Efus Safety Audit e Web

Guidance on
Local Safety Audits

A Compendium of International Practice
Guidance on Local Safety Audits:
A Compendium of International Practice
This resource has been produced by the European Forum for Urban Safety and is principally funded
by the Government of Canada through Public Safety Canada (National Crime Prevention Centre). The
principal author was Dr Sohail Husain, Director of Analytica Consulting Services.
It can be accessed in English, French and Spanish versions online at http://www.fesu.org. A German
version is available thanks to the Council for Crime Prevention of Lower Saxony (Ministry of Justice) on
www.beccaria.de
It may be freely used and reproduced for non-commercial purposes provided that its source is
acknowledged.
Suggestions for improvement, feedback on its usefulness and news of complementary national toolkits,
will be welcomed and used to inform future updates. Comments should be emailed to
[email protected]
Designed in Canada by
Accurate Design and Communications
ISBN: 2-913181-30-9
EAN: 9782913181304
Legal deposit: October 2007
Published by
European Forum for Urban Safety (EFUS)
38, Rue Liancourt
75014 Paris
FRANCE
http://www.fesu.org
Tel: + 33 (0) 140 64 49 00
Fax: + 33 (0) 140 64 49 10
Mail: [email protected]
Contents
List of Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
PART A: THE SAFETY AUDIT PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1 Safety Audits In A Wider Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1 Sustainable Development And Social Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Creating Safer Stronger Healthier Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 The UN Guidelines For The Prevention Of Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Audits As Part Of The Prevention Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Developing A Strategy: Who Needs To Be Involved? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Safety Audits: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1 What Is A Safety Audit? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Ten Principles Underpinning Good Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 The Benefits Of Auditing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Preparing To Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1 What Information Needs To Be Collected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 What Knowledge And Skills Are Needed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Who Should Conduct The Audit? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 How Long Will An Audit Take? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5 National And International Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4 The Four Stages Of Audit Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2 Stage One: The Wide And Shallow Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3 Stage Two: Narrow And Deep Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4 Stage Three: Identifying Priorities And Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5 Stage Four: Consulting And Communicating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5 A Participative Approach: Engaging Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5.1 What Is A Participative Approach And Why Is It Important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 Which Groups Should Be Involved? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3 How Can A Participative Audit Be Implemented? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.4 Engaging Hard-To-Reach Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice i

PART B: SPECIFIC ISSUES FOR AUDIT TEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7 Children And Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.2 Children And Youth At Risk In The Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.3 Children And Youth Growing Up In Care And Leaving Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7.4 Children And Youth In Conflict With The Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.5 Children And Youth In School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.6 Children And Youth Involved In Criminal Gangs And Organised Violence . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.7 Street Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8 Interpersonal Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.2 Violence by Intimate Partners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.3 Auditing Intimate Partner Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.4 Elder Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.5 Auditing Elder Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.6 Additional Information Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9 Offenders And Their Reintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
9.2 Auditing Reintegration Of Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
10 Trafficking In Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.2 Auditing Trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
10.3 Additional Information Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
11 Alcohol, Illicit Drugs And Substance Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
11.2 An Integrated Multi-Agency Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
11.3 Helping Children And Youth Make The Right Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
11.4 Alcohol Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
11.5 Use Of Illicit Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
11.6 Illicit Drug Production And Trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
12 Businesses And Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12.2 Businesses As Victims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12.3 Businesses As Facilitators Or Perpetrators of Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
12.4 Businesses Deterring Crime And Supporting Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
12.5 Auditing Business Involvement In Crime And Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
13 High Crime Neighbourhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
13.2 Auditing High Crime Neighbourhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
ii
PART C: SOURCES, TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
14 Safety Audit Information: Strategic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
14.1 Sources Of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
14.2 Recognising Diversity In The Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
14.3 Sharing Information And Data Confidentiality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14.4 Data Observatories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
15 Using Secondary Data Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
15.2 Police Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
15.3 Other Criminal Justice Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
15.4 Victim Assistance Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
15.5 Housing And Environmental Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
15.6 Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
15.7 Social Care Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.8 Health Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.9 Fire Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
15.10 Private Security And Insurance Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
15.11 Surveys And Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
16 Collecting And Using Survey Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
16.2 Victimisation Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
16.3 Self-Report Offending Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
16.4 Citizens’ Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
17 Gathering Qualitative Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

17.1 The Need For Qualitative Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
17.2 Techniques For Collecting Qualitative Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
17.3 Tools For Gathering Qualitative Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
17.4 The Need For A Balanced Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Appendix A: Risk Factors Associated With Offending . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Appendix B: UN Guidelines For The Prevention Of Crime . . . . . . . . 125
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Organisations, Websites And Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice iii

List of Figures and Tables
Figure 1 The Crime Prevention Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 2 The Community Safety Steering Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 3 Community Engagement In Neighbourhood
Safety Audits In Saskatoon, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Figure 4 Variations In Reporting Of Crime To The Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 5 Using Geographical Information Systems To
Map Crime Data: An Example from Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 6 Time Of Crime Analysis: An Example From Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 7 Burglary Time Risks Of Residential And Non-residential
Premises: An Example from Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Table 1 Information To Include In A Safety Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Table 2 Staffing The Safety Audit Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 3 Example Of An Audit Timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 4 The Audit Implementation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Table 5 Setting The Context – Key Questions For Stage One (‘Wide And Shallow Analysis’) . . . . 21
Table 6 Crime And Disorder – Key Questions For Stage One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 7 Problems To Explore Through Key Informants In Stage One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 8 Victims And Offenders – Key Questions For Stage One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 9 Risk Factors – Key Questions For Stage One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 10 Assessing Current Responses – Key Questions For Stage One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 11 Benefits Of A Participative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 12 Community Participation: Identification Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 13 Levels Of Community Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 14 Techniques For Engaging Communities In Audit Planning And Implementation . . . . . . . 33
Table 15 Safety Audit: Sources Of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Table 16 Data Sources Used During Stages Of Safety Audit Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Table 17 Potential Contributors of Secondary Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Table 18 Common Information Gaps In Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table 19 Crimes That Are Often Under-Reported To The Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Table 20 ‘When’ And ‘How’ Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Table 21 Secondary Data From Criminal Justice Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Table 22 Secondary Data From Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Table 23 Secondary Data From Health Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Table 24 Calculating Crime Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Table 25 Victimisation Surveys: Delivery Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Table 26 Critical Success Factors For Key Informant Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Table 27 Critical Success Factors For Open Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Table 28 Example Questions For A Neighbourhood Focus Group Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Table 29 Critical Success Factors For Focus Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Table 30 Critical Success Factors For In-depth Survey Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Table 31 Critical Success Factors For Outreach Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Table 32 Sample Questions For Neighbourhood Visioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Table 33 Visioning Events: Good Practice Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 34 Citizens’ Juries: Good Practice Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Table 35 Factors Found To Increase Risk (In Developed Countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
iv
Acknowledgements
This Guidance on Local Safety Audits has been produced by the European Forum for Urban Safety
and is principally funded by the Government of Canada through Public Safety Canada (National Crime
Prevention Centre).
The National Crime Prevention Centre contribution was led by Mary-Anne Kirvan, Senior Counsel and
Strategic Policy Advisor, supported by Lucie Léonard, Acting Chief, Research and Knowledge Unit.
The European Forum for Urban Safety was represented by Michel Marcus, Executive Director, Elizabeth
Johnston, Deputy Director and Benjamin Blaise, Project Manager.
The principal author was Dr Sohail Husain, Director of Analytica Consulting Services, who led a UK-based
team, which also included Rob George and Jenny Ewels.
Valuable support was provided by an

International Advisory Group comprising:
Kauko Aromaa Director, European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control, Finland
Pál Baan Senior Chief Counsellor, Police Crime Prevention Unit, Ministry of Justice and
Law Enforcement, Hungary
Manuele Braghero Chief of Cabinet, Regional Ministry for Local Government and Citizen
Participation, Toscana Region, Italy
Radim Bureš Deputy Director, Crime Prevention Department, Ministry of Interior, Czech
Republic
Anna Alvazzi del Frate Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Officer, United Nations Office on
Drugs and Crime, Austria
Agnes Gnammon-Adiko National Coordinator, Urban Safety Project, Ivory Coast
Dianne Heriot Assistant Secretary, Criminal Justice Division, Attorney General’s Department,
Australia
Barbara Holtmann Senior Manager, Social Crime Prevention, Crime Prevention Centre, Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa
Dr Pramod Kumar Director, Institute for Development and Communication, India
Edgar Mohar Kuri Secretary of Citizen Security and Safety, Queretaro State Government,
Mexico
Claudia Laub President, El Agora, Argentina
Erich Marks Executive Director, Council for Crime Prevention of Lower Saxony, Germany
Laura Petrella Coordinator, Safer Cities Programme, UN-Habitat, Kenya
Margaret Shaw Director of Analysis and Exchange, International Centre for the Prevention of
Crime, Canada
Franz Vanderschueren Professor, Alberto Hurtado University, Chile
Philip Willekens Director, Department of Integral Local Safety, Federal Public Service Home
Affairs, Belgium
Lilian Zanchi Member of Parliament and Executive Member of French Forum for Urban
Safety, France
Specialist contributions from the following are also gratefully acknowledged: Alex Butchart (World Health
Organisation), Marco Gramegna (International Consultant), Dinesh Sethi (World Health Organisation),
Jane Stanley (Focus Pty Ltd, Australia), Fuimaono Tuiasau (Ministry of Justice, New Zealand) and Debra
Willoughby (IODA, UK).
Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice v

Abbreviations
CPTED Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (South Africa)
CSSG Community Safety Steering Group
EFUS European Forum for Urban Safety
HEUNI European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control
ICPC International Centre for the Prevention of Crime
ICVS International Crime Victims Survey
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNICRI United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute
UK United Kingdom
US United States
WHO World Health Organisation
vi
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
revention is better than cure! That applies to
P illness, accidents and natural disasters. And it
applies to crime.
In fact, taking action to prevent offending and

victimisation is the most cost effective way of
creating safer communities. It must be a key
component - along with law enforcement, courts and
corrections – of our response to these problems.
Crime prevention is most successful when it is part
of a strategic and inclusive process that is strongly
supported by civic leaders who have a responsibility
for community safety.
A clear picture of crime and victimisation is the

foundation for targeted action to reduce crime and
increase individual and collective security. The
safety audit is a tool to acquire the necessary
knowledge and to build commitment from
the range of partners whose collaboration is
necessary to achieve results. The purpose of
this Guidance is to explain the tool and to
encourage and support its use. It has been written
for everyone who has a significant role to play
in designing and funding crime prevention
programmes and in directing, developing or deliv-
ering crime prevention activity.
Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 1

Around the world various names are used for this leaders with a mandate for crime prevention at city
tool, including crime profile, environmental scan level. It highlights the connection between safety
and security diagnosis. However, for simplicity, the audits and wider social, economic and environ-
single term ‘safety audit’ is applied here. A safety mental issues, such as sustainable development,
audit needs to examine not just crime and victimi- social inclusion and good urban governance. It
sation, but their linkages with socio-economic illustrates the importance of the safety audit to
factors and existing services, as well as the wider advancing well-planned and well-executed action
political and institutional context in which problems to reduce crime and its associated risk factors.
occur. The potential benefits of safety audits are The Guidance identifies who needs to be involved,
increasingly being recognised and their use has the skills needed to complete the work, the scope
become widespread. 1 They can be useful at of audit activity, the principles of good practice and
different spatial scales, but this Guidance has the four main Stages of audit implementation.
been written primarily to support work at city level.
Parts B and C are especially relevant to groups
Of course, problems, contexts, resources and overseeing the audit process. Part B focuses on
available expertise vary greatly between countries. specific and important issues that pose major
But the basic need to bring people and information challenges because they are difficult to investi-
together to gain an understanding that can be gate. Amongst those examined here are specific
used to inform a local strategy has universal rele- populations, such as ‘at risk’ children and youth;
vance. It is this core common need that is women’s safety; human trafficking; illicit drugs;
addressed here. Drawing on experience in and crimes involving business.
different parts of the world, case studies are used
to illustrate how the concept can be applied in Part C will be particularly useful for practitioners
locations that vary in their demography, stage of who undertake audit work. It covers a range of
development and form of governance. technical subjects. It emphasises the importance
of combining quantitative and qualitative data to
Having been written for an international audience, gain a good understanding of problems and
this Guidance cannot provide detailed advice for causal factors. Guidance is also given on the use
every country; a degree of generalisation and of a range of tools and techniques for collecting
selectivity is unavoidable. Individual states are information. The merits and weaknesses of
therefore encouraged to use this resource to different secondary sources are examined and
develop their own national toolkits, translating advice is provided on the conduct of surveys.
ideas presented here into a ‘local’ context and
identifying specific resources to support safety As experience in the use of safety audits grows,
audit implementation. At the time of publication, our understanding of how to get the maximum
representatives of some countries, such as benefit from this important concept continues to
Canada, have already confirmed their intention develop. This Guidance is not therefore a definitive
to do this and it is hoped that others will follow or final version; it should be considered a work in
this lead. progress. Suggestions for improvement, feedback
on its usefulness and news of complementary
This Guidance is divided into three Parts. Part A is national toolkits, will be welcomed and used to
directed primarily at those responsible for policy inform future updates.
and legislation at national level, as well as civic
1
In England and Wales a regular analysis of crime and disorder in each local authority area is required by law and this must be
used to inform a local crime and disorder reduction strategy. In Mexico, a Public Safety Plan based on a diagnosis must be
produced at national, provincial and municipal levels. Examples of the use of audits can be found in Africa, Latin America,
Australasia and North America. In some continental European countries a local diagnosis is strongly encouraged or a requirement
for government funding.
2
PART A:
THE SAFETY
AUDIT PROCESS
1 Safety Audits In
A Wider Context
1.1 Sustainable
Development And Security Is A Precondition For Development
Social Inclusion “Poor people want to feel safe and secure just
eing able to live free from violence, crime, as much as they need food to eat, clean water
B intimidation and fear is a basic right embodied
in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and a
to drink and a job to give them an income.
Without security there cannot be development.
prerequisite for normal human development.2 But
such freedom is not only important for enhancing Farmers cannot farm if they are afraid that their
the quality of life of individual citizens, important land, livestock or family will be attacked. Girls
though that is. It is essential for the sustainable cannot be educated if they are scared of the
development of cities and countries. Safety and journey to school. And businesses will not
security help create an environment in which
economic growth can occur, where effective
invest where there is fighting, or where the rule
services can be provided, and where these of law is not upheld.”
improvements contribute to the reduction of
UK Government White Paper on
poverty and social exclusion. This applies equally
Eliminating World Poverty (2006)4
to developed, developing and transitional coun-
tries. It is fundamental to achievement of the
Millennium Development Goals.3
2
Although all violence is a breach of human rights, it is not always defined as ‘crime’ in national legislation and much violence is
either not reported or not recorded as criminal activity by police. To avoid any uncertainty about the scope of the issue being
addressed, both terms are included here and elsewhere in this Guidance.
3
For more information, see UN Millennium Development Goals. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals
4
Department for International Development (UK). Eliminating world poverty. Making governance work for the poor. London: DFID,
2006. http://www.dfid.gov.uk/wp2006
4
Yet there are few states in the world where a they are costly, often do not address motivation to
substantial proportion of the population is not offend and may discriminate against the poor and
affected by victimisation or anxiety about violence, vulnerable. For these reasons, there is much to be
or where insecurity and corruption do not inhibit gained from implementing strategies that give a
investment and growth. The social and economic high priority to prevention. Prevention involves
penalties of these problems are immense and the reducing the risk of crime and its harmful effects,
impact is usually greatest on the poor, the vulner- including fear, through interventions directed at the
able, women and children. As well as the direct underlying conditions (or ‘risk factors’) linked with
damage to public health, they prevent access to its occurrence.7
services, such as education and social care;
hamper efforts to get out of poverty; and The Scope Of Crime Prevention
encourage people to take the law into their own 1 Promoting the well-being of people and
hands. In some developed countries, the cost of
encouraging pro-social behaviour through
crime has been estimated to be 5% of gross
national product, while in the developing world this social, economic, health and educational
proportion may reach 14%.5 measures, with a particular emphasis on
children and youth, and focusing on the risk
The clear linkage between crime and development and protective factors associated with crime
means that tackling crime and creating safer envi-
ronments will bring multiple benefits, especially to
and victimisation (prevention through social
the poor. Consequently, it is an appropriate priority development or social crime prevention)
for governments at all levels, including those
responsible for criminal justice and urban manage-
2 Changing the conditions in neighbourhoods
ment, as well a wide range of social and economic that influence offending, victimisation
services. Indeed the ‘security of individuals and the insecurity that results from crime
and their living environment’ is one of the norms by building on the initiatives, exper tise
on which the UN-Habitat Campaign on Urban
and commitment of community members
Governance is based. It is seen as fundamental to
the creation of the ‘Inclusive City’ where “everyone, (locally based crime prevention)
regardless of wealth, gender, age, race or religion,
3 Reducing opportunities, increasing risks of
is enabled to participate productively and positively
in the opportunities cities have to offer”.6 Safety being apprehended and minimising benefits
audits contribute to that wider agenda. of crime, including through environmental
design, and by providing assistance and
1.2 Creating Safer information to potential and actual victims
(situational crime prevention)
Stronger Healthier
4 Preventing recidivism by assisting in the
Communities social reintegration of offenders and other
istorically, most countries’ response to crime preventive mechanisms (reintegration
H has been based on policing, security agencies
and the criminal justice system. These will be key
programmes).
components in any strategy but, whilst important, UN Guidelines For The

Prevention Of Crime (2002)
5
Sansfaçon D and Welsh B. Crime prevention digest II: comparative analysis of successful community safety. Montreal: ICPC, 1999.
http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org/publications/pub_13_1.pdf
6
UN-Habitat. The global campaign on urban governance. Nairobi: UN-Habitat.
http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/getPage.asp?page=bookView&book=1537
7
See Appendix A for a typology of risk factors.

The Need For A Multi-Agency Approach
“In developing the response to violence, many
children need to be taken into care. There are
different sectors and agencies should be therefore strong incentives for many agencies to
involved, and programmes should be tailored play a full role in the prevention process.
to suit different cultural settings and
population groups.”
WHO World Report on 1.3 The UN Guidelines
Violence and Health (2002)8
For The Prevention
Of Crime
Our understanding of how to prevent crime and
he 2002 UN Guidelines For The Prevention
victimisation has advanced rapidly in recent years.
Ownership of the problem by municipal government
is crucial and success depends on the coordinated
T Of Crime give further encouragement and
direction to preventive approaches.10 They make it
involvement of other diverse stakeholders spread clear that prevention should be founded on eight
across the public and private sectors, civil society basic principles, summarised below:
and local communities.9 The providers of services
such as health, education, housing, transport, ■ Government leadership. All levels of
planning and justice, as well as community government should play a leadership role.
groups, faith organisations, non-governmental ■ Socio-economic development and inclusion.
bodies and businesses, all have vital contributions Crime prevention considerations should be
to make. Within this overall framework, the integrated into all relevant social, health and
full participation of women, youth and minorities economic policies and programmes.
is essential, as is political commitment to ■ Cooperation/partnerships. Cooperation/
the process. partnerships should be an integral part of
effective crime prevention.
The successful prevention of crime, violence and ■ Sustainability/accountability. Crime prevention
fear can have multiple benefits, creating safer,
requires adequate and sustained resourcing
stronger, healthier, and more skilled communities.
with clear accountability for funding and
It can help many agencies achieve their own policy
achievement of results.
objectives. Public health, for example, can benefit
■ Knowledge base. Crime prevention strategies,
from lower mortality rates, improvements in general
health and reduced costs. Schools can gain from policies, programmes and actions should be
improved attendance and better performance of based on a broad, multi-disciplinary foundation
pupils. Social care services may find that fewer of knowledge.
8
Krug E G, Dahlberg L L, Mercy J A, Zwi A B and Lozano L (eds). World report on violence and health. Geneva: WHO, 2002.
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/full_en.pdf
9
A stakeholder is defined as any individual, community, group or organisation with an interest in the outcome of an activity, either as
a result of being affected by it positively or negatively, or by being able to influence the activity in a positive or negative way.
Civil society has been defined as “the web of associations, social norms and practices that comprise activities of a society as separate
from its state and market institutions. A ‘healthy’, powerful civil society requires institutions with strong, intellectual, material and
organisational bases, reflecting social diversity. It also requires an open, constructive interaction between the civil society organisations
and the state and market sectors. Civil society includes religious organisations, foundations, guilds, professional associations,
labour unions, academic institutions, media, pressure groups and political parties.” See World Bank. Glossary of key terms in
social analysis. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/EXTSOCIALANALYSIS/
0,,contentMDK:20503079~menuPK:1231003~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:281314,00.html
10
UN Economic and Social Council. Action to promote effective crime prevention: Guidelines for the prevention of crime.
UN ECOSOC, 24 July 2002. Reproduced at Appendix B and online at http://www.un.org/docs/ecosoc/documents/2002/
resolutions/eres2002-13.pdf
6
■ Human rights/rule of law/culture of lawfulness. The of the key stakeholders (see 1.5), whose support
rule of law and those human rights recognised in is essential to achieving concrete results. Safety
international instruments must be respected. audits also play an important part in educating
■ Interdependency. National crime prevention partners, creating a shared understanding of the
diagnoses and strategies should take city’s problems and current responses, and
account of links between local criminal prob- strengthening their resolve to work towards a
lems and international organised crime. common goal. Using the audit’s findings, the
■ Differentiation. Prevention strategies should strategy can be developed, setting out a vision
recognise the different needs of men and with clear objectives and an indication of how prior-
women and consider the special needs of ities can be addressed. Action can then be taken
vulnerable members of society. to implement measures that will bring about the
desired change.
The UN Guidelines acknowledge the value of
a rational knowledge-based approach, stating Throughout the process, review and evaluation
“crime prevention strategies, policies, pro- should ensure that future action is informed
grammes and actions should be based on a by past experience. The process needs to be
broad, multi-disciplinary foundation of knowledge inclusive and participative, not only to ensure that
about crime problems, their multiple causes and relevant interests are properly considered, but to
promising and proven practices”. They underline enable the city to benefit from the active involvement
the importance of having appropriate structures, of stakeholders and communities (see section 5).
building professional skills and developing It needs to be recognised that this is an ongoing
strategic responses through a rigorous planning process. The audit and strategy need periodically
process. Part of that process, the Guidelines make to be updated and even repeated, as issues and
clear, should be “a systematic analysis of crime priorities change in local communities (Figure 1).
problems, their causes, risk factors and conse-
quences, in particular at the local level”. Figure 1
The Crime Prevention Process
The purpose of a safety audit is to provide that
analysis. Its use as a tool for developing prevention
strategies has been widely recognised by other
international agencies including the World Bank,
Mobilisation
the European Union, the UN Office on Drugs and
Crime, UN-Habitat, the World Health Organisation, Audit
the International Centre for the Prevention of Crime
and the European Forum for Urban Safety.
Inclusion
Participation
1.4 Audits As Part Of Evaluation

Review
The Prevention Action Strategy
Process
in any policy area, a strategic approach is the
AS best route to responses that are effective,
sustainable and make good use of scarce
resources.11 That needs to begin with mobilisation
11
A strategic approach involves developing a long term plan that is based on a situational analysis, influenced by values and
perspectives, and directed at achievement of agreed goals.

be overlooked. But for effective governance, a
1.5 Developing A CSSG should be kept to 10-15 key stakeholders or
Strategy: Who it will become unwieldy.
Needs To Be CSSG members therefore need to be carefully

selected, taking into account local circumstances,
Involved? especially the socio-demographic structure of the
city. It needs to be remembered that women
the audit is an integral part of the process
AS for developing a city’s prevention strategy,
it ultimately needs to be ‘owned’ by the group
usually form half the population and young people
are more than half in some countries. Groups
which represent significant and recognised
leading that process. A basic requirement for that communities, have a citywide responsibility, are
group, here called the ‘Community Safety Steering well regarded, have influence over their member-
Group’ (CSSG), is that it includes individuals who ship, could play an active part in the audit research
have a mandate for crime prevention, authority to or have specialist knowledge or expertise would
agree on a strategy and competence to take be strong candidates for inclusion. A stakeholder
forward its planning and implementation.12 Core analysis can help identify who needs to be
members will usually be senior figures from the involved and how this is best accomplished.13
public sector, most notably the mayor, municipal
chief executive and chief of police.
Figure 2
Key public services, including health, education, The Community Safety Steering Group
social care, youth provision, planning and city
centre management should also be represented in
the CSSG, along with youth justice and corrections. If Mayor
the city is in a country with highly centralised gover- Health Social
Care
nance, it will also be important to include regional
or national government representation. Attention City Police
Manager
should be given to achieving a gender balance
and ethno-cultural diversity to reflect the popula-
tion being represented (Figure 2). Youth Community
Justice
There will be many other stakeholders with an

interest in the strategy who will be able to make Education Academics
valuable contributions to its development and Corrections Business

implementation: representatives of indigenous/
aboriginal populations, minority/immigrant groups,
women’s organisations, youth groups, faith
communities, the business sector and universities.
Having determined membership of the CSSG, it is
In any city there will be a myriad of civil society
nevertheless important to enable the many other
organisations that will want to be involved.
stakeholders to engage with the process. This can
The importance of the private sector as a social
be achieved by establishing a larger Community
agent in the development and enhancement of
Safety Round Table that provides a forum for wider
communities, as in North America, should also not
12
The term ‘partnership’, ‘board’ or ‘coalition’ is also used for this group in different countries.
13
There are several ways to undertake a stakeholder analysis and extensive guidance is available online. For example, UN-Habitat.
Tools to support participatory urban decision making. Urban Government Toolkit Series. Nairobi: UN-Habitat, 2001.
8
participation.14 Maintaining good communication The Audit Steering Group
and finding appropriate ways to involve the Round An Audit Steering Group oversees the audit and
Table will be critical to implementing the participa-
tive approach already mentioned.
is accountable for its satisfactory completion. It
ideally comprises fewer than 10 members,
A small Audit Steering Group should be formed to drawn from both the CSSG and Round Table,
oversee the audit process and be accountable for and must include individuals with authority to
its satisfactory completion. It may include both
ensure the audit will be supported by relevant
CSSG and Round Table members with relevant
knowledge or expertise and its members must agencies. It will be advantageous to include
have authority to ensure the audit will be supported representatives of community-based organisa-
tions that have a broad citywide responsibility,
who have good local knowledge and networks,
as well as technical experts with experience of
research techniques and crime prevention.
Crime Prevention Resource Directory, South Africa

South Africa’s Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Crime Prevention Centre has produced
a Resource Directory, in hard copy and on CD-Rom, which lists organisations and contact details of
people who have a role to play in crime prevention at national and provincial levels. Organisations listed
include those with a research role; those supporting children, young people and the victims of domestic
violence; government departments; and human rights and equality bodies. The Crime Prevention Toolkit,
of which the Resource Directory forms part, identifies the following as ‘people who can help us achieve our
vision of a safe society’:
■ The police ■ Education officers

■ Correctional services (including probation ■ Tourism providers
services and prisons) ■ Economic development officers
■ Local authorities/municipalities, including ■ Non-governmental and community
planners, traffic officers, emergency services, based organisations
parks departments and those with responsibility ■ Departments of Social Services and Health
for street lighting
■ Community police forums and
■ Justice officials neighbourhood watches
14
The term ‘forum’ or ‘reference group’ is also used instead of ‘round table’ in different countries.

2 Safety Audits:
An Overview
2.1 What Is A
Safety Audit?
safety audit is a systematic analysis undertaken Safety Audit: Quick Wins
A to gain an understanding of the crime and
victimisation-related problems in a city; to identify
Under taking an audit does not mean action
cannot be taken until its results are known.
assets and resources for preventive activity; to
enable priorities to be identified; and to help shape There is much to be gained from responding
a strategy that will enable those priorities to be quickly to problems for which there are
tackled. A citywide audit will usually involve: obvious and relatively straightforward
solutions in order to secure ‘quick wins’ that
■ setting the context with an overview of the
city’s demographic, economic and other
build confidence and a sense of achievement.
characteristics, and comparing these with
regional or national information ■ appraising the effectiveness of projects and
■ analysing crime and violence, as well as related services – such as health, housing, welfare
problems such as disorder and incivilities, and education – in relation to prevention
including the scale, trend, distribution and ■ assessing the political and institutional
impact of incidents environment to identify opportunities for
■ profiling victims and offenders, including the developing preventive action
gender, age, ethno-cultural and socio- ■ identifying the opportunities, strengths and
economic patterns of these groups potential of the area, including social capital,
■ investigating patterns of risk factors that are civil society and existing projects on which a
likely to contribute to the occurrence of crime future strategy may be built.15
and violence
15
WHO defines social capital as “the degree of social cohesion which exists in communities. It refers to the processes between people which
establish networks, norms, and social trust, and facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit. It is created from the myriad of
everyday interactions between people, and is embodied in such structures as civic and religious groups, family membership, informal
community networks, and in norms of voluntarism, altruism and trust. The stronger these networks and bonds, the more likely it is that
members of a community will cooperate for mutual benefit.” The main elements of social capital are citizenship, neighbourliness, trust and
shared values, community involvement, volunteering, social networks and civic participation.
WHO. Health promotion glossary. Geneva: WHO, 1998. http://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/hp_glossary_en.pdf
10
Achieving this coverage should always be the Safety Audit in Central Karoo (South Africa)
objective, but audits need to be customised to
The Crime Prevention Strategy for the Central Karoo in
local circumstances and so will vary in their design,
complexity and methods. They will reflect the Western Cape Province was firmly based on an analysis of
geographical, institutional, cultural and develop- qualitative and quantitative data from a variety of sources:
mental contexts in which they are being ■ a literature review, looking at research reports and studies,
conducted; the availability of resources and police statistics and the strategic plans of local Departments
expertise to undertake the work; and the adequacy
■ an audit of current and future investments that were
of relevant data from official and other sources.16
addressing causes of crime and victimisation
■ community mobilisation sessions, at which leaders
2.2 Ten Principles and representatives of the different settlements in the
Underpinning Central Karoo gave an insight to the local situation and to
Good Practice the perceptions and attitudes towards crime and develop-
ment in those areas
hen embarking on a safety audit, the process
W should be underpinned by principles that are
agreed by the CSSG. These should be drafted to
■ business mobilisation sessions, aimed at harnessing
support and ownership for the process of implementing a

ensure that it is a fair, inclusive and formative local crime prevention strategy
process, and that it contributes to higher-level ■ individual and group interviews with local stakeholders.
strategic priorities and policies. Without explicit

recognition of these principles, there is a risk that The analysis provided the foundations for a targeted crime
marginalised and excluded sections of society will prevention strategy, based not only on the visible symptoms
not be adequately included. Principles may vary of criminal activity, but also on its underlying causes.
with local circumstances, but it is suggested that
the following have universal validity:
■ The purpose of the audit should be to gain an ■ A participative approach that involves
understanding of crime, related problems and engagement with civil society and community
their causes to inform development of a interests is critical throughout the audit process.
prevention strategy. ■ Positive action is needed to ensure the voices
■ The audit should be based on recognition of the poor and most victimised people are
that crime results from a complex interaction heard, recognising that official data will not
of social, economic, legislative, environmental adequately reflect their experiences.
and other circumstances. ■ The audit should incorporate the distinctive
■ The audit should adopt practices which perspectives related to gender, minorities
model and contribute to good urban gover- and youth.
nance and sustainable development. ■ The audit should identify relevant assets in an
■ The audit should be undertaken with respect area, including social capital and successful
to the law and human rights, and used to projects, which may provide the basis for
promote a culture of lawfulness. building effective responses.
■ Strong commitment of stakeholders with ■ The audit should not be used as a tool to
competence in relevant policy areas is critical, encourage or justify vigilantism or punitive
since success depends on their ability to activity, but should be solely used as part of
respond to the findings. the preventive process.
16
For a comparative study of approaches in France, New Zealand, Australia and UK, see Alvarez J. Les diagnostics locaux de sécurité.
Une étude comparée, pour mieux comprendre et mieux agir. Québec: Institute national de santé publique du Québec/Centre
international pour la prévention de la criminalité, 2006. http://www.crpspc.qc.ca/432-DiagnosticsLocauxSecurite_imprimée.pdf

Civic Leadership in Bogota (Columbia)
2.3 The Benefits In Bogota the leadership shown by the Mayor
Of Auditing was crucial in achieving a dramatic improve-
afety audits make demands on the time and
ment in citizen security between 1994 and
S resources of crime prevention partners, but
that investment can generate multiple benefits.
2003. The homicide rate was reduced by 70%,
other crimes by 35% and road traffic deaths
Specifically, safety audits can: by 65%. Bogota was transformed from being
■
a city with one of the highest murder rates
enable the information, energy and resources
of different organisations and communities in the Americas to one with a rate less than
to be pooled to build a comprehensive half that of Washington DC (US) and a quarter
composite picture that of Medellin (Columbia). Other significant
■ help organisations with differing perspectives factors included:
to reach agreement about which problems ■ the establishment of reliable arrangements
should be given the highest priority
■
for collection and analysis of crime related
reveal the complex linkages between social,
economic and other factors and mobilise data, enabling informed decisions to be
agencies to participate in preventive action made about the measures needed, contin-
■ provide the basis for effective problem solving, uous monitoring to be under taken, and
enabling the right balance to be struck between evaluations of effectiveness carried out
alternative approaches and activities
■ implementation of a security and coexis-
■ promote partnership working and community
involvement, so contributing to good urban
tence plan to strengthen the culture of
governance citizenship; resolve conflicts between
■ build the capacity of local stakeholders individuals and communities peacefully;
through development of skills and knowledge help the most vulnerable groups in the
■ reveal the distinctive characteristics of crime population; and reduce crime risks, for
problems in a particular area, enabling solutions
example by controlling the consumption
to be tailored to local needs
■
of alcohol and restricting the carrying
shed light on which measures and services
have previously worked well and provide a of weapons
baseline against which change and achievement ■ training of community leaders in issues
can be measured. of coexistence and citizen security as part

of a broader strategy to increase citizen
Most importantly, safety audits provide the foundation
for strategies that are effective in preventing crime participation.
and improving the quality of life for citizens.
12
Safety Audit in Yaounde (Cameroon) Safety Audit in Port Moresby
A safety audit completed in 2001 drew together (Papua New Guinea)
available official statistics, as well as the The Safer Port Moresby Initiative was launched
findings of questionnaire surveys, studies of in 2002 with support from the UN Development
specific topics (such as street children and Programme and UN-Habitat. This citywide
violence against women), consultations with venture was built on partnerships with public,
civil society and many other sources. It brought private and ‘popular’ institutions. City authori-
together key stakeholders that previously did ties and the central government Department for
not communicate; clearly identified priorities; Community Development worked closely
and was instrumental in catalysing action together. The first task was to complete a ‘diag-
around a number of pilot projects. It also led to nosis of local insecurity’, which assessed
the establishment of municipal police; further underlying causes of crime, as well as victim
analysis and planning on juvenile justice; and offender characteristics. The results were
and ongoing infrastructural developments used to identify priorities and agree on a
(including lighting) being targeted at crime strategic plan. The second phase focused on
prone areas. strengthening partnerships to enable an action
plan to be implemented.
UN-Habitat Diagnostic de la Délinquance
Urbaine à Yaoundé (2002)17 UN-Habitat Diagnosis of Insecurity Report
(2005)18
17
UN-Habitat. Diagnostic de la délinquance urbaine à Yaoundé. Nairobi: UN-Habitat, 2002.
18
UN-Habitat. Diagnosis of insecurity report. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Towards an urban crime prevention strategy. Safer
Cities Series 4. Nairobi: UN-Habitat, 2005.

3 Preparing To Audit
3.1 What Information

Needs To Be
Collected?
safety audit must bring together information on Quantitative vs Qualitative Information
A several subjects. It needs to include contextual
data about the city and its population; information
“Not everything that can be counted counts
about crime and related activity; the impacts and
and not everything that counts can be counted.”
costs of crime; factors linked to offending and Albert Einstein, 1879-1955
victimisation; assets, services and initiatives that
could reduce the occurrence of problems; and the and ‘why’ questions. Bias towards information that
views of local citizens. As a starting point, an audit can be easily measured rather than more complex
team should draw up a list of topics which it wants material, that can only be gleaned through
to investigate. It can then explore what information engagement and discussion, could lead to
is readily available and what might need to be misleading conclusions.
collected (Table 1).
It needs to be recognised that a single source is
An audit will ideally draw together both quantitative unlikely to answer all the questions posed and that
and qualitative information. Each can throw light on the usefulness of police and justice agency data is
a subject and one without the other is likely to leave often limited (see section 15). Drawing on several
the picture incomplete. Numerical data (from independent information sources enables ‘triangu-
victimisation surveys, for example) can powerfully lation’ to ensure that the picture is as accurate and
convey the dimensions of a particular problem or comprehensive as possible. In Australia, for
issue, providing answers to questions about ‘what’ example, national population survey data is
and ‘how much’ is happening. But qualitative complemented by information gathered from
or descriptive data, drawn for example from specific high risk groups to assess the extent of
interviews, is likely to generate a richer ‘three substance abuse in the community.19
dimensional’ account that answers important ‘how’
19
Makkai T. Linking drugs and criminal activity: developing an integrated monitoring system, Trends and Issues in Criminal Justice
109. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 1999. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/ti109.pdf
14
Engaging Communities
To maximise participation, it is important to
3.2 What Knowledge
match the methods used to individual groups And Skills Are
or communities. Consideration of the age, Needed?
gender, ethnic identity, cultural norms and other
citywide safety audit will benefit from careful
characteristics will help determine what will
work best. Engagement will be increased
A planning, good management and rigorous
implementation. Information on a wide range of
through the use of appropriate: subjects will need to be collected from multiple
sources using different methods. It will need to be
■ visioning and consensus building collated and appraised in order to draw conclusions
■ language and terminology that inform the selection of priorities and the shaping
■ forms of communication (for example, of responses. Throughout the process, there needs
oral, written, pictorial, drama) to be good communication with stakeholders and
opportunities for effective participation. The range of
■ composition of groups (for example,
issues, tasks and techniques involved will require
single gender or youth only) the following knowledge and skills:
■ techniques and tools
■ locations, timings and settings
■ facilitators and researchers
And by considering issues relevant to the
stakeholders. The audit team needs to have or
be able to draw on individuals who have the
necessary skills, knowledge and credibility to
engage diverse communities effectively.
Table 1
Information To Include In A Safety Audit
Environment Size of city, land use, economic structure, political situation
Demography Total population, gender balance, age structure, ethno-cultural diversity,
employment/unemployment
Crime and disorder Offence types, occurrences, offenders, victims, targets, distribution
Impact and economic On individuals and communities (such as violence-related injuries), demand
costs of crime on hospital emergency services, value of property stolen, cost of security
and justice
Perceptions Of risk, vulnerability, police, justice, other services
Risk factors Such as relative poverty, violence, growing up in care, dropping out of school,
mental illness
Services Providers, range, quality, access, usage
Initiatives Existing projects and programmes, effective practices
Stakeholders Interests, capacities, resources
Derived from UN-Habitat Safer Cities Toolkit

Knowledge 3.3 Who Should
■ Local context – the geographic, economic,
cultural, political and demographic environment Conduct The Audit?
■ Key agencies – the priorities, policies, cultures
small team that brings together the required
and organisational arrangements of relevant
local service providers, especially in the
public and non-profit sectors
A knowledge and skills will need to be set up to
carry out the research with one person having
■ Policing and justice system – agency roles, managerial responsibility. There are several
police organisation, offence and incident possible sources of personnel, including public
recording practices, strengths and weak- sector agencies, civil society, academic institu-
nesses of justice system data tions and the private sector. Each option has
■
advantages, but there are a number of weak-
Crime prevention – an understanding of
nesses that could affect any of them (Table 2).
offending and fear of crime, especially including
gender-related issues; research evidence
It is unlikely that any one source will provide a
about effective responses; and how audits
‘complete’ team to meet all requirements. Most
can be used to develop a preventive strategy.
audits are best carried out using a combination of
resources. For example, an academic institution
Technical Skills
■
may be best equipped to provide advice on
Research design – formulation of objectives,
research methodology. A private company may be
selection of methods, specification of outputs
best able to organise a citywide survey. Crime
■ Project management – scheduling of work,
prevention specialists might provide subject advice.
allocation of resources, risk management and
Civil society organisations could be strongly
quality assurance
positioned to facilitate linkages with communities.
■ Stakeholder analysis – identification of all Moreover, different people will need to be involved
stakeholders, assessment of their stake and at different stages of the audit (see section 4).
determining how they should be involved
■ Community engagement – use of activities There is however much to be gained from public
that encourage broad participation, especially sector personnel having a significant involvement,
to facilitate the engagement of women, youth rather than ‘outsourcing’ the whole project. Public
and ‘hard-to-reach’ groups20 sector involvement will bring to the research good
■ Consultative techniques – interviews, meetings local insight but, equally important, the work will
and focus groups to elicit information from help build skills and strengthen partnership
service providers and community interests working amongst participating agencies.
■ Victimisation surveys – questionnaire design,
population sampling, database construction
and interrogation
3.4 How Long Will
■ Statistical analysis – identifying, collecting An Audit Take?
and analysing relevant data held by
hen carried out citywide for the first time, an
agencies, possibly using geographical
information systems W audit may take 6-12 months, depending on the
size of the city, ease of access to reliable information
■ Communication – report writing, giving
presentations and other activities to keep and resources to do the work. An indication of the
stakeholders involved and to get feedback possible duration of different phases is shown in
from research findings. Table 3.
It is important to recognise that different knowledge

and skills will be needed at different stages.
20
For more detailed consideration of hard-to-reach groups, see section 5.
16
Table 2
Staffing The Safety Audit Team
Source Potential advantages Potential disadvantages
Public sector ■ Understanding of context The following could weaken any

agency ■ Understanding of local policies of the staffing options:
and services
■ Access to information ■ Lack of research expertise
■ Public acceptance
■ Lack of expertise on crime
■ Build expertise and partnerships
■
and prevention issues
Lower costs
■ Difficulty freeing up appropriate
Civil society ■ Grassroots knowledge
staff to assign to the project
organisation ■ Credibility with citizens21
■ Lack of influence/credibility
■ Lower costs
with key agencies
Academic institution ■ Strong research skills
■ Lack of community credibility
■ Objectivity / independence
■
and involvement
Moderate costs
■ Lack of understanding of
Private sector ■ Strong project management
policy context.
■ Research skills and technology
■ Objectivity/independence
■ Dedicated personnel
Table 3
Example Of An Audit Timetable
Month
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Planning
Set up Audit stearing group
Appoint audit team and

agree on a work programme
Initial appraisal of problems, risk
factors and responses (Stage 1)
Implementation
Researching topics requiring

further investigation (Stage 2)
Identifying priorities for action
and opportunities (Stage 3)
Consulting stakeholders and
communicating findings (Stage 4)
21
Whilst civil society may generally be considered to have more credibility with communities than public sector agencies, caution is
needed. A study by the World Bank found that “NGOs do not figure prominently in poor people’s lives” and “The poor also get
excluded from many groups because of their limited assets and inability to pay fees.” See Narayan D with Patel R, Schafft K,
Rademacher A and Koch-Schulte S. Can anyone hear us? Voices of the Poor Volume 1. World Bank, 1999.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPOVERTY/Resources/335642-1124115102975/1555199-1124115187705/vol1.pdf

‘Fonos’ for Pacific Peoples (New Zealand)22
In 2005 the Ministry of Justice began developing crime prevention strategies for the 250,000
strong Pacific communities in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch. ‘Fonos’ were conducted to
ascertain their perceptions of crime problems and how they should be addressed. Invitations were
extended to Pacific organisations and individuals with interest and expertise in crime and justice
issues, as well as representatives of Pacific youth organisations.
A ‘matai’ or ‘ariki’ with a good understanding of justice processes facilitated the discussions. Each
opened with a ‘lotu’ and introductions of participants to acknowledge their community standing.
Meetings lasted up to four hours, giving everyone an opportunity to be heard and for issues to be
deliberated until a consensus emerged, as custom required. The agenda always allowed time for a
‘mea taumafa’ preceded by grace, as the provision of food is an important part of Pacific culture.
Humour and enjoyment, also traditionally important, helped to reduce tension when there was
disagreement. ‘Fonos’ always concluded with a ‘tataloina’ to thank the participants, bring closure
to the meeting and ask for spiritual guidance on the journey home.
The ‘fonos’ served as networking and information sharing events with Ministry of Justice represen-
tatives presenting statistical information to inform discussions. The process allowed Pacific
communities to identify what was important to them and the responses which they perceived
would work. The main priorities to emerge were family violence and youth offending (especially
violence and vehicle crime). There was also wide agreement that churches had a major role to play
in providing services and communicating messages, both from the pulpit and through other
community contacts.
22
Pacific Peoples are the New Zealanders who identify with one or more Pacific ethnicities, the seven largest being Cook Island
Maori, Fijian, Niuean, Samoan, Tokelauan, Tongan and Tuvaluan. Fono is a Samoan word widely used by Pacific Peoples
to describe a meeting, consultation or council. Other Samoan words used in the text are matai or ariki (an elder or chief),
lotu (prayer), mea taumafa (a shared meal or feast) and a tataloina (blessing).
18
Making national comparisons will be difficult in
3.5 National And countries without standardised information
International systems and data will always need to be inter-
preted carefully. Even greater caution must be
Comparisons applied to international comparisons since defini-
tions of offences, reporting and recording
city audit will inevitably concentrate on what is
A going on within the city boundary, but it can be
difficult to assess the seriousness of a problem
procedures, and counting rules vary between
countries. This inconsistency can be overcome
with a ‘multi-city assessment’. That would involve a
without reference to an ‘external’ benchmark. group of comparable cities co-operating and
Comparison with what is happening in other cities conducting audits at approximately the same time
in a country or even further afield can help put local using the same methodology. This could be
patterns in context and be useful in other ways. For undertaken within a country or across international
example, public anxiety may be assuaged if a borders and would go a long way towards gener-
city’s crime rate is shown to be well below the ating consistent data. This approach could also be
national average. Conversely, a relatively high financially advantageous, if economies of scale
crime rate may be helpful in securing additional can be achieved (see 16.2 on the International
resources for prevention from regional or national Crime Victims Surveys).
governments. Of course, when comparing cities, it
is desirable to take account of social and other
factors; comparisons will be most meaningful
when they involve cities which have similar socio-
economic profiles.
Hungary In Context
The National Strategy for Social Crime
Prevention notes that recorded crime in the
country increased more than three-fold
between 1988 and 1998. Whilst this figure was
undoubtedly a cause for much concern, it
appears less alarming when it is recognised
that even after that increase the crime rate was
still significantly lower than in many west
European countries and less than half the rate
in Sweden, The Netherlands and Germany.
National Strategy For Crime Prevention (2003)23
23
Ministry of Justice (Hungary). The national strategy for social crime prevention. Annex to Parliamentary resolution 115/2003 (X.28.).
Budapest, 2003. http://bunmegelozes.easyhosting.hu/dok/national_strat_crime_prevention.pdf
#search=%22Annex%20to%20Parliamentary%20resolution%20115%2F2003%20(X.28.%22

4 The Four Stages Of
Audit Implementation
4.1 Introduction
audit needs to be carried out in a way that A plan can then be prepared for further research in
AN is manageable, cost-effective and timely
and this can be achieved by adopting a systematic
Stage 2, the ‘narrow and deep’ analysis. This
should aim to fill significant information gaps and
process with four main Implementation Stages, of investigate emerging issues that require more
which the first is a ‘wide and shallow’ analysis detailed study. Stage 3 involves assessment of the
(Table 4). This involves an appraisal of a broad data collected to identify priorities for the Crime
range of problems and contributory factors using, Prevention Strategy. Finally, in Stage 4 stake-
as far as possible, readily available information so holders are consulted on the findings before an
that significant issues and information gaps can be audit report is completed and disseminated. Each
quickly identified. It should also include, where of these Stages is considered further below.
possible, an assessment of current responses to
decide which problems are already being adequately
addressed and which require further attention.
Table 4
The Audit Implementation Process
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
The ‘wide and ‘Narrow and deep’ Identifying priorities Consulting and
shallow’ analysis investigation and opportunities Communicating
Initial appraisal of prob- Researching those Determining which issues Consulting stakeholders,
lems and contributory issues requiring further the strategy should focus preparing the audit report
factors using readily attention to gain a better on as well as strengths and disseminating its
accessible information, understanding. and assets on which findings.
where possible. to build.
20
■ Context setting
4.2 Stage One: The ■ Preliminary analysis of crime and disorder
Wide And Shallow ■ Profiling victims and offenders
■ Appraising risk factors associated with
Analysis victimisation and offending
■ Assessing responses.
The ‘wide ‘Narrow Identifying Consulting and Context Setting

and shallow’ and deep’ priorities and Communicating A brief demographic and economic profile of the
analysis investigation opportunities city should be compiled, setting the city in a
regional and national framework. Equally important
he purpose of this first Stage is to build a broad will be the ability to determine the legislative
T picture of crime and contributory factors, and to
appraise the adequacy of current responses using
and political environment, and to carry out an
analysis of institutional roles and capabilities. 24
data that is already available and accessible. It This will help partners to see the city in a wider
need not involve in-depth analysis, but requires context, understand the problems better and identify
sufficient information to enable problems to be opportunities for strategic responses. For stake-
identified and their seriousness to be assessed. holders at regional or national level, the information
The components of a ‘wide and shallow’ analysis are: will raise awareness of the city’s position and could
strengthen its case for resources (Table 5).
Table 5
Setting The Context – Key Questions For Stage One (‘Wide And Shallow Analysis’)
Key questions How to get answers
1 How large is the population and how is it In many countries, answers will be found in existing
changing with natural growth and migration? reports or census tabulations. A limited amount
2 What is the demographic structure (age, should be extracted to provide the summary profile
gender, ethno-cultural diversity)? required. Reference can be made in the audit report
3 What are the main economic activities and to sources that provide more depth. Variations across
what is the level of unemployment? the city should be mapped, if possible. This need not
be highly detailed, but sufficient to expose significant
4 How does the socio-economic profile of the
local differences.
population vary across the city?
5 How does the population structure compare
with other cities?
24
According to the World Bank, “Institutional Analysis (IA) focuses on the formal and informal institutions in the public, private and
not-for profit sectors. Institutional analysis assesses the institutions and institutional linkages critical to project success; identifies
constraints to equitable access to benefits and/or services for the poor; and examines the institutional assets existing in poor
communities. Institutional analysis can also assist in the design of incentives which give existing groups in poor communities a
stake in project objectives and outcomes and finally, IA lends insight into processes of social exclusion in cases where the ‘rules
of the game’ are different for different actors; and where participation and entitlement also vary dramatically.” See World Bank.
Glossary of key terms in social analysis. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTSOCIALDEVELOP-
MENT/EXTSOCIALANALYSIS/

Preliminary Analysis Of Crime tries, young men are most at risk of experiencing
And Disorder violence in public places; women are most at risk
The audit team must make a preliminary assessment of violence in the home; and older people with a
of crime taking place in the city. It needs to determine disability are at greater risk of violence than other
the volume, incidence rate and trends, and the elders. The relevant attributes however will vary
variations between different areas. Particular between countries and the audit needs to estab-
consideration should be given to the nature and lish the situation locally (Table 8).
scale of violence and the differential experiences
of men and women, young and old, and ethno- Involvement in offending is similarly affected
cultural communities (Table 6). by personal traits, experiences and individual
backgrounds. In many countries, being male
In some cities much information about property and adolescent increases risks considerably.
offences (such as car theft or burglary) and certain Individuals who have dropped out of school,
forms of violence (such as robbery) can be grown up in a violent home or in care, or who have
obtained from police recorded crime data. Very associated with delinquent peers are more likely
often, though, such data is unreliable (see 15.2) to offend. Developing a picture of the underlying
and a victimisation survey may be the only way to causes and risk factors that have affected current
obtain good information. This is however unlikely to known offenders is vital for targeting future
shed light on other potentially significant problems. preventive action.
Only a small proportion of family violence and drug
abuse, for example, will ever be reported. Similarly, Appraising Risk Factors Associated
problems such as crime against business and With Victimisation And Offending
organised crime will not be adequately revealed.25 Implementation Stage 1 needs not only to establish
the influences that may have put individuals at risk
As part of the ‘wide and shallow’ analysis, such in the past, but should also examine the risk
‘hidden’ problems need to be explored through factors that put individuals, especially children and
key informant interviews and other documentary youth, at greater risk in the future. While these will
evidence to assess their seriousness. Table 7 not be constant across all cultures and countries,
provides an indicative list of problems and many risk factors appear applicable to societies in
potential key informants. Through discussions and many parts of the world.
consultations, individual cities may identify other
topics that require investigation in this way. Should People living in certain neighbourhoods, notably
it not be possible to gather enough information to those experiencing relative poverty or disadvantage,
form a conclusion, further research should be have higher risk scores than others. The same
conducted in Implementation Stage 2. Further applies to individuals who grow up in care or in
guidance on the investigation of specific issues is homes where a parent or sibling is violent.
provided in Part B. Victimisation can also be linked to offending; children
who witness or experience violence are at higher
Victims And Offenders risk of becoming violent themselves in later life.
Certain attributes put some people at much Understanding this distribution of risk is an impor-
greater risk of victimisation than others, and this tant part of the audit since, to be cost effective,
also increases the probability of repeat victimisation responses need to be targeted at those areas and
(see 15.2). For example, in some developed coun- populations that are most vulnerable (Table 9).
25
Organised crime refers to how criminal activities are ‘managed’, not to a specific offence. It applies to a group or gang adopting a
business approach and employing others for continuing serious criminal acts for financial profit. They may be involved in human
trafficking, drugs markets, sexual exploitation, racketeering, extortion, street begging and many other activities.
22
Table 6
Crime and Disorder – Key Questions For Stage One
1 How much crime and disorder is occurring? Use police statistics where they are reliable and
2 What is the breakdown between violence accessible. Elsewhere, agencies and community
and property crime? organisations may provide some data, but a victimi-
3 What are the most common offences and sation survey will be the only option to acquire detailed
which are increasing most quickly? figures about experience of crime and fear.
Documents and key informant interviews can add
4 How high is fear of crime and who is most
explanatory information to the figures.
affected?
5 In which neighbourhoods and commercial
areas are crime rates highest?
Table 7
Problems to Explore Through Key Informants In Stage One
Problem Key informants
Family violence and abuse26 Social, health and children’s services; family and
women’s support groups; refuges; victim
support organisations
Crimes of intolerance27 Minority interest groups, police, community

organisations
Substance misuse and drug-related crime28 Health agencies, police, organisations

supporting users, youth leaders
Crimes against business Business interest groups, chambers of commerce,

insurance companies, security companies, police
Organised crime Police; community organisations and groups

supporting illegal immigrants and sex workers;
drugs agencies
26
Interpretation of the term ‘family violence’ varies, but the WHO includes child maltreatment, intimate partner violence and elder
abuse in this category.
27
The term ‘crime of intolerance’ is used here to cover offences motivated by racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia, religion,
belief or sexual orientation. It is sometimes referred to as ‘hate crime’.
28
Drug-related crime is used to cover a wide range of offences including misuse of illegal substances, drug production, trafficking,
drug-induced criminal behaviour and acquisitive crime to pay for drugs.

Table 8
Victims And Offenders – Key Questions For Stage One
Victims
1 What is the risk of victimisation and which In some cities, police and other justice agencies
groups have the highest rates (women, are able to provide basic data about victims, but
youth, elders and minorities)? it is normally very limited. Victimisation surveys
2 Which groups are most at risk of violence? are needed to get a fuller picture. Specific
3 How serious are repeat victimisation and surveys and consultations with young people will
crimes of intolerance? add their important perspectives. Victim support
organisations may be able to make a qualitative
4 How does victimisation vary across the city?
contribution, but may not compile statistics.
5 What are the social, health and economic
consequences of victimisation?
Offenders
6 What is the profile of known offenders (age, Where well-developed data management
gender, socio-economic status and systems exist, justice agencies may provide
ethnicity)? information about offenders, although this will
7 How does this vary with type of offence? only relate to those convicted, likely to be a small
8 How many are ‘persistent’ and in which proportion of the total. Elsewhere, obtaining
neighbourhoods are they concentrated? numerical information will be problematical and
there will be more reliance on the views of agencies
9 What is known of their life experiences,
(eg corrections/probation) and civil society organ-
health and education?
isations working with offenders.
10 How common is mental/physical illness
and substance misuse among offenders?
Table 9
Risk Factors – Key Questions For Stage One
1 How many children are growing up: Various agencies, such as education and social
■ in care services, may hold useful data. Where figures
■ with parents or siblings who are in precisely matching the risk factors are unavailable,
conflict with the law or violent? surrogate indicators – such as dependency
2 What is the scale of the following problems on benefits or low income – may be used.
■ truancy, exclusions and school failure Geographical information systems can help define
■ poverty and deprivation areas and groups where multiple risks are concen-
■ homelessness and unemployment trated. In the absence of any data from statistical
■ ill health, substance abuse and HIV/AIDs sources or other reports, qualitative information will
■ poor housing and environment? need to be gathered through key informant interviews.
3 Which areas of the city have the highest
scores on the above indicators?
24
Assessing Responses 4.3 Stage Two:
The final component of Implementation Stage 1
involves determining whether there are in place Narrow And Deep
adequate responses to the significant problems
and risk factors that have been identified. Such Investigation
responses may take many different forms
including: special services provided by public Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
agencies, such as healthcare and education,
directed at the most vulnerable groups; effective The ‘wide ‘Narrow Identifying Consulting and
neighbourhood policing in high crime areas; or the and shallow’ and deep’ priorities and Communicating
incorporation by the city council of CPTED principles analysis investigation opportunities
in new building development. 29 There may be
mplementation Stage 2 involves gaining a better
specific projects to tackle violence against women
or to divert young people from drugs or to tackle I understanding of specific issues. This might be
necessary either because insufficient information
commercial burglary. Clearly, in some cases
crime prevention may not be the only or primary about them was obtainable during Stage 1 or
objective of what is being done, but an important because it became clear that they were significant
consequence nevertheless (Table 10). issues that required more attention. A starting point
should be to formulate a research plan that
Assessing ‘adequacy’ requires making an informed takes account of available time, personnel and
judgement. The questions listed give rise to a financial resources.
number of subsidiary ones. Is the response well
targeted? Is the service accessible to those that The ‘narrow and deep’ investigation is likely to
most need it? Does it have the required coverage engage different stakeholders and employ
and intensity?30 Above all, is it having the desired different methods. There may be a need for one or
outcome? Answers to these questions will identify more surveys to be carried out and there will be
key issues for the following Stages in the audit. increased emphasis on both community participa-
tion and subject experts. It may be advantageous
to set up working groups to examine particular
areas or to outsource some of the enquiry to an
appropriately skilled community organisations or
local groups.
Table 10
Assessing Current Responses – Key Questions For Stage One
1 What is being done? Key informants will be the main source of

2 How well is it working? information. The views of those involved as
3 Is it enough to make a difference? service providers need to be balanced with those
of service users, those in need of services
4 Are resources being used to best effect?
and independent experts.
5 Is there a need for more to be done?
29
CPTED (Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design) involves using planning, design and management of the built environment
to reduce the causes of, and opportunities for, criminal activity and to address the fear of crime.
30
The ‘intensity’ of a response, sometimes called ‘dosage’, is the amount that is delivered to one place or to one beneficiary.
Interventions may not have any impact if the intensity is too low as a result of resources being spread too thinly.

The range of potential issues is large and will vary ■ What are the main concerns of local
between cities. Investigations may focus on communities? 32
specific populations, specific problems or specific ■ Tackling which problems would contribute
places. Several of the most important issues likely most to wider policy priorities?
to require attention during Stage 2 are examined ■ For which issues are resources available?
in more depth in Part B of this Guidance.
■ Which risk factors need to be addressed
most urgently?
4.4 Stage Three: ■ Which problems have the greatest impact on
the disadvantaged and vulnerable?
Identifying ■ Which neighbourhoods and commercial
Priorities And areas are most damaged by crime?
■ Which crimes have the greatest volume and
Opportunities incidence rate?
■ Which crime types show the highest rate
of increase?
The ‘wide ‘Narrow Identifying Consulting and
Identifying Assets, Strengths
and shallow’ and deep’ priorities and Communicating
And Opportunities
analysis investigation opportunities
The audit must not only examine problems, but
also highlight assets, strengths and opportunities
Identifying Priorities
that could provide platforms for the strategy. These
A prevention strategy cannot address all the problems
may take many different forms, including:
in a city. Concentrating scarce resources on a
limited number of priorities will bring greater
■ strong communities or interest groups that
success than spreading them too thinly. Making
this selection is a critical and difficult decision that want – and have the capacity – to play a
needs to be taken by the Community Safety significant role in bringing about change
Steering Group. ■ successful projects and programmes delivered
by civil society organisations, which could be
But the audit must help it make that choice by extended to deliver more services
providing the necessary information. Priorities may ■ agencies which recognise the links between
be formulated in several different ways – individual what they do and crime prevention, and are
offences, specific locations, certain population keen to make a contribution
groups or particular risk factors – and there should be ■ government policies and legislation that give
explicit agreement about the criteria.31 The criteria impetus to tackling certain problems
can then be used to shape questions that will help ■ funding programmes that offer resources for
determine the most pressing issues, such as: activities focussed on particular priorities.
31
While it often follows that responses should also be targeted to maximise cost effectiveness, this is not always the case. In relation to
preventing child maltreatment and youth violence, for example, outcome evaluation studies suggest that the greatest effects arise
when prevention is concentrated on groups at highest risk of being involved in violence, as opposed to universal coverage. On the
other hand, some interventions which show great promise affect the entire population, such as initiatives to reduce alcohol-related
violence through pricing, taxation, liquor licensing and restrictions on sales practices that encourage binge drinking.
32
It is important to recognise that local citizens do not always have an accurate perception of the actual situation, nor are their
proposed responses always the most appropriate. See section 5 for further discussion of this issue.
26
Locating and highlighting these ‘positives’ Whatever the method, the process will require
provides an important counterbalance to the focus careful management to avoid focusing attention
on problems that inevitably forms a major part of only on the city’s problems, which can be
any audit. Building on them will increase the damaging and demoralising. The communication
chances of preventive action being successful. needs to highlight some of the positive findings
about strengths and successes, and to empha-
sise that the audit is a key step in making the city a
4.5 Stage Four: safer place to live, work and visit.
Consulting And Disseminating The Findings
Communicating A detailed written report is likely to be the main
product of the safety audit process. Whilst it will
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 need to bring together the quantitative and qualita-
tive material that has been assembled, it is vital that
The ‘wide ‘Narrow Identifying Consulting and the report is not simply a compendium of that data.
and shallow’ and deep’ priorities and Communicating It needs to be an analysis that uses information
analysis investigation opportunities collected to interpret and explain what is
happening; to draw attention to problems, issues
Consultation and trends relative to national averages or other
The findings from the audit should be shared with cities; and to identify potential priorities and oppor-
the many stakeholders who have contributed infor- tunities for preventive action. The report should
mation or who want to know what has been also describe the consultation process, decisions
discovered. They should also be given an oppor- made as a result of the consultation and how the
tunity to comment on the findings and validate its audit’s conclusions are to be used. In other words,
conclusions. This process needs to include the it needs to be action oriented.
general public, local agencies and community
organisations, as well as local politicians and the
private sector. Communicating the findings to
‘hard-to reach’ groups and young people
deserves particular attention.
The form of communication needs to be adapted

to different audiences. There will certainly be a
need for a summary of findings, possibly in
multiple languages and formats, including a
version for young people. Other options include
the use of mass media, printed and broadcast,
and local public meetings. In some cultures,
presentations using stories, drama or pictures may
be appropriate.

Safety Audit Report Template
Introduction Vision and objectives
Community Safety Steering Group
Research focus
Research methods and team
Arrangements for consultation on this report, including
key questions
Summary of Key Findings Main problems and concerns

Preventive activity, including services and projects
Available resources, strengths and capacities
Description of the Area Socio-economic population profile

Physical and economic environment
Future development: significant trends
Community Safety Profile Results from data gathering and analysis covering:
■ nature, scale, trends and distribution of problems
■ risk/causal factors
■ impacts, including social consequences, fear and finance
■ victim/target and offender profiles
Current Responses Governance frameworks: relevant institutions and legislation

Policies and services addressing risk factors
Crime prevention projects
What is and isn’t working well
Lessons learned and opportunities for development
Recommendations Emerging priorities based on the evidence gathered

Key partners for future action
Resources and capacities
Future Action Next steps: action planning

Timeframes
Leadership – who is responsible for what?
Derived from Local Crime Prevention Toolkit developed by CSIR, South Africa.
28
5 A Participative
Approach: Engaging
Communities
5.1 What Is A
Participative
Approach And Why
Is It Important?
safety audit must be based on recognition that
A a city’s population is made up of many different
communities with different interests and the right
to be included in the process. A participative
approach means enabling and encouraging the
participation of those communities. A commitment to
this should be one of the principles underpinning not
just the safety audit, but all work relating to the crime
prevention strategy.
Involving communities meaningfully will improve

the quality of audit results and the success of what
follows (Table 11). In fact there will be multiple benefits
from participation for both communities and agen-
cies, including a better understanding of problems,
the development of more appropriate responses and
a higher level of community interest and ownership.
Steering Groups should therefore aim to achieve the
highest level of participation practicable.

Nevertheless, some caution is needed. Communities But in all cities there are also significant communities
are not unfailingly correct in their assessment of interest that are not organised in this way. They
of problems or identification of responses. It is include hard-to-reach groups who have limited
therefore always desirable to integrate community- contact with mainstream agencies. A participative
based perspectives with ‘external’ technical analysis. approach will include finding ways to engage with
these people, and this will require creativity and
greater effort by the audit team (see 5.4).
5.2 Which Groups
Should Be Involved? A key challenge is to identify the relevant communities
and determine how best to secure their participation.
he term ‘community’ is most often applied It is clearly not realistic or necessary for every
T to people who live in the same area and
have a common stake in the future of their city or
community to be involved to the same extent
at every Stage, but it is not possible to have
neighbourhood. But in the context of an audit and fixed rules about who should be involved and
a participative approach, it should be used in a when. Cities need to decide individually, taking
much wider sense to include ‘communities of into account the demographic structure, local
interest’, that is groups of people who share any circumstances and issues that emerge as
interest or attribute that gives them a particular the audit progresses (Table 12). A ‘stakeholder
perspective on crime or its prevention. That would analysis’ can be a very useful tool in identifying
include, for example, women, ethnic minorities, those with a significant interest in gaining under-
young people, homeless people and businesses. standing of their potential roles and contributions.33
Communities of interest are often strongly Of course, citizens and communities do not
represented by civil society. They form the voluntary always fit into the tight classifications that stake-
organisations and institutions in a city including holders might devise. There are communities
charities, non-governmental organisations, within communities and individuals are members
community groups, women’s organisations, faith- of more than one. Existing frameworks and consul-
based organisations, professional associations, tation arrangements might provide the basis for
trades unions, self-help groups, business audit participation, but otherwise there is no substi-
associations, coalitions, advocacy groups and tute for dialogue, asking people what their
many others. A participative approach will include expectations of a safety audit are and how they
engaging with representatives of such civil would like to participate.
society bodies.
33
See footnote 13
30
Table 11
Benefits of A Participative Approach
To communities To agencies
■ Provides a voice to local people and ■ Creates opportunities for the community to
increased access to decision makers contribute knowledge, expertise and ideas
■ Develops a deeper understanding of the ■ Helps service planners give users what they
issues facing stakeholders want and make better use of resources
■ Generates a sense of involvement in the ■ Helps set performance standards relevant
problem solving process and an ownership to users’ needs
of the issues ■ Fosters a partnership that enables the
■ Enables marginalised and hard-to-reach community to understand the problems and
groups to be heard how they can help
■ Encourages a sharing of responsibility in ■ Can result in community involvement in audit
planning the delivery of services and strategy implementation
■ Leads to better outcomes, which more fully ■ Symbolises stakeholder commitment to be
reflect aspirations of the affected community open, accountable and put the community first
Table 12
Community Participation: Identification Criteria
Communities can be identified by: Key questions to consider:
■ Gender ■ Is this community disproportionately affected

■ Age by crime and victimisation?
■ Disability ■ Are there distinctive cultural, ethnic or other
■ Ethno-cultural identity social factors to consider?
■ Are its members over-represented in the
■ Family circumstances
criminal justice system?
■ Employment status
■ Does the community suffer from higher than
■ Housing status
average risk factors?
■ Location
■ Will this community’s representatives be able
■ Dependency to significantly increase understanding?
■ Involvement in offending ■ Would this group be interested in developing
■ Prior victimisation community solutions or delivering the audit?
…………….and many other factors

Different tools and techniques need to be used
5.3 How Can A to implement a participative approach at each
Participative Audit participation level (Table 14). Some, such as
newsletters, may directly engage many individuals,
Be Implemented? but offer only one-way communication. Others,
such as victimisation surveys, elicit information
ach city needs to decide how to translate its
E commitment to a participative approach into
practice. Rather than allowing it to develop on an
from a selected sample of people. Further along
the spectrum, focus groups and joint workshops
create opportunities for two-way interaction and
ad hoc basis, it is sensible to agree an engagement collaboration.
plan setting out how communities will be involved.
The International Association for Public Participation In audit planning and Implementation Stage 1 the
has developed a ‘spectrum’ of participation, which scale and scope of the tasks is considerable. It is
can be useful in developing such a plan. The sensible therefore to engage with representatives
spectrum has five levels – informing, consulting, of civil society organisations that have citywide
involving, collaborating and empowering.34 Moving responsibilities and who can provide useful inputs
along the spectrum increases the level of participation based on a comprehensive understanding of rele-
and communities’ influence on decisions (Table 13). vant issues. That might include organisations that
At the lowest level, agencies simply provide infor- are focused on, for example, community regenera-
mation. Higher levels involve greater participation and tion, the welfare of young people or families, the
closer working. At the highest level, the public has interests of large minority groups or the support of
delegated authority to take final decisions. poor people. However, there will inevitably be
Table 13
Levels Of Community Participation
Level Activity
1 Informing One-way communication that includes sharing information, but affording

communities no opportunity to exert influence.
2 Consulting In addition to ‘informing’, inviting communities to contribute information,

ideas or comment, but without any agency interaction or commitment to
respond to what is submitted.
3 Involving In addition to ‘consulting’, providing opportunities for community inputs to

planning, implementing, interpreting and prioritising.
4 Collaborating In addition to ‘involving’, working with communities jointly to develop plans,

respond to community inputs and agree conclusions.
5 Empowering In addition to ‘collaborating’, allowing communities to take final decisions

about the way forward.
34
http://iap2.org
32
much wider participation if it is decided that a Community organisations might take responsibility
victimisation survey is needed. for delivery of some of the audit activities, such as
focus groups or outreach work, during this Stage.
In Implementation Stage 2 there is more opportunity
for participation of individual citizens (as well as A fully participative approach in Implementation
organisations), who have a close personal interest Stages 3 and 4 would involve all communities in
or knowledge of the specific issues covered by the the selection of priorities and determining the
‘narrow and deep’ studies. They could include, for content of the audit report, as well as the identification
example, the female residents of a particular of assets and strengths on which future action
neighbourhood; shopkeepers in a retail centre; might be based. The significant question is how
children growing up in care; or an organisation much influence they have, in other words what
concerned with exploitation of immigrant workers. level in the spectrum of participation is adopted.
Table 14
Techniques For Engaging Communities In Audit Planning And Implementation
Level 1 2 3 4 5
Stage: Informing Consulting Involving Collaborating Empowering
Planning Community Civil society Communities Community repre- Community repre-

informed by representatives involved in the sentatives are sentatives chair the
newsletters, media submit inputs
planning process members of the Steering Group and
coverage of audit or comment
plan on plans planning group agree plan
Stage 1: Community Interviews with Interaction with Communities Community repre-

Wide and Shallow informed by citywide civil society, communities to actively involved in sentatives decide
newsletters, media written submissions,
discuss issues and audit team which issues to
coverage of key surveys
explore viewpoints study in Stage 3
statistics
Stage 2: Community Meetings with Joint workshops to Communities Communities take

Narrow and Deep informed by community groups, exchange ideas and leading audit work in lead in assessing
newsletters, media consultations, discuss conclusions certain areas significance of
coverage of surveys.
data collected.
detailed studies
Stage 3: Community Comments on the Communities Communities Communities

Priorities and informed by analysed data and involved in strongly influence decide priorities
Opportunities newsletters, media emerging priorities prioritisation and selection of priorities
coverage of
assessing assets
emerging results
Stage 4: Distribution of audit Invited community Discussion of Audit report written Community
Consulting and report with media feedback on audit draft report before collaboratively and representatives
Communicating coverage report publication circulated for decide content
comment of final report

Engaging children and youth is particularly impor-
tant but poses distinctive challenges. Various 5.4 Engaging Hard-
approaches have been developed, including child
and youth parliaments, youth forums, national and
To-Reach Groups
local youth councils, young advisors, participatory he term ‘hard-to-reach’ is widely used to define
budgeting and children/youth participation in
the management of local institutions.These
T groups of people who are not well represented
by civil society and who have limited contact with
result in many forms of involvement, such as mainstream agencies. This may be because of
conference participation, representation, research, fears or suspicions, socio-economic deprivation,
campaigning, advocacy and project design.35 discrimination, cultural or ideological barriers,
disabilities and distinctive needs, language
‘Consulting’ is likely to be a core activity in any barriers, age, size, lack of self-organisation or
audit and some of the ways this can be achieved many other reasons. They may not be literally hard-
are considered in greater depth in sections 16 and to-reach but the term has come to include all
17. First, however, attention is turned to the partic- groups that are marginalised or disempowered.
ular challenges of engaging the so-called There is always a risk that the needs of the hard-to-
‘hard-to-reach’. What will emerge is that a ‘one reach will be overlooked if deliberate action is not
size fits all’ approach to participation will not work taken to involve them.
if you are going to capture the uniqueness and
individuality of each community. Although a For every audit it will be necessary to identify rele-
customised approach will add greater complexity vant hard-to-reach groups and be proactive in
and costs, the process will be more meaningful to encouraging their participation. Broad-brush data
the community and have better outcomes.36 sources, such as recorded crime figures, will
disguise the full extent of their experience of crime
Engaging the Chinese Community (UK) and, as they tend to include the most vulnerable
Because a high proportion of the local Chinese and victimised, securing their involvement should
be a priority. However, whether or not a particular
population worked in local restaurants, consul- group is hard-to-reach will depend on local
tations in a British city were held after midnight circumstances. Homeless people, for example,
when families traditionally ate their meal and may be effectively represented by civil society in
were available to discuss the issues related to one city but without a voice in another.
the audit.
Groups which are relevant and hard–to-reach for
the purposes of the audit might be:
■ experiencing higher levels of victimisation or

distinctive forms of victimisation compared to
the general population
■ disproportionately represented in the criminal
justice system
■ feeling particularly vulnerable or at risk
35
Arguments for greater participation of children and young people in decision making and models for achieving this are presented
in UN-Habitat. Youth, children and urban governance. Global campaign on urban governance. Policy Dialogue Series 2. Nairobi:
UN-Habitat, 2004. http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/getPage.asp?page=bookView&book=1810
36
A guide to community involvement in crime prevention has been published by the UK Home Office. Forrest S, Myhill A and Tilley N.
Practical lessons for involving the community in crime and disorder problem-solving. Development and Practice Report 43.
London: Home Office, 2005. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/dpr43.pdf
34
■ able to make significant contribution to the Auditing Crime Against Businesses in
understanding of problems or development Ethnically Diverse Communities (Australia)37
of effective responses
Research has shown that crime experienced by businesses
Work with hard-to-reach groups will be more owned by ethnic minorities can differ from that experienced
successful if it is underpinned by the following by other businesses. To investigate this issue in two ‘ethni-
principles and practice: cally-concentrated’ communities Australia, face-to-face
interviews were conducted with 337 small businesses in
Respect
Vietnamese, Mandarin, Cantonese and English.
All groups deserve respect and their individuality
needs to be acknowledged throughout the
process. This may manifest itself in culturally
specific activities (see Rwanda case study in 17.2). Adaptation
Respect is especially important when consulting ‘Conventional’ approaches (meetings, surveys,
on sensitive issues with victims for whom experi- etc) may be inappropriate with hard-to-reach
ences may be recent and upsetting. groups. Engagement methods must be
customised to specific circumstances. This
Trust could mean:
Effective participation relies on relationships built ■ using outreach activity to make contact
on trust. Trust can take time to achieve as hard- with individuals in their settings on their
to-reach groups may misunderstand or distrust terms, such as street interviews with
the purposes for which the information is homeless young people or those
required, as well as the authorities seeking involved in sex work (see 17.2).
it. The key to building trust is commitment to ■ avoiding the use of written material
ensuring that their views are valued and acted with individuals who have difficulty
on. Engagement should include feedback on reading or writing.
audit findings and building their capacity to play
a part in decision-making. Interest
Once engaged it is essential to maximise the
Protocols opportunity and keep the individual or group
Protocols establish the terms under which the interested. The issues raised must strike a chord
engagement takes place. They should be inclu- with their experiences. If the relevance is
sive and owned by the group, providing a coupled with creative and imaginative tech-
framework for the relationship. A protocol can niques, participation will be more productive
take various forms, but it should include the and sustained.
purpose of any participation, the behaviour
expected of participants and how information will It should be recognised that the Audit Team may
be recorded and used. ‘Ground’ (ethical) rules’ not be the best people to elicit views and experi-
agreed by participants at the start of a process ences from hard-to-reach groups. Peers, trusted
are a common form of protocol. They are often partners or intermediaries may be better placed
used in meetings with young people, written on to access the target group and establish an
large sheets of paper and visible throughout open dialogue.
any dialogue.
37
Taylor N. Crime against businesses in two ethnically diverse communities, Trends and Issues in Criminal Justice, 321. Canberra:
Australian Institute for Criminology, 2006. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi2/tandi321.pdf

PART B:
SPECIFIC ISSUES
FOR AUDIT TEAMS
6 Overview
art B focuses on a range of issues that should The problems considered are largely invisible to
P be examined in every city. They relate to
specific populations, specific problems and
statutory services because victims are unable,
unwilling, reluctant or too afraid to report their
specific places, and are considered deserving of experiences. Sometimes those directly involved –
attention for a variety of reasons. Most are impor- including families and agencies – may not readily
tant, however, because they have the greatest acknowledge that a problem exists. Relationships
impact on the vulnerable and weakest members of may exist between victims and offenders, and
society, especially children, women and the between victimisation and offending. There may
socially excluded. be mistrust of the relevant authorities, who may
themselves be implicated. And there are often
The range of issues presented is not intended to multiple and complex causes linked to disadvan-
be comprehensive and patterns of victimisation tage, culture or historical factors, which can
are always complex. Young adult males, for transcend international borders. This means that
example, are at much greater risk of homicide than gaining understanding of such issues can be chal-
equivalent age females or any other age/sex lenging. However, a good safety audit will address
group; male infants are more at risk of severe this task and the following sections outline how it
physical violence, while female infants are more at can be approached.
risk of emotional violence; and girls are more likely
than boys to be sexually abused. Nevertheless,
the approaches outlined can be applied to other
topics that the audit team wishes to research.
38
As outlined previously, Implementation Stage 1 each issue are listed. These are divided into two
(see 4.2) should be used to acquire a citywide groups, those that should be asked in Stage 1 to
overview of the nature and scale of problems, as gain the overview and those to be included in
well as an understanding of likely causes or relevant Stage 2, if further research is needed (in bold). The
risk factors. Any strategies that address the questions may not be easy to answer. Some
problem should be identified and an assessment demand factual or quantitative responses, but
made of current services and interventions. good statistics will often not be readily available, so
Critically important will be to come to a conclusion informed estimates or ‘surrogate’ measures will
about their existence (whether there are any), their have to be used. 38 Others are open-ended and
effectiveness (whether they are working well) and require judgement about, for example the scale of a
their adequacy (whether there is enough provision). problem or the effectiveness of a response. In such
cases, it will be advisable to ‘triangulate’ views from
Available statistics and previous research should several sources in order to come to a conclusion.
be examined, but the most valuable inputs in
Stage 1 will come from key informants with Audit teams should not be discouraged if it proves
specialist knowledge and experience. They will impossible to answer some questions quickly or
include representatives of agencies, organisations completely. They are provided to stimulate
or professional groups who have a good citywide thinking, discussion and investigation. One
awareness. For example, a senior doctor from outcome of the safety audit may be the
a city hospital emergency department may identification of issues which could not be
contribute valuable perspectives on alcohol- examined adequately during the process and
related violence across the city (see 11.4). which require a longer-term research investigation.
If it proves impossible to gain the required under-

standing in this way, or if it is concluded that
the issue is not being effectively tackled,
more detailed analysis will be necessary in
Implementation Stage 2. This may involve
conducting interviews, surveys or consultations, as
well as site visits and other activities. The purpose
may be to complete the citywide picture that is
missing or, alternatively, to focus on particular
population groups, problems or localities that have
emerged as being of particular concern. In Stage
2, health sector inputs might come from individual
general practitioners or community health workers.
In the following sections, key questions relating to
38
A surrogate measure is a substitute used when the measure actually required is impossible or difficult to obtain but which provides
a good approximation or indication of it.

7 Children And Youth
7.1 Introduction
erious victimisation of children and youth The linkage between early developmental experi-
S occurs in all countries and in many different
settings: within the home and family, in alternative
ences and the likelihood of later involvement in
violence and crime makes it meaningful to
care settings, at school, in the community and at address children and youth together. But youth
workplaces. The violence takes many forms, violence is strongly driven by many factors in a
including bullying, physical punishment, sexual young person’s ‘present’ environment (eg weapon
abuse, genital mutilation, forced labour and availability, alcohol, economic inequality, built
homicide. The most violent acts experienced by environment, schooling and job opportunities), so it
children and youth are often perpetrated by people does also need to be given separate consideration.
who are part of their everyday lives: parents,
schoolmates, teachers, employers, boyfriends or
girlfriends and partners. Violence In The Home And Family
“Studies from many countries in all regions
Certain childhood and adolescent experiences are of the world suggest that up to 80 to 98% of
also associated with later offending and substance
children suffer physical punishment in their
misuse.39 Across countries and cultures, there is
much consistency in those ‘risk factors’ considered homes, with a third or more experiencing
most influential and they have a cumulative effect. severe physical punishment resulting from
The more factors present in a young person’s life, the use of implements.”
the greater the likelihood of that individual coming
into conflict with the law.40 UN Study on Violence
Against Children (2006)41
39
They are also strongly linked to other adverse health risk behaviours (eg smoking, early initiation of sexual activity) and adverse
health outcomes (eg chronic disease, depressive disorders, sexually transmitted disease) across the lifespan.
40
See Appendix A for a typology of risk factors.
41
UN. Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children. General Assembly. Sixty first
session. Item 62 (a) of the provisional agenda. A/61/299, 2006. http://www.violencestudy.org/IMG/pdf/English-2-2.pdf
40
Female Offenders (Australia)
Children and youth who suffer violence are doubly
disadvantaged. They are not only victims, but that In a survey of 470 incarcerated women, 63% reported that
experience increases the probability that in later life they had experienced sexual, physical or emotional abuse
they will be revictimised, be violent themselves and as a child, 60% mental health problems while growing up,
be drawn into a criminal career. In this way violence 44% had grown up in families with alcohol problems and 26%
can be perpetuated across generations with
young victims becoming violent offenders who in
in families with drug problems.
turn victimise their children, starting the cycle anew. Key findings from the Drug Use Careers
Identifying and addressing child violence must be of Female Offenders Study (2004)42
a priority if the cycle of violence and crime is to be
broken. provide valuable information. However, if not available,
key informant interviews and consultations that
Services and initiatives to prevent victimisation in elicit informed qualitative assessments about the
the first instance, and early interventions to support nature, scale and causes of problems, as well as
children and youth who have been victimised, are current responses, are likely to be more insightful
essential to break this cycle. It requires action to than incomplete official statistics.
counter the multiple risk factors.
Given the prevalence and strategic importance of

7.2 Children And
these problems, as well as the fundamental rights
of children to be protected, such interventions should
Youth At Risk In
be priorities in the prevention strategies of cities The Family
across the world. So it follows that an enquiry into
hildren and youth growing up in homes where
matters relating to children and young people
should be a core element of all safety audits. Two C parents or carers are violent, are offenders,
are substance abusers, live chaotic lifestyles or
linked issues require investigation: actual victimisation
and the risk factors associated with later problems. exercise erratic discipline are at heightened risk of
victimisation in the home. They are also at greater
To make the task more realistic and manageable, risk of being revictimised and more likely to
audit teams should focus on populations which become involved in offending in later life.
research in many countries has shown are more
likely to be exposed to multiple risks and to have To assess the nature and scale of local problems,
experienced victimisation. Sometimes these are audit teams should consult representatives of
readily identified and located, such as children in social care services, who may maintain a register
care. However, identifying and assessing other of ‘at risk’ children. Community health workers and
groups, such as children in dysfunctional families doctors should also have good awareness of
and children who drop out of school, can be more issues, as should family support and child welfare
difficult. Data about such risk factors, if collected at organisations. Faith group leaders and representa-
all, will be spread across diverse agencies and civil tives of community organisations may make useful
society organisations, while actual victimisation is contributions. Any client feedback reports which
likely to be ‘hidden’ and unrecorded. may provide evidence of the effectiveness of
existing services and programmes should be
The following sections give attention to some located. National surveys may be informative and,
important lines of enquiry that the audit team especially in developing countries, the local
should pursue. Any previous research reports will UNICEF office may hold useful information.43
42
Johnson H. Key findings from the drug use careers of female offenders study, Trends and Issues in Crime and Justice 289.
Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2004. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi2/tandi289.pdf
43
For further guidance and tools for use in epidemiological study and risk assessment, see World Health Organisation and the
Society for Protection of Child Abuse and Neglect. Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating
evidence. Geneva: WHO, 2006. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2006/9241594365_eng.pdf

Key questions 7.3 Children And
■ How many children and youth are ‘at risk’
because of their home situation?
Youth Growing
■ Are there effective systems for identifying Up In Care And
children and youth at risk?
■ What are the home circumstances that put Leaving Care
them ‘at risk’?
many countries, children growing up in care
■ Which neighbourhoods have dispropor-
tionate numbers of children ‘at risk’?
IN are at greater risk of victimisation and
offending than those growing up in family settings.
■ Is the problem associated with particular But research suggests that it is not growing up in
demographic groups? care per se that increases risk, rather that looked-
■ Which services and programmes are after children already have a cluster of risk factors
addressing the problems? in their lives, such as early victimisation, lack of
■ To what extent are responses adequate and parental attachment and multiple placements.
effective? Once in care, they experience violence by young
■ Is there good multi-agency co-operation people, staff and others. Having left the care
on this issue? system, they are much more vulnerable to
■
subsequent victimisation and offending for a
What are the priorities for further action?
variety of reasons, including lower educational
attainment, lack of housing and being ill-prepared
Key sources
■
for employment.
Previous research reports
■ Social care services
Key sources of information will be representatives
■ Representatives of community health workers of social services and civil society organisations
and doctors providing care. They should also be aware of
■ Civil society family support and child welfare support services available to those leaving care.
organisations The police, youth justice and other justice agen-
■ Faith group leaders cies should be consulted about the extent to
■ Community organisations which residential care is a risk factor for victimisa-
■
tion and/or offending.
Client feedback reports on existing services
and programmes
Further investigation must include consultations
with young people in care as well as offenders
Jail Inmates (USA) previously in care to increase understanding of the
‘Local’ jails in the USA typically house persons issues involved, and the responses they believe
pending arraignment or trial and persons are needed to reduce risks. Community groups
sentenced to short sentences. A survey of a and other organisations working with disadvan-
taged young people should also have useful
representative sample of 7000 inmates found
knowledge about problems and responses.
that 31% had grown up with a parent or
guardian who abused alcohol or drugs, and
46% with a family member who had been incar-
cerated.
Profile of Jail Inmates (2002)44
44
Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics (US), Profile of jail inmates, 2002. Washington DC: DoJ, 2004.
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/pji02.htm
42
Growing Up In Care
By the year 2000, 2,885 of the 41,700 children born in Queensland (Australia) in 1983 had a substantiated notification
of maltreatment. Placement of the child outside the home influenced the likelihood of a child offending by 2000.
26% of maltreated children who were placed outside the home subsequently offended at least once, compared
with 13% of those who were never placed outside the home.45
In the UK, where 2% of the population has a history of institutional care, 27% of all prisoners and 40% of males in
youth custody spent part of their childhood in care.46,47
In the USA, 12% of inmates in local jails lived in foster homes or institutions.
Key questions 7.4 Children And

■ How many young people are growing up in
care institutions?
Youth In Conflict
■ Are particular ‘home neighbourhoods’ over- With The Law
represented in this group?
his section deals with children under the age of
■ What proportion of youth/adult offenders
are/were previously in care? T criminal responsibility (which varies between
countries) who have come to the attention of
■ What is the demographic profile of victims
and offenders who are or were in care? justice agencies and youth who are already
■
involved with the youth justice system. Whilst
Is maltreatment occurring in institutions?
involvement in troublesome behaviour is the usual
■ What is the level of their literacy/numeracy reason for such children and youth coming to
and life skills on leaving care? agency attention, a report to the UN has highlighted
■ What are the greatest risk factors that violence against children in conflict with
confronting youth leaving care? the law, is ‘particularly widespread’, but ‘under-
■ What services support youth leaving care? reported and under-recognised’. It occurs through
■ Are the support services effective and routine harassment as well as during the process
adequate? of arrest and periods of detention.48
■ What are the priorities for further action?
Most children ‘grow out’ of troublesome behaviour
Key sources without the need for any intervention.Nevertheless,
■ Statutory services and other organisations the earlier a child gets into conflict with the law, and
providing care the more serious the cause of that contact, the
■
more likely it is that s/he will go on to become
Police and justice agencies (youth justice,
a persistent or serious offender, if no effective
corrections, courts)
intervention is made. Moreover, having entered
■ Children and youth in care the criminal justice system, and especially after
■ Organisations supporting youth leaving care a period in custody, the risks of continued
■ Offenders previously in care offending appear to increase further in most
developed countries.
45
Stewart A, Dennison S and Waterson E. Pathways from child maltreatment to juvenile offending, Trends and Issues in Crime and
Justice 241. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2002. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/ti241.pdf
46
Social Exclusion Unit (UK). Reducing re-offending by ex-prisoners. London: SEU, 2002. http://www.socialexclusio-
nunit.gov.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=64
47
Rethinking Crime and Punishment. What you really need to know about criminal justice. 2003.
http://www.rethinking.org.uk/informed/pdf/need_to_know.pdf
48
Non Governmental Organisations Advisory Panel for the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Against Children. Violence
against children in conflict with the law. Geneva, 2005. http://violencestudy.org/IMG/doc/VACICL_Summary_Report_final.doc

Early Delinquency, Early Drug Use
And Later Offending
“The earlier the onset of offending, the greater Relevant information should be obtained from the
police, youth justice and social care agencies.
the likelihood of serious and chronicfuture
However, for further insight, older young people
delinquency. Early onset offenders, as compared should be consulted about the factors they
to later onset offenders, have a two to three perceive to be important influences on behaviour,
times higher risk of becoming serious chronic as well as civil society organisations working for
offenders… Chronic delinquents tend to have young people.
had earlier ages of referral to the juvenile

cour ts…. Most serious offenders begin Key questions
Children Under The Age
delinquency before age 14 years, mostly Of Criminal Responsibility
during the elementary school age period…” ■ How many children are of concern to justice
agencies?
Report of the Study Group on Serious
■ What activities bring them into conflict with
and Violent Juvenile Offenders49
the law?
“On average, regular violent juvenile offenders ■ Is the problem associated with particular
reported first using all substances at a younger neighbourhoods or groups?
■ What is the demographic profile of those
age than regular juvenile property offenders.”
involved?
Report of Incarcerated Juvenile Offenders ■ Which risk factors feature in their backgrounds?
in Australia50
■ Is there a multi-agency strategy and are there
services to respond to their needs and divert
Early interventions targeted at children and youth them from the justice system?
who come into conflict with the law are vital to
■ Is the strategy well implemented, effective
prevent them entering or penetrating deeper into the
and adequate?
justice system, and to prevent further victimisation. A
safety audit therefore needs to assess the nature
and scale of this problem, the effectiveness of
responses in place and gaps that need to be filled. Children Involved In The Justice System
■ How many young people are involved in the
Attention clearly needs to be given to those already justice system?

■ What is their demographic profile?
involved with the justice system, who may have
been cautioned, given a community disposal or a ■ Is the problem associated with particular
custodial sentence. Equally important will be neighbourhoods or groups?
consideration of others for whom a justice system ■ Which risk factors feature in their backgrounds?
response is not an option because of their young ■ What activities bring them into conflict and
age, and who need to be supported in different how much is violence?
ways. Analysis of the backgrounds and circum-
■ To what extent is offending linked to
stances that led to these children and youth
substance misuse?
coming into conflict with the law should also be
■ How many receive cautions and how
used inform earlier preventive action to stop children
reaching that stage. many community disposals?
49
Cited in Loeber R and Farrington D (eds). Child delinquents: development, intervention and service needs. Thousand Oaks,
London and New Delhi: Sage, 2001.
50
Pritchard J and Payne J. Alcohol, drugs and crime: a study of juveniles in detention, Research and Public Policy Series 67.
Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2005. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/rpp/67/rpp67.pdf
44
■ How many are in custody or detention School is often also where behavioural or other
institutions? problems, which may interfere with learning and
■ Do relevant agencies work well together for are linked to later offending, such as early aggression,
these young people? manifest themselves or are first identified. Teachers
■ Is there a strategy and are there services to are well positioned to help children and their families
prevent reoffending and stop them entering access any additional support needed. They
further into the justice system? therefore not only play a vital role in enabling children
and youth to stay out of trouble in their own right,
but also by working with other agencies.
and adequate?
■ What are the priorities for further action? However, for many children, school is where they
are exposed to risk and experience victimisation,
Key sources fear and a sense of exclusion or rejection. Violence –
■ Previous research reports often in the form of bullying, but also as robbery or
■ Police and youth justice assault – occurs widely at primary and secondary
■ Social care services and community levels, and frequently involves sexually – or racially-
organisations working for young people motivated aggression. Such acts are committed
■ Older young people by and against both young people and staff and,
in extreme cases, youth gangs have taken control
of the school environment. It could be in school
7.5 Children And that children may first encounter illegal drugs and
substance misuse often occurs on school sites.
Youth In School Schools are also targets for crimes such as arson,
theft or vandalism committed against premises
chool is one of the main settings in which children
S can acquire knowledge and skills which will
generally improve their lifetime outcomes and
and facilities.
specifically reduce the risk of them coming into Violence In School

conflict with the law. As well as academic and “Repor ting on a wide range of developing countries, the
cognitive skills, children may learn in school Global School-based Health Survey recently found that
about responsible citizenship, inter-personal
between 20 – 65% of school-aged children reported having
relationships and other life skills that affect their
vulnerability and risk of getting into trouble. been verbally or physically bullied in the past 30 days.
Children who do not attend school or who leave Bullying is also frequent in industrialised countries.”
with poor basic skills and no qualifications are at
UN Study on Violence Against Children (2006)
greatly heightened risk of victimisation and of
coming into conflict with the law.
Getting children to complete their basic education

is far more cost effective than paying for the
consequences of offending behaviour. Research
shows that the ‘ethos’ of the school can be as
powerful as the formal curriculum in influencing
outcomes, especially for children from disadvantaged
backgrounds or with lower academic ability. By
valuing all forms of achievement; by developing
positive relationships between pupils, staff and
parents; and by providing a safe learning
environment, schools can give all children the
best chance to succeed.

As a result, children’s education may be severely
Key questions interrupted. Feeling fearful, victimised or rejected,
■ What proportion of youth complete they may truant or drop out. They may be sus -
secondary education? pended or excluded because of their behaviour, but
■ What proportion lack basic literacy/numeracy they are many other reasons that may affect atten-
skills on leaving? dance, such as a problematic home environment,
■ Is there a mechanism for assessing pupil and illness, financial difficulties or the need to care for a
staff safety in school? parent. Unless alternative educational provision is
■ If so, how safe do pupils and teachers feel made, not being in school increases risks and can
in schools? initiate a downward spiral into further trouble.
■ What is the level of truancy, suspensions
Assessing such school-related problems, identifying
and expulsions?
effective responses and focusing attention on
■ What educational provision is made for issues requiring further intervention should there-
excluded/expelled pupils? fore be a priority for all safety audits. Consultation
■ What is the nature of school violence and how with representatives of education services and
prevalent is it? teachers should be the starting point. Information
■ How widespread is substance misuse on about ‘calls for service’ from schools to the police
school sites? and youth justice agencies should be sought. For
■ Do all schools have anti-bullying policies? more detailed information, young people should
■ What other policies and initiatives exist to be engaged through surveys or consultations, and
create safer schools? school safety audits should be organised to gain
an insight at specific sites. 51,52 Training young
■ What current interventions involving education,
people to undertake the research themselves
police and health sectors exist, how well are
could be considered.
they working and are they adequate?
■ What is the scale/cost of crime against
school premises and facilities?
■ How do problems vary between schools
and where are they worst?
Key sources
■ Previous research reports
■ Representatives of education services
and teachers
■ Police and youth justice agencies
■ Children and youth
51
For guidance on undertaking a school safety audit, see Galvin P. The role of a school audit in preventing and minimising violence.
Chapter 2 in Violence reduction in schools. How to make a difference. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2006.
52
An online school security assessment tool developed by the Department for Education and Skills (UK) for education professionals
can be found at http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/emergencies/planning/security/index.html
46
Addressing Bullying In School
To assist Australian schools tackle the problem of bullying, the Australian Government has
provided a checklist (reproduced below) against which schools can assess their responses.53
Inadequately Adequately Outstanding
1 Acquired resources for educating the school,

the childcare centre or the community about
bullying
2 Gathered facts about bullying at your school

or childcare centre
3 Developed policy by involving:

■ Staff
■ Children
■ Parents
4 Produced an anti-bullying policy which:

■ Describes what bullying is
■ recognises the rights of individuals to be
safe from being bullied
■ stresses the responsibility of everyone to
help counter bullying
■ indicates how bullying incidents will, in
general terms, be dealt with
■ has the support of school or centre and
the community
5 Discussed bullying with children
6 Included work designed to counter bullying

in the curriculum
7 Supported victimised children
8 Handled incidents of bullying
9 Empowered children to take part in action to

counter bullying
10 Held constructive meetings with parents on
issues of bullying
11 Gauged the overall response of the school or

centre to bullying
12 Made plans to review the anti-bullying work
This checklist enables you to make an assessment of how adequately your school or childcare centre
has responded to the issue of bullying. You can check how well it has done against each of the items
above. This list may also be useful when a centre is planning a response to bullying.
53
Rigby K. Bullying among young people. Canberra: Australian Government Attorney-General’s Department, 2003.
http://www.ag.gov.au/agd/WWW/rwpattach.nsf/VAP/(1E76C1D5D1A37992F0B0C1C4DB87942E)~Bullying+Teachers.pdf/
$file/Bullying+Teachers.pdf

Defining Gangs
7.6 Children And “Street gangs are groups of young people and
Youth Involved In young adults who band together to form a semi
Criminal Gangs structured organisation, the primary purpose of
which is to engage in planned and profitable
And Organised criminal behaviour or organised violence
Violence against rival street gangs (for example, less
visible but more permanent than other
xperts have great difficulty in reaching
E consensus about what constitutes a youth
gang. But most definitions refer to or imply structured
groups)”. (Australian Institute of Criminology)56
or semi-structured groups of young people who “Any durable street-orientated youth group
are involved in serious urban violence and other whose involvement in illegal activity is part of
criminality.54 Particularly disturbing is the number
of children and adolescents who use knives
their group identity”. (Eurogang Program)57
or firearms in conflicts between rival factions,
with security agencies or in the commission of “A group of teens and young adults that hang
other offences. out together and are involved in joint violent,
illegal, or criminal activity. They generally give
The COAV Project (Brazil) and International Study
have highlighted a particularly disturbing dimen- themselves a common name or symbol, and
sion to this problem. This is the widespread they often choose to wear a cer tain type of
involvement in countries not at war of children and clothing or to display some other identifying
youth in organised armed groups, which have
item.” (US National Youth Violence Prevention
some form of command structure and power over
territory, local population or resources. Examples in Resource Center).58
Latin America cited by COAV include “drug trade
factions in territorial dispute (as in Rio de Janeiro, Organised armed groups involving children and
Brazil); organised criminal gangs in general (drug youth have been identified across the globe in
and arms traffickers and kidnappers); structured developed and developing countries, including
and armed youth gangs (´maras´ and gangs in Nigeria, Northern Ireland and The Philippines,
Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala); armed varying greatly in their membership and organisa-
ethnic groups; death squads and vigilante groups tional arrangements. They exist for financial profit,
that execute criminals. The problem is also found in for territorial supremacy, for ‘community protection’
post-conflict regions where organised crime or for political reasons, sometimes with support
employs armed groups.”55 of local people, politicians or militia. They
operate in neighbourhoods, in schools and
commercial areas.
54
Bureau of Justice Assistance (US). Addressing Community gang problems: A practical guide. Monograph. Washington DC:
Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs, 1998. http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/164273.pdf
55
COAV stands for ‘Children and Youth in Organised Armed Violence’. The Project was initiated in Brazil and led to an International
Study involving ten countries. http://www.coav.org.br
56
White R. Understanding youth gangs. Trends and Issues in Criminal Justice, 237. Canberra: Australian Institute for Criminology,
2002. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/ti237.pdf
57
http://www.umsl.edu/~ccj/pdfs/05%20Use%20Request%20Form.pdf
58
http://www.safeyouth.org/scripts/teens/gangs.asp
48
Many studies have confirmed the loss of life and National Youth Gang Center (US)61
damage to communities that armed youth groups The proliferation of gang problems in large and small cities,
and other youth gangs can have. In Nicaragua, for
example, almost half of all crimes and delinquent
suburbs, and even rural areas over the last two decades
acts are attributed to youth gangs.59 A survey in led to the development of a comprehensive, coordinated
Denver (US) found that while only 14% of teens response to America’s gang problem by the Office of
were gang members, they were responsible for Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). The
committing 89% of serious violent crimes, while
OJJDP response involves five major components, one of
another US study concluded that youth gang
members were 60 times more likely to be killed which is the implementation and operation of the National
than the rest of the population.60 Youth Gang Center (NYGC). Its work includes:
In the numerous cities severely affected by children ■ Assessment of the gang problem by analysis of data
and youth involved in organised armed violence or from law enforcement agencies and an annual National
other youth gangs, action to curtail recruitment,
Youth Gang Survey
shrink membership and reduce criminal activity is
likely to be a core component of any prevention
■ Maintaining a database on gang-related news
strategy. Due to the enormous variation in gang ■ Supporting a gang-reduction programme in four neigh-
characteristics, local study to gain an understanding bourhoods by providing technical assistance and training
of membership, structures, activities and motivation for communities
is essential.
■ Suppor ting a gang-free schools initiative based on
There are no easy routes to acquire such information, the Comprehensive Gang Model by providing technical
unless previous local research has been assistance and training for four sites.
conducted. Any official statistics are likely to be of
little value and the audit team will need to consult
with key informants to build a qualitative overview Key questions
during Implementation Stage 1. This should ■ How many children and youth are members
include consultation with representatives of the of criminal gangs?
police, communities, schools and civil society ■ What is the demographic profile of gang
organisations with knowledge of or involvement members?
with gangs. To get a better understanding, ■ What motivates children and youth to join
consideration should also be given to the socio- a gang?
economic context, especially income inequality, ■ Are gangs associated with particular neigh-
which can be a powerful driver for gang-related bourhoods or groups?
activity and organised violence.
■ What is ‘driving’ gang activity (disaffection,
profit, insecurity)?
If further investigation is needed in Implementation
■ What is the nature of the criminality (especially
Stage 2, empirical research is likely to be neces-
sary. This should include engagement with young violence/illicit drugs)?
people in schools and other settings to investigate ■ What proportion is involved in armed conflict?
gang recruitment and the ‘drivers’ of gang ■ What is the victimisation rate among gang
membership. members?
59
Rodgers D. Youth gangs and violence in Latin America and the Caribbean: a literature survey. LCR, Sustainable Development
Working Paper 4. World Bank, 1999. http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/LAC/LACInfoClient.nsf/
d29684951174975c85256735007fef12/1e051e74b34f8253852567ed0060dde7?OpenDocument
60
Cited in Howell JC. Youth gangs: an overview. Washington DC: Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (US), 1998. http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/167249.pdf
61
http://www.iir.com/nygc/maininfo.htm

Violence against street children takes place by
■ How serious is the problem of gangs in peers, members of the community, and sometimes
schools? by police and security guards. The UN reports that
■ Is a strategy in place to tackle gang-related violence by police against street children – from
activities? verbal harassment and beatings to rape and other
■ Is the strategy well implemented, effective sexual violence, torture and “disappearance” – is a
and adequate? common theme and children from all regions
■
report cruel and gratuitous violence by police for
Which organisations are already engaged
petty offences. At the extreme end of the scale are
with existing gangs?
death squads and vigilante groups, who have
■ What action is being taken to reduce
been known to systematically murder street children.
recruitment?
■ What are the priorities for further action? Those who experience difficulty in finding work or
who are picked up by adults when they first arrive
Key sources in cities are particularly vulnerable. They may be
■ Previous research reports forced into local illegal activities, such as carrying
■ Representatives of the police, communities, drugs, thievery, street crime, or prostitution, or traf-
schools and civil society organisations ficked for the same purpose. Their situation puts
■ Young people in schools and other settings them at great risk of becoming involved in
substance abuse, as well as contracting HIV/AIDS.
It also needs to be recognised that street children

7.7 Street Children are present in both developed and developing
countries. However, identifying and assessing
treet children is an imprecise term applied
S to a very wide range of young people. It can
include children and youth who are homeless;
problems related to street children is particularly
difficult because of their ‘invisibility’ compared to
most children dealt with by public services. To
work on the streets but sleep at home; either do or
audit this issue, statutory agencies involved in
do not have family contact; work in open-air
delivery of children’s services, as well as civil
markets; live on the streets with their families; or
society organisations with a special interest in
live in day or night shelters”.62 UNICEF reports that
street children and related issues (eg homeless-
“the exact number of street children is impossible
ness), must be consulted. The support of relevant
to quantify, but it is likely to number in the tens of
civil society organisations to consult street children
millions or higher, some estimates place the figure
about their experiences and priorities should be
as high as 100 million.”63 What is clear is that such
sought. The police and youth justice agencies
children become vulnerable to many forms of
who will have some knowledge of victimisation,
violence, exploitation and abuse, and many resort
offending and interpersonal violence should also
to crime to survive.
be contacted.
62
Consortium For Street Children. http://www.streetchildren.org.uk
63
UNICEF. The state of the world’s children 2006: Excluded and invisible: Street children. UNICEF: 2006.
http://www.unicef.org/sowc06/profiles/street.php
50
Street Children In Bamako (Mali) and Accra (Ghana)
Key questions
The Norwegian research institution, Fafo, has developed
■ How many street children are in the city?
■
tools specifically for research into street children. 64
Is the number increasing?
■ What is their demographic profile?
‘Respondent-driven sampling’ and ‘capture-recapture’
■ In which areas do they sleep and work? sampling were used to identify and profile street children in
■ Why are they ‘on the street’ and how do Bamak (Mali) and Accra (Ghana) and assess the usefulness
they survive? of these methods for such work. Capture-recapture was
■ In what ways are they victimised or exploited? found to be a good sampling technique, but it requires some
■ Which activities bring them into conflict prior knowledge of the street children population and would
with the law? be difficult to apply in a city with a large street children
■ Which organisations are engaged with street population. Respondent-driven sampling successfully
children?
provided an insight to the characteristics of the street children
■ What services do they offer?
■
population. Both studies were necessarily under taken in
How well are such interventions working and
are they adequate? close collaboration with local organisations working with
■ What are the priorities for further action? street children. The differences between the two cities
emphasises the need for local study. In Bamako, for example,
Key sources 96% were boys, while in Accra 75% were girls.
■ Statutory agencies involved in delivery of Fafo Report On Identification Of Street Children (2005)65
children’s services
■ Civil society organisations with a special
interest in street children and related issues
(eg homelessness)
■ Street children
■ Police and youth justice agencies
64
http://www.fafo.no/indexenglish.htm
65
Anne Hatløy A and Huser A. Identification of street children: Characteristics of street children in Bamako and Accra. Fafo Report
474. Oslo: Fafo, 2005. http://www.fafo.no/pub/rapp/474/474.pdf

8 Interpersonal Violence
8.1 Introduction
nterpersonal violence includes various forms of Intimate Partner Violence
I violence and abuse that occur within known
relationships and that cause physical, psychological
This term has been comprehensively defined
by the World Health Organisation. It refers
or sexual harm. Two particular forms of interpersonal
violence will be addressed below: violence by an to any behaviour within an intimate relation-
intimate partner, and elder-based violence. ship that causes physical, psychological or
Violence against children in a family context has sexual harm to those in the relationship. Such
already been addressed (See section 7).
behaviour includes:
■ Acts of physical aggression – such as
8.2 Violence by slapping, hitting, kicking and beating.
Intimate Partners ■ Psychological abuse – such as intimidation,
constant belittling and humiliating.
ne of the most common forms of violence
O against women is perpetrated by a husband ■ Forced intercourse and other forms of
or an intimate partner, which occurs in all countries sexual coercion.
and cuts across all social, economic, religious and
■ Various controlling behaviours – such as
cultural groups. In countries where it has been
measured, it has been found to affect a significant isolating a person from their family and
proportion of the population. While intimate partner friends, monitoring their movements, and
violence may be performed by women against restricting their access to information or
men or between same-sex partners, this violence
assistance.
is overwhelmingly committed by men against their
female partners. Additionally, men’s violence WHO World Report on
Violence and Health. (2002)66
66
Krug E G, Dahlberg L L, Mercy J A, Zwi A B and R Lozano (eds), 2002, World report on violence and health. WHO: Geneva. See
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/full_en.pdf
52
usually does much more damage than women’s minorities. Some data may be collected via a
and women are more likely to experience repeated general victimisation survey, but willingness to
episodes of violence and to fear for their lives as a report will be low. Purpose-designed surveys
result of the abuse. Finally, women are much more conducted in ways that give confidence and secu-
likely to be injured and/or hospitalised and women rity to victims can be more revealing. In some
are much more likely to be killed by their intimate societies, especially male-dominated ones,
partners. violence may be denied or considered ‘normal’. In
such situations opportunities and conditions must
Violence by intimate partners has a devastating be created in which women and young people are
impact with far-reaching consequences on individ- empowered to speak.
uals, their families and their communities. This can
extend beyond the cessation of the abuse and Intimate Partner Violence: A Global Problem
affect the physical and mental health of women “The percentage of women who had been assaulted by a
who lived with violent partners, and children who partner in the previous 12 months varied from 3% or less
witnessed this violence.
among women in Australia, Canada and the United States to
27% of ever-partnered women (that is, women who have
8.3 Auditing Intimate ever had an ongoing sexual partnership) in Léon, Nicaragua;
Partner Violence 38% of currently married women in the Republic of Korea;
and 52% of currently married Palestinian women in the West
here intimate partner violence is occurring,
W numerous factors – emotional involvement,
economic dependency, concern for the well-being
Bank and Gaza Strip. For many of these women, physical
assault was not an isolated event but part of a continuing
of children, culture, religion, and availability of pattern of abusive behaviour.”
support – contribute to crimes of this nature going
unreported and certainly under-reported. For
“Research suggests that physical violence in intimate relation-
example, it is estimated that only about a third of
intimate partner violence cases are reported ships is often accompanied by psychological abuse, and in
in the US and UK notwithstanding concerted one-third to over one half of cases by sexual abuse. Among
efforts to address this issue. In countries lacking 613 women in Japan who had at any one time been abused,
comprehensive preventive and criminal justice for example, 57% had suffered all three types of abuse –
responses, and given the many factors that
operate against an individual who is experiencing
physical, psychological and sexual. Less than 10% of these
such violence reporting it, the extent of under- women had experienced only physical abuse. Similarly, in
reporting would be greater. Monterrey, Mexico, 52% of physically assaulted women had
also been sexually abused by their partners.”
Departments and specialist organisations with
mandates to prevent and to respond to spousal WHO World Report on Violence and Health (2002)
and other related forms of intimate partner violence
such as violence within a dating relationship are
best placed to contribute to an audit. These would
include law enforcement agencies, health bodies
(public health agencies, hospitals, family doctors),
social services, and educational facilities whose
counselling and health services would address
these issues. Additionally, consultations with
providers of more-generalised services to families
may be a useful source of information, including
community organisations that serve particular
populations, such as immigrants and visible

Domestic Violence in Kawempe Division (Uganda)67
A variety of research methods was used to collect qualitative
and quantitative data about domestic violence from more ■ What is the scale of repeat victimisation?
than 400 people. 315 community members took part in 32 ■ Do responses address the needs of all
focus groups; 91 questionnaires were completed with groups the community?
■ How could current responses be improved
professionals and local leaders; and 15 interviews were
and what more needs to be done?
conducted with key informants such as health care providers,
teachers, family protection unit police officers and religious Key sources
leaders. The research confirmed the severity of the problem: ■ Police, especially officers with relevant
specialist responsibilities
■ Domestic violence, mainly committed against women ■ Family support services
and children, was seen as a major problem. ■ Family doctors and ‘home visitors’ (nurses,
■ Over half of those surveyed knew more than 10 women social workers, psychologists or paraprofes-
sionals who make pre- and post-natal home
with experience of domestic violence. visits to support parents and infants)
■ The most frequent type of domestic violence reported ■ Hospital emergency departments
was beating. ■ Teachers
■ Domestic violence was seen as damaging family ■ Housing services
relationships, inflicting economic costs on the family and ■ Representatives of faith groups or religious
causing reproductive health problems. communities
■ Criminal Justice agencies, including the
■ Women attributed domestic violence to a lack of respect courts and corrections services
between partners and inequality between husbands and ■ Organisations providing shelters, refuges,
wives; men blamed provocation and the ‘misbehaviour’ of advice and other help to victims and
women and external factors such as poverty and alcohol. witnesses
■ Women’s groups
■ Community groups
Key questions ■ Income Support and Social Assistance
■ How many individuals are believed to experi-
ence intimate partner violence, and how does
this compare with other cities?
8.4 Elder Abuse
■ What form does the violence take (physical, his phrase captures abuse of older people
■
sexual, psychological, economic)?
What proportion of victims are women and
T perpetrated by family members or others
known to them, and occurs in their homes or those
what proportion men? with whom they reside, and in institutional settings.
■ Is the problem more serious in particular Elder abuse may be a single or repeated act, or
geographic areas in the city, in particular lack of appropriate action, occurring within any
ethnic communities? relationship where there is an expectation of trust
■ Is there an appropriate and effective strategy which causes harm or distress to an older
in place to deal with this problem? person.68 Abuse against elders is known to take
■ What factors cause or contribute to the several forms which have been categorised by
violence? the World Health Organisation in its World Report
67
Domestic Violence Prevention Project, Kampala, Uganda (2000). For more information, see
http://www.preventgbvafrica.org/images/publications/reports/dvpoverview.pdf
68
This definition, developed by Action on Elder Abuse in the UK, was adopted by the International Network for the Prevention of Elder
Abuse, and included in the World Health Organisation World report on violence and health, pp 126.
54
on Violence and Health based on work done
particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom and 8.5 Auditing
the United States.69 Elder Abuse
Additionally, in an exploration of abuse against aining an appreciation of the nature and
elders in traditional societies, a range of other
practices were identified. These included the
G extent of abuse against elders is warranted on
several fronts: first and foremost, in respect of
abandonment of widows and seizure of their human rights; second, the believed universality of
property, accusations of witchcraft which result in the issue based on its identification in developed
women being driven from their homes or even countries where it has been the subject of
murdered, and forced care of grandchildren.70 research and government action; and reports and
anecdotal evidence from developing countries.71
For a variety of reasons the various impacts of There is also the demographic reality of a sharp
violence on individuals generally are exacerbated increase in the older segment of the population in
for elders. These include the aging process and both developed and developing countries.
physical and cognitive conditions that may
interfere with sound decision-making and Auditing elder abuse poses challenges similar to
practically restrict the option of exiting the abusive those associated with auditing intimate partner
situation. Their more advanced age may also violence, including the more invisible and private
hinder recovery. nature of the offending behaviour, dependency,
isolation, and consequences of disclosure on the
Some terms defined relationship and on the care of the elder. The level
of advancement of developed countries in
■ Physical abuse
responding to elder abuse and the means
The infliction of pain or injury, physical employed vary considerably. Thus, accurate
coercion, or physical or drug-induced assessments of the nature and extent of the
restraint. problem at a national level vary hugely, and it is
quite likely that there will be no systematic break-
■ Psychological or emotional abuse
down of the information at the level of local
The infliction of mental anguish. government. As many developing nations are just
■ Financial or material abuse becoming aware of the problem, such information
The illegal or improper exploitation or use is expected to be very limited. Additionally, the
manner in which elder abuse in some traditional
of funds or resources of the older person. societies occurs and is entrenched as part of
■ Sexual abuse social customs, and not viewed as abuse, needs
Non-consensual sexual contact of any to be taken into account in assessing the nature
and extent of the problem.
kind with the older person.
■ Neglect
The refusal or failure to fulfil a caregiving
obligation. This may or may not involve
a conscious and intentional attempt to
inflict physical or emotional distress on the
older person.
69
WHO World report on violence and health, pp 127.
70
WHO World report on violence and health, pp 127-28.
71
WHO World report on violence and health, pp 125.

Key questions 8.6 Additional
■ At the national, provincial/state levels, and
local levels of government, what ministry or
Information
department, if any, is mandated to respond to Online
the issues associated with elder abuse? Is
there a non-governmental organisation at the 1 World Health Organisation (2004), Preventing
national, provincial/state, or local level violence: a guide to implementing the recom-
mandated to address elder abuse? mendations of the world report on violence
■ What percentage of the population is and health. WHO: Geneva.
considered ‘senior’? http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/
■ How many individuals are believed to 2004/9241592079.pdf
experience elder abuse within a family or
extended family situation, and within an insti- 2 Coordinated by HEUNI, the International
tutional setting? Violence Against Women Survey is an
■ What form does the violence take (physical, international comparative survey focused on
sexual, psychological, economic)? men’s violence against women, especially
■ What proportion of victims are women and domestic violence and sexual assault. Its
what proportion men? objective is to assess the level of victimisation
■
of women in a number of countries worldwide
Is the problem more serious in particular
on a repeatable basis and provide inputs for
geographic areas of the city or with particular
the development of specific criminal justice
ethnic communities?
approaches.
■ Is there an appropriate and effective strategy See http://www.heuni.fi/12859.htm.
in place to deal with this problem?
3 Hot Peach Pages is an international inventory

Key sources
of hotlines, shelters, refuges, crisis centres
■ Health and social services departments and and women’s organisations, searchable by
non-governmental organisations working in country and with an index of domestic
these sectors violence resources in over 70 languages.
■ Professional bodies (physicians, nurses, See http://hotpeachpages.net.
social workers)
■ Any local agency specifically mandated to
address elder abuse
■ Services, including shelters and counselling,
established to respond to intimate partner
violence
■ Safe houses for distinct populations that serve
elders exclusively or elders as part of a
broader group
■ Local projects that respond to elder abuse
particularly in countries or local communities
where there is no social-health infrastructure
to respond to this issue, but where a more
institutionalised response is available in order
to gain independent insight.
56
9 Offenders And
Their Reintegration
9.1 Introduction
emphasised in numerous international
AS instruments in relation to prevention, youth
justice and corrections, successful reintegration of
offenders is essential to prevent recidivism and to
promote community safety. 72 The term social
integration is often interpreted as the support
extended to offenders who are re-entering the
community after a period of incarceration, and it is
this context that is applied here. It includes
efforts begun while the offenders are in custody,
continuing through the period of immediate transition
into the community, and enduring until successful
reintegration occurs.73
72
UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (1957 and 1977), Rule 64; UN Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners
(1990), Principle 10; UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (1985), Rules 23 and 24; UN Minimum Rules
for Non-Custodial Measures (1990), Rules 1.4,17.2 and 22.1); European Rules on Community Sanctions and Measures, Rule 46; UN
Guidelines on the Prevention of Crime (2002), Guidelines for Cooperation and Technical Assistance in the Field of Urban Crime
Prevention (1995).
73
Griffiths, C.T., Dandurand, Y, and D. Murdoch. The social reintegration of offenders and crime prevention, International Centre for
Criminal Law Reform, April 2007.

The United Nations Guidelines on the Prevention of and financial management; poor physical and
Crime (2002), in setting out the approaches to mental health, including substance abuse
crime prevention, expressly include “those which issues; and personal experience of abuse
prevent recidivism by assisting in the social and violence.
reintegration of offenders and other preventative ■ The period of incarceration may have brought
mechanisms”. 74 Several of these instruments on several ‘collateral effects’76
speak of the development of mechanisms that ■ Offenders returning to their communities typically
enable integrated action between governmental face numerous challenges, including finding
and community-based organisations to establish employment and housing, financing immediate
the necessary linkages between services respon- needs, overcoming institutionalisation, and
sible for offenders, law enforcement, social accessing services and supports for their
development and welfare, health, housing, educa- special needs.
tion, labour and the media.
Increasingly emphasis is being placed on
As noted earlier (see 1.5), agencies involved in designing comprehensive interventions to support
community corrections should be represented on offenders. These programmes are characterised
the Community Safety Steering Group. As well, by a continuum of support that begins while the
given the vital role that non-governmental organi- offender is in custody and aims to address an
sations have played in support of offenders and individual’s specific issues and challenges, and
their reintegration, it is envisioned that the larger then continues through transition to the community
Community Roundtable that provides a forum for and beyond until successful reintegration has
wider participation would include representatives taken place
of organisations supporting offenders and their
families.
9.2 Auditing
For cities committed to a comprehensive prevention
strategy, the audit should address offenders who Reintegration
are reintegrating and include measures to prevent
recidivism for several reasons:
Of Offenders
with any population or issue that is the
■ Most persons who receive custodial
sentences will return to the community with
AS subject of focus in an audit, emphasis
should be placed on the most at risk and vulnerable
only a small percentage of incarcerated groups, and this same principle should be applied
persons remaining so for the remainder of to the population of persons being released from
their lives custody. Focus should be placed on the high and
■ A large proportion of crime is committed by higher risk offenders. Additionally, persons who
persons released from prison who reoffend75 have terminated their custodial sentence and are
■ The profiles of incarcerated persons often believed to be associated with lesser crimes
reveal disadvantage on a number of fronts that have nevertheless been identified as a priority
including the following: a history of marginali- in the audit process may become the subject
sation and exclusion; skill deficits, lower levels of focus.
of educational attainment, and lack of planning
74
Article 6(d) of the United Nations Guidelines on the Prevention of Crime (2002).
75
Brown, R.E. and Y. Dandurand. successful strategies that contribute to safer communities, p.3 and T Makkai. Prisoner reintegration
post-release. Paper and presentation prepared for the 16th UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice.
76
Borzycki M. and T. Makkai. Prisoner re-integration post-release. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, March 2007:10.
58
A safety audit should be used to identify the rela- Key sources
tionship between the high and highest risk ■ Previous research reports
offenders and specific crimes and vulnerable ■ The national agency responsible for corrections
populations in a given city. It should also be used and the counterpart at the local level
to explore – from a preventive perspective – the
■ Parole and probation agencies, as well as
adequacy of support networks to assist youth and
other state and non-governmental agencies,
adult offenders in their reintegration and to identify
equipped to provide after-care and follow-up
which offender groups are experiencing the most
with offenders following release
difficulty and for what reasons.
■ Law enforcement agencies
■ Health agencies, in particular those providing
Key questions mental health and substance abuse related
■ Is there a mechanism in place to inform local
services, and outpatient treatment services for
authorities when high and higher risk
particular populations such as sexual
offenders are released into a specific
offenders
community to serve the remainder of their
■ Non-governmental organisations and groups,
sentence or when this has expired?
including faith and ethnicity-based groups
■ If there is such a mechanism, what preventive
supporting offenders and their families
plan is in place with respect to the offenders
■ State and non-governmental agencies
designated to be high or higher risk
dealing with housing, employment and
offenders, and is it considered adequate?
education for special needs populations
■ What are the approximate numbers of youthful
and adult offenders returning to this commu-
nity from a sentence of custody?
■ What proportion of youth and adult offenders
returning to the community would be consid-
ered to pose high risk in terms of committing
a violent offence or other serious crime?
■ What number of youth and adult offenders
returning to the community are believed to be
perpetrating offences that are considered
particularly problematic in your community?

10 Trafficking In Persons
10.1 Introduction
rafficking in human beings is a contemporary Trafficking in Persons
T form of slavery often controlled by organised
crime syndicates. It is known to occur in all countries
“the recruitment, transpor tation, transfer,
harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of
of the world in different forms and at different
levels, but it is a complex issue and until 2000 the threat or use of force or other forms of
there was no internationally adopted definition. coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception,
The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish of the abuse of power or of a position of
Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of
Children Supplementing the United Nations
Convention Against Transnational Organised Crime,
payments or benefits to achieve the consent
provided the first universally adopted definition. The of a person having control over another
Protocol was signed in 2000, entered into force person, for the purpose of exploitation.
in December 2003 and has been ratified by over Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the
100 countries.77
exploitation of the prostitution of others or
other forms of sexual exploitation, forced
labour or services, slavery or practices
similar to slavery, servitude or the removal
of organs”.
UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and
Punish Trafficking in Persons (2000)
77
UNODC: Protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons. Vienna, 2000.
http://www.unodc.org/unodc/crime_cicp_convention.html
Trafficking should not be confused with smuggling, which is the facilitation of the illegal crossing of a State border for financial or other gain.
For an internationally agreed definition, see Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air. UNODC, Vienna, 2000.
http://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/a_res_55/res5525e.pdf
60
Trafficked persons may inter alia be forced into:
10.2 Auditing
■
■
begging Trafficking
sex (such as prostitution or forced marriage)
udit teams may feel that this is not a problem
■ labour (such as mining, servitude or working
in sweatshops) A that affects their city. However, the covert
nature of trafficking, the powerlessness of the
■ sport (such as camel jockeys)
■
victims and their possible illegal status in a foreign
armed conflict (for example as child soldiers)
country mean that it is often invisible to city agencies
■ organ removal (for sale or transplant).
and the general population. It would be dangerous
and often wrong to assume that it does not exist.
They usually originate in less-developed poorer
According to a 2006 US Government report,
regions of the world and from the most vulnerable
600-800,000 people are trafficked across
sections in society, such as runaways, refugees or
international borders worldwide annually, and a
displaced persons, especially in post-conflict and
high proportion of countries are implicated as
post-natural disaster situations. They may suffer
source, transit or destination states, although
from pre-existing addictions or mental illness,
levels of involvement vary greatly.78 Many more are
placing them at higher risk of exploitation.
thought to be trafficked within national borders.
However, they may come from any social back-
According to the International Labour Organisation,
ground, class or race.
forced labour, including sexual exploitation,
generates US$31bn annually (half of it in the
Women and children form the majority of trafficked
industrialised world).79 Without deliberate enquiry it
victims for the purposes of sexual exploitation.
may be impossible to establish the extent to which
UNICEF has reported that as many as 1.2 million
any individual city is implicated.
children are being trafficked every year into
the global sex trade, forced labour or for
There is a significant role for communities and
other purposes. Men are at risk of being trafficked
services to play at municipal level. That includes
for unskilled work, predominantly involving hard
assessing the nature and scale of the problem,
labour. Escape is difficult and dangerous. Victims
promoting awareness, assessing risks (especially
may be unable to speak the local language
to vulnerable people), playing a part in discouraging
and their families at home may be threatened.
the demand that fosters exploitation that leads to
They may lack official papers and fear law
trafficking and providing victim support. Such
enforcement agencies.
action will be much more effectively delivered if it
is based on good information gathered and
Trafficking in human beings is a serious crime and
analysed through the audit process. Work at
a fundamental violation of the human rights of its
municipal level should be informed by agencies
victims. It contravenes international conventions,
dealing with trafficking at the national level, whose
including the Protocol referred to above, as well as
activities will draw on international intelligence.
prohibitions that exist in international law. Given the
horrendous long-term physical, mental and
emotional consequences of trafficking, its detection
and elimination should a priority wherever it occurs.
78
Department of State (US), Trafficking in persons report. Department of State, 2006.
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/66086.pdf
79
International Labour Office. A global alliance against forced labour. Geneva: ILO, 2005.
http://www.ilo.org/dyn/declaris/DECLARATIONWEB.GLOBALREPORTSLIST?var_language=EN

Trafficking reporting rates are very low for several nature and scale of trafficking (sexual
reasons. Victims may be reluctant to disclose exploitation, forced labour, organ removal)?
because of inter alia fear for their safety and that of If there is no information, can inferences be
their families; and experiences in their country of drawn from the national picture?
origin that leads them to mistrust authorities. They ■ How many local cases of actual or suspected
are also likely to find it difficult as a consequence of human trafficking have there been in
their isolation and language barriers. As such, recent years?
police statistics may be of limited value in ■ What is the profile of known victims (gender,
assessing the scale of this problem. Nevertheless, age, ethnicity, origin) and what, if anything,
police and other law enforcement agencies (eg caused them to leave ‘home’?
border control, customs, immigration) should be
■ Have law enforcement agencies and service
consulted as they may have intelligence, percep-
providers, including healthcare workers,
tions and other relevant information not included in
received training in identifying and supporting
official statistics. Additionally, it may be useful to
trafficked victims? Have local healthcare
‘revisit’ other police records, such as those related
personnel received training in identifying
to prostitution, domestic violence, abuse of chil-
persons trafficked for organ removal?
dren, commercial sexual exploitation, forcible
■ How is the problem being addressed and
confinement and extortion. These may relate to
suspected trafficking cases that have been dealt what organisations are able to offer support to
with by other charges. victims? Are trafficked persons empowered
(eg by providing assistance, protection, legal
Beyond law enforcement statistics and informa- status) to become witnesses?
tion, there will need to be much greater reliance on ■ Are responses, especially services for victims,
qualitative data and informed opinion than in most appropriate, accessible and effective?
other areas of enquiry, drawing on the state and ■ Who are the traffickers (gender, age,
civil society organisations (in destinations) that ethnicity, origin, crime links) and who
have the most contact with victims. They will controls the trafficked persons at their
include organisations that provide support to sex destination?
workers, refugees and asylum seekers, as well as ■ Where are trafficked persons being held
those that have strong links with particular national, (eg private homes, apartments, hotels)?
ethnic or cultural groups. Other public services, ■ How are trafficked persons escaping and
especially those dealing with child welfare, health where are they showing up? How are
and women’s issues may also have experience in trafficked persons being identified and
dealing with individual cases or knowledge gained by whom?
through their contacts with local people.
■ In destinations, what is the profile of
foreign prostitutes working in the city and
Key questions who are their clients?
■ What is known about the nature and scale of ■ What are the priorities for further action?
trafficking at the national level? Is it an origin,
destination and/or transit state? Key sources
■ Is trafficking in human beings specifically ■ Previous research reports (academic,
addressed/defined in the national law and, if government, NGOs)
so, how? ■ Newspapers
■ What is known about movement patterns for ■ Police and other law enforcement agencies
trafficked persons in the country (eg place of (border control, customs and immigration)
entry for foreign persons, destinations for ■ Justice agencies (prosecutions, corrections,
foreign and domestic victims) and how are courts)
they transported?
■ Health agencies, especially those providing
■ At the city level, what is known about the services to sex workers and hospital
method of ‘recruitment’ of victims and the emergency departments
62
■ Victim services and victim/witness assistance 4 HumanTrafficking.org is a web-based project
programmes (such as women’s shelters/refuges to bring Government and NGOs in the East
and sexual assault crisis centres) Asia and Pacific together to cooperate and
■ Family welfare and child protection services learn from each other’s experiences to
■ Women’s advocacy groups combat human trafficking. The web site has
country-specific information such as national
■ Labour inspectorates
laws and action plans and contact information
■ Organisations supporting legal and illegal for useful agencies. It also has a description
immigrants, asylum seekers or sex workers of NGO activities in different countries and
■ Community groups representing national, their contact details.
ethnic or cultural groups See http://www.humantrafficking.org.
■ Faith-based community organisations
■ Community humanitarian organisations and 5 The Coalition Against Trafficking in Women is a
international humanitarian organisations with a non-governmental organisation founded in
local presence 1988. It sets up and supports anti-trafficking
projects that address the links between
prostitution and trafficking; challenge the
10.3 Additional demand for prostitution; and protects the
Information women and children who are its victims. Its
website contains a range of reports and
Online resources for combating sexual exploitation.
http://www.catwinternational.org/index.php
1 In 2006 UNODC published Trafficking in
Persons: Global Patterns. This draws together 6 Anti-Slavery International, founded in 1839,
information from a range of sources to works at local, national and international levels
highlight trends concerning countries of to eliminate of slavery around the world. Its
origin, transit and destination. web site has an extensive section on
http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/ trafficking, including references to many
trafficking_human_beings.html reports and other resources.
http://www.antislavery.org
2 UNODC also published a toolkit in 2006 entitled
A Toolkit to Combat Trafficking in Persons. 7 The UK Home Office has developed a Toolkit
http://www.unodc.org/pdf/ specifically for local partnerships on Trafficking
Trafficking_toolkit_Oct06.pdf in People.
http://www.crimereduction.gov.uk/toolkits/
3 The UNICRI Action Programme Against index.htm
Trafficking in Minors for Sexual Purposes (due
to end in August 2006) has a website that
details organisations throughout the world
that are fighting sexual exploitation of minors.
It also reports on pilot programmes in Costa
Rica, Thailand and Ukraine.
http://www.unicri.it/wwd/trafficking/minors/
index.php

11 Alcohol, Illicit Drugs
And Substance Abuse
11.1 Introduction
he problems associated with alcohol, illicit Harmful Alcohol Consumption By
T drugs and substance abuse are so wide-
spread, and their consequences so destructive for
Perpetrators of Violence81
In the USA, among victims that were able to
individuals, families, communities and nations, that
their investigation should be part of every safety report whether their attacker had been using
audit. Although they may appear to be global alcohol, 35% believed the offender had been
problems requiring international action, it is also drinking.
necessary to assess the problems and develop
responses at a more local level. The following In England and Wales, 50% of victims of inter-
sections highlight important lines of enquiry to be personal violence reported the perpetrator to
explored in a city-wide safety audit. be under the influence of alcohol at the time
The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates
of assault.
that there are about 76 million people with In Russia, around three-quarters of individuals
diagnosable alcohol use disorders. 80 Alcohol
abuse is problematic drinking that leads to poor
arrested for homicide had consumed alcohol
health, social problems or both, and it is strongly shortly before the incident.
linked to partner and child abuse. It impacts
on a child’s environment in many other social,
In South Africa, 44% of victims of interpersonal
psychological and economic ways, increasing the violence believed their attacker to have been
risk of him/her coming into conflict with the law. under the influence of alcohol.
Consumption during pregnancy can result in foetal
alcohol syndrome. In Tianjin, China, a study of inmates found
that 50% of assault offenders had been
drinking alcohol prior to the incident.
80
WHO. Global status report on alcohol 2004. Geneva: WHO, 2004.
http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf
81
WHO. Interpersonal violence and alcohol. Policy Briefing. Who: Geneva, 2006.
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/orld_report/factsheets/pb_violencealcohol.pdf
64
Within communities, the consequences include Although less widespread and less well-reported,
family violence (domestic, child, elder), interper- volatile inhalants are also widely abused, especially
sonal violence in public places, traffic accidents, by disadvantaged youth. They too have damaging
public disorder and workplace-related problems. effects on health and behaviour, and should be
Across countries for which information is available, examined alongside the other problems.
it is estimated to be responsible for 26% of male
and 16% of female ‘disability-adjusted life years’
lost through homicide. Being maltreated as a child 11.2 An Integrated
is associated with a marked increase in the risk of
hazardous or harmful drinking in later life.82
Multi-Agency
Strategy
Illicit drugs include those produced or processed
ction to tackle illegal drugs and substance
from plants (such as opium, morphine and heroin);
those synthetically produced (such as ampheta-
mine); and psychoactive pharmaceutical drugs
A misuse will be most effective when it is developed
within a comprehensive strategy that aims to cut
that become illicit as a result of being diverted from supply, prevent young people becoming misusers
licit applications. Their possession is by definition a and reduce user demand. Such action needs the
crime, but perhaps more significantly, their use active participation and collaboration of multiple
damages personal health and is linked to other agencies and organisations, including those
problematic behaviour. Serious misuse can responsible for enforcement, education and
precipitate violence, abuse or neglect that affects treatment. Establishing whether such a strategy
partners and children, who grow up at greater risk exists and whether it is working effectively should
of getting into trouble in later life. Use of illegal be the first task of the audit team.
substances can impair ability to work, increase the
likelihood of accidents and lead to offending to Key questions
raise money for drugs. It may result in or ■ Does the city have a substance abuse
strengthen contacts with others with criminal prevention strategy?
lifestyles, leading to greater involvement in crime.
■ Does the strategy cover supply, demand and
treatment?
Recent estimates suggest that 200 million people,
■ Are all relevant agencies active participants?
or 5 per cent of the world’s population aged 15-64,
consumed illicit drugs during 2005. 83 The most ■ Do agencies work well together and
dangerous, heroin and cocaine, are reportedly share information?
abused by 8 and 13 million people respectively. ■ Is the strategy well implemented, effective
Both cause untold suffering and heroin is and adequate?
consistently ranked first in reports on abuse- ■ What are the priorities for further action at
related mortality and hospital emergencies. Their city and state/national levels?
production and trade are detrimental to national
economies and, therefore, to the social and political Key sources
well-being of nations. The enormous profits made ■ Strategy documents and related reports
by drug trafficking organisations allow them to ■ Representatives of justice agencies
destabilise economies and institutions. There are
■ Representatives of health and education services
well established links between trafficking and
illegal arms sales.84
82
For more information, see WHO. Fact sheets on interpersonal violence and alcohol. WHO: Geneva, 2006.
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/factsheets/en/index.html
83
UNODC. 2006 World drugs report. Vienna: UNODC, 2006. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/world_drug_report.html
84
UN General Assembly. Special session on the World Drug problem, New York 8-10 June 1998, Fact Sheet 6.
http://www.un.org/ga/20special/presskit/themes/altdev-6.htm

11.3 Helping Children Key questions
■ Does the city have a strategy for preventing
And Youth Make children and young people using illicit drugs
The Right Decisions and engaging in alcohol abuse?
■ Does the strategy incorporate education,
he best outcome of any strategy is that it stops skills development and diversion?
T today’s children from becoming tomorrow’s
drug users. This is most likely to be achieved with
■ Do all schools have an appropriate drugs
policy and are they committed to delivery of
a programme that includes education, skills drugs education?
development and diversion, and much has ■ Does the strategy target vulnerable neigh-
been learned in recent years about the methods bourhoods and children considered at
and tools that work well. higher risk?
■ Is the significant role of families recognised
Although there will be variation between countries
in the strategy?
and cultures, research suggests that simply
preaching ‘drugs are harmful and must be
avoided’ is not the most effective approach. and adequate?
Young people and their families need credible,
realistic information to make informed choices and
protect themselves from the risks and dangers of Key sources
drug misuse.
■ Strategy documents and related reports
While education in the classroom is important, the ■ Representatives of health and education
influence of families, peers, other young people services
and role models is also considerable. This wider ■ Organisations specialising in substance
circle therefore, especially families, needs to have misuse
appropriate information and access to further help, ■ Organisations providing diversionary activity
if required. The right decision can be encouraged
programmes
by providing constructive and enjoyable alternative
activities, and by giving children the skills to resist
temptation and peer pressure. 11.4 Alcohol Abuse
It is also clear that misuse is linked to other problems esponses to alcohol abuse problems should
such as youth offending, truancy, family problems,
living in disadvantaged communities and the
R include support for families as well as abusers.
They will need to address the wider problems likely to
availability of drugs. So prevention programmes have contributed to the abuse itself as well as its
will work best when targeted at the most vulnerable consequences. Particular attention should be
individuals and communities and delivered along- given to abuse by children and youth. Gaining
side programmes that address a wider agenda. understanding of such issues will require collation
Particularly important is recognition that tackling of quantitative and qualitative information.86
child maltreatment will reduce the risk of subsequent
alcohol and illicit drug misuse.85 Health agencies and service providers will be a
key source. Hospital emergency departments and
family doctors (general practitioners) will have
85
For more information on the links between child maltreatment and alcohol/drug abuse, see the website of the Adverse Childhood
Experiences Study. http://www.acestudy.org
86
For comparative data on alcohol consumption by young people in more than 30 countries, see reports of the WHO. Collaborative
cross-national study of health behaviour in school-aged children. http://www.hbsc.org
66
knowledge about the extent to which patient prob- Children and Youth
lems are linked to alcohol abuse. Health agencies, ■ How serious is the problem of under-age
as well as civil society organisations, should also drinking?

know about dependence, treatment services and ■ What is the pattern of alcohol use among
other current responses. Police and town centre young people and how serious is ‘binge’
managers can advise on violence, ‘street drinkers’, drinking?
illicit sources of alcohol, alcohol sales to under-age ■ How do they get their supplies of alcohol?
young people and alcohol-related disorder in
■ Are effective and sufficient education
public spaces. Young people, including those with
programmes being delivered?
problems, should be consulted about their under-
■ Is there specialist support for young people
standing of the issues, problems and responses.
with problems?
■ Are responses effective and adequate?
Key questions
General
Key sources
■ How serious is the problem of alcohol abuse –
how many are affected?
■ Hospital emergency departments
■ Where, when and how is alcohol abused?
■ Community health service representatives,
■ Are certain demographic groups and neigh-
including family doctors
bourhoods more affected?
■ Civil society organisations providing support
■ What are the effects of the abuse (health,
services
violence, other)?
■ Children and youth
■ How effective and accessible are treatment
■ Police and magistrates
and support services?
■ Town centre managers
Hospital Inputs To Safety Audits, Cardiff (UK)

Based in the School of Medicine at Cardiff University, the ‘Violence Research Group’ (VRG) brings together clinical
academics with scientists from the University’s psychology and business schools to research causes of violence,
improve violence prevention and evaluate interventions. It specifically focuses on alcohol and drug-related issues
and has played a major role in promoting closer cooperation between prevention practitioners and health services.
Researchers found that 85% of the 3,500 victims of violent crime treated each year at the University Hospital of
Wales had injuries of the teeth, mouth, jaws and face, reflecting the anatomical target for blows in assault around
the world. A substantial proportion of injuries requiring treatment – a majority of some offence types – did not
appear in police records.
Information about the day/time and location of violence, weapon use and assailants was analysed, and shared.
Health officials and consultants made inputs to Crime Reduction Partnership meetings and city licensing committees,
resulting in greater understanding of problems and more effective interventions. The number of violent incidents
in licensed premises and on the street dropped and there have been fewer injuries caused by bar glasses and
bottles. The number of patients with injuries caused by violence dropped 30% over three years.
Further examples and advice can be found on the VRG website.
Cardiff University Violence And Society Research Group87
87
http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/dentistry/research/phacr/violence

11.5 Use Of Illicit Key questions
■ How prevalent is the use of illicit drugs?
Drugs ■ What is the demographic profile of users?
■ Which drugs are being used and how
udit teams need to gather information on
A users, addicts, demand for treatment and
the availability of services. Yet hard data about ■
common is polydrug use?
How serious is problematic use and what is
substance misuse is difficult to obtain, since very its community impact?
few incidents are officially reported or recorded. ■ In which areas/neighbourhoods are problems
Health agencies will be important contributors. most serious?
Voluntary organisations dedicated to drugs issues ■ What educational and information programmes
and user consultations will provide valuable are being delivered?
community-based perspectives. Self-report surveys
■ What treatment services are available?
of young people and adults can generate quanti-
■ What other programmes are working to
tative data on usage, but have not been found
effective in assessing problematic use. Justice reduce demand?
■ What programmes exist to support affected
agencies will have some knowledge of the associ-
ation between drug use and offending. families?
■ Is the capacity of programmes and treatment
Alcohol and Violence Against Women services sufficient?
■ Are responses informed by effective practice
‘the strongest risk factors for intimate partner physical violence
research?
are associated with the male’s behaviour – his drinking habits, ■ What are the priorities for further action?
general levels of aggression and his controlling behaviour’
Women’s Experiences of Male Violence (2002)88
Key sources
■ Health service providers
Links Between Addiction And Robbery Rates (Australia) ■ Civil society organisations working on drugs
Research shows that a steep rise in robbery between 1993 issues
and 2000 in New South Wales was due, more than anything ■ User consultations
else, to the upward trend in heroin addiction. Every 10% increase ■ Self-report surveys of young people and
in the number of heroin dependent people appears to have led adults
■ Justice agencies
to a 6.4% rise in robbery. A shortage of heroin particularly in
Sydney from 2001 led to a sharp fall in the robbery rate in
New South Wales.
New South Wales Bureau Of Crime
Statistics and Research (2003)89
88
Mouzos J and Makkai T. Women’s experiences of male violence, Research and Public Policy Series 56. Canberra: Australian
Institute of Criminology, 2004. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/rpp/56/RPP56.pdf
89
Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research, New South Wales (Australia). The Impact of heroin dependence on long term robbery
trends. 2003. Summary available at: http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lawlink/bocsar/ll_bocsar.nsf/pages/bocsar_media101203
68
Methamphetamine Laboratories (New Zealand)
11.6 Illicit Drug The illegal manufacture and marketing of
Production And methamphetamine is big business in New
Trafficking Zealand, where it is known as ‘P’. Some is
imported from China but most is manufactured
educing the supply of illicit drugs is an essential
R component of the fight against abuse. The
nature of the supply system will vary greatly,
in clandestine domestic laboratories, putting
communities at risk from toxic fumes.
ranging from local networks distributing sub - Gangs once sworn enemies now work together
stances produced in domestic laboratories to
international chains controlled by organised crime
because of the profits to be made. Although
syndicates operating on a global scale. Inter - predominantly associated with motorcycle
national ‘trade’ will inevitably require higher-level gangs, such as the Head Hunters, ethnic
interventions by security agencies, but local part- gangs, including the Mongrel Mob, have
ners can play a role in disrupting the activities of
moved into the market.
‘producers’ as well as ‘street level’ dealers and
‘middle market’ distributors. New Zealand Police have issued guidance to
help citizens identify laboratories in residential
Police and justice agencies are likely to be the
main holders of intelligence about drugs supply, neighbourhoods. It identifies the following
although only limited information is likely to be signs to look out for:
made available to the audit team. Consultations ■ Strange smells
with civil society organisations working with
offenders may elicit insights to local markets. ■ Fumes/vapour escaping from windows/
Previous research reports may be available. ventilators
■ Unusual activity and at unusual times
Key questions ■ Premises being used for purposes other than
■ Which drugs are being trafficked in the city?
normal (eg garage not housing vehicles)
■ What is the estimated scale of the business?
■ Where, how and by whom are drugs sold and
■ Windows covered/sealed day and night
distributed? ■ Person acting as if under the influence
■ Where do the trafficked drugs come from? of drugs
■ How are they brought into the city? ■ Unusual erratic behaviour
■ What and how much is ‘locally produced’?
■ What links exist with organised crime gangs? New Zealand Police Safety Tips90
■ What is being done to reduce supply?
■ How effective is such action?
■ What are the priorities for further intervention?
Key sources
■ Police and justice agencies
■ Civil society organisations working with
offenders
90
http://www.police.govt.nz/safety/meth.html

12 Businesses
And Crime
12.1 Introduction
usinesses are involved in crime and its prevention The Costs of Crime Against Business
B in several ways. They may be victims; they can
facilitate or perpetrate crime; and they can play an
(England and Wales)
The Home Office estimates that 44% of the
active support role in deterring offending and the
delivery of wider preventive programmes. Each of total cost of crime (£60 billion) is suffered by
these deserves attention in the safety audit and is business and other organisations and that the
considered briefly below. annual cost of fraud is £14 billion.
12.2 Businesses The Economic and Social

As Victims Costs of Crime (2000)91
usinesses are the victims of a wide range of

B criminal offences. These include property
crimes, such as burglary, robbery, theft, fraud, forgery
Research in some countries indicates that business
victimisation can be severe. Commercial victimisation
surveys in Australia and the UK, for example, have
and vandalism, as well as violence against staff and shown that burglary rates can be higher than for
customers through robbery, assault or harassment. private households. Problems are extremely
They may also be the target of crimes of intolerance, unevenly spread with a small proportion of enter-
extortion and corruption. prises and premises accounting for a high
proportion of incidents. The pattern of repeat
victimisation is stronger in some sectors than for
personal crime.
91
Home Office (UK). The economic and social costs of crime. Home Office Research Study 217, London: Home Office, 2000.
www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs/hors217.pdf
70
Whilst business crime is perpetrated at an interna-
tional scale by organised syndicates, much 12.3 Businesses
offending is locally based. In some countries and
sectors, such as retailing, there is evidence that
As Facilitators
‘internal’ losses – that is crime committed by staff – Or Perpetrators
is as significant as ‘external’ losses – crime
committed by customers and others. of Crime
hrough poor management or inappropriate
Although there may be a view that businesses
should be expected to sort out their own prob- T practices businesses may – knowingly or
unwittingly – facilitate offending. In entertainment
lems, there are several reasons why audit teams
should examine this issue. zones, for example, alcohol-related disorder,
drug trafficking or sexual exploitation of children
may occur on licensed premises. Irresponsible
■ Businesses are part of the community and
sales of firearms or knives can increase the risk
crimes against businesses do not just affect
of violence. Poor security in car parks at shopping
commercial concerns. Workplace violence
malls can increase the vulnerability of visitors
directly affects staff and their families.
to robbery or vehicle crime.
Financial losses have an impact on jobs and
the costs are passed on to customers.
■ Criminals are known to change their targets Stolen Goods Markets (Australia)
and may commit offences against both
Researchers in the Australian Capital Territory
commercial and personal victims, so it makes
sense to look at them together. interviewed 46 offenders and 15 second hand
■ Victimisation has the greatest impact on dealers as part of an investigation into what
poorer businesses, not only because of happens to stolen goods after they have been
higher victimisation but because they have no stolen. Selling it to businesses was found to be
insurance and few resources to reduce risks.
one of the most common disposal methods.
Businesses can play a significant role in commu-
A variety of legitimate businesses, including
nity crime prevention, which they are more likely
to do if they feel that their problems are also on “corner stores” as well as shops in the centre
the agenda. of Canberra, accepted stolen proper ty and
offenders were repor tedly familiar with a
network of outlets that could be used.
While this pointed to ‘legitimate’ businesses

fronting illegal activities, it may be employed
individuals who sell items for personal gain,
rather than the businesses themselves being
used to dispose of stolen property.
The Stolen Property Market in ACT (2002)92
92
Nelson D, Collins L and Gant N (2002). The stolen property market in the Australian Capital Territory. A report prepared by the
Australian Institute of Criminology for the ACT Department of Justice and Community Safety, October 2002.
http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/reports/act_stolen_property.pdf

Private sector enterprises may also be used for the Businesses as Partners in Crime Prevention
perpetration of crime by their owners or staff. (South Africa)
Offences range from relatively straightforward
customer fraud at a local level to complex interna-
“The business sector could make a valuable
tional financial transactions that aim to circumvent contribution in suppor ting Government
national law. Apparently legitimate businesses may in combating crime and the causes of
be used for the sale of stolen property or to crime by the transfer of knowledge and the
‘launder’ the proceeds of crime. They may conceal
development of skills and capacity through a
or promote illegal gambling and prostitution, while
details collected from customers, such as credit public- private partnership.”
card information, is used to commit fraud or theft.
President Nelson Mandela (1996)93
12.4 Businesses
Deterring Crime 12.5 Auditing Business
And Supporting Involvement In
Prevention Crime And
Prevention
onversely, good management and responsible
C practices can make a significant contribution
to the preventive effort. By taking appropriate P olice recorded crime data will include some
statistics relating to business victimisation. It
action to protect staff and customers, as well as will be important to analyse these but they are likely
by securing their premises and goods, busi- to seriously understate the true scale of the
nesses can reduce victimisation directly linked to problem. For various reasons businesses often
their own activities. do not report their problems and sometimes police
statistics do not distinguish offences against
They can also play a role in crime prevention that is businesses from other crimes.
less obviously related to their commercial interests.
This might involve supporting a local partnership, A victimisation survey of commercial enterprises
particular communities or individual initiatives. can generate valuable data, although it may
Contributions may be in the form of funding, staff be difficult to get a high response rate. Less
time, technical advice, access to facilities or other specific information may be obtained from
assistance. Their motives may be charitable, but representative bodies, such as Retail Associations
there may also be a business benefit in the form of or Chambers of Commerce. Other sources to
good public relations, protection of a customer explore include insurance companies and the
base or marketing opportunities. private security industry.
93
Quoted in South Africa – The Good News (online newsletter), 3 February 2006. www.sagoodnews.za
72
Statistical information about the role of the private
sector as crime enablers, deterrents or perpetrators Key questions
■ What are the main forms of business
is likely to be much more difficult to obtain, so there
will need to be greater reliance on qualitative infor- victimisation and in which parts of the city
mation. Justice agency representatives, is it most problematic?
especially the police, as well as community organ- ■ To what extent do businesses – through
isations and town centre managers should be management and responsible practices –
consulted to obtain their perceptions of the situation. deter or facilitate crime by others?
Businesses themselves and their representative ■ What is known about businesses as perpetrators
bodies, such as chambers of commerce or trade, of crime?
should also be invited to contribute. ■ What prevention initiatives are in operation
and are they effective?
Caution is needed in interpreting information ■ What role do businesses play in crime
collected. Small businesses or those in the
prevention at city level?
informal economy may be the most vulnerable and
■ How prevalent is violence against staff
victimised but the least able to provide ‘hard’ data.94
and how does it happen?
They can be more difficult to survey and have less
■ How much does crime cost business?
influence than larger enterprises in setting the
agenda. More generally, potential sources may be ■ Who is committing the crime (staff, gangs,
reluctant to reveal details of victimisation and youth)?
losses because it is commercially sensitive. ■ How does business crime impact on the
wider population and economy?
■ How is business responding and how
could responses be improved?
Key sources
■ Police and other justice agencies (correc-
tions, courts)
■ Organisations representing the private sector,
including chambers of commerce or trade
■ Community organisations
■ Proprietors and staff of individual businesses
■ Insurers
■ Providers of security services
■ Town centre managers
■ Managers of shopping centres, industrial
parks or other commercial areas
■ Private landlords
94
Mayhew P and Taylor N. Financial and psychological costs of crime for small retail businesses, Trends and Issues in Crime and
Justice 229. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2002. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/ti229.pdf

13 High Crime
Neighbourhoods
13.1 Introduction
rime, disorder and insecurity are never evenly Living with a persistently high crime rate, therefore,
C distributed. Every city has commercial and
residential areas which experience higher levels of
does not just seriously damage the health,
prosperity and general quality of life of individual
offending and victimisation, while others remain citizens, serious though that is. It affects the
relatively safe. Problems can be highly concen- current and future well being of communities as
trated spatially with as much as 50% of recorded a whole. Because of the complexity and severity
crime occurring in 10% of the area and the most of problems, such neighbourhoods tend to
problematic neighbourhoods possibly having be resistant to change and enduring. For this
crime rates four or more times higher than the reason, and recognising that the populations of
city average. such neighbourhoods are likely to be poor and
have limited resources, they deserve special
Typically, these neighbourhoods are characterised attention in the development of a city’s crime
by high levels of property crime and violence, drug prevention strategy.
dealing and disorder, repeat victimisation (see 15.2)
and fear of crime. But they are also likely to be In these areas crime prevention should be part of a
amongst the most disadvantaged in other comprehensive and coordinated strategy that
respects, suffering a range of social, economic addresses the spectrum of problems that exists.
and environmental problems. Often a vicious circle These may include poverty, school failure, family
exists in which neighbourhood deprivation breakdown, unemployment, poor housing, poor
fuels insecurity and insecurity stands in the way of services, dereliction, lack of leisure facilities and
urban regeneration. a struggling commercial sector. Experience
suggests that addressing any one area in isolation
is unlikely to achieve sustainable improvement.
74
13.2 Auditing High Crime The New Deal For Communities
Programme (England)95
Neighbourhoods Announced in 1998, the NDC Programme is a
mplementation Stage 1 of a safety audit should key component of the UK government’s
I be used to identify those neighbourhoods National Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal.
that are experiencing high rates of crime and Focused on 39 of the most deprived neigh-
establish whether an effective strategy is being bourhoods (averaging 10,000 population), it
implemented there (see 4.2). If this points to a
need for further analysis, attention should be
aims to reduce multiple deprivation and close
focused on those specific neighbourhoods during the gap between those areas and the rest of
Implementation Stage 2. As indicated above, the country. The overall Programme budget is
however, it is not only unwise but probably impossible around £2 billion over 10 years.
in high crime neighbourhoods to consider issues
relating to safety and security in isolation. Problems In each neighbourhood, a NDC par tnership
are intertwined and need to be brings together the community, local agencies
examined and addressed together. Only with
and service providers to develop and implement
concerted action can real progress be made.
a programme to improve health and education;
During Implementation Stage 2, engaging reduce unemployment; raise the standard of
effectively with the community will be vital. housing and the physical environment; and
Consideration should be given to establishing a
cut crime.
neighbourhood-based group or committee to
manage or oversee the exercise. It might best be The first practical task involved research and
led by a respected community organisation
consultation to inform development of
concerned with the general well being of the
neighbourhood. However, the group should also delivery plans. This was a ‘disciplined, step by
include representatives of significant interests, step approach’: and typically lasted about nine
such as ethno-cultural minorities, women, children months. A vital element of this was collection
and faith groups. The potential membership of baseline data about the neighbourhood to
should also cover agencies (such as social
services), institutions (such as schools), service
identify key problems and potential solutions,
providers (such as social care or transport) and along with resources to deliver these improve-
private sector interests (such as retailers). ments/outcomes.
A community visioning exercise can set the

agenda for more focused research (see 17.3).
Visioning gives residents the opportunity to say people and businesses) will give them each a
how they would like their neighbourhood to be and voice (see 16.2). Issues of particular concern to
that helps establish what things need to change. women should be explored through a specific
Differences between the aspirations of different women’s safety audit. ‘Walkabouts’ can be used
groups can be identified and consideration given to identify and examine locations where people
to how these might be reconciled. feel most fearful (see 17.3). Outreach work may
be necessary to engage with ‘hard-to-reach’
The visioning results can be used to inform more groups, whose perspectives may not be well
systematic enquiries. Surveys or consultations with represented through other channels. If useful
different interest groups (eg adult residents, young statistics are available, agency data should be
collated to add to the profile of crime and risk
95
http://www.neighbourhood.gov.uk/page.asp?id=617

factors. Agency representatives responsible for
services to the particular neighbourhood should Key questions
■ Which neighbourhoods have the most
also be included in the consultative process.
serious crime problems?
Such contacts should not be used simply to ■ Does each have a comprehensive coordi-
examine problems or concerns. They provide an nated strategy?
important opportunity to highlight what is good ■ Are strategies well implemented, effective
about the neighbourhood, which services are and adequate?
working well, what its assets are and what local
people want to see happen. Equally important is In each high crime neighbourhood needing
the need to counter any ‘labelling’ or stigmatisation further analysis
of a neighbourhood that could be reinforced by an ■ What are the community’s greatest concerns?
audit that focused only on the negatives. As far as ■ How do the problems impact on different
is possible, it should be used to give residents groups (women, youth and minorities)?
confidence that issues will be addressed, as well ■ Are there locations where people feel
as a sense of involvement and ownership of the
particularly unsafe?
way forward.
■ How can the level of crime and insecurity
Figure 3 be explained?
■ What other non-crime problems affect the
Community Engagement In Neighbourhood
neighbourhood?
Safety Audits In Saskatoon, Canada ■ What is the community’s vision for the future?
■ How well are agencies delivering basic public
services (policing, family support, health)?
■ Do agencies exchange information and
work effectively in partnership?
■ What is being done specifically to tackle
the problems?
■ Are appropriate interventions directed at
vulnerable individuals and families?
■ Which services and interventions are
working well and which are not?
■ What are the assets and strengths on
which to build?
■ What are the communities’ priorities for
further action?
Key sources
■ Community-based organisations
■ Young people
■ Women’s interest groups
■ Service providers
■ Police
■ Businesses
76
PART C:
SOURCES,
TECHNIQUES
AND TOOLS
14 Safety Audit Information:
Strategic Considerations
14.1 Sources Of
Information
art C provides advice for practitioners on the ■ Priority: Is the information worth the
P use of different audit information sources. This
includes general guidance on the range of data to ■
resources need to obtain and analyse it?
Relevance: Will the information be helpful in
be collected. Attention is then given to the use of devising the crime prevention strategy?
secondary (existing) data and surveys as sources
of quantitative data. Finally, the important contribu- A good audit will build a picture by bringing
tion of qualitative data is examined and advice together information from several sources to
given on the techniques and tools for collecting it. ensure that the perspectives of all community inter-
ests are included, and to reduce bias that arises
The success of an audit depends on the range from dependency of a few sources. It may be
and quality of information on which its conclusions possible to draw extensively on material already
are based. Decisions have to be taken about what collected by others, such as police recorded
information is needed, which existing sources are crime statistics or past research reports, and it
useful and how gaps can best be filled through makes sense to use such ‘secondary’ sources,
empirical research. It needs to be recognised that where appropriate, since this can save time and
all information sources have their shortcomings money. In other situations there will need to be
and practitioners have to make informed choices greater reliance on ‘primary’ source information
taking into consideration: purpose-collected by the audit team. This could
involve conducting surveys and consultations,
■ Value: Will the information really add to an which is likely to be more costly, but can be
understanding of the local context, problems customised to meet the specific needs of the
or responses? audit. The merits of the different sources are
■ Validity: Is the information sufficiently accurate, shown in Table 15.
comprehensive and up-to-date to justify its
inclusion, and are its limitations understood?
78
Table 15
Safety Audit: Sources Of Information
Source Description Key informants Key informants
Documents Reports, research studies, May be easily accessible. May not cover the ‘right’
plans and evaluations. Low cost. topics. May not be current.
Statistics Data collected before the Quantitative information May not cover precisely
audit by public agencies, immediately available. the issues to be audited.
civil society and business. Low cost. May under-represent poor
May include data collected and marginalised. Access
routinely or research data may be restricted. Data
for other purposes. area boundaries may vary
between sources and
may only be available for
whole city, not sub-areas.
May not be up to date.
Definitions may vary
between agencies.
Interviews Contacts with key informants Obtain answers to ‘how’ Unlikely to provide ‘hard’
(knowledgeable individuals) and ‘why’ questions. data. Will be based on
in agencies, civil society Allows flexible exploration perceptions and may not
and business. of issues. be objective.
Surveys Victimisation and offending Purpose-designed data. Resource intensive and

questionnaires. Opinion Can customise for adults, difficult to include ‘hard-
polls. youth and business. to-reach’ groups.
Consultations Group meetings and Enables participation of Difficult to achieve coverage

media engagement with individuals, including those of many different groups.
communities and groups. with ‘shared interests’. Labour intensive.
Outreach Engaging with groups in May be best option for Difficult to achieve coverage
their own ‘settings’ often ‘hard-to-reach’. Allows of many different groups.
individually. individual participation. Labour intensive.
Observation Visiting specific locations Provides first hand insight Labour intensive. Difficult
and services to watch and to what is happening. to get accurate impression
talk to local stakeholders. from a short visit.
Secondary sources
Primary sources

Different sources are likely to be useful at different those with mental health problems, migrant
Implementation Stages (Table 16). In general, infor- communities, asylum seekers and many others.
mation from secondary sources will be most used The range of groups will vary to some extent from
during Stage 1 (‘wide and shallow’ analysis), while place to place, reflecting local social and demo-
the collection of primary data will be essential in graphic patterns.
later Stages.
When information is collected for the city as a
whole – or where data is ‘averaged’ across the
14.2 Recognising whole population – the individuality of such groups
Diversity In The can easily be lost. It is therefore important that
quantitative and qualitative data is disaggregated
Community so that the experiences, perspectives and contri-
butions of such groups can be looked at individually.
very city’s population is made up of many
E groups with different perspectives on crime
and victimisation, all of whom have a right to be
And where such groups are under-represented in
the ‘mainstream’ information sources (perhaps
because they are so-called ‘hard-to-reach), alter-
recognised in the safety audit process. They native approaches need to be adopted to ensure
include young people, women, ethno-cultural their voices are heard (see 5.4 and section 17).
minorities, older people, people with disabilities,
Table 16
Data Sources Useful During Stages Of Safety Audit Implementation
The ‘wide and ‘Narrow and deep’ Identifying priorities Consulting and
shallow’ analysis investigation and opportunities Communicating
Documents ✓
Statistics ✓
Interviews ✓ ✓ ✓
Surveys ✓ ✓
Consultations ✓ ✓ ✓
Outreach ✓ ✓
Observation ✓
80
manage confidential and personal information
14.3 Sharing gathered in the course of research. 97
Information And
Data Confidentiality 14.4 Data Observatories
safety audit requires integration of information
A readiness to share relevant information across
organisational boundaries is vital if safety
A from multiple sources to gain a good under-
standing of problems and causal factors affecting
audits are to make maximum use of available
crime and related problems. Although this might
resources. Legitimate concerns about breaches of
initially be viewed as a stand-alone task, in reality it
confidentiality, especially with regard to personal
needs to be repeated periodically and, ideally,
data, have led many countries to impose disclosure
prevention practitioners and strategists should
restrictions. These constraints should not, however,
monitor change systematically and continually.
be seen as restricting the sharing of aggregated
This type of requirement is not unique to crime
statistical data which is not personalised and
prevention; it is now applicable to most policy
which cannot be linked to individuals. Nor should
areas and data observatories have been
they inhibit the use of the findings arising from
established in a growing number of cities
community consultations, so long as comments
in response to this need.
and contributions are not attributed to individuals
without their informed consent.
Regional Observatory On Security Policies (Italy)98
The negotiation of an information sharing agreement The ‘Osservatorio regionale sulle politiche integrate per la
between partner organisations at the start of the
sicurezza’ was established by the Tuscany region in 2000 to
audit process can help avoid later problems. Such
an agreement could also cover the sharing of maintain a profile of security conditions and under take
personal information that would clearly prevent security-related research. It compiles and analyses a large
future criminal activity. However, this is likely database covering crime and risk factors that allows
to be more contentious, while the sharing of
assessment of citizen insecurity in different areas and
non-personal or depersonalised data may be
relatively easily negotiated. social situations. The observatory’s research output is an
important tool in developing crime prevention policies.
The UK Home Office has published a model infor-
mation-sharing protocol to which cooperating
An observatory is a facility that draws in information
agencies can sign up. 96 Taking account of data
from a wide range of agencies and analyses it to
protection laws and human rights, it sets out the
inform public policy and programme develop-
rationale for information sharing, the ‘golden rules’
ment. It may be necessary to negotiate with data
that underpin the agreement and standards for
providers on issues of confidentiality, definitions
data security. Above all it specifies the conditions
and format, so that compatibility and relevance are
under which different types of data, ranging from
maximised. The observatory’s work may include
non-personal to sensitive, can be shared. While its
constructing integrated databases or Geographical
contents reflect national legislation, Audit Steering
Information Systems (GIS) that assist analysis.
Groups will find it helpful to review this model when
Most importantly, the information is collected on an
developing their own agreements with partner
ongoing basis so there is regular updating and
agencies. The Australian Criminology Research
continual monitoring.
Council has also provided guidance on how to
96
http://www.crimereduction.gov.uk/infosharing21-00.htm
97
Chalmers R and Israel M. Caring for data: law, professional codes and the negotiation of confidentiality in Australian criminological
research. Canberra: Criminology Research Council, 2005. http://www.aic.gov.au/crc/reports/200304-09.pdf
98
http://sicurezza.regione.toscana.it/

Observatories may be generic, covering a wide
range of public policy agendas, or focused on
specific issues, such as urban safety. Such an
observatory can greatly facilitate a safety audit and,
equally important, it will enable change to be
tracked, so that new issues can be identified at the
earliest opportunity and the effects of crime
prevention interventions assessed. Where they
exist they are proving to be an invaluable resource.
Elsewhere, civic leaders may wish to consider
developing an urban safety observatory for crime
prevention and other areas of public policy.
Several examples of observatories can be found in

west European countries. In France a national
observatory for drugs and drug addiction
(Observatoire français des drogues et des toxico-
manies) has been established at St Denis (near
Paris).99 In England several regions have generic
observatories and each region has a specialist
observatory to research public health issues,
including substance misuse.100
99
Observatoire français des drogues et des toxicomanies. http://www.ofdt.fr
100
The East of England Observatory is an example of a generic observatory. http://www.eastofenglandobservatory.org.uk
For a list of all health observatories in England see http://www.apho.org.uk/apho
82
15 Using Secondary
Data Sources
15.1 Introduction
uantitative data will be a vital ingredient of any
Q safety audit. Numbers give precision to the
issues being examined; they are easier to present;
and usually easier to analyse. In many cities a wide
range of statistics on relevant issues is collected
by agencies for their own purposes (Table 17).
Where such ‘secondary’ data is reasonably accurate,
useful and accessible, its analysis should be one
of the main elements of Implementation Stage 1,
not only to relatively quickly build up a city profile,
but also to identify information gaps to be filled later.
Table 17
Potential Contributors Of Secondary Data
■ Police
■ Other criminal justice agencies: courts, corrections, prisons
■ Victim assistance services
■ Housing providers and environmental services
■ Education services, including schools and colleges
■ Social care services
■ Healthcare providers, including clinics and hospitals
■ Research institutions, including universities and institutes
■ Fire services
■ Community groups
■ Civil society/non-profit organisations
■ Private security and insurance companies

Secondary statistical data should however little choice but to use ‘proxy’ data. This applies, for
always be scrutinised critically, especially when example, to the concepts of ‘social exclusion’ and
unsupported by independent sources. Numbers ‘fear of crime’. The latter is often assessed on the
can convey a sense of accuracy or certainty that basis of how fearful an individual feels in a particular
is not always justified; figures are almost always location (at home or in the street) at a particular
incomplete and can easily become biased. time (after dark or during the day) without taking
Moreover, because it will have been collected for into account that many people seem to have an
other purposes, secondary data rarely precisely innate fear of the dark, irrespective of the risk of
matches the needs of the safety audit. A further victimisation. In the following sections, specific
common difficulty is that data may only be available secondary sources are examined in more detail.
for the city as a whole or, if it is tabulated for sub-
areas, their boundaries can be different to those
used for other data. In other words, there is a lack 15.2 Police Data
of ‘coterminosity’. Even where good secondary
many cities, crime data recorded by the
sources are accessible, certain important information
is often not available and needs to be collected
IN police will be an important resource.
However, its availability and usefulness vary greatly.
specifically by the audit team (Table 18).
Access may be restricted for political, legal or
technical reasons and in almost every country a
None of this automatically invalidates its use.
significant proportion of offences is not reported or
Rather, a judgement must be made about whether
recorded. Only a fraction of violence-related injury
its ready availability outweighs the shortcomings,
cases that receive medical attention in hospital
recognising that the alternative may involve costly
emergency departments are included in police
and time-consuming empirical research. Indeed,
statistics, while studies from Atlanta (USA) and
in cases where a variable is difficult to measure or
from Cape Town (South Africa) confirm that even
where a concept is difficult to define, there may be
firearm-related deaths often go unrecorded. As
Table 18
Common Information Gaps In Secondary Sources
Offender characteristics Age, gender, ethno-cultural identity, health and disability, family situation,
education level, employment status, housing situation, criminal record
Victim characteristics Age, gender, ethno-cultural identity, health and disability, family situation,
education level, employment status, housing situation, previous victimisation
Recorded crime Method used, precise location, time, use of weapons, linkage with
characteristics drugs/alcohol
Problems often Serious violence (sexual and domestic violence, other violence against
unreported women, child abuse), bullying, corruption, substance abuse, street gangs,
organised crime, shop theft, less serious offences (petty theft, vandalism)
Impacts of crime Lifelong injury and non-injury consequences of violence or intimidation
Feelings and Fear of crime and victimisation, including variations by age, gender,
perceptions ethno-cultural group, location, time; which problems should be prioritised;
views about agencies and services (local authority, police, courts)
Derived from UN-Habitat Safer Cities Toolkit
84
Figure 4 shows, this under-recording is much Figure 4
more serious in some regions than others, and in Variations In Reporting Of Crime To
many settings neither police nor health service
The Police
data are available.
Percentage of Crimes Reported
This counting shortfall would not be such a
problem, if it were evenly spread across offence Africa
types and population groups. But that is not the
case. Certain types of crime have extremely low Western Asia
reporting rates, including some of the most serious Europe
(Table 19). And it is often the poorest and most
vulnerable sections of society whose victimisation
goes unrecorded because they do not know how
to make a report; do not perceive their experience
to have been a crime; are fearful of the police; are North Australia
America
avoiding police contact or because their allega-
tions are just not taken seriously. In contrast,
groups that are well organised and well resourced,
including parts of the business sector, will be more Latin
Central - Eastern
capable of collating statistics and using official America
Europe
systems to get their experiences ‘counted’.
International Crime Victims Survey (2000)
Table 19
Crimes That Are Often Under-Reported To Police
Violence Sexual violence, domestic violence, violence against women
Victimisation of Child abuse, bullying, assault, theft

children and youth
‘Victimless’ crime Use of illicit drugs
Corruption Bribery
Crime by and White-collar crime, fraud, shop theft

against business
Organised crime Human trafficking, drugs trafficking, sexual exploitation, extortion
Less serious offences Petty theft, vandalism, anti-social behaviour

■ differences between the city, comparable
BOCSAR Online Crime Statistics in New South Wales
areas and the national average
(Australia) 101
■ proportion of recorded crime that gets ‘solved’.
The NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research (BOCSAR)
is a statistical and research agency within the Attorney Police data may also provide the basis for an
General’s Department. Established in 1969, it publishes crime analysis of offence location. This may indicate the
data for the state as a whole quarterly and annually – volumes type of place where an offence occurred, such as
a private dwelling, a school, a shop or in the street,
and rates – broken down by crime type for 12 regions and 172
and such data can be helpful in establishing
Local Government Areas (LGA). It enables trends of 17 crime whether particular environments are more susceptible
types to be easily tracked for up to 10 years, and all this infor- to criminal activity.
mation is available to the general public.
Crimes may also be positioned in space, perhaps
A ‘ranking tool’ enables each LGA to compare its figures over coded to a sub-area of the city (such as a police
the most recent five-year period with other areas’ and a beat, a neighbourhood or a census tract) or more
‘league table’ identifies the 50 LGAs with the highest rates for precisely (to an address, zip-code or grid reference).
Mapping the distribution of such ‘geocodes’ can
nine crime categories. A ‘specific crime tool’ enables users to help locate areas in which individuals and
define their own table of data by choosing from five table property are most at risk and can identify crime
formats and selecting a combination of offence type, prem- ‘hotspots’ – specific locations in which crime is
ises type, region and year. So this tool can be used to see concentrated.102 Both will be useful when considering
where preventive action is most needed.
detailed information on, for example, assaults in licensed
premises in different regions for each of the past three years. Historically, distributions have been plotted manually
by placing coloured markers on a large map, and
Despite their limitations, police statistics will often this is useful in the absence of alternative options.
be an initial source of data about various aspects However, if computerised records are available,
of criminal activity. They should enable the audit mapping software can undertake that task more
team to assess: effectively and with a flexibility that allows data
to be explored in different ways. With the use of
■ amount of crime that has been recorded Geographical Information Systems (GIS), researchers
■ types of recorded offence – and how much can not only carry out complex analysis of the
of it is violence crime data, but also overlay this on other datasets,
■
such as population or economic statistics,
rates for total recorded crime and specific
enabling relationships between, for example,
crime types
between crime and health, to be assessed.
■ trends over time – whether recorded crime is
going up or down
101
Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research (New South Wales, Australia). Crime Statistics.
http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lawlink/bocsar/ll_bocsar.nsf/pages/bocsar_index
102
For more information on crime mapping and hotspots:
National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice (2005), Mapping crime and understanding hotspots.
http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/209393.pdf
National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice (2005). Mapping and analysis for public safety.
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/maps/briefingbook.html
UK Home Office Crime Prevention Toolkit on Focus Areas. http://www.crimereduction.gov.uk/toolkits/index.htm
86
iQuanta Management Information System
(England and Wales)103, 104
iQuanta was developed by the Home Office to turn statistical data routinely collected into useful
outputs for understanding and improving performance. It is web-based and provides both graphical
and tabular summaries of performance trends.
Figures are updated monthly, so police and crime reduction partnerships can track their effectiveness
in reducing crime and compare their performance with other similar areas. The coverage includes:
■ levels and rates of total crime and individual offences
■ rates of detection
■ progress being made towards targets
■ public perceptions, including fear, from the British Crime Survey
■ projections of future crime rates
While the iQuanta website is up-to-date and technically advanced, it has the disadvantage of being
accessible only to police and community safety partnerships, not to the general public.
Figure 5
Using Geographical Information Systems To Map Crime Data: An Example From Hungary
Crime in Baranya County
Offences per 100,000 residents
0–10
10–20
20–30
30–40
40–539
Baranya County Crime Prevention Strategy (2005)
103
http://police.homeoffice.gov.uk/performance-and-measurement/iquanta
104
Association of Police Authorities (UK) (2004), iQuanta: a Police Authority guide.
http://www.apa.police.uk/NR/rdonlyres/24C7F620-D30D-421C-9BB5-FCBB45E6AD26/0/
APAiquantasecondeditionFINALPDF.pdf

Of even greater significance is the growing use of particular crimes, such as the nature of the victim
GIS to predict future patterns and trends. Recent or target and the method used. Clarifying these
research at the Jill Dando Institute of Crime issues will assist the selection of responses with
Science (University of London) has developed a the greatest chance of success.
technique called ‘prospective mapping’, which
is reported to be more accurate at forecasting The police may also provide data on offenders,
victimisation than any previous method.105 although it is usually best combined with information
from other justice agencies to produce a fuller
As part of the ‘narrow and deep’ analysis in picture (see 15.3). It can, of course, only cover
Implementation Stage 2, it can be instructive to those offenders who are detected – often a small
investigate the when and how of criminal inci- proportion and the least successful – but nevertheless
dents (Table 20). ‘When’ information should may be extremely useful and should help answer
include the times of the day, days of the week, the Implementation Stage 1 questions (see 4.2).
months of the year and any links with calendar
events, such as holidays and festivals. Offences Particular attention should be given to prolific
are rarely evenly spread and there will be ‘hot offenders, since they are likely to account for a
times’ as well as hotspots (Figure 6), but these will substantial proportion of total crime. If their number
also vary according to the type of premise (Figure 7). and scale of activity can be calculated, it becomes
‘How’ information relates to the characteristics and possible to estimate what that proportion might be.
techniques associated with the commission of Equally important is information on serious and
Table 20
‘When’ And ‘How’ Questions
‘When’ and ‘How’ questions will usually be asked in Implementation Stage 2 and need
to be customised to the specific offence type. In the case of housebreaking, the
following would be relevant:
■ At what times of the day did the housebreakings occur?

■ Were they more common on certain days or in certain months?
■ How did the burglars gain entry …
■ by forcing open a door, window or other access point
■ by actual or threatened violence
■ by deception
■ via an open door, window or other access point
■ from the front or rear of the property?
■ What security measures were in place – such as guards, alarms or locks?
■ Were the homes occupied or empty at the time?
■ Were properties overlooked by neighbours or secluded?
■ What goods were stolen and what valuable items were left?
■ How did intruders dispose of the stolen property?
105
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/jdi
88
Figure 6
Time Of Crime Analysis: An Example From Canada
Robbery in Winnipeg
Total number of reported incidents by hour in 2001
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
24:00 – 0:59
1:00 – 1:59
2:00 – 2:59
3:00 – 3:59
4:00 – 4:59
5:00 – 5:59
6:00 – 6:59
7:00 – 7:59
8:00 – 8:59
9:00 – 9:59
10:00 – 10:59
11:00 – 11:59
12:00 – 12:59
13:00 – 13:59
14:00 – 14:59
15:00 – 15:59
16:00 – 16:59
17:00 – 17:59
18:00 – 18:59
19:00 – 19:59
20:00 – 20:59
21:00 – 21:59
22:00 – 22:59
23:00 – 23:59
Statistics Canada (2004)
Figure 7
Burglary Time Risks Of Residential and Non-residential Premises: An Example From Australia106
Burglary in the Australian Capital Territory
Accumulated Probability by Hour
9%
8%
7%
6%
5%
4%
3%
2%
1%
0%
24:00 – 0:59
1:00 – 1:59
2:00 – 2:59
3:00 – 3:59
4:00 – 4:59
5:00 – 5:59
6:00 – 6:59
7:00 – 7:59
8:00 – 8:59
9:00 – 9:59
10:00 – 10:59
11:00 – 11:59
12:00 – 12:59
13:00 – 13:59
14:00 – 14:59
15:00 – 15:59
16:00 – 16:59
17:00 – 17:59
18:00 – 18:59
19:00 – 19:59
20:00 – 20:59
21:00 – 21:59
22:00 – 22:59
23:00 – 23:59
residential non-residential
Australian Institute for Criminology (2001)
106
Ratcliffe J. Policing urban burglary, Trends and Issues in Crime and Justice 213. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology,
2001. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/ti213.pdf

dangerous criminals whose offences, while not analysed. Nevertheless, as part of the ‘wide and
necessarily large in number, will have a particularly shallow’ research, answers to the questions listed
damaging effect on individuals and communities. in Table 8 should initially be sought in police data. If
In most cases such analysis will need to be that is not fruitful, a victimisation survey, supplemented
accompanied by deeper study of their characteristics by information from victim support organisations, is
and lifetime experiences which influence their likely to provide much better information.
behaviour, and which may point to appropriate
preventive interventions. An issue of particular importance here is repeat
victimisation. International studies show that for
many offence types the risk of being victimised is
Offenders in England and Wales
linked to previous victimisation experience. A place
Prolific Offenders107 or individual that has been victimised once is at
greater risk of future victimisation than one that has
It is estimated that out of a million active offenders, 10% have
not. And the more times a target has been
three or more convictions and are responsible for half of all victimised, the greater the probability of further
crime. The most active 5,000 of this group are estimated to repeats. An understanding of the extent of repeat
be responsible for one in ten offences. The active offender victimisation is therefore particularly important in
population is not static, 20,000 individuals leave this pool directing preventive measures at those who are
not only most likely to be fearful or traumatised by
every year and are replaced by another 20,000. their experiences, but who are also most at risk.
Criminal Commuting108
Research shows that most offenders only travel a shor t
distance from their home to commit a crime, and this applies 15.3 Other Criminal
to most offence types. In relation to domestic burglary in Justice Agencies
Yorkshire, for example, the average distance travelled has
ther criminal justice agencies may hold data
been measured at 1.8 miles, less than three kilometres.
O on offenders that is relevant and useful for a
safety audit. They include the corrections/probation,
youth justice and prison services (Table 21). As
Police records may be used to estimate the with police data, access may be restricted for political,
distances travelled by offenders from where they legal or technical reasons, and the information will
live to where they offend.109 If this shows that most only relate to incidents that have been reported,
travelled in from outside the city to commit crime, detected and result in a charge. As with police
the responses might need to be very different from data, the quality of information available varies
those that would be taken if the majority of criminals greatly between countries, so a critical assess-
turn out to be ‘home-grown’. ment should be made to assess its value in any
particular city.
Police data are usually of limited value in identifying
victim profiles and patterns. Records can only Where such data is considered useful, it can help
relate to individuals willing to report an incident, build a more detailed picture of patterns of
and even then databases are rarely designed to offending behaviour, prolific offender activity, the
enable victim details to be easily retrieved or
107
http://www.crimereduction.gov.uk/ppominisite01.htm.
108
Wiles P and Costello A. The road to nowhere: the evidence for travelling criminals. Research Study 207. London: Home Office,
2000. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs/hors207.pdf
109
See, for example, Savoie J, Bédard F and Collins K. Distribution of crime in Montreal neighbourhoods. Crime and Justice
Research Paper Series 26 (7), 85-561-MWE2006007. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2006.
www.statcan.ca/english/research/85-561-MIE/85-561-MIE2006007.pdf
90
Repeat Victimisation
■ A 1998 study in Cape Town (South Africa) found that 28% of victims of assault and 26% of
victims of vehicle theft were repeat victims, and 25% of families losing a family member to
murder had experienced a murder at least once before.110
■ A victim survey in Dar Es Salaam (Tanzania) in 2000 showed that, whereas rates of repeat
victimisation over a five-year period were between 22% and 24% for offences of burglary, theft
and assault, they were higher for theft of vehicle parts (33%) and much higher for crop theft
at 51%.111
■ A 1998 report from the Australian Institute of Criminology showed that 28% of victimised
households were repeat victims of property crime and that these households suffered over
50% of all property crime victimisations.112
■ A Swedish study published in 2004 found that 5% of the population experienced half of all the
offences committed. With regard to assaults and threats where the perpetrator was unknown
to the victim, the risk of assault in two municipalities increased twenty-fold for those who had
already been victimised once in that year and sixty-fold for those who had been victimised
twice.113
■ In England and Wales, there are high levels of repeat victimisation for burglary, car crime,
robbery, sexual crimes and racial attacks. The 2005/06 British Crime Survey found 43% of
victims of domestic violence were victimised more than once in 12 months.114
110
Camerer L, Louw A, Shaw M, Artz L and Scharf W. Crime in Cape Town. Monograph 23. Institute for Security Studies, 1998.
http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/MONOGRAPHS/No23/%20Contents.html
111
Robertshaw R, Louw A and Mtani A. Crime in Dar Es Salaam. Results of a city victim survey. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies,
2001. http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Other/DaresSalaam/Content.html
112
Mukherjee S & Carcach C. Repeat victimisation in Australia, Research and Public Policy Series 15. Griffith ACT: Australian Institute
of Criminology, 1998. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/rpp/15/RPP15.pdf
113
Bra – brottsforebyggande radet. A brief presentation on repeat victimisation. November 2004.
http://www.bra.se/extra/measurepoint/?module_instance=4&name=04111225678.pdf&url=/dynamaster/file_archive/0
50118/4cd46ef889602d3aee015a4518e245ce/04111225678.pdf
114
Walker A, Kershaw C and Nicholas S. Crime in England and Wales 2005/06. Home Office Statistical Bulletin 12/06. London:
Home Office, 2006. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs06/hosb1206.pdf

Table 21
Secondary Data From Criminal Justice Agencies
Courts Information about the people appearing before them
Types of sentences imposed
Corrections/ Probation, Personal, family and social characteristics of offenders (age, sex, religion,
Youth Justice and ethnic origin, custody type, offence, reception and discharge dates and
Prison Services sentence length)
Factors linked to their offending (substance misuse, low educational

achievement, homelessness, family breakdown)
Reoffending rates
Services provided to tackle repeat offending (drug treatment, post release

support, rehabilitation and resettlement services)
effectiveness of interventions and criminogenic Victim services may also commission and publish
risk factors. It should be noted that prison data is useful research findings. For example, a report in
less likely to be useful at a city level because 2005 by Victim Support in England found that one
offenders may serve custodial sentences in institutions quarter of burglary victims did not improve their
away from the city where they live or offended. home security, leaving them vulnerable to revictim-
isation.116 Generally, however, victim services are
focused on providing high quality frontline services
15.4 Victim Assistance to victims on tight budgets and have limited
Services capacity to develop statistical information systems.
They are most likely to input qualitative information
ervices that provide support to victims and about issues affecting victims and witnesses
S witnesses may hold depersonalised aggregate
information about their clients that can be used
through ‘key informant interviews’ (see 17.2).
during Implementation Stage 1. As victims of Finally, consideration should be given to the

certain types of offence may be more willing to adequacy and effectiveness of victim services.
contact a support organisation than make a report This is not just to ameliorate the impact of their
to the police, the information held by such services experience. Victims are at greater risk of future
can be very different to that covered by police revictimisation than non-victims, so providing
statistics. For example, of 2,100 new victims support and helping them to reduce their
assisted by South Australia Victim Support Service vulnerability should be a vital part of any crime
in 2004-05, more than half had been victims of prevention strategy (see 15.2).
violence, including an estimated 300 cases of
sexual abuse and 130 cases of family violence.115
115
http://www.victimsa.org/index.php
116
http://www.victimsupport.org.uk/vs_england_wales/about_us/publications/index.php
92
Victim Support Services organisations. Where quantitative secondary data
Victim Support in England and Wales are in is not accessible, qualitative information may be
gathered through interviews (see 17.2).
contact with over one and a quar ter million
victims and witnesses every year.117
15.6 Education
15.5 Housing And Services
Environmental ducation services and their institutions
Services E (schools, colleges, universities) are an important

focus of enquiry for any safety audit, both in relation
to risk factors and contributory causes of offending
he organisations and authorities which provide
T and manage housing and environmental services
in a locality are likely to have relevant information,
and as a location for incidents (Table 22). Many
countries have identified a correlation between
aspects of educational under-performance of
especially about ‘lower level’ crimes and nuisance
young people and involvement in offending, and
behaviour which have not been reported to the
this should be explored in Implementation Stage 1.
police, such as:
The safety audit should also include assessment of
■ incidents of vandalism and the costs of
the provision of educational support to offenders in
repairs
prison and those subject to community punishments.
■ excessive noise from, for example, music, Lack of basic skills – literacy and numeracy – is
dogs or machinery one of the main risk factors associated with
■ complaints about unruly behaviour of young offending and addressing this deficit, which
people or adults increases opportunities for employment and
■ dumping of rubbish and abandoned cars, personal advancement, can be an important
and the costs of clean-up. component of programmes to reduce reoffending.
They may also contribute data relating to specific Rates should be compared, where possible, to
themes, for example the extent and location of data from other cities, regions and nationally to
drug and alcohol misuse, through: help determine where levels can be considered
satisfactory and where they are unusually poor and
■ reports from street cleaners of, for example, problematic.
drugs paraphernalia (needles etc), cans and
bottles, and vomit Educational institutions are also locations for crime
■ complaints about drug dealing, drunk and and disorder, ranging from relatively minor events
disorderly behaviour to the most serious occurrences of violence.
■ records relating to the breaking of tenancy Whatever their nature, they interfere with learning
agreements or the need for rehousing due to and can have other damaging impacts on children
illegal drug use. and youth. Good schools will keep records of
such incidents and educational services may be
Housing providers might have more intelligence able to provide information on property crime,
than the police about burglaries and violent crime violence involving pupils, assaults on staff, the
affecting the residents of their properties, because misuse of drugs, bullying and the presence of
of resident unwillingness to contact police or youth gangs. If this type of information does not
because help, such as repairs, are needed. already exist as ‘secondary data’, it can be sought
Information systems will vary greatly between through key informant interviews.
117
http://www.victimsupport.org/vs_england_wales/index.php

Table 22
Secondary Data From Education Services
Access Availability of places at primary, secondary and higher levels
Capacity of parents and carers to meet the costs of education
Participation Levels of attendance and truancy
Rates of ‘staying on’ for secondary education and participation in

higher education
Temporary suspensions and permanent exclusions
Numbers of children and young people not in any form of education,

training or work
Environment Effective policies on discipline, bullying, drugs and health
Cooperation between schools and parents/carers in supporting

children’s education
Availability and use of school premises for community activity out of

school hours
Curriculum Learning about citizenship; anti-social behaviour; victimisation; crime; and

the misuse of alcohol and drugs
Relevance in equipping young people for the world of work
Ability to meet the needs of less academic pupils
Achievement Overall levels of educational attainment
Levels of school ‘failure’ (leaving without basic skills or certificates)
Special provision For pupils with special learning support needs (including problems with
literacy, numeracy and dyslexia)
Support for young people excluded from mainstream education as a

result of behavioural or other problems
94
Children In Care
15.7 Social Care Canadian studies have shown that 1 in 5 young people in
Services care end up in custody.
uring Implementation Stage 1 agencies
D responsible for social care services are a
potentially important source of secondary data
In England and Wales just 6% of children left care in 2004
with grades A–C in five ‘GCSE’ subjects compared with
about children, families and vulnerable adults at 53% of pupils overall. An estimated 1% of care leavers go to
risk of victimisation and offending. With regard to
university, compared with 37% of young people in the
children, the safety audit team should enquire
about those: population as a whole. More than one quarter of prisoners
was taken into care during childhood, thirteen times higher
■ identified as at risk of abuse, neglect or than the rate in the general population.118, 119
getting into trouble
■ in the care of the state
■ already in conflict with the law. 15.8 Health Services
eferences have been made throughout this
Social care services may also hold valuable
information relating to different forms of family R Guidance to the relevance of health service
data in ensuring a complete and comprehensive
violence, drug and alcohol misuse and families
who are experiencing multiple problems, some of safety audit. Health services are particularly important
which may be crime related. Relevant information as sources of information about victims, as well as
about vulnerable adults may cover elder abuse, their place of residence, complement crime data
individuals with mental health problems and that focus more on perpetrators. Health service
homeless people. establishments are also increasingly locations in
which violence and other crime occurs. Statistical
The enquiry should involve assessment of the data, research reports and other information
scale of problems, demographic profiles of those should be sought from hospitals (especially
affected and how problems are geographically emergency rooms), clinics and other service
distributed. Equally important is how agencies are providers (Table 23).
responding, whether services in place are effectively
addressing the issues and if they are working well In many countries public health agencies are
to reduce risks. Where possible, data should be responsible for ‘vital statistics’ on the causes of
compared with equivalent figures from other cities death and especially for violent death and injury
to assess the seriousness of any problem. surveillance. South Africa, for example, has a
National Injury Mortality Surveillance System 120,
while the National Violent Death Reporting System
operates in the US. Such sources provide greater
detail about violent occurrences than is otherwise
likely to be available.121 They are useful for evaluating
the completeness of police data and for
estimating of the scale of problems.
118
National Children’s Home. Close the gap for children in care. London: NCH, 2005.
http://www.nch.org.uk/information/index.php?i=94#care
119
Social Exclusion Unit (UK). Reducing re-offending by ex-prisoners. London: SEU, 2002.
http://archive.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/seu/page95ba.html?id=263
120
http://www.sahealthinfo.org/violence/nimss.htm
121
http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/profiles/nvdrs/facts.htm

Table 23
Secondary Data From Health Services
Illicit drugs Range and capacity of treatment services for drug misusers, including counselling
services, day care, hospital provision and residential rehabilitation
Waiting times for these services
Numbers of referrals to these services and the proportion of clients completing treatment
Number of emergency hospital admissions and drug-related deaths
Links between drug use and other medical conditions, such as hepatitis and HIV
Use of needle exchanges and the problem of drug ‘paraphernalia’ (such as
discarded needles)
Violence Information on causes of injury and death from monitoring agencies

Hospital emergency room attendances resulting from violence
Information from community-based health services (including doctors, community
nurses, midwives), the ambulance service and hospital emergency departments
on injury and illness suffered as a result of violent assaults (including domestic and
sexual), crimes of intolerance, child abuse, alcohol-related disorder and
dangerous driving
Alcohol misuse Range and capacity of treatment services for alcohol dependency, including brief
interventions in doctors’ surgeries to detoxification and residential treatment
Waiting times for those services
Number of referrals to treatment services and the proportion of those referred who
complete treatment
Call-outs of ambulances linked to the effects of alcohol misuse
Alcohol-related attendances at casualty units and emergency admissions to
hospitals, including information about domestic or drunken assaults
Number of alcohol-related deaths
Sexual health Data on the sexual health needs of prostitutes and other sex workers
Staff safety Data on health service staff who experience violence, threats or abuse while at work
Mental illness Data on mental health problems associated with victimisation and offending,
especially violence
Costs Financial costs of crime to health services, including treatment of victims and time
off work caused by victimisation of staff
Data on the number and cost of offences of criminal damage targeted at health
service premises, and on the impact of such offences on service delivery
Prisoners Data on health problems experienced by people in custody and treatment services
96
Where closed-circuit television (CCTV) is installed,
15.9 Fire Service companies may hold records of incidents picked
up on camera. This information will be most useful
he Fire Service may hold information about the
T number, location and seriousness of malicious
fires, that is those thought to have been started
during Implementation Stage 2 when investigating
problems in specific locations or in relation to
particular groups (such as businesses).
deliberately. This information will usually be based
on requests for service, so it is likely to be more
Insurance companies may collate data on prop-
comprehensive than that held by the police, which
erty crime and monitor the risks of victimisation at a
will include only those fires reported as crimes.
detailed geographical scale. They will also collect
data on the costs of crime, types of property
Data may also be available about a variety of other
damaged or stolen and other detailed information.
criminal and nuisance behaviour, including hoax
Even if it can be accessed at a local level, it will
calls, attacks on fire crews responding to emer-
exclude information about those people and
gency calls and abandoned cars which have been
organisations who cannot afford (or choose not to
set on fire.
pay for) insurance.
15.10 Private Security Citizens’ Institute For The Study of Insecurity, ICESI (Mexico)122
And Insurance ICESI is a non-profit organisation specialising in the generation
of statistical information about crime and insecurity-related
Companies issues in Mexico, which provides a basis for public policy. It
rivate security companies play an increasingly is an initiative of two national universities, two business
P important role in preventing and managing
criminal and disorderly behaviour in many different
associations and a specialist magazine, which have the
support of federal and local governments. With that purpose,
settings: shopping centres, entertainment venues,
and following the UN Guidelines, ICESI undertakes National
transport hubs, public buildings, housing complexes
and shopping malls. Companies will often keep Victimisation Surveys (ENSI by its Spanish acronym), gener-
records of incidents, not all of which get reported ating indicators about victimisation and crime, which provide
to the police. They may provide information on: useful comparative data for city based audit teams.
■ numbers of criminal and problematic incidents
■
at specific locations 15.11 Surveys And
the nature of those incidents
■ when crimes were committed and trends Research
over time
niversities, research institutions, community
■
■
how offences were carried out
repeat victimisation, particularly of vulnerable
U groups and non-governmental organisations
conduct research on all aspects of crime, disorder
groups and locations. and the fear of crime. These can provide comparative
data (such as crime statistics and census data),
Security companies with less well developed data- theories to inform the safety audit investigation
bases will have experiences and perceptions of (such as links between alcohol and violence), and
criminal activity to supplement information from service reviews (such as inspections of youth
other statistical sources. justice services).
122
www.icesi.org.mx

Projects and programmes also undertake or ■ Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
commission feasibility studies, benchmarking Prevention (United States)
exercises, evaluations and reviews, which may http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/about/about.html
include findings relevant to the safety audit on a ■ Home Office Research, Development and
local, regional or national level. It may be possible
Statistics (England and Wales)
for the safety audit team to include some questions
http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds
on crime and disorder in a survey already being
conducted in the area. ■ CSIR Crime Prevention Centre (South Africa)
http://www.crimeprevention.csir.co.za/
Relevant national and international research findings homepage.php3
are increasingly available on the internet, published ■ United Nations Interregional Crime and
by public, private and voluntary organisations. Justice Research Institute
Although national research may not be available in http://www.unicri.it
all countries, and care must be taken to ensure the
sources are reliable, such sites can be a rich ■ South African National Injury Mortality
source of data for Implementation Stages 1 and 2. Surveillance System
Government websites often have useful research http://www.sahealthinfo.org/violence/
reports, data sets and other relevant material. nimss.htm
■ World Health Organisation, Statistical
Research Reports And Statistics Information System
Online: Some Examples http://www.who.int/whosis/en/index.html
■ Australian Institute of Criminology Crime and ■ US Centers for Disease Control and
Criminal Justice Statistics (Australia) Prevention, Web-based Injury Statistics Query
http://www.aic.gov.au/stats and Reporting System
■ Statistics Canada Crime and Justice http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/wisqars/
Research Paper Series (Canada) default.htm
http://www.statcan.ca/bsolc/english/ ■ International Centre for the Prevention of Crime
bsolc?catno=85-561-M http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org/
■ Bureau of Justice Statistics (United States) kb_indicators_search.php
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/welcome.html
98
16 Collecting And
Using Survey Data
16.1 Introduction
Victimisation Surveys cities where secondary data of the type
“Victimisation surveys are the best available IN discussed earlier is inaccessible or insuffi-
cient, surveys are the main alternative option for
tool for collecting information on citizens’ first
getting general quantitative information about local
hand experiences with crime and criminal problems and concerns. Even where there is good
justice. They show some of the impacts secondary data, surveys can add important
of crime, who is most at risk, and most perspectives, especially about individuals’ views
impor tantly, public perception about the and feelings, such as their perceptions of council
services or their fear of crime. Surveys will also be
priority issues in their area.” especially useful in Implementation Stage 2, when
Crime in Nairobi (2002)123 a ‘narrow and deep’ investigation is undertaken
into specific groups (such as women), a specific
issue (such as drug use) or a geographical area
(such as a neighbourhood).
Population surveys are frequently conducted by

public and private agencies for a variety of
reasons. Some municipalities, for example, have
established citizens’ panels, a representative
group of residents, who are regularly questioned
and consulted on a range of issues to inform
council thinking (see 16.4). It may be possible for
the audit to make use of these existing surveys,
not least because quality of services and concern
about crime are issues often addressed. However,
they will usually only include a small number of
relevant questions.
123
UN-Habitat. Crime in Nairobi. Results of a citywide victim survey. Safer Cities Series 4. Nairobi: UN-Habitat, 2002.

To obtain more detailed data, it will be necessary International Crime Victims Surveys (ICVS)124
to conduct a survey specifically for the audit. ICVS are conducted under the aegis of
However, that decision should not be taken lightly.
Surveys require considerable time, expertise and
the UN Interregional Crime and Justice
resources if they are to produce meaningful Research Institute (UNICRI) to increase
results. Important issues to consider early are: understanding of international crime trends
independently from administrative/police
■ What is the main research issue (fear, victimi- statistics. By using a standardised method-
sation, offending)?
ology, variations in definitions and practices are
■ What are the key topic areas for questioning?
minimised and comparisons can be made
■ What is the target group or sector (adults,
youth, women, minorities, businesses)? across national boundaries. The ICVS has been
■ Is the research to be citywide or focused on under taken five times since 1989, most
a particular locality? recently in 2004-5, when over 30 countries
■ Is a survey the most cost-effective option? took part.
■ Are sufficient resources available?
A study drawing on the findings of the 2000
If it is decided to go ahead, survey planning will ICVS in 17 industrialised countries found the
need to include questionnaire design, sampling, discrepancy between police recorded crime
delivery arrangements, data coding and entry, and crime reported in the survey varied widely
analysis and reporting. It may be necessary to
bring an ‘expert’ into the audit team or outsource
with crime type. For instance, 91% of thefts
some or all of the survey to an agency, private of cars were repor ted to the police, 78% of
company or academic institution. But whilst burglaries and 55% of robberies. These figures
specialists will be needed, every effort should be contrasted with repor ting rates of 29% for
made to involve community organisations and
threats, 28% for sexual assaults and 10% for
local people in both designing and administering
the survey, since this can reduce costs, build local offensive sexual behaviour.
skills, ensure the right questions are asked and
Further comparative information is available on
increase response rates.
the website of ICPC.125 This collates information
In the following sections, guidance is provided on on crime rates and other indicators from
victimisation surveys, self-report offending surveys countries in Europe, the Americas, Africa
and Citizens’ Panels.
and Australasia.
124
Van Kesteren J N, Mayhew, P and Nieuwbeerta P. Criminal Victimisation in Seventeen Industrialised Countries: Key Findings from
the 2000 International Crime Victims Survey. The Hague: Ministry of Justice, 2000.
http://www.unicri.it/wwd/analysis/icvs/pdf_files/key2000i/index.htm#download%20full%20text%20in%20pdf
See also http://www.unicri.it/wwd/analysis/icvs/index.php
125
http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org/kb_indicators_search.php
100
three times the number in Central-Eastern Europe.126
16.2 Victimisation They are also the most effective way of assessing
Surveys repeat victimisation, enabling the calculation of
both incidence and prevalence rates (Table 24).
ictimisation surveys are used to investigate But such surveys can also provide a wide range
V experience of crime usually over a 12 month
period. They have been found to provide a better
of other information of relevance to the safety audit,
including:
quantitative assessment of the number and nature
■ feelings about personal safety at home, in a
of offences than police data because respondents
will generally reveal more in a survey than they will neighbourhood, in the city centre, during the
report to law enforcement agencies. The 2000 day and after dark
International Crime Victims Survey (ICVS), for ■ confidence in the police and the justice system
example, which enquired into 11 types of offence, ■ perceptions of the most troublesome problems
elicited information about twice the number of in the city or a particular locality
offences reported to police in Western Europe and ■ perceptions of crime trends - is the situation
better, worse or the same than before?
Table 24
Calculating Crime Rates
A crime rate provides a measure of offending in a way that makes it easy to compare cities and
change over time, irrespective of differences in population size. There are two main types of rate.
The incidence rate indicates the number of offences recorded per 1000 population in a year
(or 100,000 with larger populations). It can be calculated from police data or victimisation surveys.
The prevalence rate indicates the number of different victims per 1000 or 100,000 population in a
year. It is usually only calculable using victimisation survey data.
The difference between incidence and prevalence rates shows the extent to which crime is
concentrated on certain people. The greater the level of repeat victimisation, the larger will be the gap.
Rates would need to be based on the same source, normally a victimisation survey, for such
a comparison to be valid.
Calculating the incidence rate Calculating the prevalence rate
No of crimes = 2398 No of victims = 1862

Population = 19976 Population = 19976
Rate = (2398 / 19976) * 1000 Rate = (1862 / 19976) * 1000

(per 1000) = 120.0 (per 1000) = 93.2
Rates can be calculated for specific offences, but careful consideration must be given to the
appropriate ‘population’ for certain types of offence. For example, it may be more relevant to calculate
the incidence rate for domestic burglaries per 1000 households, rather than per 1000 people.
126
Alvazzi del Frate A and van Kesteren J. Criminal victimisation in urban Europe. Key findings of the 2000 International Crime Victim
Surveys. Vienna: UNICRI, 2004. http://www.unicri.it/wwd/analysis/icvs/pdf_files/CriminalVictimisationUrbanEurope.pdf

■ experience of and concerns about anti-social Getting the right wording of questions is a critical
behaviour task and they will need to be piloted to avoid
■ views about current activities that might misunderstandings and ambiguities. However, the
prevent crime including services and crime ICVS has now been implemented in more than
prevention initiatives 70 countries and others have undertaken national
■ views about measures most likely to lead to surveys. There is therefore a long list of tried and
a future reduction in crime and fear tested questions around the world. Cities that
decide to carry out victim surveys can adopt the
■ agencies willing to play an active role in
ICVS methodology and questions to generate data
helping to tackle crime local problems.
which to some extent will be compatible with the
international surveys.128
A decision is needed on the target population
of any survey investigation. Most address the
A survey will normally involve interviewing a sample
victimisation experiences of private individuals
of a target population and then extrapolating findings
(such as assaults, purse snatches or abuse) and
to the larger group. Various methods can be used
their households (such as burglary, car theft or
to select a sample, but it is important to know
theft of garden produce). However, surveys can
the profile of the population from which it is drawn,
focus on organisations, such as commercial enter-
so that its suitability can be assessed and
prises, investigating corporate victimisation (fraud,
adjustments made, if necessary. For example, if
robbery) and experiences of staff (workplace
the survey is intended to assess victimisation
violence). They may also be used to explore
experiences of women across the city, it will be
particular locations (such as a neighbourhood
helpful to establish how many women there are in
or city centre) or experience of services (such
the city; their profile in terms of age, ethno-cultural
public transport).
identity and family/marital status; and some
Social Audit Of Sexual Violence, Johannesburg (South Africa)127 indication of education and/or ‘economic’ standing
(eg employee, carer).
Thirty eight areas were randomly selected for the study and a
team of 35 community-based field workers undertook interviews These are all factors that may have a bearing on
with over 37,000 women, men and young people, as well as victimisation and the survey will need to include
197 professional and service workers. Three cycles of fact ‘scanning’ or ‘profiling’ questions that enable a
comparison to be made between the sample and
finding and feedback were used, and some groups were
the population which it is intended to represent.
interviewed more than once. Self-report questionnaires were Gathering this information will also enable conclusions
completed by some 4,000 women, and street interviews to be drawn about how risk varies between particular
were held with over 2,000 men on their attitudes to violence, sections of the population. For groups that make
and what helped men resist its use. School interviews were up only a small proportion of the population,
‘booster’ samples may be needed to get enough
conducted with 16,000 young people and same sex focus responses to make useful inferences.
groups with men, women and young people. Theatre presen-
tations were used to help young people understand their own Particular attention needs to be given to the inclusion
and others’ attitudes and talk about sexual violence. of respondents from hard-to-reach groups, such
as the homeless and other disempowered
Interviews were also conducted with staff in 14 police
sections of society, who are likely to be under-
stations, as well as judicial, medical, and social services represented if special efforts are not made to
staff, NGOs and women’s organisations. secure their participation. However, this might best
127
http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org/practice_view.php?new_search=kb_practices_search.php
&back=%2Fkb_practices_results.php&practice_id=5.
128
The 2000 ICVS questionnaire is available from the UNICRI website. A Task Force, co-ordinated by UNODC and UNECE,
has been set up to develop international standards and guidelines for victim surveys.
http://www.unece.org/stats/documents/2006.01.crime.htm.
102
be accomplished using other methods (see 5.4 National Victimisation Survey, Hungary129
and section 17). It also needs to be recognised In 2003 the Hungarian Government commissioned its first
that conventional surveys can only be used with
older youth and adults. Different methods will
national victimological survey. The Ministry of the Interior
be needed to gather information from younger worked closely with a private company to devise and deliver
children, who have been shown in some societies the research. Calculations showed that a sample of 10,000
to experience and witness more crime than adults. was needed to get enough examples of victimisation to
make useful inferences about the wider adult population.
Various ‘delivery’ options exist for conducting the
interviews, each with its merits (Table 25). It may be Interviews were conducted by 450 trained interviewers, who
advantageous to apply different methods to visited respondents in their own homes and asked about
different groups and options can be combined. experiences over the previous year. There was a high
For example, when interviewed in the home,
response rate – only 14% refused to answer – but homeless
people were excluded from the sample. Only about half the
Table 25 crimes mentioned by respondents were reported to the police.
Victimisation Surveys: Delivery Options
Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Remote interview Questions asked over the Sample can be selected Will produce biased
phone. May be computer- randomly. Can quickly sample in areas with fewer
assisted, allowing answers contact many people over telephones. Likely to impact
to be keyed by interviewer a wide area at low cost. most on participation by
direct into computer. poor people.
Self completion Respondent reads and Sample can be selected Excludes people with
answers questions on randomly. More likely to poor literacy or who lack
paper, laptop computer elicit information about access to technology.
or online questionnaire, sensitive experiences, Low response rates. Higher
normally at home. Answers such as abuse, provided risk of misunderstanding.
not seen by interviewer. responses can be given
May be conducted by post. in private.
Face-to-face in Questions asked by an Sample can be selected Likely to be costly

the home interviewer, who also randomly. Can explain and slow. May inhibit
records the answers. questions and probe disclosure of sensitive
for more information information.
to clarify answers. Can
reveal incidents not
perceived to be crimes.
Street interviews Individuals selected in public Interviewer may aim to fill Sensitive information
places by interviewer who ‘quotas’ of sub-groups to unlikely to be disclosed.
also enters answers. achieve a representative Sample will not be random.
sample. Quite easy, fast Individuals who spend
and cost effective. more time at home will be
under-represented.
129
National Institute of Criminology (Hungary). Victims and opinions. Budapest, 2004.

The Nairobi Victims Survey, Kenya130
Conducted in 2001, this thorough survey began with an initial ‘scan’ to identify which issues
warranted detailed investigation and how this varied across the city. That allowed the main survey
to focus on the most relevant questions.
The scan involved 7,954 interviews in 110 different locations. Most were conducted on the
street or in the open at shopping centres, transport nodes and other focal point. These were
supplemented by home interviews with the elderly, infirm or institutionalised. Respondents were
randomly selected, over the age of 17 and asked about experiences in the previous year.
The main survey comprised 1,000 personal interviews, 500 household interviews and 300 interviews
focused on commercial enterprises.
To obtain samples for the individual and household surveys, the city was divided into primary
sampling units based on 1999 Census and grouped into six categories including, for example, low-
income informal, upper-income formal, inner city etc. A two stage process was then applied. First,
units were selected through systematic random sampling with probability proportional to estimated
size, ensuring that each type was appropriately represented. Then enumerators randomly selected
respondents within each spatial unit.
For the commercial survey, a similar two-stage process was adopted, but enterprises were stratified
by type of business (retail, manufacturing etc) to ensure a cross section was interviewed.
The survey was overseen by a Reference Group and UN-Habitat. Specialist advice was provided by
an expert from the Institute of Security Studies, South Africa. Fieldwork was undertaken by
Intermediate Technology Group – East Africa with a team of 15 fieldworkers.
respondents can be given the opportunity to Finally, it must be recognised that victimisation
answer sensitive questions confidentially by surveys are not a panacea. They depend on
writing the answers themselves and placing people’s memory, which is subject to ‘tele-
the completed questionnaire into a sealed, scoping’. They can be costly and time consuming.
unmarked envelope. Obtaining a sample that is representative of a
population may be difficult. Women are reluctant to
It is essential to prepare for the coding and talk freely in some countries. They do not produce
analysis as an integral part of the planning data about so-called ‘victimless’ crimes, such as
process, since this too will have a significant drug abuse; from homicide victims; or from young
influence on questionnaire design.131 Researchers victims. Responses may include incidents that are
should know in advance what data analysis will be not crimes and vice versa. Nevertheless, they are a
required, and be confident that these can be very valuable tool for assessing a city’s crime
produced from the final version of the questionnaire. problems and the views of its citizens about them.
130
131
Specialist software for questionnaire data analysis, such as SPSS, is widely available in academic institutions and its use will
greatly facilitate and accelerate the process. http://www.spss.com.
104
SROS collect information on the extent and nature
16.3 Self-Report of individual offending, drug and alcohol use,
Offending Surveys attitudes to and contact with the criminal justice
system, and offenders’ experiences of victimisation.
nformation on offenders from secondary sources They can be used to:
I is always incomplete because many offenders
are not detected and, even amongst those that ■ estimate the number of offenders in the popu-
are, not all are brought to justice. Sometimes the lation and the offences they commit,
proportion whose details are known is very small. including those not processed by the criminal
In England and Wales, for example, it is estimated justice system
that only about one in twenty offences concludes ■ estimate the proportion of offenders and
with an offender being processed through the offences that come to the attention of criminal
justice system. This leaves a major gap in our justice agencies
understanding of offenders and the factors that ■ estimate the proportion of active offenders
may help prevent future criminal behaviour. Self- who are young people and the proportion of
report offending surveys (SROS) can go a long crime they commit
way towards filling this knowledge gap. ■ gather information on the nature of offences
committed and offender motivation
Memory Telescoping ■ gather information on patterns of alcohol and
Surveys of past experience and behaviour illegal drug use and their links to offending
depend on individual memory, which is affected ■ gather data to identify the risk factors associated
with the onset and continuation of offending
by ‘telescoping’. Serious incidents are not likely
and drug use, and factors associated with
to be forgotten; they are kept in the memory as desistence.
if they happened recently (forward telescoping).
Less serious incidents are more likely to be HEUNI Report On Self-Reported Juvenile Offending
forgotten and, if they are not forgotten, they are A report published in 2004 explores the use of a standardised
remembered as if they happened longer ago than self-report questionnaire in England and Wales, the Netherlands
was actually the case (backward telescoping). and Spain in the 1990s as par t of the International Self-
Report Delinquency Study. The report is built around the
questions included in the questionnaire, and these questions –
a total of 499 of them – are reprinted in an Appendix for
others to use. The repor t concludes that the self-repor t
method is a viable and productive way of researching
juvenile delinquency.
Self-Reported Juvenile Delinquency in England and Wales,
The Netherlands and Spain (2004)132
132
Barberet R, Bowling B, Junger-Tas J, Rechea-Alberola C, van Kesteren J and Zurawan A. Self-reported juvenile delinquency
in England and Wales, The Netherlands and Spain. HEUNI Publication Series 43. Helsinki: HEUNI, 2004.
http://www.heuni.fi/uploads/w7b3a69oec.pdf

As with victimisation surveys, appropriate attention serious offenders, SROS have been carried out
must be given to the usual aspects of survey in England and Wales amongst prisoners and
design: including specifying objectives, population individuals serving community sentences.
definition, question formulation, sampling, delivery
method, coding and analysis. Additionally, because
such surveys depend on self-disclosure of illegal 16.4 Citizens’ Panels
activity, strenuous efforts must be made to create
itizens’ Panels comprise a representative
conditions under which information can be
collected confidentially and the anonymity of
C sample of residents in an area who are
consulted on local issues on an ongoing basis. In
participants guaranteed. Where this reassurance
some countries municipal authorities and other
can be given, and where surveys are well
agencies make use of panels for both surveys and
designed, SROS have proved to be a useful instru-
qualitative research into local services. In the same
ment for gathering information about offending and
way they can be used to consult communities as
high response rates can be achieved, even with
part of the safety audit process.
children as young as 10 years.
Panels usually comprise between 750 and 2,500

Community Consultation In England And Wales133 people, carefully selected to be a microcosm of
Researchers have compared the methods used by 263 Crime the adult population in terms of age, gender, ethno-
and Disorder Reduction Partnerships to consult with commu- cultural identity and other socio-demographic
nities as part of their safety audits and the development of variables. As panel members are willing volunteers
retained over an extended period (with occasional
prevention strategies. The study included assessment of ‘topping up’ with new members), time and money
public meetings, focus groups, juries, police community can be saved in recruitment and response rates
consultative groups, crime prevention panels, opinion are generally high. This combination of factors
surveys and citizen panels. Citizens’ panels, used by almost a means that the views collected are more likely to be
representative than most other forms of consultation.
quarter of Partnerships, scored highest on usefulness with
83% saying that they were useful. It is however necessary to be aware of their limitations.
Consultations usually take place ‘at a distance’,
through the post, online or by telephone, so there
Nevertheless, one must be aware of significant
is no interaction between consultees and minimal
threats to data reliability and accuracy. Non-
direct contact with researchers. (Sub-groups can
response is likely to introduce bias, since
be brought together for discussion, but this
individuals who have committed a lot of offences
is more complicated.) There is usually limited
are less likely to participate. Memory will be
opportunity to explore issues in depth and the
affected by telescoping. Even with a guarantee of
process does little to develop participation in
anonymity, it is possible that some respondents
delivering solutions. Ownership of the questions
will not answer truthfully. For example, in Australia
remains with the organising agency, usually a
only 57% of police detainees, who tested positive
public service provider. Most importantly, the way
to methamphetamines in a urinalysis test, self-
panels function and the commitment needed may
reported in the interview that they had used the
reduce the involvement of hard to reach groups,
drug in the previous 48 hours.134 In an attempt to
and weight the sample towards older and more
gather more information about prolific and more
settled residents.
133
Newburn T and Jones T. Consultation by Crime and Disorder Partnerships. Police Research Series Paper 148. London:
Home Office, 2002. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/prgpdfs/prs148.pdf
134
McGregor K and Makkai T. Self-reported drug use – how prevalent is under-reporting, Trends and Issues in Crime and Justice
260. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2003.
http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/10850/20051030/www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi2/tandi260.pdf
106
Crime and Justice Surveys (C&JS), England and Wales135
The first of four annual self-report offending surveys took place in 2003 under the auspices of the
Home Office. It collected information on the extent of lifetime and last year offending; drug and
alcohol use; attitudes to the criminal justice system; and victimisation experiences.
A random probability sample design was used to select a main sample of 10,079 from the general
population aged from ten to 65. A ‘booster’ sample of 1,882 black and minority ethnic respondents
was added to allow separate examination of their experiences, but homeless people were not
included. Young people were ‘oversampled’, so just under half the main group were aged between
10 and 25, reflecting the strong interest in their behaviour. The unusually wide age range of the
sample made it possible to estimate the proportion of total crime attributable to young people.
Findings included:
■ In the past year, 1 in 10 respondents had committed a ‘core’ offence (burglary, robbery, selling
drugs) and 2% were prolific offenders (six or more offences).
■ Prolific offenders formed 2% of the sample and 26% of last year offenders, but accounted for
82% of all offences measured.
■ Males aged between 10 and 25 (14% of the sample) accounted for almost half (47%) of all offences.
■ 5% of incidents were committed when the offender had taken illegal drugs or alcohol.
■ The most common reasons given for ceasing to offend were ‘I knew it was wrong’ and ‘I grew
up, settled down’.
A 74% response rate was achieved for the main sample. In subsequent years, the sample was
reduced to 5,000 interviews, including some follow-ups with the original group to allow longitu-
dinal study. Additional complementary surveys were conducted in prisons and with offenders on
sentences served in the community.
135
Budd T, Sharp C and Mayhew P. Offending in England and Wales: first results from the 2003 Crime And Justice Survey. Home
Office Research Study 275. London: Home Office, 2005. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hors275.pdf
Other reports from the 2003 and subsequent sweeps of the C&JS are available on the Home Office website at
http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/index.html.

17 Gathering Qualitative
Information
17.1 The Need For

Qualitative Data ‘Conseils de Quartier’ (Cameroon)
uantitative data is never enough on its own. In the cities of Yaoundé and Douala a need
Q Dry statistics need to be complemented by
qualitative information, drawn from interviews,
was identified for local consultative commit-
tees. Initially groups were constituted
meetings and other forms of consultation. It is the
material gathered through these contacts that will specifically for crime prevention, but it was
illuminate not just what is happening, but how soon realised that consultative arrangements
and why it is occurring, crucial to gaining a real needed to be rooted in local governance
understanding. And it will reveal perceptions and mechanisms. Attention therefore turned to the
concerns, priorities and opportunities, which
should inform the development of the future
‘conseils de quartier’, already established in
prevention strategy. These are issues that do not some municipalities. Amendments were intro-
easily translate into simple numbers and are much duced to their design and mandate to allow
more effectively addressed through exploratory them to work on safety and security issues.
discussion and other forms of participative activity.
As a result, crime prevention became
However, this does not necessarily mean
‘inventing’ new consultative arrangements. It is embedded in local development and the
often better to make use of existing mechanisms, if ‘conseils de quartier’ was involved in auditing
these work well. their areas, as well as identifying priorities and
implementation of the agreed strategy.
Qualitative information will be required in
Implementation Stages 1 and 2. However, the
nature of the material collected will vary depend on Laura Petrella, Coordinator,
local circumstances. In Stage 1, when the objective UN-Habitat Safer Cities Programme
is quickly to build up an overview through ‘wide
and shallow’ analysis, the main sources will
normally be key informants.
108
In Implementation Stage 2, as the safety It is appropriate to reiterate that community
audit moves into ‘narrow and deep’ analysis, consultation is not the same as community
concentrating on more specific issues and areas, engagement. This is a much wider process
qualitative inputs will be needed from different considered elsewhere in this Guidance (see 3.2).
sources. They will include individuals, groups
and organisations with specialist knowledge in the
relevant subject areas. But there is also likely to be 17.2 Techniques
more ‘grass-roots’ involvement, including that of
communities on which attention is focused and
For Collecting
whose needs are emerging as possible strategic Qualitative
priorities.136
Information
Here attention is first given to a range of consultative
methods and then specific tools for gathering Key Informant Interviews
qualitative information, as listed below: Key informant interviews depend for success on
individuals with an excellent understanding of a
Consultative methods particular subject. Their main role will normally be
to complement quantitative data by providing a
■ Key informant interviews
well-informed interpretation and assessment of
■ Open meetings what is happening: why are problems occurring,
■ Focus groups which responses are working well, where are
■ In-depth survey interviews improvements needed, what resources could be
■ Outreach work deployed? However, in the absence of good
quantitative data, informants may also become the
Consultative tools primary source of basic information about the
■ Walkabouts nature and scale of problems.
■ Snowballing
■ Citizens’ Juries
■ Participatory budgeting
Consulting Communities
“Participative action research, or consultative research, provides a particular and very valuable kind
of data. It doesn’t purport to be scientific, but it probably provides a better reflection of the situation
than a formal victimisation survey. What’s particularly useful is that it helps to make connections
between offending behaviour and the environment.”
Barbara Holtmann, Senior Manager, Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa
“The most appropriate consultation methods are based on close personal contact with the
communities through community fora, informal meetings and person-to-person discussions. Local
newsletters and special television programmes can reach nearly all the members of communities,
providing ample information on the local criminal and safety situation as well as about the perform-
ance of the police and local authorities.”
Pál Baan, Senior Chief Counsellor, Ministry of Justice and Law Enforcement, Hungary
136
For a definition of ‘communities’, see 5.1.

In Stage 1 of the safety audit, when there is always meeting at venues that have good accessibility
a large number of issues to investigate, informants and at times likely to be convenient can all improve
are likely to be the main source of qualitative input, attendance and involvement. Several smaller
ideally with each person able to contribute a ‘local’ meetings are likely to be more successful
citywide perspective, providing a ‘one-stop shop’ than a larger meeting.
to the audit team. Informants will include senior
representatives of public services or agencies; Such meetings can attract a large and diverse
community organisations with citywide responsibil- group of people with varied experiences and
ities; and other significant interest groups. Most are perceptions. Inevitably though it will be those with
likely to be members of the audit ‘round table’ (see stronger views and motivation who are most likely
1.5). In cities where crime, victimisation or preven- to turn up and contribute. There is of course no
tion appears linked to ethno-cultural identity, it will easy way of ascertaining whether the views
be important to include representatives of relevant expressed are representative of the community or
groups amongst those interviewed. of a biased minority, but children and young
Implementation Stage 2 is likely to involve informants people are unlikely participants. Similarly, they will
with specialised knowledge, perhaps relating to a not normally be attractive events to individuals who
particular topic, group or sector. are socially excluded, marginalised or disempowered,
unless special encouragement and practical
Deciding which individuals to include as key support is given. In some situations this will also
informants is likely to be challenging. There may apply to women and ethno-cultural minorities.
be a long line of people wanting to express their
views, but the audit team will have limited time and Whilst their openness is a strength, it can make
personnel. It makes sense to compile a ‘long list’ meetings harder to plan and manage. The numbers
of topics on which information gathering is considered attending will be uncertain in advance and there
desirable and then to narrow this down to match can be problems if too many – or too few – arrive. It
available resources (Table 26). is difficult in such settings to engage with more
sensitive issues, such as domestic violence
Open Meetings and crimes of intolerance. A well-structured
Open meetings can be used for two-way commu- programme and careful facilitation are vital to
nication, providing attendees with information and ensure the debate remains constructive; that differ-
eliciting their responses through questions and ences of opinion do not degenerate into conflict;
discussion. They are by definition open to anyone that the agenda is not ‘hijacked’ by those with
able to attend and in that respect are ‘inclusive’. vested interests; and that a vocal minority is not
Holding them close to the group(s) being allowed to dominate discussion (Table 27).
consulted, publicising them well in advance,
Table 26
Critical Success Factors For Key Informant Interviews
■ Compile a list of potential interviewees and then select the most important
■ Set out your agenda in advance so the informant can prepare for the interview
■ Advise informant how much time you would like him/her to keep free
■ Make best use of the interview by ‘getting up to speed’ in advance
■ Take a second person to the interview who can record what is said
■ Get agreement to answer follow-up questions that arise after the meeting
110
Cherbourg Community Safety Audit, Queensland (Australia)137
The Aboriginal community of Cherbourg was concerned about the high levels of crime (in particular
youth crime) in Cherbourg and the nearby town of Murgon. The Department of Communities
established from State data that local crime rates were high, but no information was available to
explain why this was the case or its impact on the community. From April to June 2006, consultations
were conducted with over 50 people in both communities. In addition to children, young people,
Elders, Traditional Owners, leaders and family members, the following representatives were interviewed:
■ Manager of Corporate and Financial ■ Principal of Murgon State High School
services, Murgon Shire Council ■ Senior Sergeant, Queensland Police, Murgon
■ Regional Manager of the Aboriginal and ■ Depar tment of Communities (Juvenile
Torres Strait Islander Legal Service, Murgon Justice), Murgon and Cherbourg
■ Head of School, Cherbourg State School ■ Department of Child Safety, Murgon
■ Manager, Gundoo Child Care Centre ■ Cherbourg Sport and Recreation Centre
■ Child Care Worker, Gundoo Child Care Centre ■ Critical Incidents Group
■ School Family Liaison Officer, Cherbourg ■ Leadership Centre, Nunderie TAFE, Cherbourg
Primary School ■ Manager, ‘Bahun Jal Mano – Silver Lining
■ Chairman, Cherbourg Aboriginal Shire Retreat
Council ■ Youth Worker, ‘Bahun Jal Mano – Silver
■ Aboriginal Teachers Aide, Cherbourg Lining Retreat
Primary School, also working with the ■ Team leader, Barambah Regional Medical
Critical Incidents Group Services
■ Winifred Fisher Knowledge Centre, ■ Strong and Smart Digital Unit, Cherbourg
Cherbourg State School State School
Table 27
Critical Success Factors For Open Meetings
■ Publicise the meeting well in advance ■ Ensure safety audit team is effectively
■ Meet at a convenient location, venue and time represented
■ ■ Develop in advance a list of questions and
Clearly define its purpose and what it is hoped
to accomplish discussion points
■ ■ Set out clearly where the meeting fits into the
Personally invite individuals you want to attend
■ Offer encouragement to those likely to feel wider process
■ Outline meeting constraints and ground-rules
apprehensive or marginalised
■ ■ Identify the specific areas for discussion
Provide practical help to anyone who has diffi-
culty getting there ■ Outline at the end opportunities for further
■ Make arrangements at the venue to help engagement
participants with a disability ■ Keep accurate notes for circulation soon after
■ Keep presentations relevant, short and simple the meeting
■ ■ Close the meeting with thanks to all involved
Maintain a positive tone throughout
■ ■ Consider alternative ways to communicate
Consider using an independent facilitator
with people unable to be there that day
137
Stanley J, Taylor S and Wilson W. Cherbourg community safety plan report, (30.6.06). Australia Focus Pty Ltd, 2006. www.focus-planning.com

Focus Groups In-depth Survey Interviews
‘Focus group’ is a term nowadays loosely applied Surveys are usually conducted to gather information
to almost any group discussion. But, more correctly, that can be expressed numerically and then used
it applies to a special type of meeting, organised to make statistical estimates about a population
and conducted in a particular way, to obtain from a sample. Surveys can however be used in a
perceptions on a specific topic that will be useful very different way. In-depth interviews involve
to decision makers. Within a safety audit, focus extended and loosely structured discussion of a
groups will be most useful during Implementation narrower – and usually complex – topic, about
Stage 2 (‘narrow and deep’ analysis’) or Implemen- which the respondent has personal knowledge
tation Stage 4 (‘Consulting and Communicating’). or experience. They are an excellent method for
gathering the detailed insight to a particular subject
A typical focus group contains six to ten participants required in Implementation Stage 2 of a safety
selected because they have in common certain audit, complementing more quantitative
characteristics that relate to the topic. The discussion approaches (Table 30).
is conducted by a skilled facilitator who must
create a permissive non-threatening environment Interviews lasting at least an hour are usually
for debate over two or three hours. The topic is conducted one-to-one and face-to-face. The aim
briefly introduced by the facilitator, who then poses is to gather a collection of views from a sample of
questions for the group to explore (Table 28). people in similar situations, but more through
conversation or discussion than strict question and
A focus group differs from conventional meetings multiple-choice answers. As the information will not
in several ways, and has advantages over both be used for measurement or statistical extrapola-
meetings and face-to-face interviews. It usually tion, the survey is not constrained by the need for a
involves concentrated attention being given to a large sample or to follow a rigid format. This
tightly defined subject, which is examined in approach lends itself particularly to the
depth. The primary emphasis is on discussion and exploration of sensitive matters, such as family
interaction within the group to develop thinking, violence, and issues about which little is known
rather than on any formal presentations or ‘top (which makes formal questionnaire design difficult).
table’ arrangement. Its size enables everyone to
be fully engaged, but is big enough to include Outreach Work
varied opinions. The facilitator can probe and A consultation exercise is likely to exclude impor-
challenge, but there is no pressure to reach a tant sections of a city’s population, if it is simply
consensus, the aim being to hear a range of views based on surveys, meetings and panels directed
and to find out why they are held (Table 29). at ‘mainstream’ groups. That will certainly apply to
people with low literacy, poor mobility and
A study based on focus groups will normally language difficulties. Also at risk of exclusion are
include several groups with similar participants, not the poor and disempowered – such as the home-
just one, to get a better understanding of attitudes less, immigrants and refugees. Others, including
and feelings. At the end of the process, there women and minorities, may not participate
should be a good insight to the topic but, because because of fear, cultural traditions or other factors.
only a small number of people will have been Yet their participation is particularly important
involved, it cannot be assumed that the views because research shows that these groups are
expressed are applicable to the wider population. likely to experience higher than average levels of
Where possible, other methods should be used victimisation and because crime can have a
to check whether the ideas and opinions have disproportionate impact on their lives.
wider support.
112
Interviews On Violence Against Women, Dar es Salaam (Tanzania)
As part of the process to develop a safety strategy, a victim survey was carried out in March 2000.
As well as 1,000 household interviews, 42 in-depth interviews were conducted with women who
had experienced violence and abuse to explore questions that could not be covered in the main
survey. Most (79%) had been economically abused, more than three-quarters had experienced
emotional abuse and 71% physical abuse. Nearly half (45%) said they had been sexually abused.
Many of the women had experienced all four types of abuse.
Crime in Dar es Salaam.Results of a City Victim Survey (2001)138
Table 28
Example Questions For A Neighbourhood Focus Group Meeting
■ Tell me about your area and what you like/ ■ Is there a serious local problem with illegal
dislike about living here? drugs? How do you know?
■ What makes you feel safe/unsafe here? ■ What are the reasons for young people getting
■ What are the main crime and disorder into trouble around here?
problems/issues affecting this community? ■ What more could be done to tackle the causes
■ What do you think could be done to make you of crime and disorderly behaviour?
feel safer? ■ What is the best thing about living here?
Table 29
Critical Success Factors For Focus Groups
■ Be clear about the topic and how the results ■ Ask simple clear open-ended questions that
will inform the audit encourage debate
■ Carefully consider criteria for selecting participants ■ Arrange for someone to take notes or tape the
■ Plan for a series of groups, not just one discussion (with participants’ permission)
■ ■ Consider incentives to improve attendance (eg
Appoint a skilful facilitator who can manage
time and debate pay expenses and meet at a convenient time)
■ ■ Adopt a systematic, verifiable and focused
Avoid groups with more than 15 members
■ Select people who do not know each other process to analyse responses
■ Ensure the report relates to the purpose and
■ Use a room that is conducive to discussion
the audience
Table 30
Critical Success Factors For In-depth Survey Interviews
■ Use researchers able to establish a rapport ■ Hold meetings at comfortable places where it
with the interviewees is possible to talk in confidence
■ Ensure respondent is aware in advance of the ■ Begin with ‘easy’ questions and move gradually
topic to be discussed to more sensitive topics
■ Arrange meetings at times when the respondent ■ Get permission to record the meeting to avoid
can speak without interruption the distraction of note taking.
■ Provide assurances of confidentiality
138
Robertshaw R, Louw A and Mtani A. Crime in Dar Es Salaam. Results of a city victim survey. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2001.
http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Other/DaresSalaam/Content.html

Post Genocide Community Consultation in Rwanda139
Communities can be involved in identifying problems and solutions in the most difficult circumstances.
In 1994 Rwanda suffered appalling acts of mass genocide, so engaging communities in the post-
conflict period on an issue as sensitive as crime and policing was not easy. The environment that
faced the Rwandan/UK audit team included: polarised ‘ethnicities’; internal displacement; fear,
hostility and suspicion; language barriers; poverty and bereavement; and a lack of official data due
to its destruction and oral traditions.
The process involved consulting with institutions, organisations and targeted groups that involved
using meetings, focus groups, questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and unstructured street
interviews. The community element of this programme collected the opinions, feelings and ideas of
over 7,000 respondents from every Rwandan municipality. A culturally-sensitive and distinctive
methodology was developed that included:
■ deploying a mixed gender, police/community, Rwandan/UK team

■ reassuring respondents that the safety audit was not a government or international diktat
■ supporting team members, introducing themselves at the focus groups and speaking about
the audit process
■ visiting people in their own environments
■ facilitating involvement of groups that felt vulnerable/in fear – for example, informal women’s
groups that were too afraid to talk in front of police of or men
■ UK team members learning enough Kinyarwanda to give an opening address
■ promoting awareness and raising interest in advance through the media and more distinctive
outreach methods
■ making consultation information accessible, including with graphic representations
■ using traditional dances and songs at the beginning and end of most focus groups
■ ensuring media coverage at every stage with an emphasis on radio broadcasts
■ performing plays to demonstrate the current and required state of affairs
■ ensuring as far as possible that all sections of a community were represented and giving
everyone a chance to speak
■ allowing time for lengthy discussions and debate, which are part of the oral tradition
■ ensuring refreshments, particularly drinks, were available during meetings
■ anticipating and managing conflict between participants or directed at researchers.
A constant theme was the positive response from the community who felt that the process of
involving them, and making a proactive effort to listen to what they had to say, was of major
significance and greatly welcomed.
139
The Rwandan Human Rights and Police Conduct Audit took place inn 2000. It was funded by the Danish International Development
Agency (DANIDA) and implemented by IODA through the UNDP Mission in Rwanda.”
114
In any city therefore the safety audit team needs to Consulting Hard-To-Reach Groups
identify significant groups likely to be excluded or “The elderly, the homeless, members of
severely under-represented and find alternative
ways to bring their experiences, concerns and
minorities and youngsters should be first
ideas into the process. One option is outreach approached by local social workers and family
work that deliberately seeks out and engages with helpers, then called together and be given the
people who can provide those missing inputs in opportunity to express themselves freely in
‘their’ settings. With groups that are vulnerable,
identifying their own specific problems and
fearful or suspicious, researchers need to have not
only the necessary technical skills but the right their solutions. Another example is the gypsies,
personality to build the confidence of respondents who respect police officers coming from their
on which success depends (Table 31). own minority group. Speaking the minorities’
languages and participation at their cultural
Outreach consultations can take different forms. It
may involve casually meeting individuals on the events helps a lot in obtaining their confidence,
street for informal conversations or arranging to which is as vital in dealing with them as getting
have a more structured discussion with a family in them involved.”
their home. It could include bringing together a
group who will feel comfortable and not intimi- Pál Baan, Senior Chief Counsellor, Ministry of
dated talking in front of each other, perhaps in a the Justice and Law Enforcement, Hungary
community setting such as a mosque or village
meeting place.
Table 31
Critical Success Factors For Outreach Work
■ Consider using trusted intermediaries for ■ Provide assurances of confidentiality
introductions ■ Avoid formal ‘question and answer’ interviewing
■ Use researchers likely to establish a relationship ■ Take time to build trust and work towards more
and put respondents at ease difficult topics
■ Meet on their terms in non-institutional settings ■ Provide feedback on audit findings
where they feel comfortable

process, demonstrating agency commitment to a
17.3 Tools For participative approach. This can in turn generate
Gathering community interest and increase involvement later,
including in strategy implementation.
Qualitative
In both Stages 1 and 2, as well as bringing people
Information together, visioning can help ensure that the safety
audit moves in the right direction, identifying which
Visioning issues should be examined in greater depth. With
Visioning is an exercise to build a shared vision of a common vision in mind, it is possible to work
the future, a vision which may relate to an area, an backwards to establish what steps need to be
organisation or a service. In the context of crime taken to achieve it. This narrowing of the agenda is
prevention, the vision will be what it is like to grow particularly important given the very wide range of
up, live and work in a place that is safe, where topics that potentially could be covered (Table 32).
people can be free from fear, violence, victimisation
and intolerance. It is very important to have a In Implementation Stages 3 and 4, visioning can
common vision, since this will unite people and help the Steering Group determine priorities
secure their commitment to working together. for action and point towards responses which
should be incorporated in the strategy itself.
A visioning event can be useful at various Stages Looking further ahead, the vision may be used as
in the safety audit process. In Implementation a benchmark against which the impact of the
Stage 1, for example, it can be carried out at citywide strategy can be evaluated.
level with key stakeholders, such as in a ‘round
table’ setting. This can help build a sense of The simplicity of the concept makes it suitable for
collective direction, ownership and support, but it consultation with many different types of group,
can also expose differences of view, which need to including young people, and its forward-looking
be explored and reconciled. nature encourages constructive engagement.
Nevertheless, one needs to recognise some
Implementation Stage 2 can involve visioning with limitations. Without careful management, unrealistic
neighbourhoods, communities of interest and the expectations can be raised, leading to disillusion
hard-to-reach. As well as generating valuable when hopes are dashed. Different visions are not
inputs to the audit, it is a good way of involving always easily reconciled, which can be divisive
people at an early stage in the decision-making
Table 32
Sample Questions For Neighbourhood Visioning
It is 10 years from today and all the things you would wish for to make your neighbourhood a safe
place have happened!
■ What is it like to live in your neighbourhood now?
■ What is it that makes it like that?
■ Which three words best describe the new situation?
■ What are the greatest benefits of what has happened?
■ What needed to happen to bring about the improvement?
A vision can be defined in words, but it may also be effectively portrayed through painting or drama,
which may be more appropriate for certain groups, including children.
116
Table 33
Visioning Events: Good Practice Principles
1 Visioning is of maximum use at an early point in the consultation process.
2 Good preparation is essential; background information is needed to create an informed vision.
3 Visioning must be a shared activity rather than an individual endeavour. But it can be useful to
begin with each individual defining his/her personal vision and then exploring what is shared and
what is different in the group.
4 Allow plenty of time for discussion and use a skilled facilitator.
5 Work towards creating a vision statement, which should be short and inspirational.
and weaken partnerships. Visioning can lead to Exploratory Walks In Dar Es Salaam (Tanzania)
poor results because people ‘can’t want what they Exploratory walks in informal settlements,
don’t know’; sometimes it is better to offer a range
of choices than a blank piece of paper (Table 33)!
undertaken by women with city planning offi-
cials, led to identification of a number of issues
Exploratory Walks that were not evident from either police statis-
This activity is usually associated with concerns tics or other community consultations.
about particular geographical areas and involves
Insecurity was linked to illegal drinking dens,
meeting ‘on site’ to discuss those concerns and
explore ideas about how they could be the existence of underdeveloped plots and the
addressed. It is therefore most useful in dir ty/unhealthy environment, which was a
Implementation Stage 2. Participants might be a particular concern for the security of children.
cross-section of local people, a particular interest
As a result, the crime prevention strategy
group or a mixed group that includes agency
representatives. Ideas are developed during the included engagement with the drinking den
walkabout and can then be communicated to the owners and the regulatory body in charge of
audit team. Using disposable cameras to capture plot allocation, as well as cleaning of the settle-
information can assist groups to communicate ments, in addition to the existing work of
their views and concerns to a wider audience.140
neighbourhood watch and employment
The walkabout is particularly suited to looking at generation. This form of audit also changed
matters that relate to the physical environment, perceptions of city officials about their role in
such as building design or street lighting, or the crime prevention and on women’s needs, as it
use of an area, for example by street drinkers,
became apparent that planning officers could
speeding traffic or youth gangs. Walking about in
the location and at a time when problems are consider crime prevention as one of their areas
evident can be very effective in raising awareness, of competence.
clarifying what is wrong, increasing engagement
and developing responses. The practical nature of Laura Petrella, Coordinator,
UN-Habitat Safer Cities Programme
the process gives it a realism that local people
tend to find more appealing than a meeting room,
and participants seem to move naturally from
problems to responses.
140
Some organisations see walkabouts as the basis for a safety audit that focuses on streets and other public spaces. A Safety audit
resource kit: for women and communities, which covers walkabouts, has been produced by METRAC (Canada).
http://www.metrac.org/programs/safe/why.htm

Fear of Crime Survey of Immigrant Communities,
Sydney (Australia) such a group who then facilitates links with others,
This study was designed to tap the views of immigrant who in turn extend the network further and so on –
‘Sydneysiders’, whose voices went largely unrecorded hence a snowballing effect.
in English-based opinion polls. Over 80% of the 835
Citizens’ Juries
respondents were first- or second-generation immigrants A Citizens’ Jury is a randomly selected and demo-
from 21 birthplace groups with non-English speaking back- graphically representative panel of citizens that
grounds. Most interviews with adults were conducted in meets for four or five days to carefully examine an
a language other than English. issue of public significance. The jury, usually
consisting of 18-24 people who are paid a stipend
A snowballing methodology was used, selecting people for their time, serves as a microcosm of the public.
through community networks. This, researchers believed, They hear from a variety of expert witnesses and
are able to deliberate together on the issue. On the
resulted in higher participation of immigrant minority voices
final day of their moderated hearings, the members
and greater reliability of responses, than would have been of the Citizens’ Jury present their recommendations
achieved through traditional random sampling. to decision makers and the public. Their role can
be enhanced by good communication, possibly
Gangs, Crime and Community Safety: including a web presence and media contacts.
Perceptions and Experiences in
Within the safety audit process, a Jury may be
Multicultural Sydney (2002)141
convened to examine a particular problem during
Implementation Stage 2, to inform the selection of
priorities in Stage 3 or to consider the audit’s findings
in Stage 4.
Walkabouts have been used very effectively as
part of women’s safety audits and, more generally, Juries are based on the belief that, once a small
to assess safety issues along routes to and from sample of a population has heard the evidence
transport nodes. The process should begin with their deliberations can fairly represent the perspectives
clarification of objectives and methods to be used. of the wider community (Table 34). This reasoning
The group then observes or walks through the contrasts with most other common quantitative
area, discussing and recording points along the and qualitative consultative methods, which
way. This can be made more systematic with a usually involve larger samples to represent the
checklist of questions to consider, and it may be public’s views. The function of the jury members is
useful to repeat the process at different times, also different from participants in other forms of in
days or months, and even with different groups. qualitative research:
Snowballing ■ Jurors are given time to reflect and deliberate

Snowballing simply involves using established freely with each other, occasionally assisted
contacts to provide referrals and introductions by a neutral advisor
to others. The process can help the audit ■ They are given the opportunity to scrutinise
team engage with relevant individuals in areas the information they receive from witnesses,
where they have few contacts and is particularly whom they interrogate themselves
useful in connecting with hard-to-reach groups, ■ They are expected to develop a set of con-
such as drug users or gang members. clusions or ‘vision’ for the future – which need
Researchers make contact with one person in not be unanimous.
141
University of Technology, Sydney and the University of Western Sydney. Gangs, crime and community safety: perceptions and
experiences in multicultural. Sydney: 2002. http://www.uts.edu.au/new/releases/2002/September/23.html
118
The first jury was convened in the US in 1974, Participatory Budgeting in Porto Alegre (Brazil)
although similar initiatives were emerging in Participatory budgeting (PB) originated in this city of 1.5m
Germany, and the concept is now used in several
countries, including Denmark, Spain, Australia and
people in 1989 and 50,000 now take part. The annual cycle
Great Britain. A Citizens’ Jury Handbook has been starts in January with meetings across the city to encourage
developed by the Jefferson Center, originator of participation; one study has shown that poor people, less
the process, which is available free online.142 well-educated people and black people are not inhibited in
attending and speaking up. In March there are assemblies in
Participatory Budgeting
One of the most effective and powerful methods of each of the16 districts, as well as thematic meetings covering
involving communities is participatory budgeting, a such areas as transport, crime and health. At these very well
process of democratic deliberation and decision- attended events, delegates are elected to represent specific
making, in which ordinary city residents determine
neighbourhoods and they meet frequently over subsequent
investment priorities and decide how to allocate
part of a municipal budget. Although resources are months to consider local needs and agree their priorities.
not actually allocated during the safety audit, the
Priorities from across the city are combined for consideration
concept can be adapted for this process. It can be
used to democratically determine priorities for by the Municipal Budget Council, a 42-member forum of
action and how a particular community or group representatives of all the districts and thematic meetings.
would like to see resources divided between Its main function is to reconcile the demands of each district
different options. As with the Citizens’ Jury, it is with available resources, and to propose and approve an
important that there is a clear commitment from the
safety audit team to hear the conclusions and
overall municipal budget. The resulting budget is binding –
respond constructively to them, if the participants the council can suggest changes but not require them. The
are to feel that it is worthwhile. budget is submitted to the mayor who may veto it, but this
has never happened.
Various studies suggest participatory budgeting
results in improved services, more equitable public The internet provides an ongoing vehicle for involvement,
spending, greater accountability, higher levels of which the city has now extended to other planning activities.
public participation (especially by
As participatory budgeting has developed, the numbers of
marginalised residents), and citizenship learning.
Developed and used widely by local government political, cultural, and neighbourhood groups have doubled,
in Brazil, it has now been adopted elsewhere in especially in poorer districts.
Table 34
Citizens’ Juries: Good Practice Principles
1 Jurors must receive sufficient information (both written and oral) to reach a decision.
2 Witnesses should give evidence and can be cross-examined.
3 Jurors must have adequate time to become informed and discuss the issue, so 3-5 days should
be allowed on any significant topic.
4 A trained moderator is essential but their role is to facilitate discussion, not act as a judge in a legal
jury by directing the jurors.
5 The decisions or recommendations of a Jury are not binding, but it is important that there should
be agreement that the sponsoring body (ie the audit team) will take into account the recommen-
dations and, if these are not implemented, reasons should be given and published.
142
http://www.jefferson-center.org.

Walkabout Checklist for Women’s Safety Audits, Cowichan Valley
Safer Futures Program, British Columbia (Canada)143
General Impressions and Overall Design

■ What is your first reaction to this place?
■ What three words best describe the area?
■ Is it easy to find your way around the area? Does it make sense?
■ Is the area (building) accessible?
■ Is it served by transit?
■ Would you know where to go for help? How accessible is help?
■ Are there signs, for example, indicating how to access emergency services?
Isolation
■ Does the area feel isolated? When?
■ Are there many people around the area? Morning, day, evening?
■ Do the surrounding land uses encourage people to be there?
■ How far is the nearest emergency service? Are there any public phones around?
Lighting
■ Is the lighting bright enough, even, and in good repair?
■ Are there any lights out?
■ Are walkways, sidewalks, directional signs and doorways sufficiently illuminated?
■ Is lighting obstructed by trees or bushes?
■ Would you be able to identify someone at a distance?
Sightlines, Movement Predictors, Entrapment Sites

■ Are you able to see clearly what is up ahead?
■ Are there small, confined areas where you (or others) could be hidden from view?
■ How easy would it be to get away if you were threatened?
■ How easy would it be for an offender to disappear?
■ Are there any alternative routes available to you?
■ Are there any rooms or storage places left unlocked?
Maintenance
■ Does the area feel cared for or abandoned?
■ Is there litter, graffiti or vandalism present?
■ Do you know who to report problems to?
Signage
■ Are there signs or other information that tell you about the area, where to find assistance,
wheelchair access, entrances and exits?
■ Can they be seen and read easily? By someone in a wheelchair, with a sight impairment?
■ Are there any signs that should be added or changed?
143
Cowichan Valley Safer Futures Program (undated), Women and Community Safety: a resource book on planning for safer
communities. Canada. http://www.saferfutures.org/publications.php#fs
120
Latin America, as well as in Europe, Asia, Africa, ■ a widely understood annual cycle, which
and North America. The process has been extended provides a framework for participation,
to provide specific opportunities for children and planning and implementation
youth, especially in Brazil. Within the field of crime ■ a network of support agencies involved in
prevention, it clearly has a further role in deter- local capacity building and the communication
mining how real resources should be spent in later and promotion of policy information and practice
strategy development and action planning stages. ■ a budget matrix, which processes local priorities
into a comprehensive table to inform expendi-
Although a simple concept, the success of partici- ture across the city and across established
patory budgeting depends on it being undertaken themes.144
within a well-defined framework that includes:
■ a clearly defined geographical structure, 17.4 The Need For

complementing political boundaries, which
facilitates decision-making and service delivery
A Balanced
■ well supported, city-wide meetings and Approach
debates to involve local communities in
o single information gathering method or tool
discussion on thematic issues, decide
strategic priorities, develop actions plans and N – quantitative or qualitative – will be sufficient
on its own. A successful safety audit will use a
evaluate and monitor on-going activity, in
a manner which complements existing variety of approaches to describe and explain what
representative democratic structures is happening.
Local Crime Prevention Toolkit – The ‘Tin Box’ (South Africa)145

This innovative resource was developed in templates for strategic planning, project plan-
response to growing demand for tools to ning, communications and monitoring. These
support the development and implementation of are available on CD for users to adapt and apply
local crime prevention strategies. It includes a to their own local conditions and needs. There
step-by-step guide to each stage of the are also tools for crime mapping and the mobili-
process, including gaining an understanding of sation of sectors such as schools.
local problems (the safety audit).
Ongoing development will see it expand to
Materials are included which will engage incorporate a tool for integrated budgeting, and
communities as well as officials. The toolkit a more detailed safety audit at the local level.
comes in a large tin box, complete with a The toolkit is a partnership initiative led by the
magnetic board and magnets representing key CSIR Crime Prevention Centre with the NGO
local institutions, a jigsaw puzzle, guidance UMAC, the South African Police Service and
booklets and resource materials on a range of Business Against Crime.
local prevention issues, and a series of
144
Developed from ‘What is Participatory Budgeting? A Community Pride Initiative Briefing Paper, 2003.
http://www.participatorybudgeting.org.uk
145
For more information, contact CSIR Crime Prevention Centre (Pretoria, South Africa).
http://www.crimeprevention.csir.co.za/about.php3

Community Consultation In Kragujevac (Serbia)
Kragujevac is an industrial city in central Newly-appointed neighbourhood police officers
Serbia with a population over 175,000 (2002) made 10,000 door-to-door visits to speak to resi-
of which 99% are ethnic Serbs and 1% Roma dents about local problems. A programme of
and Internally Displaced Persons (‘Egyptian regular meetings in each Mesna Zajednica
Roma’ and Albanians). Closure and contraction (ward) was introduced, as well as local
of local industry have created serious surgeries, so citizens could communicate
unemployment and, as the situation deteriorated, concerns, ‘intelligence’ and solutions. An active
police perceived a worsening of crime problems. media campaign was developed to encourage
Property violations, such as burglaries, rose feedback and participation, and a questionnaire
sharply and violence, including armed survey of 700 residents was under taken to
robberies and domestic violence (including establish priorities. As problems were identified,
murder), increased significantly. Organised Working Groups covering key themes, such
crime, the black market and corruption were as family violence and juvenile crime were
increasingly evident. A high propor tion of established. Each included senior representatives
offences involved criminal damage or disorder. of key agencies who were able to provide
further information about identified problems,
As par t of a wider programme to reduce
including contextual data that helped explain
community tensions, improve police-community
why problems were occurring and how they
relations and address the most serious crime
might be addressed.
problems, community-based policing was
introduced and a multi-agency Safety Council Whilst initially greeted with great suspicion,
was set up in 2004. Recognising that official confidence in the arrangements and the flow of
statistics only told a small part of the story, its information has gradually increased.
first initiative was to organise a series of activities
that would not only build community links, but
also gather information about local problems
through an informal audit process.
122
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Risk Factors
Associated With
Offending
Table 35
Factors Found To Increase Risk (in developed countries)
Individual Family School Community
Growing up in care Violence/abuse Truancy Disadvantage

Hyperactivity Lack of affection Suspension/exclusion High crime rate
Impulsivity Poor supervision School failure Racial tension
Learning difficulties Inconsistent discipline Aggressive behaviour Unemployment
Mental illness Family breakdown Bullying Disorganisation
Insecurity Mental illness Lack of commitment Neglect
Poor social skills Parental conflict Poor relationships Availability of drugs
Low self esteem Poverty Special needs High turnover
Drug use Substance abuse Unsupportive parents Lack of attachment
Anti social behaviour Criminality Under achievement Poor living conditions
Friends who offend Unemployment Peer rejection Lack of services
124
Appendix B
UN Guidelines For The
Prevention Of Crime
I. Introduction
1 There is clear evidence that well-planned crime prevention strategies not only prevent crime and
victimisation, but also promote community safety and contribute to the sustainable development of
countries. Effective, responsible crime prevention enhances the quality of life of all citizens. It has
long-term benefits in terms of reducing the costs associated with the formal criminal justice system,
as well as other social costs that result from crime. Crime prevention offers opportunities for a humane
and more cost-effective approach to the problems of crime. The present Guidelines outline the
necessary elements for effective crime prevention.
II. Conceptual frame of reference

2 It is the responsibility of all levels of government to create, maintain and promote a context within
which relevant governmental institutions and all segments of civil society, including the corporate
sector, can better play their part in preventing crime.
3 For the purposes of the present Guidelines, “crime prevention” comprises strategies and measures
that seek to reduce the risk of crimes occurring, and their potential harmful effects on individuals and
society, including fear of crime, by intervening to influence their multiple causes. The enforcement of
laws, sentences and corrections, while also performing preventive functions, falls outside the scope
of the Guidelines, given the comprehensive coverage of the subject in other United Nations instruments.
4 The present Guidelines address crime and its effects on victims and society and take into account
the growing internationalisation of criminal activities.
5 Community involvement and cooperation/ partnerships represent important elements of the concept
of crime prevention set out herein. While the term “community” may be defined in different ways, its
essence in this context is the involvement of civil society at the local level.
6 Crime prevention encompasses a wide range of approaches, including those which:
(a) Promote the well-being of people and encourage pro-social behaviour through social,
economic, health and educational measures, with a particular emphasis on children and youth,
and focus on the risk and protective factors associated with crime and victimisation (prevention
through social development or social crime prevention);

(b) Change the conditions in neighbourhoods that influence offending, victimisation and the inse-
curity that results from crime by building on the initiatives, expertise and commitment of
community members (locally based crime prevention);
(c) Prevent the occurrence of crimes by reducing opportunities, increasing risks of being appre-
hended and minimising benefits, including through environmental design, and by providing
assistance and information to potential and actual victims (situational crime prevention);
(d) Prevent recidivism by assisting in the social reintegration of offenders and other preventive
mechanisms (reintegration programmes).
III. Basic principles

Government leadership
7 All levels of government should play a leadership role in developing effective and humane crime
prevention strategies and in creating and maintaining institutional frameworks for their implementa-
tion and review.
Socio-economic development and inclusion

8 Crime prevention considerations should be integrated into all relevant social and economic policies
and programmes, including those addressing employment, education, health, housing and urban
planning, poverty, social marginalisation and exclusion. Particular emphasis should be placed on
communities, families, children and youth at risk.
Cooperation/partnerships
9 Cooperation/partnerships should be an integral part of effective crime prevention, given the wide-
ranging nature of the causes of crime and the skills and responsibilities required to address them.
This includes partnerships working across ministries and between authorities, community organisa-
tions, non-governmental organisations, the business sector and private citizens.
Sustainability/accountability
10 Crime prevention requires adequate resources, including funding for structures and activities, in
order to be sustained. There should be clear accountability for funding, implementation and evalua-
tion and for the achievement of planned results.
Knowledge base
11 Crime prevention strategies, policies, programmes and actions should be based on a broad, multi-
disciplinary foundation of knowledge about crime problems, their multiple causes and promising
and proven practices.
Human rights/rule of law/culture of lawfulness

12 The rule of law and those human rights which are recognized in international instruments to which
Member States are parties must be respected in all aspects of crime prevention. A culture of lawful-
ness should be actively promoted in crime prevention.
Interdependency
13 National crime prevention diagnoses and strategies should, where appropriate, take account of
links between local criminal problems and international organised crime.
Differentiation
14 Crime prevention strategies should, when appropriate, pay due regard to the different needs of men
and women and consider the special needs of vulnerable members of society.
126
IV. Organisation, methods and approaches
15 Recognising that all States have unique governmental structures, this section sets out tools and
methodologies that Governments and all segments of civil society should consider in developing
strategies to prevent crime and reduce victimization. It draws on international good practice.
Community involvement
16 In some of the areas listed below, Governments bear the primary responsibility. However, the active
participation of communities and other segments of civil society is an essential part of effective
crime prevention. Communities, in particular, should play an important part in identifying crime
prevention priorities, in implementation and evaluation, and in helping identify a sustainable resource
base.
A. Organisation
Government structures
17 Governments should include prevention as a permanent part of their structures and programmes for
controlling crime, ensuring that clear responsibilities and goals exist within government for the
organisation of crime prevention, by, inter alia:
(a) Establishing centres or focal points with expertise and resources;
(b) Establishing a crime prevention plan with clear priorities and targets;
(c) Establishing linkages and coordination between relevant government agencies or departments;
(d) Fostering partnerships with non-governmental organizations, the business, private and profes-
sional sectors and the community;
(e) Seeking the active participation of the public in crime prevention by informing it of the need for
and means of action and its role.
Training and capacity building

18 Governments should support the development of crime prevention skills by:
(a) Providing professional development for senior officials in relevant agencies;
(b) Encouraging universities, colleges and other relevant educational agencies to offer basic and
advanced courses, including in collaboration with practitioners;
(c) Working with the educational and professional sectors to develop certification and professional
qualifications;
(d) Promoting the capacity of communities to develop and respond to their needs.
Supporting partnerships
19 Governments and all segments of civil society should support the principle of partnership, where
appropriate, including:
(a) Advancing knowledge of the importance of this principle and the components of successful
partnerships, including the need for all of the partners to have clear and transparent roles;
(b) Fostering their formation at different levels and across sectors;
(c) Facilitating their efficient operation.
Sustainability
20 Governments and other funding bodies should strive to achieve sustainability of demonstrably
effective crime prevention programmes and initiatives through, inter alia:
(a) Reviewing resource allocation to establish and maintain an appropriate balance between crime
prevention and the criminal justice and other systems, to be more effective in preventing crime
and victimisation;
(b) Establishing clear accountability for funding, programming and coordinating crime prevention
initiatives;
(c) Encouraging community involvement in sustainability.

B. Methods
Knowledge base
21 As appropriate, Governments and/or civil society should facilitate knowledge-based crime preven-
tion by, inter alia:
(a) Providing the information necessary for communities to address crime problems;
(b) Supporting the generation of useful and practically applicable knowledge that is scientifically
reliable and valid;
(c) Supporting the organisation and synthesis of knowledge and identifying and addressing gaps
in the knowledge base;
(d) Sharing that knowledge, as appropriate, among, inter alia, researchers, policy makers, educa-
tors, practitioners from other relevant sectors and the wider community;
(e) Applying this knowledge in replicating successful interventions, developing new initiatives and
anticipating new crime problems and prevention opportunities;
(f) Establishing data systems to help manage crime prevention more cost-effectively, including by
conducting regular surveys of victimization and offending;
(g) Promoting the application of those data in order to reduce repeat victimisation, persistent
offending and areas with a high level of crime.
Planning interventions
22 Those planning interventions should promote a process that includes:
(a) A systematic analysis of crime problems, their causes, risk factors and consequences, in
particular at the local level;
(b) A plan that draws on the most appropriate approach and adapts interventions to the specific
local problem and context;
(c) An implementation plan to deliver appropriate interventions that are efficient, effective
and sustainable;
(d) Mobilizing entities that are able to tackle causes;
(e) Monitoring and evaluation.
Support evaluation
23 Governments, other funding bodies and those involved in programme development and delivery
should:
(a) Undertake short and longer term evaluation to test rigorously what works, where and why;
(b) Undertake cost-benefit analyses;
(c) Assess the extent to which action results in a reduction in levels of crime and victimization, in the
seriousness of crime and in fear of crime;
(d) Systematically assess the outcomes and unintended consequences, both positive and nega-
tive, of action, such as a decrease in crime rates or the stigmatisation of individuals and/or
communities.
C. Approaches
24 This section expands upon the social developmental and situational crime prevention approaches.
It also outlines approaches that Governments and civil society should endeavour to follow in order to
prevent organised crime.
128
Social development
25 Governments should address the risk factors of crime and victimisation by:
(a) Promoting protective factors through comprehensive and non-stigmatising social and
economic development programmes, including health, education, housing and employment;
(b) Promoting activities that redress marginalisation and exclusion;
(c) Promoting positive conflict resolution;
(d) Using education and public awareness strategies to foster a culture of lawfulness and tolerance
while respecting cultural identities.
Situational
26 Governments and civil society, including where appropriate the corporate sector, should support the
development of situational crime prevention programmes by, inter alia:
(a) Improved environmental design;
(b) Appropriate methods of surveillance that are sensitive to the right to privacy;
(c) Encouraging the design of consumer goods to make them more resistant to crime;
(d) Target “hardening” without impinging upon the quality of the built environment or limiting free
access to public space;
(e) Implementing strategies to prevent repeat victimisation.
Prevention of organized crime

27 Governments and civil society should endeavour to analyse and address the links between transna-
tional organised crime and national and local crime problems by, inter alia:
(a) Reducing existing and future opportunities for organised criminal groups to participate in lawful
markets with the proceeds of crime, through appropriate legislative, administrative or
other measures;
(b) Developing measures to prevent the misuse by organised criminal groups of tender proce-
dures conducted by public authorities and of subsidies and licences granted by public
authorities for commercial activity;
(c) Designing crime prevention strategies, where appropriate, to protect socially marginalised
groups, especially women and children, who are vulnerable to the action of organised criminal
groups, including trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants.
V. International cooperation
Standards and norms
28 In promoting international action in crime prevention, Member States are invited to take into account
the main international instruments related to human rights and crime prevention to which they are
parties, such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child (General Assembly resolution 44/25,
annex), the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (resolution 48/104), the
United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (the Riyadh Guidelines) (reso-
lution 45/112, annex), the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse
of Power (resolution 40/34, annex), the Guidelines for Cooperation and Technical Assistance in the
Field of Urban Crime Prevention (Economic and Social Council resolution 1995/9, annex), as well as
the Vienna Declaration on Crime and Justice: Meeting the Challenges of the Twenty-first Century
(General Assembly resolution 55/59, annex) and the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto (resolutions 55/25, annexes I-III, and
55/255, annex).

Technical assistance
29 Member States and relevant international funding organizations should provide financial and tech-
nical assistance, including capacity-building and training, to developing countries and countries
with economies in transition, communities and other relevant organisations for the implementation of
effective crime prevention and community safety strategies at the regional, national and local levels.
In that context, special attention should be given to research and action on crime prevention through
social development.
Networking
30 Member States should strengthen or establish international, regional and national crime prevention
networks with a view to exchanging proven and promising practices, identifying elements of their
transferability and making such knowledge available to communities throughout the world.
Links between transnational and local crime

31 Member States should collaborate to analyse and address the links between transnational organ-
ized crime and national and local crime problems.
Prioritising crime prevention

32 The Centre for International Crime Prevention, the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal
Justice Programme network of affiliated and associated institutes and other relevant United Nations
entities should include in their priorities crime prevention as set out in these Guidelines, set up a
coordination mechanism and establish a roster of experts to undertake needs assessment and to
provide technical advice.
Dissemination
33 Relevant United Nations bodies and other organisations should cooperate to produce crime
prevention information in as many languages as possible, using both print and electronic media.
130
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Guidance on

Local Safety Audits

Legal deposit: October 2007

List of Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

PART A: THE SAFETY AUDIT PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Safety Audits: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 The Four Stages Of Audit Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5 A Participative Approach: Engaging Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice i

7 Children And Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

9 Offenders And Their Reintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

11 Alcohol, Illicit Drugs And Substance Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

12 Businesses And Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

13 High Crime Neighbourhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

15 Using Secondary Data Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

16 Collecting And Using Survey Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

17 Gathering Qualitative Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Appendix A: Risk Factors Associated With Offending . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Appendix B: UN Guidelines For The Prevention Of Crime . . . . . . . . 125

Organisations, Websites And Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice iii

Table 1 Information To Include In A Safety Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Valuable support was provided by an

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice v

In fact, taking action to prevent offending and

A clear picture of crime and victimisation is the

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 1

components in any strategy but, whilst important, UN Guidelines For The

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 5

1.4 Audits As Part Of Evaluation

The Prevention Action Strategy

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 7

Needs To Be CSSG members therefore need to be carefully

There will be many other stakeholders with an

valuable contributions to its development and Corrections Business

Crime Prevention Resource Directory, South Africa

■ The police ■ Education officers

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 9

support and ownership for the process of implementing a

strategic priorities and policies. Without explicit

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 11

can be measured. of coexistence and citizen security as part

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 13

3.1 What Information

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 15

It is important to recognise that different knowledge

Public sector ■ Understanding of context The following could weaken any

Set up Audit stearing group

Appoint audit team and

Researching topics requiring

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 17

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 19

The ‘wide ‘Narrow Identifying Consulting and Context Setting

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 21

Crimes of intolerance27 Minority interest groups, police, community

Substance misuse and drug-related crime28 Health agencies, police, organisations

Crimes against business Business interest groups, chambers of commerce,

Organised crime Police; community organisations and groups

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 23

1 What is being done? Key informants will be the main source of

Guidance on Local Safety Audits – A Compendium of International Practice 25

The form of communication needs to be adapted