, diction and expression; it does consist in individual linguistic idiosyncrasies; it is the
collective impression left by the way an author expresses himself; but despite all this, vagueness stays there.
These pseudo-definitions neither have any scientificity and definiteness that linguistics requires nor does the
researcher find any clear way to follow. One definition or two that come close to the stance of this research
refer to style as choice of words, figures of speech, devices, syntax, favorite vocabulary, kinds of imagery etc.

Linguistic Description/Approach to Stylistics


As linguistics studies language scientifically, it studies style as well in an impersonal and objective manner.
Stylistics defines, studies and analyses style objectively and technically applying methodology of linguistics.
Literature was traditionally appreciated nontechnically and the critic depended on his superior vision and
arbitrary good taste of the reader. Catherine Belsey refers to Frye who, like New Critics, in pursuit of objectivity,
considers “Existing criticism without system, atomistic, intuitive and so finally elitist, a ritual of sensibility which
mystifies the possession of an illusory ‘good taste’. In place of this ‘mystery religion without a gospel’ he proposes
that criticism should become a coherent and systematic study…” (15). Stylistics, on the other hand, evaluates a
literary text precisely. Descriptive linguistics gives stylistic analysis of a text at phonological, syntactic and
semantic levels of linguistic description. Stylistics uses its own metalanguage and terminology to analyze a text
and to parse its items and structures. The communicative power and connotative significance of these isolated
linguistic items and structures is evaluated objectively. John Lyons says that style implies “those components and
features of a literary composition which give to it individual stamp, marking it as the work of a particular
author and producing a certain effect on the readers”.

Riffaterre has well put the role and function of stylistics: “The author’s encoding is permanent, but the process
of decoding changes as the language changes in the course of time. Stylistics should encompass this simultaneity
of permanence and change”. M. Riffaterre’s definition of style is more enlightening and also suggests the
function of stylistics: “Style is the means by which the… encoder ensures that his message is decoded in such a
way that the reader not only understands the information conveyed, but shares the writer’s attitude towards
it” . Riffateur’s approach is relevant to this research in a broader perspective because metaphor does involve
this simultaneity of permanence and change. According to Archibald A. Hill stylistics is concerned with “all those
relations among linguistic entities which are statable, or may be statable, in terms of wider spans than those
which fall within the limits of a sentence.” Malmkjær, similarly, defines style as a “consistent occurrence in the
text of certain items and structures…”(19).

Geoffrey N. Leech in A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry defines stylistics as “simply the study of literary style,
or to make matters even more explicit, the study of the use of language in literature. When we discuss style, we
often have in mind the language of a particular writer, a particular period, a particular genre, even a particular
poem” (20). Leech has analyzed the elements and features of style in detail in his A Linguistic Guide to the
5
Study of Poetry According to Aitchison, “The linguistic analysis of literary language is known as stylistics…the
words style and stylistics have acquired somewhat specialized, narrow usage of linguistics applied to literature”
(21). John Lyons defines stylistics “as the study of stylistic variation in languages and of the way in which this is
exploited by their users” (22). But admitting this definition too general, he narrows it down to ‘literary stylistics’:
“the study of the language of a literary text” (23). Widdowson too in the same vein speaks of the relationship
between the two disciplines of linguistics and literature. Stylistics is a bridge between linguistics and literary
criticism, between language and literature. To quote Widdowson’s words: “…stylistics is an area of mediation
between two disciplines…stylistics can provide a way of mediation between two subjects” (24). Widdowson is
very comprehensive in his attitude towards stylistics. He makes it all inclusive study of linguistics, literary
criticism, language and literature. The following diagram by Widdowson illustrates this concept:

As the diagram shows, Widdowson considers stylistics a branch of linguistics that studies literary discourse from
linguistic approach. He says that “one can conduct enquiries of a linguistic kind without any reference to literary
criticism” and vice versa (26). Another opinion is that literary criticism is impossible without any reference to
language because literary interpretation does involve the study of the language of a text. This diagram implies
that stylistics is neither a discipline nor a subject in itself, “but a means of relating disciplines and subjects” (27).
He suggests that stylistics involves both literary criticism and linguistics. Leo Spitzer has also given the some
solution to the problem in his essay, ‘Linguistics and Literary History’: “Stylistics, I thought, might bridge the gap
between linguistics and literary history” (28). Spitzer, the father of ‘the New Stylistics’, contributed to literary
criticism in two ways:
“He asserted and demonstrated that in causally relating a particular literary effect to a particular order
of language, criticism takes a significant step forward from impressionistic appreciation---goes perhaps as far
as it can go in explaining the effectiveness of a literary text… His achievement was his development of a method
for dealing with the style of long and complex structures, such as novels. It has been described as the ‘linguistic’
or ‘philological circle” (29).

Similarly, Cluysenaar, as quoted by Malmkjær in the Linguistic Encyclopedia, considers literary stylistics “an
extension of literary criticism” (30). Gray Louis is close to this observation when he says that “the real linguist is
half a literateur and the real literateur is half a linguist” (31). Margaret Berry in an introduction to systemic
linguistics defines stylistics in the same vein in a more direct way: “stylistics is the application of linguistics to the
study of literature” (32). Linguistics is sometimes defined as a language for talking about language. So is the
case with stylistics: linguistics has helped literary scholars “to express their observations about literary works more
neatly, more precisely and less emotively than is often the case in critical writing” (33).

M.A.K. Halliday, however, considers linguistic study of a text superior to the literary criticism : “There is a
difference between ad hoc, personal and arbitrary selective statements such as are sometimes offered, perhaps
in support of a performulated literary thesis, as textual or linguistic statements about literature, and a
description of a text based on general linguistic theory.” (34) Fowler deduces Halliday’s position from this
statement that “the literary criticism of language is logically inferior because the critic makes up his mind in
advance and then supports his claims by citing selected aspects of the text” (35). English Literature: A Student
Guide proposes the function of stylistics as the analysis of a piece of literature in terms of its speech patterns,
diction meter, rhythm and syntax and use of rhetorical figures of speech and other textual features (36).

Finch defines stylistics as the branch of linguistics that applies the methodologies of linguistics to analyze the
concept of style in language (37).Stylistics has its own framework, approaches and techniques for interpretation
and description of a literary text. The core focus of this area is to get at the very clues embedded in the text
consciously or unconsciously by the creative artist. Richard Bradford in Stylistics traces its origin in the Greek

6
techne rhetorike, the art of speech. “Rhetoric is an art, a necessary condition of philosophical debate. To perceive
the same fact or argument dressed in different linguistic forms is not immoral or dangerous” (38). Perception of
different literary forms is an obvious reference to variant stylistic features of different texts. Analyzing the history
of twentieth-century criticism, Bradford says that the New Critics and the Formalists inherited the tradition of
rhetoric maintaining a belief in empirical difference between literary and non-literary language discipline of
rhetoric, in the sense that they have maintained a belief in the empirical difference between literature and
other types of language and have attempted to specify this difference in terms of style and effect.

Bradford divides “different approaches to stylistics into two basic categories: textualist and contextualist” (39)
and places the Formalists and New Critics in the former one. Cleanth Brooks’ The Well Wrought Urn is a classic
of textual stylistics. New Critical stylistics not only identifies “linguistic features that make poetry different from
other discourses, but with poetry as a form of signification which mysteriously transforms the familiar
relationship between language and meaning” (40).

Stylostatistics, the statistical study of style, is another interdisciplinary area within stylistics that studies a text by
studying frequency of a particular linguistic item e.g. word-length. It was an American geophysicist T.C.
Mendenhall who gave the idea that “word-length might be a distinguishing characteristic of writers…” (41).

STYLISTIC FOREGROUNDING
Definitions and concepts
• Foreground is a term usually used in art, having opposite meaning to background.
• It’s a very general principle of artistic communication that a work of art in some way deviates from norms
which we, as members of society, have learnt to expect in the medium used and that anyone who wishes
to investigate the significance and value of a work of art must concentrate on the element of interest and
surprise, rather than on the automatic pattern. Such deviations from linguistic or other socially accepted
norms are labeled foregrounding, which invokes the analogy of a figure seen against a background
(Leech,1968: 57).
• In stylistics, the notion of foregrounding, a term borrowed from the Prague School of Linguistics, is used by
Leech and Short (1981: 48) to refer to ‘artistically motivated deviation’.
• The term foregrounding has its origin with the Czech theorist Jan Mukarovský: it is how Mukarovský's
original term, aktualisace, was rendered in English by his first translator (Mukarovský, 1932/1964). It refers
to the range of stylistic effects that occur in literature, whether at the phonetic level (e.g., alliteration,
rhyme), the grammatical level (e.g., inversion, ellipsis), or the semantic level (e.g., metaphor, irony).
• As Mukarovský pointed out, foregrounding may occur in normal, everyday language, such as spoken
discourse or journalistic prose, but it occurs at random with no systematic design. In literary texts, on the
other hand, foregrounding is structured: it tends to be both systematic and hierarchical. That is, similar
features may recur, such as a pattern of assonance or a related group of metaphors, and one set of features
will dominate the others (Mukarovský, 1964, p. 20), a phenomenon that Jakobson termed "the dominant"
(1987, pp. 41-46).
• Foregrounding is the opposite of automatization, that is, the deautomatization of an act; the more an act
is automatized, the less it is consciously executed; the more it is foregrounded, the more completely conscious
does it become. Objectively speaking: automatization schematizes an event; foregrounding means the
violation of the scheme. (1964, p. 19)
• The technique of art, including literature, is to make objects "unfamiliar," to make forms difficult, to increase
the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and
must be prolonged. (1917/1965, p. 12)
• Miall and Kuiken refer foregrounding to stylistic variation that evokes feelings and prolong reading time.
• The immediate effect of foregrounding is to make strange (ostranenie), to achieve defamiliarization.
Shklovsky saw defamiliarization as accompanied by feeling: he noted, more precisely, that stylistic devices
in literary texts "emphasize the emotional effect of an expression" (Shklovsky, 1917/1965, p.9). And,
Mukarovský concurs, "When used poetically, words and groups of words evoke a greater richness of images
and feelings than if they were to occur in a communicative utterance" (1977, p. 73).
• Verdonk states that foregrounding is the psychological effect a literary reader has as s/he is reading a work
of literature.
7
• There is some evidence that foregrounding in literary texts strikes readers as interesting and captures their
attention. Hunt and Vipond (1985) investigated the effects of textual features that they, following Labov
(1972), refer to as "discourse evaluations." These are described as "words, phrases, or events" that are
"unpredictable against the norm of the text" and that convey the narrator's evaluations of story characters
or events. Since discourse evaluations resemble foregrounding as discussed in the present report, Hunt and
Vipond's findings are noteworthy. In a study with readers of a short story, they found that readers were
more likely to report that story phrases "struck them" or "caught their eye" when presented with the original
discourse evaluations than when those phrases had been adapted so that the same story events were
described in relatively "neutral" terms.

Examples:
1. Sillitoe’s text - Now you’d think, and I’d think, and everybody with a bit of imagination would think, that
we’d done as clean a job as could ever be done, that with the baker’s shop being at least a mile from where
we lived, and with not a soul having seen us, and what with the fog and the fact that we weren’t more
than five minutes in the place, that the coppers should never have been able to trace us. But then, you’d
be wrong, I’d be wrong and everybody else would be wrong, no matter how much imagination was diced
out between us.

1. Foregrounding in Sillitoe’s text


(α1) Now you’d think, and I’d think, and everybody with a bit of imagination would think, that we’d done as
clean a job as could ever be done, that (β1) with the baker’s shop being at least a mile from where we lived,
(β2) and with not a soul having seen us, (β3) and what with the fog and the fact that we weren’t more than
five minutes in the place, that the coppers should never have been able to trace us. (α2) But then, you’d be
wrong, (α3) I’d be wrong (α4) and everybody else would be
wrong, (β4) no matter how much imagination was diced out between us.
1.1. Foregrounded features and stylistic effect The impression the reader gets when reading this passage is that
of a cleverly structured text which effectively recounts an experience. Its effectiveness and vividness are due in
great measure to the following factors:
a) The recursion of clauses, mainly through co-ordination, with similar or identical structure;
b) The distribution of clauses in groups of threes, producing a striking pattern of parallelisms:

Even the final arrangement is that of three blocks of clauses, realizing a symmetrical pattern where a
contradiction is expressed between the two symmetrical elements (the clauses ‘you’d think’, ‘I’d think’, etc., and
the clauses you’d be wrong, I’d be wrong, etc.). The contradiction is in a way made more prominent by the
insertion of the group of subordinated clauses between them, having a
stronger dramatic effect, which makes the reader try to anticipate what is going to be said.
c) The third factor is lexical repetition in the co-ordinated units; the effect produced by the recursion on the
syntactic level can be said to be reinforced by the repetition of the lexical items. This is particularly noticeable
in the independent clauses (‘You’d think’, ‘I’d think’, etc., and ‘You’d be wrong’, ‘I’d be wrong’, etc.), though it
also appears in the subordinated clauses.

The text seems to present a contrast between features that characterize spoken, colloquial language on the
one hand, and a complex structural pattern that is more typical of written, more formal varieties of language,
on the other.

8
There are several features that characterize spoken versus written language: first, the use of co-ordination.
Extensive use of co-ordination is usually said to be preferred in spoken language to subordination, since it
‘simplifies the planning of sentence structure’ (Leech and Short, 1981: 163). In the second place, we can notice
other features, such as the first person narrative reinforced by direct address to the reader, with expressions such
as ‘you’d be wrong’, ‘you know’, ‘to tell you the truth’, which are recurrent in the novel and which contribute
to the conversational tone of the narration. Thirdly, there is the use of nonstandard forms of the language,
though no instances in the particular extract I am analyzing. Throughout the novel we can find examples such
as: the use of ‘them’ for the demonstrative ‘those’; use of ‘was’ for ‘were’; use of ungrammatical past participles,
as in ‘could have took’, etc.

These features seem to go well with the colloquial character of the passage, but are even more striking if we
consider the parallel structures and the lexical repetitions that seem to be so carefully arranged in the text. Also,
and in spite of the predominance of paratactic relations, the length of sentence 1 and the inclusion of several
subordinate and embedded clauses make it difficult to imagine that the passage could have been realized in
spoken form. Its rhetorical elaboration reminds us of a prepared speech; it is not for the vocabulary used and
the content of the text.
1.2. Mind-style and the social context The apparently paradoxical character of the text can be better
understood if the reader has some previous knowledge of the novel and its main character, who is also
the narrator: a young boy who is sent to Borstal after the theft he has been narrating just before the
passage I am analyzing. There is in the first page of the novel a sentence which I think is very significant
for the understanding of the novel and this passage in particular:cunning is what counts in this life, and
even that you’ve got to use in the slyest way you can (17)
One thing he proves is that he actually is cunning, since, although hardly able to write, as he himself puts it (p.
13) he can handle language in a very effective way and successfully attract the reader’s attention: it is the
blending of the colloquial or conversational elements into a complex structure that makes the text so
fascinating. In general terms, and applying Fowler’s notion to the mind-style of the narrator, we can describe
it as being the instrument through which a ‘world view’ is given through the eyes of the narrator and main
character from a social and personal perspective at the same time: it is the language and the world view of an
uneducated young man, a potential criminal or outcast, who resorts to cunning as a means of protecting his
integrity and individuality without giving in to external social pressures.
1.3. Analysis of Sillitoe’s text - This passage consists of two complex sentences:
1. Now you’d think…trace us.
2. But then…between us.
Sentence 1 is realized by an independent clause followed by three dependent clauses: the structure can be
represented as follows:

α1 is discontinuous, being interrupted by the three dependent clauses. Also, it presents a recursive SP pattern:

The dependent clauses can be said to have the following


structure:

β1 and β2 are non-finite ING clauses with expressed subject, while β3 is realized by verbless clause introduced
by ‘what with’, co-ordinated with a finite ‘that’ clause, also introduced by an ellipted ‘what with’.

9
Sentence 2 is realized by three independent clauses followed by a dependent one. The structure can be
represented as follows:

We can conclude saying that the text presents a predominance of coordinated units, four of them being of the
asyndetic type and five of them syndetic. The distribution of the clauses can be expressed in the following way:
1) Sentence 1: realised by one independent α clause dominating three co-ordinated subordinate β clauses.
2) Sentence 2: realised by three independent α clauses dominating a subordinate β clause.

Grammatical Categories
Grammatical categories are linguistic categories which have the effect of modifying the forms of some class of
words in a language (Radford, 2004: 3). These categories are divided into several classifications.
1. Sentence Types - Based on their functions, there are three sentence types: Declarative, Interrogative, and
Imperative.
a) Declarative Sentences
A declarative sentence states an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question. A
declarative sentence usually ends in a period, even though it may end in an exclamation point.
Example: I now pronounce you husband and wife.
b) Interrogative Sentences
An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a direct question. It is punctuated with a question mark at
the end. In English, an interrogative sentence normally changes the word order so that the verb or part of the
verb comes before the subject.
Example: Do you have a minute?
c) Imperative Sentences An imperative sentence asks, requests, or commands someone to do something. An
imperative sentence drops the subject.
Example: Open the door, please!

2. Sentence Complexity
This area categorizes sentences based on their complexity. In general, there are two main structures of sentences:
simple sentences and complex sentences. A sentence is considered a simple one whenever it contains only a
single clause, while any sentence that has more than one clause is included into a complex sentence.
Example:
[a] He is a teacher
[b] He teaches his students and helps them to reach their dreams. Sentence [a] He is a teacher only has an
independent clause, and it is the example of a simple sentence structure. Sentence [b] He teaches his students
and help them to reach their dreams has two clauses that are both independent: He teaches his students and
(he) helps them to reach their dreams. It represents the type of complex sentence.

3. Noun Phrases
This element includes investigation of the complexity of noun phrases in a text. A stylistic analysis of noun phrase
seeks whether the noun phrases used are simple or complex and where the complexity lies (in pre-modification
by adjectives, nouns, etc. or in post-modification by prepositional phrases, relative clauses). Based on Quirk and
Greenbaum’s University Grammar of English (1973), there are three components in describing a complex noun
phrase:
a) The Head. Head is defined as something around which the other components cluster and which dictates
concord and other kinds of congruence with the rest of the sentence outside the noun phrase.
b) The Pre-modification. It comprises all the items placed before the head – notably adjectives and nouns.

10
c) The Post-modification. It comprises all the items placed after the head – notably prepositional phrases, non-
finite clauses, and relative clauses.
For example, in the noun phrase.
The nice baby crying in the bedroom, the Head is baby, the Pre-modification is the nice, and The Post-
modification is in the bedroom and crying is verb.

c. Figures of Speech
These features are foregrounded by virtue of departing in some way from general norms of communication by
means of the language code, for example, exploitation of regularities of formal patterning, or of deviation from
the language code (Leech, 1981: 78). To identify such features, the traditional categories of scheme and tropes
are often used. Schemes are ‘foregrounded repetitions of expression’, and tropes are ‘foregrounded irregularities
of content (Leech, 1981:82). In a deeper concept, schemes are defined as abnormal arrangements lending
themselves to the forceful and harmonious presentation of ideas (Leech, 1968: 74). In rough, they include figures
such as alliteration and anaphora. On the other hand, tropes are roughly said as devices involving the alteration
of the normal meaning of expression (Leech, 1968: 74). Metaphor, irony, and synecdoche are included in this
class.

Another important note about figures of speech is that they are matters of comparison. Beardsley in Damon,
et.al (1966: 76) asserts that all figures of speech are comparisons, but not all comparisons are figures of speech.
Furthermore, according to Beardsley in Damon, et.al (1966: 77), it is not possible, or necessary, for ordinary
purpose, to be very precise about this distinction. The important thing is the degree of difference between the
two things compared. There are two sentences as the examples:
(a) Dandy fights bravely.
(b) Dandy fights like a lion.

Sentence (b) contains a figure of speech while (a) is not. The differences among them are quite obvious, but it
is not easy to state. Comparison is about whether two items being compared have some similarities or
differences. Since the second statement compares Dandy with something else, the interpretation should begin
from the comparison. Dandy and Lion do not belong to the same biological species. Therefore, it is a deviation
to compare Dandy with a lion. However, the readers or hearers will not be bothered by this fact since it is
understood that it is the similar concepts – not the literal meanings, which are being emphasized. This is where
the comparison in figures of speech is different from usual comparisons.

d. Context and Cohesion


Context refers to the situation giving rise to the discourse, and within which the discourse is embedded (Nunan,
1993: 7-8). There are two types of context: linguistic and non-linguistic context. Linguistic context is the language
that surrounds or accompanies a piece of discourse under analysis. On the other hand, the non-linguistic context
is the experiential context within which the discourse takes place. It includes the type of communicative event,
the topic, the purpose of the event, the setting, the participants and the relationships between them, and the
background knowledge and assumptions underlying the communicative event.

Cohesion is defined as ways in which sentences are connected. It is the internal organization of a text (Leech,
1981: 79-80). The investigation is mainly about the logical links between sentences and how the connections are
made (e.g. by using coordinating conjunctions, linking adverbials, word repetitions, etc).

11
ACTIVITY:
Instructions: Answer the following:
1. Think of an Acronym for TRADITIONAL APPROACH. Make sure you based it on the lesson.
T– A-
R– P-
A– P-
D– R-
I– O-
T– A-
I– C-
O– H-
N–
A–
L
2. Why there is subjectivity in Traditional Approach to style?
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain this statement from Riffaterre which he has well put the role and function of stylistics: “The author’s
encoding is permanent, but the process of decoding changes as the language changes in the course of
time.”
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain STYLISTIC FOREGROUNDING
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Discuss Grammatical Categories: Sentence Types, Sentence Complexity and Noun Phrases.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

12
TASK TO DO:

Instructions: Make a SUMMARY SHEET.


TOPIC: ______________________
1. What is the topic about?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What new information did you learn from the topic? Include new terms and their meanings.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Which of the new information is most significant to you? Why?


_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

LESSONS 3-4
Desired Learning Outcome/s:
At the end of lesson, the students should be able to apply learned frameworks in textual analysis.

Discourse and Context: Function


The Role of Context in Discourse Analysis

Introduction
The study of context has been gaining popularity in recent years, either in linguistics itself or in many
other interdisciplinary subjects such as semantics, pragmatics, and discourse analysis as well. However,
context theories are not formed overnight. They involve a long process of development, during which
comparative linguistics, structural linguistics and transformational-generative linguistics all
contributed to the theoretical foundations of context theories.

When we introduce context theories to the field of discourse analysis, we must take into consideration
not only the discourse itself, but also the context in which the discourse takes place. Just like what
Fillmore (1977, P, 119) said, “The task is to determine what we can know about the meaning and

13
context of an utterance given only the knowledge that the utterance has occurred … I find that
whenever I notice some sentence in context, I immediately find myself asking what
the effect would have been if the context had been slightly different.” (Gillian Brown & George Yule,
2000, p.35)

II. DEFINITIONS OF CONTEXT


Different linguists seek to define context from different point of view in order to answer questions
encountered in their own fields, and to support their own ideas and theories. H. G. Widdowson, when
focusing his study on language meaning, thought “context” as “those aspects of the circumstance of
actual language use which are taken as relevant to meaning.” He further pointed out, “in other words,
context is a schematic construct... the achievement of pragmatic meaning is a matter of matching up
the linguistic elements of the code with the schematic elements of the context.” (H.G. Widdowson,
2000, p.126)

When Guy Cook was studying the relationship between discourse and literature, he took “context”
into consideration as well. In his definition, context is just a form of knowledge the world and “the term
context‟ can be used in a broad and narrow sense. In the narrow sense, it refers to (knowledge of)
factors outside the text under consideration. In the broad sense, it refers to (knowledge of) these factors
and to (knowledge of) other parts of the text under consideration, sometimes referred to as co-text‟.”
(Guy Cook, 1999, p. 24)

When studying reference and inference, George Yule also took “context” into account. He provided
us with a somewhat general definition, “Context is the physical environment in which a word is used.”
(George Yule, 2000, 128) Although they are viewed from different perspectives for different purposes,
these definitions have an important point in common: one main point of the context is the
environment (circumstances or factors by some other scholars) in which a discourse occurs.

III. CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONTEXT


Opinions on how to classify context vary from one to another. Some linguists divide context into two
groups, while some insist on discussing context from three, four, or even six dimensions. According to
different circumstances mentioned in the above definitions, I would like to divide context into linguistic
context, situational context and cultural context.

A. Linguistic Context
Linguistic context refers to the context within the discourse, that is, the relationship between the words,
phrases, sentences and even paragraphs. Take the word “bachelor” as an example. We can’t
understand the exact meaning of the sentence “He is a bachelor.” without the linguistic context to
make clear the exact meaning of this word.

Linguistic context can be explored from three aspects: deictic, co-text, and collocation. In a language
event, the participants must know where they are in space and time, and these features relate directly
to the deictic context, by which we refer to the deictic expressions like the time expressions now, then,
etc., the spatial expressions here, there, etc., and the person expressions I, you, etc... Deictic expressions
help to establish deictic roles which derive from the fact that in normal language behavior the speaker
addresses his utterance to another person and may refer to himself, to a certain place, or to a time.

In recent years, some linguists began to pay attention to the previous discourse co-ordinate. Levis
introduces this co-ordinate to take account of the aforementioned sentences. It is the case that any
sentence other than the first in a fragment of discourse, will have the whole of its interpretation forcibly
14
constrained by the preceding text, not just those phrases which obviously and specifically refer to the
preceding text. The interpretations of the words which occur in discourse is constrained by, following
Halliday, their co-text. In 1934, Porzig argued for the recognition of the importance of syntagmatic
relations, between, e.g., bite and teeth, bark and dog, blond and hair, which Firth called collocation.
Collocation is not simply a matter of association of ideas.

Although milk is white, we should not often say white milk, while the expression white paint is common
enough.

B. Situational Context
Situational context, or context of situation, refers to the environment, time and place, etc. in which
the discourse occurs, and also the relationship between the participants. This theory is traditionally
approached through the concept of register, which helps to clarify the interrelationship of language
with context by handling it under three basic headings: field, tenor, and mode.

Field of discourse refers to the ongoing activity. We may say field is the linguistic reflection of the
purposive role of language user in the situation in which a text has occurred. Tenor refers to the kind
of social relationship enacted in or by the discourse. The notion of tenor, therefore, highlights the way
in which linguistic choices are affected not just by the topic or subject of communication but also by
the kind of social relationship within which communication is taking place. Mode is the linguistic
reflection of the relationship the language user has to medium of transmission. The principal distinction
within mode is between those channels of communication that entail immediate contact and those
that allow for deferred contact between participants.

C. Cultural Context
Cultural context refers to the culture, customs and background of epoch in language communities in
which the speakers participate. Language is a social phenomenon, and it is closely tied up with the
social structure and value system of society. Therefore, language cannot avoid being influenced by all
these factors like social role, social status, sex and age, etc. Social roles are culture-specific functions,
institutionalized in a society and recognized by its members. By social status, we mean the relative
social standing of the participants. Each participant in the language event must know, or make
assumptions about his or her status in relation to the other, and in many situations, status will also be
an important factor in the determination of who should initiate the conversation. Sex and age are
often determinants of, or interact with, social status. The terms of address employed by a person of
one sex speaking to an older person, may differ from those which would be employed in otherwise
similar situations by people of the same sex or of the same age.

III. CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONTEXT

Opinions on how to classify context vary from one to another. Some linguists divide context into two
groups, while some insist on discussing context from three, four, or even six dimensions. According to
different circumstances mentioned in the above definitions, I would like to divide context into linguistic
context, situational context and cultural context.

A. Linguistic Context
Linguistic context refers to the context within the discourse, that is, the relationship between the words,
phrases, sentences and even paragraphs. Take the word “bachelor” as an example. We can’t
understand the exact meaning of the sentence “He is a bachelor.” without the linguistic context to
make clear the exact meaning of this word.

15
Linguistic context can be explored from three aspects: deictic, co-text, and collocation. In a language
event, the participants must know where they are in space and time, and these features relate directly
to the deictic context, by which we refer to the deictic expressions like the time expressions now, then,
etc., the spatial expressions here, there, etc., and the person expressions I, you, etc... Deictic expressions
help to establish deictic roles which derive from the fact that in normal language behavior the speaker
addresses his utterance to another person and may refer to himself, to a certain place, or to a time.

In recent years, some linguists began to pay attention to the previous discourse co-ordinate. Levis
introduces this co-ordinate to take account of the aforementioned sentences. It is the case that any
sentence other than the first in a fragment of discourse, will have the whole of its interpretation forcibly
constrained by the preceding text, not just those phrases which obviously and specifically refer to the
preceding text. The interpretations of the words which occur in discourse are constrained by, following
Halliday, their co-text.

In 1934, Porzig argued for the recognition of the importance of syntagmatic relations, between, e.g.,
bite and teeth, bark and dog, blond and hair, which Firth called collocation. Collocation is not simply
a matter of association of ideas. Although milk is white, we should not often say white milk, while the
expression white paint is common enough.

B. Situational Context
Situational context, or context of situation, refers to the environment, time and place, etc. in which
the discourse occurs, and also the relationship between the participants. This theory is traditionally
approached through the concept of register, which helps to clarify the interrelationship of language
with context by handling it under three basic headings: field, tenor, and mode.

Field of discourse refers to the ongoing activity. We may say field is the linguistic reflection of the
purposive role of language user in the situation in which a text has occurred. Tenor refers to the kind
of social relationship enacted in or by the discourse. The notion of tenor, therefore, highlights the way
in which linguistic choices are affected not just by the topic or subject of communication but also by
the kind of social relationship within which communication is taking place. Mode is the linguistic
reflection of the relationship the language user has to medium of transmission. The principal distinction
within mode is between those channels of communication that entail immediate contact and those
that allow for deferred contact between participants.

C. Cultural Context
Cultural context refers to the culture, customs and background of epoch in language communities in
which the speakers participate. Language is a social phenomenon, and it is closely tied up with the
social structure and value system of society. Therefore, language cannot avoid being influenced by all
these factors like social role, social status, sex and age, etc.

Social roles are culture-specific functions, institutionalized in a society and recognized by its members.
By social status, we mean the relative social standing of the participants. Each participant in the
language event must know, or make assumptions about his or her status in relation to the other, and
in many situations, status will also be an important factor in the determination of who should initiate
the conversation. Sex and age are often determinants of, or interact with, social status. The terms of
address employed by a person of one sex speaking to an older person, may differ from those which
would be employed in otherwise similar situations by people of the same sex or of the same age.

16
IV. THE ROLE OF CONTEXT
As we can see, context plays a very important role in discourse analysis. Let‟s try to generalize its role
as follows.

A. Eliminating Ambiguity
Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or group of sentences with more than one possible
interpretation or meaning. There are two kinds of ambiguities: lexical ambiguity and structural
ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity is mostly caused by homonymy and polysemy. For example, these four
words, right, rite, write and wright, are all pronounced as [rait], but they are quite different from each
other.

Let’s also have a look at the following sentence:


They passed the port at midnight.

This sentence is lexically ambiguous. However, it would normally be clear in a given context which can
indicate the meaning of the word “port”, meaning either harbor or a kind of fortified wine. Structural
ambiguity arises from the grammatical analysis of a sentence or a phrase. For example, the phrase
young men and women can be analyzed as either “young /men and women/” (i.e. both are young)
or “/young men/ and women” (i.e. only the men are young).

Let us also examine the following sentence:


I like Bill more than Mary.

This sentence can mean “I like Bill more than Mary does.” or “I like Bill more than I like Mary.” In such
examples, a given context can indicate what the sentence exactly means.
B. Indicating Referents
To avoid repetition, we usually use such words like I, you, he, this, that, etc. to replace some noun
phrases, or words like do, can, should, etc. to replace verb phrases, or then, there, etc. to replace
adverbial phrase of time and place. Therefore, context is of great importance in understanding the
referents of such words.

The following dialogue is written by the well-known linguist, Firth:


-- Do you think he will?
-- I don’t know. He might.
-- I suppose he ought to, but perhaps he feels he can’t.
-- Well, his brothers have. They perhaps think he needn’t.
-- Perhaps eventually he will. I think he should, and I very much hope he will. (Zhang yunfei, 2000,
p.245)

Without context, we can hardly guess what the speakers are talking about since there are too many
auxiliary verbs and modal verbs such as will, might, have, can’t, etc. used in the dialogue. In fact, these
auxiliary and modal verbs replace the verb phrase, “join the army”. From this typical example, we
can see the important role of context.

C. Detecting Conversational Implicature


The term conversational implicature is used by Grice to account for what a speaker can imply, suggest,
or mean, as distinct from what the speaker literally says and it is deduced on the basis of the
conversational meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the Cooperative
Principle and its four maxims, i.e., Quantity, Quality, Relation and Manner.

17
Grice also found that when people communicate with each other, they do not always adhere to the
four maxims. The violation of a maxim may result in the speaker conveying, in addition to the literal
meaning of his utterance, an additional meaning, which is conversational implicature. Let us look at
the following example: (The husband has just finished supper and wanted to watch TV, leaving his
wife alone to clear the table and wash dishes.)

Wife: Shouldn‟t you help me do some housework?


Husband: I have worked for nine hours.

Superficially, the husband’s answer has nothing to do with the wife’s question. He violates the maxim
of relevance. Actually, we must assume that the husband is adhering to the Cooperative Principle
and means something more than the literal meaning. The additional meaning, namely,
conversational implicature, is that he has worked for a whole day, so he is too tired to help his wife to
do any housework.

Once the analysis of intended meaning goes beyond the literal meaning of an utterance, a vast
number of issues have to be considered. In discourse analysis, conversational implicature is pragmatic
and is partially derived from the conversational or literal meaning of an utterance, produced in a
specific context, which is shared by the speaker and the hearer, and depends on their recognition of
the Cooperative Principle and its maxims. Now let us see another example.
(The boss of a restaurant gives two pennies to a temporary worker who does washing for him.)

Boss: Here is your pay, boy!


Worker: I have worked for nine hours.

In this conversational fragment, we can find that the second utterance is the same as the previous
example, namely, they have the same literal meaning. Besides, they both seem to be irrelevant to the
utterance of the first speaker and we can also assume that the maxim of relevance is deliberately
violated. Then can we conclude that the two utterances have the same conversational implicature?
No. It is unreasonable for the worker to tell his boss that he is too tired to work for him, when his boss
gives him the pay that does not match his nine-hour hard work. The real conversational implicature
of his utterance is that the boss should have given him more pay since he had worked such a long
time. We must pay attention to the changed context: the relationship of two speakers has changed
from wife-husband to boss-worker; the status has changed from equal to superior-inferior; and the
pre-linguistic context has changed from words for a request of doing housework to that for an action
of giving pay. The conversational implicature is changed as the context changes. The perception of a
conversational implicature cannot let aside the specific context where the discourse occurs.

V. CONCLUSION
We have talked about the definition, classification, and role of context in discourse analysis from
different aspects. However, it is certain that the list can go on as further study deepens. In a word,
context plays a very important role in discourse analysis. A discourse and its context are in close
relationship: the discourse elaborates its context and the context helps interpret the meaning of
utterances in the discourse. The knowledge of context is a premise of the analysis of a discourse. When
we study and analyze a discourse, we should bear in mind that no context, no discourse and we should
not neglect the related context of a discourse.

18
ACTIVITY:
Instructions: Answer the following:
1. What is the role of Context in Discourse Analysis?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Cite one definition of Context as discussed in the above text.


_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Explain the Classifications of Context: Linguistic Context, Situational Context and Cultural Context.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

TASKS TO DO:
Instructions: Make and Exit Slip – 3-2-1.

Topic: ______________________________

3 key terms/ideas/concepts/skills:
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2 key terms/ideas/concepts/skills you would like to know more about


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1 key term/idea/concept/skill you have mastered.

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LESSONS 5 - 6
Desired Learning Outcome/s:
At the end of lesson, the students should be able to independently analyze specimen of text using the
framework learned in the discussion of sample text.

Conversation
It is an interactive communication between two or more people. The development of conversational
skills and etiquette is an important part of socialization. The development of conversational skills in a
new language is a frequent focus of language teaching and learning. Conversation analysis is a branch
of sociology which studies the structure and organization of human interaction, with a more specific
focus on conversational interaction.

No generally accepted definition of conversation exists, beyond the fact that a conversation involves
at least two people talking together. Consequently, the term is often defined by what it is not. A
ritualized exchange such as a mutual greeting is not a conversation, and an interaction that includes
a marked status differential (such as a boss giving orders) is also not a conversation. An interaction
with a tightly focused topic or purpose is also generally not considered a conversation. Summarizing
these properties, one authority writes that "Conversation is the kind of speech that happens informally,
symmetrically, and for the purposes of establishing and maintaining social ties.”

From a less technical perspective, a writer on etiquette in the early 20th century defined conversation
as the polite give and take of subjects thought of by people talking with each other for company.

Conversations follow rules of etiquette because conversations are social interactions, and therefore
depend on social convention. Specific rules for conversation arise from the cooperative principle.
Failure to adhere to these rules causes the conversation to deteriorate or eventually to end.
Contributions to a conversation are responses to what has previously been said.

Conversations may be the optimal form of communication, depending on the participants' intended
ends. Conversations may be ideal when, for example, each party desires a relatively equal exchange
of information, or when the parties desire to build social ties. On the other hand, if permanency or the
ability to review such information is important, written communication may be ideal. Or if time-
efficient communication is most important, a speech may be preferable.
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Conversation involves a lot more nuanced and implied context that lies beneath just the words.

Conversation is generally face-to-face person-to-person at the same time (synchronous) – possibly


online with video applications such as Skype, but might also include audio-only phone calls. It would
not generally include internet written communication which tends to be asynchronous (not same time
– can read and respond later if at all) and does not fit the 'con'='with' in 'conversation'. In face to face
conversation it has been suggested that 85% of the communication is non-verbal/body language – a
smile, a frown, a shrug, tone of voice conveying much added meaning to the mere words. Short forms
of written communication such as sms are thus frequently misunderstood.

Talking to Each Other: The Language of Conversation

Students should explore the structure of texts, sometimes called discourse structure.
he most common kind of spoken language is conversation, when one person communicates through
speaking to another person or to other people. Just as there are patterns in sounds, words, and
sentences, so also there are patterns in conversation. In even in the most unpredictable conversations,
there are certain devices that we use time and time again. If a person wants to tell a joke or some
bad news or to ask for a special favour, there are recognised ways of introducing these subjects.
Without these cues, listeners would be very disconcerted.

Conversations are orderly and proceed in an organized way, but all the participants have to work at
the conversation, making sense of things, supporting each other, checking for meaning, and so on. A
conversation, unlike a piece of written work, is very much the work of at least two people.

One defining characteristic of a conversation is that it does not involve only what is said but also how
it is said.

Hello and Goodbye


A simple pattern of conversation can be seen when people join a group and when they leave it. As
far as we know, all languages have particular forms that they use as greetings and forms that they
use as farewells.

In English, we can use simple formulae which do not involve any creativity.

Hello.
Hi.
G'day.
Or we can be more creative.

Oh, you're just the person I was looking for.


The greeting and the farewell take care of establishing the relationship between the speakers.

Once the greeting has been given, the speakers can get on with their business. Even on a long distance
toll call when time costs money, it is still necessary to spend time on the greeting.

Hi! Is that Tom? How are you? Great to hear you! What's the time with you ...
The greeting and the farewell are necessary for social relations. If you fail to greet someone, the
omission could be interpreted as indicating that you are angry with them for some reason.

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A conversation has a very simple structure:

Greeting - Business - Farewell.


If you have no established relationship with someone and no wish to have one, you are likely to begin,
not with a greeting, but rather with, 'Excuse me.'

This opening indicates that you are not trying to establish a relationship and that you are apologising
for invading someone's privacy.

Excuse me, can you tell me the way to the post office?
The foreigner who begins, "Good morning, can you tell me the way to the post office?" is likely to be
readily identified as unfamiliar with English conversational conventions.

This kind of speech also performs a social function, bringing people together and establishing
relationships.

It was given the technical name of phatic communion by the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski,
who lived for a period in the Trobriand Islands in the Western Pacific. He thought that people, both
there and in other societies, found silence threatening and so would talk about supremely obvious
things in order to break the ice and show friendliness. In New Zealand and Britain, we talk about the
weather. In China, the topic among friends and family members is food. The content is not as
important as the social function.

Sometimes, this function can be misinterpreted. If you are asked, "Hi, how are you?" the expected
response will be, "Fine thanks," and not an account of your flu and your chilblains.

When Māori and Samoan people set out to get to know people individually, they do not bother with
neutral topics but ask the questions they think are important: "When did you arrive?" "Where did you
come from?" and "Where do you come from originally?" For they identify people with reference to
place and kinship connections (which can usually be deduced from place) rather than occupations or
interests.

Metge and Kinloch: Talking Past Each Other

Getting a Response

One way in which conversation is organised is through utterances of a certain type that go together.

A greeting is usually followed by another greeting.

Hi.
G’day.

These utterances are called adjacency pairs. Some examples of these pairs are:

Question - Answer
Request - Acceptance or refusal
Complaint - Apology/denial
Compliment - Acceptance/rejection.

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These structures help to keep the conversation going and enable other people to participate.
Questions are especially useful in supporting conversation.

When these devices are violated, this can cause anxiety, distress, annoyance, or confusion. These
reactions demonstrate the importance of observing the rules of conversation.

Question - No answer
Greeting - No greeting in return
Request - No response
Mothers use questions with very young babies.
You're a lovely girl, aren't you?
Shall we go for a walk?

Any noise, gesture, facial expression from the baby is likely to be taken as a response. This can be seen
as very early experience of turn-taking. When a baby brings up wind, the person patting its back will
nearly always say something like "That's better." The burp is interpreted as a turn in conversation
which requires a reply.

Discourse analysis

The study of language is called Discourse analysis, also called discourse studies, was developed during
the 1970s as an academic field. Discourse analysis is a broad term for the study of the ways in which
language is used between people, both in written texts and spoken contexts.

Discourse Analysis Defined


Whereas other areas of language study might focus on individual parts of language—such as words
and phrases (grammar) or the pieces that make up words (linguistics)—discourse analysis looks at a
running conversation involving a speaker and listener (or a writer's text and its reader).

It can be used by businesses, academic researchers, or the government—any person or organization


that wants to better understand an aspect of communication.

What Discourse Analysis Does


Misunderstanding relayed information can lead to problems—big or small. Being able to distinguish
subtle subtext in order to differentiate between factual reporting and fake news, editorials, or
propaganda is crucial to interpreting true meaning and intent. This is the reason that having well-
developed skills in the critical analysis of discourse—to be able to "read between the lines" of verbal
and/or written communication—is of utmost importance.

Since the establishment of the field, discourse analysis has evolved to include a wide range of topics,
from the public versus private use of language to official versus colloquial rhetoric, and from oratory
to written and multimedia discourses. The field of study has further branched out to be paired with
the fields of psychology, anthropology, and philosophy, thus meshing linguistics with sociology.

"We're also 'asking not just about the rhetoric of politics, but also about the rhetoric of history and the
rhetoric of popular culture; not just about the rhetoric of the public sphere but about rhetoric on the
street, in the hair salon, or online; not just about the rhetoricity of formal argument but also about
the rhetoricity of personal identity."

—from "Discourse Analysis and Rhetorical Studies" by Christopher Eisenhart and Barbara Johnstone

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Academic Applications of Discourse Analysis
There are many avenues we can study through the lens of discourse analysis including discourse during
a political debate, discourse in advertising, television programming/media, interviewing, and
storytelling. By looking at the context of language use, not simply the words, we can understand
nuanced layers of meaning that are added by the social or institutional aspects at work, such as
gender, power imbalance, conflicts, cultural background, and racism.

As a result, discourse analysis can be used to study inequality in society, such as institutional racism,
inherent bias in media, and sexism. We can also use it to examine and interpret discussions regarding
religious symbols located in public places.

Real-World Applications of Discourse Analysis


Apart from scholarly applications, discourse analysis has some very pragmatic uses as well. Specialists
in the field are tasked with helping world leaders understand the true meaning behind
communications from their peers. In the field of medicine, it's used to help physicians find ways to
ensure they're better understood by people with limited language skills, as well as guiding them in
dealings when giving patients a challenging diagnosis.

For example, in one study, transcripts of conversations between doctors and patients were analyzed
to determine where misunderstandings had occurred.1 In another, women were interviewed about
their feelings regarding a diagnosis of breast cancer.2 How did it affect their relationships? What was
the role of their social support network? How did "positive thinking" come into play?

How Discourse Analysis Differs from Grammar Analysis


Unlike grammar analysis, which focuses on the structure of sentences, discourse analysis focuses on the
broad and general use of language within and between particular groups of people. Another
important distinction is that while grammarians typically construct the examples they analyze, the
analysis of discourse relies on actual writings and speech of the group being studied to determine
popular usage.

In terms of textual analysis, grammarians may examine texts in isolation for elements such as the art
of persuasion or word choice (diction), but only discourse analysis takes into account the social and
cultural context of a given text.

In terms of verbal expression, discourse analysis takes in the colloquial, cultural, and living use of
language—including each and every "um," "er," and "you know," as well as slips of the tongue, and
awkward pauses. Grammar analysis, on the other hand, relies entirely on sentence structure, word
usage, and stylistic choices. This does, of course, often include a cultural ingredient but it's missing the
human element of spoken discourse.

1.1 Introduction: Aims, Methods and Analysed Material


The search into the substance of meaning in several conversation genres reveals some discourse
features which contribute to appropriateness and acceptability of the language used in the context
of communicative situation. My aim is to present a semantico-pragmatic approach to conversational
analysis in which the stress is laid on aspects of semantic indeterminacy. Indeterminate meanings in
spoken language are processed as phenomena characterized by indirectness, impersonality,
attenuation, accentuation and vagueness, which come into being due to speaker's tentativeness, lack
of certainty, politeness and other discourse properties which are intentionally or subconsciously
manifested in everyday English conversation.

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The method applied in my analysis is interdisciplinary. The interpretation of the interactive meaning
in three conversation genres, namely face-to-face conversation, telephone conversation and radio
interviews, is grounded in the interface of semantic, pragmatic and sociolinguistic considerations. In
my view, conversational analysis is understood as a symbiosis of approaches towards the interpretation
of the dialogue structure and its interactive, interpretative meaning. The material I have used for my
investigation is taken from the corpus of spoken texts, partly published under the title A Corpus of
English Conversation (1980), and partly available in the Department of English section of the Survey
of Spoken English at Lund University in Sweden. Basic indications about the character of the individual
texts are included in the appendix, which comprises some of the examined texts in the full version.

1.2 Spoken Discourse Compared with Written Discourse Authentic, spontaneous, informal English
conversation is traditionally viewed as "the most fundamental and pervasive means of conducting
human affairs" (Crystal 1987.116). For decades, however, there was a tendency to describe authentic
speaker-hearer interaction as a kind of language that is, to a great extent, amorphous, lacking a
distinct structure, boundaries and units. Some linguists even claim that conversational language is
unstructured (see Channell 1994). This rather overstated characteristic of the loose structure of spoken
language is in contrast with Firth's claim that "Speech is not the'boundless chaos' Johnson thought it
was.... Conversation is much more of a roughly prescribed ritual than most people think" (1964.28).
Halliday advocates the presence of structure in spoken language stating that "The spoken language
is, in fact, no less structured and highly organized than the written" (1990.79).

It can be argued that in spoken discourse the hearer's expectations are not entirely dependent on the
speakers correctness and well-formedness of grammatical structure. It is rather the mutually shared
knowledge, the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, the topic under discussion and its
development in discourse which determine the decoding of the message. Blakemore (1992) stresses
the fact that the interpretation of the utterance does not depend exclusively on linguistic knowledge.
She claims that "...understanding utterances is not simply a matter of knowing the meaning of the
words uttered and the way in which they are combined. It also involves drawing inferences on the
basis of non-linguistic information and the assumption that the speaker has aimed to meet certain
general standards of communication" (1992.57). By
the general standards of communication Blakemore most probably means the general expectations
the language user has to meet with regard to his/her interlocutor, the existence of the ritual mentioned
by Firth, the knowledge of the socio-cultural context in which the communication takes place.

Certain types of utterances, although they are grammatically correct, are dispreferred, because they
are incompatible with the principles of human communication. For instance, in certain contexts
directives in face-to-face communication are avoided and replaced by more polite ways of expression,
such as an inquiry.

Example 1:
A so are you going to leave him a message or shall I say something
B have you got a pen I'll leave him a message (S.l.8.357-361) And vice versa, a grammatically incorrect
utterance (such as an anacoluthon) can appear in a situation in which it is accepted as appropriate,
because it fulfils the communicative needs required in the particular context.

Example 2:
I suppose it's this effect on either side that it can be I it's like a cube that is either it can be convex or it
can be concave (S.1.8.933-936) The existence of tension between correctness and acceptability
frequently results in a negative evaluation of the features of spoken language.

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The terminology applied by Crystal and Davy (1969) sounds negative, using labels such as "inexplicit",
"incomplete", "disjointed", "non-fluent" etc. In my previous study (1991.134) I have explained the
difference between the spoken and written language by their different functions in the process of
communication, due to which "the language of conversation should by no means be understood
against the background of the written language, in which case its use is largely confined to expressing
factual and propositional information, i.e. the transactional (representative, referential, ideational,
descriptive) function". Conversational language is characterized by its dominant interactional
function, for which a variety of other labels is commonly used, e.g. expressive, emotive, interpersonal
and social expressive function.

Drawing on Vachek (1976.412-413), I claim that spoken language and written language constitute two
different norms, which are not interchangeable. In my view, formal and semantic peculiarities of
conversation can be best explained with regard to discourse tactics current in spoken discourse.

Characterizing spoken language by comparing it with the written language, the linguist does a
disservice to the specific features inherent in the spoken mode. It is true, however, that the pressure
exerted at present towards what is called "conversationalisation" of public discourses which can be
observed especially in media talk, together with prevailing informality and pseudo-intimacy in certain
spheres of the written language, such as the language of advertising,
radio and television broadcasting, e-mail communication etc., will result in a re-evaluation of the
relationship between speech and writing. Despite the increasing merger between the two norms,
however, the identification of features which are typical of spoken utterances and those which prevail
in writing is still at hand. Spoken utterances are primarily characterized by contracted forms, ellipsis,
constant repetitions and restructuring, indistinct text boundaries, frequent pragmatic markers etc.
Written language utilizes a set of devices such as text division, explicit cohesion, a higher level of
sophistication represented by more elaborate grammatical structures, abstract vocabulary etc.

1.2.1 Functionalist Pragmatics in the Prague School


In his evaluation of the Prague School approach, Sgall stresses the fact that "semantics has always
been understood as belonging to the core of the system of language in Praguian linguistics" (Linguistic
and Literary Studies in Eastern Europe, vol. 41,1994.278).

In the Handbook of Pragmatics, Sgall evaluates the contribution of the Prague School to the
development of pragmatic linguistic thinking (1995.429- 435). Sgall maintains that it was not
exclusively language as an abstract system which was the centre of attention of Prague School
scholars, but it was also the social and cultural dimension of language study which was equally
important in the 1930s and 1940s. The basic theoretical underpinning of the Prague School is oriented
towards the teleological principle, i.e. "language and its development are conditioned by the function
of language in communication" (Sgall 1995.433). The concept is of language being goal-oriented; the
socio-cultural functioning of language is of primary importance.

Jakobson's distinction of language functions (1962), based on Buhler's tripartite division (1934), is the
key towards the functional analysis of language means. The Prague School approach is a merger of
the cognitive, social and cultural study of language and communication. The social and cultural
aspects of human communication are stressed by Havranek (as early as 1929) in his conception of
functional styles. This conception reflects the stylistic differentiation within the language in use,
according to which each style has a different purpose to fulfil. Attention has been paid to the difference
between spoken and written language, mainly by Vachek (1976).

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The approach which can be described as "diversity in unity" has found acclaim in present-day linguistic
thinking. "It is generally accepted nowadays by linguists of all theoretical persuasions that there is, in
reality, no such thing as a homogeneous, stylistically and socio-expressively undifferentiated language
system" (Lyons 1995.340). The functional sentence perspective theory, started by Mathesius (in his
Czech terminology labelled aktualni dleneni vetne), later developed by Firbas and his school
(Svoboda, Golkova, Urbanova, Chamonikolasova and others ), interprets spoken and written
language as the interplay of context, semantics, linear modification and prosodic features.

The notion of communicative intention which lies at the heart of functionalist pragmatics (Horn
1988.114) is the core concept of Firbas' theory (see Firbas 1992). For Firbas, the speakers stance and the
hearer's role in the disambiguation of the message are crucial in making the meaning of the message.
Firbas' theory represents a point of departure for my own theoretical considerations and practical
applications in the field of discourse analysis which are included in this treatise.
1.3 Semantic Indeterminacy in Authentic Conversation
Semantic indeterminacy can be defined as an expression of intentional illocutionary opacity, i.e.
obscurity of meaning, in rendering the message reflecting the speaker's attitude. My interest in this
phenomenon arose in the 1980s, when I first gained access to spoken language materials published
under the title A Corpus of English Conversation by Jan Svartvik and Randolph Quirk. The publication
proved to be a great contribution for researchers, because the existence of spoken language corpora
of this size has enabled linguists to study spoken English in depth and detail. A mere observation of
spoken language data shows that spoken language tends to be more indeterminate than written
language owing to its spontaneity, immediacy and non-fluency. This claim applies to the speaker's
characteristic. There is, of course, the hearer's part as well: in order to understand spoken language,
the hearer should not be confronted with means of expression of a high lexical density and elaborate
structure. Indeterminacy facilitates perception and interpretation.

The aim of this monograph is to analyse patterns of semantic indeterminacy operating at the level of
the utterance and the word. At the same time, this analysis is a contribution to probabilistic grammar,
in harmony with Svartvik's observation: "...corpus studies will help to promote descriptively more
adequate grammars" (1966.vii). The existence of a corpus of spoken texts enables the researcher to
obtain reliable data on the basis of which it is possible to generalize about the components of
lexicogrammar in specific text types.

1.4 Meaning in Interaction


In discussing meaning in interaction, it will be useful to start my considerations with the following
passage from Carroll's Alice in Wonderland (1994.82):

"Then you should say what you mean," the March Hare went on. "I do," Alice hastily replied, "at least—
at least I mean what I say—that's the same thing, you know." "Not the same thing a bit!" said the
Hatter.

Discussing the principles of Firthian linguistics, Mitchell (1975.99) presents the interpretation of the
extract: "One may approve of the Mad Hatter's intellectual misgivings, if not of his manners, when he
tells Alice at the Tea Party that saying what she means and meaning what she says are not the same
thing a bit—and he might have added that there is a good deal more than that to 'saying' and
'meaning'".

Lyons (1995.243) stresses the importance of utterance meaning: "The only access that one has to
sentence meaning, which, as I mentioned earlier, is a theoretical construct, is via utterance meaning;
and sentence meaning has no role to play, ultimately, other than the role that is assigned to it in the

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linguist's model of the production and interpretation of utterances". In recent literature on pragmatics,
speaker meaning has been emphasized by the majority of authors (e.g. Leech (1981), Bach and Harnish
(1984), Sadock (1988),Wierzbicka (1991), Levinson (1995), Lyons (1995).

Speaker meaning represents the most relevant clue for the ultimate understanding and identification
of the meaning of the message. In the speaker-hearer interaction the hearer is capable of making
inferences. Ideally, the speaker's meaning and the hearer's meaning are identical, or approximately
the same. It has to be stressed, however, that meaning is created in the very process of interaction
through which it is negotiated, and it is therefore necessary to consider the notion of interactive
meaning common to speaker and hearer alike. Thomas (1995.22) describes the interactiveness in these
words: "...meaning is not something which is inherent in the words alone, nor is it produced by the
speaker alone, nor by the hearer alone.

Making meaning is a dynamic process, involving the negotiation of meaning between the speaker
and hearer, the context of utterance (physical, social and linguistic) and the meaning potential of an
utterance." Schiffrin (1997) argues that in conversation two contexts meet, the prior context and the
new context arising at the moment of speaking. These two contexts can be in harmony, or they can
create a mismatch in which the intention of the speaker and the interpretation of the hearer can
differ due to the "assumption of markedly different contexts".

For Leech (1981.340), "the mental state of intention is fundamental for the recovering of meaning, for
the comprehension process and the interpretation of the illocutionary force". Lyons (1995.42) claims:
"There are those who have seen utterer's meaning as being, ultimately, the basis for linguistic
meaning". In the final chapter of his book, however, Lyons devotes a considerable amount of space to
the explanation of locutionary subjectivity and the importance of non-propositional, non-descriptive,
social and expressive meaning. Lyons defines expressive meaning as "...the kind of meaning by virtue
of which speakers express, rather than describe, their beliefs, attitudes and feelings" (1995.44).
Wierzbicka (1991.17) advocates the supremacy of subjective meaning:

"Since the meanings conveyed in a natural language are inherently subjective and anthropocentric,
they cannot be really divided into 'referential' and 'pragmatic', or'denotational' and'attitudinaL. All
such meanings are culture-specific, subjective and anthropocentric,... referential and pragmatic at the
same time." The approach to meaning based on truth-conditions has recently been rejected due to
the shift of linguists'attention from logical to attitudinal meaning.

The logico-semantic interpretation of language is unsatisfactory and untenable with regard to real
language use. Mey (1993.200) maintains that "...language use, of which conversation is such an
egregious instance, is not about cases or facts or truths as such, but about what people think and feel,
or think and feel others think and feel about cases, facts or maybe even truths; in short, about the
world in which they live, and about their lives in this world".

The social aspect of human communication is dominant in the study of language use. According to
Lyons (1995.300), "...the actual truth or falsity of the descriptive content of a referring expression is not
directly relevant to its success. Normal human interaction is governed by a set of culturally determined
conventions, amongst which truthfulness is often very properly moderated by politeness". It seems to
be questionable, however, whether "culturally determined conventions" can be described with
scientific precision, because conventions of language use are changeable and differ with regard to the
social spectrum.

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The definition of the existing language use is equally problematic. What exactly is the amount of
prescription in language description? Who represents the user? Mey (1993.57) argues that
"communication is not a matter of logic or truth, but of cooperation; not what I say, but what I can
say, given the circumstances, and of what I must say, given my partner's expectations". In delimiting
the scope of utterance meaning, Mey (1993.201) takes the view that "an utterance by itself is never
enough of a meaning carrier" and "there is more to utterances than their abstract truth value".

Similarly, Mitchell (1975.155) evaluates the contribution of Firth to the study of meaning: "Meaning was
not given for Firth; it was waiting to be discovered and stated,...."

In summary it can be argued that meaning in conversation is created on the spot in the interaction
process by the participants, their status and tenor and other constituents of the discourse (the setting,
the situation etc.).

1.5 Principles Governing Conversational Behaviour


The relationship between the Cooperative Principle (CP) and the Politeness Principle (PP) is
thoroughly discussed by Lakoff (1995). The CP itself cannot reflect all the aspects relevant to human
communication. The status of implicature can extend the applicability of the maxims for phenomena
such as politeness. The question arises whether politeness and informativeness are part of the same
system, or systems in competition. It is arguable that the two components
are part of the same system and thus complementary. Cooperativeness and politeness enhance each
other and are by no means counteractive. "So while politeness may entail more complex and
convoluted communications that superficially My claim is that the sociolinguistic distinction between
formal and informal politeness is functionally more relevant than the above mentioned distinction
between negative and positive politeness. I assume that the striking formal difference between the
lengthy structure. It would be much appreciated if you could kindly join us in this venture, as
compared with the vague expression of the same content in the informal wording Perhaps you could
give me a helping hand, carries more pragmatic weight than the distinction between negative and
positive politeness strategy.

Thomas (1995) discusses various approaches towards the study of politeness. She supports the view
that politeness cannot be explained apart from the context in which it is imparted. Politeness is also
framed by the context of the utterance and reciprocated between the speaker and the hearer. The
social roles of the participants in the communicative event are directly relevant in the expression of
politeness.

An instance of the total approach to meaning advocated by Firth can be demonstrated in this
complex view of politeness: "...such an addressive sentence in English as silly old bastard may indicate
the speaker's appreciation of a favour rendered by a close friend and impugn neither the addressees
intelligence, his vigour, nor his antecedents; rather would it mark gratitude and affection, the latter
in a society in which close friendship or intimacy is shown less demonstratively than in other cultures..."
(Mitchell 1975.99-100).

In my opinion, the Politeness Principle complements the Cooperative Principle, which is in harmony
with Leech's evaluation of politeness "rescuing the Cooperative Principle" (1983.80).
Politeness phenomena include tact, generosity, approbation, modesty, agreement and sympathy (see
Thomas 1995) seem to violate the CP or at least necessitate a significant degree of implicature, in fact
precisely because it complicates forms and requires more work on the part
of the addressee, it may facilitate understanding and compliance, ultimately functioning in favour of
maximum cooperativeness" (Lakoff 1995.196-197).

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Meier (1995) expresses reservations with regard to the interpretation of politeness presented by Brown
and Levinson (1987), mainly due to the fuzziness between negative and positive politeness. The
argument calls for "a broader view, one which leads to the rejection of equating politeness with specific
speech acts, lexical items, or syntactic constructions" (Meier 1995.381).

In my view, politeness is closely related to appropriateness and social harmony, paying due respect to
social norms, all of them constituting the notion of politeness. I am aware of the constraints imposed
by the context on the interpretation of politeness. Politeness is context-sensitive, and thus it cannot be
measured solely as a linguistic issue by linguistic means.

ACTIVITY:
1. From the lesson, what is meant by conversation?
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2. Explain the idea behind the lesson, Talking to Each Other: The Language of Conversation
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3. What is Discourse Analysis?


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4. What is the function of Discourse Analysis?


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5. How Discourse Analysis differs from Grammar Analysis?
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TASK TO DO:

Instructions: Think of any idea where there is conversation happens. Using the adjacency pairs, choose
only one among the pairs.
• Question - Answer
• Request - Acceptance or refusal
• Complaint - Apology/denial
• Compliment - Acceptance/rejection.
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31
LESSONS 7 – 8
Desired Learning Outcome/s:
At the end of lesson, the students should be able to independently analyze specimen of text using the
framework learned in the discussion of sample text.

The Language of Unscripted Commentary

Common terms:
1. Commentaries - have something to do with description, explanation or opinion
2. Some forms of written commentary - provide supplementary information which will enable a text
to be more fully understood
3. Spoken commentary - strong need for vivid description → explanation reduced to minimum
4. The most common conception of commentary - a spoken account of events which are actually
taking place, given for the benefit of listeners who cannot see them (except for for example TV
commentators), the commentator must recreate for the hearer a chain of activity as it is
developing (sound broadcasting - radio commentators)
5. TV commentator - the activity is usually self-evident, the commentator provides background
information or explains any bits of activity that do not explain themselves
6. Extracts in the book - a commentary on a cricket match (common, more similar to conversation
than the other one), a commentary from an account of a state funeral (rare) → to demonstrate
the range of subject matter variety
7. Centrally important parts of a radio commentator's function - description of activity and provision
of background information
8. Fundamental requirements of a radio commentator - the need to keep up an unbroken flow of
speech (fluency) and to sound interesting
9. Fluency of a commentator - complete absence of voiced hesitation, using intonation to connect
separate items of information into quite lengthy, coherent sequences wth a clear indication of
finality (falling intonation)
10. Signs of the commentator's efforts to sound interesting - subject matter, choice of vocabulary,
varied phonological effects

Commentary is mainly used in the media, ranging from horse racing in sports to broadcasting on the
radio. Unscripted commentaries are the most popular choice as they can be used at any event such
as a sport event or a radio station, as they can describe and comment on the events as they happen
which mean commentators must speak clearly.

The function of a commentary is to entertain and give the viewer or listener background information
about the live event that is taking place whether it be on the racing field or in a car. The audience of
a commentary can verify due to the interest of the viewer or listener and the inside subject-specific
language that they have linking to the event.

Commentaries need to be spontaneous and clearly voiced due to the fact that it is a mirror of the
process that is happening at the event, however it does not always mean that the structure of the
commentary is in a random manor, as commentators can uses notes to add to the structure depending
on the event because in sport events you cannot predict what is going to happen and when but in
events such as a red carpet event you can predict who is going to be there and what is going to
happen throughout the night.

Commentators play an important role in keeping viewers or listeners entertained, as they are always
trying to create an atmosphere for the viewers, if event follow a recognizable pattern they might use
32
a formulaic utterance or if an outcome of an event is exciting they will choose emotive language,
however it all depends on the commentator and their choice of style.

The basic language of a unscripted commentary is to name people and things at the event for
example at a football game the specific lexis would be for example "goal, red flag, foul, sent off" or at
a red carpet event they are naming celebrities, the lexis is very field specific because all the attention
of the commentators is the event they are commentating on. There is a high amount proportion of
proper nouns used because the commentators need to describe a sequence of actions happening in
the event.

Radio commentary is a lot more complete than television commentary due to the fact that the listener
is far more reliant on the commentators as they may not be seeing the event live, so radio commentary
needs to be more precise and clear as hesitations are very rare, and they need to keep up with the
sequence of events so they can keep the audience updated and commentators need to create a
bigger atmosphere on the radio to keep the audience tuned in.

To conclude it seems that commentators play an important role in the media as the provide
entertainment and information to a target audience about an event that is either being watched on
television or being listened to in the car.

"Language and Television Sports commentaries and documentaries"

As the name implies, broadcasting, unlike texting or phone conversations, is a one-to-many form of
communication.

When broadcasting was first developed as a medium, it would have been highly planned and scripted
– in what ways may this have changed and why? How immediate is this form of communication?
Although the mode is primarily spoken (or may be blended mode – consider news reports with ticker-
tape headlines), how many of the features of the written mode does it demonstrate?

How are the ways in which we communicate via radio and television different?

TV Implications
Where, and when, are you most likely to tune in? How will these situational contexts impact on the
way we listen/watch…? When watching/listening, how likely are you to be doing something else at the
same time? …and thus on the way broadcasters use language? How likely is it that you will
watch/listen to the whole of a program? How do broadcasters make allowance for ‘late arrivals’ and
channel-hopping? Comment on the quality of the speech-sound received, and what might affect this?
What limitations might degraded sound quality place on the quality of spoken communication? How
does each media establish location and identity of speakers, and show action? How does the
presence/absence of images influence language use?

Sports commentaries
Sports commentaries are a well-established form of broadcast. They are necessarily spontaneous or
instantaneous in some respects. For soccer commentaries on BBC Radio FiveLive, there is a
commentator (often two, who speak for half of each of the game's two halves) and an expert
summarizer. There is usually also an anchor person in the national studio, while, on some match days,
there will also be reporters and commentators at other grounds. As well as these people, whom the
audience hears, there will be production and technical staff in attendance.

33
The challenge for the commentator is to tell the audience what is happening for all periods of live
action, to invite the summarizer to make further comments and judgements during breaks in play
and briefly during the play and to bring in reports and score flashes from other grounds.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE CONTEMPORARY PERADIGM OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

On some linguistic and extra-linguistic features of football commentaries

It is common knowledge that the 21st century is the century of sport. The significance of sport
communication consists in the fact that sport is an enormous sphere of human activity that includes
various problems - social, political, financial, etc. Due to mass media - press, radio, television - milliards
of people are involved into sports communication. Especially important is the role of television that
makes the spectators participants of the sporting event.

Most television programs are not easily categorized into one or another television genre. The
borderlines between program formats are often fluid, and categories tend to overlap. For this reason,
many articles and treatises on television start out with a definition of the kind of program or genre to
be discussed, A good share of the texts on the subject do not address the question of what precisely
television sport is, or how this particular kind of television program or genre differs from other kinds
of programs and genres. Perhaps because what television sport is, seems as obvious as the question is
banal, For, even if one may often be in doubt as to the genre a given program belongs to, few if any
have trouble deciding whether or not they are watching sport. In fact, of televised sport is the fact
that what passes across the screen seems to proceed so "naturally", is so self-evident, that it seldom
raises any major questions.

As far as sports communication includes a whole spectrum of genres, the process of presenting sporting
events are characterized by different degrees of verbalization depending on a number of extra-
linguistic factors among which the following can be mentioned:

1. The type of the sporting event: the sport commentary of a football or hockey match will certainly
differ from the commentary of a horse racing or billiards which ts accounted first of all by the nature
of the sporting event itself;
2. The channel of the commentary: the commentary on television will certainly from the radio
commentary due to the presence of the visual element in the channel and its absence in the latter
one;
3. The degree of personal involvement and experience of the commentator;
4. The importance of the event: the less important the event is the less impressive and involved the
commentary will be;
5. The phase of the sporting event commented. The speech of the commentator depending on the
situation in the sporting event, Comparatively static moments in the game are accompanied by a
detailed description of the weather, the participants, the place of the event, etc. The more dynamic
climax moment, his speech becomes more capacious and the verbal information acquires
conversational features;
6. The style of the commentary depends on whether it is a live sporting event commentary or a post
sporting event one when the results of the game are already known.
7. The number of commentators: there may be a single commentator who comments on any stage of
the sporting event or two commentators one of whom usually narrates the event stage by stage and
the other is an "expert" who provides comments and opinions.

34
The comparison of two football comments by the same commentators on the radio and television
proved that is a higher word count in a radio commentary compared to one on television, and the
difference is quite marked. Lappin's comparative analysis showed that there was over double ampimt
of words in the radio commentary compared to the television one.

The radio commentary contains more words primarily because it has to describe everything as the
listener cannot see the events that are taking place. But als because if there is nobody speaking on
the radio, what is the point in listening to the radio?
Thus, silence is anathema on the radio (Lappin 2000:13).

Meanwhile, on television, the commentators can allow themselves to be quiet for a short period of
time, as the viewer is still aware of what is happening in the match. This is often welcomed by the
viewer. However, on the radio it is imperative, that this does not happen and that is why there are
three commentators on the radio compared to one or two on the television. In the case of the television
commentaries there are numerous occasions in which there are pauses in the speech.

The main difference between television and radio commentary is that whilst the television viewer can
see what is happening, the radio listener cannot. Therefore the radio commentator must provide
everything that is necessary for understanding and enjoyment, using only words. According to
Frecborn (1986:126), "Although commentators have individual styles, they have a great deal in
common in their use of English, which is why unscripted commentary can be described as a variety of
spoken English".

The general strategy is reflected in the specific features of vocabulary, syntactic structures and the last
but not the least in the prosodic arrangement of the commentary. Among the lexical characteristics
of sports commentaries terminology, phraseology of metaphorical character can be mentioned. Any
attempt at describing the language of sports commentary should perhaps first mention the kind of
vocabulary that is used. Any vocabulary that immediately suggests some field of activity, is termed in
linguistic field specific.

A further characteristic of commentary is the way in which clauses are linked together. A very small
number of conjunctive elements are used to link clauses together, often rather loosely. There are some
cases when the complex sentences are managed completely which usually identifies a different phase
in the commentary. Grammatical characteristics include elliptical and inverted sentences, rhetorical
and anticipating questions.

Sport commentaries on different sporting events share a number of characteristics, but there are also
some important differences accounted for by some extra-linguistic factors. David Cristal distinguishes
two separate forms of commentary naming them “play-by-play” commentary and the "color-adding"
commentary. He defines "color-adding" as "pre-event background, post-event evaluation, and
within-event interpretation". In contrast "play-by-play" is the method used to describe actual events
that are happening as the commentator sees them, the narration (Crystal 1999:358). Any football
commentary performs four functions: narrating — describing what is happening play-by play;
evaluating — giving opinions about play, players, team, referee decision; elaborating — giving
background information about team and player records, the ground, the crowd, speculating on
motives and thoughts of the players; summarizing — giving an overview of the game so far.

The mentioned utterance functions can be split into two broad types, both of which relate to phases
of the commentary, Narration is composed of time-critical utterances, which occur at the time of-play
and serve to describe it. These form the structure -of the commentary and are central to describing

35
what is going on, a function, most viewers and listeners would agree to be the primary purpose of live
commentary. The other kinds of utterance tend to occur in less frenetic parts of the game, arid consist
of more subjective content: evaluating, elaborating, and - summarizing are of this nature. Utterances
with these functions tend to be more syntactically complete arid complex, and are regularly cut short
when the game starts up and time-critical commentary is again required. The switch between the
two utterance types is often marked by speaker change: as mentioned before, football coverage often
has two commentators, one of whom is only called upon to evaluate and give background in slower
parts of the game. In addition, change of tense often occurs: evaluation and summary are more
frequently given in the past tense, while time-critical commentary is given in the present.

The most important feature of the sport commentary is the absence of the feedback with the
addressee. The commentator has no opportunity to transform his speech tactics-taking into account
the viewers' reaction, he can only be directed by his own experience and intuition. The language of
the football commentary is characterized by a subject specific vocabulary. The following list of words
from the commentaries related to football, but not all of them are exclusive to football: foul, cross, far
side, goal, goalkeeper, left side, premiership, team names, stadium, header, season, throw-in,
manager names, play-offs, forwards etc. Set phrases, or collocations, are included, since they often link
two or more common words together to provide a technical term: the words free and kick have many
uses in ordinary speech and writing, but put together as free kick in the context of a football match
form a lexical item with a special meaning. Other examples of collocation include the following:
European Cup, football league, penalty area, whistle blow, yellow card, go head-to-head, etc.

Both components of a collocation, when separated into their original words, have a separate meaning
to that of when they are joined together. When put together in the text of football, they form a lexical
item with a meaning particular to football.

Indeed many of the player and place names are also "context bound". For example, "England" and
"Chelsea" do not unconditionally refer to the football sides, without knowing the context they could
relate to any number of things.

Although it would appear that television commentators use plainer English, it is not necessarily true,
but for most of the time, television commentators use a "common register".

Commentators also regularly use metaphors to add excitement to their commentary and bring the
viewer deeper into the game. This is evidently less important on television because even if the
commentators do not establish a rapport with the audience, they will never lose interest and switch
off as far as they can see and judge everything themselves. There are many examples of this, including;
"Belgium mop it up nicely" (a domestic metaphor) and "net bound" (a navigational metaphor). These
examples are very vivid and add life to the commentary.

However, if overused they can degenerate into dead metaphors or cliches, because their original
meanings are lost. Because commentaries are descriptions of events as they are happening,
commentators normally use the present simple and present continuous tenses. In “play-by-play”
commentary the commentator describes what is going on as lie speaks. Therefore, he tends to use the
simple present tense a lot: Fabrigas throws Nasri; Now they play the danger. When referring back to
an incident that has just happenened the commentator normally uses the simple past ten.se: Van
Percic tried to show his classic still again. The present tense is used far more often than the past tense.
Not only does the commentator do this because lie is describing events as they happen, but it also
adds drama, life and excitement to the viewing experience.

36
One of the grammatical characteristics of the TV commentary is the way .in which clauses are linked
together. A very small number of conjunctive elements are used to link clauses together, often rather
loosely. And, but, so are seldom used. As is somewhat different, since it serves to introduce a
subordinate clause: Terrific cross, giving hack Ronaldo, his play [pause] but jumps off the line and now
one minute.

In radio and television broadcasting, you will often hear exclamations of excitement. The
commentators use a number of exclamatory sentences expressing their emotions concerning the game,
sentences with the inverted word order, e.g. Well, aesthetic play go here! It's not easy, no, not! That's
it!

During the commentary on the match, we cannot see how the expert and the commentator are
interacting with one another directly. We cannot therefore speculate on gazes and gestures that are
used (although it would be possible to analyze the non-verbal cues that take place in the panel style
discussions at half-time, for example). In the football data, though, we can examine linguistic cues for
turn taking.

Another noticeable feature of a football commentary is the use of metaphors. Metaphors are used to
describe the actions of individual players as well as the game itself and its changes. Thus, a player can
"tame the ball", a game can be played "in the final weeks of the campaign", and if a team finds "their
hopes of survival diminishing" they can make a "last stand". Another aspect of how metaphor can help
our understanding is that it can fill lexical gaps. If there is no appropriate word available for describing
a concept, a metaphor can serve instead. For instance, in the domain of football, a defender is a player
who tries to keep the opposing team from scoring. Another function of metaphor is to express emotion.

Metaphors used in sports commentary turn out to be of several different kinds. The following three
source domains are particularly prominent, i.e. physical fight, military conflict and animal behavior:
physical fight (players punch clear of one another, one team wrestles the title off another, first blood
goes to one team, a player plunges a dagger into the other teams' hiart); military conflict (a match is
a battle, the midfield is a battle zone that can be occupied, after the battle, the dust settles on the
field, a player can miss the goal point-blank), etc.

Metaphors are in fact picked from a wide variety of fields, for instance finance (a player can reduce
the arrears), arguments (a player has the last word, or wins a battle of wits) and many others.
However, none of these source domains seem to have contributed such a sheer amount of metaphors
as those mentioned above (Gunell 2009:7). Metaphors seem to be used for several different purposes,
but primarily to describe action taking place in the game.

Thus, football television broadcasting has distinct language forms that means it can therefore be
"described as a variety of spoken English". Football commentary on the television has a number of
features which allows it to convey an appropriate sense of action. This is chiefly because of the high
degree of fluency it maintains due to its formulaic language and omittinp of unessential words. The
television, medium also uses ; in on" register, which is based on a specific lexicon.

Furthermore, commentator on television revett to “color-adding”, which is critical in an uneventful


match. Yet it quickly disappears as soon as the game becomes eventful again.
The commentator on television can afford using a lot of “color-adding”. However the most significant
finding is that football commentary in general, is a dist English language. A TV football commentary
is a monologue or dialogue-on-stage directed at an unknown, unseen, heterogeneous mass audience

37
who voluntarily choose to listen and watch and provide no feedback to the speaker. Therefore, the
real stg football commentary itself.

The language of sports commentary, adapted from Norman and Shortis (2006)
Radio TV
• Description of what is happening (narrative)
• Creating an accurate ‘picture’ of the action (spatial orientation)
• Identification of players/teams
• Explanation and interpretation of action (analysis)
• Conveying atmosphere and emotional impact of event/venue (stimulus)
• Simulating a sense of companionship: commentator as fellow-fan (empathy)
• To what extent are these features important for radio or TV sports commentaries?

Carry out an investigation of these two commentaries of the same match, recorded simultaneously.

How are they different? How are they similar? Consider context.
The language of sports commentaries: some common features and conventions
- frequent player identification using surname only
- alternation between narrative commentator and analysis expert
- variation in prosodic features (pace, dynamics, intonation) to convey drama of action
- minor sentences and ellipsis/elliptical expressions
- semi-technical texis associated with sport in question
- sport-specific usages of common words e.g. 'heading'
- switches in verb tense: predominantly simple present tense
- Frequent metaphorical/ figurative/ idiomatic uses of language

ACTIVITY:
1. Define the following:
Common terms: Meaning
Commentaries

Spoken commentary

TV commentator

Extracts in the book

Fluency of a commentator

2. Differentiate Radio commentary from Television commentary.


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3. What is the most important feature of the sport commentary?


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4. What do you think is the essence of unscripted commentary to you as student, learning English
language?
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TASK TO DO:
Writing commentary means giving your opinion, interpretation, insight, analysis, explication, personal
reaction, evaluation or reflection about a concrete detail in an essay. You are "commenting on" a
point you have made.

Instructions: Original writing task


Write an extract from a documentary that discusses how language is influenced by technological
advancements. Make sure you cite the source.

39
LESSONS 9 – 10
Desired Learning Outcome/s:
At the end of lesson, the students should be able to independently analyze specimen of text using the
framework learned in the discussion of sample text.

The Language of Religion


1. Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics, the study of language in relation to social realities, examines religion only because it is
another domain of human behavior where language is an important component. Its primary
allegiance is to linguistics, the science of language. Within this discipline it has its own goals and
methodologies. But because it is socio-linguistics, it draws from and contributes to a wide range of
studies. It will be useful to summarize what is meant by a sociolinguistic examination of religion, for
when we talk about 'the language of religion' or 'language in religious practice', we mean something
quite different from what philosophers and theologians mean by these expressions.

The way people use language is our concern. (Speech, instead of language, might be a more
appropriate term if it were not for the fact that every means of linguistic expression must be examined,
the written no less than the spoken.) Linguistics deals with the complex system of rules (the grammar)
that permits a set of speakers abiding by the rules to verbally interact with each other. In contrast,
sociolinguistics studies the ways speakers select products of their grammar (one might call them texts
or discourse) according to social variables.

Sociolinguistics is concerned therefore with choices or decisions that speakers make (a) where the
linguistic code (or grammar) permits and (b) where these choices have cultural significance. - It is
axiomatic to our approach that speakers of all languages, according to the patterns of their respective
speech communities, have many ways of speaking that require selection, according to what - in a
given setting - may be obligatory or more appropriate. (The meaning of any choice is, of course, a
separate problem.) Even in a monolingual community there are different ways of talking. If there is
a formal manner distinct from an informal, it differs, for example, in vocabulary, sentence structure,
and diction. There are frequently other options as well: different dialects (rural vs. urban, working class
vs. middle class) or different languages. In a broad sense, any of these ways of talking can be called a
language; and if it is consistently used with religion, it would be appropriate to call it the religious
language. The linguistic repertoire of a community is only one of its sociolinguistic dimensions. Another
set of variables is represented by the genres of discourse: conversation, narrative, prayer, divination,
or sermon, for instance. These have linguistic features that submit to careful analysis and description.

In another sense, then, a religious language is the product of the intersection of language variables of
different sorts within this one domain of human experience. It is this localization of ways of using
language in a given sphere of social action that attracts sociolinguistic attention, for we expect to find
here, as elsewhere, linguistic means responding to social motivation and having cultural meaning. The
motives for linguistic choices stem from such factors as place, time, topic of discourse, participants (role
of speaker, nature and size of audience), or nature of the speech act. One needs only to think of
different sorts of Protestant prayers to begin to understand how these variables intersect with each
other to produce such prayer events as invocations, blessings, and meal-time prayers. For meaning we
need only find a recognition of what is deemed appropriate. It may be acceptable in a given
Protestant church to use contemporary pronouns while praying in Sunday school, but the main
worship service requires the use of thee and thou. For every speech community, whether it be a whole
denomination on a national scale or the congregation of one church in this denomination, there are
taken-for-granted expectations for the way language will be used and for what purposes: at
40
ritualized worship services, weddings, funerals, or hospital visits by the clergy, for example. - If
sociolinguistics brings a new perspective to religious studies, as indeed it does, we should expect to learn
more about the nature of religious practice: how it is structured and how it relates to other aspects of
a given culture; and we should surely refine our generalizations about universal religious practices.
This is not a premature hope, for we already have a promise in this direction in a number of
publications (Samarin 1976).

Sociolinguistic studies of religion seek to determine the way in which language is exploited for religious
ends. We start with no different assumptions. For us religion is no unique domain of experience; we do
not begin our examination of religious language expecting to find here what we might not find
elsewhere. Whatever validity we might claim for religious propositions, we insist on the inescapable
fact of the thoroughly human, therefore common and accessible, mediation of religious experience.
There are theologians in the Christian tradition who accept the human mediation of religious faith
through language but who also claim that language serves religious ends. They go even further to
insist that language is transformed or is adapted to the expression of religious propositions. Religious
language is therefore unique; it is more than ordinary language serving a religious purpose. Then they
take the product and make it a tool, using language not only as a hermeneutical device for the
explication of religious assertions but even as a means to defend their validity. Language is crucial in
contemporary theological discussion. - Sociolinguistics may have some bearing on religious language
as philosophically understood. For the time being, however, our goals are modest. We aim for a kind
of ethnography of religious language; and although we do not begin with the a priori notion of the
uniqueness of religious linguistic usage, we should be happy if we were to discover it. This uniqueness
or domain specificity of language in religion would be found in any number of points where
sociolinguistic variables intersect. In the following we discuss some of the functions, ends, or goals that
language serves in religion, the various kinds of linguistic resources that are exploited, and some of the
social processes that characterize the use of language.

2. Religious Ends
Whatever the term religion might comprehend, language serves in a number of ways to set it apart
from the profane or nonreligious. This specialization might be expected with practices that occur only
within this domain (as with prayers), but a religious event elicits appropriate speech even when the
separate parts are neutral (like announcements in a church service). Within a single religion there may
be different levels of perception or experience. At the one extreme are found the numinous or mystical,
like the use of the sacred syllable om in Hinduism (Christian 1976), Piyyut hymns with esoteric
vocabularly in Judaism (Rabin 1976), and 'holy words' in an African independent church (Turner 1967).
- Religious communities, defined simply as groups adhering to a given set of beliefs and practices, also
are set apart linguistically. The fact that language is used as an ethnic boundary marker, symbolic of
social oneness, is not itself in any way surprising, but we need to give attention to the way in which
language is used to reinforce the social identity: Arabic is the sacred language of all Muslims; the
Chamula language is part of the Fourth (and best) Creation; the Amish insist that if their children are
taught in English the Amish way of life will disappear. Language is either looked at in very pragmatic
terms or it is made integral to the ideology of the community. In either case this leads to the
legitimating linguistic theories (like those of contemporary theology just mentioned) that need to be
studied for their own sake.

The range of linguistic resources used in social marking is broad but still relatively limited. The least
interesting perhaps are in stances of language differences inherited from migration, conquest, and the
like. Thus, the immigrant Molokan and Doukhabor sectarians of the United States and Canada
continue to use Russian in all of their religious events in spite of the fact that in the Molokan case an
urban environment leads to intense and intimate interaction with the dominant language. More

41
interesting are cases where linguistic differences are asserted in unilingual settings. The Ashkenazi-
Sephardi differences with respect to the pronunciation of Hebrew is not really an example, because
these differences are the result of the geographical separation of these communities in the past. This is
just a case of dialect speakers finding themselves living together. A better field for study would be the
linguistic usage of Israeli youth who have been indoctrinated in Modern Israeli and have experimented
with new synagogue liturgies. What we seek to know is how people establish a new social identity.
The assertion of a new social identity can, of course, be accomplished by adopting an entirely different
language as the religious one. Pidgin Sango is the Protestant language of the Central African Republic
even where there is no need for it, as in unilingual villages. But social change can lead to new feelings
of identity that revive interest in the native language. (This happened with those ethnic groups in the
Cameroun Presbyterian church that had used Bulu as lingua franca and as religious language.) On
the other hand, the 'new' language may be an old one that is disguised or one that is drastically
altered: Argots or 'secret languages' - where intelligibility, perhaps minimal, is possible - are often of
the first type. Of the second type are pseudolanguages. Cargo cults in the Papua-New Guinea area
have arisen with 'new languages' that are hardly more than a mish-mash of words from non-native
languages (Worsley 1957). New 'languages' in a different sense, more accurately argots, arise in a new
movement as the effect of the ideology. The emergence of Spiritualist churches in the last century, for
example, led to an argot where words as common as see and feel have special meanings (Zaretzky
1972).

In the present discussion the word 'language' is an ambiguous one, for it refers both to form and
function in the dynamics of interaction. It should be made clear that in religion, as in other human
experience, the replacement of one language by another need not be complete either for form or for
function. The practitioners of a religion require only that the 'language' fulfill its immediate function.
A Spiritualist minister must certainly give the impression of talking English even though her ambiguous
messages only provide suggestions to a seeker for getting its meaning. There is less need for satisfying
intellectual requirements in a Rhodesian spirit-cult rite (Blakney, 1969), with Pentecostal glossolalia
(Samarin 1972 a), or in a Ceylonese healing ritual (Tambiah 1968). The need, of course, is determined
by the given religious phenomenon, and it is a product of several factors. For example, 'identifying
one's social identity' can include conversion experiences and initiation rites, but it can occur without
them. Becoming a member of the neo-Pentecostal (charismatic) movement, for example, necessitates
the learning of its argot as in Spiritualist churches. A person is not incorporated into such social units as
a prayer fellowship, church congregation, or weekend retreat simply because he assents to the group's
belief, but also because he can talk about it. From one point of view, therefore, Pentecostal talk is
more important than glossolalia in this movement. Yet glossolalia is the linguistic evidence, traditional
Pentecostal doctrine claims, of the new religious experience. De facto socialization into the movement
is through the argot; the symbol of the new social reality is glossolalia. The convert to Pentecostalism
therefore acquires two 'new' languages. - An argot is undoubtedly learned when one becomes a
member of the Jamaa movement in Zaire (Fabian 1971), for there are many Swahili words whose
meanings are peculiar to the movement. But full membership, which is formal and explicit, is achieved
by going through four stages of initiation, each characterized by a specific kind of speech event and
reflecting kinds or qualities of personal relationships established during this process. - Time is only one
of the factors that determines the nature of the language of initiation. Where neophytes are brought
into cult membership during a relatively brief training period, the acquisition of a real foreign
language is virtually impossible, but disguised forms of languages and pidgins are more accessible.
Easier yet are pseudolanguages. Glossolalia is such an effective initiation symbol. It marks the precise
moment when a seeker at a revival meeting gets 'the experience'. - It would be a mistake to think
that language serves religious ends without being influenced by or venturing into the profane world.
We thus find language being used to support structure and privileged position. In Spiritualist churches
the four ranks in leadership are characterized by the right to use certain argot terms, each rank using

42
terms from those available to the lower one(s), but not vice versa. The minister is alone at the top,
and she can discipline the colleague who violates the rule. Igbo go to shrine priests to have prayers
said to certain capricious gods, but these priests are descendants from former conquerors who still have
political power in the villages (Shelton 1976). Members of a Kewa cult in New Guinea use their argot
to extort food from unwary fellow villagers. This is possible because the argot consists of words and
expressions that replace standard Kewa words that, on the initiative of the cult, have become taboo:
for example, ipa agi, literally 'water mother' for nogo (girl). The villager who mistakenly violates the
taboo is required to atone with a payment of pigs or pearl shells.

3. Linguistic Means
It is a sociolinguistic premise that speech is adapted to culturally relevant functions. In a description of
the linguistic means at the disposal of religion we are concerned with the parts of language that are
exploited and the products of the exploitation. Substitutes for native language have already been
mentioned: a switch from English to Hebrew or an argot or a pseudolanguage. But even without
these more or less drastic departures from normal speech, special varieties of native language can be
built with available resources or with an admixture from other languages. The result is a register or
style. There is, for example, a testimony-giving style among traditional Pentecostals (such as the
Assemblies of God) that consists of rapid delivery at a flat and higher-than-usual level of pitch. Cutting
across different genres of discourse such as sermons, prayers, and testimonies is the practice of breaking
speech up into rhythmic units sometimes punctuated by verbal ejaculations or grunts. (On sermons
see Rosenberg 1970 and Samarin 1972 b). Many other examples of styles that are peculiar to certain
kinds of religious acts are found. The general picture for religion, then, is similar to that for other
domains of experience. Religion may not be unique in its inventory of linguistic resources, but it may
be with respect to their predominance. That which in other domains is infrequent may in religion be
frequent. This would seem to be the case with the use of anomalous utterances of the mumbo-jumbo
and abracadabra type. (Here too the form-function relationship cannot be ignored. What is
linguistically 'normal' in the cognitive-denotative sense may in its magical use be meaningless.
Examples are to be found in the repetitive verbalization of names, words, or sentences. The adherent
of a 'high' religion may thus be the religious brother of an adherent of a 'low' religion in a specific use
of language, if not in the form used.) Perhaps, however, there is a higher-level typology of which the
use of anomalous speech is just one instance. It appears that in religion greater liberty is taken to
satisfy the esthetic appreciation for the substance of language.

The average man does not have an opportunity to speak in metered units, but he can do this when
he prays or repeats a spell. This happens in extemporaneous Pentecostal prayers (since Pentecostals
are hardly given to liturgical ones), but satisfying sounds are also provided in the corpus of religious
texts. Repetitious patterns are found in Igbo, Christian, and Chamula prayers (Shelton 1976, Ferguson
1976, Gossen 1976) that are part of the tradition of these religions. Yet even these texts must be seen
as the products of deep-seated motivations. Even where text were originally produced with little or
no intent to be esthetically pleasing, they are interpreted (in the elocutionary sense) so that they are
prosodically pleasing. When people defend the King James Version of the Bible, for example, they
frequently cite its "majestic rhythm." Since there is no inherent rhythm to this seventeenth-century
translation, these traditionalists are really defending the style of reading with which they have become
familiar. Obviously, any version, even the one in Basic English, could have its own majestic style. What
is true of Christian Scriptures is also true for Judaism and Hinduism. - Linguistic adaptation to religious
needs is not limited to the selection of linguistic resources for the creation of special varieties of
language. It also leads to special kinds of discourse. The 'language' of religion – the means whereby
religion expresses itself - therefore consists of genres like song, recitations, prayer, and magical or
divinational formulae. Here the domain specificity of religious language may be seen, perhaps more

43
clearly than anywhere else. One does not address or petition the gods in the same way that one
addresses chiefs and kings (unless the chiefs and kings are theocratic figures).

As linguists, we are concerned with the structures of these genres insofar as they are the product of
'grammatical' discourse rules and as sociolinguists we are concerned with their function in speech
events. The linguistic means of religion, whether extemporaneous or traditional, are expressed in either
oral or written form. It makes a difference for religious behavior if the society is literate or preliterate
and, in the latter case, if it is in contact with literacy. Of particular interest to sociolinguistics is the way
in which the language of the sacred writings affects later forms of language. (For the influence Sanskrit
and Hebrew have had see Christian 1976 and Rabin 1976). In the case of the Church of the Lord, an
'independent' Christian movement in West Africa foreign orthographies may be responsible for the
spelling of 'holy words': for example, what is pronounced something like Kokamula is written
Kieokkammullal with a predilection for extra letters and long words (Turner 1967).

4. Social Processes
The realization of speech ends is a social process, and the linguistic products that effect this realization
are social phenomena. These facts have not been ignored in the foregoing discussion. Now we should
turn our attention to some facets of the social nature of the interrelationship between ends and means.

4.1. Sociolinguistic Competence


This refers to one's ability to use language - the language product is constructed according to the rules,
and it meets the requirements of the setting. The identification of genres of discourse presupposes a
structure that is characteristic for each. In a given community it is therefore possible for a person to
fail in his linguistic performance, if only by not achieving the ideal. Publications have touched on the
rule-governed nature of the speaker's task. We must know for each religion - or some given part of it
- what it means to be sociolinguistically competent in it. In our eagerness to describe rules, however,
we must not ignore the fact that people force rules to yield. Both form and function are involved.
Although prayers in many religions are set by tradition and are augmented or varied with great
conservatism, the Protestant 'free' prayer, being extemporary, is susceptible to great variation and
exploitation. It is indeed possible for a prayer to approach the nature of a sermon.

What kinds of rules are more subject to strain and what are the social phenomena that accompany
particular changes or periods of change? These are questions fundamental to sociolinguistics in
general, but we do not now have good answers. Yet it should be observed, for example, that the
Reformation seems to have led to only a few innovations in language use. On the other hand, dream
interpretation as part of religious behavior in the Jamaa movement (mentioned above) is probably
an innovation when seen in the context of African Roman Catholicism where this movement is found.

The domain of religion reminds us that we must study the acquisition of sociolinguistic competence for
all domains in a given society. An adult who 'becomes religious' after a lifetime of irreligiosity or one
who leaves one religious community for another has to learn a new kind of behavior. Language is
often a very important part of this process. In any case, there are drastic differences between what
adherents of different religions are required to know and how - and at what age - they go about
acquiring this knowledge. Judaism places very great value on a knowledge of religious writings;
memorization is important in Eastern religions; but Christian clerics, at least in our day, usually read
the liturgy. In most fundamentalist churches one is supposed to bring his Bible to church and follow
the sermon by looking up all the text citations, of which there can be quite a few. In some churches,
generally lower-class ones, the preacher makes it a practice to let volunteers in the congregation read
as soon as they find the place. One can very well imagine both the contribution this practice makes
to group cohesion and also the opportunities it provides for competition.

44
This last example, like so many others, illustrates the way the ability to behave in an appropriate
manner can be used to symbolize what it means to be an adherent of a given religious community
and to regulate behavior within it. In some Protestant groups one learns to pray aloud in public –
something that every 'good Christian' is supposed to be able to do - so as to express solidarity of the
group. With this function, praying aloud can be described as a ritual act, equivalent to attending
church, but whose social meaning has greater forcefulness and clarity.

4.2. Metalinguistics
This, for our present purposes, refers to beliefs and attitudes about language. Religion may be the
source or determiner of a society's metalinguistic notions, but in any case the expression of religion -
sometimes its very conceptualization - is influenced by the way people think about language.

If language is viewed as having a supernatural origin or in some way being part of the divine essence,
everyday speech or speech on certain occasions is affected. Both among the Dagon of West Africa and
in Hinduism language figured in the creation of the world (Calame-Griaule 1965, Christian 1976). We
all know about the logos of St. John's gospel, but we have no information about how this concept was
related to social behavior. Well documented ethnographic observations would lead us to be careful
about assuming certain kinds of behavior on the basis of certain kinds of beliefs. Evangelical
Protestants assert as part of their creed that the Bible in the original language was wholly and verbally
inspired by God: that every word is precisely the one God wanted. (They are not alone among those
who have inspired texts.) Yet the linguistic and philosophical implications have never been adequately
worked out. In evangelicalism's fundamentalist sector there is a strain of antirationalism: human
language is but an imperfect instrument that God overrides in his power; for Pentecostals human
language is even carnal whereas glossolalia is spiritual. A similar attitude appeared among early
Quakers (Bauman 1970). In religion perhaps one finds the most explicit expression of belief in the
power of language as a force in its own right. Among the Chamula 'heated words' during a ritual are
like incense; in Spiritualist churches certain words 'do' what they 'say', so one avoids words like sickness
and death; in Hinduism certain verses are repeated for their efficacy; African Muslims wear verbal
charms and Tibetans use prayer wheels for the same purpose. Ethnographic literature provides
abundant documentation of this aspect of linguistic belief and practice.
The study of sacred texts has led to extensive grammatical and lexicographical work, and linguistic
science is indebted to religion for this legacy, but the linguistic history of religion is, as one might expect,
uneven in quality. The ancient grammar of Sanskrit attributed to Panini is acclaimed by modern
linguists for the quality of its generalizations, its elegance, and its economy. Long before the
Renaissance - when Greek and Hebrew began to be studied assiduously – Muslim scholars had already
arrived at a highly enlightened understanding of Arabic. The ecumenicity of scholarship in the west
had its influence at that time on Jewish studies of Hebrew. It is these ancient Jewish attitudes towards
grammatical studies that explain in part the present state of Hebrew: the Sephardi had a great
respect for the study of grammar, but the Ashkenazi frowned on it. Native linguistic notions, however,
certainly had a prejudicial effect on the study of sacred texts. One that has pervaded (in many
seminaries) and dominated Catholic and Protestant thought is belief in the deterministic nature of
Hebrew and Greek: because one is static and the other dynamic, they led to different views of life.
Theologians thus discovered and accounted for different theologies in Judaic and Christian religions.
(Barr 1961 debunks this notion; Penn 1972 traces its history in secular thought.)

Linguistic notions, on the other hand, can be used to explicate or defend belief and to provide a model
for the belief system. The history of theological argumentation is replete with illustrations of linguistic
use, such as the repetition of kai (and) in Matthew 28: 19 ("in the name of the Father and of the Son
and of the Holy Spirit") which is said to prove that baptism must consist of three separate immersions

45
in sequence. Much more sophisticated is Augustine's use of the relationship between the form of a
sentence and its meaning in explaining eternity (Burke
1970, 142).

Since language attitudes can affect any aspect of a community's linguistic resource, the use of different
languages also will be affected. Such use is not necessarily uniform throughout the community or in
the whole domain of religion. Religion is a domain that either inhibits or elicits the use of a second
language. The Telugu, like Indians generally, borrow extensively from Sanskrit, but some styles more
than others. Molokans now living in the United States speak Russian or English with a great admixture
of the other in settings that might be called casual or intimate. In religious settings only Russian is used
and that in a form free of English loans except for an occasional culture-specific item. On the other
hand, Haitian Protestants require a great deal of Standard French in their Creole on formal religious
occasions, and they might be happier with a sermon entirely in French even if it were incomprehensible
(Orjala 1970).

Another way of looking at the process of language selection is in terms of the event rather than text.
Thus, in the synagogue Sabbath service conducted for the most part in English, certain parts are
restricted to Hebrew, and different parts of Ceylonese healing rite take different languages or mixtures
of languages, reflecting the hierarchical positions of gods and demons.

ACTIVITY:
Instructions: Answer the following:
1. As defined in sociolinguistics, what do you mean by the Language of Religion?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Explain this line, “A religious language is the product of the intersection of language variables of
different sorts within this one domain of human experience.”
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Explain the language of Religion as religious ends.


_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

46
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Explain the language of Religion as linguistic means


_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Explain the two Social Processes: Sociolinguistic Competence and Metalinguistics.


_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

TASK:
Instructions: Do the Cubing Oral Questioning.
Directions: Formulate higher order thinking skill questions beginning with what, when, who, where,
why, and how each and answer your own questions in 2-3 sentences.
1. What?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

2. When?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Who?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Where?

47
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Why?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
6. How?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

LESSONS 11-12
Desired Learning Outcome/s:
At the end of lesson, the students should be able to independently analyze specimen of text using the
framework learned in the discussion of sample text.

The Language of Newspaper Reporting

The importance of language

Your main task as a journalist is to help people understand what is happening around them; in their village, in
their country and in the world. Most readers or listeners will not have your knowledge of language, so you must
simplify it for them. You should be able to examine the most complicated issues and events then translate them
into language which your audience can understand. If you fail in this, people will stop buying your newspaper
or tuning in to your radio or television station. You will be failing in your job.

For many journalists today, English is the main language used for newspapers or magazines, radio, television
or the Internet. This book is written in English, so these chapters concentrates on the English language. It is worth
remembering, however, that even a language as common as English is not exactly the same all over the world.
There are differences between, for example, UK English and American English. There are often also differences
in the way English is written or spoken within individual countries. It may sometimes be difficult to decide what
is correct in the English used in your country. Language is developing all the time, and your country may not
yet have a well-established set of rules for English. If this is so, you should use the form which is accepted as
correct by the most literate educated people in your country. Above all, use words and grammar which are
most easily understood by your readers or listeners.

Although you are reading this in English, you may do a lot of writing in other languages. Many of the general
points we make about writing style will apply to these other languages. Learn the general points and try to
apply them to your own language or languages.

Short, sharp, clear sentences


Whether you write for newspapers, broadcasting or the Internet, you should always aim for words and sentences
which provide the maximum amount of understanding with the minimum risk of confusion. This generally
means keeping words and sentences short and simple. You can use long words, but you must be sure they are
48
doing their job properly. In Chapter 5: Writing the intro, the golden rules, we said that many words are like fat
and lazy people sitting back without paddles in a canoe. Remember, there is no room in your sentences for fat
and lazy words. If words do not add to understanding, throw them overboard.

Sentence length
There is no single rule about the length of sentences in news writing, but you should set yourself a target for the
maximum number of words you use. We suggest that you never use more than 20 words in any sentence,
except in special circumstances. If you follow this rule, your sentences will be simpler, there will be less room for
error and you will make a more efficient use of words.

An alternative way of judging the best length for your sentences is to count the number of ideas or concepts
you expect your reader or listener to understand. Compare these two examples of the same story. Notice how
version A tries to pack all the ideas into one sentence, whereas version B splits them into three separate
sentences:

Story A
Four aircraft passengers, the pilot and three people travelling in a car were killed when a twin-engined
Beechcraft Baron aircraft hit an electric power line and crashed near Nadi airport this week.

Story B
Eight people died when an aircraft crashed near Nadi airport this week. The pilot and four passengers died
when their twin-engined Beechcraft Baron hit a power line. The plane then crashed into a car on a road near
the airport, killing three more people.
Notice that, although Story B is 12 words longer than Story A, it is split into three sentences. None of the sentences
in Story B is longer than 20 words. Get someone to read both stories out loud to you, and you will quickly see
that Story B is easier to understand.

The reason is simple. Story A contains six separate ideas for the reader or listener to understand at one time:
1. the people in the plane;
2. the people in the car;
3. the type of plane;
4. the cause of the crash;
5. the location of the crash;
6. the time of the crash.

Story B, by comparison, has fewer ideas in each sentence. The first sentence has just four simple ideas:
1. the total number of dead;
2. a simple description of the type of plane;
3. where it crashed;
4. when it crashed.

The second sentence tells us:


1. how many died in the plane;
2. the exact type of plane;
3. the exact cause of the crash.

The third sentence tells us:


1. how the people in the car died;
2. where the car was;
3. how many died in the car.

You may argue that Story B, as well as being longer, gives a total of ten ideas to understand. However, many
of those ideas are not separate. They relate to details in the preceding sentence. Linking ideas and repeating
details often helps understanding. More important, those ten ideas are not thrown at our audience in one

49
breath. The full stop at the end of each sentence (which comes as a pause on radio and television) allows the
reader or listener time to digest one set of facts before moving on to new details.

We recommend that you try to limit each sentence to no more than three separate ideas. You can occasionally
use four ideas per sentence, as long as those ideas are not complicated. We fitted four ideas into the intro of
Story B above because two of the ideas - the time and place - are very simple and easy for the reader to
understand.

Lively language
The words you use will help to make your story easy to understand. As we said earlier, long words are not bad
in themselves, if they are the only words available to explain a particular meaning accurately. However, the
English language is large and varied so there are usually shorter alternatives which do the job just as well as
long words.
Many young journalists think that they have to use the whole of their vocabulary when writing even the
simplest news story. You may wish to show off your knowledge of the language, but remember that your
knowledge is not what matters. The vocabulary of your reader or listener is more important.

Some journalists also believe that they can only add drama or depth to a story by adding words. We get
sentences like:

The man ran swiftly across the street to help the defenseless boy who was being brutally beaten.

Take out the adjectives and adverbs in italics. They are unnecessary and only slow the sentence down. The
word swiftly is unnecessary because people do not usually run slowly. The boy is obviously defenseless, otherwise
he would not be being beaten. And the word brutally is unnecessary, as most beatings are brutal. The sentence
is now much livelier and sharper:

The man ran across the street to help the boy who was being beaten.
The most effective way to add drama to a sentence is to choose the verbs carefully. For example, try changing
the verb “ran” to “strolled”, “walked”, “flew” or “thundered”. See how they alter the whole picture of what
happened. We do not suggest that you change verbs simply to add drama. Every word must accurately
describe what happened. But it is better to choose the correct verb than to add unnecessary adjectives and
adverbs. The use of a variety of verbs is most common in sports reporting, where we read of players kicking,
shooting, powering or rocketing the ball into the net.

Using new words


Many careless writers introduce new words without thinking how they will be understood by ordinary people.
Sometimes they change nouns into verbs, in order to make sentences shorter. The danger with this is that the
resultant verb is often less precise than the original phrase and is less readily understood by people. Avoid using
verbs such as:

• To author (use to write)


• To hospitalize (use to admit to hospital or to be in hospital)
• To parent (use to be a parent or to act like a parent)

You must be very careful about introducing new words which your readers or listeners might not understand.
This is especially important if the word is in their second language. Stay with familiar words.

However, if you cannot avoid using a new word, you must follow it immediately with an explanation. For
example, many English language newspapers and broadcasters use the Russian word glasnost quite freely when
speaking of the changes in the Soviet Union. When they first began to use it, they needed to explain that
glasnost means "the opening up of a society which has previously been rigidly controlled".

50
There are also times when new words or usages have been readily accepted by society before the media decide
to use them. It would be foolish, for example, to fight against the use of farewell as a verb in the South Pacific.
People often speak of ‘farewelling a friend'.

Sentence structure
It is not enough to write short sentences using simple words. You also have to construct your sentences in such a
way that the ideas are easy to understand.

You will remember that the sentence "the man hit the table" is in the active voice (where the man is the hitter).
The sentence "the table was hit by the man" is in the passive voice. Wherever possible, write in the active voice.
That is the way most people speak. People do not say "the bus was missed by me", they say "I missed the bus".
However, there are times when you cannot avoid using the passive voice. This is particularly so when it is not
clear who is responsible for the action or when the subject of the sentence is unimportant or unclear.

For example we would write:


Three children have been admitted to hospital with suspected food poisoning. (Passive voice)

It would be wrong to use either of the following versions, the first because it is not clear who admitted them
(was it a doctor or a nurse?), the second because we are not sure that it was food poisoning:

Someone admitted three children to hospital with suspected food poisoning.


or:
Food poisoning put three children in hospital.

Other factors which can make sentences too complicated for your reader or listener to understand include:

Subordinate clauses

You should avoid starting a sentence with a subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses usually begin with words
such as "while...", "as...", "although...", "even though...", "because ..." and "despite...". They are separate phrases
within a sentence which help to put the main part of the sentence in context. In the following example of bad
sentence construction, the subordinate clause is in italics:

BAD
Although there has been a 20 percent increase in murders this year, the Prime Minister has vowed not to bring
back hanging.

The main point of the sentence is that the Prime Minister has said he will not bring back hanging. The
subordinate clause sets this promise in the context of the rising crime rate. In the example above, putting the
subordinate clause at the beginning of the sentence may confuse your readers or listeners. They expect to hear
the main facts first. Rewrite the sentence as follows:

BETTER:
The Prime Minister has vowed not to bring back hanging, despite a 20 percent increase in murders this year.

And and but

Even simple joining words like and and but can cause confusion if they are not used wisely. These words are
called conjunctions because they join things together. The word and is quite acceptable when used to join
together two words or phrases:

The man and the woman had two daughters and a son.

However, it should not be used to join together long lists of ideas which can quite easily be split into separate
sentences. In the two examples which follow, the first version is confused by using and and but. By splitting it
51
into separate sentences we do not alter the meaning, we simply make it easier to understand, for reasons we
discussed in the section on sentence length:

RIGHT:
Import duty on meat and vegetables will be reduced by ten percent. The special subsidy for rice exporters will
be increased by five percent. These changes will come into effect after the next budget.

WRONG:
Duty on imported meat and vegetables will be reduced by ten percent and the special subsidy for rice exporters
will be increased by five percent but these changes will not come into effect until after the next budget.

Paired negatives

Paired or double negatives in English are not only bad grammar ("he has not got no pawpaw"), they usually
create confusion, especially in the spoken word. Although logically paired negatives simply cancel each other
out, many people do not use them in this way. Many other languages have totally different rules about paired
negatives, and even some British dialects use the paired negative to add stress to a negative idea.

For example, the sentence "He was happy" is easy to understand. So is the sentence "He was unhappy". But
what do you understand by "He was not unhappy". Was he happy or unhappy? Do you see the confusion?
Make it a rule: avoid paired negatives.

Objectivity
Your language must not only be easily understood, it must be fair. You should not use words which give a
biased view of a person, an event or a situation.

Many words develop special, biased meanings because of the way they are commonly used in a community.
In some cases, you cannot avoid using such words. Take care that the words you use reflect the meaning in the
community and not your own opinions.

In particular, you should be careful about using words which describe disputes or conflicts. In these cases, each
side to the dispute may choose to use the words which reflect well on them and badly on their opponents. As a
journalist, you should try to steer the middle course.

The most obvious cases of bias are introduced by the use of adjectives and adverbs. A protester's peaceful
resistance may seem like violent obstruction to a policeman on duty. An injured person waiting for an
ambulance may think it arrived slowly when the ambulance driver believes he drove fast.

Verbs too can be loaded with bias. The same protester who lobbed a stone at a police van may be seen by the
men inside to have hurled it at them. A boss sees his workers go on strike, the workers may say they withdraw
their labour. Words like sack, retrench and make redundant describe similar situations in which people lose
their jobs, but they mean quite different things to the bosses and workers involved. Some American companies
even speak of letting workers go, even though the workers themselves have no choice.

Nouns can also express bias. A building can be a house to a poor person, yet seem like a shack to the rich
observer. It may seem to be in a suburb to its owner, and in a slum to the rich man. And who is rich? If you
have $100 you will be rich to a beggar, but poor to a millionaire.

It is impossible to list all the words which may contain bias. You must look at each word individually and ask
yourself if it is fair and accurate.

Quotes
You are on safer ground when you use words in quotes. That way the reader can judge the bias through the
eyes of the person you quote. (In radio or television, it is better to use a recording of people speaking the actual

52
words, called actuality.) In the following example, look at the difference between these two sentences describing
the same crime. Notice how the magistrate and the accused see the crime in opposite ways:

The magistrate said: "These were mean and despicable thefts, carried out against a defenseless family for no
good reason."

The accused said: "I never robbed anyone. I just took from the rich people and gave it back to the poor."

Do not pass judgment. Give the words in quotes and let you readers or listeners judge for themselves.

An added advantage of using quotes is that you can use much livelier language - the words the people
themselves used. We talked about this in detail in Chapters 8 and 9 on quotes and attribution.

TO SUMMARIZE

You must keep your language clear and simple so that your readers or listeners can understand. Sentences
should be short - no longer than 20 words or three concepts (ideas). Sentence structure should be simple; it is
best to write in the active voice. Explain any new words whenever you use them.

ACTIVITY:
Instructions: Answer the following:
1. What is the importance of news writing?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Why there’s a need to use short, sharp, clear sentences, in newspaper reporting?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Why there’s a need to use lively language in newspaper reporting?


_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Why there’s a need to refrain from using new words in newspaper reporting?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

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5. Why objectivity in newspaper reporting is being observed?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

TASK TO DO:
Instructions: You are to write three latest news about local, national and international. You are allowed to
choose either from: hard news (crimes stories, political stories, education news, etc.), sports news, and feature
news (focus on people).
Local
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

National
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

International
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

LESSONS 13-14
Desired Learning Outcome/s:
At the end of lesson, the students should be able to
a. independently analyze specimen of text using the framework learned in the discussion of sample
text; and
b. submit a stylistic analysis of nonliterary text using a framework learned from discussions.

The Language of Legal Documents & other Non-literary texts

54
Understanding Legal Terminology

Legal writing is often hard to read because of its specialized language. The technical terms used to convey
legal doctrine in statutes, court decisions and business contracts are often referred to as "terms of art." While
these terms vary in origin and purpose, they generally fall into three categories: specialized terminology, foreign
terminology, and archaic terminology.

Specialized terminology refers to words that are specific to the legal profession. Some specialized terms
originated within the legal system for the purpose of conveying meanings specific to law. Examples of such
terms include: affidavit (a written or printed statement made under oath), tort (a civil, not criminal, wrong),
writ (a written court order directing a person to take, or refrain from taking, a certain act), and litigation (A
case, controversy, or lawsuit). Other specialized terms are quotidian terms adopted by the legal profession and
given new meaning. Words in this category include: motion (a request by a litigant to a judge for a decision
on an issue relating to the case), damages (money that a defendant pays a plaintiff in a civil case if the plaintiff
has won), and assume (an agreement to continue performing duties under a contract or lease).

Foreign terminology refers to legal terms derived from non-English languages. Latin and French are the two
most common foreign languages from which words are adopted for law. Examples of foreign terms include:
en banc (French, meaning "on the bench." All judges of an appellate court sitting together to hear a case, as
opposed to the routine disposition by panels of three judges), habeas corpus (Latin, meaning "you have the
body." A judicial order forcing law enforcement authorities to produce a prisoner they are holding, and to justify
the prisoner's continued confinement), and In camera (In the judge's chamber, away from the jury and public).

In legal writing, archaic language tends to be used to express specific direction within the text without excessive
repetition. They are, in essence, phrases condensed into single words. Words such as heretofore, thereupon, and
whereabouts are examples of this archaic category of terminology. While these terms were at one time
common to the English language, they have since fallen out of common usage and only remain prevalent in
"terms of art."

Legal documents in plain language

All legal documents should be in plain language. We all enter into agreements regularly, whether it is a
negotiated agreement or a retailer’s standard terms and conditions. Most of the time, people do not understand
many (or even most) of the terms that they agree to. Why? Simply because many agreements drafted by
lawyers are full of legal jargon and complex, archaic words that many people do not understand. Even lawyers
often have to read an act, a judgment, or a horrible agreement a second or a third time to really understand
the meaning.

Many agreements drafted by lawyers are full of legal jargon and complex, archaic words that
many people do not understand

We are big fans of legal writing in plain language and we always try to draft in plain legal language. When it
comes to legal documents (including agreements) the most important benefit of writing in plain language is
probably that all the parties to the agreement (and not only the lawyers) actually understand all the terms
and know what they have agreed. You want your legal documents in plain language because the benefits are
significant and in fact soon the law will also require them to be so. Consumer protection law (like the Consumer
Protection Act) specifically requires consumer agreements to be in plain understandable language and you
need to make sure that your agreements will comply with this requirement.

Content in Plain Language can be Rich or Lean?


There are two approaches that one can adopt when drafting legal documents: either:

a content rich; or a content lean approach.

55
A content lean approach should in most instances be the objective, which automatically results in plain English
terms – understandable to all the role players. With this in mind, we always try to reduce content where
possible, but without creating the problems mentioned above. There is of course a risk associated with the
content lean approach – an issue may arise that is not specifically dealt with in the terms, leading to a dispute.
We ensure that important terms are dealt with in sufficient detail to avoid unnecessary disputes.

There are certain words and terms that have a very specific meaning in law and they reside in
the legal domain – they must not be changed

Legal documents need special treatment


However, when drafting in plain language or translating documents into plain language, it is important to
make sure that:

1. You do not reduce or water down rights


2. You do not leave out important provisions
3. You do not create ambiguities

The meaning stays clear


When writing in plain legal language, legalese or jargon is being translated into ordinary language that
everyone can understand. However, you have to be careful. There are certain words and terms that have a
very specific meaning in law and they reside in the legal domain – they must not be changed. The following
are just some examples of legal terms that have a very specific meaning in law:

1. Prima facie – it means “at first site“, but the phrase “prima facie” has developed a special meaning in
law – it should not be changed to it’s English translation
2. Indemnity – this cannot be changed to “pay you back” or “reimburse you“
3. Warranty – sometimes people are tempted to change “warrant” to “agree“
4. Intellectual Property Rights
5. Moral Rights

Drafting Legal Documents, Principles of Clear Writing

Principles of Clear Writing

1. Write in the active voice. The active voice eliminates confusion by forcing you to name the actor in a sentence.
This construction makes clear to the reader who is to perform the duty.

The passive voice makes sentences longer and roundabout. Who is responsible is much less obvious. Passive
verbs have a form of the verb to be plus the past participle of a main verb.

am is are was were be been

plus

a main verb usually ending in "en" or "ed".


Examples of passive verbs:
was received,
is being considered,
has been selected.
The passive voice reverses the natural, active order of English sentences. In the following passive example the
receiver of the action comes before the actor.

Passive: The regulation [receiver] was written [verb] by the drafter [actor].
Active: The drafter [actor] wrote [verb] the regulation [receiver].

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Passive constructions are confusing when used in regulations. Active sentences must have actors, but passive
ones are complete without them.

The material will be delivered. By whom?


The start date is to be decided. By whom?
The figures must be approved. By whom?

Putting the actor before the verb forces you to be clear about responsibility.
The messenger will deliver the material.
The contractor will decide the start date.
The administrator must approve the figures.
The passive voice is appropriate when the actor is unknown, unimportant, or obvious. This does not usually
apply in regulatory text.

Small items are often stolen.


The applications have been mailed.

2. Use action verbs.


Avoid words like this:
DON'T SAY SAY
give consideration to consider
is applicable to applies to
make payment pay
give recognition to recognize
is concerned with concerns

They are called "nominals" -- nouns with verbs inside. They are hard to read and make sentences longer. Action
verbs are shorter and more direct.

3. Use "must" instead of "shall".


shall imposes an obligation to act, but may be confused with prediction of future action
will predicts future action
must imposes obligation, indicates a necessity to act
must not indicates a prohibition
should infers obligation, but not absolute necessity
may indicates discretion to act
To impose a legal obligation, use "must."
To predict future action, use "will."
DON'T SAY: The Governor shall approve it.
SAY: The Governor must approve it. [obligation]
OR: The Governor will approve it. [future action]

4. Be direct. Talk directly to your readers. Use the imperative mood. Regulations lend themselves to this
style, especially procedures, how-to instructions, and lists of duties.
Directness avoids the passive voice:
SAY: Sign all copies.
SAY: Attach a copy of your W-2 to your return.
This style results in procedures that are shorter, crisper, and easier to understand.

5. Use the present tense. A regulation of continuing effect speaks as of the time you apply it, not as of the time
you draft it or when it becomes effective. For this reason, you should draft regulations in the present tense. By
drafting in the present tense, you avoid complicated and awkward verb forms.

DON'T SAY: The fine for driving without a license shall be $10.00.
SAY: The fine for driving without a license is $10.00.
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6. Write positively. If you can accurately express an idea either positively or negatively, express it positively.
DON'T SAY: The Governor may not appoint persons other than those qualified by the Personnel
Management Agency.

SAY: The Governor must appoint a person qualified by the Personnel Management Agency.

A negative statement can be clear. Use it if you're cautioning the reader.

DON'T WALK
DON'T SMOKE
But avoid several negatives in one sentence.
DON'T SAY: A demonstration project will not be approved unless all application requirements
are met.
SAY: A demonstration project will be approved only if the applicant meets all requirements.

It's better to express even a negative in positive form.


DON'T SAY SAY
not honest dishonest
did not remember forgot
did not pay any attention to ignored
did not remain at the meeting left the meeting
did not comply with or
failed to comply with violated

7. Avoid use of exceptions. If possible, state a rule or category directly rather than describing that rule or
category by stating its exceptions.
DON'T SAY: All persons except those 18 years or older must...

SAY: Each person under 18 years of age must...

However, you may use an exception if it avoids a long and cumbersome list or elaborate description. When
you use an exception, state the rule or category first then state its exception.
DON'T SAY: Alabama, Alaska,... and Wyoming (a list of 47 states) must ration...
SAY: Each state except Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona must ration... (Note that the category "each
State" is established first and then the exceptions are stated.)

8. Avoid split infinitives. The split infinitive offends many readers, so avoid it if you can.
DON'T SAY: Be sure to promptly reply to the invitation.
SAY: Be sure to reply promptly to the invitation. or SAY: Be sure to reply to the invitation promptly.

9. Use the singular noun rather than the plural noun. To the extent your meaning allows, use a singular noun
instead of a plural noun. You will avoid the problem of whether the rule applies separately to each member
of a class or jointly to the class as a whole.
DON'T SAY: The guard will issue security badges to the employees who work in Building D and Building
E.
SAY: The guard will issue a security badge to each employee who works in Building D and each
employee who works in Building E.
Unless you mean
The guard will issue a security badge to each employee who works in both Building D and Building E.
(There are other possible meanings.)

10. Be consistent. Don't use different words to denote the same things. Variation for the sake of variation has
no place in regulation writing. Using a synonym rather than repeating the precise term you intend just confuses
the reader.

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DON'T SAY: Each motor vehicle owner must register his or her car with the Automobile Division of the
Metropolitan Police Department.
SAY: Each automobile owner must register his or her automobile with the Automobile Division of the
Metropolitan Police Department.

Don't use the same word to denote different things.


DON'T SAY: The tank had a 200-gallon tank for fuel.
SAY: The tank had a 200-gallon fuel container.

11. Use parallel structure. Arrange sentences so that parallel ideas look parallel. This is important when you use
a list.

Nonparallel construction:
The duties of the Executive Secretary of the Administrative Committee are:
To take minutes of all the meetings; (phrase)
The Executive Secretary answers all the correspondence; and (clause)
Writing of monthly reports. (topic)
Parallel construction:
To take minutes of all the meetings;
To answer all the correspondence; and
To write the monthly reports.

12. Prefer simple words. Government writing should be dignified, but doesn't have to be pompous. Writing can
be dignified when the language is simple, direct, and strong. To make your writing clearer and easier to read -
- and thus more effective -- prefer the simple word.
DON'T SAY SAY
construct, fabricate make
initiate, commence begin
terminate end
utilize use
substantial portion large part
afforded an opportunity allow
13. Omit needless words. Don't use compound prepositions and other wordy expressions when the same meaning
can be conveyed with one or two words.
DON'T SAY SAY
because of the fact that since (because)
call your attention to the fact that remind you
for the period of for
in many cases often
in many instances sometimes
in the nature of like
the fact that he had not succeeded his failure
the question as to whether whether

14. Avoid redundancies. Don't use word pairs, if the words have the same effect or where the meaning of one
included the other.
Examples: Word pairs to avoid
• any and all
• authorize and direct
• cease and desist
• each and every
• full and complete
• order and direct
• means and includes

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• necessary and desirable
15. Use concrete words. Government writing often concerns abstract subjects. But abstract words can be vague
and open to different interpretations. Put instructions in simple, concrete words.
DON'T SAY IF YOU MEAN
vehicles automobiles
firearms rifles
aircraft helicopters

16. Don't use words that antagonize. Words can attract or repel readers. It is possible to choose words in our
writing that do not make the wrong impression or antagonize our readers. Use words to which people react
favorably rather than words that they resent.

USE WORDS LIKE


ability achieve benefit guarantee
please reasonable reliable service
useful you

RATHER THAN THESE WORDS


alibi allege blame complaint
impossible liable oversight unfortunate
waste wrong

17. Avoid noun sandwiches. Administrative writing uses too many noun clusters -- groups of nouns "sandwiched"
together. Avoid these confusing constructions by using more prepositions.
DON'T SAY: Underground mine worker safety protection procedures development.
SAY: Development of underground procedures for the protection of the safety of mine workers.
OR MORE LIKELY: Development of procedures for the protection of the safety of workers in
underground mines.

Which meaning is intended becomes clearer when this four-word sandwich is broken up.

18. Don't use gender-specific terminology. Avoid the gender-specific job title:
DON'T SAY SAY
Crewman Crewmember
Draftsman Drafter
Enlisted men Enlisted personnel
Fireman Firefighter
Foreman Supervisor
Manhours Hours worked
Manpower Personnel, workforce

Avoid the gender-specific pronoun when the antecedent could be male or female.
DON'T SAY: The administrator or his designee must complete the evaluation form.
SAY: The administrator or the administrator's designee must complete the evaluation form.

Be careful when you rewrite to avoid the problem. The following examples don't necessarily have the same
meaning --
Each Regional Director will announce his or her recommendations at the conference.
The Regional Directors will announce their recommendation at the conference.

19. Write short sentences. Readable sentences are simple, active, affirmative, and declarative.
• The more a sentence deviates from this structure, the harder the sentence is to understand.
• Long, run-on sentences are a basic weakness in legal documents.
• Legal documents often contain conditions which result in complex sentences with many clauses.

60
• The more complex the sentence, the greater the possibility for difficulty in determining the intended
meaning of the sentence.
Solutions
• State one thing and only one thing in each sentence.
• Divide long sentences into two or three short sentences.
• Remove all unnecessary words. Strive for a simple sentence with a subject and verb. Eliminate
unnecessary modifiers.
• If only one or two simple conditions must be met before a rule applies, state the conditions first and
then state the rule.
• If two or more complex conditions must be met before a rule applies, state the rule first and then state
the conditions.
• If several conditions or subordinate provisions must be met before a rule applies, use a list.

20. Make lists clear and logical in structure. Listing provides white space that separates the various conditions.
Listing can help you avoid the problems of ambiguity caused by the words "and" and "or". When you list, use
the following rules:
• Use parallel structure. (See example in item 11 above.)
• List each item so that it makes a complete thought when read with the introductory text.
If the introductory language for the list is a complete sentence --
End the introduction with a colon; and
Make each item in the list a separate sentence.
If the introductory language for the list is an incomplete sentence --
End the introduction with a dash;
End each item in the list except the last item with a semicolon;
After the semicolon in the next-to-last item in the list, write "and" or "or" as appropriate; and
End the last item in the list with a period.

21. Use short paragraphs. A writer may improve the clarity of a regulation by using short, compact paragraphs.
Each paragraph should deal with a single, unified topic. Lengthy, complex, or technical discussions should be
presented in a series of related paragraphs.

22. Use a checklist and review your draft for each of these principles separately.
Non-literary text: what it is, characteristics and classification of texts

What is a non-literary text?


When we talk about non-literary texts, we are talking about a series of texts whose main purpose is to transmit
information, different from literary texts, which are focused on an aesthetic and artistic objective. In this way,
we see that non-literary texts have to be approached in the plane of objectivity and reality in order to achieve
their purpose.

The referential or informative function of this type of text allows it to be constructed to address a specific
audience and in this sense, it must be adapted to it. That is why there is no room for ambiguity or the use of
rhetorical figures that contribute to particular meanings, but everything must be connected to each other to
guide and fulfill its communicative function.

Characteristics of non-literary texts


It is time to look at some features shared by this type of texts that allow us to distinguish them from other types
of texts that have been developed throughout history. Among their main characteristics we find that they
contain the following aspects:

Objective character of the texts


One of the central features of non-literary texts is the fundamental objective character that must be included
in their development, since this prevents there from being room for a great possibility of interpretations, but

61
rather, they are oriented towards the same meaning without leaving room for ambiguity or free
understanding.

Use of language
The way in which non-literary texts use language allows the text to be oriented to its objective of informing.
That is why, in order to avoid an interpretation different from the one proposed by the author, the language
lacks literary figures that can broaden the interpretative horizon and therefore, we are left with a concrete
language that contains words and ideas that clearly express what is intended to be said according to the specific
modality of the text. They must be texts that include coherence and cohesion.

Importance of content
Unlike literary texts that tend to focus on the form in which they are written, non-literary texts pay more
attention to the message they are trying to expose. In this way, the importance falls on the content, much more
than on the form or poetic sense, although it is not left to chance, but the information to be conveyed in an
accurate way is prioritized.

Identified audience
Although literary texts also identify a type of audience, the truth is that in this case we are talking about very
varied audiences and in which there is no defined set of treatments to whom they are addressed. On the other
hand, non-literary texts have a specific audience because in their task of informing they also meet the need of
those who must have access to it, and for this reason we speak of other functional characteristics such as
instruction or direction.

Classification of non-literary texts


Now we will see all the types and modalities of non-literary texts that we can find, which, in turn, can also have
another series of factors that allow them to be classified in other types of texts within the framework of the
non-literary. Let us see what they are:

Administrative text
This is a type of text that gathers all those documents in which unidirectional messages are developed and in
which citizens and specific administrations frequently communicate. They are mainly characterized by the
formalism they implement and the non-response of a receiver, similar to a communiqué sent to a person or a
group of people.

Argumentative text
These are texts in which the purpose is to support a thesis or idea that is presented from a detailed scheme of
justifications or reasons organized in a logical and coherent way. The main objective of argumentative texts is
to persuade the reader from the formulation of an idea in which the content develops justifications that support
this thesis. It has a defined structure.

Scientific text
It consists of texts that include information directly related to theories, concepts or topics based on scientific
knowledge. Scientific texts are characterized by the use of technical and specialized language, which is why
they are texts aimed at a knowledgeable, specialized or interested audience that can understand the
information explained therein. Their content includes elements such as data, descriptions of processes, results,
procedures, conclusions, among others.

Descriptive text
Descriptive texts are defined as all those that have ideas organized in a coherent way and their totality responds
to an integral sense. This type of text offers characteristics, aspects or real information in relation to a specific
topic, whether it is a representation of the appearance, the parts of an artifact, a person, a description of a
situation, an experience, a procedure, etc.

Expository text

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In this category are those texts whose objective is to inform about topics of general interest, which is why they
are not texts aimed at a specialized audience, but their general composition allows a wide interest with a
composition that facilitates the comprehension of the information. This type of text generally provides
knowledge about different areas.

Historical text
These are texts that bring together documents and information subsequent to an interpretation about a topic
of the past in the history of mankind. Thus, a historical text is understood as all documents that are narrated
chronologically and include summaries of relevant facts following an objective line. Although they include
subjective comments based on interpretation, especially by specialists, this participation is usually limited.

Instructional text
In this category are all texts that present a series of instructions or indications for different processes, whether
for the construction of an artifact, the organization of an element, the performance of an experiment or any
other type of procedure in which a series of concrete steps must be carried out in order to fulfill it. Thus, the
purpose of this text is to provide the reader with teaching instructions.

Informative text
As its name indicates, the main purpose of informative text is to offer a type of information to the reader. This
information can often be related to an event or situation that belongs to the past or present. It is characterized
because the way in which the text is constructed implies a series of descriptions or real data, in addition to a
fully objective sense on the part of the author or issuer. This is one of the types of text that involves aspects of
other types of text for its composition.

Normative text
Normative text is a type of document that includes rules or instructions for the execution of a specific process,
so that the author resorts to the appellative function for its construction, making sure to create an easily
understandable text. It is possible to find several formats of normative text, often related to issues of human
conduct, such as regulations, manuals, conditions of participation, among others, although there are also follow-
ups for other processes.

Legal text
It gathers all those texts of a legal nature. In other words, they are all those documents used in the legal
framework. The main function of the legal text is to provide knowledge about a specific event, fact or situation,
as well as to provide information regarding the rights and duties of the person in a given case. This type of text
is made up of a relatively simple language to understand, although it may include special terms in relation to
the area of law in which it is implemented.

Technical text
The technical text comprises all those texts that are based on a precise discourse and that include determined
processes or methodologies for the performance of an activity. Their main characteristic is that, since they are
related to specific knowledge about a given area, they include specialized terms related to it. Technical text
has topics that involve technological, industrial and scientific knowledge.

Advertising text
It is a type of text that has the purpose of leading the reader to perform a specific action. Since this type of text
appears in the area of marketing and advertising, they are texts that focus on guiding the reader to make a
decision regarding a specific process, although they can also be found in other environments. They are
characterized by the use of resources that enrich the text and reinforce the message they are trying to convey.

Academic text
Academic texts are those that are the result of research and intellectual processes that are developed in an
academic field, as its name implies. That is why we will see this type of text in a discipline in a formal way,
following a rigorous structure of writing, consultation of recognized sources and with the purpose of

63
disseminating knowledge from the communication of information and the possibility of acquiring knowledge
as well. It is written by a student, academic professional or researcher in a specific area.

Humanistic text
It refers to all those texts that are developed on the field of humanities, which implies the human being and its
culture. In this way, the humanistic text puts in dialogue different elements that are part of the human being’s
development sphere, dealing with topics that may belong to the fields of philosophy, society, anthropology,
history, arts, culture, etc. They are characterized because they have a formative intention in which a point of
view is developed based on authors and sources that the author has previously consulted.

Didactic text
A didactic text is known as all those whose main intention is the teaching of a specific topic, process or aspect.
Although they can also be developed in the academic field, they are not the product of research in a compulsory
way, but they use pedagogy in order to use practical teaching methods to provide information and knowledge
about an element. They can have a much simpler language than a humanistic text and cover a wider audience,
such as children.

Journalistic text
In this last category we find all those texts that are developed in the area of social communication and
journalism, in addition to other professional sectors in which the intention of these texts is to update the public
to whom they are addressed. They are texts that offer information of general interest, although they may vary
in terms of their level of specialization, subject or structure. That is why we find several types of journalistic texts
such as the opinion column, the report, the review, the news and the chronicle.

And so we end our section on non-literary texts, one of the broadest categories of text. We frequently come
into contact with them, which is why it is vitally important to distinguish and recognize them. Remember that
by accessing each of them you will be able to find complete information to go deeper.

ACTIVITY:
Instructions: Answer the following:
1. What do you mean by legal writing?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Why in writing legal documents it should be in plain language only?


_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Explain the two approaches that one can adopt when drafting legal documents: a content rich; or a content
lean approach.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
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4. Briefly explain the Principles of Clear Writing


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5. What is a non-literary text?


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6. Explain the characteristics of non-literary texts.


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7. Among the 16 Classification of non-literary texts, choose only eight (8) and explain them.
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TASK TO DO:
Instructions: Give examples of texts.
1. One example of a legal document and explain what makes it legal based on the lesson.
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2. Among the 16 classification of non-literary texts, choose only five, provide example each and explain why
they belong to that classification.
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MARIAN COLLEGE
CLIMACO ST., POBLACION, IPIL
ZAMBOANGA SIBUGAY - 7001 PHILIPPINES
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION - ENGLISH

LANGUAGE OF NONLITERARY TEXT


(ENGLISH 421)

LESSONS TOPIC DATE OF SUBMISSION


LESSONS 1-2 A Review on Traditional Stylistics: Linguistic Description,
Foregrounding and the Grammatical Categories February 2, 2022
Framework
PRELIM EXAM (February 7-11, 2022)
LESSON 3-4 Discourse and Context: Function March 2, 2022
LESSON 5-6 The Language of Conversation
MIDTERM EXAM (March 7-11, 2022)
LESSON 7-8 The Language of Unscripted
Commentary April 12, 2022
LESSON 9-10 The Language of Religion
PREFINALS (April 18-22, 2022)
LESSON 11-12 The Language of Newspaper
Reporting
LESSON 13-14 The Language of Legal Documents & other Non- May 2, 2022
literary texts
FINALS (May 9-13, 2022)

NOTE:
• Each of the topics has the following parts: Tasks to do and Assessment Activity/ies.
• Religiously answer these activities and submit them on the scheduled dates.

Here are the scheduled dates for the submission of your modules:
1. February 2, 2022 (LESSONS 1-2)
2. March 2, 2022 (LESSONS 3-6)
3. April 12, 2022 (LESSONS 7-10)
4. May 2, 2022 (LESSONS 11-14)

• Submit your modules at the designated area located in Marian College.


• For inquiries, you can reach me at this number 09276056488 or in our Group chat.
• Please be guided accordingly.

Prepared by:

MRS. MERILYN T. CELECIOUS, MA, MAED

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