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INDEX
CHAPTER -NO. CHAPTER PAGE NO.
1 LATER MUGHALS 1
2 ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS 7
3 RISE OF REGIONAL STATES 19
4 BRITISH CONQUEST OF INDIA 32
5 POPULAR UPRISINGS BEFORE 1857 66
6 REVOLT 1857 80
7 POPULAR UPRISINGS FROM 1857-1947 88
8 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS 103
9 BEGINNING OF STRUGGLE-(1805-1905) 138
10 NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905-1919) 146
13 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE IN INDIA 280
14 LAND REVENUE SYSTEM IN INDIA 290
15 DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA 299
16 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS 308
17 OTHER ASPECTS OF BRITISH RULE IN INDIA 315
18 GOVERNOR GENERAL OF INDIA (1773-1950) 328
19 APPENDIX 351
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CHAPTER 1 – LATER MUGHALS
INDEX-
TOPICS
RELEVANCE OF TOPIC
CHRONOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
REIGN OF LATER MUGHAL EMPERORS (1707 – 1857)
CAUSES OF DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE
Other Facts
RELEVANCE OF TOPIC-
1. This lesson is significant for both the pre and mains examination as UPSC has started giving importance to
this area of modern History in recent years.
2. In terms of rating, will provide 4 / 5 star.
3. Questions asked in prelims – 3 (1998 – 2019)
CHRONOLOGY-
1. BAHADUR SHAH (1707-1712)
2. JAHANDAR SHAH (1712 – 1713)
3. FARRUKHSIYAR (1713-1719)
4. MUHAMMAD SHAH RANGEELA (1719-1748)
5. AHMAD SHAH (1748-54)
6. ALAMGIR 2 (1754-1759)
7. SHAH JAHAN 3 (1759-60)
8. SHAH ALAM 2 (1759-1806)
9. AKBAR SHAH 2 (1806-1837)
10. BAHADUR SHAH 2 (1837-57)
1
The Wide spread of Mughals reign
INTRODUCTION- 1. BAHADUR SHAH 1 (1707-1712)-

• After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the process
of disintegration and decline of Mughal Empire
began. An all India empire in 1707 had shrunk to a
few kilometres around Delhi and finally collapsed
down by 1857.
• A war of succession began amongst his 3 sons,
Muazzam – the governor of Kabul, Azam – the
governor of Gujarat and Kam Baksh – the governor
of Deccan. By defeating both Azam at Janjau in
1707 and Kam Baksh near Hyderabad in 1708,
Muazzam ascended the Mughal throne. He assumed • Also known as Shah Alam 1. He tried to reverse
the title of Bahadur Shah 1. some of the narrow-minded policies of Aurangzeb
and adopted a tolerant attitude towards the Hindus.
REIGN OF LATER MUGHALS- • Half-hearted policies towards Marathas – He
released the Shah, son of Chhatrapati Shambaji
in 1707. Also granted the right of Sardeshmukhi
2
to the Marathas but not the Chauth. He also did He also appointed Ajit Singh as the Governor of
not recognize the Shahu as a Maratha ruler. Gujarat and was given the title of Malwa.
• Policy of Conciliation towards Rajput’s -He first • In 1711, he signed an agreement with the Marathas
annexed the two Important Rajput provinces – and granted the right to collect the Chauth in the
Jodhpur (Marwar) ruled by Ajit Singh and Deccan region. In this, Mughals would make the
Amber (Jaipur) ruled by Jai Singh who declared collections and later hand it over to the Maratha
independence after the death of Aurangzeb. Later officials.
on, he made a peace agreement with the Rajput’s • Even appeased the Churaman Jat and Chhatrasal
and both the rulers were restored again in the same Bundela but followed a strict policy towards the
position as earlier but rejected their demand of high Sikhs.
mansabs (ranks). In return, they accepted the • Zulfiqar Khan managed improve the finances of
sovereignty of Mughal Empire. the empire by checking & maintaining the reckless
• Towards Sikhs –Bahadur Shah had a friendly growth of Jagirs and offices. He ordered and forced
relation with the Guru Govind Singh. But after the Mansabdars to maintain their official quota of
the death of the Guru, the Sikhs rosed the banner of troops.
revolt under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. The • Introduced the practice of Ijarah (Revenue
Mughal army defeated the revolt and captured the Farming)
fort Lohgarh which was recovered by the Sikhs in • Jahandar shah defeated by Farrukh Siyar at Agra.
1712. Zulfiqar Khan was executed later on.
• Towards other rulers - He made a peace
settlement with the chief Chhatrasal, the Bundela 3. FARRUKHSIYAR (1713-1719)
Chief and the Jat Churaman. Both the leaders
joined the Shah against the Banda Bahadur
• Kafi Khan called him SHAH-i-Bekhabar
(Headless King)- because he lavishly granted the
jagirs and promotions.
2. JAHANDAR SHAH (1712-13)-
• Farrukh siyar became Emperor with the help of

Sayyid Brother- Abdullah Khan & Hussain Ali
Khan. The Sayyid Brothers also known as
kingmakers. In return they were appointed as the
Wazir & Mirbakshi.
• IN 1716, Banda Bahadur was captured and
murdered by Farrukh Siyar
• 1717-Issuance of Farman to the East India
Company – company was allowed to trade in
• After the death of Bahadur Shah in 1712, his son Bengal without paying any taxes
Jahandar Shah became the Mughal emperor with • He given the title of Nizam-ul-mulk to the Chin
the help of Zulfiqar Khan, the powerful noble in Kilich Khan and mansab of 7000.
Mughal court. Zulfiqar was awarded with the • Same like Zulfiqar Khan, real powers remained in
post of Wazir (Prime minister). He was a weak the hands of Sayyid Brothers. Hence power struggle
ruler and real authority lie in the hands Zulfiqar started between the Emperor & the Sayyid brothers
Khan. which resulted into deposed & killing of
• He Abolished the Jizyah Farrukhsiyar in 1719.
• Adopted a friendly policy towards the Rajput’s
and Marathas to ensure the survival of empire. He
gave the title of Mirza Raja Sawai to Jai Singh of
Amber and appointed him the Governor of Malwa.
3
4. MUHAMMAD SHAH RANGEELA (1719-

1748) 4. AHMAD SHAH (1748-54)
• After Farrukh, Sayyid Brothers brought two young

princes named Fafi-ud-Darajat & Rafi-ud-
Daupa (Shah-Jahan II) to the Mughal throne who • Invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali twice in 1749 &
died within a short span of time. 1752. Ahmad Shah ceded Punjab & Multan to
• Finally, Roshan Akhtar, the son of Jahandar Shah the Abdali.
was made the Mughal Emperor under the title of • Deposed by his new Wazir – Ghazi-ud-din Imad-
Muhammad Shah in 1719. ul-mulk
• The Sayyid bothers adopted a policy of religious
tolerance and even abolished the Jizyah as well as
the pilgrimage taxes at many places. They also
followed a policy of Cooperation with the Rajput,
Marathas, and Jats & Bundellas.
• Due to the power struggle & court politics,
Muhammad Shah ended the rule of Sayyid
Brothers by killing Hussain Ali (1720) and
defeating Abdullah Khan at Hasanpur (1720) with
the help of Nizam-ul-mulk. Nizam-Ul-Mulk
appointed as Wazir in 1722.
• 1724- : Nizam-ul-mulk founded state of
Hyderabad. Muhammad Shah declared him
disloyal and appointed Mubariz Khan as the
governor. 5. ALAMGIR 2 (1754-1759)
• 1724- Battle of Sahakr-Kheda –: Nizam-ul-mulk
defeated the Mubariz Khan with the help of
Marathas. In 1725, emperor appointed Nizam-ul- • Ahmad Shah Abdali again invaded Delhi in
mulk as the governor of Deccan and gave him the 1757.
title of Asaf Jah. • He was killed by Imad-ul-mulk.
• Foundation of 3 new state – Hyderabad, Bengal
and Awadh. But they did not challenge the
6. SHAH JAHAN 3 (1759-60)
sovereignty of Mughal Empire.
• Independent Kingdoms: Mysore, Kerala, Rajput
• New States formed: Marathas, Jats, Sikhs
• 1737 – The Marathas under the leadership of
Bajirao I annexed Gujrat, Malwa &
Bundelkhand. They marched towards the Delhi &
raided it by defeating the mighty Mughal army.
• 29 Feb, 1739 – Battle of Karnal: Nadir Shah
defeated the Mughal army and plundered the wealth
of Delhi & Mughal. He also took away royal throne
Takht-e-Taus (peacock throne) and Kohinoor
diamond.
• Battle of Manpur (1748): Ahmad Shah Abdali of
Afghanistan defeated in the hands of the Mughals.
4
• Deposed by the Marathas who captured Delhi in

1760. • Lord Hastings abolished the Nazrs (Gifts includes
sovereign status)
7. SHAH ALAM 2 (1759-1806) • He sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy as an ambassador
to England for a purpose to raise the pension.
9. BAHADUR SHAH 2 (1837-57)
• He declared himself as the emperor at Patna in 1759

- (He spent 12 years outside Delhi due to 2 reasons)
:
i. The defeat of Marathas in the Battle of
Panipat (1761) by Ahmed Shah Abdali
(Marathas supporting Shah Alam 2)
• He was the last Mughal emperor. Also known as
ii. Najib Khan Rohilla declared himself a
Bahadur Shah Zafar
dictator of Delhi who died in 1770.
iii. Because of this, he came to be known as • He participated in the Revolt of 1857.
Fugitive Mughal Emperor • He was captured by Major William Hudson and
• 1764 – Battle of Buxar exiled him to the Rangoon. He died in 1862 & thus
Mughal Dynasty came to an end.
• 1772- He became ruler with the help of Marathas
• 1788- Ghulam Qadir captured Delhi.
• 1789- Mahadji Sinndhia defeated the Ghulam
Qadir at Meerut & again reinstated Shah Alam CAUSES OF DECLINE-
II as a pensioner of Sindhia’s.
• 1803- English captured the Delhi & Shah Alam 1.) Policies of Aurangzeb
became the British Pensioner.
A) Expansion Policy
• He also known as
• Under the leadership of Aurangzeb, Mughal Empire
• He is also known as Blind Mughal. had expanded and touched its vastness beyond the
• In Persian, he called as – Sultanat-e-Shah Alam, point of effective control. This leads to weaken the
Az Dilli ta Palam. centre.
• He wrote his own Diwan of poems and was known B) Religious Policy
by pen-name: Aftab • Aurangzeb was intolerant towards other religions
• He imposed Jizyah (1679) and destroyed Hindu
temples which hurted the sentiments of majority
8. AKBAR SHAH 2 (1806-1837) Hindu population and Hindu rulers who supported
the Mughal empire.
C) Deccan Policy
• Aurangzeb fought continuous war in the Deccan
which lasted for 27 years. This expedition drained
the resources of the empire.
• He succeeded in defeating Bijapur (1686),
Golconda (1687) & killing Chhatrapati
Shambaji (1689) but the conquest of these Muslim
kingdoms in the Deccan paved a free to the
Marathas for organizing resistance to Mughal
empire Aurangzeb failed to check and counter this
Maratha uprising and it became a ulcer.
5
• It is said that the “Deccan Ulcer” paved fatal to the developed a lack of confidence amongst the general
Mughal empire same as like Spanish Ulcer to public and regional rulers.
Napoleon.
D) Withdraw of Rajput Support
• The support of Rajput’s provided a strong support 6. OTHER FACTS-
to the Mughal Empire for survival in India. The Jizyah Tax
suspicious nature of Aurangzeb & his intolerant
religious policies towards Hindus broke the • Tax levied by the Muslim rulers on Hindus in return
Rajput’s loyalty towards the Mughals. for their protection.
2) Degeneration of Mughal nobility- The nobles like • Qutb-ud-din Aibak imposed Jizyah for the first
Sayyid brothers and Zulfiqar Khan degenerated the time in India which was abolished by Akbar.
loyal Mughal nobility which paved the way of mal- • Jagirdars – They were holders of land
administration assignments with respect to Judicial & Police
3) Court Factions- After Aurangzeb, the court duties. They did enjoy hereditary rights.
politics emerged in the Mughal Empire. The nobles • Zamindars – They were traditional land owners
were divided into various groups such as whose only duty is to collect revenue. They enjoy
Turani/Central Asian Party, Hindustani Party etc. hereditary rights.
These group worked for the fulfilment of their self-
interests. Ijarah Farming
4) The Rise of Marathas- The march of Marathas
towards Delhi in 1737 and later influence , wars and • Introduced in Bengal.
diplomacy on Mughals collapsed down the Mughal • Under this system, the peasants who did not have
empire resources available for cultivation or due to some
5) Military Weakness-An expedition of Marathas natural calamities farming practise could not be
towards Delhi in 1737 and invasion of Nadir Shah done, lands were farmed out on Ijarah to a 3rd party
in 1739 highlighted the Mughal military weakness. called revenue farmers/ middlemen.
6) Economic Bankruptcy- The policies of Aurangzeb • The revenue officials or their relatives were not
and later Mughal ruler drained the financial supposed to take land on Ijaraj.
resources of Mughal empire • The Authority expected that these revenue farmers
7) Weak successor – After Aurangzeb , the other would not extract more than required land revenue
Mughal rulers lacked the charisma, ability and from the peasants.
willingness to lead a mighty Mughal empire • The Revenue farmers used to pay nine-tenth of the
8) Continuous war of succession- The continuous total collection and keep the rest.
war of succession on the Mughal throne not only o The Sayyid Brothers were belonged to
disturbed the stability of an empire but also Hindustani Party
o Ahmad Shah Abdali is also known as
Ahmad shah Durani
6
CHAPTER 2- ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS IN INDIA

WE ARE GOING TO COVER-
Relevance of Topic
Factors and Forces responsible for arrival of Europeans in India
Overview
Arrival of Portuguese
Arrival of Dutch/Netherland
Arrival of English/East India Company
Arrival of Danes
Arrival of French
Miscellaneous Facts
RELEVANCE OF TOPIC-
o In this topic, we are going to learn and understand
the arrival of Europeans in India in a very holistic
manner.
o Rating –
o Prelims Questions – 10 (1998-2019)
7
FACTORS ANF FORCES RESPONSIBLE the Ottoman Turks and the Red Sea trade route
FOR ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS IN INDIA- came under the monopoly of Islamic rulers.
Whereas Italians refused to share their known trade
EUROPEAN FEUDAL CRISIS – routes with other European powers. Therefore, the
European States especially Portugal and Spain
✓ In 14th Century, the European political system started exploring the new sea trade routes to reach
structure was characterised by Feudal system. This India and South-east Asian countries.
Feudal system was very oppressive for the Peasants. ✓ Spirit of God, Glory and Gold – The European
✓ 1348- Spread of Black Death disease (Plague) travellers were driven by the desire to spread
wiped out a large part of European population Christianity in new lands, returned home with the
which led to the decline of agricultural production. fabulous riches and achieve glory, popularly known
This affected the income of Feudal lords. as the spirit of God, Glory and Gold.
✓ Therefore the Feudal Lords started tightening their
control over the peasants. As a result, the period of
14th and 15th century marked by a series of peasants MERCHANT CAPITALISM-
revolt all over Europe. Due to this, the hold of
feudal lords weakened and the concept of nation- ✓ The geographical explorations and new colonies
state emerged under strong monarchs. The revolt opened a vast opportunity for the merchant class
was successful in Western Europe as contrary to and the trade profits generated by them was termed
Eastern Europe. as merchant capital. This led to the emergence of
✓ Because of this feudal crisis, agriculture became capitalism and replace feudal economy, giving rise
less profitable and the profit from trade and to commercial revolution in Europe.
commerce increased substantially. ✓ This encouraged the European traders to travel the
✓ Hence, this attracted the European traders to East in search of new markets.
travel the world and find out new markets for their
country. Emergence of Organised Trade- The formation of
Joint Stock Companies and Chartered Companies
RENAISSANCE & REFORMATION-
by the government led to emergence of organised trade.
✓ The period of 14th and 16th century witnessed the A major benefit of a joint stock company was that a
rise of renaissance and reformation amongst the much larger capital could be raised and the costs could
European society. be shared by the shareholders.
✓ The term renaissance is derived from the French Mercantilism – The period of 17 Century witnessed the
word rebirth. This period was characterised by rise of Mercantilism. This economic theory focussed
innovation, imagination and creativity. on an accumulation of Capital through one way free
✓ The emergence of renaissance in the European trade. Hence, this theory encouraged the Companies and
society questioned the efficacy of feudal society and traders to explore new market to generate more wealth.
gave rise to traders class and bankers. These new
classes popularised trade & commerce further. Scientific Ideas & Industrial revolution- In the early
18th Century, the Industrial Revolution began in
England which later spread to the other parts of
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATION & European states. The Industrial Revolution contributed
COLONIZATION- to emergence of new technologies, scientific ideas,
innovations and discoveries which strengthened the
✓ Italian and Arab monopoly over the old trade
overseas trade and colonialism.
routes - In 1453, Constantinople was captured by
8
OVERVIEW –
Portugal (1498) Dutch (1602) English (1608)
French (1667) Danes (1620)
9
ARRIVAL OF PORTUGUESE (1498) -
BACKGROUND - sea route from Europe to India and became the first
European to reach India who travelled through sea.
o The Portugal were the first one to arrive in India. ✓ He led the Two Portuguese Indian Armadas (Fleet
o Why – Both Economic and Religious cause. They of warship), the first and fourth sent under the
had come here to seek spices especially pepper and patronage of King Manuel of Portugal.
to destroy the monopoly of Arabs and Italians over ✓ King of Calicut during his visit to India – Zamorin
trade with the East. Ruler , Manna Vikrama
o Prince Henry – o Pedro Alvarez Cabral (1500) –
✓ He was a key figure in the 15th century European ✓ He led the second Armada Portuguese Mission with
maritime discoveries and expansion. an objective of making a treat with the Zamorin of
✓ He had become obsessed with the idea of finding Calicut.
new sea route to India. ✓ He established the first factory of Portuguese at
✓ He is remembered as great patron and sponsor of Calicut in 1500.
voyages. ✓ But he ran into conflict with a local Arab
✓ Nickname - Navigator Merchant.
o Bartholomew Diaz (1487)- o Vasco da Gama (1502) –
✓ He is known for his contribution to reach the ✓ He revisited India and set up the following –
southernmost tip of Africa (Which he named Cape • 1503 – The Portuguese established their factory at
of Storms). Cochin (Kochi)
✓ He became the first European to reach the Indian • 1505 – 2nd Factory was set up at Cannanore
Ocean from Atlantic. The Portuguese later renamed (Kannur)
it as Cape of Good Hope. o Important Trading Centres developed later –
o Vasco da Gama (1498) – Calicut, Cochin, Cannanore and Quilon
✓ Vasco da Gama sailed from (Kollam)
the Cape of Good Hope with o Feitorias - The Portuguese trading points or
his Indian Gujarati Pilot factories on land were called as Feitorias. These
Abdul Majid and continued were the unfortified trading outposts of the
to India. He reached Portuguese.
Calicut (Kozhikode) in o Early Spice Trade – Pepper and Cinnamon
1498. Thus he opened a new
10
IMPORTANT PORTUGUESE GOVERNORS –
o Francisco De Almeida (1505-09) - o The Portuguese administration in India became

✓ First Portuguese Viceroy of inefficient due to weak successors after
India Albuquerque.
✓ Adopted Blue Water Policy – to o The Portuguese society was dominated by
establish the supremacy of Aristocracy and hence the Merchants were unable
Portuguese in the Indian Ocean to influence the state policies to their interests. This
rather than in the land. had made difficult for the Portuguese to maintain
✓ He is credited for the construction of Fort their maritime supremacy.
Anjediva. o The home government neglected the Portuguese
✓ He had also built Fort St. Angelo in Kannur, officials in India through low salaries etc. The
Kerala in 1505. support of Home government is a prerequisite for
✓ Battle of Diu (1508) – The Portuguese Naval force the establishment of successful colonial power.
defeated the joint Muslim Naval force (Gujarat ✓ The intolerant religious policy of Portuguese
Sultanate and Mameluk Egyptian fleet) at Chaul through forceful conversions into Christianity made
and Dabul. This established the naval supremacy hostile to the natives.
of Portuguese over Indian Ocean. o The policy of piracy and Cartaze system aroused
o Alfonzo De Albuquerque the resentment amongst the natives.
(1509-15) - o The Merger of Portugal with Spain in 1580
✓ Real Founder of dragged Portugal into Spain’s war with the England
Portuguese Empire in and Holland which affected the Portuguese interest
India in India.
✓ Setup HQ – Cochin o Portuguese discovered Brazil which diverted their
✓ 1509 – Conquered the Diu imperial interest from India.
✓ 1510 – Annexed Goa from o The most important factor for the decline of
the Sultan of Bijapur Portuguese in India was a stiff competition from
✓ He had established the Portuguese domination over other European powers who came after them like
the entire Indian coast from Hormuz in Persian Gulf Dutch, England and French.
to Malacca in Malaya and the spice Islands in The Portuguese left the India by mid-17th century.
Indonesia, But successfully controlled the territory of Goa,
✓ He had adopted the policy of war, piracy and Daman and Diu till 1961. Hence it can be
plunder to establish the influence of Portuguese concluded that the Portuguese were not only the
power over Indian Ocean. first one to come in India but also the last to leave
✓ He wanted to establish permanent Portuguese India.
settlement in India. Thus he encouraged his
countrymen to marry Indian women and propagate
Christianity. IMPACT OF PORTUGUESE RULE IN INDIA –
✓ He also abolished the Sati under his region.
o The Portuguese propagated Christianity in the
o Nino Da Cunha (1529-38)-
Malabar and Konkan Coast in which St. Francis
✓ He transferred the Head
Xavier, Father Rudolf and father Monserette
office from Cochin to Goa.
played a significant role. In 1540, all temples of Goa
were destroyed.
o The Christian Missionaries had established the
schools and colleges along the west coast where
education was imparted in the native language.
o They also undertook the study of Indian History
HOW PORTUGUESE SUCCEED IN and culture. Father Heras had conducted a deep
ESTABLISHING THEIR FOOTHOLD IN INDIA – study on the Indus Valley civilization.
o The Portuguese were the first who brought the
o Inability of Mughals to develop a strong navy. Printing Press in India.
o South India was outside the influence of Mughals, o The Portuguese also introduced the various types of
thus allowing the Portuguese to establish their crops, fruits and vegetables. These included
control over some parts of Indian Territory and potato, sweet potato, tobacco, black pepper,
Indian Ocean. groundnut, cashew etc.
o They influenced the significance of navy in sea
REASONS FOR DECLINE OF PORTUGUESE – trade.
11
YEAR PERSONALITY IMPORTANT EVENTS

- Prince Henry o He is remembered as great patron and sponsor of voyages.
o Nickname - Navigator
1487 Bartholomew Diaz o He became the first European to reach the Indian Ocean from Atlantic.
o The Portuguese later renamed it as Cape of Good Hope.
1498 Vasco Da Gama o Vasco da Gama sailed from the Cape of Good Hope with his Indian
Gujarati Pilot Abdul Majid and continued to India.
o He reached Calicut (Kozhikode) in 1498.
o Thus he opened a new sea route from Europe to India and became the first
European to reach India who travelled through sea.
1500 Pedro Alvarez Cabral o He established the first factory of Portuguese at Calicut in 1500.
o He ran into conflict with a local Arab Merchant.
1502 Vasco Da Gama o 1503 – The Portuguese established their factory at Cochin (Kochi)
o 1505 – 2nd Factory was set up at Cannanore (Kannur)
1503- Portuguese State of
1504 India
1505- Francisco De Almeida o First Portuguese Viceroy of India
09 o Adopted Blue Water Policy – to establish the supremacy of Portuguese
in the Indian Ocean rather than in the land.
o Built Forts - Fort Anjediva. & Fort St. Angelo
o Battle of Diu (1508) – The Portuguese Naval force defeated the joint
Muslim Naval force (Gujarat Sultanate and Mameluk Egyptian fleet)
at Chaul and Dabul
1509- Alfonzo De Albuquerque o Real Founder of Portuguese Empire in India
1515 o Setup HQ – Cochin
o 1509 – Conquered the Diu
o 1510 – Annexed Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur
o He had adopted the policy of war, piracy and plunder to establish the
influence of Portuguese power over Indian Ocean.
o He wanted to establish permanent Portuguese settlement in India. Thus he
encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian women and propagate
Christianity.
o He also abolished the Sati under his region.
1529- Nino Da Cunha o He transferred the Head office from Cochin to Goa.
38
DUTCH (1602)-
12
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BACKGROUND – o 1610 – They had signed a treaty with the king of

Chandragiri and established their Headquarter at
o The Dutch came to India for trade and best known Pulicat. Here, they minted gold coins called
for their shipping techniques. They had designed Pagodas.
the fluitship (fluyt) which was much superior to o Dutch factories in other places – Kasimbazar,
Portuguese ships. Karikal, Balasore, Golconda and Baranagore.
o Cornelius de Houtman (1596) – o 1690- The Dutch transferred the HQ from Pulicat
✓ He was the first Dutch traveller to India. to Nagapattinam
o Dutch East India Company (1602) –
✓ 1602 – The Dutch East India Company was o Other Trading Depots –
formed and the Dutch parliament granted a charter ✓ Gujarat – Ahmedabad, Surat, Broach and
which empowered the company to engage in war Cambay
and peace with the other states, acquire territories ✓ Madras – Nagapatam (Nagapattinam)
and build fortresses. ✓ Kerala – Cochin
✓ Their main interest was in Indonesia and Spice ✓ Bengal – Chinsura (Gustavus fort) and Peepli
Islands and not India. Therefore, the Dutch ✓ Andhra – Masulipatam
defeated and pushed out the Portuguese from the ✓ Malabar Coast – Male
Malay Straits and the Indonesian Spice Islands of ✓ UP – Agra
Java and Sumatra and even failed the English ✓ Bihar - Patna
attempts there.
✓ However, they understood the significance of India
to carry out trade with South-West Asia as there ANGLO-DUTCH RIVALRY -
was a good demand of Indian clothes there.
✓ Hence, the credit for Indian cloth as an item of o Amboyna Massacre (1623) – It took place in
export goes to the Dutch. Indonesia where the Dutch killed 10 Englishmen
and 9 Japanese.
➢ Dutch Factories in India – The head of Dutch o Battle of Bedara - Bengal (1759) – The English
factories were known as factors who were classifies defeated the Dutch in this war and thus ending the
as traders. The Dutch model of trade was based on Dutch power in India.
Cartel or Cooperative system.
o 1606 – The first Dutch factory was established at
Masulipatnam in Andhra and second factory was
set up at Pettopoli (Nizampatam).
YEAR Important Personalities Important Events

1596 Cornelius de Houtman o He was the first Dutch traveller to India.
1602 Dutch East India Company o The first Dutch factory was established at Masulipatnam in Andhra
(1606).
o The second factory was set up at Pettopoli (Nizampatam).
1610 - o The Dutch had signed a treaty with the king of Chandragiri and
established their Headquarter at Pulicat. Here, they minted gold coins
called Pagodas.
1623 - o Amboyna Massacre (1623) – It took place in Indonesia where the

Dutch killed 10 Englishmen and 9 Japanese.
1690 - o The Dutch transferred the HQ from Pulicat to Nagapattinam

1759 - o Battle of Bedara - Bengal (1759) – The English defeated the Dutch in
this war and thus ending the Dutch power in India.
13
ARRIVAL OF ENGLISH (1608) –
BACKGROUND- ✓ 1611 – The English had opened their first factory in

the South at Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam).
o Formation of East India Company – ✓ 1612 – The East India Company had defeated the
✓ 1599 – A Company to trade with the East was Portuguese in the battle of Swally Hole near Surat.
formed by a group of merchants known as This convinced Jahangir and he allowed the
Merchants adventurers. The company came to be Company to set up a permanent factory at Surat
known as East India Company (nickname – John in 1613.
Company) ✓ In eastern India, the English Company opened its
✓ 1600 – The East India Company was granted a royal first factory in Orissa in 1633.
charter by Queen Elizabeth. This charter provided ✓ 1615 – King James I sent Sir Thomas Roe as an
an exclusive privilege to the Company to trade with ambassador to the court of Jahangir. He was
East of the Cape of Good Hope. succeeded in obtaining permission from the
o Captain Hawkins – Jahangir for the Company to trade and establish
Captain William Hawkins was the first factories in all parts of Mughal Empire.
Englishmen came in India. He was ✓ 1625 – The East India Company made an attempt to
sent by the East India Company to the fortify their settlements at Surat but the Mughals
court of Jahangir to obtain permission failed their ambition and imprisoned the English.
to open a factory at Surat. Therefore, the Company decided to shift their focus
✓ He arrived at Surat from the ship to South India because they did not have to face a
named Hector. strong Indian Government there.
✓ He went to the court of Jahangir at Agra in 1609.
Jahangir had given a permission to the East India o Madras-
Company by Royal Farman to open factories on the ✓ 1632 – Sultan of Golconda issued a Golden
west coast. But the Company was not satisfied with Farman in favour of East India Company which
the Farman as they wanted permission for the entire allowed them to trade from the port of Golconda for
India. annual payment of 500 Pagodas.
✓ 1639 – Francis Day was succeeded in obtaining
Madras on lease from Raja of Chandragiri and
FACTORIES OF ENGLISH- shifted their activity to the Madras. The Raja
o Early Factories- granted the permission to the Company to fortify
✓ 1611- The Company established their first factory Madras, to administer it, to coin the money. In
at Surat. return English promised to pay him half the custom
14
revenue of the port. Thus, English set up and built a RELATIONS BETWEEN THE MUGHALS AND
small factory named – Fort St. George (It was the THE BRITISH-
first fort constructed by the British in India in
1644). o Internal Development amongst the Company –
✓ 1690 – The Company bought the fort ✓ 1625 – The Board of Directors of the Company
Devanampatnam near Madras and renamed as Fort were given Judicial Powers.
St. David. This fort was obtained from the ✓ 1661 – The English Company was empowered to
Marathas. send ships of war equipped with the men and
ammunition for the safety of its possessions
o Bengal – overseas.
✓ 1683 – The Company received a power to declare
wars and make peace treaties, to raise and maintain
an Army.
o Aurangzeb –
✓ 1688 – The East India Company captured Hugli and
declared war on Emperor Aurangzeb. But the
English failed to apprehend the Power of Mughal
Empire. The British were defeated by the Mughal
Fort William forces and thrown out from the Bengal.
✓ 1651 – The English set up their first factory at Hugli ✓ Soon the Company realized their mistake and
after receiving permission from Sultan Shuja, the decided to rely on humble entreaties and
Subahadar. Of Bengal. concessions from the Mughals. Aurangzeb
✓ 1658 – All the Establishment of the East India pardoned the British as he aware about the benefits
Company in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Coromandel of foreign trade to the Empire.
Coast were brought under the control of Fort St. o Farrukhsiyar-
George. ✓ 1717 – He Granted a Royal Farman to the East
✓ 1690 – Job Charnok built up a factory at Sutanuti India Company. It is also described as the Magna
which was fortified in 1696 and came to be known Carta of the Company.
as Fort William. ✓ Provisions –
✓ 1698 – The Company received a permission from • Allowed Duty free trade in Bengal for annual
the Subahadar of Bengal – Azim-us-Shan, the payment of 30,000 rupees.
Zamindari rights (right to collect revenue) of the • Exemption from payment of all dues at Surat.
villages Sutanuti, Kalikata and Gobindapur. • Exemption from Payment of all dues at
✓ 1700 – The Factories in Bengal were placed under Hyderabad.
Fort William. Later on, these small villages grew • In Madras, Company required a pay only the
into a city known as Calcutta. existing rent.
o Bombay – • The Company allowed to use its own currency
✓ 1662 – King Charles II of England married to a (minted at Bombay) throughout India.
Portuguese Princess and received Bombay as a • The Company was also granted the right to issue
Dowry. passes or dastaks for the movement of such goods.
✓ 1668 – King transferred the Bombay to the • The Company’s servants were also permitted to
Company on an annual rent of 10 Pounds. Soon trade but they were not covered under the Farman
Bombay replaced Surat as chief Depot of the and subject to ordinary taxes
Company on the West Coast.
Year Important Important Events

Personalities
1600 The East India o The East India Company was granted a royal charter by Queen Elizabeth.
Company This charter provided an exclusive privilege to the Company to trade with
East of the Cape of Good Hope.
1608 Captain Hawkins o Captain William Hawkins was the first Englishmen came in India
o He went to the court of Jahangir at Agra in 1609. Jahangir had given a
permission to the East India Company by Royal Farman to open factories
on the west coast.
1611 o 1611- The Company established their first factory at Surat.
15
o 1611 – The English had opened their first factory in the South at
Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam).
1612 o The East India Company had defeated the Portuguese in the battle of
Swally Hole near Surat. This convinced Jahangir and he allowed the
Company to set up a permanent factory at Surat in 1613.
1615 Thomas Roe o King James I sent Sir Thomas Roe as an ambassador to the court of
Jahangir
o He was succeeded in obtaining permission from the Jahangir for the
Company to trade and establish factories in all parts of Mughal Empire.
1632 (Madras) o Sultan of Golconda issued a Golden Farman in favour of East India
Company which allowed them to trade from the port of Golconda for
annual payment of 500 Pagodas.
1639 Francis Day o Francis Day was succeeded in obtaining Madras on lease from Raja of
Chandragiri and shifted their activity to the Madras.
o Thus, English set up and built a small factory named – Fort St. George (It
was the first fort constructed by the British in India in 1644).
o The Company bought the fort Devanampatnam near Madras and renamed
as Fort St. David (1690). This fort was obtained from the Marathas.
1651 (Bengal) o The English set up their first factory at Hugli.
o 1658 – All the Establishment of the East India Company in Bengal, Bihar,
Orissa and Coromandel Coast were brought under the control of Fort St.
George.
o 1690 – Job Charnok built up a factory at Sutanuti which was fortified in
1696 and came to be known as Fort William.
o 1698 – The Company received a permission from the Subahadar of
Bengal – Azim-us-Shan, the Zamindari rights (right to collect revenue) of
the villages Sutanuti, Kalikata and Gobindapur.
o 1700 – The Factories in Bengal were placed under Fort William. Later on,
these small villages grew into a city known as Calcutta.
1662 (Bombay) o 1662 – King Charles II of England married to a Portuguese Princess and
received Bombay as a Dowry.
o 1668 – King transferred the Bombay to the Company on an annual rent of
10 Pounds. Soon Bombay replaced Surat as chief Depot of the Company
on the West Coast.
1717 o Farrukhsiyar Granted a Royal Farman to the East India Company. It is
also described as the Magna Carta of the Company.
DANES (1620)-
o Danes were belonged to Denmark.

o Dutch defeated the Portuguese and built Fort
William (1663) in the modern Kochi or Cochin. In
1814, Cochin became a British Colony
o 1616 – Danish East India Company was
established
o 1620 – Set up trading outposts at Tranquebar,
near Tanjore (Tamil Nadu).
o 1755 – Danish founded colony Fredricknagore
near Serampore in Bengal.
o 1777 – The Company went bankrupt and Serampore
was transferred to Danish Crown.
o 1845 – Denmark ceded Serampore to Britain and
thus ending the Danish rule in India.
16
Year Important Personalities Major Events

1616 Danish East India Company o Danish East India Company was established
1620 o Set up trading outposts at Tranquebar, near Tanjore (Tamil Nadu).
1755 o Danish founded colony Fredricknagore near Serampore in Bengal.
1845 o Denmark ceded Serampore to Britain and thus ending the Danish rule
in India.
FRENCH (1667)-
✓ Why company formed – To trade with India and the

East Indies.
o French Factories in India –
✓ 1667 – The first French factory was established at
Surat with Fancis Caron as its Director General.
✓ 1669 – Masulipatam
✓ 1672- Caron was replaced by Francois Martin. He
received a village as a grant from the king of
Bijapur Sher Khan Lodhi and founded it as
Pondicherry. Later, Pondicherry emerged as a
French Capital of India.
✓ 1674 – The French received a site near Calcutta
o French were the last European colonial power to where they built the town – Chandernagore (1690-
set foot in India. 92)
o French Trading Company (1664) – ✓ 1693 – Dutch captured the Pondicherry but it was
✓ Colbert formed the Companie de Indes restored to the French under the treaty of Reswick.
Orientales. The French also occupied the control over the
✓ The temperature trading company was issued Islands of Mauritius and Reunion in the Indian
license under the governorship of Colbert by King Ocean.
Louis IV. ✓ 1697-1739 – French established their factories at
Mahe, Karikal, Kasimbazar and Balasore.
Year Important Personalities Important Events
1664 French Trading Company o Colbert formed the Companie de Indes Orientales.
1667 Fancis Caron o The first French factory was established at Surat with Fancis Caron
as its Director General.
1669 o A factory was set up at Masulipatam.
1672 Francois Martin o Caron was replaced by Francois Martin. He received a village as a
grant from the king of Bijapur Sher Khan Lodhi and founded it as
Pondicherry. Later, Pondicherry emerged as a French Capital of India.
1674 o The French received a site near Calcutta where they built the town –
Chandernagore (1690-92)
1693 o Dutch captured the Pondicherry but it was restored to the French under
the treaty of Reswick.
MISCELLANEOUS FACTS-
o Cartaze System – These methods was used by license or passes from the Viceroy of Goa. If the
Portuguese. Under this system, Indian Ships Indian Ships failed to buy passes, their ships could
sailing to the destination were obliged to buy be seized by Portuguese.
17
o Feudal system – Under this system, Nobles held • He went to Kashmir along with Aurangzeb.
lands from the crown in exchange for military 4) Jean Baptist Tranvier (1638-1663)-
service. While the Peasants or Serfs had to live on • He was also a French merchant.
their lord’s land and give him homage, labour and a • He had visited India 6 times between 1638-1663.
share of produce in exchange for military • Book – Travel in India
protection. • Visited during Shah Jahan’s Reign.
o Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate • He was a trader of Diamonds and also the first
were sent to Akbar’s Court by Portuguese. European who described about the diamond mines
o Pondicherry – of India.
✓ The first European power to occupy Pondicherry
• He had elaborately discussed about diamond mines
were the Portuguese. The second one – Dutch. of India.
✓ The British captured the Pondicherry from the 5) Manucci (1653)
French In 1761. But it was returned under the
• He fled from Venice at the age of 14 and came to
Treaty of Paris (1763).
India in 1653 when got an opportunity to join the
o Important Travellers –
army of Dara Shikoh.
1) Christopher Columbus (1492) – He belonged to
Spain and set out to reach India and discover • After the Defeat of Dara Shikoh, he became a
America instead. medical practitioner remained in India till 1708.
2) Sir Thomas Roe (1615) – • Book – Storio De Mogor
• He was a British Ambassador undertook the journey • He especially wrote about industries of South India
of Mandu and Ahmedabad with Jahangir in 1615. especially South India. His description are valuable
but full of Gossips and exaggeration.
• He wrote the Book ‘A Voyage of East Indies’ – He
6) Jean De Thevenot (1667)-
described the Mughal Empire and his travels to
different places. He also noted down the • He was a French traveller.
Conspiracies of the Mughal Court and the • He was in the Mughal Empire for 13 months and
Corruption rampant at that time. crossed the country from Golconda to
• Journal – Journal of the Mission to the Mughal Masulipatam.
Empire • He had come during the reign of Aurangzeb.
3) Francois Bernier (1658-1671) o First Factories of European powers in India –
• He was French Traveller and was Doctor by 1. Portuguese – Calicut (1500)
Profession. 2. Dutch – Masulipatnam (1606)
• He came during the reign of Aurangzeb. 3. English – Surat (1611)
4. Danes – Tranquebar (1620)
• He was the personal physician of Mughal
5. French – Surat (1667)
Emperor Aurangzeb
o Other Important Facts-
• Book – ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ and 1. James Hargreaves (1765) – developed the
‘History of the Great Rebellions in the States of spinning Jenny
the Great Mughals 2. Richard Arkwright - Introduced water frame
• In his book, Travels in the Mughal Empire – He which turned the spinning Jenny into a commercial
provided a lively and factual description of the war preposition.
of succession, contemporary society, customs, trade 3. James Watt (1790) – Invention of steam Engine
and commerce.
18
CHAPTER 3 – RISE OF REGIONAL STATES

WE ARE GOING TO COVER –
The Successor States
The New States
The Independent States
Miscellaneous facts
RELEVANCE OF TOPIC –
o In this topic, we are going to study the rise of

regional powers after the decline of Mughal Empire
from 1707.
o Rating – 3/5
o Previous Year Questions – 4 (1998-2019)
19
THE SUCCESSOR STATES- After the death of o Location – It covers the area of today’s Bengal,
Aurangzeb, these were the states who founded the Bihar and Orissa.
Independent Kingdom but within the Sovereignty of
o Founder – Murshid Quli Khan
Mughal Empire. These were the old Mughal provinces
directly under the control of Mughal authority. ✓ First independent
Nawab of Bengal
✓ He shifted the Capital
Carnatic (1710) by from Dhaka to
Bengal (1717) by Murshidabad
Nawab Saadatullah
Murshid Quli Khan
Khan ✓ Land Revenue System –
• He understood that the
government did not
receive any real income
Hyedreabd (1724) from the land revenue
Awadh (1722) by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf because the whole region had been allotted to the
Saadat Khan Jaha officers as jagirs in lieu of their salary.
• The only income source for the government was
custom duty.
• To rationalise the revenue collection, he adopted
two measures –
CARNATIC (1710)- 1. He resumed all the jagirs and converted them into
khalisa Lands (State Lands) directly under the
o Location – It is a region of peninsular India lying
government and gave the dispossessed officers
between the Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal.
fresh jagirs in poor, wild and un-subdued province
o Founder – Nawab Saadatullah Khan (1710-32) of Orissa
o The province of Carnatic came under the authority 2. He abolished the Jagirdari system and replaced it
of Deccan region (Nizam of Hyderabad) with the revenue farming / Ijara/ malzamini
o HQ / Capital – Arcot system. This was a contract system by which
contracts of the collection of land revenue were
o Successor – Dost Ali (1732-1740)
granted to ijaradars, i.e. contractors by taking
o The appointment of Dost Ali as a successor was security bonds from them. In choosing the
done without the prior approval of his superior the Jagirdars, the Quli Khan used to prefer the Hindus.
Nizam of Hyderabad. Therefore, the Nizam The second or third generation of these contractors
advised the Marathas to invade the Carnatic. were came to be known as Zamindars.
o In 1740, Marathas invaded the Carnatic, ✓ Because of this, a new class of landed aristocracy
defeated and killed Dost Ali and took his son-in-law emerged in the Bengal region whose position was
Chanda Sahib as prisoners of State to Satara later confirmed by Permanent Settlement in 1793.
o Later, the Carnatic had provided an opportunity to ✓ Nawab Quli Khan was being ruthless in collection
the East India Company to interfere in Indian of land revenue from zamindars and peasants.
Politics. Therefore, the House of the Jagat Seths came into
o The Carnatic war (1744 – 1763) was fought force. They not only acted as a guarantor of the
between the French and English. large Zamindars but also assumed the full
responsibility of the Bengal to the Delhi.
✓ The reign of Murshid Quli Khan was prosperous for
BENGAL (1717)- the Bengal region.
o Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan (1727-39) – Son
in law of Murshid Quli
Khan
Region of Bengal – Bengal, Bihar & Orissa
20
o Sarfaraz Khan (1739-40) – Son of Shuja-ud-Din o Safdar Jung (1739-54) – He

Muhammad Khan and his successors came to
known as Nawab Wazirs.
o Shuja-ud-Daula (1754-
1775) –
✓ Battle of Panipat (1761) -

o Alivardi Khan (1740-56) – He supported and joined the
Ahmed Shah Abdali in the
✓ Battle of Gheria battle of Panipat in 1761
(1740) – Alivardi Khan against the Marathas.
defeated Sarfaraz Khan and ✓ Battle of Buxar (1764) – He
became the Nawab of lost to East India Company in this war.
Bengal. o Asaf-ud-Daula (1775-97) –
✓ His reign showed a
virtual break with the ✓ He shifted the capital
Mughals because payment from Faizabad to
of annual tribute to the Lucknow.
Mughal emperor was not visible. ✓ His contribution was to
✓ Invasion of Marathas (1742-1756) – He signed a giving rise a distinct
peace treaty with the Marathas in 1751 and agreed Lucknow culture.
to pay annual Chauth and parted with Orissa. ✓ He also built the famous
✓ Attack of of Afghan General Mustafa Khan monument Bara
o Siraj-ud-Daulah (1756-57) Imambara.
– Battle of Plassey with ✓ Also patronised the poets like Mirza Rafi Sauda
East India Company and and Mir Ghulam Hasan.
defeat of Siraj in this war.
(Will discuss the Battle of
Plassey in detail in the HYDERABAD (1724)
chapter of conquest of India
by English). o Location – It was located in the Deccan region
covering the present area of Telangana and some
parts of Andhra, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
o Founder – Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (1724)
AWADH (1722)
o Location – It was
situated between the
north bank of Ganges
and Himalayas. It
extended from Kannuj
district in the west and
river Karamnasa in the
East.
o Founder- Saadat
Khan (1722)
✓ He had subdued the rebellion of Zamindars in ✓ His original name was Chin Qilich Khan
Awadh region and therefore the Mughal Emperor ✓ He founded the Asaf Jah dynasty.
Muhammad Shah conferred on him the title of ✓ In 1772, he was appointed as Wazir in the court
Burhan-ul-Mulk. of Muhammad Shah.
✓ Invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739 – Nadir Shah ✓ His successor came to be known as Nizam of
invaded the Delhi in 1739 and Saadat Khan fought Hyderabad.
for the Mughals. He was taken prisoner by Nadir
Shah in the battle of Karnal.
21
Regional Powers Nawab Important Events

Carnatic (1710) • Nawab Saadat Ullah ✓ HQ – Arcot
Khan ✓ 1740- Invasion of Marathas
• Dost Ali and defeat of Carnatic.
Bengal (1717) Murshid Quli Khan (1717-27) ✓ First Independent Nawab of

Bengal
✓ Capital – Shifted from Dhaka
to Murshidabad
✓ Introduced revenue farming
or Ijara system in Bengal
✓ Rise of new elite class such as
Zamindars and bankers. E.g. –
House of Jagat Seths
Alivardi Khan (1740-1756) ✓ Battle of Gheria (1740) –

Became Nawab of Bengal
✓ Agreement with the
Marathas- He agreed to pay
annual Chauth & given Orissa
to the Marathas
✓ Invasion of Afghans
Siraj-ud-Daula (1756-57) ✓ He lost to East India Company
in the Battle of Plassey (1757)
Awadh (1722) Saadat Khan (1722-39) ✓ Founder of Awadh State

✓ Title of Burhan-ul-Mulk by
Mughal Emperor Muhammad
Shah
✓ Invasion of Nadir Shah in
1737 and battle of Karnal. He
fought with the Mughals and
taken as prisoner of war by
Nadir Shah.
Safdar Jung (1739-54) ✓ His successors came to be
known as Nawab Wazirs
Shuja-ud-Daula (1754-75) ✓ Battle of Panipat (1761) – He

supported the Abdali against
the Marathas
✓ Battle of Buxar (1764) –
Joined the Bengal and Delhi
against East India Company
but lost the battle.
Asaf-ud-Daula (1775-97) ✓ He shifted Capital from
Faizabad to Lucknow
✓ Contribution in Lucknow
Culture
✓ Built Bara Imambara
Hyderabad (1724) Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jah ✓ Founder of Asah Jah dynasty

(1724-48) in Hyderabad
22
THE NEW STATES- ✓ The Marathas maintained a large number of

tributaries who were bounded by agreements to pay
These type of states had seized their independence after a certain amount of regular tax, known as Chauth.
a long drawn armed struggle. The Marathas defeated the Sultanate of
Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan,
the Nawab of Oudh, the Nawab of Bengal,
the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Nawab of
MARATHAS –
Arcot as well as the Polygar kingdoms of South
India. They extracted Chauth from the rulers in
Delhi, Oudh, Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Punjab,
Hyderabad, Mysore, Uttar Pradesh
and Rajputana Kingdoms.
o Peshwa Balaji Viswanath (1713-20) –
✓ He supported the Shahu Maharaj in the civil war

and in return, Shahu
appointed him as his
Peshwa.
✓ Balaji turned the office
of Peshwa as the
Functional head of the
Maratha Empire while
Shahu act as an only
o Background - figurehead.
✓ 1719 - Balaji supported the Sayyid Brothers in
✓ After the death of Aurangzeb in 1717, Mughal removing the Farrukhsiyar.
Emperor Bahadur Shah released the Shahu, son of ✓ As a reward, he secured the Mughal Sanad of 1719
Shambaji Maharaj. Hereafter, the Marathas were which was known as the Magna Carta of the
divided into two rival camps. Maratha Dominion in the history.
✓ One led by Tarabai from Kolhapur and on the ✓ According to this, the Marathas received the right to
other side led by Shahu at Satara. collect the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the entire
✓ After a prolonged civil war, Shahu emerged as a Deccan and Karnataka region. The Marathas
victorious. This gave rise to a new system under the became the Sardeshmukh of entire Deccan and
leadership of Balaji Viswanath, the Peshwa (Prime Karnataka region.
Minister) of King Shahu. ✓ Foundation of Maratha Confederacy –
• In order to collect the Sardeshmukhi and Chauth,
he had assigned separate areas to the Maratha
Peshwa Balaji Peshwa Bajiroa
Viswanath (1713- Sardars. This system came to be known as watans
20) I (1720-1739) and Saranjams (grants of land).
• This form of Jagir system helped the Marathas in
expansion and establishment of Maratha Empire.
• But it also led to a weakness for the Marathas in
Peshwa Peshwa Balaji the long run. It made the King largely dependent
Madhav Rao Bajirao (1740- on his Sardars for his finances.
(1761-72) 1761) • The Sardars started establishing there in distant
lands of Mughal Empire where they settled down
as autonomous chiefs.
✓ Balaji Viswanath is also known as the second
Narayan Rao Raghunath Rao Founder of Maratha Empire.
(1772-73) (1773-74)
o Peshwa Bajirao I ( 1720-1740) –
Peshwa Bajiroa Sawai Madhav

II (1796-1818) Rao (1774-95)
23
✓ He formulated a new • The kingdoms like Bengal, Rajputs and Mysore

policy of imperialism accepted the sovereignty of Marathas as they were
which aimed at expansion paying a regular tribute in return of promise that
of Maratha Empire towards Marathas would not raid in future.
North. • In 1752 – Nawab of Oudh, Safdarjung requested
✓ He preached the ideal of the Marathas to help him to defeat the Afghan
Hindu Pad Padshahi i.e. Rohillas. The Marathas defeated the Rohillas and
Hindu Empire to garner the captured the whole Rohilkhand (present day north
support of Hindu Kings western UP).
against the Mughals. • By 1753, the Marathas succeeded in installation of
✓ Under his reign of 20 years, the Marathas won the Mughal Empire of their choice. This led to the
Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand. He influence of Marathas in Mughal Politics.
is remembered as the fighting Peshwa in
Maharashtra. ✓ Third Battle of Panipat (1761) –
✓ He defeated twice the Nizam-ul-Mulk of
Hyderabad and compelled the Nizam to grant the
right of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the 6 Mughal
province in the Deccan region.
✓ Bajirao defeated the Sidis of Janjira Island.
✓ 1737 – The Marathas under the leadership of
Bajirao I annexed Gujrat, Malwa &
Bundelkhand. They marched towards the Delhi &
raided it by defeating the mighty Mughal army.
✓ Also launched a campaign against the Portuguese
and captured the Salsette and Bassein.
✓ The Bengal and Punjab province was also came
under the influence of Marathas by 1760 because of • Reasons for 3rd battle of Panipat –
the policy of Bajirao. 1. In 1752, Peshwa entered into an agreement with the
✓ He had transformed the Maratha Empire into an All Mughal Empire. As per agreement, Peshwa assured
India Empire. the Mughal emperor that he would protect the
✓ He has been called as the greatest exponent of Mughal Empire from internal and external threat. In
guerrilla tactics after Shivaji return, Mughal allowed the Marathas to collect
Chauth from Northwest province from the
o Peshwa Balaji Bajirao Rao (1740-61) Northwest province and total revenue from Agra
and Ajmer.
✓ He was also known as 2. In March 1758, the Maratha Leader Raghunath Rao
Nana Sahib. crossed into the Punjab and expelled the Prince
✓ Sangola Agreement – Timur, Son of Ahmed Shah Abdali from Lahore.
• Also known as 3. The Marathas appointed Adina Khan Beg as the
constitutional Governor of Punjab. After his death, Sabaji Sindhia
revolution of 1750 became the Governor of Punjab.
• After the death of Shahu 4. The removal of Prince Ahmed became an
in 1749, his successor Raja Ram prepared a immediate cause for for the Battle of Panipat.
document came to be known as Sangola • Who supported the Abdali – Najib-ud-Daula of
agreement. Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh.
• It transferred the power from Chhatrapati to • Supporters of Marathas -The Marathas didn’t
Peshwa. Henceforth, Peshwa became the chief received any strong military support due to their
ruler of Maratha State and Headquarter was policy of indiscriminate Blunder which affected the
shifted to Poona. Hereafter, Nana Sahib became almost all the Hindu and Muslim chiefs. Surajmal
the supreme authority of remained neutral in the war but provided
Marathas. considerable assistance to the Marathas in the
✓ Expansionist policy of battle.
Peshwa Balaji – • The day of war –
• During his reign, Marathas
1. The forces of Marathas and Ahmed Shah Abdali
Empire rose to all India
met at Panipat on 14th January 1761
Empire which was extending
2. From Maratha’s camp, Viswas Rao (Son of Balaji)
from Cuttack to Attock.
was a nominal head. The real authority was in the
24
hands of Sadashiv Rao. The Marathas also had a o Peshwa Narayan Rao
European style infantry and (1772- 73) – He was deposed
artillery commanded by and killed by his uncle
Ibrahim Khan Gardi. Raghunath Rao.
3. The Marathas were defeated
in the war by the Abdali and
the Maratha army was
completely wiped away.
o Peshwa Raghunath Rao (1773-74)
✓ He was deposed by Nanaji
4. Balaji Bajirao died when the Phadnavis and other 11
heard the news of shocking defeat.
administrators (Baarbhai)
included Mahadji Shinde
• Why Marathas defeated in the war – and Tukojirao Holkar.
1. Abdali forces outnumbered the Maratha forces. ✓ This was come to known as
As per estimation, Abdali’s army was around 60000 Baarbhai Conspiracy.
and Marathas did not exceed 45000
2. Abdali’s forces were better organised and
prepared as compared to Marathas. For instance, o Peshwa Sawai Madhav Rao (1774- 95)
Abdali’s forces were fought with muskets (light gun ✓ First Anglo Maratha
with a long barrel and swivel guns. Whereas the War
Marathas were fought with swords and lances. ✓ Due to weakening of
3. The Marathas were fought almost alone in this central authority at
battle because of their policy of plunder and raid Poona and court
towards other provinces of India – Rajputs, intrigues, the Maratha
Bengal, and Mysore etc. Neither Hindu nor Sardars carved out
Muslim power supported the Marathas. semi-independent
Kingdoms like Awadh and Rohilkhand states – Holkar
supported the Abdali. (Indore), Scindia
4. Mutual discontent and conflict among the (Gwalior), Gaekwad
Maratha camp also played an important role for the (Baroda) and Bhonsle (Nagpur).
defeat of Marathas.
o Peshwa Bajirao II (1796-1818) –
• Significance –
1. Neither the Marathas nor the Afghans benefitted ✓ Second Anglo-
from the war. Maratha War
2. The real beneficiaries were the British. (1803-1805) –
3. This battle marked the beginning of decline of the Marathas were
Maratha imperialism which provided an defeated
opportunity to the British to expand and consolidate ✓ Third Anglo-
their power towards entire India. Maratha War
(1817-18) – The
Marathas were
o Peshwa Madhav Rao (1761-72)
defeated and the
✓ He restored the Maratha Empire with the help of his
seat of Peshwa was extinguished.
minister Nana
Phadnavis. This o Reasons for decline of Maratha Empire-
phenomenon was 1. Policy of Plunder and raid – The Marathas under
came to be known as Peshwa adopted the policy of raid and plunder
Maratha towards other provinces of India. They forced the
Resurrection other Indian rulers to pay tribute to the Marathas
✓ He successfully with a promise of not conducting a raid in future.
subdued the Rajputs, Because of this, Indian rulers- both Hindu and
Jats, Mysore and Muslims were resented with the Marathas.
Hyderabad. 2. Battle of Panipat (1761) - This battle doomed the
✓ Under his reign, Mughal Emperor Shah Alam 2 fate of Maratha Empire in the Indian Politics. The
was reinstalled at Delhi. All India Character of Maratha Empire was
shattered after this war.
3. Lack of Unity amongst the Marathas – The lack
of unity and court Intrigues amongst the Peshwa
further weakened the Maratha Empire.
25
4. Division of Maratha Empire – The feudal Maratha 5. Anglo-Maratha war – The Marathas under
states like Indore, Gwalior, Baroda and Nagpur Peshwa were finally wiped out by the East India
were became Independent which further break the Company in the third Anglo-Maratha war in 1818.
Maratha Empire.
Peshwa Important Events

Balaji Viswanath (1713-20) ✓ He supported the Shahu in the Maratha civil war and in return Shahu appointed
him as the Peshwa (Prime Minister)
✓ He Launched the period of Peshwa domination
✓ He made the Peshwa as a Functional Head of Maratha Empire.
✓ In 1719 – He helped the Sayyid Brothers in removing the Farrukhsiyar and in
return recurred the Mughal Sanad of 1719
✓ He laid down the foundation of Maratha Confederacy
✓ He is also known as the second founder of the Maratha State
Bajirao I (1720-1740) ✓ He preached the ideal of Hindu Padshahi
✓ He is also known as fighting Peshwa
✓ He transformed the Maratha State into All India Empire
Balaji Bajirao (1740-1761) ✓ He was also known as Nana Sahib
✓ Sangola agreement of 1750 – Transfer the supreme power from Chhatrapati to
Peshwa
✓ Maratha power reached its territorial zenith
✓ Battle of Panipat (1761) – Defeat of Marathas
Madhav Rao (1761-72) ✓ He restored the lost glory of Maratha Empire, a phenomenon known as Maratha
Resurrection
✓ In 1717 – He reinstalled the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II in Delhi
Narayan Rao (1772-73) ✓ He was deposed by Raghunath Rao
Raghunath Rao (1773-74) ✓ He was deposed by Nana Phadnavis and other 11 administrator (Baarbhai),also
known as Baarbhai Conspiracy
Sawai Madhav Rao (1774-95) ✓ First Anglo-Maratha War – Marathas emerged as a victorious
✓ Division of Maratha Empire - Holkar (Indore), Scindia (Gwalior), Gaekwad
(Baroda) and Bhonsle (Nagpur).
✓ In 1795 – He committed suicide
Peshwa Bajirao (1795-1818) ✓ 2nd and 3rd Anglo-Maratha war – The seat of Peshwa was extinguished
SIKHS
CHRONOLOGY OF SIKH GURUS – o Developed the Gurumukhi Script
o Introduced the Langar (Free Kitchen)
o Tradition of Mall Akhara for the Youth
3. Guru Amar Das –
o Compose the Anand Sahibs
o Started the Anand Karaj Marriage
o Abolished the Sati amongst the Sikh Community
4. Guru Ram Das –
o Founded the city of Amritsar ( Earlier known as
Ramdaspur & Guru ka Chack
o It initiated the construction of Golden Temple
5. Guru Arjan Dev-
o Compiled the Adi Granth
o Completed the construction of Golden Temple
6. Guru Hargobind-
1. Guru Nanak – Founder of Sikhism in the Punjab o Created the Sikh Martial Art called the Gatka
region in the 15th Century. Sikh literally means – o Trained the Sikhs in military art
Learner of Discipline o Built the Akhal Takht
2. Guru Angad – o Also known as the Soldier Saint
26

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7. Guru Har Rai- ✓ An invasion of the Nadir Shah and Abdali

o Maintained the large army of Sikh soldiers undermined the Mughal Authority in the Punjab
o Also known as Tender Hearted Guru region.
8. Guru Har Kisan – Youngest of all Guru’s ✓ The defeat of Marathas in the third battle of
9. Guru Tej Bahadur- He refused to convert to Islam Panipat ended the influence of Maratha legitimacy
and therefore beheaded by Aurangzeb in Delhi in Punjab.
10. Guru Gobind Singh – He transformed the military ✓ After the withdrawal of Abdali from Punjab,
Sikhs into military force by establishing the Khalsa Political vacuum was generated in the Punjab
in 1669. He was the last Guru of Sikhs. which provided an opportunity to the Sikhs to
consolidate their political rule in the region.
o Relationship with the Mughals o Period of Sovereign Sikh rule (1765-1845) –
✓ The Mughal Emperors especially Aurangzeb was ✓ The Sikhs were organised themselves into small
very intolerant towards the rise of Sikhs. mobile band called Jathas which was headed by
✓ Guru Arjan Dev and Guru Tej Bahadur were killed Jathedar.
mercilessly for not converting to Islam. ✓ After 1765 – These Jathas reorganised themselves
✓ The Sikh Empire was achieved its glory under the into 12 larger regional Confederacies or Misls
leadership of Ranjit Singh. which was led by a local Chief.
✓ The rule of Ranjit Singh was characterised by
religious tolerance and pluralism.
o Important Rulers of Sikhs during Mughals

Jathas
1. Guru Gobind Singh

✓ From 1696 – Guru tried to establish in an
autonomous Regional
Confederacie
region in an s
around
Anandpur.
✓ Anandpur was Bhangis Ramgarihas Kanhayias Singhpurias Ahluwalias Sukerchakias
captured by the
Mughals and
Guru Gobind
Singh was
killed in 1708.
✓ The Political Authority in Punjab was decentralised
2. Banda Bahadur and divided. Finally the Sikhs were organised under
the leadership of Ranjit Singh, the chief of
✓ He fought against the Sukerchakia Misl.
Mughal Authority for 8
years. The revolt was o Reign of Ranjit Singh in Punjab
weakened due to some ✓ Ranjit Singh was a
of the Jat Zamindars and Son of Mahan Singh
Khatri revenue farmers and a chief of
(Member of Sikh Sukerchakia Misl
Community) were sided who brought under
with the Mughals (For Instance – Churaman Jat of his control the area
Agra) from Sutlej to
✓ Banda Bahadur was captured and put to death in Jhelum.
1715. ✓ He had conquered
the Lahore in 1799 and Amritsar in 1802.
o Reasons for rise of Sikhs in Punjab after ✓ East India Company had also accepted the
Mughals – sovereign and Independent rule of Punjab under the
✓ The Weakening of Central Mughal Authority in Ranjit Singh through the Treaty of Amritsar
India after the death of Aurangzeb. (1809).
✓ Later, he also won the Kashmir, Peshawar and
Multan.
27
✓ He had continued the Land revenue system of 1. Churaman (1695-1721)

Mughals and used to charge 50% of the gross
produce from the famers. ✓ He built a strong fort at Thoon
✓ He modernised his army on the modern Europeans and challenged the Mughal
lines with the help of Europeans instructors and authority.
even recruited the Gorkhas, Biharis, Oriyas, ✓ In 1721, the Mughal army led by
Pathans, Dogras and Punjabi Muslims in the Jai Singh captured the fort and
army. defeated the Churaman army.
✓ He had established modern foundries to
manufacture Cannons at Lahore. 2. Badan Singh (1721-56)
✓ Ranjit Singh had a tolerant attitude towards other
religions. Fakir Azizudin and Diwan Dinanath ✓ He was responsible for
were some loyal and trusted ministers in the court strengthening and
of Ranjit Singh. Hence, in no ways Punjab under consolidation of Jat rule
Ranjit Singh was a Sikh state. in Bharatpur and built
✓ He had signed a tripartite treaty with the East forts at Deer, Kumher,
India Company and Shah Shuja in 1838. As per Weir and Bharatpur.
this treaty, he agreed to provide a route from his
kingdom to the British army so that the Company 3. Suraj Mal / Sujan Singh (1756-63)
could place Shah Shuja as a ruler of Afghanistan.
✓ After his death in 1839, the political supremacy of ✓ During his reign, Jat power
Sikh in the Punjab region started declining. Finally, reached its glory. He
British annexed the Punjab in 1849. extended his empire from
✓ Ranjit Singh is also known as Sher-e-Punjab. Delhi in the North and to
Chambal in the South,
JATS Agra in the West to the
Ganga in the East
o Background – including the areas of
✓ The weakening of Mughal Empire in the 18th Agra, Meerut, Mathura
Century provided a fertile ground for the Jats in and Aligarh.
establishing their rule in the some parts of North ✓ Role of Suraj Mahal in the battle of Panipat
India. (1761) –
✓ The Jats were an agriculturist who had inhabited in • He remained neutral in the war but provided
the Delhi-Agra belt. considerable assistance to the Marathas before and
✓ The Jat State remained feudal in nature. The main after the war.
power lies in the hands of Zamindars. • He was also known as Plato of the Jat Tribe and
Jat Ulysses
o Jat State of Bharatpur – • He died while fighting the Rohillas under the
leadership of Najib-ud-Daula. His death marked the
end of Jat rule
28
➢ Afghans – In the mid of 18th century, the state of ✓ It was originally under the Vijaynagara Empire
Farrukhabad and Rohilkhand was formed by the and had been nominally as a part of the Mughal
Afghan migrants. Empire.
✓ During the 18th century, Mysore was ruled by
Wadiyar (Wodeyar) King Chikka Krihsnaraja.
But the real power lies in the hands of Nanjaraja
•Founder - Muhammad
Shah Bangash/Ahmed (Sarvadhikari or Prime Minister) and Devraja
Khan Bangash (Dulwai or Commander in Chief).
•He had established his ✓ The foundation of Mysore power was laid by
control from the present
day Aligarh-Kanpur during Hyder Ali which continued by Tipu Sultan.
the reign of Farrukhsiyar
& Muhammad Shah
Farrukhabad o Hyder Ali (1761-82)
✓ Hyder was an ordinary
soldier in the Mysore
army and gradually rose
to the commander due to
his personal capabilities.
✓ In 1761, Hyder
overthrew Nanjaraja
and established his
authority over the state
of Mysore. He had also
acquired several territories in the Krishna-
Tungabhadra Doab after the death of Peshwa
•Founder - An Afghan
Pathan Soldier Daud and Madhav Rao in 772.
his son Ali Muhammad ✓ He was able to established control over the
Khan
•Territory - North West of
Poligars (Zamindars) and even occupied the
Present State of UP, areas of Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara and
between Kumaon in the Malabar.
North and Ganges in the
Rohilkhand South ✓ Due to its expansionist policy, the clashes were
•Capital - Alon and later witnessed between the Mysore and other regional
Rampur
powers like Hyderabad and Marathas.
✓ Hyder Ali had maintained his army on the modern
European lines. For that purpose, he had
established a modern Arsenal at Dindigul with the
help of French Experts.
✓ He had also fought two Anglo-Mysore wars with
the English in 1769 and 1782. He died during the
course of Second Anglo-Mysore war.
INDEPENDENT STATES – o Tipu Sultan (1782-1799)

1. Tipu as an Independent ruler-
These category of states had accepted the Mughal ✓ In 1787, Tipu had assumed the title of Paadshah
Sovereignty but enjoying considerable independence as and issued coins in his
Watan Jagirs. They used to pay regular tribute or name.
military services or both to the Mughals and in return, ✓ He inserted his own
Mughal did not interfere in their internal administration. name in the Khutba
There were some of the states who remained totally (Friday Sermons at
independent. the Mosque) instead
of Mughal Emperor
MYSORE Shah Alam and even
issued a new
o Background calendar.
✓ The Mysore state was located to the south of ✓ He was able to secure a Sanad (Royal Order) from
Hyderabad and at the Junction of Eastern and the Khalifa of Ottoman Empire to legitimize his
Western Ghats. rule.
29
✓ Tipu was a realistic ruler and therefore he

recognised the Mughal authority when required and Travancore Calicut (Under Zamorin)
defied it when it did not.
2. Tipu as an able Administrator

Kerala
✓ Tipu was an able and efficient administrator who
used to work for the welfare of masses.
✓ He was the one who able to understand the threat of
English to the South India and therefore raised an Chirrakal Cochin
efficient military force including French Corps. He
had also tried to build a modern navy after 1796.
✓ Due to contemporary economic backwardness, he
1. Marthanda Varma – He expanded his kingdom
understood the significance of modern trade and
from Kanyakumari to
industry. He was the only Indian ruler that time
Cochin with the help of
recognised the economic strength as the
modern army trained on
foundation of Military strength.
European style. He
✓ So What he had done for Economic development
defeated the Dutch and
-
ended their political
• Promoted Inland and Foreign Trade
authority in Kerala.
• Set up a number of factories in Mysore state which
producing articles such as Paper, Sugar, Silk 2. Rama Varma – He was a
Fabrics etc. man of great creativity and
• Sent Emissaries to France, Turkey, Iran and learning. He was
Myanmar to develop foreign trade responsible for making
• He had established embassies in foreign countries Trivandrum as the
on modern lines Capital centre of
• Tried to set up Trading companies on the lines of scholarship and art.
European companies
• Worked for the improvement of Agriculture and
introduced Sericulture in Mysore.
✓ Tipu also showed a keen interest in the French RAJPUTS
Revolution. He had also planted a Tree of Liberty
at Seringpatam and also became the member of
o Rajputs were the warrior
class who ruled over the
Jacobin club. He allowed to be addressed as citizen
areas of Rajasthan and
Tipu.
Saurashtra. The major
✓ The Sringeri letters reveal that Tipu was tolerant
powers were Mewar
in his religious policies. According to this letter, he
(Udaipur), Amber
had issued funds for the repair of temples and never
(Jaipur) and Marwar
interfered with worship in temples situated within
(Jodhpur).
the Seringpatam fort. He had also given money for
the construction of the Idol of Goddess Sarda in o From the reign of Akbar,
the Shringeri temple. Rajputs played an important
✓ Tipu died while fighting in the fourth-Anglo role in expansion and
Mysore war. consolidation of Mughal
✓ He used to say that it was better a live a day like a Empire.
Lion than a lifetime as a sheep. o The Rajputs had accepted the Mughal Sovereignty
and in return enjoyed autonomy in the matters of
KERALA internal administration.
Travancore – o They paid an annual tribute – Peshkash to the
Mughals.
✓ Travancore was the most important state in the o The suspicious nature of Aurangzeb towards
Kerala region and had always maintained its Rajputs hurted the feelings of Rajputs and their
independence from the Mughal authority. loyalty to the Mughals.
✓ Capital – Padmanabahapuram (1729-95) and
o Aurangzeb’s religious intolerant policy towards
later shifted to Thiruvananthapuram (1795-49)
other religions especially Hindus and revival of
✓ Rise of Travancore (After 1729) -
30
Jaziya further aggravated the relations of Mughals political structure was divided into Bhangis,
with the Rajputs. Ahluwalias. They were the band of Sikh warrior.
o Anti-Mughal League (1708) – Also called as Jathas.
✓ The real clash between the Mughals and Rajputs o Cis-Sutlej states – The term was generally applied
emerged when Aurangzeb refused to accept Ajit to the country south of the Sutlej and north of Delhi
Singh (the Posthumous Son of Rana Jaswant Singh territory
of Jodhpur) as Rana. Instead, he appointed Inder o Chauth – 25 % of the Land revenue claimed by the
Singh Rathore, a nephew of Jaswant Singh as Rana. zamindars in the Deccan region.
Therefore, the Marwar rose in revolt which was
o Sardeshmukhi – 9-10 % of the Land revenue paid
helped by Mewar.
to the head revenue collector in the Deccan region.
✓ 1708 – Emperor Bahadur Shah marched towards
Jodhpur and forced Ajit Singh into submission. o Deshmukhs - They were the powerful warrior
This led to the formation of Anti Mughal League families in the Maharashtra region during the reign
in 1708 which was led by Ajit Singh, Jai Singh II of Shivaji.
and Durgadas Rathore. o Mansabdars –
✓ Later, Bahadur Shah made a peace agreement ✓ Introduced by Akbar
with the Rajputs and afterwards, the Rajput ✓ It is system determined the rank of a government
kingdom became independent when the Mughal officials and military generals
Empire started declining ✓ The Mansabdars were military commanders, highly
civil, military officers and provincial governors.
✓ Types of Mansabdars –
• Amir – The Mansabdars whose rank was 1000 or
CELLEANEOUS FACTS below
• Amir-al-Kabir (Great Amir) – Above 1000
o The main officials in the Bengal under Mughals • Amir-al-Umara (Amir of Amir) – Above 5000
(18th Century) -
o Imp keyword –
✓ Diwan – Head of revenue department
✓ Subedar- Provincial Governor
✓ Nazim - Executive Head of other matters of civil
✓ Faujdar- Mughal military commander
and military administration
✓ Ijaradars- Revenue Farmer
✓ Bakshi – Military pay master of the Subah
✓ Kunbis- Maratha Peasant Warrior
✓ Kotwal – Head of Police Department
✓ Umara- A high Nobel
✓ Qazi – Dispensed Justice
✓ Nayakas – Telugu warrior chief
✓ Waqai Navis – Collection of news bearing political
✓ Gurumatas- Resolutions of the Sikh Guru
significance
✓ Dal Khalsa – Grand Army of Sikhs
o Bengal Subah was divided into Sarkars (Headed
by Faujdars). The Sarkars were further divided
into Parganas. At local level Zamindars had
o Important Facts related to Maratha
Administration –
maximum control over local people.
o The Mughal provincial administration was divided ✓ Peshwa – Finance and general administration.
into Nizamat (civil administration) and Diwani Later, Prime Minister
(revenue administration) ✓ Sar-i-Naubat/Senapati – Military commander
o Important departments during Tipu Sultan – ✓ Amatya – Accountant General
✓ Sumanta – Master of ceremonies
1. Mir Asif Cutchehri-Revenue and Finance ✓ Nyayadish – Justice
department ✓ Sachiv – Correspondence
2. Mir Miran Cutchehri – Military department ✓ Waqenavis – Intelligent post and household affairs
3. Malikut-Tujjar Cutchehri – Commerce ✓ Panditarao- Charities and religious administration
department ✓ Kathi – Measurement rod for lands
4. Mir Yam Cutchehri – Marine department ✓ Karkuns – Revenue officials under Shivaji
5. Khazain Cutchehri – Treasury and Mint ✓ There were two divisions in the Maratha Cavalry –
Department Bargirs (Paid up by state) and Silhadars (
Maintained by the nobles or Maratha Sardars)
o Misls – It is brotherhood or confederacies based on ✓ The regular army of 30000-40000 cavalry was
kinship ties in Sikh empire. For instance Sikh supervised by Havaildars
31
CHAPTER 4- BRITISH EXPANSION & CONSOLIDATION IN INDIA
WE ARE GOING TO COVER –
Factors & Forces responsible for British Success in India

British conquest of Bengal (1757-64)
British conquest of Mysore (1767-99)
British conquest of Marathas (1777-1818)
British conquest of Sindh (1843)
British conquest of Punjab (1849)
British conquest through administrative policies
British Conquest of Awadh
British conquest of Neighbouring regions-
Quick Revision
o In this section, will study the topic of British
Conquest of India in a detail manner.
o Rating- 4/5
o Pre Questions – 8 (1998-2019)
32
Coote, Lord Lake and Arthur Wellesley who

FACTORS AND FORCES REPONSIBLE FOR fought not for the leaders but for the cause and glory
BRITISH SUCCESS IN INDIA – of their country.
✓ The Indian side too had brilliant Leaders like
Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan, Madhav Rao Sindhia
and Jaswant Rao Holkar but they often lacked a
team of second line trained personnel.
✓ Moreover, the India leaders were fighting against
each other and not against the British. The spirit of
fighting for a united cause was not their motivation.
Thus, they often supported the British against
neighbouring rulers.
5. Strong Financial backup –
✓ The income of the company was adequate enough
to pay s handsome dividends to its shareholders and
1. Superior arms & military strategy – The English also finance the English wars in India. Also,
arms such as muskets and cannons were superior England was earning great amount of profits in
in comparisons to Indian ammunitions of native trade with rest of the world.
rulers. This military superiority provided an edge to ✓ This strong financial position of the company
the British in the war with different Indian rulers. provided an added advantage for the success of
2. Military Discipline & regular salary – A regular military campaigns in India.
system of payment of salaries & maintenance of 6. Nationalist Pride – An economically thriving
strict discipline in the English army made the troops British people believing in material advancement
& officers including Indians loyal to the company, and proud of their national glory faced the ‘weak,
whereas Indian rulers were facing the issue of divided-amongst-themselves Indians’ bereft of a
salaries/regular revenue to their soldiers. sense of unified political nationalism. The lack of
3. Civil discipline & fair Election system – The materialistic vision and nationalism amongst the
company officers & troops were selected on merit Indians was also a reason for the success of the
basis. They were subject to strict discipline & were English company.
aware of the objectives. But in case of native rulers,
recruitment was mostly based on the basis of caste
& personal relations. This affected the
competence of the Indian troops.
4. Brilliant Leadership and support of Second Line
Leaders –
✓ Britishers had great leaders like Robert Clive,
Warren Hastings, Elphinstone, Munro,
Marquess, etc. The English also had the advantage
of a long list of secondary leaders like Sir Eyre
BRITISH CONQUEST OF BENGAL
BACKGROUND- 2. 1698 – The East India company obtained the

Zamindari of Sutanati, kalikata and Gobindapur
1. 1651 – The English had established their First from subahdar Azim-um-shah.
factory in Bengal at Hugli after receiving the 3. 1700 – The factories in Bengal were placed under
permission from Sultan Shujra, the subahadar of Fort William.
Bengal. 4. 1717 – Emperor Farukhsiyar granted the trade
privileges to the company (We have discussed the
33
privileges in details in the previous chapter – Rise ✓ Meanwhile, the English naval forces reached under
of Regional states) the command of Robert Clive. He bribed Manik
5. 1717 – Murshid Quli Khan (Diwan & Subahdar) Chand (Officer in charge of Fort William) and
declared himself as the Nawab of Bengal. captured Fort William again.
6. 1740 – Alivardi Khan did not allow Fortifications 2) Treaty of Alinagar-
of French & English factories at Chandernagore & ✓ The surrender of Manik Chand forced Siraj to
Calcutta. make peace with the English & sign the treaty of
7. 1757 – Siraj-ud-Daulah became nawab of Bengal. Alinagar.
His succession was challenged by two other ✓ Treaty of Alinagar (Feb 1757)
contenders for the throne, Shaukat Jung (Faujdar 1. Nawab restored to the English their former trade
of Purnea) & Ghaseti Begum (Alivardi’s privileges.
daughter) 2. Granted permission to fortify Calcutta
3. Nawab will pay compensation to the English for
BATTLE OF PLASSEY- their issues.
✓ However, Robert Clive wanted to change the
REASONS/CAUSES-
Nawab & forced Siraj-ud-Daulah to fulfil all the
• Farman of 1717 –
demands of English. Hence, the war became
✓ This royal Farman became a source of conflict
inevitable.
between the Bengal’s nawab and the East India
3) Battle of Plassey (23rd June, 1757)
Company.
✓ On 23rd June 1757, both the armies met at Plassey.
✓ Why Nawab’s were unhappy: - Loss of revenue
But prior to war, Robert Clive joined the hands
to the Bengal. The servants of company to evade
with the Nobles such as
taxes on their private trade misused Dastaks.
• Mir Jafar – Mir Bakshi (Commander in Chief)
• Shelter to Krishna Das – The Company had given
• Manik Chand – officer in charge of Calcutta
a shelter to Krishna Das who had fled from
• Amir Chand – A rich merchant
immense treasures against the nawab’s will.
• Jagat Seth – The biggest banker of Bengal.
• Support to Ghaseti Begum – The English
• Khadim Khan –
Company had also supported the claims of Ghaseti
Commanded a
Begum to the throne.
large number of
• Immediate cause – To protect itself from the French
nawab’s troops.
threat, the company had started the fortification of
✓ Accordingly, the
Fort William & mounted guns on its walls.
Nawab forces
✓ Siraj requested repeatedly to the company from
comprised of
further fortification, which was not listened by the
50,000 under the
English. Hence, Siraj decided to launch an offensive
leadership of Mir Jafar stayed away from the battle.
action against the company.
✓ Only a small group of Nawab forces fought bravely
COURSE OF WAR- under the leadership of Mir Madan and Mohan
Lal.
1) Black hole Tragedy (June, 1756) ✓ However, the Nawab forces were defeated and
✓ On 15th June 1756, Siraj-ud-Daulah surrounded the English company emerged as victorious.
Fort William. During this while, Governor Roger
Drake and some of his men escaped from the back CONSEQUENCES-
door & took refuge at Fulta. They were waiting for
o Mir Jafar was proclaimed as
the help from Madras.
Nawab of Bengal
✓ The Nawab captured the fort on 20th June 1756,
o Robert Clive confirmed as
renamed Calcutta as Alinagar, and placed it under
the Governor of Bengal
the charge of Manik Chand.
o The English company was
✓ The forces of Siraj imprisoned the commander
granted undisputed right to
John Howell and other 145 Englishmen including
free trade in Bengal, Bihar &
women and children in a very small room.
Orissa.
✓ It is believed that out of 146 persons, only 26
o The company was granted Zamindari of 24
survived the next morning because of excessive
parganas near Calcutta.
heat and suffocation. This incident came to be
known as ‘Black Hole Tragedy’
34
o Mir Jafar paid a large amount of money as personal Mir Jafar and made Mir Qasim (son-in-law of Mir
present to Clive and compensation to the company’s Jafar) as the Nawab of Bengal.
losses. ✓ In this way, it could be said that Mir Jafar sowed as
o All the French settlements in Bengal were he had reaped, got betrayal in return for betrayal.
surrendered to the company. 2) Mir Qasim/ Itmad-ud-
Daulah (1760-64) –
SIGNIFICANCE- ✓ After coming to the throne,
1. The British emerged as kingmaker in Bengal- Mir Qasim granted the
1. The Battle of Plassey was the first political victory Zamindari of Burdwan,
of the English in India. Chittagong and Midnapore.
2. Mir Jafar was appointed as Nawab by the British He promised to give the
which shows the real power was in the hands of company half of the share of
the company. Chunam trade of Sylhet and heavily bribed the
2. Change in position of the company- Before English officials.
Plassey, the East India Company was merely a ✓ However, relations of the Nawab and the Company
trading company but after the Plassey, the company disturbed in near future. Mir Qasim wanted to free
established its monopoly over Bengal trade and the Kingdom from the British Control.
wiped out the French and the Dutch companies. Accordingly, he gradually started this process
3. Resources under British control – The victory of through following ways –
East India Company in the battle of Plassey placed • He shifted the capital from Murshidabad to
all the economic resources of Bengal under the Monghyr in Bihar to reduce the influence of the
purview of the English. company in the court of Nawab.
• He also reshuffled the bureaucracy and appointed
BATTLE OF BUXAR (1764)- the men of his choice.
• The Nawab sought to modernise his army along
o Background –
the European lines and preparations were made to
1) Mir Jafar (1757-1760) –
establish manufacturing of Guns at Monghyr.
✓ After the Plassey, Mir Jafar
• The Nawab also ordered the dismissal and
became the Nawab of Bengal
with the help of the Company execution of Ram Narayan, the Deputy Governor
of Bengal for his loyalty towards the Company.
in June 1757.
✓ However, Mir Jafar was not ✓ The misuse of Dastaks by the servants of the
company for the private trade caused a tension
accepted as a ruler by some
zamindars and soldiers. between the Nawab and the British. Mir Qasim had
✓ In addition, the Nawab failed to meet the growing understood that the Company was earning huge
demands of Company for finances and trade profit at the expense of Royal treasury. The
privileges. issuance of grants, trade privileges to the English
✓ Mir Jafar who played the role of ‘Clive’s Jackal’ left no space for the Indian Merchants and
soon began to turn out against the English. He Traders to sustainably run their business.
started intriguing with the Dutch against the British. ✓ To solve out these differences, he met Warren
Hasting and Vansittart (member of the Calcutta
But the English wiped out the Dutch threat by
defeating them in the Battle of Bedara (1759). Council) and kept his concern especially related to
✓ Battle of Chinsura (1759)- private trade by Company’s servants. Although,
both of them assured the Nawab but the Council
• Also known as Battle of Biderra or Bedara or
rejected the proposal.
Hoogly.
✓ In response, Mir Qasim abolished all Inland Duties
• Fought Between – Mir Jafar and Dutch against
to bring the Indian Merchants at par with the
the Company.
English.
• Result – British Won
✓ As a result, the war was broke out between the Mir
• As a result, British decided to replace Mir Jafar with Qasim and the Company. Mir Qasim was defeated
the other ruler who could meet the needs of the in a series of war against the English.
Company and remain loyal to them.
✓ Hence, Vansittart (who had succeeded Clive as a
Governor of Bengal in 1760) successfully removed
35
BATTLE OF BUXAR (22ND OCTOBER, 1764) – confirm Balwant Singh, the Zamindar of Banaras
to his Estate.
• The Nawab was made to enter into an offensive and
defensive treaty (Subsidiary alliance) with the
East India Company. In this, the Company will
provide the protection from the outside threat to the
Awadh, provided he paid for the services of the
Troops. Thus, Nawab of Awadh became dependent
on the English Company.
✓ Why Robert Clive did not annex Awadh?
• If the Company had annexed Awadh, then it would
be under obligation to protect the extensive land
✓ After his defeat against the English, he fled to frontier, which was vulnerable to attack by the
Awadh and formed an Alliance with Shuja-ud- Afghans (Under Abdali), and the Marathas.
Daulah (Nawab of Awadh) and Shah Alam II
• Therefore, Clive converted the Awadh as a friendly
(the Fugitive Mughal Emperor).
buffer state between the British possessions in
✓ The English army was led by Major Munro.
Bengal and the territories of Marathas.
✓ The English Forces had defeated the combined
4) Settlement with the Mughal Emperor Shah
forces of Shuja-ud-Daulah, Mir Qasim and Shah
Alam II-
Alam II.
✓ Robert Clive Concluded the Second Treaty of
✓ Hence, this war established the British as a master
Allahabad with the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II
of Bengal region and Awadh was placed at their
on August 1765.
mercy.
✓ Second Treaty of Allahabad (August 1765) –
CONSEQUENCES- • Shah Alam was taken into the Company’s
protection and given the Districts of Kora and
1) Primary Changes – Allahabad (the Emperor resided in the Fort of
✓ Real power of Bengal – Transferred into the hands Allahabad for 6 years as a virtual pensioner of the
of English Company. East India Company).
✓ Robert Clive – He was reappointed as Governor • In return, Emperor Shah Alam II issued a Farman
and Commander in Chief of Bengal for the period on 12th August 1765 which granted the Diwani
of 1765-67 Rights (Right to Collect revenue) to the Company of
2) Settlement with the Nawab of Bengal – Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
✓ Mir Jafar was again brought to the throne of
Bengal. After the death of Mir Jafar in 1765, his SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BATTLE OF BUXAR
minor son Najim-ud-Daulah was appointed as (1765)-
Nawab on the following conditions –
o The Battle of Buxar established the British
• The Nawab would need to surrender Defence and
Supremacy over the regions of Bengal, Bihar and
foreign affairs in the hands of Company.
Orissa and Awadh.
• Civil Administration – Naib-Subahdar o This battle proved the efficacy of British military
nominated by the Company and can be removed power in India.
with their consent only. o Through this war, the British Authorities realized
• Diwani Rights (Right to collect the revenue) also the strengths and weakness of Indian Native Rulers,
taken by the British. which helped them during their later military and
3) Settlement with the Nawab of Awadh – diplomacy campaigns.
✓ Robert Clive concluded the First Treaty of o While Plassey had made the British a powerful
Lucknow with the Shuja-ud-Daulah on 16th August factor in the Politics of Bengal, Buxar made them a
1765. powerful factor in the Politics of North India.
✓ The First Treaty of Allahabad (16th August o This war had opened a gate for the British to
1765)- consolidate and expand their rule in India.
• The Nawab of Awadh was made to pay a war
indemnity of 50 Lakh Rupees to the Company. DUAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNANCE (1765-72)-
• The Nawab was made to surrender Allahabad and
Kora to the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and
36
✓ The English Company was doubtful that whether

the other European powers would acknowledge the
Governance
of Bengal rule of Company in the Bengal and pay duties that
they paid to Nawabs of Bengal.
✓ The Company did not have adequate personnel to
run the administration of Bengal.
Nizamat Diwani ✓ The Directors of the Company were more
Functions Functions
interested in commercial and financial gains rather
than territorial acquisitions. Hence, the Dual
system was more favourable to them.
Defense & Civil
Revenue
Foreign Administrati
Affairs on
Collection IMPACT OF DUAL GOVERNANCE SYSTEM –
✓ It led to the complete breakdown of the
administration and law & order in Bengal.
o How system works?
✓ In this system, the Nizamat Administration was
given to the Nawab and Diwani was in the Hands of
the Company.
✓ As we studied earlier that the Company had
acquired all the powers – Nizamat and Diwani.
Hence, practically it was never implemented.
✓ It also initiated the Drain of Wealth from the
Bengal.
o Why Robert Clive introduced the Dual System

of Governance?
✓ The main advantage of this system was that the
British had the Power without Responsibility.
✓ He understood that it was necessary to run a puppet
government; otherwise, it might have resulted in
uniting the Indian Princes against the Company.
✓ The Company wanted to avoid an interference of
the British Parliament into the Company’s Affairs
in Bengal.
✓ The Company appointed two Naib Diwans –
Mohammad Reza Khan and Raja Sitab Roy for the Company over Trade and commerce including
Bengal and Bihar respectively. The English private servants affected the income source of
Company had directed them and other officials to Indian Merchants and traders.
collect revenue as much as possible. This had ✓ It ruined the Indigenous industries and skill of
hampered the farmers, Naib-Diwans, fertility of Indian Artisans. This had led to the emergence of
land and production of foodgrains. All these led to India’s Drain of Wealth.
the occurrence of famines especially terrible ✓ The economic and political policies of the company
famine of 1770 in Bengal. led to the moral degradation of Bengal Society.
✓ The Dual Government also led to the disruption of
trade and commerce in Bengal. The Monopoly of
EVALUATION OF POLITICAL EVENTS IN BENGAL (1757-65)-
o The Political Events in the Bengal during the period o Hence, it can be concluded that although the British
from 1757-65 was termed by many Historians as fought to protect their economic interest but finally
Political Revolution. settled as a political Authority in the Bengal. The
o The conflict emerged in the battle of Plassey and victory in the battle of Plassey and Buxar opened
culminated with the battle of Buxar. the field for the English to expand their authority
over India.
37
BRITISH CONQUET OF MYSORE /ANGLO-MYSORE WARS (1767-99)-
Second Third
First Anglo Fourth
Anglo Anglo
Mysore Anglo-
Mysore Mysore
War (1767- Mysore
War (1780- War
69) War (1799)
84) (1790-92)
BACKGROUND- o This provided an opportunity to the Company to

interfere in this conflict and to annex not only
o The rise of Mysore under the leadership of Haider Mysore but also the Marathas and other rulers of
Ali was viewed as a threat by the neighbouring South India.
states – Marathas, Nizam of Hyderabad and ➢ Why Anglo Mysore Wars –
Nawab of Carnatic. ✓ The basic objective was to undermine the
o Haider Ali saw the neighbouring states as a threat to Independent authority of Mysore rulers and to
his Mysore Empire. take over the control of administration there.
38
✓ The British understood the importance of South ✓ The Company, Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad
India for their trade and commerce and Mysore attacked the Mysore in 1766.
was one of the big powers in this region who did ✓ However, Haider Ali successfully persuaded the
not had good relations with the British. Nizam and Marathas to join him against the
✓ As a result, British fought against Haider Ali and English.
Tipu Sultan with the help of Marathas and Nizam ✓ As a result, the Mysore launched an offensive attack
of Hyderabad and succeeded in capturing the against the Company and reached up to the gates of
Mysore State. Madras.
➢ First Anglo Mysore War (1767-99)- ✓ He forced the Madras Council to sign the Treaty of
Madras on his terms in 1769.
REASONS – ✓ Treaty of Madras – Through this treaty, both the
powers decided to help each other in case of an
✓ The Friendship of Haider Ali attack by the third party.
with the French had annoyed
the English Company. ➢ Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)-
✓ The border dispute between
Mysore and Madras REASONS –
Government (under English).
✓ Immediate Cause – ✓ In 1771, Marathas invaded
Haider Ali the State of Mysore and
• The issue of Northern Circars proved to be an English Company did not
immediate cause for the First Anglo-Mysore War. arrive for the help of Haider
• The East India Company had demanded the area of Ali. This was a violation of
Northern Circars from the Nizam of Hyderabad due Treaty of Madras (1769).
to its importance for Agriculture and coastal trade Tipu Sultan
✓ On the other hand, French
• The Nizam rejected the English proposal initially was providing all the
but later in 1766 signed a Treaty with the Company necessary arms and ammunition to the Mysore from
due to its poor financial and military conditions. Mahe (Territory under French control).
• The Company got the Northern Circars and in ✓ American War of Independence – In 1775, the
exchange promised to give military support to the American war of Independence had broken out and
Nizam of Hyderabad against the Mysore State. the French had helped the Americans in this war.
• Meanwhile, Nizam of Hyderabad had formed an The effect of this war witnessed in India too as the
alliance with the Marathas to contain the Company was concerned with the alliance of
expansionist policy of Haider Ali. Hence, a French and Mysore.
Tripartite Treaty was signed in 1766 between the
IMMEDIATE CAUSE –
English, Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad against
the State of Mysore. • The Company had launched an attack to capture
• Even Haider Ali was also resented with the English Mahe, which was a direct challenge to Haider Ali.
as they had established a fortified outpost at • The Conflict was further aggravated when the
Vellore. English forces trespassed on Haider’s territory to
take over the control of Guntur in the Northern
Circars.
• The English capture of Mahe caused to be an
immediate factor for the Second Anglo-Mysore
war.
COURSE OF WAR –
• Supporters of English – Marathas and Nizam of

Hyderabad.
COURSE OF WAR – • Supporter of Mysore – French under Admiral
Ballie de Suffren (reached in 1782 in India).
39
• Who had won – English • However, Tipu’s attack on Travancore provided

the immediate pretext for the Third Anglo-Mysore
war.
• Why Tipu went for Travancore – Here comes the
border dispute. The Raja of Travancore had
purchased Jaikottai and Caranganore from the
Dutch in Cochin though it was a tributary state of
Mysore. Tipu saw this as a violation of his
sovereign rights and launched an attack on
• Battle of Porto-Novo – The English force under the Travancore in 1790.
leadership of Sir Eyre Coote defeated Haider Ali • The Raja of Travancore had a friendly relation with
in 1781. the English. The Company were already itching for
• Haider Ali died in 1782 and his son Tipu Sultan a war and therefore they joined the ruler of
continued war. Travancore.
• Meanwhile, the American war of Independence COURSE OF WAR –
ended and Suffren was called back to France. All
these Factors made the Position of Mysore weak. ✓ Supporter of British – Nizam and Marathas
• Treaty of Mangalore (1784) – It was signed based ✓ Supporter of Mysore – French and Turkey (This
on mutual restitution of each other’s territories. time not openly but secretly)
• Significance of Treaty – The Treaty of Mangalore ✓ Who had won – British
was the last British treaty with an Indian ruler on ✓ Treaty of Seringapatam (1792)-
equal footing.
➢ Third Anglo Mysore War (1790-92)-
• Tipu had to surrender half of his territory to the

British and its allies.
• Company acquired – Baramahal, Dindigul and
Malabar
• Maratha gain – Territory on the Tungabhadra side
• Nizam got – Territories from the Krishna to
beyond the Pennar
REASONS – • Tipu had to pay war indemnity of Rupess 3 crore.
As he was unable to pay such huge amount
✓ Lord Cornwallis had immediately, his two sons were kept as prisoners
become the Governor- with the Lord Cornwallis.
General of Bengal in 1786. • After Lord Cornwallis, Sir John Shore became the
He successfully convinced Governor-General. He adopted the policy of non-
the Marathas and Nizam to be intervention towards Mysore. He is also known as
at British side. the Father of Policy of Non-Intervention.
✓ The French and Turks provided help to the Tipu ➢ Fourth Anglo Mysore War (1799)-
Sultan.
IMMEDIATE CAUSE –
40
✓ Battle of Seringapatam (1799) – The Company

had defeated the Mysore army and Tipu Sultan died
while defending his city.
✓ The Company, Marathas and Nizam annexed the

remaining territories of Mysore. The Company had
acquired the sea coast of Lower Peninsula. As a
result, the threat of French from the Malabar Coast
was completely wiped out.
✓ The Company had restored the Wodeyar Dynasty
to the throne of Mysore and brought the two-year-
old Prince Krishnaraja as new ruler. Also, the
remaining territory of Mysore i.e., area around
Mysore and Seringapatam was given back to
Wodeyar Dynasty.
✓ Finally, British compelled the Wodeyar Dynasty to
accept the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty.
✓ In this way, British succeeded in gaining control
REASONS – over not only Mysore but also almost entire South
India.
✓ In 1797, Lord Wellesley ✓ In 1831 – William Bentick took over the control of
sailed for India. By this Mysore over the issue of misgovernance.
time, England was ✓ 1n 1881 – Lord Rippon again restored Wodeyar
struggling for its survival Dynasty.
against the France all
over the world.
✓ In 1801, Napoleon
Bonaparte had made an
alliance with the Tsar
Paul of Russia and
prepared a serious plan to
invade India via Herat
and Kandahar.
✓ Tipu Sultan of Mysore understood the importance
of Napoleon Bonaparte as an opportunity to oust the
British from the India.
✓ Hence, he entered into negotiations with the French
and went for elaborate preparations for war with the
English. Accordingly, he planted a Flag of Liberty
at Seringapatam and styed himself as Citizen
Tipu.
✓ He also employed the French Commandant
Monsieur Raymond and raised an army of 14000
men with his help.
✓ All these activities of Tipu had annoyed the Lord
Wellesley. Therefore, when Tipu rejected the offer
of Subsidiary Alliance, the war began.
COURSE OF WAR –
✓ Supporter of British– Marathas and Nizam

✓ Supporter of Mysore – French
✓ Who had Won – British
41
BRITISH CONQUEST OF MARATHAS / ANGLO-MARATHA WAR (1775-1818)-
First Anglo- Second Anglo Third Anglo-

Maratha War Maratha War Maratha War
(1775-82) (1803-1815) (1817-18)
➢ First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)- ✓ This was the immediate cause for the First Anglo-
o Why the war was fought? Maratha War.
✓ After the death
of Peshwa COURSE OF WAR-
Madhav Rao, TREATY OF SURAT (7TH MARCH,1775) –
Sawai Madhav
Rao became the • Signed between Raghunath Rao (Raghoba) and
new Peshwa of British Government at Bombay.
Maratha
Empire.
✓ Raghunath Rao challenged this succession. He went
to the British for help.
42
• What for Raghunath Rao? – The • However, the Marathas defeated the English army
Company would help Raghunath under Goddard in Poona.
Rao to become Peshwa. • Battle of Sipri (Modern Day Shivpur)-
• What for the Company – In ▪ The British army led by Colonel Pompham
return, Raghoba would cede captured the Gwalior fort on 3rd August 1781.
territories of Salsette and ▪ General Calmac defeated the Scindias in the Battle
Bassein and revenues from of Sipri.
Surat and Bharuch to the British. • Finally, conflict was solved through the Treaty of
• Battle of Adas – The English army led by Colonel Salbai (1782).
Keating defeated the Marathas but they retained
control over Poona. TREATY OF SALBAI (1782)-
TREAT OF PURANDAR (1776) – • This Treaty was signed between the Poona
Government under the Peshwa and British
• The Calcutta Council rejected the Treaty of Surat. Government with the mediation of Mahadji
Further Warren Hasting had sent Colonel Upton to Scindia.
Poona Darbar and signed the Treaty of Purandar- • Provisions-
▪ Madhav Narayan Rao will be accepted as Peshwa.
PROVISIONS OF TREATY – ▪ The British will not support the cause of
Raghunath Rao.
▪ The Treaty of Surat was annulled.
▪ Raghunath Rao would be given a yearly pension of
▪ The British left the side of Raghunath Rao & was
Rupees 3.5 lakhs.
sent to Gujarat and decided that he be given a
▪ The Company gave up Bassein and other territories
pension by the Peshwa Government at Poona.
conquered since the Treaty of Purandar.
• However, the Treaty of Purandar could not be ▪ In return, the English retained the Salsette and
implemented due to sudden important events. The Elephanta Island.
American War of Independence was broken out and ▪ Scindia got back all the area on the West of
French was helping the Americans. Yamuna.
• At the same time, French adventurer, Chevalier de
St. Lubin reached Poona. ➢ The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05)-
• As a result, Warren Hasting scrapped the Treaty of
Purandhar and sent the British army to help the
British Government at Bombay.
• Battle of Talegaon –
▪ British Army – Led by
Egerton (Later replaced by
Colonel Cockburn)
▪ Maratha Army – Led by
Mahadji Shinde
▪ Who had won – Marathas TREATY OF BASSEIN/SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE
▪ The English army (DEC, 1802) –
surrendered and sign humiliating treaty with the
Peshwa named Treaty of Wadgaon in 1779. ✓ It was a Treaty of Subsidiary Alliance introduced
by Governor-General Lord Wellesley.
TREATY OF WADGAON-
PROVISIONS –
• The Bombay Government would return all
territories captured by it after 1773. • Peshwa accepted the company’s protection and
• Scindias will get a part of the revenue from the ready to pay large annual subsidy.
Bharuch. • The English army would be stationed at Poona and
• However, Hasting rejected this treaty and sent an no European enemy of the British will be kept in the
army under the leadership of Colonel Goddard and Maratha army.
captured Ahmedabad and Vasai. • The Marathas will surrender their foreign relations
with the other states to the Company.
• Surat was given to the Company.
43
• To give up all claims of Chauth on Nizam’s • Daulat Rao agreed to keep a British resident – John
domination Malcolm in his court.
✓ Through this treaty, Marathas lost their • Treaty of Burhanpur (1804) – Scindia accepted
independence and hence it hurt the patriotic the Subsidiary Alliance of the Company.
feelings of other Maratha chiefs. ✓ Treaty of Rajpurghat (24th Dec, 1805) –
✓ Who rose in Revolt? - Daulat Rao Scindia • This time it was between Holkar and the
(Gwalior) and Raghuji Bhonsle (Nagpur) Company.
IMMEDIATE REASON –
▪ 1801 – Peshwa Bajirao II had

killed Vithoji Rao Holkar
(Brother of Yashwant Rao
Holkar). When Yashwant Rao
launched an offensive attack,
Daulat Rao Scindia Raghoji Bhonsle Peshwa took refuge in Bassein
✓ Who not supported? – Gaekwad (Baroda) and and approach Wellesley for his protection.
Yashwant Rao Holkar (Indore) ▪ As per Subsidiary Alliance Treaty, English had also
engaged in this war.
COURSE OF WAR -
TREATY OF RAJPURGHAT –
✓ Deccan – Arthur Wellesley led the English army.
• Battle of Assaye (near Aurangabad, 1803) and • Holkar defeated Colonel Monson near Kota and
Battle of Argaon (near Burhanpur, 1803) – The marched towards Delhi.
Company defeated the combined forces of Scindia • However, Lt. Colonel Octor Loni successfully
and Bhonsle. defended Delhi.
✓ North – Led by Lord Lake • Battle of Ding – The Company defeated one
• Battle of Delhi (September 1803) – The Company detachment of Holkar army.
defeated Daulat Rao Scindia. • Another detachment of Holkar forces, which was
• Battle of Laswari (Near Alwar, Nov-1803) – The led by Yashwant Rao, was defeated by General
British forces defeated the combined army of Lake.
Scindia and Bhonsle. General Lake captured the • Hence, with no choice, Holkar agreed to sign the
Delhi, Agra and Aligarh from the Marathas and peace treaty.
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II again became the
Pensioner of the East India Company. PROVISIONS –
TREATY OF DEOGAON (17TH DECEMBER,1803) ▪ Who signed this Treaty from English side? – Sir
– George Barlow.
▪ What did British gain? – North of River Chambal
• Raghuji Bhonsle accepted the subsidiary alliance of and Bundi Hills (Bundelkhand).
the Company. ▪ What did Holkar gain? – Got back major part of his
• Areas given to the English – Balasore, Cuttack and lost kingdom and possessions over Malwa and
entire Kingdom west to the Wardha River. Mewar.
• As per Subsidiary Alliance Treaty, M Elphinstone ▪ This treaty marked an end of second Anglo-Maratha
was sent as a British Resident to the Nagpur. War.
TREATY OF SURJI-ARJANGAON (30TH ➢ Third Anglo-Maratha war (1817-18)-
DECEMBER,1803)
• This Treaty was signed between the Company and

Scindia.
• Area given to the Company – Scindia was
compelled to give a large part of his kingdom
including the territory between the Ganga and the
Yamuna.
44

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Surrender of Peshwa in front of English COURSE OF WAR –

BACKGROUND – ✓ Treaty of Nagpur (Subsidiary Alliance, 27 May
1816)-
✓ The third Anglo Mysore war
• Background –
was started with the arrival of
▪ After the death of Raghuji Bhonsle, his son
Governor-General Lord
Parsoji’s succession was challenged by Appa Sahib
Hasting.
(Mudhoji II Bhonsle)
✓ The Objective of Lord
▪ Between whom the Treaty was signed - Appa
Hasting was to resume the
Sahib and British.
imperialist policy of the
▪ As per the treaty, Appa Sahib became the new ruler
Company in India and his prime target was the
of Nagpur and British force was stationed at
Marathas.
Nagpur.
REASONS – ✓ Treaty of Poona (Subsidiary Alliance, 13 June
1817)-
✓ Charter Act of 1813 –
BACKGROUND –
• The Monopoly of East India Company was
abolished in India. ▪ Peshwa Bajirao II had signed
• Therefore, it was required for the British to annex the Treaty of Bassein in 1802,
Indian States in order to get access to raw materials which made Peshwa dependent
and market without any trade barriers. on the Company.
IMMEDIATE CAUSE – ▪ Because of this, Peshwa
Bajirao II wanted to free his
• The British campaign against the Pindaris caused kingdom from the British
to be an immediate factor for Third Anglo-Maratha control.
war. ▪ Therefore, he began to reassert his authority over
the Gaekwad of Baroda (Who had friendly
• Who were Pindaris – The Pindaris were many
relations with the English) and laid claim over the
caste and classes who worked like mercenaries
tribute of Kathiawar and Baroda.
under the Maratha Empire. They consist of Hindus,
▪ The ruler of Baroda sent his Prime Minister
Muslims, Afghans, Jats and Marathas, better
Gangadhar Shahstri to negotiate with the Peshwa
called as a “debris of the Mughal Empire” broken
but failed. However, while returning, he was killed
and not incorporated into any of the regimes. They
by Trimbakji (Chief Minister of Peshwa) at
can also be called as irregular army of the
Nashik.
Marathas.
▪ As a result, the company sent his army and
Important Leaders – Chitu, Wasil Muhammad
surrounded Poona. The Peshwa surrendered before
and Karim Khan.
the Company and accepted the Treaty of Poona.
• Why British Launched a Campaign against
Pindaris? – PROVISIONS –
▪ When the Maratha Sardars became weak, they
started raiding the territories of the British. The • The Peshwa accepted the dissolution of Maratha
Company accused Marathas of giving shelter to Confederacy.
Pindaris. • Area given to the English- Konkan Fort,
▪ In 1812 – The Pindaris plundered the English Bundelkhand, Malwa and Hindustan.
Districts of Mirzapur and Shahabad. They also ✓ Treaty of Gwalior (Subsidiary Alliance, 5th
carried out raids in the Northern Circars (1816). November, 1817)-
▪ Because of this, Lord Hasting decided to supress the
Pindaris and Marathas in one sweep. BACKGROUND –
▪ The English forces was led by Thomas Hislop
▪ The English forces effectively crushed the Pindaris ▪ Lord Hasting arrived with a big force &
by January 1818. surrounded Gwalior and asked Daulat Rao Scindia
▪ Meantime, Marathas also rose against the British to either surrender or face war.
due to an issue over Pindaris and their desire for ▪ Accordingly, Scindia also surrendered and accepted
independence. the Treaty of Gwalior.
45
▪ Provisions –
• Scindia was ready to help the Company against the
Pindaris.
RESULT –
• This treaty was based on amity and friendship.
• Gwalior accepted the sovereignty of the British.
✓ The third Anglo-Maratha war ended the rule of
✓ Final Conflict –
Marathas in India.
• The Maratha forces again rose to fight for their ✓ Lord Hasting dethroned the Peshwa and
independence. Peshwaship and pensioned off the Bajirao II in
• Who Participated – Peshwa Bajirao II (Poona), Bithoor near Kanpur.
Appa Sahib (Nagpur) and Malhar Rao Holkar ✓ The kingdom of Poona was brought under the direct
(Indore). control of Bombay Government.
✓ A small kingdom of Satara was carved out and was
given to Pratap Singh (descendant of Shivaji).
✓ Thus by 1818, the English had brought the entire
Indian subcontinent except Sindh and Punjab
under their control, directly or indirectly.
Malhar Rao Holkar Appa Saheb
• Who remained Neutral? – Rulers of Gwalior and REASONS FOR THE DEFEAT OF MARATHAS
Baroda. AND MYSORE-
• Battle of Khadki / Kikree / Ganesh Khind (5th
November,1817)- Peshwa lost the war o Mutual Rivalry –
• Battle of Sitabaldi Hills (26th November,1817)- ✓ The mutual conflict amongst the Marathas and
Bhonsle was defeated Mysore paved a way for the British to play their
• Battle of Mehidpur (21st December,1817) – Defeat policy of divide and rule.
of Holkar ✓ As we have seen, How Marathas and Nizam had
joined the English against Mysore.
TREATY OF MANDSAUR – ✓ How Haider Ali himself signed the treaty of Madras
with the English. As per this treaty, English and
• Signed between – The English and Holkar Mysore will help each during war. This treaty was
• Area given to the English – South of the Narmada signed by the Mysore to contain the Marathas.
including Khandesh and renounced his claim over ✓ Hence, the English Company had succeeded in
the Rajput states. establishing their control over Mysore and
• In this way, Holkar became the last Maratha chief Marathas.
to sign the treaty of Subsidiary Alliance. o Presence of Factions & Interest groups –
✓ Bhonsle also accepted the sovereignty of the British ✓ The presence of factions and interest groups or
and agreed to the Treaty of Nagpur. simply, the mutual conflict within their Empire
✓ Bajirao Peshwa again fought the two battles – caused to be an important factor for the fall down of
Battle of Koregaon (1st January 1818) and Battle both the powers.
of Ashti (20th Feb 1818) with the British. He was ✓ In terms of Marathas – The role of Raghunath Rao
defeated in both the battles and surrendered in front in First Anglo-Maratha war and attitude of different
of John Malcolm. Maratha Confederacies like Gaekwad were
responsible for loss of Maratha power. The
Marathas were also facing an issue of able
leadership. Madhav Rao was the last able ruler of
Marathas.
✓ In terms of Mysore- Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan
were unable to declare themselves the king of
Mysore because of court politics.
o Lack of Resources –
• The Marathas and Mysore were not that much
superior as compared to the British in terms of arms
& ammunition, had better discipline of army and
productive lands.
46
• Bengal, the most productive region was under the the treaty, Amirs promised not
control of British. to allow the French to settle in
• Whereas, Marathas were largely dependent on Sindh
outside income. ✓ 1820 – The above treaty was
• Mysore was comparatively in a better position as renewed and Americans were
compared to Marathas but inferior to the English. expelled from the Sindh.
✓ 1832- William Bentick sent Colonel Pottinger to
Sindh and signed the treaty with the Amirs, which
BRITISH CONQUEST FOR SINDH (1843) allowed the English a free passage to English
Travellers & merchants through Sindh. It also
➢ Background –
allowed the use of Indus for commercial purpose.
✓ From 1780 – Sindh was ruled by the Talpuras, a
✓ Later, Colonel Portland was stationed as the
Baluch tribe led by Mir Fatah Ali Khan.
Political agent of the British in Sindh.
✓ After death of Mir Fatah, the empire was shared by
his four brothers known as Char Yar, also known CONTEXT OF ANGLO-RUSSIAN RIVALRY –
as Amir or lords of Sindh.
✓ Context ✓ Lord Auckland wanted to
of Anglo-French Rivalry- conquer the Sindh for two
✓ After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, an invasion of reasons – To counter the
French threat was shifted to North-West Frontier. Russian threat and commercial
✓ Napoleon was planning to invade India via land benefits from the Sindh River.
route. ✓ When Ranjit Singh captured
Rojhan (Frontier town of Sindh).
✓ Subsidiary Alliance Treaty (1839) – Because of
Ranjit Singh action on Sindh, British forced the
Lord Minto Amirs of Sindh to sign the Subsidiary Alliance for
the protection of Sindh.
✓ During the Afghan war (1839-42), the Amirs of
Sindh found, themselves saddled with the
four diplomatic
Missions responsibility for helping the company and suffered
the losses economically and
politically.
Tehran - Kabul - Lahore - ✓ 1842- Lord Ellenborough
Elphinsto Sindh -
Malcolm Charles Seton became the new Governor-
ne Metcalfe General of India and Major
Outram was replaced by Sir
Charles Napier as British
✓ Therefore, Lord Minto immediately sent four Resident in Sindh. They were
diplomatic missions and signed the friendly treaties eager to annex the Sindh and merged it under the
with their respective Governments. They were – British Empire.
✓ 1809 – Treaty of Eternal Friendship was signed ➢ Causes for annexation of Sindh –
between the Amirs of Sindh and the British. As per o To counter the French and Russian threat.
47
o The Company saw Sindh as a necessary prelude to towards the English and launched an attack on the
the annexation of Afghanistan. Sindh.
o To gain commercial benefits from the Indus river. o English army was led by – Sir Charles Napier
o To rebuild the English prestige which had o Battles of Miani and Dabo (1843) – British
suffered during the first Afghan war. defeated the Amirs and annexed the Sindh.
o Napier called the Sindh war as a tail of the Afghan
COURSE OF WAR – storm.
o 1847- Sindh was made a part of Bombay
o Finally, Governor-General Lord Ellenborough Presidency.
charged the Amirs for hostility and disaffection
BRITISH CONQUEST OF PUNJAB (1849)-
o A war of succession also emerged between the

BACKGROUND – many sons of Ranjit Singh.
Finally, in 1843, Dalip Singh
o After the death of Ranjit (Duleep Singh) had ascended
Singh (June 1839), a the throne under the
political instability arises in guardianship of Rani Jindan.
Punjab. o The English were closely
o Ranjit Singh had large watching the happenings in
standing army of 40000 Punjab and wanted to regain their prestige which
soldiers. After his death, soldiers were not getting they had lost after the defeat in the Afghan war by
their salary on time and therefore they also started annexing Punjab and Sindh.
interfering in politics.
48
o As we have studied, British annexed the Sindh in ✓ As a result, on 11th December, 1845, the Sikh army
1843 and only Punjab was left. under the leadership of Lal Singh crossed the Sutlej
o 1843 – Major Broadfoot was and launched an offensive attack on the British.
appointed as Company’s ✓ British Army was led by – Sir Hugh Gough
political agent in Punjab. He ✓ Treaty of Lahore (9th March,1846)-
understood the growing
disorder in Punjab and
recounted every tale of corrupt Total 5 battles were fought –
behaviour at the court which affected the British
attitude. • BATTLE OF MUDKI
o 1844 – Lord Hardinge was • BATTLE OF FEROZSHAH
appointed as new Governor- • BATTLE OF BADDOVAL
General of India. He undertook • BATTLE OF ALIVAL
various measures to strengthen • BATTLE OF SABBRAON (10TH FEB, 1846)
the position of English army. As
▪ This was a decisive battle fought between the Sikhs
a result, the Company’s troops
and the Company.
stationed in Punjab and Sindh were trained and
▪ The Sikhs were defeated due to the treachery of Lal
fortified.
singh and Teja Singh. They were providing all the
o 1845 – Lal Singh had become Wazir and Tej
critical information to the English.
Singh was appointed as
▪ The British occupied Lahore and the Sikhs were
new commander-in-chief
forced to sign the Treaty of Lahore.
of Sikh Empire.
PROVISIONS –
• What British had received – Territories lying to the

➢ Causes (in detail)- Lal Singh
o It was a part of British policy of territorial
expansion and imperialism.
o To regain the prestige which the company had lost
due to defeat in Afghan war.
o To conquer the glorious wealth of Sikh Empire.
o Political instability of Sikh Empire after the death
of Ranjit Singh.
o Indiscipline of the Khalsa army (Sikh army).
o Instigating role of Major Broadfoot.
➢ First Anglo-Sikh war (1845-46)-
COURSE OF WAR -
south of river Sutlej and additional territories
including Kashmir and Hazara (A war indemnity
✓ The Sikhs had annoyed from the aggressive military
of Rupees 1.5 crore was imposed on the Sikh which
preparation of the Company.
they unable to pay and hence in return British got
these territories).
• Later, British sold Kashmir to Gulab Singh for
Rupees 1 Crore.
• The Company had recognised minor Dalip Singh as
King with Queen Jindan as his guardian and Lal
Singh as Wazir.
• Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed as the British
Resident at Lahore.
TREATY OF BHAIROVAL (22ND DECEMBER,

1846)-
49
• The British move of selling Kashmir to Gulab Singh ✓ Immediate Cause –

was disliked by the Sikhs. They again rose in revolt • By this time, Lord Dalhousie
under the guidance of Lal Singh. was appointed as new Governor-
• The Company had successfully supressed this General of India.
revolt and Treaty of Bhairoval was signed with • He had sent two British officers
Dalip Singh. – Vans Agnew and Lt.
Anderson to take charge of
PROVISIONS – Multan from its Governor,
Mulraj.
• Rani Jindan’s guardianship was annulled and she • However, Mulraj had killed
was pensioned off. both the officers and rose in
• A Council of 8 Chief Sikhs under the chairmanship revolt. Within a short span of
pf British Resident was appointed to look after time, other Sikh chiefs joined
governance works the revolt and rebellion soon
• It was decided that the British army would be developed into a national
stationed permanently at Lahore until Dalip Singh uprising in Punjab.
becomes a major. • This provided Dalhousie, an opportunity to declare
• Through this treaty, British had become the real war against the Sikhs and annex the Punjab.
master of Punjab. • As a result, three battles were fought in the second
EVALUATION- Anglo-Sikh war, namely –
Battle of Ramnagar (22nd November 1848)
✓ After the end of war, Punjab was not annexed by the Battle of Chilianwala (13th Jan 1849) - In both the
British. battles, the
✓ But why Punjab was not annexed – English army was
• What British argued? – They considered Ranjit led by General
Singh as friend of the English and in his memory, Gough. The result
they decided not to merge Punjab with the British of both the battles
Indian territory. was indecisive.
• Real Reason – Although the Khalsa army was Battle of Gujarat
defeated, but was not annihilated. The British had (21st Feb 1849) - The Sikh army was defeated and it
understood that it was necessary to weak the Sikh surrendered before the British army led by Charles
Empire– Politically, Economically and Militarily in Napier.
order to conquer it. o Result –
✓ East India Company annexed Punjab on 29th March
➢ Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)- 1849 and Maharaja Daljit Singh was pensioned
off. He was send to England for Education.
COURSE OF WAR – ✓ Board of administration was entrusted to look
after Punjab’s administration.
✓ Kohinoor Diamond was taken from Dalip Singh
and placed in the British royal crown.
EVALUATION –
✓ Mulraj and other Sikh chiefs had raised a banner of revolt against the Maharaja of Punjab – Dalip Singh who was
under the guardianship of British as they were opposed to English influence in Sikh Politics.
✓ However, British had removed Dalip Singh and annexed Punjab even though he was not involved in the war against
the English.
✓ Hence, it can be concluded that the justification of British to conqueror Punjab was neither legal nor
satisfactory.
50
IMPORTANT POLICIES OF THE ENGLISH TO CONQUER INDIA-
BACKGROUND – as they were the prominent powers at that time.

However, it was not feasible to capture each native
o In this part, we are going to study the diplomatic ruler by use of force.
policies of the Company that were used in-order to o Hence, the English formed policies like Policy of
conquer the Indian Sates or simply India. Ring Fence, Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of
o After the decline of Mughal Empire, India was Lapse to annex or subjugate the Indian states.
divided into many small and large princely States. o In all of these, Subsidiary Alliance was more
For the Company, it was necessary to annex the significant as it brought almost entire India under
Marathas, Bengal, Mysore and Punjab militarily the control of Brtish purview.
➢ Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813)-
o Associated Governor-Generals – Robert Clive & POLICY OF RING FENCE –
Warren Hasting
51
✓ It aimed at creating buffer zones to defend the of British. Hence, in this way rulers lost their
Company’s frontiers. powers related to foreign affairs and Military
✓ It was the policy of affairs.
defence of their ✓ The ally needs to act on the advice of British
neighbours’ frontiers Resident who was attached to the court. British
for safeguarding their Resident was the designation of a representative of
own territories. Governor-General who lived in a state, which was
✓ This policy of Warren Hastings was reflected in his not directly under British rule.
war against the Marathas and Mysore. o States that accepted the Subsidiary Alliance
✓ For instance, British had made Awadh as a Buffer system – Gradually, almost all the native rulers
State to protect their territory of Bengal against an signed the treaty of subsidiary alliance with the
invasion of Marathas and Afghans. British. Here are the few names –
✓ During Mysore Campaign, Marathas, Hyderabad
and Carnatic were acting as a buffer for the HYDERABAD (1798) – FIRST INDIAN STATE TO SIGN THIS
English territory of Madras. TREATY
✓ During Anglo-Afghan war, the Company used
Sindh and Punjab as their buffer state. • MYSORE (1799)
• TANJORE (1799)
HOW IT WORKS –
• AWADH (1801)
✓ In this policy, the British assured the native States • PESHWA (1802)
of military assistance against the external threat— • SCINDIA (1803)
but at their own expense. • GAEKWAD (1803)
✓ In simple words, these rulers were required to • BHONSLE (1816)
maintain subsidiary forces/forces of British which • HOLKAR (1817)
were to be organised, equipped and commanded by • RAJPUT STATES OF JAIPUR, JODHPUR, MACHERI,
the officers of the East India Company who, in turn, BUNDI AND BHARATPUR (1818)
were to be paid by the rulers of these states
SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE POLICY-

DOCTRINE OF LAPSE (1848-56)
o Associated Governor General
– Lord Wellesley.
o Associated Governor-
o This policy was devised by
General – Lord Dalhousie
Lord Wellesley in 1798.
o He was not an originator of
o It was an extension of the
this policy. However, he
ring-fence system, which
was the one who
sought to reduce the Indian
popularised it.
states into a position of
o It was a further extension of
dependence on the British government.
Policy of Subsidiary Alliance.
PROVISIONS – o What the Doctrine says? –
✓ As per this policy, any princely state under the
✓ The British would be responsible for protecting Subsidiary Alliance system would automatically be
their ally from internal and external threats to annexed, if the ruler was either incompetent or
their power. died without a male heir.
✓ In the territory of ally, a British army contingent / ✓ In simple terms, this policy did not allow for
British army would be stationed. adopted son. This means, the ruler could not
✓ The ally would have to provide the resources for proclaim an adopted son as a king after his death
maintaining this contingent. In simple terms, the (Only male heir by blood was required to ascend the
ruler needs to take care of the expenses of the throne).
English army. ✓ In addition, the Company would annex the kingdom
✓ The ally needs to disband their army. if the ruler was incompetent or not capable.
✓ The ally could enter into agreements with other o Accordingly, Lord Dalhousie annexed the
rulers or engage in warfare only with the permission following Princely States –
52
• SATARA (1848) • JHANSI (1853)

• JAITPUR AND SAMBHALPUR (1849) • NAGPUR (1854)
• BAGHAT (1850) • TANJORE & ARCOT (1855)
• UDAIPUR (1852) • AWADH (1856)
BRITISH CONQUEST OF AWADH (1856)-
BACKGROUND – • Apart from these, Nawab had to cede half of his

territory including lower doab, Gorakhpur and
✓ After the defeat of Awadh in 1764 (Battle of Rohilkhand to the Company.
Buxar), British did not annex it but made it a buffer o Annexation of Awadh (1856) –
state under their Ring Fence policy. ✓ Finally, Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh in 1856
✓ Though Awadh was under the control of British, (under the policy of Doctrine
Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah raised an army of 1-lakh of Lapse) on the pretext of
soldiers on European lines and even retained 150 mal-administration.
French officers. ✓ Awadh was annexed based
✓ In 1774, he annexed Rohilkhand and Etawah. on Outram’s Report.
✓ After death of Shuja-ud-Daulah, his son Asaf-ud- ✓ The Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah
Daulah tried to gain control but Mughals did not was kept under House arrest
allow him to continue because Mughal practise did in Calcutta.
not follow dynastic continuity or hierarchy at
provincial level. RESULT-
✓ Therefore, he made an agreement with the
Company and became Nawab of Awadh. ✓ The annexation of Awadh severely hurt the
✓ In this way, British became the master of Awadh. sentiments of Awadh people, Courtiers and sepoys
o Subsidiary Alliance Treaty (1801)- of the British army.
✓ Lord Wellesley forced Nawab Saadat Ali Khan to ✓ The sepoys in Brtish army had fought immensely
sign a new treaty named, Subsidiary Alliance in for expansion of British Empire from South to
1801. North and East to West in Indian Subcontinent.
That’s why, they considered this a betrayal.
PROVISIONS – ✓ The Courtiers were dismissed from the service.
Hence, they became unemployed.
• All the provisions that we have studied in the
Subsidiary Alliance System.
53
✓ The Land Revenue Settlement introduced after spread to entire North India, which came to be
annexation affected the Talukdars and common known as the revolt of 1857.
people.
✓ Thus, When British introduced an Enfield rifle, it
sparked the charged atmosphere and sepoys
revolted at Meerut. As revolt broke out, it was
joined by almost all the class from Awadh and later
BRITISH CONQUEST OF NEIGHBOURING STATES-
Nepal Bhutan Aghanistan

(1816) (1865) (1880)
Tibet
Burma (1885)
(1904)
54
➢ Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16)-
BACKGROUND- Shimla, Mussorie, Ranikhet, Landour and

Nainital.
✓ In 1760, the Gorkhas wrested control of Nepal from ✓ Nepal maintained the neutrality during the revolt
the successors of Ranjit Malla of Bhatgaon. of 1857.
✓ In 1801, the English annexed Gorakhpur, which ✓ Gorkhas joined the British army in large numbers
brought the Gorkhas boundary along the boundary and they played a major role in suppressing the
of British. revolt of 1857.
✓ In 1803, Lord Wellesley forced the Hindu Gurkha ➢ Anglo-Bhutan War (1865)-
Kingdom of Nepal to sign the treaty of Subsidiary

Alliance and accordingly, British Resident was kept o The occupation of Assam in 1816 brought the
in Kathmandu. English into close contacts with the mountain state
✓ Immediate Cause – The conflict started when of Bhutan.
Gorkhas captured Butwal and Sheoraj in 1814 o Bhutanese frequently carried out raids in the
during the reign of Lord Hasting (1813-1823). adjoining territories of Assam and Bengal and the
These areas were under the authority of the East bad treatment meted out to Elgin’s envoy in 1863-
India Company. 64 had annoyed British.
COURSE OF WAR – o Treaty of Sinchula (1865) –
✓ The Anglo-Bhutan war is also known as Duar war.
✓ Overall four Battles were fought – Butwal, ✓ Result – Victory of British
Almora, Malaon and Makwanpur. ✓ Bhutan ceded territories in the Assam Duars and
✓ Who had won? - English Bengal Duars, as well as around 80,000 kilometres
✓ Treaty of Sugauli (1816) – of Dewangiri (Deothang) to British in return for an
• Nepal accepted British Resident. annual subsidy of 50,000 rupees.
• Nepal ceded the districts of Garhwal and It was the surrendered district, which became a
Kumaon, and abandoned claims to Terai. productive area with tea gardens.
• Nepal also withdrew from Sikkim. ➢ Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1880)-
• British had treated Nepalese ruler as sovereign
RESULT-
BACKGROUND –
o The 19th Century was a period of diplomatic rivalry

✓ After this war, British gained the control over the between the British and Russian Empires for
areas of the Sutlej hills comprising hill stations of sphere of influence in Asia known as the Great
55
Game to the British and the Tournament of views’ but insisted that
Shadows to the Russians. British must mount
o An idea of Russian peril or Russian threat was pressure on Ranjit Singh
propagated by Lord Palmerston, British foreign to restore Peshawar to
secretary in the mud-19th century and was first Afghanistan.
mentioned by William Bentick.
o Consequently, Russia had planned a special mission
in the East, which was more directed against China Lord Auckland
and not India. • However, Auckland again refused an appeal of Dost
o However, British saw this as an attempt by the Mohammad and warned him of any alliance with
Russians to invade India via Afghanistan, the only the British enemies. At this Dost Mohammad felt
entrance to India via Central Asia. dispared and welcomed the Russian Ambassador
o As a result, 2 views emerged in the politics of with much warmth.
Britain to counter the Russian threat- • As a result, Auckland decided to depose Dost
o Forward Policy – As per this policy, Afghanistan Mohammad and entrust the region with new ruler.
should either be annexed or made a buffer state.
Conservative Party held this view. COURSE OF WAR-
o Policy of Masterly Inactivity / Stationary School
– As per this, to solve the issues with Russia through • Tripartite Treaty – This
diplomatic channels and follow a policy of non- treaty was signed between
intervention in Afghanistan. This view was held by British, Shah Shuja (Ex-
the Liberals. ruler of Afghanistan) and
o Finally, British decided to either annex the region Ranjit Singh in June 1838.
of Afghanistan or turn it as a buffer state, the only • The combined forces of the
entrance to India from Central Asia. three parties known as the
o First Anglo-afghan war (1839-42)- Indus Army launched an
offensive attack on Afghanistan. By July 1839, the
army had captured Kandahar and Ghazni and
moved towards Kabul.
• However, Dost Mohammad fled to Bemian,
north-west town of Kabul and Shah Shuja was
placed as a ruler of Afghanistan. However, Shah
Shuja was not acceptable to the people of
Afghanistan.
• In Sept 1840 – Dost Muhammad launched an
attack on the English but he failed in his attempt
and sent to Calcutta as a prisoner.
• 1841 – Afghans again rose in rebellion and many
CAUSES - Englishmen were killed including Burnes.
Macnaghton was forced to sign a humiliating
• Dost Muhammad, the ruler of treaty with Akbar Khan (Son of Dost
Afghanistan had a friendly and Muhammad) agreeing to leave Afghanistan within
cordial relations with the 3 days. However, he was also murdered
English. However, Dost made • In April 1842 – Shah Shuja was also killed.
his friendship conditional on • Due to this defeat, Auckland was replaced by
the receipt of English help in Ellenborough and he ordered the forces to leave
recovering Peshawar from for Afghanistan.
Ranjit Singh, which Auckland Accordingly, in September 1842, the combined
refused to do. British forces were able to re-establish control over
• Meanwhile, in September 1837, Auckland sent Jalalabad, Kandahar and Kabul.
Capt. Alexander Burnes on a commercial mission • The forces rescued the prisoners, demolished
to Kabul but the real objective was to judge the Kabul’s main bazar and then retreated through the
political situation there. Burnes assured Auckland Khyber Pass.
that Dost Mohammad was entirely ‘English in
56
• British arrived at a settlement with Dost having earlier granted a similar concession to the
Mohammed by which the British evacuated from Russian ambassador.
Kabul and recognised him as the independent ruler • As a result, Lytton decided to invade Afghanistan.
of Afghanistan.
COURSE OF WAR –
EVALUATION OF AUCKLAND’S AFGHAN
POLICY – • Sher Ali fled in face of the British invasion and
Treaty of Gandamak was signed between the
• The Anglo-Afghan war came to be known as English and Yakub Ali, the eldest son of Sher Ali.
‘Disaster in Afghanistan’ and it is described as a • Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879) –
compound of folly, ignorance and agnorance. The Amir will conduct his foreign policy with the
• It had proved too costly for the English and it was a advice of Government of India.
massive blow to the prestige of British Indian A permanent British resident be stationed at
Army. Kabul.
• Auckland had refused to accept the demand of Dost The Government of India will give Amir all
Muhammad in restoring Peshawar from Ranjit support against foreign aggression, and an annual
Singh. The reason given by him was “It was not the subsidy.
practise of British Government to interfere in the • Soon, Yakub had to abdicate the throne under
matters of independent states. popular pressure and British had to recapture Kabul
• Hence, Auckland’s Afghan policy was not justified and Kandahar. Abur Rehman became the new
as he had done the same in Afghanistan, which he Amir and Lytton decided to keep Afghanistan as
refused to do when Dost Muhammad asked for help. Buffer State.
o Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880)
END RESULT –
✓ In 1901 – Abur Rehman died and Habibullah

ascended the throne of Amir.
✓ After the World War I and Russian Revolution
(1917), the Afghans demanded full Independence.
✓ Habibullah was killed in 1919 and the new ruler
Amamullah declared open war against the British.
✓ In 1921, peace was prevailed when Afghanistan
recovered independence in foreign affairs.
➢ Anglo-Burma War (1824-85) –

BACKGROUND –
CAUSES –
• Lord Lytton became the Viceroy
of India in 1876. He started a new ✓ Expansionist attitude of both the powers (Burma
foreign policy of ‘proud reserve’, and British).
which was aimed at having ✓ Burma was a free country and wanted to expand
scientific frontiers and westward.
safeguarding ‘spheres of
influence’.
Lytton
• Lytton made an offer of a
favourable treaty to Sher Ali, but
the Amir wanted friendship with
both the neighbouring powers –
Russia and Britain.
• Later, Sher Ali refused to keep a ✓ British were interested in forest resources in
British envoy in Kabul while Burma’s market for British manufacturers and the
57
need to check French ambitions in Burma and the • Two British Captains were heavily fined by the
rest of South-East Asia. Burmese Government. Therefore, the British
Merchants sent a petition to the then Governor-
o First Anglo-Burma War (1824-26) – General Lord Dalhousie.
✓ In 1823-24, the Burmese army entered and • Thus, this provided a desired opportunity to
occupied Assam and Manipur and prepared to Dalhousie and accordingly, the English army
attack Chittagong. However, these territories were launched an attack against Burma in 1852.
claimed by the English. ✓ By 1853, the English forces had occupied
✓ As a result, the British Indian Army attacked Burma Rangoon, Pegu (Lower Burma) and region upto
in retaliation. Toungoo.
✓ Victory – The Burmese army led by Maha ✓ Hence, British had gained control over the entire
Bandula was defeated by the Company and the coast of the Bay of Bengal.
Company imposed the Treaty of Yandabo on ✓ As a result, the Burmese King Mindon Min was
Burma in 1826. forced to shift his Capital to Mandalay.
o Third Anglo- Burma war (1885)-
TREATY OF YANDABO-
• Pay rupees one crore as war compensation

• Cede its coastal provinces of Arakan and
Tenasserim;
• Abandon claims on Assam, Cachar and Jaintia;
• Recognise Manipur as an independent state;
• Negotiate a commercial treaty with Britain;
• Accept a British resident at Ava (Capital of Burma),
while posting a Burmese envoy at Calcutta.
o Second Anglo-Burma war (1852-53)-
✓ This war was fought on the pretext that the King

Thibaw Min was intriguing with the French in
Vietnam to weaken British Control over Asia.
✓ Victory – British
✓ Result – British had annexed an entire region of
Burma and made it a British Province.
➢ Anglo-Tibet War (1904)-

✓ In 1839, the British Resident claimed that the
Burmese did not treat him well and left. o Tibet was ruled by a theocracy of Buddhist Monks
✓ Meanwhile, Burma had emerged as a major supplier (Lamas) under the Sovereignty of China.
of Timber (needed for shipbuilding and repair
industry by the Company in Calcutta) and other IMMEDIATE CAUSE –
costly items like tin, pepper and ivory.
✓ Although Tibet was under the suzerainty of China,
✓ The Deltas of Irrawaddy River had become an
but Russian influence at Lhasa was increasing.
important source of rice to Bengal and to the
✓ There were reports of Russian arms and
growing settlement in South-East Asia.
ammunition coming into Tibet. Curzon felt
✓ All these developments encouraged the English to
alarmed and sent a small Gorkha contingent under
annex Burma.
Colonel YoungHuband on a special mission to
IMMEDIATE CAUSE – Tibet to oblige the Tibetans to come to an
agreement.
58
✓ However, the Tibet ✓ Tibet would pay an indemnity of Rs 75 lakh at the

Government refused to rate of one-lakh rupees per annum.
negotiate and offered non- ✓ As a security of payment, the Indian Government
violent resistance. would occupy the Chumbi Valley (territory
✓ As a result, Colonel between Bhutan and Sikkim) for 75 years.
YoungHuband marched ✓ Tibet would respect the frontier of Sikkim.
towards Lhasa in August ✓ Trade marts would be opened at Yatung, Gyantse,
1904 and Dalai Lamafled. and Gartok.
Accordingly, British had imposed the Treaty of ✓ Tibet would not grant any concession for railways,
Lhasa on Tibet. roads, telegraph, etc., to any foreign state, but will
give Great Britain some control over
TREATY OF LHASA (1904)-
✓ foreign affairs of Tibet.
QUICK REVISION-
War Period Major Events

• Battle of Plassey (1757) – Between Siraj-ud-Daulah and English
1) Bengal 1757- 1771 Victory – British
Governor- Robert Clive
• Battle of Chinsura (1759) – Between Siraj supported by Dutch against

the English
Victory – British
Governor – Robert Clive followed by Vansittart
• Battle of Buxar (1764) - Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh) and Shah

Alam II (the Fugitive Mughal Emperor) and Mir Qasim VS British
Victory- British
Governor- Robert Clive
Important Treaty –
First Treaty of Allahabad (1765) – Between English and Nawab of
Awadh. Awadh was made a Buffer State
Second Treaty of Allahabad (1765) – Between the Company and
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. Issued a Farman on 12th August 1765
which granted the Diwani Rights (Right to Collect revenue) to the
Company of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• Dual System (1765-1771)-

Introduced by – Robert Clive
Governance
of Bengal
Nizamat Diwani
Functions Functions
Defense & Civil

Revenue
Foreign Administr
Collection
Affairs ation
59
• First Anglo-Mysore war (1767-69)-Between Haider Ali and British

2) Mysore 1767-99 Victory – Mysore
Governor – John Cartier (Bengal) and Charles Bourchier (Madras)
Supporter of Mysore – Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad
Result – Treaty of Madras (1769) – Both agreed to help each other in
case of an attack by third party.
• Second Anglo – Mysore war (1780-84) – Between Haider Ali, Tipu

Sultan and British
Victory – British
Governor-General – Warren Hasting
Supporters of English – Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad.
Supporter of Mysore – French under Admiral Ballie de Suffren (reached
in 1782 in India).
Result – Battle of Porto-Novo
Treaty of Mangalore - It was signed based on mutual restitution of each
other’s territories
• Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92)- Between Tipu Sultan vs English

Victory – British
Governor-General – Lord Cornwallis
Supporter of British – Nizam and Marathas
Supporter of Mysore – French and Turkey (This time not openly but
secretly)
Who had won – British
Result - Treaty of Seringapatam (1792)-
Tipu had to surrender half of his territory to the British and its allies.
Company acquired – Baramahal, Dindigul and Malabar
Maratha gain – Territory on the Tungabhadra side
Nizam got – Territories from the Krishna to beyond the Pennar
• Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)-

Victory – British
Governor-General – Lord Wellesley
Supporter of British– Marathas and Nizam3
Supporter of Mysore – French
Who had Won – British
Result – Battle Seringapatam (1799)
The Company had defeated the Mysore army and Tipu Sultan died
while defending his city of Mysore.
The Company had restored the Wodeyar Dynasty to the throne of
Mysore and brought the two-year-old Prince Krishnaraja as new
ruler. Also, the remaining territory of Mysore i.e., area around Mysore
and Seringapatam was given back to Wodeyar Dynasty.
Finally, British compelled the Wodeyar Dynasty to accept the
Subsidiary Alliance Treaty.
• First Anglo Maratha War (1775-82)- Between English and Marathas
3) Marathas 1775-1818 (Peshwa Madhav Rao)
Victory – Marathas
Governor-General – Warren Hasting
Important Treaties & Battles –
60
Treaty of Surat (1775)- Between Raghunath Rao (Raghoba) and British

Government at Bombay. The Company would help Raghunath Rao to
become Peshwa followed by Battle of Adas.
Battle of Adas (1776) – Treaty of Purandar (1776) = The Treaty of
Surat was annulled and recognised Madhav Rao as a Maratha ruler.
Battle of Talegaon (1779) – Treaty of Wadgaon (1779) = The Bombay
Government would return all territories captured by after 1773.Scindias
will get a part of the revenue from the Bharuch.
Battle of Sipri (1782) – Treaty of Salbai (1782) = Madhav Narayan Rao
will be accepted as new Peshwa and The Company gave up Bassein and
other territories conquered since the Treaty of Purandar. In return, the
English retained the Salsette and Elephanta Island. Scindia. got back all
the area on the West of Yamuna.
• Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) - Between English and

Marathas (Holkar, Bhonsle & Scindia)
Victory – British
Governor-General – Wellesley
Imp Treaties & Battles –
Treaty of Bassein/Subsidiary Alliance (Dec,1802) –Peshwa Bajirao II
had signed a treaty of Subsidiary Alliance.
In Deccan-
Battle of Assaye & Battle of Argaon (1803) - The Company defeated
the combined forces of Scindia and Bhonsle.
In North –
Battle of Delhi (September 1803) – The Company defeated Daulat Rao
Scindia.
Battle of Laswari (Near Alwar, Nov, 1803) – The British forces
defeated the combined army of Scindia and Bhonsle. General Lake
captured the Delhi, Agra and Aligarh from the Marathas and Mughal
Emperor Shah Alam II again became the Pensioner of the East India
Company.
Treaty of Deogaon (17th December,1803) –
Raghuji Bhonsle accepted the subsidiary alliance of the Company.
Areas given to the English – Balasore, Cuttack and entire Kingdom
west to the Wardha river.
Treaty of Surji-Arjangaon (30th December,1803)- This Treaty was
signed between the Company and Scindia. Areas given to the Company
– Scindia compelled to give a large part of his kingdom including the
territory between the Ganga and the Yamuna.
Treaty of Burhanpur (1804) – Scindia accepted the Subsidiary Alliance
of the Company.
Treaty of Rajpurghat (24th Dec,1805) – Battle of Ding - Defeat of
Holkar by British and imposed the Treaty of Rajpurghat. This treaty
marked an end of second Anglo-Maratha War.
• Third Anglo-Maratha War – Between British vs Peshwa Bajirao II

(Poona), Appa Sahib (Nagpur) and Malhar Rao Holkar (Indore).
Who remained Neutral? – Rulers of Gwalior and Baroda.
Victory – British
Governor-General – Lord Hasting
British Campaign against Pindaris (irregular army of the
Marathas)- The Pindaris were effectively crushed by the English forces
by January 1818.
Treaty of Nagpur (Subsidiary Alliance, 27 May 1816)- As per the
treaty, Appa Sahib (Mudhoji II) became the new ruler of Nagpur and
British force was stationed at Nagpur. In brief, Nagpur accepted the
Subsidiary Alliance.
61
Treaty of Poona (Subsidiary Alliance, 13 June 1817)- British had

defeated the Peshwa of Poona and impose this treaty. As per this, The
Peshwa accepted the dissolution of Maratha Confederacy.
Treaty of Gwalior (Subsidiary Alliance, 5th November, 1817)-
Scindia a surrendered and accepted the Treaty of Gwalior. Gwalior
accepted the sovereignty of the British.
Battle of Khadki / Kikree / Ganesh Khind (5th November,1817)-
Peshwa lost the war
Battle of Sitabaldi Hills (26th November,1817)- Bhonsle was defeated
Battle of Mehidpur (21st December,1817) – Defeat of Holkar
Treaty of Mandsaur – Signed between – The English and Holkar.
Holkar became the last Maratha chief to sign the treaty of Subsidiary
Alliance.
Bhonsle -also accepted the sovereignty of the British and agreed to the
Treaty of Nagpur.
Battle of Koregaon (1st January 1818) and Battle of Ashti (20th Feb,
1818)- Defeat of Peshwa Bajirao
Result - Lord Hasting dethroned the Peshwa and Peshwaship and
pensioned off the Bajirao II in Bithoor near Kanpur. A small kingdom
of Satara was carved out and was given to Pratap Singh (descendant
of Shivaji).
Reasons for the Defeat of Marathas and Mysore-

✓ Mutual Rivalry – The mutual conflict amongst the Marathas and Mysore
paved a way to the British to play their policy of divide and rule.
✓ Presence of Factions & Interest groups – The presence of factions and
interest groups or simply, the mutual conflict within their Empire caused
to be an important factor for the fall down of both the powers. The
Marathas were also facing an issue of able leadership. Madhav Rao was
the last able ruler of Marathas.
• Lack of Resources – The Marathas and Mysore were not that much
superior as compare to the British in terms of arms & ammunition, better
discipline of army and productive lands.
• Anglo- Sindh war (1843) – Between Amirs of Sindh vs English
4) Sindh 1843 Victory- British
Governor-General – Lord Ellenborough
Battles fought - Battles of Miani and Dabo
• First Anglo-Punjab War (1845-46) – Between English vs Lal Singh
5) Punjab 1845-49 (Wazir)
Victory – British
Governor-General- Lord Hardinge
Total 5 Battles fought -
Battle of Mudki
Battle of Ferozshah
Battle of Baddoval
Battle of Alival
Battle of Sabbraon (Decisive battle)
Treaty –
Treaty of Lahore (Feb, 1846) – after the battle of Sabbraon. English
singed with Lal Singh
Treaty of Bhairoval (Dec, 1846) - After the treaty of Lahore. English
Sign with Dalip Singh
Result- British became the master of Punjab
• Second Anglo- Punjab War (1849) – Between the English and Mulraj
(Supported by other Sikh chiefs)
Victory – British
Governor-General – Lord Dalhousie
62
Battles –
Battle of Ramnagar (22nd November 1848)
Battle of Chilianwala (13th Jan 1849)
Battle of Gujarat (21st Feb 1849) - The Sikh army was defeated and it
surrendered before the British army led by Charles Napier.
Result - East India Company annexed Punjab on 29th March 1849 and
Maharaja Daljit Singh was pensioned off. He was send to England for
Education
• Annexed through – on the pretext of maladministration under the

6) Awadh 1856 policy of Doctrine of Lapse
• Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813)-
7) Important 1765-1856 ✓ Associated Governor-Generals – Robert Clive & Warren Hasting
Administrative ✓ It aimed at creating buffer zones to defend the Company’s frontiers.
Policies ✓ It was the policy of defence of their neighbours’ frontiers for
safeguarding their own territories.
✓ For Instance, Awadh to protect Bengal
• Subsidiary Alliance Policy-

✓ Associated Governor General – Lord Wellesley.
This policy was devised by Lord Wellesley in 1798.
✓ The British would be responsible for protecting their ally from internal
and external threats to their power.
✓ In the territory of ally, a British army contingent / British army would be
stationed.
✓ The ally would have to provide the resources for maintaining this
contingent. In simple terms, the ruler needs to take care of the expenses
of the English army.
✓ The ally needs to disband their army.
✓ The ally could enter into agreements with other rulers or engage in
warfare only with the permission of British. Hence, in this way rulers lost
their powers related to foreign affairs and Military affairs.
✓ The ally needs to act on the advice of British Resident who was attached
to the court. British Resident was the designation of a representative of
Governor-General who lived in a state, which was not directly under
British rule.
✓ For instance –
✓ Hyderabad (1798) – First Indian State to sign this treaty
✓ Mysore (1799)
✓ Tanjore (1799)
✓ Awadh (1801)
✓ Peshwa (1802)
✓ Scindia (1803)
✓ Gaekwad (1803)
✓ Bhonsle (1816)
✓ Holkar (1817)
✓ Rajput States of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Macheri, Bundi and Bharatpur
(1818)
• Doctrine of Lapse (1848-56)
✓ Associated Governor-General – Lord Dalhousie
✓ He was not an originator of this policy. However, he was the one who
popularised it.
✓ As per this policy, any princely state under the Subsidiary Alliance
system would automatically be annexed, if the ruler was either
incompetent or died without a male heir. For instance-
63
✓ Satara (1848)
✓ Jaitpur and Sambhalpur (1849)
✓ Baghat (1850)
✓ Udaipur (1852)
✓ Jhansi (1853)
✓ Nagpur (1854)
✓ Tanjore & Arcot (1855)
✓ Awadh (1856)
• Anglo- Nepal war – between Gorkhas and English
8) Nepal 1816 • Victory – British
• Governor-General – Lord Hasting
• Overall 4 Battles were fought – Butwal, Almora, Malaon and
Makwanpur.
• Treaty – Treaty of Sugauli (1816)
• Result - Nepal accepted British Sovereignty
• Anglo-Bhutan War – between Bhutan and English
9) Bhutan 1865 Victory- British
Governor-General – Sir John Lawrence
o Treaty of Sinchula (1865) –
✓ The Anglo-Bhutan war is also known as Duar war.
✓ Result – Victory of British
✓ Bhutan ceded territories in the Assam Duars and Bengal Duars, as well
as around 80,000 kilometres of Dewangiri (Deothang) to British in
return for an annual subsidy of 50,000 rupees.
It was the surrendered district which became a productive area with tea
gardens.
• First Anglo – Afghan War (1839-42) – Between Dost Muhammad and
10) Afghanistan 1839-1880 English
Victory – Afghanistan
Governor-General – Auckland and Ellenborough
Supporter - Shuja (Ex-ruler of Afghanistan) and Ranjit Singh
• Second Anglo-Afghan war (1879-1880)- Between Sher Ali, Yakub Ali

and Abur Rehman and English
Victory- British
Governor-General – Lytton
Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879) –
• The Amir will conduct his foreign policy with the advice of Government
of India.
• A permanent British resident be stationed at Kabul
• The Government of India will give Amir all support against foreign
aggression, and an annual subsidy.
• Soon, Yakub had to abdicate the throne under popular pressure and
British had to recapture Kabul and Kandahar. Abur Rehman became the
new Amir and Lytton decided to keep Afghanistan as Buffer State
• In 1921, peace was prevailed when Afghanistan recovered independence
in foreign affairs.
64

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• First Anglo-Burma War (1824-26)

11) Burma Victory- British
Governor-General- Lord Amherst
• Treaty of Yandabo (1826)-
✓ Pay rupees one crore as war compensation
✓ Cede its coastal provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim;
✓ Abandon claims on Assam, Cachar and Jaintia;
✓ Recognise Manipur as an independent state;
✓ Negotiate a commercial treaty with Britain;
✓ Accept a British resident at Ava (Capital of Burma), while posting a
Burmese envoy at Calcutta.
• Second Anglo-Burma war (1852-53)-

Victory- British
Results -
✓ By 1853, the English forces had occupied Rangoon, Pegu (Lower
Burma) and region upto Toungoo.
✓ Hence, British had gained control over the entire coast of the Bay of
Bengal.
✓ As a result, the Burmese King Mindon Min was forced to shift his
Capital to Mandalay.
• Third Anglo-Burma War (1885)-

Victory – British
Governor-General – Lord Dufferin
Result - British had annexed an entire region of Burma and made it a
British Province.
• Anglo-Tibet War (1904)-
12) Tibet 1904 Victory- British
Governor-General – Lord Curzon
o Treaty of Lhasa (1904)-
✓ Tibet would pay an indemnity of Rs 75 lakh at the rate of one lakh rupees
per annum.
✓ as a security for payment, the Indian Government would occupy the
Chumbi Valley (territory between Bhutan and Sikkim) for 75 years.
✓ Tibet would respect the frontier of Sikkim
✓ Trade marts would be opened at Yatung, Gyantse, Gartok.
65
CHAPTER 5-POPULAR UPRISING BEFORE 1857
WE ARE GOING TO STUDY –

BACKGROUND
CAUSES
NATURE
COURSE OF REVOLT
SEPOY MUTINY BEFORE 1857 REVOLT
LIMITATIONS
SIGNIFICANCE
EVALUATION
QUICK REVISION
66
BACKGROUND- ✓ The colonial policy of Britishers ended the relative

isolation of Tribals which affected their economic
o Civil Rebellion – Before the outbreak of Revolt of and cultural interests.
1857, there were many civil rebellions took place in ✓ The colonial economic policies of British pushed
India which challenged the British authority. the Tribals into peasant indebtedness and
o The following were the Participants Landlessness.
o Devastating Impact on Scholarly and Priestly

Civil Rebellion Class-
✓ With the conquest of Indian States by the English,
the patronage came to an end of Pandits, Maulvis
Peasnt
s Artisans and men of art and literature.
Tribals Native Poligars
States and ✓ These uprooted class played an active role in
Landlor inciting feelings of hatred and rebellion against the
ds British rule.
o Colonial Nature of British rule –

✓ Colonial character of British rule was one of the
major factors of the uprising in India.
CAUSES- ✓ The Company’s officials remained perpetual
foreigners in India whose only aim is to accumulate
o Devastating Impact on rulers and Zamindars /
wealth as much as possible and return to England
Poligars –
✓
✓ Impact on Rulers – Many Native States were either
annexed or brought under the Subsidiary Alliance NATURE OF REVOLT –
through war and diplomacy. This annoyed some
Indian rulers. Aim to overthrow the Company’s Rule - The
✓ Impact on Zamindars – Thousands of Zamindars rebels aimed at overthrowing an oppressive British
were uprooted and their rights taken over by the rule from their locality or region.
Colonial State. o Keenness to restore the past conditions – The
rebels like peasants and Tribals sought to restore the
o Devastating Impact on Peasants- past conditions. This does not mean they were
✓ The Land Revenue System introduced by British backward looking but their objective was to regain
(Permanent Settlement, Mahalawari and the good old past.
Ryotwari) which resulted in heavy peasant o Socio-Political Consciousness - The Peasants and
indebtedness and Landlessness. The situation of Tribal movements of this period marked a certain
farmers further aggravated due to continuous level of political consciousness. They understand
occurrence of Famines. The Company had also not that the political sources of their oppression and
taken care their responsibility towards cause of tried to bring about social reforms.
farmers. o Popular Character – These uprisings was
o Devastating Impact on Artisans – supported by common masses. The rebellions drew
✓ As per the colonial policy, India was to be a market their legitimacy from the common people who were
for British goods. These machine-made British also affected by the British rule.
goods were finer and cheaper as comparison to o Local Leadership - These movements were led by
Indian products. local leaders who had affected due to foreign
✓ Without demand for their handmade goods, the intrusion. These leaders played a vital role in
Indian artisans were thrown into Unemployment. organizing the various classes to fought against the
✓ Destruction of indigenous led to large scale Company.
migration from Industry to Agriculture (a process o Regional Extent – The extent of uprisings was
called Peasantisation) which further increased limited to the region inhabited by the affected
pressure on land. community.
o Draw Strength from ethnic ties -The rebels draw
o Devastating Impact on Tribals – their strength for ethnic ties and religious
sentiments.
67
o Unequal Nature of War – The warfare between their primitive weapons like stones, axes etc.
the Tribals and the British forces was unequal in Whereas the English forces were equipped with the
nature. The Peasants and Tribals were fought with most modern weapons of that time.
COURSE OF REVOLT –
➢ Bengal & Eastern India -
Revolts Period
Important Details
Sanyasi-Fakir 1763-o Causes – Plunder by EIC and famine of 1770
Rebellion 1800 o Led by – Musa Shah, Majnu Shah, Bhawani Pathak and Debi
Chaudharani
o Chaudhurani’s participation recognizes the women’s role in early
resistances against the British
o Course-
✓ The Sanyasis and Fakirs took up the popular cause and organized raids on
the Company’s Factories and treasuries.
✓ They had established Independent Government in Bogra and Mymensingh
✓ Equal Participation of Hindus and Muslims.
✓ After the Famine of Bengal, a large number of uprooted Zamindars,
disbanded soldiers, dispossessed Peasants and rural poor joined the
Sanyasis. They adopted guerilla tactics of attack.
o Suppressed by – Warren Hasting
o Bankim Chandra Chatterjee made famous this revolt in his book Anand
Math
o Bankim Chandra also wrote a novel, Devi Chaudhurani,
Chuar Rebellion 1766- o Chuar tribesmen –
(Midnapore) 1792 & ✓ They rose against Famine and increasing Land revenue demands.
1795- ✓ The term ‘Chuar’ is considered derogatory by some historians who call this
1816 the Revolt of the Jungle Mahal, instead Famine, enhanced land revenue
demand and economic distress goaded the Chua aboriginal tribesmen of the
Jungle Mahal Midnapore district and also of the Bankura district (in
Bengal) to take up arms.
✓ These tribes’ people were basically farmers and hunters. The uprising lasted
from 1766 to 1772 and then, again surfaced between 1795 and 1816. The
Chuars were prominent in Manbhum and Barabhum, especially in the hills
between Barabhum and Ghatsila. They held their lands under a kind of
feudal tenure, In 1768, Jagannath Singh, the zamindar of Ghatsila, went up
in arms, along with thousands of Chuars. The Company government
capitulated.
✓ In 1771, the Chuar sardars, Shyam Ganjan of Dhadka, Subla Singh of
Kaliapal and Dubraj rose in rebellion.
✓ The most significant uprising was under Durjan (or Durjol) Singh in 1798.
He was the zamindar of Raipur from which he was dispossessed owing to
the operations of Bengal Regulations.
✓ Other leaders of the Chuars were Madhab Singh, the brother of the raja
of Barabhum, Raja Mohan Singh, zamindar of Juriah and Lachman
Singh of Dulma.
o Revolt in Midnapore and Dalbhum –
✓ The English took hold of Midnapore in 1760. The introduction of new land
revenue system by the English in1772.
✓ The zamindars of Midnapore sided with the ryots in case of
conflict between the ryots and the English revenue collecting
officials.
✓ The zamindars of Dhalbhum, Manbhum, Raipur, Panchet,
68
Jhatibuni, Karnagarh, and Bagri, living in the vast tract of Jungle

Mahals of west and north-west Midnapore—were ultimately
dispossessed of their zamindaries by 1800s.
✓ The important leaders of the uprisings were Damodar Singh and
Jagannath Dhal.
Peasant Uprising of 1783 o Causes – Oppression by the Company and its revenue contractors.
Rangpur and o Led by – DirjiNarain
Dinajpur o Course – They armed themselves with their swords and arrows. They formed
a government of their own and even levied charges or Dhing Kharcha to meet
rebellion expenses. Equal participation of Hindus and Muslims.
Ho and Munda 1820-37 o These tribesmen challenged the English forces several times in Chota
rising Nagpur and Singhbhum region.
o The Raja of Parahat organized his Ho tribals to revolt against the
occupation of Singhbhum (now Jharkhand).
o The revolt continued till 1827 when the Ho tribals were forced to submit.
o However, later in 1831, they again organized rebellion, joined by the
Mundas of Chhotanagpur, to protest against the newly introduced farming
revenue policy and the entry of Bengalis into their region.
o Though the revolt was extinguished in 1832, the Ho operations continued till
1837.
o In 1899-1900, the Mundas in the region south of Ranchi rose under Birsa
Munda.
o The Ulgulan was one of the most significant tribal uprisings in the period
1860-1920.
o The rebellion which began as a religious movement gathered political force
to fight against introduction of feudal, zamindari tenures, and exploitation by
moneylenders and forest contractors.
o The Mundas claimed Chhotanagpur as their area in 1879. British armed
forces were then deployed. Birsa was captured and imprisoned.
Kol Uprising (Chota 1820-37 o The Kols, are inhabitants of Chhotanagpur. This covered Ranchi,
Nagpur Plateau) Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau and the western parts of Manbhum.
o The trouble in 1831 started with large-scale transfers of land from Kol
headmen to outsiders like Hindu, Sikh and Muslim farmers and money-
lenders who were oppressive and demanded heavy taxes.
o The British judicial and revenue policies badly affected the traditional social
conditions of the Kols.
o The Kols resented this and in 1831, under the leadership of Buddho Bhagat.
Pagal Panthis 1825 o Causes – Oppression of Tenants by Zamindars

Revolt o Leader- Tipu Shah
o Course – Pangal Panthis belonged to religious sect constituting Hajong
and Garo tribes founded by Karam Shah in North Bengal. His son Tipu
Shah took up the cause of Tenants and captured Sherpur, and assumed royal
power. The region remains disturbed till 1840’s.
Revolt of Momarias 1769-99 o The revolt of the Momarias in 1769 was a potent challenge to the authority
- of Ahom kings of Assam. They were low-caste peasants who followed the
teachings of Aniruddhadeva (1553-1624).
o Their revolts weakened the Ahoms and opened the doors for others to attack
the region, the King of Darrang
o (Krishnanarayan), assisted by his band of burkandazes (demobilised soldiers
of the Muslim armies and zamindars) revolted.
o The Ahom ruler had to request for British help.
o The Moamarias made Bhatiapar their headquarters.
o Rangpur (now in Bangladesh) and Jorhat were the most affected
o region.
o The weakened kingdom fell to a Burmese invasion and finally came
o under British rule.
69
Ahoms Revolt 1828 o Causes – Ahom tribesmen opposed continued occupation of Assam by the
(Assam) British.
o Led by – Gomdhar Konwar (Ahom Prince), and others were – Dhanjoy
Bongohain, and Jairam Khargharia Phukan.
o Result- Initially, the English suppressed the revolt but later in 1833, handed
over upper Assam to Maharaj Purandar Singh Narendra.
Khasi Revolt (Khasi 1829 o Cause- Occupation of Khasi Hills by the English Company.
Hills) o Leader- Tirat Singh
o Course –
✓ After having occupied the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia Hills, the
East India Company wanted to build a road linking the Brahmaputra Valley
with
Sylhet.
✓ So, a large number of outsiders including Englishmen, Bengalis and the
labourers from the plains were brought to these regions.
✓ The Khasis, Garos, Khamptis and the Singphos organised themselves
under Tirath Singh to drive away the strangers from the plains.
✓ The uprising developed into a popular revolt against British rule in the area.
✓ By 1833, the superior English military force had suppressed
Faraizi 1838-51 o Cause – Oppression of Peasants by the landlords and peasants.
Disturbances o Led by – Dudu Min
o Course of Revolt –
✓ The Faraizi Sect was founded by Haji Shariatullah of Faridpur.
✓ Dudu Mian propagated an egalitarian ideology that all men are equal and
that all belongs to god and ono one has the right to levy tax on it.
✓ The Faraizis opposed the right of the zamindars to collect taxes and set up
parallel government in some parts of Bengal and even established village
courts.
✓ The Company’s forces crushed the revolt and later most of the Faraizis joined
the ranks of the Wahabis.
Khond Uprising 1837-56 o Causes – British attempt to put to an end to the Khond practice of human
(Orissa) sacrifice
o From 1837 to 1856, the Khonds of the hilly tracts extending from Odisha to
the Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh revolted
against Company rule.
o Chakra Bisnoi, a young raja, led the Khonds who were joined by the
Ghumsar, Kalahandi and other tribals to oppose the suppression of human
sacrifice, new
taxes, and the entry of zamindars into their areas.
o Chakra Bisnoi’s disappearance, uprising came to an end. A later Khond
rebellion in 1914 in the Orissa region was triggered by the hope that foreign
rule would end and they could gain an autonomous government.
Savara Rebellion 1856-57 o The Savara tribesmen of Parliakhemedi rebelled against the English.
o Led by – Radhakrishna Dandasena
Santhal Rebellion 155-56 o Causes – The Santhal tribesmen rose against land alienation under
(Rajmahal Hills) permanent settlement, excessive rent, usury by moneylenders and intrusion
by Dikus. (Dikus – They were Outsiders who settled in the region of
Santhal).
o Led by – Sidhu and Kanhu
o Who were Santhals-
✓ The people of Santhal tribe lived in the region between Bhagalpur and
Rajmahal known as Daman-i-Koh.
✓ Result – The Company suppressed the rebellion and later created a separate
district of Santhal Parganas.
Paika Rebellion 1817 o The Paiks of Odisha were the traditional landed militia (‘foot soldiers’
literally) and enjoyed rent free land tenures for their military service and
policing functions on a hereditary basis.
70
o The English Company’s conquest of Odisha in 1803, and the dethronement

of the Raja of Khurda had greatly reduced the power and prestige of the
Paiks.
o Further, the extortionist land revenue policy of the Company caused
resentmen among zamindars and peasants alike.
o Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar had been the military chief of the forces of
the Raja of Khurda. In 1814, Jagabandhu’s ancestral estate of Killa Rorang
was taken overby the Company.
o With active support of Mukunda Deva, the last Raja of Khurda, and other
zamindars of the region, Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar led a sundry army
of Paikas forcing the East India Company forces to retreat for a time.
o The rebellion came to be known as the Paika Bidroh (rebellion).
o Jagabandhu, declared an outlaw, along with other rebels, was sheltered bythe
Raja of Nayagarh.
o Although Dinabandhu Santra and his group surrendered in November 1818,
Jagabandhu evaded British vigilance. Though Khurda was back under
Company control by mid-1817, the Paika rebels resorted to guerilla tactics.
The rebellion was brutally repressed by 1818.
o Priests at the Puri temple who had sheltered Jagabandhu were caught and
Hanged Paikas on the whole suffered greatly.
o In 1825 Jagabandhu surrendered under negotiated terms. The Paika
Rebellion succeeded in getting large remissions of arrears, reductions in
assessments, suspension of the sale of the estates of defaulters at discretion,
a new settlement on fixed tenures and other adjuncts of a liberal governance.
Narkelberia - o Mir Nithar Ali (1782-1831) or Titu Mir inspired the Muslim tenants in
Uprising West Bengal to rise against landlords, mainly Hindu, who imposed a beard-
tax on the Faraizis, and British indigo planters.
o Often considered the first armed peasant uprising against the British, this
revolt soon took on a religious hue.
o The revolt later merged into the Wahabi movement.
Pahariyas Rebellion 1778 o The British expansion on their territory led to an uprising the martial
Pahariyas of the Raj Mahal Hills in 1778.
o The British were forced to usher in peace by declaring the territory as damn
i-kol area.
Singphos Rebellion 1839 o The rebellion of the Singphos in Assam in early 1830 was immediately
quelled but they continued to organise revolts.
o An uprising in 1839 saw the death of the British political agent.
o Chief Nirang Phidu led an uprising in 1843, which involved an attack on
the British garrison and the death of many soldiers.
o Some of the smaller movements were those of
o the Mishmis in 1836;
o the Khampti rebellion in Assam between 1839 and 1842;
o the Lushais’ revolt in 1842 and 1844, when they attacked villages in
Manipur.
➢ Western India -
Revolts Period Major Events
Bhil Uprisings1818, o Causes – British occupation of Khandesh and intrusion by outsiders.
(Khandesh, western1825, o Led by –Sewram
Ghats) 1831 and o The British suppressed it ruthlessly.
1846
Waghera Rising 1818-19 o Cause - The Wagheras of Okha Mandal also resented against the English.
(Okha Mandal) The Company supported the exactions by the Gaekwad of Baroda.
o Result – The Wagheras invaded British territory and peace treaty was
signed in November, 1820.
71
The Kutch 1819 Cause – In 1819, the English forces defeated the Kutch ruler Rao Bharmal,
& o
Rebellion (Kutch & 1831 in favour of his infant son, while administration went into the hands of a
Kathiawar) British Resident. Therefore, the Kutch chiefs rose in rebellion and
demanded restoration of Bharmal.
o Result - After extensive military operations failed to control the situation,
the Company’s authorities were compelled to follow a conciliatory policy.
Ramosi Rising 1822, o Causes – An invasion of British into Western Ghats and deposition of Raja
(Western Ghats) 1839 Pratap Singh of Satara in 1839
o Led by – chittur Singh
o Course –
✓ The Ramosis, the hill tribes of the Western Ghats, had not reconciled to
British
rule and the British pattern of administration. They resented the policy of
annexation.
✓ After the annexation of the Maratha territories by the British. They rose
under Chittur Singh in 1822 and plundered the country around Satara.
✓ Again, there were eruptions in 1825-26 under Umaji Naik of Poona and
his
supporter Bapu Trimbakji Sawant, and the disturbances continued till
1829.
✓ The disturbance occurred again in 1839 over deposition and banishment
of Raja Pratap Singh of Satara, and disturbances erupted in 1840-41
also.
✓ Finally, a superior British force restored order in the area. Generally, the
British followed a pacifist policy towards
Koli Risings 1824-29, o Causes – Koli Tribesmen rose against the English rule. The Company had
(Gujarat) 1839 & destroyed their forts and devised new type of administration causing
1844-48 widespread unemployment.
Surat Salt Agitation 1844-48 o Causes – In 1844, the English Company raised the salt duty from fifty paise
to one Rupee causing great discontent against the Company.
o Consequences - The British Government was compelled to roll back the
raise in Salt duty.
o In 1848, the British Government introduced Bengal Standard of Weights
and Measures which had to be withdrawn after popular protest.
Kolhapur and 1844 o Prominent Revolts – Bhil Uprising 1818, Kittur Uprising led by
Savantvadi Revolts Chinnava 1824,
Satara Uprising 1841 and most important revolt of Gadkaris, 1844.
o In 1844, Administrative reorganization was carried out causing widespread
dissatisfaction amongst the Gadkaris. The Gadkaris, a hereditary military
class has been disbanded.
o As a result, they faced with unemployment and therefore rose in revolt
against the Company.
o A similar issue caused a revolt in Savantvadi.
➢ Southern India-
Perio Important Events

Revolt d
The Revolt 1794 o Causes – In 1765, the Company had acquired Northern Circars. Raja’s troops were
of the Raja of disbanded and an unreasonable demand of Rupees 3 lakhs was raised.
Vizianagara As a result, Raja launched an attack against the English. The English captured the raja in
m 1793 and ordered him to go into exile with a pension. The raja died in a battle at
Padmanabhan (in modern Visakhapatnam district in Andhra
Pradesh) in 1794.
o Result – British restored the estate to the dead Raja’s son and even reduced the money
& gifts from the
72
Travancore – 1805 o Cause – In 1805, Subsidiary Alliance was imposed on the ruler of Travancore by
Revolt of Wellesley. However, the ruler of Travancore failed to pay annual subsidy and the
Diwan Velu attitude of British Government created a resentment against the English. As a result,
Thampi Diwan Velu Thampi rose in revolt with the support of Nair battalion.
o Course of war- Velu Thampi addressed a gathering in Kundara, openly calling for
taking up arms against the British to oust them from the native soil. This was later known
as the Kundara Proclamation.
o Led by – Diwan Velu Thampi
o Result- British forces defeated Diwan Velu Thampi and hanged him publicly.
The 1830- o Cause- After the British victory in Anglo-Mysore war, Mysore was brought under the
rebellion at 31 subsidiary Alliance. The financial demand forced the ruler of Wodeyar Dynasty shifted
Mysore the burden of revenue on the cultivators. Therefore, the peasant revolt was broke out in
the Mysore province of Nagar.
o Leader- Sardar Malla
o Result- The Company had crushed the revolt successfully
Mappila 1836- o Causes-
Uprisings 54 ✓ The Muslim Cultivators of South Malabar were popularly known as Mappilas or
(Malabar) Moplas. They were mainly coverts to Islam from the lower Caste Hindus. They were
mostly worked as Jemis or Janmis (Bonded Labour) of mostly upper caste
(Namboodri or Nair) Hindu landlords.
✓ They were rose against agrarian crisis such as harsh attitude of government officials, high
land revenue demand, insecurity of land tenure and landlord executions.
o Result- The British Government came down heavily on these Mappila farmers.
o Similarly, the Poligars of South India (Dindigul, Malabar and North Arcot) began
first revolting against the company’s land revenue system during the 1790’s.
Revolt of 1799- o After the conquest of Mysore in 1799, the English had to confront many native leaders.
Dhundia in 1800 Dhundia Wagh, a local Maratha leader, who was converted to Islam by Tipu Sultan.
Bednur o Very soon, Dhundia organized a force which consisted of anti-British elements, and
carved out a small territory for himself.
o A defeat by the English in August 1799 forced him to take refuge in Maratha region. In
September 1800, he was killed while fighting against the British forces under Wellesley.
Resistance 1797, o Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, popularly known as Kerala

of Kerala 1800- o Simham (Lion of Kerala) or ‘Pyche raja’, was the de facto head of Kottayam (Cotiote)
Varma 1805 in Malabar region.
Pazhassi o Apart from resisting Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, he fought against the British between
1793 and 1805.
o The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92), extended English paramountcy over
Kottayam in violation of an earlier agreement of 1790 which had recognised the
independence of Kottayam.
o The English appointed Vira Verma, the uncle of Pazhassi Raja, as the
o Raja of Kottayam. The new raja, to meet the revenue target fixed by the Company, levied
exorbitant rates of tax on the peasants. This led to a mass resistance by the peasants under
the leadership of Pazhassi
o Raja in 1793. Pazhassi Raja fought bravely using guerilla warfare, and in 1797 a peace
treaty was made.
o A conflict over a dispute on Wayanad in 1800 started an insurgent
o warfare. He organized a large force of Nairs which was supplemented
o by Mappilas and Pathans.
o In November 1805, the Kerala Simham died in a gun-fight at Mavila Todu near present
day Kerala-Karnataka border.
Uprisings in 1800, o In the Northern Circars, Ganjam and its adjoining regions rose in revolt against the
Ganjam and 1835- British rule. Strikara Bhanj, a zamindar of Gumsur in Ganjam district, refused to pay
Gumsur 37 revenues in 1797.
o In 1800, he openly rebelled and defied the public authorities.
o Snodgrass, an oppressive and corrupt collector, was replaced to suppress the insurrection.
73
o Strikara was joined by Jlani Deo of Vizianagar (Poddakimedi) and Jagannath Deo
of Pratapgiri (Chinakimedi).
o In 1804 Jagannath Deo was captured and sent to Masulipatnam. 26 Dhananjaya
Bhanj, son of Strikara, forced his father to leave and rebelled against the English but was
forced to surrender in June 1815.
o Strikara, was reappointed as the zamindar in a compromise with the government.
o Dhananjay Bhanj rose in rebellion for the second time when the British forces occupied
Gumsur and Kolaida in November 1835.
o The revolt greatly reduced the government’s authority.
o The government appointed Russell, with full discretionary powers, to deal with the
situation.
o The struggle lasted till Doora Bisayi, a formidable leader, was arrested. The zamindari
of Gumsur was forfeited.
Uprisings in 1800- o The political situation of Palamau was complicated by the crises of agrarian landlordism
Palmau 1802 and feudal system. In 1800, Bhukhan Singh, a
C666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
6hero chief, rose in rebellion.
o Colonel Jones camped for two years in Palamau and Sarguja to suppress the
rebellion.
o Bhukhan Singh died in 1802 and subsequently the insurrection calmed down.
Poligars 1795- o The poligars (or palayakkarargal) of South India gave a stiff resistance to the British
Revolt 1805 between 1795 and 1805.
o The main centres of these strong uprisings were Tinneveli (or
o Thirunelveli), Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Sivagiri, Madurai, and North
o Arcot.
o The problem started in 1781, when the Nawab of Arcot gave the
o management and control of Tinneveli and the Carnatic Provinces to the
o East India Company.
o The first revolt of the poligars against the Company was basically over
o taxation, but had a larger political dimension in that the English
o considered and treated the poligars as enemies.
o Kattabomman Nayakan, the poligar of Panjalankurichi, led the
o insurrection between 1795 and 1799. After a Company forces were
o finally, able to defeat Kattabomman.
o Kattabomman fled into the Pudukottai forests. Kattabomman and a close
o associate, Subramania Pillai was hanged and Soundara Pandian, another
o rebel, brutally killed.
o The palayam of Panjalankurichi and the estates of five other who had
o joined the rebellion were confiscated and the prominent poligars
o executed or sent to prison. The second phase, which was more violent than the previous
one, started in February 1801 when the poligars imprisoned in the fort of Palamcotta
were able to escape.
o The rebels took control of many forts and even captured Tuticorin.
o The British forces were soon reinforced from Malabar.
o The fugitives led by Oomathurai, brother of Kattabomman, who fled to Sivaganga in
Ramnad joined the rebellion of the ‘Marudus’ led by Marathu Pandian.
o The fort of Panjalankurichi was razed to the ground and the name of the place was
expunged from all the documents of the district.
o Meanwhile, the nawab surrendered the civil and military administration of all the
territories and dependencies of the Carnatic exclusively to the Company in perpetuity
Parlakimedi 1813- o Parlakimedi, situated in the western border of Ganjam district (now in Odisha),
Outbreak 1834 witnessed resistance from the zamindars and rajas.
o The Company acquired Ganjam, Narayan Deo was the raja of Parlakimedi, whose
resistance forced the British to dispatch an army under Colonel Peach.
o The Presidency of Madras appointed George Russell as commissioner of the region in
1832.
o Russell, provided with full-fledged powers to suppress the revolt,
74
Koyas 1803- o The Koyas of the eastern Godavari track (modern Andhra), joined by Khonda Sara
Revolts 1880 chiefs, rebelled in 1803, 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861 and 1862.
o They rose once again in 1879-80 under Tomma Sora.Their complaints were oppression
by police and moneylenders, new regulations and denial of their customary rights over
forest areas.
o After the death of Tomma Sora, another rebellion was organised in 1886 by Raja
Anantayyar.
➢ Northern India-
Periods Important Events

Revolt
Kuka Namdhari 1840 o Prominent Revolts- Bilaspur Revolt (1805), Revolt of Aligarh Taluqdars
Movement (1814-17), rebellions in present day states of Western UP and Haryana
(Western (1824) and revolt of the Jabalpur Bundellas (1842)
Punjab, 1840) o Kuka Namdhari Movement –
✓ It was started in 1840 by Bhagat Jawahar Mal (Sian Saheb) and Baba
Balak Singh in Western Punjab.
✓ It was popularly called Kuka because of its followers resorted to Shrieks
(Kukan).
✓ It emerged as a powerful instrument of socio-religious reforms among the
Sikhs under the Baba Ram Singh who preached one god and attacked social
evils like caste system, female infanticide etc.
✓ Its basic tenets were abolition of caste and similar discriminations among
Sikhs,
✓ discouraging the consumption of meat and alcohol and drugs, permission
for
✓ intermarriages, widow remarriage, and encouraging women to step out of
✓ He popularized simple and inexpensive Anand marriages.
✓ However, the followers of Baba Ram began committing religious excesses
like murders of the cow butchers in Rajkot and Amritsar. This resulted in
clash with the government. Later, in 1872, Ram Singh was deported to
Rangoon.
Civil Uprisings in 1781 o In order To meet the war expenses against the Marathas and Mysore,
Gorakhpur, Basti Warren Hastings made a plan to earn money by involving English officers
and a as izaradars (revenue farmers) in Awadh.
Bahraich o He involved Major Alexander Hannay, as an izaradar in 1778.
o Hannay secured the izara of Gorakhpur and Bahraich to the amount of 22
lakh rupees for one year.
o Hannay’s oppression and excessive demand of revenue made the region,
which had been in a flourishing state under the Nawab, panic-striken.
o The zamindars and cultivators rose against the unbearable exactions in 1781
and of the initial uprising, all of Hannay’ subordinates were either killed or
besieged by zamindari guerilla forces.
o The rebellion was suppressed, Hannay was dismissed and his izara forcibly
removed.
Civil Rebellion in 1799
Awadh o Wazir Ali Khan, the fourth Nawab of Awadh, with the help
o of the British, had ascended the throne in September
o 1797.
o He got replaced by his uncle, Saadat Ali Khan II.
o Wazir Ali Khan was granted a pension in Benares, he killed a British
resident, George Frederik Cherry.
o His guards killed two other Europeans and attacked the Magistrate of
Benares. This incident known as the Massacre of Benares. Wazir Ali was
able to assemble an army of several thousand men which was defeated by
General Erskine.
o Wazir Ali fled to Butwal and was granted asylum by the ruler of Jaipur.
75
o Arthur Wellesley requested the Raja

o of Jaipur to extradite Wazir Ali. In December 1799, he was placed in
confinement at Fort William Calcutta.
Uprising in 1809 o In 1809, the Jats of Haryana broke into rebellion. They fortified themselves
Bhiwani in Bhiwani and made strong resistance.
o A brigade of all arms, with a powerful battering ram was required to
suppress the revolt.
Disturbances in 1808-12 o Bundelkhand, conquered by the British during the Second Anglo-Maratha
Bundelkhand Wars (1803-05), was put within the Presidency of Bengal.
o The Bundela chiefs offered resistance to the new government.
o The first major resistance came from Lakshaman Dawa, the killadar (fort
commander) of Ajaygarh fort.
o Lakshman was permitted to retain the fort as a temporary arrangement for
o two years ending in 1808.
o He surrendered in February 1809
o The next resistance came from killadar of Kalanjar, Darya Singh which
was suppressed in January 1812.
o But the most serious threat came from a famous military adventurer named
Gopal Singh.
o The British had adopted a policy of binding down the hereditary chieftains
of Bundelkhand by a series of contractual obligations— Ikarnamahs.
Uprisig in 1816 o The immediate cause of upsurge was the imposition of the police tax. The
Bareilly issue became religious when Mufti Muhammad Aiwaz, a venerated old
man, gave a petition to the magistrate of the town in March 1816.
o The situation aggravated further when the police, while collecting tax,
injured a woman. This event led to a bloody scuffle between the followers
of the Mufti and the police.
o Within two days of the event, several armed Muslims from Pilibhit,
Shahjahanpur and Rampur rose in rebellion for the defence of the faith
and the Mufti.
o The insurgents murdered the son of Leycester (judge of provincial court of
Bareilly). The uprising could only be suppressed with heavy deployment of
military forces in which more than 300 rebels were killed and even more
wounded and imprisoned.
o The upsurge seems to have been the product more of discontent than of
actual grievance—the elements of discontent lying in the very nature of the
alien administration.
Uprisings in 1817 o Dayaram, a talukdar of several villages in the district of Aligarh, had a
Hathras strong base in the fort of Hathras. The fort, considered to be among the
strongest in India—a ‘second Bharatpur’—had walls of great height, and
thickness, defended by a deep ditch and artillery mounted at the top.
o The English had concluded the settlement of Hathras estate with Dayaram
as a farmer.
o Dayaram constantly failed to pay arrears and even committed many acts of
hostility by giving harbour to government fugitives.
o Company with a large army attacked Hathras in February 1817.
o He fought bravely for more than 15 days and escaped unharmed. But,
ultimately, he was obliged to come back on condition of submission and
settled down with a pension.
o Another noted rebel Bhagwant Singh, Raja of Mursan, frightened to
dismantle his fort, submitted to the government.
Wahabis o The Wahabi Movement was an Islamic revivalist movement founded by
Movement Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly who was inspired by the teachings of Abdul
Wahab (1703-87) of Saudi Arabia and Shah Waliullah of Delhi.
o Syed Ahmed condemned the western influence on Islam and advocated a
return to pure Islam and society as it was in the Arabia of the Prophet’s
time
76
o Syed Ahmed was acclaimed as the desired leader (Imam). A countrywide

organisation with an elaborate secret code for its working under spiritual
vice-regents (Khalifas) was set up, and Sithana in the north-western tribal
belt was chosen as a base for operations.
o Since Dar-ul-Harb (the land of kafirs) was to be converted into Dar-ul-
Islam (the land of Islam), a jihad was declared against the Sikh kingdom
of Punjab. After the defeat of the Sikh ruler and incorporation of Punjab into
the East India Company’s dominion in 1849, the English dominion in India
became the sole target of the Wahabis’ attacks.
o Important Centres-
PATNA
HYDERABAD
MADRAS
BENGAL
UNITED PROVINCES
BOMBAY
o The Wahabis played an important role in spreading anti-British
sentiments.
o A series of military operations by the British in the 1860s on the Wahabi
base in Sithana and various court cases of sedition on the Wahabis weakened
the Wahabi resistance, although sporadic encounters with the authorities
continued into the 1880s and 1890s.
Bhil Uprisings 1825-1913 o The Bhils who lived in the Western Ghats controlled the mountain passes
between the north and the Deccan.
o They revolted against Company rule in 1817-19, as they had to face famine
economic distress and misgovernment.
o The British used both force and conciliatory efforts to control the uprising.
o However, the Bhils revolted again in 1825, 1831 and in 1846. Later, a
reformer,
o Govind Guru helped the Bhils of south Rajasthan (Banswara, Sounth
states) to organise themselves to fight for a Bhil Raj by 1913.
IMPORTANT SEPOYS MUTINY BEFORE 1857 REVOLT-

o THE MUTINY OF THE SEPOYS IN BENGAL IN 1764.
o THE VELLORE MUTINY OF 1806.
o THE MUTINY OF THE SEPOYS OF THE 47TH NATIVE INFANTRY UNIT IN 1824.
o THE REVOLT OF THE GRENADIER COMPANY IN ASSAM IN 1825.
o THE MUTINY OF AN INDIAN REGIMENT AT SHOLAPUR IN 1838.
o THE MUTINIES OF THE 34TH NATIVE INFANTRY (N.I.),
o THE 22ND N.I., THE 66TH N.I. AND THE 37TH N.I. IN 1844,1849, 1850 AND 1852 RESPECTIVELY.
LIMITATIONS –
o Localized and Isolated – The movement was

localized in nature and limited to a particular region. SIGNIFICANCE-
Also, the cause of revolt was arose out of local
o First expression against British – They were the
grievances.
first expressions of protest against colonial rule.
o Traditional Outlook - The leaders were backward
o Established a strong tradition of resistance to
looking and traditional in outlook and totally
British rule – The uprisings established a strong
disconnect from the scientific world.
tradition of resistance to British rule. Later, Indian
o Failed to achieve desired objectives - The rebels
rulers drew their inspiration from these traditions
failed to achieve their desired objectives i.e.
during the Indian National Movement.
overthrowing of British government.
77
o Revolt of 1857 – These movements marked a

valuable prelude to the watershed revolt of 1857.
The Revolt of 1857 was a climax of these uprisings.
EAVLUATION
1) Causes & Characteristics of Civil Uprisings –
o In Avadh, land was restored to the Taluqdars and
➢ Causes – they were given revenue and other powers as well,
o Under the Company rule, there were rapid changes and the peasants could not avail of the provisions of
in the economy, administration and land revenue the 1859 Bengal Rent Act.
system that went against the people. o As a punishment for their participation in the 1857
o Several zamindars and poligars who had lost control revolt, the peasants had to pay an additional cess in
over their land and its revenues due to the colonial some regions in western Uttar Pradesh.
rule, had personal scores to settle with the new 3) Causes and Characteristics of Tribal Revolts –
rulers.
o The ego of traditional zamindars and poligars was ➢ Causes –
hurt due to being sidelined in rank by government o Shifting cultivation in forests was curbed and this
officials. The ruin of Indian handicraft industries added to the tribals’ problems. The government
due to colonial policies impoverished millions of further extended its control over the forest areas by
artisans whose misery was further compounded by setting up reserved forests and restricting timber use
the disappearance of their traditional patrons and and grazing.
buyers—princes, chieftains, and Zamindars. o This was the result of the increasing demand from
o The priestly classes instigated hatred and rebellion the Company for timber—for shipping and the
against alien rule. railways. Exploitation by the police, traders and
o The foreign character of the British rulers, who money-lenders aggravated the tribals’ sufferings.
always remained alien to this land, and their Some general laws were also abhorred for their
contemptuous treatment of the native people hurt intrusive nature as the tribals had their own customs
the pride of the latter. and traditions.
o Christian missionaries came to these regions and
➢ Characteristics – their efforts interfered with the traditional customs
o They represented common conditions, though of the tribals. The missionaries, perceived as
separated in time and place. representatives of the alien rule, were resented by
o The semi-feudal leaders of civil uprisings were the Tribals.
backward looking and traditional in outlook.
o Their basic objective was to restore earlier forms of ➢ Characteristics –
rule and social relations. o Tribal identity or ethnic ties lay behind the
o These uprisings were the result of local causes and solidarity shown by these groups. not all outsiders’
grievances and were also localized in their were, however, seen as enemies. the violence was
consequences The foreign character of the British directed towards the money-lenders and traders
rulers, who always remained alien to this land, and who were seen as extensions of the colonial
their contemptuous treatment of the native people government.
hurt the pride of the latter. o A common cause was the resentment against the
imposition of laws by the ‘foreign government’ that
2) Role of Peasants in 1857 Revolt- was seen as an effort at destroying the tribals’
o Peasant participation was active only in some areas traditional socioeconomic framework. many
affected by the 1857 rebellion, uprisings were led by messiah-like figures who
o mainly those in western Uttar Pradesh the peasants encouraged their people to revolt and who held out
united with the local feudal leaders in many places the promise that they could end their suffering
to fight against foreign rule. brought about by the ‘outsiders’.
o After the revolt, the plight of the peasants worsened o The tribal uprisings were doomed from the
with the British Government’s decision to gain the beginning, given the outdated arms they fought with
support of the landed classes while ignoring the as against the modern weapons and techniques used
peasants. by their opponents.
78
QUICK REVISION –
CIVIL REBELLION PEASANT MOVEMENTS TRIBAL MOVEMENTS

SANYASI REVOLT NARKELBERIA RISING PAHARIYAS’ REBELLION
REVOLT IN MIDNAPORE AND THE PAGAL PANTHIS CHUAR UPRISING
DHALBHUM
REVOLT OF MOAMARIAS FARAIZI REVOLT KOL MUTINY
CIVIL UPRISINGS IN MOPLAH UPRISINGS HO AND MUNDA UPRISINGS
GORAKHPUR, BASTI And
BAHRAICH
REVOLT OF RAJA THE SANTHAL REBELLION
VIZIANAGARAM
REVOLT OF DHUNDIA IN KHOND UPRISINGS
BEDNUR
RESISTANCE OF KERALA KOYA REVOLTS
VARMA PAZHASSI RAJA
CIVIL REBELLION IN AWADH BHIL REVOLTS
UPRISINGS IN GANJAM AND KOLI UPRISINGS
GUMSUR
UPRISINGS IN PALMAU RAMOSI RISING
POLIGARS REVOLT KHASI UPRISINGS
UPRISINGS IN BHIWANI SINGPHOS REBELLION
DEEWAN VELU THAMPI SAVARA REBELLION
REVOLT
DISTURBANCES IN
BUNDELKHAND
PARLAKIMEDI OUTBREAK
KUTCH OR CUTCH
REBELLION
UPRISING IN BAREILLY
UPSURGE IN HATHRAS
WAGHERA RISING
PAIKA REBELLION
AHOM REVOLT
AHOM REVOLT
SURAT SALT AGITATION
KOLHAPUR AND SAVANTVADI
REVOLTS
WAHABI MOVEMENT
KUKA MOVEMENT
THE REBELLION AT MYSORE
79
CHAPTER-6 REVOLT OF 1857
INDEX
TOPIC
RELEVANCE OF TOPIC
FLOW CHART
COURSE OF WAR
CAUSES
RESAONS FOR FAILURE
CHANGES AFTER 1857 REVOLT
NATURE OF REVOLT
SIGNIFICANCE
OTHER FACTS
BOOKS and Miscellaneous
RELEVANCE OF TOPIC-
1. Here we beginning with the most important era of India’s modern History starting with the Revolt of 1857.
2. In terms of rating, will like to give 5/5 star
3. Previous year questions in prelims – 5 (1998-2019)
FLOW CHART
80
Centre of Revolt Leaders Beginning of End of Revolt British Resistance

Revolt
Delhi Bahadur Shah II; 11th May 1857 20th September General John Nicholson; Henry
Bakht Khan 1857 Bernard; Lt. Hudson; Lt.
Hakim; Hasaan- Willoughby
UllahFiruz Shah
Lucknow Begum Hazrat 4th June 1857 21st March 1858 Henry Lawrence; bg. Inglis;
Mahal; Birjis Henry Havelock; Colin
Qadir Campbell; James Outram
Jhansi Rani Laxmibai; 4th June 1857 3rd April 1858 Sir Huge Rose
Tatya Tope
Kanpur Nana Saheb 5th June 1857 6th December 1858 Sir Huge Wheeler; Colin
Peshwa; Tatya Campbell
Tope; Azimullah
Khan
COURSE OF WAR
1. 2nd February 1857 • The city of Delhi was recaptured by the English on
• The 19th native infantry at Behrampur refused to use 20th September,1857.
the newly introduced Enfield rifle accompanied by • Henry Bernard & Bg. Wilson deseized Delhi.
greased cartridges was disbanded. • Lt. Hudson arrested Bahadur Shah II who took
2. 29th March 1857 shelter in Humayun Tomb & exiled to Rangoon.
• The soldiers of 34th native infantry under the • John Nicholson climbed the Kashmir gate &
leadership of Mangal Pandey refused to use greased captured the city entrance where he injured badly.
cartridges & revolted. 6. 04th June 1857
• Mangal Pandey shot fired Lt. Baugh & Lt. General • The revolt took place at Lucknow which was led by
Hughson. He was captured and hanged on April 6. Begum Hazrat Mahal, the Begum of Awadh.
3. 3rd May 1857 • She proclaimed her son Birjis Qadir as the Nawab
• 7th Awadh Regiment met a similar fate. of Awadh.
4. 10th May 1857 • Henry Lawrence, the chief commissioner of
• The 28th native infantry & 3rd cavalry refused to use Awadh was died fighting in the hands of rebels.
Enfield rifle and revolted at Meerut. They killed the Brig. Inglis continued to defend in Lucknow
European commanding General Hewitt.
5. 12th May 1857
• The sepoys captured Delhi. Simon Fraser, the
English Political agent & several other Englishmen
were killed.
• Lt. Willoughby offered
resistance but overcome &
against heavy odds. General Havelock and Outram
therefore he sat on fire the
attempted to neutralize rebels and recapture
Ammunition depot of Delhi.
Lucknow but failed.
• Bahadur Shah II was
• In November,1857 Sir Colin Campbell entered the
declared as the Emperor of
city with the help of Gorkha regiment & evacuated
India. He was the nominal
the Europeans.
leader & real power was in
• The revolt was supressed & city was recaptured on
the hands of Bakht Khan.
21st March 1858. Begum Mahal escaped to Nepal.
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7. 04th June 1857 Mansingh. Mansingh informed the British &Tatya

• Rani Laxmibai(Widow of late King Gangadhar) Tope was captured and hanged on 15th April 1859.
had revolted at Jhansi. She joined the revolt 8. 05th June 1857
because Britishers under the Doctrine of Lapse • The revolt began at Kanpur which was led by Nana
refused to accept her adopted son to ascend the Saheb.
throne. • Sir Huge Wheeler defender the Nana Saheb forces
• She captured Gwalior fort with the help of Tantia but he surrendered on 27th
Tope. Sindhias (loyal towards Company) took June 1857.
shelter in Agra. • Colin Campbell defeated
• Rani died fighting on 17th June 1858 against the the rebel forces and captured
English army under the leadership of General Kanpur on 6th December
Hugh rose. General Hugh rose captured Jhansi on 1857.
03rd April 1858. • Nana Saheb fled to Nepal
• Tantia Tope took shelter and never been heard again,
with his Zamindar friend Tantia Tope joined with the Rani of Jhansi.
9. Other Revolts • Satara – Rangu Bapuji Gupte
• Bihar – Led by Kunwar
Singh & Amar Singh in • Assam – Diwan Manram Dutta
Jagdishpur.
• Bareilly – Khan Bahadur 10. Banaras – The revolt was mercilessly suppressed
Khan by Colonel Neil.
• Faizabad– Maulvi Ahmedullah 11. The revolt was supressed fully by the end of 1859
• Kullu– Rana Pratap Singh & Veer Singh & re-established British supremacy in India.
CAUSES
82
1. Politico-Administrative Factors 3. Post Office Act 1854- withdrawal of the Free

1. Policy of Effective Control- Under this policy postage enjoyed by the sepoys.
the EIC brought treaties such as Subsidiary 4. General Service Enlistment Act 1856- all
Alliance, Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse future recruits in the Bengal army would have
to annex the native states. Sometimes to sign an undertaking to serve anywhere their
annexation was done through war and on the services are required.
pretext of mis-governance. 5. Faced racial discrimination as well.
Accordingly Dalhousie annexed Satara
(1848), Jaitapur and Sambhalpur(1849), 4. Economic causes The policies of British East India
Bagat(1850), Udaipur(1852), Company ravaged the economic fabric of Indian
Jhansi(1853), Nagpur (1854) under the Society.
Doctrine of Lapse. Punjab and lower 1. Agriculture – The land revenue policies of
Burma (1852) were annexed through war British government impoverished the
and Awadh through mis-governance. peasants who already suffered in the hands of
2. Muslims were disheartened due to ill-treatment money lenders and zamindars. Also the
given to Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah 2. recurring famines further aggravated the
Lord Dalhousie proclaimed that , there will be conditions.
no Mughal emperor in India after Bahadur Shah 2. Indian Industry – The company adopted the
2. This proposal to remove the Mughal emperor policy of unilateral free trade under which
Bahadur Shah 2 came as shock to Muslims. government used to purchase the raw
3. Rampant corruption prevailing in the EIC materials at their own set of price and export
administration. to the Britian without levying any tariffs.
2. Socio-Religious Factors Later, goods manufactured from that raw
The Socio-religious policies undertaken by the materials was exported to India without
British Indian Govt. gave birth to serious charging any import cost. Hence traditional
resentment in the minds of Indians. The following Indian industries equipped with handmade
are mentioned below- skills could not withstand in response to
1. Abolition of social practices like Sati, British goods in terms of price .This led to
Infanticides, Widow remarriage was seen as an closure of Indian industries which was not
interference in customs & social practices. supplemented by modern industries.
2. Hindu Gods and Goddesses were ridiculed. 3. Artisans – Artisans lost their patronage after
This was seen as an attack on the religion. the British started the annexation of the
3. Spread of western education, introduction of princely states.
Railways, female education, etc hampered the 4. Zamindars– The government fortified the
feelings of traditional Indian society. lands of Zamindars and Taluqdars by
4. Charter Act 1813 – Legalised the conversion frequent use of Quo-warranto.
activities of Christian missionaries.
5. Religious Disability Act(also known as Lex
All these prepared a support base for the revolt of
Loci Act) of 1850 – This provided right to
1857 in the form of civilians who were facing
inherit ancestral property from Hindu converts
economic hardships.
to Christianity.
6. Taxes imposed upon Mosque and Temple
lands. 5. Immediate cause
Introduction of Enfield rifle (cartridge was to be bitten
3. Military Causes off before loading) and news about mixing of bone dust
1. Indian soldier faced discrimination in the form in Atta(flour) sparked a fire to the resentment of Indian
of small scale of pay, no promotions and no soldiers. The greased cartridges of rifle were made up
pensions. of cow and pig fats. Hence, it equally affected Hindus
2. Indian soldiers were deployed outside India and Muslims. The sepoys understood such activities as
without paying extra salary. They also had to measure to destroy their religion & thus they revolted.
face problems of improper food and sanitation. 6. Influence of Outside Events
Also, crossing the sea at that time was seen as
loss of caste.
83
The first Afghan war (1838-42), Punjab wars (1845- • The British govt. gave up the expansionist
49),Crimean wars (1854-56)and Santhal rebellion policy furthermore. The Queen’s declaration of
(1855-57) provided a psychological preparedness for 1st November,1858 guaranteed the territorial
the revolt of 1857. The British forces suffered serious integrity & unity of Indian native states.
casualties in all these battles. • The support of native rulers in crushing the
revolt to the company opened the eyes of
REASONS FOR FAILURE Britishers. They rejected the policy of Sub-
1. Limited territorial spread – The revolt was mostly ordinate Isolation towards native states and
confined to the Northern and Central region of landlords opted the policy of Subordinate
India. The Eastern, southern & western parts of union.
India remained less affected. The Bombay and • Also assured the inclusion of Indians into
Madras army remained totally loyal to the administration.
company. 5. Socio-Cultural Policy
2. Non-participation of all classes: The revolt was • Hereafter, British rulers adopted the policy of
not supported by major classes, groups, native non-interference in the social & cultural
rulers, zamindars and landlords. matters of Indians. They started supporting the
3. Poor Army & Ammunition: The sepoys were liberal elements of Indian society who used to
equipped with limited and poor ammunition work for elimination of evil practices in India’s
whereas British forces had modern weapons. socio-cultural system.
4. Unorganized Revolt: 6. Religious Policy
• Lack of planning and poorly organised. • The British govt. also curtailed the activities to
• Lack of central leadership. grant extent of Christian missionaries who were
• Fighting for their immediate self-interest engaged in conversion activities.
rather than for national interests. Hence, 7. Economic Policy
absence of nationalist character. • The methodology adopted by East India
company to exploit the Indian resources also
Although the revolt failed but it developed a
underwent changes.
confidence in the minds of Indians that the British rule
could be challenged and wiped out . This war was a • The British govt. encouraged foreign capital
gateway for the nationalist movement in a future. Investment to drain the Indian wealth to
England.
CHANGES AFTER THE REVOLT
The Revolt of 1857 shocked the foundation of British NATURE OF REVOLT
rule in India. Though the rebels failed to achieve their
desired objectives but it deeply affected the nature and • Nationalist and Colonial historians have different
character of British colonial rule in India. Following viewpoints about the nature of the revolt
changes were introduced as a result of the revolt:- • While the views of national historians are not
similar, the colonial historians on the other hand
4. Politico-Administrative deny it's patriotic and popular character.
• The rule of East India Company was abandoned • Colonial historians mostly highlight the negative
& through the Govt. of India Act of 1858. elements such as disunity, disorganization & selfish
British crown took the responsibility of Indian character of the revolt. They ignore the discontent
Administration. & grievances of the Indian people that was the result
of exploitative nature of British rule.
Statements/Views Said by
It was mutiny led by Selfish Army Sir John Lawerence
It was war of Fanatic Religionist against Christian L.C. Reed & Outram
It was discontent & unrest widespread rebellion Williamson Smith
1st war of Indian war of Independence V.D.Savarkar
Was a National Revolt Bisraeli
84
The causes of Revolt were inherent in Constitution of British rule S.N. Sen
It was a war started for the protection of religion but goes into war of
independence
A Hindu-Muslim Conspiracy Outram &Taylor
Conflict between Civilization &Barbarism T.R. Homes
War between Blacks & Blacks supported Whites Madely
Neither 1st nor National nor War of Independence R.C. Majumdar
A soldier peasant struggle against foreign & feudal bondage Marxist Historian
Indian National character had sunk very low MaulanaAbulKalam Azad
Held British responsible for the revolt and accepted general discontent
among people
Selfish sepoy mutiny lacks popular support John sealey
Revolt came as storm & went away destroying everything Vallentin Shirine
Indian National Revolt Ashok Mehta
It was crises send by God Christian missionaries &
Evangelicalism
Common Civil Rebellion S.B. Chaudhary
The Revolt was specifically middle in character & represents the Dr. Tarachandra
powerless class to get back their lost power
The revolt was National in character & spreaded crises among common P.C. Joshi
people
It was far more than a mutiny, …yet much less than a first war of Stanley Wolpert
Independence
Never all Indian in character but was located, Restricted & poorly D.K. Dutta
organized
Not only sepoy mutiny, formed the shape of civil rebellion. The real form Nehruji
was feudalism through some nationalist element were also present.
SIGNIFICANCE
1. The revolt showed the elements of Hindu-Muslim 4. It prepared a ground for the upcoming nationalist
unity. movement.
2. It brought together the various sections of society 5. It helped the British government to understand the
against the colonial rulers. shortcomings in the administration and to
3. Although the revolt of 1857 was supressed prepare a policy for the future.
completely but it had shaken the foundations and
base of British colonial empire in India.
OTHER FACTS
1. Lord Canning–Governor General during the revolt 7. Religious Disability Act was passed when Lord
2. Lotus & Bread are the symbols of the rebels. Dalhousie was the Governor General.
3. Ramchandra Pandurang was the real name of 8. Post Office Act, 1854 was passed by Lord
Tantia Tope. Dalhousie
4. Kunwar Singh also known as Lion of Bihar. 9. Policy of subordinate isolation- It is a policy
5. Maulvi Ahemdullah declared the Jihad against the where colonial government ambitions is to
English. subjugate all the native rulers through different
6. Revolt also broke out in Ferozpur, Aligarh and other strategies.
stations in U.P. Furthermore, in Rajputana, Indo- 10. Policy of Subordinate Union – Here, British
Gangetic plain, some parts of Bengal & Bombay. government respected the territorial integrity of
native rulers. The princely states accepted the
85
British sovereignty and in return Colonial 11. KARL MARX - It was the British intruder who
government promised of non-interference in their broke up the Indian Handloom and destroyed the
state. spinning wheel.
VARIOUS BOOKS ABOUT THE REVOLT
Author Name of the Book

S.N Sen 1857
Abul Kalam Azad 1857
P.C. Joshi Rebellion 1857
H.P. Chattopadhaye The sepoy mutiny 1857
A.T. Embrey Revolt 1857 in India
R.C. Majumdar Sepoy Mutiny & revolt of 1857
British Paramountcy & Indian Renaissance (The History
& culture of the Indian Peasant)
S.B. Chaudhary Civil rebellion in Indians mutiny

Theories of Indian mutiny
English historical writings on the Indian mutiny
Eric Strokes The peasants &Raj

Rudranshu Mukherjee Awadh in revolt
V.D. Savarkar Indian war of Independence
Ashok Mehta 1857 – A great revolt
John Caye History of sepoy war
T.R. Holmes Sepoy war
Sayyad Ahmed Khan Causes of Indian mutiny
Sengupta K. K Recent writings on the Revolt of 1857
MISCELLANEOUS FACT
Supporters of Britishers Opposer of Revolt

Sikhs & Pathans of Punjab Peasants
NWFP- Northwest Frontier Province Some sections of civil Population
South Indian British Army Zamindars &Taluqdars who lost their lands
Gurkha Regiment Sepoys of UP & central parts of India
Big Zamindars, Taluqdars & Landlords Mutiny at Mhow, Saugar, Nerbudda
Educated Intellengestia/middle class Delhi
Hyderabad, Patiala, Udaipur Lucknow, Banaras, Kanpur, Bareilly
Bikaner, Bhopal, Jodhpur Allahabad, Kanpur, Faizabad, Jhansi
Rampur, Gwalior Moradabad, Aligarh, Ferozpur
Others – Kashmir, Baroda, Kapurthala, Jagdishpur (Bihar)
Sirmur, Jaipur, Alwar Barrackpore
Bharatpur, Rampur, Sirohi, Behrampur
86
Bundi Some parts of Bombay, Bengal
87
CHAPTER 7-POPULAR UPRISING AFTER 1857
WE ARE GOING TO STUDY-
PEASANT MOVEMENT (1857-1947)

CHANGES IN NATURE OF PESANT MOVEMENT AFTER 1857
WEAKNESSES OF PEASANT MOVEMENT
OVERVIEW OF PEASANT MOVEMENT (1857-1947)
WORKING CLASS MOVEMENT (1857-1947)
CHARACTERISITICS /NATURE OF POPULAR REVOLT AFTER 1857 (OVERALL)
MISCELLAEOUS FACTS
88
POPULAR UPRISING (1857-1900)-
REVOLT IMPORTANT EVENTS

PERIOD
Indigo Revolt 1859-60 o Causes –
(Bengal)
✓ In Bengal, the indigo planters, nearly all Europeans, exploited the local peasants
by forcing them to grow indigo on their lands instead of the more paying crops
like rice. The reason for cultivation of Indigo because of increasing demand for
blue dye in Europe.
✓ The planter forced the peasants to take advance sums and enter into fraudulent
contracts which were then used against the peasants
✓ The planters intimidated the peasants through kidnappings, illegal confinements,
flogging, attacks on women and children, seizure of cattle, burning and demolition
of houses and destruction of crops.
✓ In 1857 – 29 planters were appointed as honorary magistrates giving rise to saying
je rakhak te Bhakak (one who protect is the one who devours us).
o Led by - Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas
o In April, 1860 – the revolt was first started from the villages of Gobindpur (Nadia
District) under the leadership of Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas.
o They resisted the physical pressure of the planters and their lathiyals (retainers)
backed by police and the courts. They also organised a counter force against the
planters’ attacks. The planters also tried methods like evictions and enhanced rents.
o The Indigo Farmers refused to grow Indigo which was also known as First
General Strike in the history of Indigo Peasantry. The strike quickly spread to
other parts of Bengal.
o Gradually, they learned to use the legal machinery and initiated legal action
supported by fund collection.
o The Bengali intelligentsia played a significant role by supporting the peasants’
cause through newspaper campaigns, organisation of mass meetings, preparing
memoranda on peasants’ grievances and supporting them in legal battles
o The Government appointed an indigo commission to inquire into the problem of
indigo cultivation. Based on its recommendations, the Government issued a
notification in November 1860 that the ryots could not be compelled to grow
indigo and that it would ensure that all disputes were settled by legal means.
89
o Meanwhile, the planters were already closing down factories and indigo
cultivation was virtually wiped out from Bengal by the end of 1860.
o Analysis-
A major reason for the success of the Indigo revolt was the unity amongst the
peasants. It also stood for complete Hindu-Muslim unity amongst the peasants’
community.
The movement was also known as Nilbidroh.
It was covered comprehensively in the contemporary newspaper in The Bengalee.
Harish Chandra Mukherjee – He was the editor of Hindu Patriot who
published regular reports on the hardships of peasants
Dinbandhu Mitra – He depicted an Indigo revolt in his play in Bengali, Neel

Darpan
Mappila 1850- o The Moplah Peasants rose against the Oppression of the Jenmi landlords backed
Uprising 1900 by the British authority.
(Malabar) o This movement was given a communal touch by the British as the Moplah’s were
Muslim and landlords were Hindus.
o By 1896, the Moplah uprising assumed as communal orientation.
Pabna Revolt 1873-85 o Pabna peasants rose against the malpractices of zamindars to enhance rent
(East Bengal) beyond legal limits and to destroy the tenants newly acquired occupancy rights.
o The occupancy Tenants were forced to give up their occupancy rights and convert
into tenants at will through forcible written agreements.
o To achieve their ends, the zamindars resorted to forcible evictions, seizure of cattle
and crops and prolonged, costly litigation in courts where the poor peasant found
himself at a disadvantage.
o The peasants of Yusufshahi Pargana in Patna district formed an agrarian
league or combination to resist the demands of the zamindars. The formation of
league was opposed by most prolonged newspapers including Amrit Bazar
Patrika.
o The league organised a rent strike—the ryots refused to pay the enhanced rents,
challenging the zamindars in the courts. Funds were raised by ryots to fight the
court cases. The struggles spread throughout Patna and to other districts of East
Bengal. The main form of struggle was that of legal resistance; there was very
little violence.
o A noteworthy feature of the revolt was that it was neither anti-zamindari nor
anti-colonial at any stage. The peasants did not defy the British rule rather
declared that their aim was to become the ryots of the queen of England and of
her only.
o Main leader- Keshub Chandra Sen and Sambhunath Pal
o This movement also stood for Hindu-Muslim Unity.
o A number of intellectuals rose in the support of peasants’ cause. These consists of
nationalists like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and R C DUTT.
90
o The Indian Association led by Anand Mohan Bose, Surendranath Banerjee

and Dwarkanath Ganguli also campaigned of the rights of the tenants.
o In 1885 – The Bengal Tenancy act was passed in an attempt to protect the tenants
from the oppression of zamindars.
Deccan Riots 1875 o The Deccan riots were mainly directed against the Marwari and Gujarati
moneylenders.
o The ryots of Deccan region of western India suffered heavy taxation under the
Ryotwari system and trapped in a vicious network with the moneylender as the
exploiter and the main beneficiary.
o The conditions had worsened due to a crash in cotton prices after the end of the
American Civil War in 1864, the Government’s decision to raise the land
revenue by 50% in 1867, and a succession of bad harvests.
o These outside moneylenders were greedy and often fooled the illiterate Deccan
peasants into signing unfavourable bonds. The civil courts also favoured these
moneylenders and lands were transferred from peasants to moneylenders because
farmers were unbale to pay high interest rate. Here, moneylenders were known as
Vanis and Cultivators were known as Kunbis.
o In 1874, the growing tension between the moneylenders and the peasants resulted
in a social boycott movement organised by the ryots against the “outsider”
moneylenders.
o The ryots refused to buy from their shops. No peasant would cultivate their fields.
The barbers, washermen, shoemakers would not serve them. This social boycott
spread rapidly to the villages of Poona, Ahmednagar, Sholapur and Satara.
o Soon the social boycott was transformed into agrarian riots with systematic
attacks on the moneylenders’ houses and shops. The debt bonds and deeds were
seized and publicly burnt.
o The Deccan riots was also lacked anti-colonial struggle
o This time also, the modern nationalist intelligentsia of Maharashtra supported
the peasants’ cause.
o A significant role was played by Poona Sarvajanik Sabha led by Justice Ranade
and several nationalist newspapers.
o The Government succeeded in repressing the movement and appointed Deccan
Riots Commission to inquire into the causes of the uprising
o Subsequently, the Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act was passed in 1879 which
put restrictions on alienation of lands of peasants and arrest for failure to pay debts.
Rampa 1879 & o The Rampa tribesmen rose against the British administration and forest
Rebellion 1922 regulations in 1879
(Andhra) o Led by – Alluri Sitaram Raju (During Second Rampa rebellion)
o The Rampa rebellion of 1922 was a tribal uprising in Godavari agency of madras
presidency.
o The Rampas rose against the Raj laws, erosion of their forest rights, restrictions
on their Podu system (slash and burn system) and forced Labour in road
construction.
o It was came to an end after shooting of Raju in May 1924.
Kisan Sabha 1918- o After the 1857 revolt, the Awadh Taluqdars had got back their lands. This
Movement 1921 strengthened the hold of the Taluqdars or big landlords over the agrarian society
of the province.
o The majority of the cultivators were subjected to high rents, summary evictions
(bedakhali), illegal levies, renewal fees or nazrana.
o The First World War had hiked the prices of food and other necessities. This
worsened the conditions of the UP peasants.
o The Kisan Sabhas were organized by the Home rule activists.
o The United Provinces Kisan Sabha was set up in February 1918 by Gauri
Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi. Madan Mohan Malaviya
supported their efforts.
o By June 1919, the UP Kisan Sabha had 450 branches.
91

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o Other prominent leaders included Jhinguri Singh, Durgapal Singh and Baba
Ramchandra. In June 1920, Baba Ramchandra urged Nehru to visit these villages.
During these visits, Nehru developed close contacts with the villagers.
o In October 1920, the Awadh Kisan Sabha came into existence because of
differences in nationalist ranks.
o Awadh Kisan Sabha asked the kisans to refuse to till bedakhali land, not to offer
hari and beggar (forms of unpaid labour), to boycott those who did not accept
these conditions and to solve their disputes through panchayats.
o The patterns of activity changed rapidly in January, 1921. The activists started
looting of bazaars, houses, granaries and clashes with the police. The centres of
activity were primarily the districts of Rai Bareilly, Faizabad and Sultanpur.
o The movement declined soon, partly due to government repression and partly
because of the passing of the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act.
Eka Movement, 1921 o The peasant discontent emerged in 1921 in some northern districts of the United
UP Provinces—Hardoi, Bahraich, Sitapur. The issues involved were:
high rents—50 per cent higher than the recorded rates
oppression of thanadars in charge of revenue collection
practice of Share rents
o The meetings of the Eka or the unity movement involved a symbolic religious
ritual in which the assembled peasants vowed that they would
✓ pay only the recorded rent but would pay it on time
✓ not leave when evicted;
✓ refuse to do forced labour;
✓ give no help to criminals;
✓ abide by panchayat decisions.
o The grassroot leadership of the Eka Movement came from Madari Pasi and other
low-caste leaders, and many small zamindars.
Madari Pasi
Mappila Revolt 1921 o The Mappilas were the Muslim tenants inhabiting the Malabar region where
most of the landlords were Hindus. The Mappilas had expressed their resentment
against the oppression of the landlords during the nineteenth century also.
o In 1921, Moplah Peasants revolted against continued landlord oppression as
well as British government anti-Khilafat policies.
o The leaders of the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement like Gandhi, Shaukat

Ali and Maulana Azad addressed Mappila meetings. After the arrest of national
leaders, the leadership passed into the hands of local Mappila leaders.
o The Moplahs rose under the leadership of Ali Musaliar, a respected priest and
local Khilafat leader.
o The Mophlas rebels blocked roads, cut off Telegraph lines, uprooted railway lines
and even killed some Europeans & landlords. They also resorted to brutual killings
of Hindus including women and children.
92
o the British declared martial law and repression began in earnest, the character of
the rebellion underwent a definite change.
o The communalisation of the rebellion completed the isolation of the Mappilas
from the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement
o The ruthless crushing of the Moplah rebellion greatly demoralised the community
and thereafter it remained aloof from any peasant or national political activity
so long as the British remained in India.
Bardoli 1928 o The Bardoli taluqa in Surat district had witnessed intense politicisation after the
Satyagraha coming of Gandhi on the national politics.
o The movement sparked off in January 1926 when the authorities decided to
increase the land revenue by 30 per cent despite fall in prices of cotton.
o The Congress leaders were quick to protest and a Bardoli Inquiry Committee
was set up to go into the issue. The committee found the revenue hike to be
unjustified.
o In February 1926, Vallabhbhai Patel was called to lead the movement. The
women of Bardoli gave him the title of “Sardar”.
o Under Patel, the Bardoli peasants resolved to refuse payments of the revised
assessment until the Government appointed an independent tribunal or accepted
the current amount as full payment.
o To organise the movement, Patel set up 13 chhavanis or workers’ camps in the
taluqa.
o Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika was brought out to mobilise public opinion.
o An intelligence wing was set up to make sure all the tenants followed the
movement’s resolutions. Those who opposed the movement faced a social boycott.
o The Special emphasis was placed on the mobilisation of women.
o K.M. Munshi and Lalji Naranji resigned from the Bombay Legislative Council
in support of the movement.
o By August 1928, massive tension had built up in the area. There were prospects of
a railway strike in Bombay. Gandhi reached Bardoli to stand by in case of any
emergency.
o The Government was looking for a graceful withdrawal now. It set the condition
that first the enhanced rent be paid by all the occupants (not actually done) and
then, a committee went into the whole affair.
o The committee found the revenue hike to be unjustified and recommended a rise
of 6.03 per cent only and hence movement came to an end.
o Other Important leader – Kunwarji Mehta
Peasant o During 1920’s – In North Bihar the peasant movement was led by Swami
Movement in Vidyanand and was mainly directed against the Raja of Darbhanga who owned
Bihar large estates and oppressed the peasantry.
o During 1930’s, the peasant movement was launched by Sahjanand Saraswati
which was joined by Karyanand Sharma, Yadunandan Sharma, Rahul
Sankritayan, Panchanan Sharma, Jamun Karjiti, etc. In 1935, the Provincial
Kisan Conference adopted the anti-zamindari slogan. The Provincial Kisan Sabha
developed a rift with the Congress over the ‘bakasht land’ issue because of an
93
unfavourable government resolution which was not acceptable to the sabha. The
movement was wiped out by 1939.
Peasant o During 1920’s – The Peasants joined the no-taxation movement and refused to
Movement in pay the Union Board Taxes which result in victory of peasants.
Bengal o During 1930’s - In 1935, the tribals of Manbhum, Singhbhum and Dinajpur
joined the salt satyagraha and went to jail. The region also saw the launch of
powerful agitation against the chowkidari tax by which villagers were made to
pay for the upkeep of their own oppressors. This movement was also spread to
Bihar region.
Peasant o During 1930’s, leaders like Kalka Prasad of Rae Bareli asked the peasants to
Movement in stop all kinds of peasants. But the government crushed the revolt.
UP
Peasant o 1928 – The Andhra Ryots Association was formed under the leadership of N G
Movement in Ranga.
Madras o He launched a powerful anti-zamindari struggle.
Presidency o Its first target was the zamindar of Venkatgiri in Nellore District.
o Their demands were mainly related to reduction of rent.
o 1933 - He had also set up the India Peasants’ Institute.
o The movement grew vigorously during civil disobedience movement.
o After 1936, the Congress socialists started organising the peasants. At many
places, the summer schools of economics and politics were held and addressed
by leaders like P.C. Joshi, Ajoy Ghosh and R.D. Bhardwaj.
o
Peasant o The earlier peasant mobilisation here had been organised by the Punjab
Movement in Naujawan Bharat Sabha, the Kirti Kisan Party, the Congress and the Akalis.
Punjab o A new direction to the movement was given by the Punjab Kisan Committee in
1937.
o The immediate issues taken up were resettlement of land revenue in Amritsar and
Lahore and increase in water rates in canal colonies of Multan and Montgomery
where feudal levies were being demanded by the private contractors.
o Here the peasants went on a strike and were finally able to win concessions.
Peasant o In the Malabar region, the Congress Socialist Party activists had mobilised the
Movement in peasants.
Kerala o Many “Karshak Sanghams” (peasants’ organisations) came into existence.
o The main demands of the peasants included abolition feudal levies, renewal fees
and advance rent.
o The most popular method was the marching of jaths or peasants’ groups to the
landlords to get their demands accepted.
o One significant campaign by the peasants was in 1938 for the amendment of the
Malabar Tenancy Act, 1929.
Miscellaneous o In Maharashtra, Bihar and Central Provinces – Peasants and Tribals resorted
to forest Satyagraha and defied forest laws that prohibited them from using forest
resources.
The All India 1936 o At Faizpur session of Indian National Congress (1936), held under the
Kisan Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress adopted an agrarian
Congress/Sabha programme. The programme includes items such as reduction of rent and
revenue, abolition of feudal dues and levies, provision of cheap credit, security of
tenure for tenants, cooperative farming, living wages for agrarian labourers and
the right to form peasant unions.
o The All India Kisan Congress /Sabha (AIKS) was founded in Lucknow in April
1936 with Swami Sahjanand Saraswati as the president and N.G. Ranga as
the general secretary.
94
o The AIKS and the Congress held their sessions in Faizpur in 1936 (Along with
Congress Session). The participants of the first session were J Nehru, Ram
Manohar Lohiya, Indulal Yagnik, Jayaprakash Narain, Sohan Singh Josh,
Ahmed Din and Kamal Sarkar etc.
o The conference decided to bring out Kisan Manifesto and a periodical edited by
Indulal Yagnik.
Swami Sahjanand Saraswati N G Ranga Indulal Yagnik

o The Congress manifesto (especially the agrarian policy) for the 1937 provincial
elections was strongly influenced by the AIKS agenda.
o Objectives –
✓ Protection of Peasants from economic exploitation
✓ Abolition of Landlordism
✓ Reduction of revenue and rent
✓ Irrigation facilities etc.
o It later decided to work independently of Congress.
Congress 1937-39 o The period 1937-39 was the high watermark of the peasant movements and activity
Ministries & under the Congress provincial rule.
Growth of o The chief form of mobilisation was through holding Kisan conferences and
Peasant meetings where demands were aired and resolutions were passed. Mobilisation
Movements campaigns were carried out in the villages.
o The following were the peasant movement –
✓ Bakasht Movement (Bihar, 1937-38) -
• This was a peasant movement against landlords to fight forceful evictions of
Peasants from Bakasht lands.
• Bakasht lands were those which the occupancy tenants had lost to zamindars
during Depression years, and non-payment of revenues.
• In 1937, the Congress ministry was formed which led to passing of the
Restoration of the Bakasht land Act and the Bihar Tenancy Act in 1938
brought a relief to the peasants.
✓ Hat Tola Movement (Bengal) – This peasant movement was directed against the
landlords to fight a levy collected from peasants who sold their produce at hats
(weekly markets).
✓ Burdwan Satyagraha – It was launched under the leadership of Bankim Mukerji

in the Burdwan District of Bengal. It was launched to protest against the canal tax
imposed on the peasants after the construction of the Damodar Canal.
95
✓ Movement of Share Croppers – This movement was began in Bengal in 1939.

The sharecroppers were very poor peasants who tilled the land of the landlord and
gave a portion of produce to him but they had no security of tenure and could be
evicted anytime. The government made a compromise with them.
During World o Because of a pro-War line adopted by the communists, the AIKS was split on
war II communist and non-communist lines and many veteran leaders like Sahjanand,
Indulal Yagnik and N.G. Ranga left the sabha. But the Kisan Sabha continued
to work among the people.
o It did notable work during the famine of 1943.
Post War o Tebhaga Movement (1946)–
✓ In September 1946, the Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha gave a call to implement,
through mass struggle, the Flood Commission recommendations of Tebhaga—
two-thirds’ share—to the bargardars, the share-croppers also known as bagchasi
or adhyar, instead of the one-half share.
✓ The communist cadres, including many urban student militias went to the
countryside to organise the bargardars. The central slogan was “nij khamare dhan
tolo”—i.e., sharecroppers taking the paddy to their own threshing floor and not to
the jotedar’s house, as before, so as to enforce Tebhaga.
✓ The storm centre of the movement was north Bengal, principally among
Rajbanshis—a low caste of tribal origin. Muslims also joined this movement in
large numbers.
✓ The movement dissipated soon, because of the League ministry’s sop of the
Bargardari Bill, an intensified repression, the popularisation of the Hindu
Mahasabha’s agitation for a separate Bengal and renewed riots in Calcutta which
ended the prospects of sympathetic support from the urban sections.
o Telangana Movement (1946-48)–
✓ The princely state of Hyderabad under Asajahi Nizams was marked by a

combination of religious-linguistic domination (by a mall Urdu-speaking Muslim
elite ruling over predominantly Hindu-Telugu, Marathi, Kannada-speaking
groups).
✓ The people of Hyderabad deprived from political and civil liberties. A similar
situation was faced by the peasant community.
✓ The peasants faced with forms of forced exploitation by deshmukhs, jagirdars,
doras (landlords) in forms of forced labour (vethi) and illegal exactions.
96
✓ The uprising began in July 1946 when a deshmukh’s thug murdered a village
militant in Jangaon taluqa of Nalgonda Soon, the uprising spread to Warangal
and Khammam.
✓ The peasants organised themselves into village sanghams, and attacked using
lathis, stone slings and chilli powder. They had to face brutal repression. The
movement was at its greatest intensity between August 1947 and September 1948.
✓ The peasants brought about a rout of the Razaqars—the Nizam’s stormtroopers.
Once the Indian security forces took over Hyderabad, the movement fizzled out.
✓ Achievements –
• In the villages controlled by guerrillas, vethi and forced labour disappeared.
• Agricultural wages were raised.
• Illegally seized lands were restored.
• Steps were taken to fix ceilings and redistribute lands.
• Measures were taken to improve irrigation and fight cholera.
• An improvement in the condition of women was witnessed.
• The autocratic-feudal regime of India’s biggest princely state was shaken up,
clearing the way for the formation of Andhra Pradesh on linguistic lines and
realising another aim of the national movement in this region.
CHANGES IN NATURE OF PESANT WEAKNESS OF PEASANT MOVEMENTS-

MOVEMENT AFTER 1857 -
o There was a lack of an adequate understanding of
o Active role of Peasants -Peasants emerged as the colonialism.
main force in agrarian movements, fighting directly o The 19th-century peasants did not possess a new
for their own demands. ideology and a new social, economic and political
o Economic centred -The demands were centred programme.
almost wholly on economic issues. The peasants o These struggles, however militant, occurred within
rose against the landlords and authority to safeguard the framework of the old societal order lacking a
themselves from the economic hardships. positive conception of an alternative society.
o Basic nature & character - The movements were
directed against the immediate enemies of the OVERVIEW –
peasant—foreign planters and indigenous
zamindars and moneylenders. o These movements created an atmosphere for post-
o Redressal of Personal grievances -The struggles independence agrarian reforms, for instance,
were directed towards specific and limited abolition of zamindari.
objectives and redressal of particular grievances. o They eroded the power of the landed class, thus
o Not Directed against Colonialism - Colonialism adding to the transformation of the agrarian
was not the target of these movements. These structure.
movements were not motivated against an o These movements were based on the ideology of
exploitative colonial British rule. nationalism.
o To safeguard peasant interest - the objective of o The nature of these movements was similar in
these movements to end the system of diverse areas.
subordination or exploitation of the peasants
o Limited territorial extent- The peasant
movements were scattered and unorganised. The
territorial reach was limited upto a particular area
or region. Also, there was no continuity of
struggle or long-term organisation.
o Awareness amongst the peasants -The peasants
developed a strong awareness of their legal rights
and asserted them in and outside the courts.
WORKING CLASS MOVEMENTS –
97
IMPORTANT IMPORTANT EVENTS

ORGANISATION/
MOVEMENT/YEAR
Role of Early o They were indifferent to the labour’s cause
Nationalists o These nationalists differentiated between the labour in the Indian owned factories
and those in the British-owned factories
o They believed that labour legislations would affect the competitive edge enjoyed by
the Indian-owned industries.
o They did not want a division in the movement on the basis of classes and therefore not
supported the Factory Acts of 1881 and 1891 for these reasons.
o There were many prominent nationalist leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and G.
Subramanya Aiyar who demanded better conditions for workers and other pro-labour
reforms.
1870 o Sasipada Banerjea started a workingmen’s club and newspaper Bharat Shramjeevi.
1878 o It was founded by Calcutta Brahmo Samaj to propagate religious morality amongst
the workers.
1878 o Sorabjee Shapoorji Bengalee tried to get a bill, providing better working conditions
to labour, passed in the Bombay Legislative Council.
Memorandum of 1884 o It was drafted by N M Lokhanday and Sorabjee Bengalee which was signed by
5000 workers of the Cotton Mills in Bombay demanding for a rest day in every
Sunday, half an hour break at noon, full wages in case of injury and pension in
case of disability.
o This memorandum was kept before the commission of 1884 appointed by the
Bombay Government and left its imprint on the First Indian Factories Act, 1891.
10th Jue,1890 o The request of workers for a weekly holiday was granted by the Bombay Mill
Owners Association but without any legal sanction and could not be enforced.
1880 o Narain Meghajee Lokhanday started the newspaper Deenbandhu and set up the
Bombay Mill and Millhands Association.
1889 o The first strike by the Great Indian Peninsular Railways took place, and it got
widespread support. Tilak’s Kesari and Maharatta had been campaigning for the
strike for months.
1918 o First Trade Union in India was formed by B P Wadia (An associate of Annie
Beasant) in Madras. It also came to be known as Madras Labour Union.
98
o
Ahmedabad Mill Strike and fast of Gandhi.
1920 o
Gandhi founded the Majdur Mahajan for arbitration between workers and employers
and also advocated harmonious relations between them.
During Swadeshi o Workers participated in wider political issues.
Movement o Strikes were organised by Ashwini Coomar Banerjea, Prabhat Kumar Roy
Chaudhuri, Premtosh Bose and Apurba Kumar Ghosh. These strikes were
organised in government press, railways and the jute industry.
o There were attempts to form trade unions but these were not very successful.
o Subramaniya Siva and Chidambaram Pillai led strikes in Tuticorin and
Tirunelveli and were arrested.
o The biggest strike of the period was organised after Tilak’s arrest and trial.
During the First o The War and its aftermath brought a rise in exports, soaring prices, massive profiteering
World War and After opportunities for the industrialists but very low wages for the workers. This led to
discontent among workers.
o The emergence of Gandhi led to a broad-based national movement and the emphasis
was placed on the mobilisation of the workers and peasants for the national cause.
o Foundation of important international institutions –
✓ Establishment of communist government in Russsia (1917) under the leadership of
Lenin and with the support of peasants and labourers.
✓ International Labour Union (1919)
o All these international developments also influenced the working-class movements in
India.
The All India Trade o It was formed in October, 1920.

Union Congress,1920 o Lala Lajpat Rai, was elected as the first president of AITUC and Dewan Chaman
Lal as the first general secretary.
o Lajpat Rai was the first to link capitalism with imperialism— “imperialism and
militarism are the twin children of Capitalism.
o The prominent Congress and Swarajist leader C.R. Das presided over the third and the
fourth sessions of the AITUC.
o The Gaya session of the Congress (1922) welcomed the formation of the AITUC and
a committee was formed to assist it.
o In the beginning, the AITUC was influenced by social democratic ideas of the British
Labour Party. The Gandhian philosophy of non-violence, trusteeship and class-
collaboration had great influence on the movement
o C.R. Das advocated that the Congress should take up the workers’ and peasants’ cause
and incorporate them in the struggle for swaraj or else they would get isolated from the
movement.
o Other leaders who kept close contacts with the AITUC included Nehru, Subhas Bose,
C.F. Andrews, J.M. Sengupta, Satyamurthy, V.V. Giri and Sarojini Naidu.
99
Trade Union Act,1926 o It recognised trade unions as legal associations

o This act laid down conditions for registration and regulation of trade union
activities.
o It secured immunity, both civil and criminal, for trade unions from prosecution for
legitimate activities, but put some restrictions on their political activities.
Period of Growth of o 1926-27 - The AITUC was divided into 2 groups –

Trade Unionism ✓ The Geneva Amsterdam Group (Reforming Group) – The members of this group
(1920-1930) wanted to be affiliated to the International Federations of Trade Unions with its HQ
at Amsterdam
✓ Moscovite Group (Revolutionary Group) – This group wanted affiliation with Red
Labour Union Based at Moscow.
✓ Finally, the Moscovite group influenced from communism carried greater influence in
AITUC.
✓ 1927 – The various communist groups organised themselves into Workers and
Peasants parties (WWP) under the leadership of S A Dange, P C Joshi, Muzaffar
Ahmed and Sohan Singh Josh.
S A Dange P C Joshi
✓ In November,927- AITUC decided to boycott Simon Commission
o The communist led by Girni Kamgar Union shot to prominence after the historic 6-
month log strike by textile workers in Bombay.
o 1924 – In Bombay, more than one lakh textile workers struck work against the refusal
of bonus.
o In 1926 – Textile Labour Union was formed at Bombay with N M Joshi as President.
o 1928 – In Bombay, there was a historic 6-month long strike by Textile workers.
o 1928 – The workers of Fort Gloster Mills in Bauria in Howrah district struck work.
The strike forced the government to intervene in this strike.
o 1928 – In Jamesdhpur, the workers of Tata Steel Factory went for strike.
o Between 1927-29- several strikes occurred in Bengal, Bombay and Madras
Presidency.
o Ahmedabad and Madras were important centre of trade union movement.
o To check and control the activities of trade and labour union, the government passed
the Public Safety Ordinance (1929) and the Trade Disputes Act (TDA), 1929
o
Trade Disputes Act, o It made compulsory the appointment of Courts of Inquiry and Consultation Boards
1929 for settling industrial disputes
o It made illegal the strikes in public utility services like posts, railways, water and
electricity, unless each individual worker planning to go on strike gave an advance
notice of one month to the administration6
o It forbade trade union activity of coercive or purely political nature and even
sympathetic strikes
Meerut Conspiracy o In March 1929, the Government arrested 31 labour leaders, and the three-and-a-half-
Case, 1929 year trial resulted in the conviction of Muzaffar Ahmed, S.A. Dange, Joglekar,
Philip Spratt, Ben Bradley, Shaukat Usmani and others.
o The trial got worldwide publicity but weakened the working-class movement.
Under Congress o During the 1937 elections, the AITUC had supported the Congress candidates.
ministry o The Congress governments in provinces gave a fillip to the trade union activity. The
Congress ministries were generally sympathetic to the workers’ demands. Many
legislations favourable to the workers were passed.
100
o The government appointed Kanpur Labour Inquiry Committee under the

leadership of Babu Rajendra Prasad.
o Some of the important legislations like Bombay Industrial Disputes Act, 1938,
Bombay shop Assistants Act, 1939, Central Province Maternity Act, 1939 and
Bengal Maternity Act, 1939 was enacted during this phase.
o In 1939, when second world war broke out, the workers of Bombay were amongst the
first in the world to hold anti-war strike on 2nd October, 1939.
From World war II till o Initially, the workers opposed the War but after 1941 when Russia joined the war on
Independence behalf of the Allies, the communists described the war as a “peoples’ war” and
supported it.
o The communists dissociated themselves from the Quit India Movement. A policy of
industrial peace was advocated by the communists.
o 1945-47 workers participated actively in the post-War national upsurges.
o 1945- The dock workers of Bombay and Calcutta refused to load ships taking supplies
to the warring troops in Indonesia.
o The workers went on a strike in support of the Naval mutiny.
➢ Gandhi’s Philosophy on Labour – Public Safety Ordinance (1929) and the Trade
o Mahatma Gandhi rejected the concept of class war Disputes Act (TDA), 1929
and put forward the theory of Trusteeship (The ✓ Policy of Concessions – On the other hand,
Capitalist being trustee of the workers interest). concessions were offered in the form of
o He did not believe in abolition of capitalism, appointment of Royal Commission on Labour in
zamindari or princely states. Instead, he 1929.
advocated that all these class of people should o Sectarian Politics of the Communists-
consider themselves not as owners but as trustees ✓ The Labour movements in India suffered a further
for their workers, tenants and subjects. setback when the communists decided not to join
o Gandhi’s philosophy on Labour reflected the need mainstream national movement in 1929.
of the time as it was necessary to unite all the ✓ This not only isolated the communists from the
classes and sections of Indian society to fought national movement but also reduced their hold over
against the colonial British rule. the working class.
o 1918 – He founded Ahmedabad Textile Labour ✓ They also got isolated within the AITUC and were
Association. thrown out in 1931.
o Gandhi had played a vital role in mobilizing the o Split in AITUC-
workers and peasants into the national ✓ First Split (1929)-
movement. Also, he able to contain an influence of It took place in 1929 when Jawaharlal Nehru was
communism on Labour and peasant and taught them the President of AITUC.
to agitate for their cause on Democratic and It occurred over the issue whether the AITUC
peaceful pattern. should boycott the Royal Commission on Labour or
not.
➢ Period of Decline of Trade Unionism – The extremists wanted to boycott it and the
o Government Repression of the Communist – moderates advocated to support it.
✓ The British authority came down heavily on At last, the moderates led by N M Joshi and V V
communists. The government launched a two- Giri left the AITUC and formed the ALL India
pronged on the Labour movement through the Trade Union Federation with V V Giri as
policy of concessions and repressions. President.
✓ Policy of Repression – It passed repressive laws ✓ Second Split (1931)-
like public safety act and trade disputes act and This split took place in 1931, when the communists
arrested in one sweep an entire radical leadership of left the AITUC and formed the Red Trade Union
Labour movement, also known as Meerut of Congress.
Conspiracy. To check and control the activities of Meanwhile, the communists also withdrew from
trade and labour union, the government passed the the civil disobedience movement.
o Decline after 1931 –
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✓ The workers now followed the lead of Indian and tribals envisaged a just order, free from
National Congress and participated in first civil exploitation where everyone lived a happy and
disobedience movement. dignified life.
✓ In Bombay, the congress gave the slogan that ‘the o Role of Indian intelligentsia – Indian
workers and peasants are the hand and feet of intelligentsia, reformers and nationalist played an
the congress.’ important role in popularizing these uprisings
✓ But after 1931, a dip in the activity of working class through newspapers, plays and books.
was seen and they did not actively participate o Association of Religion and Caste – Some of these
during second civil disobedience (1932-34). uprisings were also marked by communalism. For
instance, Mappila rebellion etc.
o Lack of adequate understanding of Colonialism
CHARACTERISITICS /NATURE OF POPULAR – Unlike, the pre-1857 revolts, the post 1857
REVOLT AFTER 1857 (OVERALL) peasant uprising did not challenge the colonial state.
o Peasants Emerged as the main force- The
peasants now emerged as the main force behind
MISCELLANEOUS FACTS –
these uprisings. The peasants now fought directly
for their demands and also showed remarkable o In 1923, the first May day (a day celebrated in
spirit of sacrifice and solidarity which beyond a honour of workers) was celebrated in Singarvelu,
line of caste and religion. Madras.
o Limited aim, region and organisation- These o Abwabs – It refers to various kind of fines, cesses
uprisings were subject to a limited a region or area or taxes levied by native chiefs upon the subjects
with respect to particular objected. It also lacked like the house tax, irrigation tax and grazing tax
organizational foundation. For instance, Workers etc.
were fighting for their cause and farmers for their
demands etc.
o Envisaged a fair and just order – The uprisings
were based on fair and just order. The peasants
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CHAPTER 8-SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORMS

FACTORS ANF FORCES
AIM OF SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
CLASSIFICATION
SOCIAL AND IDEOLOGICAL BASES
METHODS
MAJOR SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS ISSUES
REFORM MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
NATURE
LIMITATIONS
ACHEIVEMENTS
MISCELLANEOUS FACTS
103
FACTORS AND FORCES –
British Conquest of India –

✓ The conquest of India by the English exposed
serious drawbacks in the India Society and
occasioned a new socio-religious awakening.
✓ Most of the earlier invaders, who had come to India
settled within its frontiers, were either absorbed by
its superior culture or interacted positively with it
and had become part of the land and its people.
✓ However, the British conquest was different. The
British arrived at a time when India contrast to an
enlightened Europe of the eighteenth century
affected in every aspect by science and scientific • Prevalence of Casteism –
outlook, presented the picture of a stagnant
civilisation and a static and decadent society
✓ For instance, support provided by William Bentick
to Raja Ram Mohan Roy to curb Sati system in India
etc.
• Spread of Colonial nature/ Spread of western
culture – The establishment of British Colonial rule
in India was followed by an attempt to spread
English culture and ideology including
Christianity. In response, Indian reformers made
an attempt to preserve and energize Indian socio-
cultural system.
• Religious and Social Conditions ripe for reform-
✓ Religious and Social ills –
• Indian society in the nineteenth century was trapped
in a vicious web created by religious superstitions
and social obscurantism.
• Hinduism had become steeped in magic and
superstition, priests exercised an overwhelming ✓ During this time, the Indian society was
and, indeed, unhealthy influence on the minds of the degenerated due to prevalence of extreme casteism.
people etc. ✓ This entailed a system of segregation, hierarchically
• Expensive rituals and ceremonies became an ordained on the basis of ritual status.
inherent part of Indian Society especially Hindus. It ✓ The Brahmins and Kshatriyas who were at the top
had led to a deterrent for the healthy development of pyramid played a deciding role in the socio-
of an individual and society. cultural matters of Indian Society.
• Ignorance and illiteracy were widespread evils ✓ At the bottom of the ladder came the untouchables
which used to exists during that time. It had or scheduled castes, as they came to be called later.
encouraged in growing and development of evil The untouchables suffered from numerous and
practices in the name of religion or sacred texts. severe disabilities and restrictions.
• Position of Women – ✓ It may also be noted that caste consciousness,
✓ The most distressing was the position of women. particularly with regard to marriage, prevailed also
✓ The following were the inherent conditions of among Muslims, Christians and Sikhs who also
women during the close of 19th century – practised untouchability, though in a less virulent
Practice of female infanticide form.
Child marriage • Role of Enlightened Indians –
Practice of Sati ✓ During the last decades of the nineteenth century,
Degenerated condition of women the rising tide of nationalism and democracy also
No civil, political and economic rights found expression in movements to reform and
democratise the social institutions and religious
outlook of the Indian people.
104
✓ The British Conquest of India gave rise to factors ✓ Though the reformers tried to reform their religions,
such as nationalist Sentiments, emergence of new there was a universalistic aspect to their religious
economic forces, spread of education, impact of perspective.
modern and western ideas contributed ✓ Raja Rammohan Roy considered different
significantly to the rise of Enlightened Indians who religions as national embodiments of universal
paved the way for socio-religious reforms. theism. He defended the basic and universal
✓ The socio-cultural regeneration of the India of the principles of all religions -of the Vedas and
nineteenth century was occasioned by the colonial unitarianism of Christianity—while attacking the
presence, but not created by it polytheism of Hinduism and trinitarianism of
Christianity. Syed Ahmed Khan said that all
prophets had the same ‘din’ (faith) and every
AIM – The ultimate aim of reform movements was the country and nation had different prophets.
attainment of well-being of the Individual and society ✓ The humanist aspect of the religious reform
as well as national progress. movements was to be seen in the emphasis on the
individual’s right to interpret religious scriptures in
CLASSIFICATION –
the light of human reason and human welfare and in
1. The Reformist Movements – The reformist a general attack on priestly domination of religious
movements such as Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana practices.
Samaj and Aligarh movements aimed at changing ✓ The evolution of an alternative cultural-
the fundamental structure of society through ideological system and the regeneration of
gradual reforms within the existing system. traditional institutions were two concerns of these
2. The Revivalist Movements – The revivalist movements.
movements such as Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna ✓ These concerns were manifest in the attempts to
Mission and Deoband movement aimed at going reconstruct traditional knowledge, the use and
back to the old social system that once existed in the development of vernacular languages, creation of
past which was considered as superior as compared an alternative system of education, defence of
to present socio-religious system. religion, efforts to regenerate Indian art and
literature, the emphasis on Indian dress and food,
SOCIAL AND IDEOLOGICAL BASIS – attempts to revitalise the Indian systems of
medicine and to research the pre-colonial
1. Social Base – technology for its potential.
✓ The social base of Indian Renaissance was provided
by middle class, educated Indians and
intellectuals. METHODS OF REFORMS –
✓ The social base of the regeneration seen in the
nineteenth century was the newly emerging middle • Reforms from within – The intellectuals firmly
class and the educated (both traditionally believed that to bring any reform, the urge from
educated and the Western educated) reform had to come from within the individuals
intellectuals. themselves. Therefore, they started preaching their
✓ The intelligentsia of nineteenth century India did modern ideas through literary works, organizing
not grow from trade or industry (which were firmly debates etc.
under the control of British agencies); their roots lay • Reforms through legislation- The intellectuals
in government service or the professions of law, brough the reforms in Indian society through
education, journalism or medicine—with which legislative sanction. For instance, passing a law to
was often combined some connection with land in curb Sati etc.
the form of the intermediate tenures. • Reforms through symbols of change – Some
reformers brought the change through eating food
2. Ideological Base – by lower caste, defy caste rules, marrying a
✓ The socio-religious reform movements were based window etc.
on Rationalism and universalism and • Reform through intellectual work – The
Humanism. reformers an intellectuals and reformers spread the
✓ The Reformers used a rational approach to study reforms through
tradition; they evaluated the contemporary
socioreligious practices from the standpoint of
social utility and to replace faith with rationality.
✓ Many of the intellectuals set aside the authority of
religion and evaluated truth in any religion by the
criteria of logic, reason or science.
105
✓ Education – main agent of reforms

✓ Indian Languages
✓ Use of rationality/ Rationalism - Faith in Science
and Reasoning.
✓ Use of Scriptures
✓ Value of Humanism- Love of Man
✓ Appeal to universalism – Universality of all
religion (all religions were same)
✓ Reform through social work – The intellectuals
brought the social reforms through social work. For
instance, Vidyasagar spend his entire life for the
upliftment of windows etc.
XVII, A.D. 1829 of the Bengal Code) which
DIRECTION OF SOCIAL REFORMER – The humanistic ideals abolished the practise of Sati.
of social equality and the equal worth of all individuals • Preventing Female Infanticide –
which inspired the newly educated middle class The Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared
influenced the field of social reform in a major way- infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder.
An Act passed in 1870 made it compulsory for
o Fighting for the betterment of the Women – parents to register the birth of all babies and
✓ Problem of Women – provided for verification of female children for
some years after birth, particularly in areas where
the custom was resorted to in utmost secrecy.
• Widow Remarriage –
The Brahmo Samaj had the issue of widow
remarriage high on its agenda and did much to
popularise it.
But it was the efforts of Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar in enactment of widow’s remarriage
Act, 1856. It legalised marriage of widows and
declared issues from such marriages as legitimate.
Vidyasagar cited Vedic texts to prove that the
Hindu religion sanctioned widow remarriage.
Jagannath Shankar Seth and Bhau Daji were
among the active promoters of girls’ schools in
Maharashtra.
• Women were generally accorded a low status and Vishnu Shastri Pandit had established the Widow
were considered to be inferior adjuncts to men, with Remarriage Association in the 1850s.
no identity of their own. In 1852, Karsondas Mulji started the Satya
• They enjoyed no scope of giving expression to their Prakash in Gujarati in 1852 to advocate widow
talents as they were suppressed by practices such as remarriage.
purdah, early marriage, ban on widow- In Western India D K Karve played a vital role for
marriage, sati, etc. Both Hindu and Muslim the upliftment of widows.
women were economically and socially dependent Karve himself married a widow in 1893. He
on male relatives, while education was generally dedicated his life to the upliftment of Hindu widows
denied to them. and became the secretary of the Widow
• The Hindu women did not enjoy the right to inherit Remarriage Association. He opened a widows’
property or to terminate an undesirable marriage. home in Poona to give the high caste widows an
Muslim women could inherit property but only half interest in life by providing them with facilities for
as much as men could, while in matters of divorce vocational training.
there was no equality between men and women. In Madras - Veerasalingam Pantulu played a
Polygamy was prevalent among Hindus as well as prominent role for the emancipation of women.
Muslims. The right of widows to remarriage was also
advocated by B.M. Malabari, Narmad
✓ Measure – (Narmadashankar Labhshankar Dave), Justice
• Abolition of Sati – With the efforts of Raja Ram Govind Mahadeo Ranade and K. Natarajan
Mohan Roy, the regulation of 1829 (Regulation among others.
• Controlling Child Marriage –
106
movement for women’s education that arose in the

1840s and 1850s.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar is considered as one
of the pioneers of women education in India.
Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education (1854),
laid great stress on the need for female education.
In 1914, the Women’s Medical Service did a lot of
work in training nurses and mid-wives.
In 1916 – Prof. D K Karve set up the Indian
Women University, named as SNDT College,
Mumbai. In the same year Lady Hardinge
Medical College was opened in Delhi.
Health facilities began to be provided to women
with the opening of Dufferin Hospitals in the
1880s.
The Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage

Act), 1872 prohibited child marriage. It had a
limited impact as the Act was not applicable to
Hindus, Muslims and other recognised faiths.
The relentless efforts of a Parsi reformer, B.M.
Malabari, were rewarded by the enactment of the
Age of Consent Act (1891) which forbade the
marriage of girls below the age of 12.
The Sarda Act of 1930 further pushed up the
marriage age to 18 and 14 for boys and girls
respectively.
In free India, the Child Marriage Restraint Women played a prominent role in the Indian
(Amendment) Act, 1978 raised the age of marriage National Movement and even faced lathis. Sarojini
for girls from 15 to 18 years and for boys from 18 Naidu went on to become the president of the
to 21. Indian National Congress (1925) and later the
Recently, Indian Government had started governor of the United Provinces (1947-49).
discussion about increasing the age of girls for After 1920, many organisations and institutions
marriage from 18 to 21 years. such as the All India Women’s Conference
• Education for Women – (established in 1927) came up.
• Women’s Organisation –
In 1910, Sarla Devi Chaudhurani convened the first
meeting of the Bharat Stree Mahamandal in
Allahabad.
It was Considered as the first
Sarla Devi
major Indian women’s
organisation set up by a
woman, its objectives
included promotion of
education for women,
abolition of the purdah
Bethune school system and improvement
The Christian missionaries were the first to set up in the socio-economic and political status of woman
the Calcutta Female Juvenile Society in 1819. all over India.
The Bethune School, founded by J.E.D. 1904 - Ramabai Ranade founded the Ladies
Bethune, president of the Council of Education in Social Conference (Bharat Mahila Parishad),
Calcutta in 1849 was the first fruit of the powerful
107
under the parent organisation National Social Kamla Devi Chattopadhyaya and Lady Dorab
Conference in Bombay. Tata.
Pandita Ramabai Objectives - Its objectives were to work for a
Pandita Ramabai Saraswati founded the Arya society based on principles of social justice,
Mahila Samaj to serve the cause of women. She integrity, equal rights and opportunities; and to
pleaded for improvement in the educational secure for every human being, the essentials of life,
syllabus of Indian not determined by accident of birth or sex but by
women before the planned social distribution.
English IMP Acts–
Education ▪ Sarda Act (1929)
Commission ▪ Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act (1937)
which was referred ▪ Factory Act (1947)
to Queen Victoria. ▪ Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act (1954)
This resulted in ▪ Special Marriage Act (1954)
medical education ▪ Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (1956)
for women which ▪ Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act (1956)
started in Lady ▪ the Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women Act
Dufferin College. (1958)
She had also established a branch of Arya Mahila ▪ Maternity Benefits Act (1961), Dowry Prohibition
Samaj in Bombay. Act (1961) and Equal Remuneration Act (1958,
In 1925, the National Council of Women in India, 1976).
a national branch of the International Council of
Women, was founded. o Struggle against caste-based discrimination –
Mehribai Tata played a vital role in its formation ✓ Factors and Forces helped to mitigate caste-
and advancement. based distinction –
• Role of British Rule in India –
British rule, perhaps without intention, created
certain conditions that undermined caste
consciousness to an extent.
The British administration introduced the concept
of equality before law in a uniformly applied
system of law which dealt a severe blow to social
and legal inequalities, while the judicial functions
of caste panchayats were taken away.
The administrative services were made open to all
castes and the new education system was on totally
secular lines.
Mehribai Tata The development of railways provided a same
Other women who held important positions on the compartment for the upper caste people and lowers
executive committee of the council included cases in order to travel from place to another one.
Cornelia Sarabji, India’s first lady barrister; • Role of Social Reform Movement –
Tarabai Premchand, wife of a wealthy banker; During 19th century, various social reform
Shaffi Tyabji, a member of one of Mumbai’s leading organisation such as the Brahmo Samaj,
Muslim families; and Maharani Sucharu Devi, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna
daughter of Keshab Chandra Sen. s Mission, the Theosophists, the Social Conference
All India Women’s Conference (AIWC), 1927 – and individuals worked to spread education among
Founded by the untouchables and remove restrictions imposed
Margaret Cousins on them from entering temples or using ponds,
in 1927, was perhaps tanks, etc.
the first women’s Although many of them defended the chaturvarna
organisation with an (Four-fold Varna system) system, they criticised
egalitarian approach. untouchability.
Its first Margaret
conference was held at Ferguson College, Pune.

IMP Founding members - Maharani Chimnabai
Gaekwad, Rani Sahiba of Sangli, Sarojini Naidu,
108
The reformers attacked the rigid hereditary basis of

caste distinctions and the law of karma which
formed the basis of the religious-philosophic
defence.
• Principle of equality and liberty –
The national leaders and organisations opposed
caste privileges, fought for equal civic rights and
free development of the individual. Social Issues Religious issues
These leaders took inspiration from liberty and
equality against the forces which tended to divide
the society.
The Congress governments in various provinces
after 1937 did some useful work for the upliftment
Ignorance & illeteracy of
of the depressed classes; for instance, free education masses
for Harijans (‘untouchables’) was introduced in
Idol Worship & Polythesim
some provinces. (preaching more than one
The States like Travancore, Indore and Dewas god)
issued a proclamation in opening all state temples
for the Harijans.
Gandhi had immensely contributed for upliftment Condition of Women
and empowerment of lower caste people especially
Untouchables.
His ideas were based on the grounds of humanism
and reason. He argued that the Shastras did not
Rituals & ceremonies
sanction untouchability and, even if they did, they
should be ignored since truth cannot be confined Brahmin domination
within the covers of a book.
1932 – He established the All India Harijan
Sangha.
• Role of Education –
The spread of education amongst the people of
lower caste played a significant role in their Caste system
empowerment
Jyotiba Phule and his wife Savitribai Phule
initaed the education for the students of lower castes
in Maharashtra.
Later Baba Saheb Ambedkar become a national idol
for the Dalits who stressed upon role of education
in their upliftment.
• Role of Indian Constitution – endorsement of any disability arising out of
The Constitution of free India abolishes untouchability as unlawful.
untouchability under Article 17 and declares the They also provided the reservation in government
jobs and Public educational institutions.
MAJOR SOCIAL & RELIGIOUS ISSUES –
REFORM MOVEMENT
➢ Eastern India
N LEADERS IMPORTANT EVENTS
o
109
1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1774- o Raja Ram is known as the Morning Star of Reform Movement
1833) o He believed in the synthesis of East and West
o He preached monotheism (worship of one god) through providing
reference from Vedas and Upanishads (but he did not support the
infallibility of Vedas). He did not recognised the mediation of priests
o He also condemned the oppressive practices of Bengal zamindars and
demanded for abolition of Company’s trading rights and removal of
heavy export duties on Indian goods
o He stood for Indianization of service, freedom of press, separation of
executive from Judiciary, trial by jury and equality between Indian and
European Judges.
o Imp Literary Works –
1.Tuhufat -ul- Muwahiddin (Gift to Monotheists)- His first philosophical
work published in Persian language (1805)
2. In 1820, he published the Percepts of Jesus.
3. Anushthan (Interpretation of Vedas) the Guide to Peace and
Happiness.
4. Translated Vedas & Upanishads.
5. Samvad Kaumudi
6. Mirat-ul-Akhbar
o Founder –
✓ Atmiya Sabha (1814) in Calcutta
✓ He supported David Hare's efforts to establish the Hindu College in
1817.
✓ Vedanta College (1825) – to impart Indian and Western learning.
✓ Brahmo Sabha /Brahmo Samaj (1828) – First reform movement in
India. Also known as The Society of God based on western education.
The main purpose of Brahmo Samaj was to teach monotheism and rid
Hinduism of its evils. The activities of Brahmo Samaj were opposed by
Dharma Sabha of Radhakanth Deb.
• Religious Reforms –
The Samaj was opposed to the entire Brahmanical system based on
superstitious practices and rituals.
It discarded the infallibility of religious scriptures, idol worship,
polytheism and concept of Avatars
It critisiced the need for priestly class
He took no definite stand on Karma and transmigration of soul
They tried to incorporate the best practices of western modern thought
which based itself on human reason to decide what to be kept and what
to be discarded from socio-religious practices.
• Social Reforms-
The Brahmo Samaj condemned the Caste System and untouchability.
They supported the general upliftment of women.
The Samaj opposed sati, polygamy, purdah, and child marriage.
They worked immensely for widow remarriage and modern education
of women
o Notable work- Raja Ram Mohan Roy launched a historic struggle for
the abolition of Sati through a legislation passed by William Bentick in
1829.
o Rammohan Roy described the practise of Sati as a “murder according
to every shastra”.
o Imp. Disciples - Dwarka Nath Tagore and Ram Chandra Vaidya.
o His ideas and activities were also aimed at political uplift of the masses
through social reform and, to that extent, can be said to have had
nationalist undertones.
o He is known as the Father of Indian Renaissance and Modern India.
o He represented the first sparkle of national consciousness in India
110
o He was also the pioneer of Indian Journalism and as well as public

agitation.
o He had also said that some changes should take place in the religion at
least for the sake of political advantage and social comfort.
o After the death of Mohan Roy, the Brahmo Samaj was divided into two
parts-
2. Debendranth Tagore (1817- o He was the Father of Rabindranath Tagore.

1905) o 1839 – He established Tatvabodhini Sabha to propagate Ram
Mohan’s Idea and finding spiritual Truth. It aimed at countering the
rapid influence of Christianity in India and to advocate Vedas and
indigenous culture.
o 1843 – He published Tatvabodhini Patrika. It promoted study of
India’s past in Bengali Language.
o 1843 – He joined the Brahmo Samaj
o Under his leadership, the influence of Samaj was widened, many new
branches were established and the message of the Samaj spread to
outside of Bengal.
3. Keshub Chandra Sen (1838-84) o He joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1848.
o Before joining Brahmo Samaj, he founded → Good Will Fraternity
(earlier Sangat Sabha)
o He was appointed as Acharya of the Samaj by Debendranth Tagore.
o Jugalbandhi→ Keshub Chandra Sen + Debendranath→ Toured
India to Srilanka.
o Under his leadership, the branches of Brahmo Samaj were opened in
UP, Punjab, Bombay, Madras and other towns.
o He laid stress on women education and campaigned against child
marriage.
o Imp literary works - The Calcutta Mirror, Bambodhini Patrika.
o He laid stress on universalism as opposed to Debendranth’s stress on
National Hindu Entity which led to split in Brahmo Samaj in 1865.
o Keshub and his followers left the Samaj and founded Brahmo Samaj
of India in 1865.
o Tagore’s Samaj came to be known as Adi Brahmo Samaj.
o Later, Keshub got his own 13-year-old daughter married with the
Maharaja of Kooch Bihar and hence feeling disguised, many followers
left Keshub and formed a new organisation named – Sadharan
Brahmo Samaj.
o Later on, Keshub Set up a new organisation→ Nav Vidhan.
o In Madras→ Given title of Thunderbolt of Bengal.
111
4. Henry Derozio (1809-31) o He launched Young Bengal Movement

o He was an Anglo-Indian teacher and professor of the Hindu College.
o He was inspired from French Revolution and followed the most
radical views of his time.
o He was a free thinker and rationalist.
o He used to teach his students to develop a critical outlook and question
all authority, love, liberty and freedom.
o His followers known as Derozians or Young Bengal. They attacked
the old and descendant customs of Hindu Society or religion. They
stood for women’s rights and laid stress on female education. The
Derozians, however, failed to have a long-term impact.
o They carried agitations in support of numerous public issues including
revision of company’s charter, better treatment of Indian labourers in
British colonies, freedom of press, protection of rights and
Indianization of service.
o He was the first nationalist poet of modern India.
o In 1831, he was dismissed from the Hindu College owning to his radical
views.
o Surendranath Banerjee was to describe the Derozians as “the
pioneers of the modern civilisation of Bengal, the conscript fathers of
our race whose virtues will excite veneration and whose failings will be
treated with gentlest consideration”.
5. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar o Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was a Sanskrit scholar and Principal of
(1820-91) Sanskrit College, Calcutta.
o He opened the gates of college for the Western thoughts and non-
Brahmin students.
o He Organised 1st Widow remarriage in Bengal.
o He used to run thirty-five girls' schools, many of which he ran at his
own expense.
o Both Vidyasagar and Rabindranath Tagore wrote Bengali Primers.
o He also devised a new Bengali primer and evolved a new prose style.
o He devoted his entire life for the service of windows.
o His efforts culminated with the passing of Hindu Window
Remarriage Act, 1856.
o As a Secretary of the Bethune School (Founded in Calcutta ,1849),
he led the movement for Women’s education. He also promoted the
higher education for women.
o He also opposed to Child marriage and Polygamy.
o Imp. Literary Works – Bahubibaha and Bidhaba Bibaha
o He also started the Bengali Newspaper Shome Prakash (1858)
6. Ramakrishna Paramhansa o He was priest at the Kali Temple in Dakshineswar, near Calcutta.
(1834-86) o He denounced religious particularism and supported religious
universalism.
o He recognised Truth in all religions and preached that Hinduism,
Christianity and Islam were the different paths that led to the same
god.
o He recognised Idol Worship but emphasis on intention and spirit and
not symbols and rituals.
o He had great compassion for human suffering and taught his disciples
– Yatra Jiv, Tatra Shiv (wherever there is living being, there is a
Shiva).
o However, Ramakrishna’s main stress remained on religious salvation
rather than social salvation.
112
7. Swami Vivekananda (1863- o He was the greatest disciple of Ramakrishna Paramhansa.

1902) o His real name was Narendranath Dutta.
o He joined Keshab Chandra Sen's Nava Vidhan.
o By 1881→ Joined Ramakrishna Paramhansa.
o He compiled a Bengali song anthology named Sangeet Kalpataru with
Vaishnav Charan Basak.
o 1886, Narendra and eight other disciples took formal monastic vows
established a monastery at Baranagar (1887) after the death of his
guru.
o Between 1888-1893→ Travelled within India
o By 1893-1897→ Travelled western world
o Sponsored by → Raja of Ramnad, when he visited Madurai.
o 1893 – Swami Vivekananda presented a glorious speech at the
Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in which he reprented

Hinduism. In his speech, he stressed on the need for a healthy balance
between Spiritualism and materialism
o Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society also invited Initiative

by judge of the Illinois Supreme Court, Charles C. Bonney.
o He founded the Vedanta Society of New York in 1894.
o In 1896, his book Raja Yoga was published.
o He emerged as a preacher of neo-Hinduism. He envisaged a new
culture for the whole world, where the materialism of the west and
the spiritual of the East would be harmoniously blended to produce
happiness for mankind.
o He denounced the social evils prevalent in Hindu Society i.e. caste
system, rituals and superstitions
o He also opposed the oppression of poor by the rich.
o He said that divine exists within man.
o His mission was to bridge the gulf between paramartha (service) and
vyavahara (behaviour), and between spirituality and day-to-day life.
o Vivekananda believed in the fundamental oneness of God and said,
“For our own motherland a junction of the two great systems, Hinduism
and Islam, is the only hope.”
o Vivekanand recognised the utility and value of image worship.
o He Believes that the philosophy of Vedanta will make a Christian a
better Christian, and a Hindu a better Hindu.
o Though Vivekananda never gave any political message but through his
speeches and writings, he infused the youth with a sense of pride in
India’s pride and faith in India’s future. In this way, he also contributed
to the concept of nationalism in colonial India.
o Vivekananda also criticized even Indians for having lost their touch
with the world. According to him, motion is the sign of life and
stagnation results in degeneration.
o Like his guru, he also believed that the best way to serve God was to
serve mankind. In this way, he gave a new social purpose to Hinduism.
113
o Imp Literary works –

o Bartaman Bharat,
o Lectures from Colombo to Almora and
o The East and the West
o 1897- Founder of Ramakrishna Mission in Calcutta.
o Other monasteries: one in Mayavati in the Himalayas (near
Almora), the Advaita Ashrama and another in Madras.
o Subash Chandra Bose termed – Swami Vivekanda as the spiritual
father of modern nationalist movement.
o He composed "Khandana Bhava–Bandhana", a prayer song
dedicated to Ramakrishna.
o In 1898, he was offfered a research chair by Jamshedji Tata.
o Analysis of Ramakrishna Mission –
✓ Ever since its inception, the Mission has been running a number of
schools, hospitals, dispensaries. It offers help to the afflicted in times
of natural calamities like earthquakes, famines, floods and epidemics
✓ The Mission has developed into a worldwide organisation. It is a
deeply religious body, but it is not a proselytising body. It does not
consider itself to be a sect of Hinduism. In fact, this is one of the strong
reasons for the success of the Mission
✓ Unlike the Arya Samaj, the Mission recognises the utility and value
of image worship in developing spiritual fervour and worship of the
eternal omnipotent God, although it emphasises on the essential spirit
and not the symbols or rituals.
✓ It believes that the philosophy of Vedanta will make a Christian a
better Christian, and a Hindu a better Hindu.
✓ The Monastic order is open to all men without discrimination on the
basis of caste or creed.
➢ Western India-
No LEADERS IMPORTANT EVENTS
1. Balshastri Jambhekar (1812-46) o He was the pioneer of intellectual movement in Maharashtra.

o He was a pioneer of social reform through journalism in Bombay.
o He attacked the Brahmanical Orthodoxy and tried to reform
popular Hinduism.
o In 1832 – He started a weekly, Darpan
o He is also known as the father of Marathi journalism.
o In 1840, he started Digdarshan which published articles on
scientific subjects as well as history.
o Jambhekar founded the Bombay Native General Library and
started the Native Improvement Society of which an offshoot was
the Students Literary and Scientific Library.
2. Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar o 1849 – He assumed the leadership of Paramhansa Mandali (the
(1814-82) first reform organisation of Maharashtra in 19th Century. It
functioned as a secret society).
o The ideology of the society was closely linked to that of the Manav
Dharma Sabha.
o The main objective of this Mandali was the demolition of all caste
distinctions.
o Dharma Vivechan (1848) – principles denied the polytheism of
popular Hinduism, the caste system, and the Brahmanical
monopoly of knowledge.
o The founders of the mandali were primarily interested in breaking
caste rules. At their meetings, food cooked by lower caste people
114

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was taken by the members. These mandalis also advocated widow

remarriage and women’s education.
3. Bhaskar Pandurang Tarkhadkar o He emerged as a militant critic of the colonial rule in India.
(1816-47) o 1841- He wrote a series of letters in the Bombay Gazette,
exposing colonial domination.
4 Jyotiba Phule (1827-90) o Mahatma Jyotiba Phule belonged to a low caste Mali family
o He spent his entire life in campaigning against upper caste
domination.
o 1854- He became the first Indian to start a school for the
untouchables.
o He had also worked for the cause of the liberation of Indian
women.
o He was a pioneer of the widow remarriage movement in
Maharashtra.
o 1851- Jyotiba Phule and his wife Savitri Phule started a girl school
in Poona.
5 Students Literary and Scientific o This organisation was established in 1848 by several educated
Society (1848) young men.
o It had two branches known as the Marathi and Gujarati Gyan
Prakash Mandalis.
o The society organised questions on popular science and social
questions.
o It also aimed to start schools for female education.
6 Karsondas Mulji o He had worked immensely for the widow remarriage.
o 1852- He started Satya Prakash in Gujarati to promote the cause.
7 Lokahitwadi Gopal Hari o He was also known by his pen name Lokahitwadi.
Deshmukh (1823-82) o He wrote his famous 100 letters Shatapatren in the Prabhakar, a
Marathi weekly.
o These letters are all encompassing in dimension and touch upon
every aspect of contemporary society.
o He advocated the restructuring of Indian society along modern
Humanistic lines.
o According to him, whether social reforms had the sanction of
religion was immaterial. If religion did not sanction them, it
advocated the religion itself be changed.
o Imp. Literary works – Hitechhu and also played a leading role in
founding the periodicals, Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash and
Lokahitwadi.
8 Vishnu Bhikaji Gokhale (1825-73)o He was also known as Vishnubawa Brahmachari
o He opposed the caste system and stood for oneness in society.
9 Vishnu Parshuram Shastri Pandit o 1850 – He founded the widow remarriage association
(1827-76) o 1865 – Vidhava and Vivaha Uttejaka Mandal (Society for
encouragement for widow remarriage)
o He set an example by marrying a widow himself in 1875.
10 The Brahmos in Maharashtra o 1867 – Prarthana Samaj (Prayer congregation) was set up in
Bombay by Keshub Chandra Sen.
o The members of the Samaj looked upon themselves as a body
within the general Hindu body.
o The members of the Samaj worked in the field of widow
remarriage, women’s education, raising the age of marriage for
both men and women and denounced Caste system.
o Prominent Leaders –
o R C Bhandarkar,
o Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade and
o N G Chandravarkar.
o Imp Missions –
o Depressed Class Mission,
115
o Social Service League and

o Deccan Education Society.
o In South India, Telugu reformer Kandukari Veeresalingam
spread the activities of Prarthana Samaj.
o 4-point social agenda of Samaj -
✓ disapproval of caste system
✓ women's education
✓ widow remarriage
✓ raising the age of marriage for both males and females
11 Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar o He earned the title of Maharishi.
(1837-1925) o He was a strong supporter of Hindu-Muslim Unity.
12 Narayan Mahadev Parmanand o He was a great social reformer and strong critique of British rule.
(1838-93) o He was also known as Political Recluse.
13 Mahadev Govind Ranade (1842- o He had studied from Elphinstone College, Bombay.
1901) o He was a judge of the Bombay High court during 1891-1901.
o According to him, the caste system was the main blot on Indian
Society and religious reforms were prerequisite for the social
reform.
o 1867 – He helped in setting up of Prarthana Samaj, a Brahmo
movement in Maharashtra by reorganizing the Paramhansa
Mandali.
o 1870 – He played a key role in establishment of Poona Sarvajanik
Sabha.
o He even edited the Bombay daily – Induprakash.
o He was a founding member of Indian National Congress.
o 1887 – He founded the Indian National Social Conference along
with Raghunath Rao. It functioned as a social reform cell of the
Indian National Congress. It launched the famous Pledge
movement to inspire people to take oath to prohibit child marriage.
o He is also known as the Father of Indian Economics
14 Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar (1850- o 1874 – Chiplunkar wrote his famous Nibandhamala, a monthly
82) Marathi Magazine devoted to the cause of social reform.
o 1880- He and B G Tilak set up the New English School in Pune.
It is one of the first schools by Indians offering western education.
o 1884- He established Deccan Education Society with Gopal
Ganesh Agarkar, Mahadev Ballal NamJoshi and others.
o Soon after, they also established Fergussion College with Tilak
and Agarkar as early lecturers.
15 K T Telang (1850-93) o He played a prominent role in introducing Compulsory Primary

Education in Bombay.
o He was the first Indian Vice-Chancellor.
16 Ganesh Vasudev Joshi (1851-1911) o He emphasized on education as the most effective agent of social
change.
o He also provided a brilliant critique of the economic policies of
British Government.
17 Narayan Ganesh Chandravarkar o He was primarily a philosopher and emerged as the great leader of
(1855-1923) Prarthana Samaj.
18 Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856-95) o He denounced blind dependence on traditions and false
glorifications of India’s past.
o He was a cofounder of the New English School, the Deccan
Education Society and Fergusson College. He was a principal
of Fergusson College.
116
o He was also the first editor of Kesari, the journal started by

Lokmanya Tilak.
o Later, he started his own periodical, Sudharak, which spoke
against untouchability and the caste system.
o
19 Prof. D K Karve (1858-1962) o Prof. Dhondo Keshav Karve known for his work in the field of
women’s welfare.
o He started his career as teacher in a Girls School Bombay. Later,
he became a professor in Fergussion College.
o 1899 – He established a Widow’s Home in Poona where high
caste widows were encouraged to take up careers in teaching,
nursing and medicine.
o He also established an Indian Women’s University at Bombay in
1916.
20 Behramji M Malabari (1853-1912) o He was a Parsi social reformer who is best known for his ardent
advocacy of women’s rights and campaign against Child Marriage
and conditions of Widows.
o 1885 – He set up Seva Sadan with his friend Diwan Dayaram
Gidumal which took care of those women who were exploited and
neglected by Society.
o His efforts were culminated by the enactment of Age of Consent
Act, 1891 – It restricted the marriage of girl below the age of 12.
o Behramji Malabari acquired and edited the Indian Spectator.
21 Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866- o 1905 – Gopal Krishna Gokhale founded Servants of India
1915) Society with the help of M.G. Ranade to further expand the
education in India.
o The aim of the Society was to train national missionaries for
service of India, to promote, by all constitutional means, the true
interests of the Indian people; and to prepare a cadre of selfless
workers who were to devote their lives to the cause of the country
in a religious spirit.
o The society worked for the promotion of Education and Health,
organised campaign against poverty, untouchability, alcoholism,
oppression of women and domestic abuse.
o 1911- It published the Hitavada, the organ of the society from
Nagpur.
o After Gokhale’s death (1915), Srinivasa Shastri took over as
president.
o It worked in the field of education, providing ashram type of
schools for tribal girls and balwadis at many places.
o He commented - To train national missionaries for the service of
India; to promote, by all constitutional means, the true interests of
the Indian people; and to prepare a cadre of selfless workers who
were to devote their lives to the cause of the country in a religious
spirit.
22 Vithhal Ramaji Shinde (1873- o 1901 – He was selected by the Prarthana Samaj to go to England
1944) and study comparative religion.
o 1906- He established the Depressed Class Mission with an
objective to provide education to the Dalits, remove untouchability
and solve their social problems.
117
23 Narayan Malhar Joshi (1879-1955) o N M Joshi was a follower of Gokhale and a leader of the Indian
Trade Union.
o 1911 – He set up the Social Service League in Bombay.
o The aim of the league was to secure better and reasonable
conditions of life and work for the masses. The League trained
volunteers to undertake relief work during disaster such as
Famines, epidemics, floods etc. .and also to carry out welfare
among the poor.
o 1921- He established the All India Trade Union Congress
(AITUC) along with Lala Lajpat Rai.
o He served as the General Secretary of the AITUC from 1925-29
and 1940-48.
o 1931- He left the AITUC and started the All India Trade Union
Federation.
24 Manav dharma sabha o Led by – Durgaram Manchharam (1809–78) and
o Group of educated Guajaratis-
o Durgaram,
o Dadoba Panderung,
o Dinmani Shankar,
o Dalpatram Bhagubai, and
o Damodar Das Manav Dharma Sabha at Surat in 1844.
o It challenged magicians and the reciters of incantations to
demonstrate their skills. They also criticised caste, but took no
direct action against this institution
24 Shri Ram Bajpai o He was a member of the Servants of India Society founded the
Sea Samiti Boy Scouts Association in 1914 at Bombay→ Baden
Powell.
o Indianisation of the Boy Scout movement in India.
25 Indian Social Conference o Founder - M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao
o Social Conference met annually from its first session in Madras
in 1887 at the same time and venue as the Indian National
Congress.
o It focussed attention on the social issues of importance.
o It was the social reform cell of the Indian National Congress.
o The conference advocated inter-caste marriages, opposed
polygamy and kulinism.
o It launched the ‘Pledge Movement’ to inspire people to take a
pledge against child marriage.
➢ Northern India –
NO. LEADERS IMPORTANT EVENTS

1 Swami Dayanand Sarawati o Swami Dayanand Sarawati was born as Mulshankar in a Brahmin
(1824-83) family in the old Morvi state of Gujarat. In 1845, he left home and
for the next 15 years wandered as an ascetic in the country studying
yoga.
o 1875 – He founded the first Arya Samaj unit in Bombay. Later,
the HQ of the Arya Samaj was established at Lahore.
o Dayanand extensively toured India for preaching his ideas to the
common masses.
o Teachings and ideas of Dayanand Sarawati –
✓ Dayanand’s aim was to unite India religiously, socially and
nationally. According to him, Aryan religion to be the common
religion, Society to be casteless & classless and Independence of
India from foreign domination.
✓ He gave the slogan of ‘Go back to the Vedas’. He believes in the
infallibility of Vedas. He considered Vedas as the original seed of
Hinduism.
118
✓ He took inspiration from the Vedas and considered them to be

‘India’s Rock of Ages’.
✓ He rejected the authority of the Puranas (the later Hindu Scriptures)
and blamed these texts for spreading evil practices like Idol worship
and superstitions in Hindu religion.
✓ He provided his own interpretation of the Vedas and published his
views in his famous work – Satyartha Prakash (The true
exposition)
✓ He even condemned the evil practices that had crept into Hindu
Religion in the 19th century such as idolatry, polytheism,
superstitions and sacrifices. He believed in the unity of Godhead.
✓ He rejected the philosophy of Maya. This philosophy states that
man’s soul is merely a part of god and the man’s objective is to
escape the world and seek union with the god. According to him,
God, Soul and Matter were distinct and eternal entities.
✓ He disregarded the theory of Niyati (Destiny) and upheld the
doctrine of Karma. He held that the world was a battle field where
every individual had to work out his own salvation by right deeds.
✓ Dayanand Sarawati rejected the domination of Brahmin priestly
class over the social and religious life of Hindus. He told that it was
the right of every Hindu to read and interpret the Vedas.
✓ He rejected the caste system based on birth and supported the
Four-Varna system based on occupation.
✓ Dayanand condemned child marriage and encouraged widow
remarriage. He stood for equal status for both men and women.d
✓ Imp. literary works –
o Satyartha Prakash (in Hindi),
o Veda-Bhashya Bhumika (partly in Hindi and partly in
Sanskrit) and
o Veda-Bhashya (in Sanskrit).
o Arya Samaj –
✓ The Arya Samaj movement was a reaction to western influences.
✓ Swami Dayanand Sarawati denounced western ideas and instead
gave the slogan of Go back to Vedas. This statement meant for
revival of Vedic learning and Vedic purity of religion and not the
revival of Vedic times. Hence, his movement was revivalist in
form and not in content.
✓ He displayed modernity in many aspects and held patriotic views on
national problems.
✓ Contributions-
The Arya Samaj played a vital role in the field of social reform and
spread of education. It laid great emphasis on brotherhood of men,
equality between men and women, value of justice, love and charity
towards all.
The Samaj established the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic Institutions all
over the country with an objective to impart the best of Eastern and
western learning.
Accordingly, Anglo-Vedic school was established at Lahore in
1886 and Gurukul Pathshala at Haridwar in 1902.
It succeeded in protecting Hindu Society from the onslaught of
Christianity and Islam.
It started the Shudhi Movement to convert non-Hindus to
Hinduism.
It also raised the slogan of India for the Indians and infused a spirit
of patriotism.
The Arya Samaj fixed the minimum marriageable age at twenty-five
years for boys and sixteen years for girls.
119
Swami Dayananda once lamented the Hindu race as “the children

of children”. Intercaste marriages and widow remarriages were
also encouraged.
Equal status for women was the demand of the Samaj, both in
letter and in spirit.
The Arya Samaj Movement succeeded in undermining the
superiority of the White race and reinstalling a sense of pride
amongst the Hindus.
Prominent Leaders –
o Lala Lajpat Rai,
o Pandit Guru Dutt and
o Lala Hansraj
✓ Guiding principles of Arya Samaj –
God is the primary source of all true knowledge.
God, as all-truth, all-knowledge, almighty, immortal, creator of
Universe, is alone worthy of worship.
The Vedas are true book of knowledge.
An Arya should always be ready to accept truth and abandon untruth
Dharma, that is, due consideration of right and wrong, should be the
guiding principle of all actions.
The principal aim of the Samaj is to promote world’s well-being in
the material, spiritual and social sense
Everybody should be treated with love and justice;
Ignorance is to be dispelled and knowledge increased;
One’s own progress should depend on upliftment of all others;
Social well-being of mankind is to be placed above an individual’s
well-being.
2 Shiv Narain Agnihotri (1850- o He was a member of Brahmo Samaj.
1929) o 1887 – He left the Brahmo Samaj and formed Deva Samaj.
o The Deva Samaj was initially established as a theistic society but
later emerged as an aesthetic society.
o The society emphasised on the eternity of the soul, the supremacy
of the guru, and the need for good action.
o He spoke against Child marriage.
o This society denied the existence of God and laid stress on ethical
conduct.
o Imp. Principles – Ideal social behavior such as not accepting
bribes, avoiding intoxicants and observing non-violence
o Book – Deva Shastra (All his teachings were in this book).
Southern Indian –
NO Leaders Important Events
1 Kandukari Veera Salingam o He played a prominent role in spreading the activities of Brahmo
(1848-1919) Samaj in the South India.
o He was a Telugu reformer.
o His writings contributed significantly to the development of Telugu
Prose literature and, hence, he is also known as the Father of Modern
Telugu Prose Literature.
o He worked immensely for the widow remarriage, female education and
general upliftment of Women.
o Thus, he emerged as a Father figure for the later generation of social
reformers in Andhra Region.
120
2 Theosophical Movement o Founder - Madame Helena Blavatsky (1831-91) in 1875 in USA.

o It was later joined by Col. Henry Steel Olcott (1832-1907) of the US
army.
o This society was inspired from the Indian traditional thoughts and
philosophy.
o Later, they shifted their HQ to India at Adyar near Madras.
o Teachings –
✓ It accepts and recognize the Hindu beliefs of Karma and reincarnation
✓ It draws inspirations from the philosophy of Upanishads, Sankhya,
Yoga and Vedanta.
✓ The society believed that through prayers, meditations etc., a
relationship could be established between a person’s soul and God.
✓ It stood for universal brotherhood of humanity without discrimination
on the grounds of race, caste, creed, sex, colour etc.
✓ The society also sought to investigate the unexplained laws of nature
and the powers latent in man.
o 1889- Ms Annie Beasant (1847-1933) joined the Theosophical Society.
o 1893- Ms. Beasant represented the society at the World Parliament of
Religions at Chicago.
o 1893- She landed in India.
o 1898- She laid the foundation of Central Hindu College in Banaras
(Varanasi). where both Hindu religion and western scientific subjects
were thought (The college was later developed into Banaras Hindu
University in 1916 by Madan Mohan Maliya.)
o 1907 – After the death of Olcott, she became the President of
Theosophical Society. Under her guidance, he popularized the society
in India and became a movement for Hindu revival.
o 1916- She formed Home Rule Leagues
o She had also advocated for female education in India.
3 Important Caste Movements o Kongu Vella Sangam of Gounder Caste in Tamil-Nadu.
in Madras Presidency o Vokkaliga and Lingayat Associations in Mysore.
o Sri Narayan Guru Dharma Paripalana Yogam of the Ezhavas of
Kerala.
➢ Miscellaneous Reform Movements –
No Leaders Important Events

1 Radhakanta Deb (1784-1867) o He founded Dharma Sabha in 1830.
o He stood for preservation of status- quo in socio-religious matters and
opposed the abolition of Sati.
o He supported the promotion of western education, even for girls.
o He was a leader of Calcutta Conservative Hindu Society.
o He published Shabda- Kalpadruma, a Sanskrit Dictionary with the
help of Hara Kumar Tagore.
2 Ved Samaj (1864) o Founder – Keshub Chandra Sen and K. Sridharalu Naidu in 1864.
o 1871 – K. Sridharalu renamed the Ved Samaj as Brahmo Samaj of
Southern India.
o He translated the book of Brahmo Dharma into Tamil and Telegu and
undertook missionary tour to propagate his views.
121
3 Pandit Madan Mohan o He was a notable leader of the Indian National Movement.
Malviya (1861-1946) o He is known as the founder of Banaras Hindu University in 1916.
o 1887 – He established Bharata Dharma Mahamandal in order to
propagate Sanatan Dharma and Hindu culture. The offshoots of the
Mahamandal were the Sanatan Dharma Sabhas, formed for the
defense of Hinduism from the critics.
o 1918 – He presided the INC session of Delhi and proclaimed the slogan
– Satyamev Jayate (Truth alone triumphs) from the Mundaka
Upanishads.
o He condemned untouchability and emerged as a prominent leader of
Harijan movement.
o 1933 – He chaired a meeting in which Harijan Sevak Sangha was
founded.
o He was conferred with Bharat Ratna in 2014.
o Bharat Dharma Mahamandala –
✓ An all-India organisation of the orthodox educated Hindus.
✓ It stood for a defence of orthodox Hinduism against the teachings of the
Arya Samajists, the Theosophists, and the Ramakrishna Mission.
✓ Other organisations created to defend orthodox Hinduism were the
Sanatana Dharma Sabha (1895), the Dharma Maha Parishad in
South India, and Dharma Mahamandali in Bengal. These
organisations combined in 1902 to form the single organisation of
Bharat Dharma Mahamandala, with headquarters at Varanasi.
✓ This organisation sought to introduce proper management of Hindu
religious institutions, open Hindu educational institutions, etc
4 Radhasawmi Movement o Founder – Tulsi Ram, a Banker from Agra, also known as Shiv Dayal
(1861) Saheb.
o The movement was first started in Agra and still has its contemporary
HQ at Beas.
o Principles –
✓ They reject the concept of scriptures, rituals and pilgrimages.
✓ They believe in one supreme being, supremacy of the guru, company of
pious people (Satsang) and a simple social life.
✓ The Radhasawmis believe that the spiritual attainment does not come
from the renunciation of worldly life.
✓ They consider all religions to be true and emphasis on works of faith,
charity, prayer and service.
5 Pandita Ramabai (1858-1922) o She had worked for the education of women and their emancipation.
o 1889 – She founded Sharda Sadan/ Home for Learning and Mukti
Sadan at Bombay.
o Sharda Sadan – It functioned as a shelter home for the widows.
o Later, it was shifted to Poona.
o Taste for reading enabled her to become the first woman in India to earn
the titles of Pandita and Sarasvati at the age of 20.
o Founded the Arya Mahila Samaj.
o Her first book in Marathi called Stri Dharma Niti.
o She travelled on to the USA to attend the graduation from the Women’s
Medical College
➢ Reform Movements (Muslims)
No LEADERS/MOVEMENTS IMPORTANT EVENTS

1 Wahabi/Waliullah Movement o It was the first Muslim movement which emerged in response to
(1830-60) western influences.
o It was a revivalist movement which undertook activities to purify
Islam of the all UnIslamic practices.
122
o The movement was led by Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Delhi Saint
Shah Waliullah Dehlawi.
o In India, their teachings were popularized by Syed Ahmed Barelvi
(Also known as Syed Ahmed of Rae Bareli) and Shah Abdul Aziz.
o Views and activities –
✓ Barelvi condemned all activities of Islam and advocated a return to
original religion of Islam of Prophet’s time.
✓ Barelvi and Abdul Aziz were aimed at creating a Muslim Homeland
(Dar-ul-Islam).
✓ Aziz set out a Fatwa (ruling) declaring that Dar-ul-Harb (land of
the Kafirs) and the need was to make it Dar-ul-Islam. Jihad was
initially declared against Ranjit Singh, ruler of Punjab.
✓ After the British annexation of Punjab, Jihad was directed against the
English.
✓ The Wahabis played a prominent role during 1857 revolt against the
British.
✓ By 1860, the movement was suppressed militarily.
✓ Following this movement, in 1870, the term Sedition was added in
the Indian Penal Code and thus marked the beginning of sedition law
in India.
2 Titumir’s Movement (1831) o Led by – Mir Nisar Ali (Also known as Titur Mir).
o He was an Islamic preacher and disciple of Barelvi.
o He organised a peasant agitation of the Muslim Peasants of Bengal
against the Hindu landlords and British Indigo Planters.
o The movement was suppressed by killing Titur Mir in 1831.
3 The Faraizi Movement (1838- o Founder – Haji Shariatullah of Faridpur in Eastern Bengal.
51) o It originally began as a peasant movement. Later, it was directed
against the landlords and British oppressors.
o Under the leadership of Dudu Mian (Son of Haji), the Faraizis turned
into a religious sect advocating radical religious and socio-political
changes.
o Works/Ideology of Dudu Mian -
✓ He propagated an Egalitarian Ideology i.e. All men are equal and all
land belongs to God and no one has the right to levy tax on it.
✓ The Faraizis opposed the right of the Zamindars to collect tax, set up
parallel government and established village courts.
✓ The movement was ended with the arrest of Dudu Mian.
ot4 The Muhammadan Literary o The society promoted western education amongst the Muslims.
Society (Calcutta,1863) o It also encouraged discussions on political, religious and social
issues.
5 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817- o After the Revolt of 1857, British blamed the Muslim behind the main
98) conspiracy.
o However, during 1870, the attitude of British changed towards the
Muslim community. The Indian Musalman written by W W
Hunter made a plea for adopting policy of concessions towards
Indian Muslims.
o Meanwhile, Sir Syed wrote a book named – Asbab-e-Bhagawat-
Hind (Causes of Indian Revolt) in which he rejected the Muslim
conspiracy and blamed the policies of East India Company for the
outbreak of revolt.
o Role of Syed Ahmed Khan –
✓ He was a servant of East India Company and remained loyal to the
British during 1857 Revolt.
123
✓ He was retired from the service in 1876 and became the member of
Imperial Legislative Council.
✓ He earned Knighthood for his loyalty in 1888.
✓ He felt that Muslims could safeguard their share in administrative
services when they opened their gates for western style of modern
education.
✓ Thus, he started a movement to give respectable positions to Muslims
as they had in the past and this movement came to be known as
Aligarh Movement.
o Aligarh Movement –
✓ The nucleus for the movement was provided by Muhammadan
Anglo-Oriental Collegiate School founded at Aligarh in 1875 by
Syed Khan.
✓ The School provided the basis for the formation of Aligarh Muslim
University (AMU) in 1920.
✓ Here, instructions were imparted both in Western Arts & Sciences
and Muslim Religion. The doors were open for all Indians.
✓ Soon, Aligarh emerged as the Centre of religious and cultural revival
of the Muslim community.
✓ The main focus of the Aligarh movement were -
Loyalty to the British – He urged the Muslim Community to remain
loyal towards British rule by accepting the services under the English.
Modern Western Education for the Muslims to compete with the
Hindus.
o Social Reform –
✓ Sir Syed Ahmed condemned the customs of Polygamy and Purdah.
✓ He advocated the spread of education among the Women.
✓ He taught tolerance and urged the people to develop rational outlook
and freedom of thought.
✓ He criticsed the system of Piri and muridi (Piris, the followers of
Sufi School, passed on their mystic words to their Murids i.e.
Disciples).
✓ He also disregarded the Slavery.
✓ He propagated his progressive social ideas through his magazine -
Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq (Improvement of manners and morals).
✓ Other Literary Works – Tuhafa-i-Hasan and Loyal Muhammadans
of India
o Religious Reforms –
✓ He respected all religions and spoke against religious fanaticism and
bigotry.
✓ In his work – Commentaries of the Quran, he criticsed the narrow
outlook of traditional interpreters and instead gave his own broader
interpretation of the Quran in the light of contemporary rationalism
and scientific knowledge.
o Overview of Syed Ahmed –
✓ Throughout his life, he began to talk of Hindu domination in order to
prevent his followers to join the rising tide of nationalism.
✓ He was not a communalist in nature.
✓ He rejected the drain theory of Dadabhai Naoroji.
✓ He opposed the Congress idea of self-rule and end of British Raj.
6 Deoband School or Darul o Founder – Muhammad Qasim Nanotvi and Rashid Ahmad
Uloom (1866) – Saharanpur, Gangohi
modern UP o It was a revivalist movement which mainly focused on 2 objectives
–
o To preach the pure teachings of Quran and Hadis amongst the
Muslims.
o To keep alive the Jihad against the British authority.
124
o The aim of the school was religious and moral regeneration of the
Muslim Community and train to religious leaders for the Muslim
Community.
o They aimed at reviving pure Islamic Religion of the past and prepare
them for preaching Islamic faith.
o In 1885, the Deoband School supported the formation of Indian
National Congress.
o In 1888, the Deoband issued a Fatwa against Sir Syed Ahmed
Khan’s organisations - The Patriotic Association and The
Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Association.
o Imp. Leaders –
✓ Mahmud-ul-Hasan – He tried to work out a balance between the
religious and political aspirations of the Muslim in the overall context
of national unity.
✓ Shibli Nomani – He favored the introduction of English language and
western sciences in the education system. He founded Darul-Uloom
in Lucknow in 1894-96. He had supported the idealism of Congress
and advocated peaceful co-existence between the Hindus and
Muslims.
7 Ahmadiyya Movement (1889) o It was a religious Islamic movement founded in Punjab during the
end of 19th century.
o Founder – Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
o He proclaimed that Muslim religion and society had degenerated to
the point requiring divine intervention and that Allah has chosen him
as the renewer (Mujaddid).
o He supported the universality of religions and stated that it was part
of God’s plan towards the establishment of Islam as the most complete
and final religion.
o Thus, movement was stressed on non-violence and tolerance of
other faiths.
o It opposed Jihad and stood for modern education among the
Muslims.
➢ Reform Movements (Sikhs) –
NO LEADERS/MOVEMENTS IMPORTANT EVENTS

1 Nirankari movement (Rawalpindi, Punjab) o Founder - Bada Dayal Das (1783-1855)
o He was a contemporary of Maharaja Ranjit Singh
and emerged as the first among the reformers of Sikh
Community.
o Ideas –
✓ He taught his followers to believe in one formless
God (Hence the name Nirankari)
✓ He condemned the idol practice of Human Gurus
and worship of tombs and graves.
✓ He introduced a simple version of marriage named
– Anand Karaj (a joyous deed). This version of
marriage got formal recognition through Anand
Marriage Act, 1909.
125
2 Namdhari or Kuka movement (Western o Founder – Bhagat Jawahar Mal (Sian Saheb) and
Punjab), 1840 Baba Balak Singh
o It was popularly called Kuka because its followers
resorted to shrieks (Kukan).
o It emerged as a powerful instrument of socio-
religious reforms among the Sikhs under Baba Ram
Singh. He preached worship of one God and
attacked social evils like caste system, female
infanticide, early marriage and barter of marriages
in daughters.
o In 1872, a group of 62 Namdhari Sikhs were blown
up by cannons for protesting against the British. The
same year, Ram Singh was deported to Rangoon.
3 Singh Sahab Movement, 1843 o It emerged after the suppression of Kukas in
Amritsar in 1843.
o Its leaders believed that social evils in the Sikh
community were due to lack of education.
o It was formed with two-fold objectives –
✓ To bring the Sikh community the benefits of
western enlightenment through modern education.
✓ To oppose the proselytizing activities of Christian
missionaries, Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Aligarh
movement and Ahmadiyya movements.
o However, they did not held the English directly
responsible for manifold ills prevalent in Sikh
society. Thus, they did not challenge the authority of
British.
o The Sabah opened a number of Khalsa Schools and
Colleges in Punjab.
o They had also established Khalsa College at
Amritsar,1892 with the help of government and
rulers of Sikh princely states.
o Later, the Khalsa College became an important
centre for the Nationalist activities.
4 Akali Movement/Gurudwara Reform o The Akali Movement was an offshoot of Singh
Movement (1920-25) Sahab Movement.
o It was launched with an objective of liberating the
Sikh Gurudwaras (temples) from the control of
corrupt Mahants (priests) who were recognised by
the British Government.
o Background –
✓ Maharaja Ranjit Singh gave donations to almost all
well-known Gurudwaras in the form of property
and other privileges.
✓ The sudden rise in income brought about a change
in the lifestyle of hereditary Mahants, who gradually
began to live a luxury life.
✓ After the annexation of Punjab in 1849 by the
British, the English government took over the
control of the Golden Temple and Akal Takht.
The British appointed a committee of 10 members
headed by a Sarabarah to manage their day to day
affairs.
✓ The priests started to indulge in various evil
practices such as misappropriation of offerings,
misusing shrine properties for unfair activities and
even abusing women visitors.
126
✓ Other than that, they also recognized caste

distinctions. The Mahants of the Golden Temple did
not allow the so-called low caste Mazabhi Sikhs to
offer their prayers directly.
✓ Subsequently, the Akali Jathas (Band of
volunteers) of Sikhs of Amritsar defy the activities
of corrupt priests and took control of the Golden
Temple and Akal Takht in their own hands and
formed a committee (named as Shiromani
Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee- SGPC) for
the management of these two shrines.
o Toshakhana Key Affairs –
✓ The Committee of the reform group asked the
government to hand over the keys of Toshakhana
(Treasury) but the British authority in Punjab
refused to accept the demands.
✓ As a reaction, the Akali leaders launched a powerful
agitation against the British which came to be
known as Key Affairs.
✓ During this time, Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-
Cooperation movement was going on and many of
the Akali leaders also joined the Congress as a
volunteer.
✓ Feeling threatened, the Punjab British Government
handed over the keys to the then President of SGPC
– Baba Kharak Singh.
✓ The Punjab Government also passed the Sikhs
Gurudwaras and Shrines Act, 1922 which
provided for a Committee nominated by the
Government to take over the control of the
Gurudwaras. However, this proposal was rejected
by the Akali leaders.
✓ After the suspension of Non-Cooperation
Movement in Feb,1922, the Punjab Government
decided to teach a lesson to the Akali Leaders which
led to another agitation known as Guru ka Bagh
Morcha.
o Guru-Ka -Bagh Morcha (1922)-
✓ The Punjab Government started arresting the Akali
volunteers who were cutting woods from the Dry
Kikar Trees attached to the Gurudwara Guru-ka-
Bagh, on the pretext that it was the private property
of Mahants and the Akali reformers were
committing a theft.
✓ As a result, the Akali Jathas started marching to
Guru-Ka-Bagh and the Police started arresting them.
When there was no more space in Jail, the Police
then started beating the Akali volunteers
mercilessly.
✓ Soon, this peaceful agitation won the sympathy of
Press and National leaders.
✓ Finally, in the face of widespread criticism, the
Punjab Governor ordered the Police to stop beating
the Akali Jathas and all Akali volunteers were
released and allowed them to use wood for the use
in community kitchen.
o Passage of the Gurudwara Bill,1925 –
127
✓ The Punjab Government saw that the Akali struggle

for reforms was fast becoming the main vehicle for
the spread of Congress ideology and programme
amongst the Sikh peasantry in Punjab.
✓ The Authority also feared that this religious issue
was also likely to affect the Sikh soldiers in British
army.
✓ Therefore, the Punjab Government enacted the
Sikhs Gurudwara Act, 1925. The Following were
the provisions –
This act provided the Sikh community a legal right
to elect functionaries to manage their gurudwaras.
It ended the hereditary control of the Mahants and
introduced democratic control in the Gurudwara
management.
Any Sikh, irrespective of any caste, can be elected
as the President of the SGPC.
Women also got the right to vote at par with men.
✓ Thus, the Akali Movement was ended after a 5 year
of struggle in 1925.
o Significance –
✓ This movement created immense social, religious
and political awakening not only among the people
but also in the minds of the people of the Sikh
priestly States of Patiala, Nabha, Jind, Faridkot.
✓ The people in these states continued their struggle
under the leadership of Sardar Seva Singh
Thikriwala till Independence and finally merged
with the Union of India.
✓ The Akali Movement was regional but not
communal in nature.
✓ The Akali Dal leaders played a significant role in the
national freedom struggle.
➢ Reform Movements (Parsi) –
No LEADERS /MOVEMENTS IMPORTANT EVENTS

1 Rahnumai Mazdayasan Sabha/Religious oThis association was formed by a group of
Reform Organisation (Bomaby,1851) English educated Parsis with the following dual
objectives -
✓ Regeneration of the social conditions of Parsis.
✓ Restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its
pristine purity.
o Imp Leaders –
o Naoroji Furdunji (President),
o Sorabji Shapurji Bengali (Secretary),
o K N Kama and
o Dadabhai Naoroji
o Nauroji Furdunji→ published Fam-i-Famshid,
Tarikh-e-farthest.
o Newspaper of Association – Rast-Goftar (Truth
Teller) started by Naoroji and Kama in 1851.
o The Sabha condemned the elaborate ceremonies
and funerals and stood for uniform laws of
inheritance and marriage for the Parsi
Dadabhai Naoroji community.
128
o It worked for the improvement in condition of

Parsi women. The leaders of the Sabha criticsed
the Purdah system and efforts were made to
increase the age of marriage and to endure
education for women.
o Journal by S S Bengalee - Jagat Mitra (Friend
of the World), Jagat Premi (Lover of the
World).
➢ Non-Brahmin Movement/ Caste Movement –
o Factors/Forces –
✓ These movements were mostly pioneered by Upper Caste Hindus to condemn the caste system and untouchability.
✓ Spread of Western Education.
✓ Introduction of common India penal code (1861) and Code of Criminal procedure (1872).
✓ Expansion of railway network (where every Indian could buy a ticket of any class and occupy any seat available).
✓ Growth of national consciousness and modern political ideas of equality and democracy.
No Leaders/Movements Important Events

1 Jyotirao Phule (1827-90) and Satya Sodhak o Mahatma Phule condemned the caste system and
Samaj campaigned for the cause for education, equality
between classes and equality between men and
women.
o He requested the government to impart
compulsory primary education to the masses
through teachers drawn from the cultivating
classes.
o 1851 – Mahatma Phule and his wife founded a
girl’s school in Poona.
o 1854 – First Indian to start a school for the
untouchables.
o He was also a pioneer of the widow remarriage
movement in Maharashtra. He provided
protection and shelter to the widows.
o 1873 – Jyotiba established Satya Sodhak Samaj
(Society for finding Truth) as a social reform
society to attain equal rights for the people of
lower castes.
o He used the medium of print media to propagate
his ideas and wrote extensively in Marathi
language.
o He was in favour of complete abolition of the
caste system and socio-economic inequalities; He
was against Sanskrit Hinduism.
o Imp. literary Works –
✓ Deen Bandhu – It was a Marathi Journal to
expose the oppressive character of the Aryan
Vedic tradition.
✓ Gulamgin (Slavery) – It was a book written by
Phule in 1873 in which he elaborated his views
on the historical roots of Shudra’s slavery and
compared it with the slavery of the Blacks in
America.
✓ Setakaryancha Asuda (the whip cord of the
peasanrty) – In this work, he discussed upon the
solutions to peasants problem.
129
✓ Isara (a warning) – In this Pamphlet, Phule put

forward his own ideas and concerns of the
Agrarian classes in 1885. He extended his whole
hearted support to the peasants in struggle. He
even opposed the Indian National Congress for
failing to take up the Peasant cause.
✓ Savitribai poems - Kavya Phule and Bavan
Kashi Subodh Ratnakar.
o However, he failed to perceive the colonial
character of the British rule and believed in its
progressive role.
o Satya Sodhak Samaj (Kolhapur), 1913 –
✓ It was established by Chhatrapati Shahu
Maharaj (1874-1922) of Kolhapur.
✓ During 1913-22, Shahu Maharaj was associated
with several non-Brahmin activities and started
several educational institutions, Hostels and
scholarship for the depressed classes.
3 E V Ramaswamy Naicker (1879-93) and Self o 1916 – In Madras, the non-Brahmin resentment
Respect Movement – Tamil Nadu took a political form with the formation of South
Indian Liberal Federation (SILF), known as
Justice Party.
o Founder -T M Nair, P. Thiagarajan Chetti and
C Natesa Mudaliar.
o The party claimed to represent the interest of all
non-Brahmins in the Madras Presidency
including untouchables, Christians and
Muslims.
o Initially the Justice leaders demanded
reservation of seats in the provincial councils
and was slowly extended to concessions in
education institutions and public appointments
etc.
o However, conflict arised in the party on the issue
of working for the reform and regeneration of
non-Brahmin society and culture, other than
reservation.
o Hence, leaders such as E V Ramaswamy
Naicker launched a separate Self-Respect
Movement in Madras.
o Self-Respect Movement by Naicker –
✓ 1919 – He joined the Indian National Congress.
✓ 1924- He emerged as the Hero of the Vaikom
Satyagraha.
✓ 1925 – He resigned from the Congress as he felt
that the party was serving only upper caste
interests.
✓ Hereafter, he emerged as a radical social
reformer.
✓ 1927 – He even broke off his connection with
Gandhi on the issue of Varnashrama Dharma.
✓ His followers called him Thanthai (Father) and
Periyar (Great Soul).
✓ Participated in Non-Cooperation Movement,
joined Vaikom Satyagraha.
✓ Ideas and works –
130
He attacked the Caste system and abandoned

Hindu mythology.
He even advocated for the burning of Manu
Dharma Shastras and Ramayana.
He believed in equality and basic dignity for all
human beings.
He held religion as mainly responsible for the
low social status of Brahmins as well as women.
He disregarded religion and scriptures as
guiding principles of social organisation.
He was an iconoclast who tarred caste name
boards on hotels, cut off threads of the Brahmins,
beat the deities with chappals, broke idols and
advocated burning of scriptures.
Ramaswamy encouraged and popularized self-
respect marriages in which Brahmin priests had
no role to play. The groom and bride took a
simple vow that they accept each other as equal
partners in life, exchange garlands and took
blessings of the elders.
Naicker also advocated for women’s rights in the
field of marriage, remarriage, divorce and birth
control. He also criticsed the patriarchal notion of
women’s chastity or karpu.
1925 – He started his paper Kudi Arasu to
propagate his ideas and teachings.
1939- He was elected as the President of the
Justice Party.
✓ The limitations of Ramaswamy’s Self-Respect
Movement lay in its social base which remained
limited to the Non-Brahmin agitation.
✓ 1944 – He merged the Self-Respect League with
the Justice Party to form the Dravida Kazhagam
(Dravidian Federation).
✓ Awarded by the UNESCO, and described him as
“the prophet of the new age, the Socrates of South
East Asia.”
✓ Journal by him - Kudi Arasa in Tamil
✓ His follower Sahodaran Ayyapan said that - No
religion, No god, No caste- Sahodaran
Ayyapan
4 Tripuraneni Ramaswami Chowdary (1887- o In Andhra Region, the non-Brahmin Movement
1943) and Self Respect Movement – Andhra was basically for soccio-cultural reform of the
Pradesh non-Brahmin groups like Kammas, Reddis,
Balijas and Velamas.
o It aimed at restructuring the caste system with
the upper caste non-Brahmins at the top rather
than for its complete abolition.
o Self-Respect Movement by T R Chowdary –
✓ He challenged the authority of the
sacred/religious texts.
✓ He argued that the religion was responsible for
the survival of caste system which was a
handiwork by Aryans.
✓ He stood for the emancipation of women and the
Shudras from the Slavery of Shastras.
131
✓ He demanded for non-Brahmanisation of

services.
✓ This movement played a prominent role in
Andhra Region for introducing modern education
and increasing inter-caste interaction such as
inter-caste marriages etc.
✓ Imp Literary works –
Kurukshetra Sangraman – He supported the
cause of kauravas in the battle of Mahabharata.
Sambuka Vadha – He told that how Rama
encouraged by Vasishta killed the Shudra sage
Sambuka in the name of preserving the
Varnashrama Dharma.
Vivah Vidhi – Through this, he brought reform
in the system of traditional marriages. The
Kammas started performing marriages in the
presence of their own community priests.
5 Vokkaligas and Lingayats (Karnataka) o In Karnataka, Foundation of Vokkaligas and
Lingayats played a vital role in the non-Brahmin
Movement.
o A delegation of the non-Brahmin leaders met the
Maharaja of Mysore to register their protest
against the caste-based discrimination.
o As a response, Sir Lesle Miller Committee was
appointed.
o On the recommendation of Miller Committee, the
government passed an order for an equitable
communal representation in the public
service.
6 Shri Narayan Guru (1854-1928) and SNDP o In Kerala, Shri Narayan Guru, a leader of
program (1903) – Kerala Ezhava Caste (untouchables) established the
Shri Narayana Dharma Paripalana) Yogam in
1903.
o He was also called by the name of Nanu.
o Became a 'Parivrajaka' (one who wanders from
place to place in quest of Truth). He got
enlightenment in Pillathadam cave at the top of
the Maruthwamala Hills.
o The Aruvippuram Sree Narayana Guru Dharma
Paripalana Yogam (in short SNDP) was
registered in 1903 under the Indian Companies
Act, with Narayana Guru as its permanent
chairman, and Kumaran Asan as the general
Secretary
o Aim –
✓ To give up the practice of untouchability.
✓ To build temples which would be open to all
castes.
o Narayan Guru had openly criticized the Congress
for its lip-service towards lower castes.
o He even opposed Mahatma Gandhi for his faith
in Chaturvarnas which he considered as the
originator of caste system and untouchability.
o He gave the slogan - one religion, one caste and
one God for mankind.
o His disciple - Sahodaran Ayyapan said that No
religion, No god, no caste.
132
o He simplified rituals regarding birth, death and

marriage.
o He achieved the notable success in transforming
the untouchables into backward class.
o SNDP Programme for Ezhavas and other lower
castes –
✓ Right of admission to public schools
✓ Recruitment to government services
✓ Access to roads and entry to temples,
✓ political representation.
7 Bhim Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956) o Bhim Rao Ambedkar was born in 1891 in a
Mahar (untouchable) caste at Mhow.
o He was popularly known as Baba Saheb who
initiated the Dalit Buddhist movement and
championed the cause of the Dalits, Labour and
women.
o Activities of Baba Saheb –
✓ He founded Bahishkrit Hitkarni Sabha in
Bombay, 1924 – for the moral and material
progress of the untouchables.
Journal – Bahishkrit Bharat and Janata.
✓ 1927→ Samta Samajh Sangh
✓ Started Satyagraha→ Mahar Satyagraha @
Right to use water body
✓ 1930→ Kalaram Mandir Satyagraha @
Nashik.
✓ He opted for Satyagraha agitation to secure
civic rights for Dalits such as right to enter Hindu
Temples and to draw water from wells.
✓ Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar led the Mahad
Satyagraha in March 1927 to challenge the
regressive customs of the caste Hindus. He
stressed the necessity of removing ideas of ‘high’
and ‘low’ and inculcating self-elevation through
self-help, self-respect and self-knowledge. He
led a procession of some 2,500 ‘untouchables’
through the town of Mahad to the Chawdar tank,
a public source of water tank from which the
untouchables were not allowed to draw water. Dr
Ambedkar took water from the tank and drank it.
✓ Later in 1927, Ambedkar and his colleagues
burnt the ‘Manusmriti’ at the same place as a
gesture of getting rid of inequalities
✓ 1930 – He established the Depressed Class
Federation, entered national politics and
demanded separate electorates for the
untouchables.
✓ He represented the Dalit Community in the
Three Round Table Conferences (1930-32).
✓ 1936 – He set up the Independent Labour
Party.
✓ The Communal Award of 1932 provided for
separate electorates for the Depressed classes.
✓ 1942 – one of his earlier political parties,
transformed into All India Scheduled Caste
Federation, as an All India Party. It later evolved
into the Republican Party of India.
133
✓ 1956 – He converted to Buddhism and initiated

mass conversions of Dalits.
✓ Literary Works-
The Annihilation of Castes
The Buddha and his Dhamma
Who were the Shudras?
✓ At a Glance –
He was a nominated member (1926-34) of the
Bombay Legislative Council.
He took part in all three RTCs.
1932→ Poona Pact
1936→ Independent Labour Party
1942→ All India Scheduled Castes Federation
1945→ People’s Education Society
1947→ Republican Party of India
8 Aravippuram Movement, Kerala (1888) o 1888 – On the occasion of Shivratri, Shri

Narayan Guru despite belonging to the lower
caste, installed an idol of Shiva at Aravippuram,
Kerala.
o This was done by Narayan Guru to show that the
consecration of a God’s idol was not a monopoly
of the Brahmins.
o He inscribed on the wall of the temple – Devoid
of dividing walls of caste or race, or hatred or
rival faith, we all live in brotherhood.
o This event had influenced the several socio-
religious reform movements including Temple
Entry Movement.
9 Temple Entry Movement, Kerala (1920-30) - o The Temple Entry agitation emerged as a
landmark in the history of religious and social
reform in India.
o IMP. Leaders – Shri Narayan Guru, N
Kumaran Asan, K P Kesava, K. Kelappan, T
K Madhavan etc.
o Significant work in this direction had already
been done by reformers and intellectuals like
Sree Narayana Guru and N. Kumaran Asan.
T.K. Madhavan, a prominent social reformer
and editor of Deshabhimani, took up the issue of
temple entry with the Travancore administration.
9(a) Vaikom Satyagraha, Kerala (1924) o 1924 – A Satyagraha was led by K P Kesava at
Vaikom in Kerala demanding the throwing open
of Hindu temples and roads to the untouchables.
o It was a part of the Gandhian constructive
programme.
o Though they failed in securing the entry of
avarnas or lower castes inside the Mahadeva
Temple in the town but it managed to open the
roads around temple for their use.
o This movement influenced the other Temple
Entry Movement in the rest of the country.
9(b) Guruvayur Satyagraha, Kerala (1931) o The Guruvayur Satyagraha took place on 1st
November, 1931.
o It demanded the Entry of the untouchables inside
the Guruvayur Temple in Thrissur District of
Kerala.
134
o It was led by K. Kelappan popularly known as

Kerala Gandhi.
o Other leaders - poet Subramaniyam
Tirumambu (the ‘singing sword of Kerala’), P.
Krishna Pillai and A.K. Gopalan.
o A similar step was taken by the C.
Rajagopalachari administration in Madras in
1938.
o Kelappan went for 12-day hunger strike during
the protest that attracted the countrywide
attention.
o He later broke the fast on the advice of Gandhi on
2nd October, 1932.
9(c) Temple Entry Proclamation, 1936 o A Gazette Extraordinary was published in
which the Maharaja of Travancore proclaimed
that the temples under his administration would
be opened to all Hindus without discrimination
on the caste basis.
o This proclamation had a far-reaching impact and
not only state temples but even private temples
were thrown open to the lower castes.
o It had the far-reaching impact on other parts of
India.
10 Justice Movement, 1916 o This movement in Madras Presidency was started
by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair and P. Tyagaraja
to secure jobs and representation for the non-
brahmins in the legislature.
o Founding of a political party, known as the
‘Justice Party’ which exhibited its loyalty to the
British government in the hope of getting more
government jobs and representation in the new
legislatures.
o In 1917, Madras Presidency Association was
formed which demanded separate representation
for the lower castes in the legislature.
NATURE OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT – trapped in the problems like Sati system, caste
system, untouchability, condition of women etc.
1. Reformation, nor Revolution – The nature of the 5. Urban Phenomenon – The 19th Century reform
movement was reformative and not movement was majorly an urban phenomenon,
revolutionary. The objective was to bring reforms originating and operating in urban areas only. The
in existing socio-cultural order. The transformation movement relied heavily on urban communication
of society was to be evolutionary and not channels i.e. press, lectures, books, colleges,
revolutionary. universities etc.
2. Revivalist Tendencies – Many of the Reformers
emphasized on revivalist tendencies. They aimed ACHEIVEMENTS & SIGNIFICANCE -
at going back to the old social system that once
existed in the past which was considered as superior • Historic Legislation – The legislation passed by
as compared to present socio-religious system. British government with the help of Indian
3. Role of Reformers – They were aimed at changing reformers and intellectuals criminalized the evil
the fundamental structure of society through practices like sati, female infanticide, etc. This
gradual reforms within the existing system. helped to wipe out these socio evils from the Indian
4. Removal of Socio-religious evils – They targeted society gradually and slowly.
at the elimination of various socio-religious evils • Regulation of 1829 – It declared the practice of
and malpractices that were prevalent in Indian sati or burying alive widow illegal and punishable
society. During 19th century, Indian society was offense. Initially it was limited to Bengal
135
Presidency but later extended to Bombay and unity among the various classes for the common
Madras Presidency. cause.
• Bengal Regulations of 1795 and 1804 - The ✓ Religious Reform Movements were therefore
Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared understood as the precondition for the socio-
female infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder. political and economic progress of India.
An Act passed in 1870 made it compulsory for • Cleansing of Religion and Society – The socio-
parents to register the birth of all babies and religious reform Movements helped Indians to
provided for verification of female children for discard many malpractices that had crept in their
some years after birth, particularly in areas where religion and society. The socio-religious practices
the custom was resorted to in utmost secrecy. were no longer held unquestionable but reviewed
• Hindus widows Remarriage Act, 1856 – It through newly acquired lenses of rationalism and
legalized marriage of widows and declared issues humanism. The people started to understand a
from such marriages legitimate. differentiation between religion and socio-cultural
• Native Marriage Act/Civil Marriage Act, 1872– practices.
✓ The Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage Act), • Regained confidence and pride – The Socio-
1872 prohibited child marriage. It had a limited religious reform movements gave the much-needed
impact as the Act was not applicable to Hindus, confidence to Indians who had come under their
Muslims and other recognised faiths. influence. These progressive movements reminded
✓ The relentless efforts of a Parsi reformer, B.M. the Indians about the greatness of their ancient
Malabari, were rewarded by the enactment of the religion and rich cultural heritage.
Age of Consent Act (1891) which forbade the • New Values of secularism and democracy – The
marriage of girls below the age of 12. reform movements infused the Indians with ideals
✓ The Sarda Act of 1930 further pushed up the of secularism, democracy, equality, liberty, and
marriage age to 18 and 14 for boys and girls fraternity
respectively. • Prelude to Rise of Indian Nationalism – The 19th
• Female Education- century reform movements were a prelude to the
✓ An important significant achievement was female rise of Indian Nationalism. The reformist activities
education. of the intellectuals were equipped with wider
✓ The Christian missionaries were the first to set up national, political and economic considerations. For
the Calcutta Female Juvenile Society in 1819. instance, Lokahitwadi was the first to seek swaraj,
✓ The Bethune School, founded by J.E.D. Bethune, Dadabhai Naoroji presented economic critique of
president of the Council of Education in Calcutta in colonialism, etc.
1849 was the first fruit of the powerful movement
for women’s education that arose in the 1840s and LIMITATIONS –
1850s.
✓ Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar is considered as one • Limited Impact- The impact of 19th century
of the pioneers of women education in India. reforms remained limited to a very small minority
✓ Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education (1854), of people due to factors included – widespread
laid great stress on the need for female education. illiteracy, deep rootedness of traditions and
✓ In 1914, the Women’s Medical Service did a lot of prejudices. Many evils of that time still exist in
work in training nurses and mid-wives. today’s Indian Society in every religion. For
✓ In 1916 – Prof. D K Karve set up the Indian instance, child marriage in Hindus and Halala in
Muslim.
Women University, named as SNDT College,
Mumbai. In the same year Lady Hardinge • Localized and Isolated – Each of the reform
Medical College was opened in Delhi. movements was confined by and large to one
✓ Health facilities began to be provided to women region, caste or religion. Also, presence of many
with the opening of Dufferin Hospitals in the of them was localized in one region or community.
1880s. They were also isolated from one another as they all
• Realization of interconnectedness of Society and emerged at different points of time in different parts
Religion – of the country.
✓ The Socio-religious reform movements played an • Over-Emphasis on Religion – The socio-religious
important role for the political and economic reform movements tended to over-emphasize on
development of country and society. Also, it religious and philosophical aspects at the cost of
contributed as a stepping stone for the foundation of other aspects such as Art & Architecture, music,
Indian national movements by removing social literature, science, etc. In a country like India where
evils from Indian society and religion. It brought multi-religion exists, any over emphasis on religion
were bound to give rise to religious chauvinism.
136

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• Tendency to look back – Many reform movements

were revivalist in nature. It acted as a barrier for o Lord Wellesley - Prohibition of Infanticide
full acceptance of modern ideas. The looking back (1802)
tendency was a simultaneous rise of national as o Lord William - Bentinck Prohibition of Sati
well as communal consciousness. (1829)
• Inability to perceive the exploitative nature of o Lord Ellenborough - Abolition of Slavery (1843),
British Rule - The reformers failed to perceive the Lex Loci Report 1840
exploitative nature of British Rule. Many of the o Lord Hardinge - Suppression of Practice of
reformers felt that British rule was necessary in Human Sacrifice
order to make India British like and openly o Lord Dalhousie - Widow Remarriage Act 1856
preached loyalty to the British.
MISCELLEANOUS FACTS-
137
CHAPTER 9 -THE BEGINNING OF STRUGGLE (1858 – 1905)

INDEX-
TOPICS
Indian Council Act of 1862
Rise & Growth of Nationalism in India
Political Associations Before INC
Pre-Congress Campaigns
Foundation of Indian National Congress (INC)
Moderate Phase (1885-1905)
Indian Council Act of 1892
Other Facts
RELEVANCE OF TOPIC-
1. In this chapter, we will study some factual and analytical part right from nationalism in India till work of
moderates.
2. In terms of rating, 4/5 Star
3. Questions in pre -8
138
INDIAN COUNCIL ACT OF 1861-

1. British Rule in India
th
1. This Act added a 5 Member to the Governor- a) Colonial character of British Rule
General Executive Council and he was a Finance • Emphasized on their self-interest at the cost of
member. (James Wilson became the first finance National interest.
member of Governor-General Executive Council). • Welfare and development of Indian masses was
2. In terms of legislation, addition of not less than 6 highly neglected by the British government.
and not more than 12 members. It made the • Exploitative nature of British rule.
beginning of representative institutions by b) Positive impact of British rule
including Indians (non-official members) in the • Politico-Administrative Unity of India - Britishers
law making process. In 1862, Lord Canning – annexed a number of native states and remaining
Nominated three Indians through legislative one accepted the British sovereignty, which lead to
councils they were Raja of Banaras, Maharaja of the establishment of uniform administration in
Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao. India.
3. It initiated the process of decentralisation by
restoring the legislative powers of Bombay and 2. Introduction of Western Thoughts and
Madras Presidencies. Education
4. It empowered the Viceroy or Governor-General It played an important role in awakening of Indian
(Lord Canning) to make rules for more convenient middle class. They learned the modern ideas and
transaction of business in the council. nationalism was one of them. They later spread these
5. It introduced the Portfolio system for the first time ideas into common masses.
(in simple terms – Cabinet or ministerial system). 3. Introduction of modern means of
According to this provision, the members of Communication
Governor-General Executive Council were given Introduction of Railways, Roads, Telegraph and
the responsibility of managing various departments Newspaper etc. strengthened the cultural and political
individually. unity amongst geographically spread Indians.
6. The Council Act provided for the establishment of 4. Role of Socio-Religious Reforms
legislative council at the provincial level. Hence, • These movements were although religious in nature
the name of Central legislative Council of Bengal but nationalistic in content.
was changed as Imperial Legislative Council. • They helped to develop a cultural nationalism by
Accordingly, Provincial level legislative council eroding evil practices and inculcating scientific &
was established at Bengal (1862), North West rational outlook in Indian Socio-religious system.
Frontier Province (1866) and Punjab (1897). • These reforms brought the idea of unity in
7. It empowered the viceroy to issue ordinances diversity.
without the concurrence of legislative councils. • It presented a true and glorified picture of Indian
8. This Act was subject to many limitations. It made
the Viceroy all powerful. The non-official members
were hardly to play any effective role as they could
not ask any questions and discuss the budget.
GROWTH AND RISE OF NATIONALISM IN

INDIA
The spread of nationalism refers to “the spirit of
belonging to a motherland”. When the citizens or
residents of a country starts feeling themselves as a part
of one politico-administrative and cultural entity,
then this situation is characterised in the form of
nationalism .
culture to Indian masses. Thus, rediscovered India’s
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR GROWTH OF past.
NATIONALISM IN INDIA -
139
• All these practices prepared a background for the • Some prominent literary activities are:
political nationalism in India. 1. Sambad Kamudi (Bengali language) by Raja
5. Influence of International Events Ram Mohan Roy
• The American Revolution and French 2. Neel Darpan play by Din Bandhu Mitra
Revolution of 19th century was guided by (Depicts the plight of Indigo cultivators)
nationalism. These events inspired the Indian 3. Anand Math by Bankim Chandra
intelligentsia to seek the right of self-determination. Chatterjee
• Irish Revolution and the ideas of Mazzini had
greatly influenced the educated Indians. 10. Reactionary policies of British
• Indian nationalism grew partly as a result of
6. Emergence of Modern Press colonial policies and partly as a reaction to colonial
• Introduction of Modern Press both in English and policies.
vernacular languages contributed in the emergence • Lord Lytton reactionary policies contributed
of Indian nationalism. significantly in the emergence of nationalism
• Access to literature and newspapers had helped in amongst the Indians.
bringing attention of Indian masses towards the • Lytton reduced the maximum age of Civil Services
exploitative policy of British government. examination from 21 to 19 years. He organized the
grand Delhi Durbar, when Indians were facing the
7. Historical Researches severe famine of 1877. He also brought the
• Deciphering of Brahmi script by James Princep in Vernacular Press Act and Indian Arms Act of
1837 presented a glorious past of Mauryan Empire 1878.
and its nationalistic presence.
• Researchers put forward other glorious past of 11. Ilbert Bill controversy
India’s ancient history and praised Vedas for their • Illbert Bill (1883) was introduced by Viceroy
scientific ideas. Rippon to give Indian Judges power to try European
• All these gave self-respect, psychological boost and community.
confidence to Indians. • Unified opposition of the bill by Europeans
community resulted in withdrawal of his bill. Thus,
8. Middle Class highlighted the racial arrogance of British rule.
• During 19th century, an educated, aware and
awakened middle class had emerged, that was ➢ Britishers views on Indian Nationalism-
capable of bringing various sections of Indian 1. J R Steely (1883) - India as mere Geographical
society together. expression with no sense whatever of national
unity.
9. Literary Activities – 2. John Strachey (1884) – The first and most
• Books, journals and newspaper written by essential thing to learn about India that there is not
nationalists and reformists developed a spirit of and never was an India.
nationalist feeling amongst the minds of Indian 3. R.Coupland – Indian nationalism was the child of
people. the British Raj.
POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS BEFORE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (INC)-
Name Year Region Founder Objectives Significance
Bangabhasa 1836 Bengal Associates of Welfare of Emphasized on bringing attention

Prakasika Sabha Raja Ram Society of British Indian govt. toward
Mohan Roy grievances of Indians
Zamindari 1838 Bengal Landlords of Safeguard the Marked the beginning of an
Associations Bengal interest of organised political activity in
landlords India
140
/Landholder’s
society
Bengal British 1843 Bengal Collection & Helped in advancing the interests
India society dissemination of of all sections of society.
information for
the welfare of
Indian masses
British Indian 1851 Bengal Land holders 1.Establishme-nt Charter Act of 1862 – Addition of
Association society and of a separate 6 members to the Governor
Bengal British legislative council General Council
Indian society consisting of
popular characters
2. Separation of
executive &
judiciary.
3.Reduction in
salaries of higher
officers
4. Abolition of
duties like Salt
and stamp duty
Deccan 1852 Poona
Association
Madras Native 1852 Madras Gazulu Platform for First Indian Political organisation
Association Lakshminarasu educated Indians in the Madras presidency
Chetty to protest against
the unjust of
British rule
Bombay 1852 Bombay Jagannath Same as madras 1.First political organisation in
Association Shankaraheth native association Bombay
2. Sent a petition to the British
parliament urging formation of
new legislative councils in which
Indians should get representation.
3. Condemned the policy of
exclusion of Indians from all
higher posts
East India 1866 London Dada Bhai To bring the 1st Nationalist organization in
Association Naoroji attention of England.
common masses
in the England
towards Indian
cause
Indian League 1875 Bengal Sisir Kumar Spread political It inculcated a sense of nationalist
Ghosh and nationalist ideas among masses.
education
Indian Association 1876 Bengal Surendra Nath 1.To create a 1. First All India conference in
of Calcutta/The Banerjee & strong public 1883 attended by 100 delegates.
Indian National Anand Mohan opinion on 2.1886 merged in INC
Association Bose political questions
2.Unify Indian
people on a
common political
programme
Poona Sarvajanik 1867 Poona S.H. Chiplunkar, To serve as a Submitted a petition in 1875
Sabha Ganesh Vasudev bridge between
141
Joshi, Mahadev the Government to the house of commons

Govind Ranade and the people demanding India’s direct
representation in the British
Parliament
Bombay 1885 Bombay Badruddin - -
Presidency Tyabji,
Association Pherozshah
Mehta & K.T.
Telang
Madras Mahajan 1884 Madras M. - -
Sabha Viraraghavachar
i, B.
Subramaniya
Aliyer, P.
Anandacharlu
Indian National Two Calcutta Surendra Nath - -
Conference sessio Banerjee
ns held And Anand
in Mohan Bose
1883 were the main
and architects
1885
PRE-CONGRESS CAMPAIGNS- up this question and organized an all-India agitation

against it, popularly known as the Indian Civil
Service agitation.
• For Indianisation of government service (1878-79)
• Against Lytton’s Afghan adventure FOUNDATION OF INC (1885)-
• Against Arms Act (1878)
1. The foundation of Indian National Congress (INC)
• Against Vernacular Press Act (1878) was laid down by A.O. Hume, the retired English
• For right to join volunteer corps. civil servant. He organized the 1st session of the INC
• Against plantation labour and against Inland at Bombay in December 1885, which was attended
Emigration Act. by 72 delegates and presided over by Womesh
• In support of Ilbert Bill. Chandra Banerjee.
• Campaign in Britain to vote for pro-India party. 2. Prominent leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji,
• Against reduction in maximum age for appearing in Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta, etc. also
Indian Civil Services; the Indian Association took attended it.
142
3. The 1st Women president of INC was Annie • According to this theory, the INC was established
Beasant. as a safety valve to protect the British Empire from
4. The 1st Muslim president of INC was Badruddin the growing discontent among Indians.
Tyabji. • Proponents of this theory argued that INC was
5. The 1st Indian Women president of INC was established by Hume with the blessings of Lord
Sarojini Naidu and second woman overall (after Duffering (Governor-General). He convinced
Annie Besant) to do so. Duffering not to obstruct formation of INC.
• Supporters of Safety valve theory
1. Safety- valve theory
Year Author Work Significance
1898 W.C. Banerjee He was the 1st person, who put forward the safety valve theory
1913 William Wedderburn Biography of A.O. 1. In his biography, Hume was exposed to 7 large volumes of
Hume secret report in 1878 of Home Department, Delhi. While he was
serving in Revenue Dept. at Shimla.
2. These volumes were sent by some 30 reporters from different
parts of India who were not the spy of government. It provided
information and detailed descriptions of prevailing discontent
among masses and possibility of revolt.
1915 Lala Lajpat Rai Young India 1. Used reference from Biography of Hume
1939 M.S. Gowalkar We Popularised the theory further
1938 C.F. Andrews and The rise & growth
Girija Mukherjee of Congress
1940 R.P. Dutt India Today
2. Foundation of Congress – Reality-

MODERATE PHASE (1885- 1905)
1. Closer analysis of the nature and character of INC
revealed that its establishment was result of rising
Indian nationalist aspirations.
2. The process had begun with the foundation of
Banga Bhasa Pracharika Sabha in 1826, which
reach its climax with the foundation of INC in
1885.
3. A.O. Hume also alarmed that if, Indians established
such a nationalist organization then British
government will oppose it or possibly ban it.
4. Bipin Chandra observed that the early congress
leaders used Hume as a lightning conductor i.e. as a SURENDRANATH BANERJEE AND
catalyst to bring together the nationalistic forces PHEROZSHAH MEHTA
under the aegis of safety valve. 1) Nature and characters
3. Main aims of INC • During this phase, leadership of Indian National
movement was in the hands of moderate leaders like
1. Develop and propagate anti-colonial ideology. Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale etc.
2. Politicise and politically educate Indians. • The Moderate leaders belong to the upper middle
3. Present popular demands before government. class and were hard-core believers of British
4. Found a democratic and nationalist movement. administration efficacy.
5. Consolidate feeling of national unity among people • They believed in peaceful constitutional methods
irrespective of religion, caste or province. and used the “Three P’s methods” i.e. petitions,
prayers and press to put forward their demands in
front of the British Government.
143
2) Demands • Introduction of resolution, which demanded that the

Civil service examination should be held
Following were concessions and reforms demanded by
simultaneously in India.
Moderates-
• Indianisation of Civil Services–They wanted that Role of Moderates could not be termed as complete
Civil services exam should be held in India and failure. They had played an important rule for the
majority of civil servants should be Indians. foundation of a Pan India organization i.e. INC; which,
• Expansion of Legislative Council –Objective was provided a political and constitutional education to
to give more representation to Indian in the upcoming nationalist forces. The Moderates had
legislative councils along with power and provided a readymade stage for the national movement,
responsibility. They demanded a responsible which was carry forward by Gandhiji in future.
government /self-government and gave the slogan –
“no taxation without representation”. 4) Evaluation
• Reduction in military expenditure – The • The Moderates helped in creating a wide national
moderates demanded that the government should awakening and common interests among Indians
reduce the military expenditure and that money and realising a common enemy i.e. Britain
should be used for the welfare of Indian masses • They provided an intellectual and political training
• Increase in expenditure on developmental to Indians through modern ideas.
works- Moderates argued that government was • They organised the struggle against the colonial
increasing investment on developmental activities power at all India level.
to exploit more Indian resources and to fulfil their • They promoted the democratic ideas in struggle
trade needs. against the colonial authority.
• Economic and Industrial development- They
argued that the India’s economic and industrial 5) Role of Masses
development should be developed for upliftment of • The moderate leaders had no faith in mass political
masses instead of fulfilling British needs. education. They believed that the common masses
• Separation of Judiciary from executive – had no role in contemporary political scenario.
Moderates supported the cause of separation of • That is why, the national movement had narrow
powers. According to them, Powers in one hand and social base.
that’s too in executives hands could spoil the
freedom of people and deny justice. Therefore, they 6) Attitude of British government
demanded the same politico -structure of division in • Attitude of British Indian Government was hostile
India, which prevailed in Britain. to the INC from its inception.
• After 1887, government failed to make congress a
3) Assessments/ Significance social organization and the British officials started
• The economic critique of British colonial rule criticizing INC openly.
was the most significant contribution of Moderate • The British officials condemned the INC and
leaders. Dadabhai Naoroji was the first person, nationalists by calling it as disloyal babus and
who raised the issue of Drain of Wealth and seditious Brahmins etc.
explained this concept in a detailed manner in • Lord Curzon commented on INC that – “The
his book – The poverty and British Rule in India. Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my great
Later other moderate leaders like M G Ranade, ambitions while in India is to assist it to a peaceful
R P Dutt G K Gokhale popularised the issue demise.”
further. These works helped masses to know about • Lord Duffering called congress as
the economic exploitation, Britishers were doing in ➢ A factory of sedition and
India. ➢ Represents only a microscopic minority of
• The appointment of Public service commission in Indian population etc.
1886. • Later, the government adopted a Policy of carrot &
• Enactment of Indian council, 1892 stick against Moderates and Extremists, a policy of
• Appointment of Welby commission (1895) – For divide & rule against Hindus and Muslims to
better management of Indian expenditure. counter nationalist character of INC.
144
• The Britishers also supported the reactionary budget. However, supplementary question would
elements like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja not follow.
Shiv Prasad Singh of Banaras to form the United 3. It made a limited and indirect provision for the
Patriotic Association to counter the INC and curb use of election in filling some of the non-official
the rising tide of nationalism. The British Indian seats in the Central and Provincial Legislative
government failed to check the rise of Indian Councils by Viceroy on the recommendation of
nationalism although they had put their all-round provincial legislative councils and Bengal Chamber
efforts to contain INC. of Commerce. Whereas the Governor appoints
Indians in the Provincial Legislative Council on
the recommendation of the District Boards,
INDIAN COUNCIL ACT OF 1892- Municipalities, Universities, trade Associations,
1. It increased the number of additional members zamindars and chambers. Thus, the “Principle of
(non-official) central and provincial councils, but Representation” was introduced. However, the
maintained the majority of official members. word election was not used in the act.
2. Power of non-official members was enlarged as 4. It laid the foundation of parliamentary system in
they were allowed to ask questions and discuss India, as it was the first time election principles
were accepted and introduced.
OTHER FACTS
1. Important Political Association before INC and their First President
Organisation First President

British Indian Association Raja Radhakanta Deb
Madras Native Association Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty
Bombay Association Sir Jamsedji Jejibhai
East Indian Association Lord Lvyedan
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha Ruler of Aundh State, Bhawanrao Shriniwasrao pant pratinidhi
Madras Mahajan Sabha Rangaiah Naidu
Bombay Presidency Association Pherozshah Mehta
2. Debendranath Tagore was first Secretary of 5. Indian Parliamentary committee (1893) – by Sir
British Indian Association William Wedderburn and W. S. Caine
3. The East India Association published two journals Purpose – To raise grievances of India and to agitate
namely – Journal of the East Association and for Indian Political Reforms in the House of Commons.
Asiatic Quarterly Review Sir William was actively involved in the INC. He also
4. Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty was the founder held the post of President of INC – Bombay session
of first Indian owned newspaper in Madras – The (1889) and Allahabad Session (1910)
Crescent
145
CHAPTER 10-National Movement (1905-1919) Phase 1 – Part I
INDEX-
Topic
Rise of Extremists
Partition of Bengal
Swadeshi and boycott movement
Surat split,1907
Morley-Minto Reform of 1909
RELEVANCE OF A TOPIC –
1) In this topic, we will study the nationalism in
India from 1905-1919 in a very detailed manner
2) In terms of ratings – 5/5 star
3) Questions in Prelims- 30 (1998-2019)
146
RISE OF EXTREMISTS/MILITANT ● The severe Famines occurred during 1897 -1901

NATIONALISM (1905-1919)- killed thousands of citizens. The Famine policy of
Britishers was an ineffective one and adopted a
In the beginning of the 20th century, a new class of harsh approach towards them.
national leaders emerged in India which was different ● The outbreak of Plague in the Deccan region and
from the moderate group. This group was known as government actions on it resented the nationalists.
Extremist. They took a more aggressive stance against ● Instead of giving more rights, British government
the British Empire. They were typically younger and did started taking away the existing ones. They were-
not believe in the soft and persuasive approach of 1. 1892 – Indian Council Act failed to satisfy the
moderate leaders. Indian nationalists
Extremist political activity started emerging in the 2. 1897 – The Natu brothers were deported
1890’s and it took a concrete shape by 1905. This without trial and Tilak and others imprisoned
political activity was represented by a new aggressive on charges of sedition
ideology that emerged in the Indian National 3. Repressive laws under IPC section 124 A were
Movement which consists of young leaders of INC. further amplified with new provisions under
The Extremist leaders emerged in three geographical IPC section 156 A
groups – 4. 1899 – Number of Indian members in Calcutta
Corporation were reduced
1. Maharashtra – By B G Tilak 5. 1904 – Official Secrets Act of 1905 curtailed
2. Bengal – Aurobindo Ghosh and Bipin Chandra the press freedom
Pal 6. 1904 – Indian Universities Act - allowed
greater control of the government over the
3. Punjab – Lala Lajpat Rai
universities
Note –: Lal BaL Pal – Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar
Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal were called as 3) Contemporary International Developments
The international development during the closing years
Triumvirate of assertive nationalists in British India.
of the 19th century and opening years of the 20th
century greatly influenced the extremists. In 1896,
Ethiopia defeated the Italian army and in 1905
Japan defeated Russia. The success of these small
powers shattered the myth of European powers and
Indian started believing that they could also free India
in the near future.
4) Westernization of Indian Education

The young leaders like B.G. Tilak believed that
westernization of India was against the Indian culture.
Intellectuals like Swami Vivekananda, Bankim
⮚ Factors and forces responsible for rise of Chandra Chatterjee and Swami Daynand Saraswati
Extremists influenced many young Indian nationalists & even
1) Failure of Moderate Leadership – The younger exploded the myth of western superiority. Dayanand
generation of INC got disappointed with liberal Saraswati termed - ‘India for the Indians’
approach and methods of moderates. The radical
nationalists strongly criticised the peaceful and 5) Growth of Education, confidence & self-respect
constitutional agitation type of struggle. The three The spread of western education & revival of the
P’s approach of moderates was described by these glorious past of India opened the eyes of Indian
younger nationalists as Political mendicancy nationalists & developed a confidence & self-respect
2) Realization of true nature of British Rule – amongst the Indians.
The work carried out by Moderates popularised the
colonial British rule and its impact in India. They 6) Reactionary policies of Lord Curzon
successfully presented the true nature and character • Lord Curzon was determined to strengthen the
of British Indian government. British rule in India.
147
● He was a strong supporter of racial superiority & administration but not necessarily a breakaway
insulted the feelings of Indian nationalists. from Britain’s imperial reign.
● He used to describe the activities of nationalists as 3. The leaders also encouraged the formation of
“letting odd a gas” cooperative organizations on a voluntary basis for
the welfare of masses
7) Partition of Bengal 4. They adopted boycotts of foreign goods &
● It proved to be the most significant factor for the popularized the swadeshi products.
rise of extremism in India. 5. The other methods such as passive resistance, non-
● The partition was carried out in the instance of strict cooperation, demonstrations, meetings and
opposition from the moderates which proved strikes were used by the Extremists to pressurize
inefficiency of moderates & hence extremist the British Indian Government in order to bring the
ideology became more prominent. reforms.
8) Existence of a militant school of thought 6. They also made a contribution in Arts, Paintings,
This school of thoughts believed in the capacity of Writing, Science and Technology. The main
masses & sacrifices required to challenge the authority. objective behind all these activities is to make a
B.G. Tilak emerged as the most outstanding leader of national movement an all-round movement and to
this thought. revive the confidence amongst the masses.
7. They took pride in Indian culture and history. They
⮚ Nature & Character of National Movement looked at the ancient scriptures for inspiration and
during Extremist Phase courage.
8. They believed in sacrificing everything including
1. The class composition of the national movement life for the cause of the motherland.
underwent change in the Extremist Phase. The 9. The Extremists also worked for a national scheme
Extremist leaders came from urban lower middle of education. A number of nationalist schools and
class & hold of elite class disappeared. colleges were established such as
2. The Indian national movement achieved the ● The Bengal Council of National Education – Led
character of limited mass movements. by Gurudas Banerjee
3. They did not believe in the British sense of Justice ● A large number of national schools were opened in
& fairness. East Bengal
4. The extremist leaders used religious slogans to ● Bengal National Education College was
mobilize masses. established
5. In the field of socio-religious reforms, the ● Madras – Pachaiyappa National College
extremists adopted conservative outlook. They ● Punjab – DAV schools were set up
believed that Indians should take measures to 10. Their method of struggle was based on direct
eradicate evils in the socio-cultural system of political action through self-reliance, self-sacrifice
Indians. and strong will to obtain Swaraj.
6. The Extremist leaders rejected the policy of
concessions & demanded Swaraj. The Swaraj is 11. They believed in confrontation rather than
not defined in the beginning but it could be persuasion
understood in the sense of self government for India
⮚ Assessment
within British authority. Tilak was the first to
1) Achievements
advocate Swaraj.
● The Social base of the national movement was
⮚ Methods widened – Students, womens, workers etc. These
1. The Extremist opted for mass agitation. They had could be seen in the Swadeshi and Boycott
immense faith in the Capacity of masses to movement where all these participated.
participate in the national movement. They firmly ● The Extremist nationalists resorted to passive
believed that the role of masses is pre-conditioned resistance and non-cooperation. These prepared
for the rise and success of any national movement the masses mentally ready for the Gandhian style of
2. The extremist goal was ‘swaraj’. This, at that time struggle in future.
either meant complete autonomy and freedom from ● The Extremists played an important role in
British control, or a total Indian control over the organising and gathering of masses in Swadeshi
148
movement not only in Bengal but also in other parts

of India Others -
Writer,
● There was a major reform in education across the Painters and
country as the extremists worked on establishing Sscientists
National universities free from government control.
● Morley – Minto reforms of 1909 – Granted more
powers to Indians in legislative council and allowed Indian Students
the appointment of Indians into the Viceroy Entrepren-eur
Executive Council and India Council.
● The annulment of partition of Bengal in 1911.
● Montagu’s Declaration of August of 1917 –
Declare self- Government institutions as the goal
of British Government
● After the rise of Extremists, Britishers started Women
giving importance to the Moderate. Wokers
s
2) Failure / Criticism employees etc. portrayed him as a Hindu
● Extremists were being criticised for the opposition nationalist
on social reforms. According to them, Indians will - B C pal and Lala Lajpat Rai – Spoke for
bring reforms for themselves. For instance, B G Hindu nation
Tilak’s opposition on Age of Consent Bill ( ● They failed to bring the peasant community in the
Proposed to increase the age of marriage for Girls sphere of national movement and therefore mass
from 10 – 12 years ) movements like Swadeshi and Home Rule League
● The Extremist policy of harping on Hindu past or could not last long.
revivalist approach of Hindu tradition became one
of the important factors for not attracting the Indian ⮚ Role of Masses
Muslims in general to join the Swadeshi & Boycott The role of masses became active during this phase. The
movement. For instance - following graph show the extent of mass participation
- B G Tilak – Tilak also opposed the age of during Extremist Phase
consent Bill, organised Shivaji & Ganapati
Festivals, support to anti-cow killing
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MODERATES AND EXTREMISTS
No Particulars Moderates Extremists
1. Definition for Swaraj Believed in Constitutional Self – Government within British Rule
Reforms
2. Attitude towards Had Full faith in British fair and No faith in British at all
British justice
3. Methodology 3 P’s – Prayer, Petition and Protest 3 S’s – Self-Reliance, Self –Sacrifice and Strong
Will
4. Social Base Zamindars and upper middle class Educated middle class and lower middle class in
in towns towns
5. Methods Believed in Constitutional Believed in Passive resistance and Boycott
methods only
6. Sphere Of Limited to middle class Mass Participation
Movement intelligentsia
7. Ideological thought Western liberal thoughts Indian History and Cultural Heritage
8. Leadership Influence Gopal Krishna Gokhale Lokmanya Tilak
149
PARTITION OF BENGAL 1905 actually provided a cause to the nationalists for the
agitation against the unjust British rule and to aware
the masses about the same.
SWADESHI & BOYCOTT MOVEMENT
⮚ Nature & Character

1. Why Movement was launched – In response to
Lord Curzon announced the partition of Bengal on
Partition Of Bengal
16th October, 1905. The province of Bengal was
2. The announcement of partition was made public in
divided into 2 parts – Eastern Bengal & Assam with
December 1903.
capital at Dhaka & western part of Bengal, Bihar &
3. Role of Moderates – Surendranath Banerjee, K
Orissa with capital at Calcutta.
K Mitra and Prithwishchandra Ray adopted
Why British Government Opted for Partition -
methods of petitions, public meetings, memoranda
1. The British Government put forward the cause of
and propaganda through pamphlets and newspapers
administrative inconvenience for the partition of
such as Hitabadi, Sanjibani and Benglee
Bengal. But the real intentions of British Indian
4. July 1905 – The Government announced the date
administration was different
of partition of Bengal as 16th October, 1905. After
2. Though the Bengal province was big in area wise
this, meetings were organised and a pledge to
but the main objective of Britishers is to divide the
boycott foreign goods was first taken during these
population on religious lines i.e. division between
gatherings.
Hindu and Muslim people
5. August 7, 1905 –Formal proclamation of
3. But why the policy of Divide and Rule – This was
Swadeshi and Boycott movement was passed in a
the master stroke of British Government to weaken
meeting of Calcutta Town Hall
the spirit of nationalism amongst the Indians. They
6. 16th October, 1905 – Partition of Bengal had come
have learned a lesson of Hindu-Muslim unity from
into force
the revolt of 1857, foundation of Congress and the
7. People’s Reaction –
role of all the sections especially Hindu and Muslim
o It was observed as a day of mourning
leaders in developing the seeds of nationalism in
throughout the Bengal
India.
o People fasted and lit no fire in their kitchens
4. Lord Curzon understood the Bengali nationalism
o The people of Bengal bathed in the Ganga and
and how Bengal has become the centre of
walked barefoot in processions singing Vande
revolutionary activities. Hence, the British
Matram which soon became the theme song of
Government opted to apply the policy of divide and
the national movement
rule in Bengal with its partition.
o Tagore gave a call for the observance of
5. But the Lord Curzon had miscalculated the
Raksha-Bandhan or tying of rakhi as a symbol
strength of nationalism. After the partition, the
of unbreakable unity of the Bengalis and people
revolutionary activities has emerged more strongly
followed the same.
than before and role of Extremists became active
o Ramendra Sunder Trivedi urged for the
which played an important role in organizing the
practise of Arandhan – Keeping the hearth
Swadeshi movement
unlit as a sign of mourning in all homes
6. The Swadeshi movement has not only become
o Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan
popular in Bengal but it also spreads to other parts
Bose addressed massive gatherings
of India. This had developed a sense of unity
8. The movement was also spread to different parts of
amongst the whole Indians. The partition has
world –
150
1. Bombay and Poona - B.G.Tilak 6) Programme of Swadeshi or national education

2. Punjab – Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai o In this campaign, various indigenous schools &
3. Delhi – Syed Haider Raza colleges were established by nationalist leaders.
4. Madras – Chidambaram Pillai o Bengal national college was set up with
5. Rawalpindi, Kangra, Jammu, Multan and Aurobindo Ghosh as its principal. It was
Haridwar – activities also taken place inspired by Tagore’s Shantiniketan.
9. INC Session of Banaras (1905) – o The National Council of Education was set
o President – Gopal Krishna Gokhale up on 15th August, 1906 to organize a system
o Supported the Swadeshi and Boycott of education-literary, scientific & technical on
movement national lines & under national control. The
o Extremists leaders like Lal-Bal-Pal and medium of instruction was vernacular
Aurobindo Ghosh wanted to spread the languages.
movement outside Bengal with the goal of o The Bengal institute of Technology was
attaining Swaraj but moderates rejected their established to impart technical education &
demand funds were raised to send students to Japan for
10. INC Session of Calcutta (1906) – advanced learning
o President - Dada Bhai Naoroji 7) Swadeshi/Indigenous enterprise: - A no of
o The goal of INC was declared as self- indigenous enterprises were established in the areas
government or Swaraj like the UK or the of mills, soap, bank, etc.
Colonies 8) Cultural sphere - The revolt also had a socio-
11. The Extremists played a dominant role in cultural contribution.
organizing the Swadeshi and Boycott movement
⮚ Methods
1) Boycott of foreign goods – The Extremists adopted
a method of boycott of foreign made goods and
urged to popularize the swadeshi / Indigenous
products
2) Public meetings & processions – The leaders
organised public meetings to spread the political
consciousness amongst the masses. Public started
gathering in one place and burning the foreign
clothes and also avoiding the people who wear the Bharat Mata Painting of Abanindranath
British goods. Even the Dhobi refused to wash the
1. Inspiration songs written by Rabindranath Tagore,
foreign made clothes. Peaceful protests were
Rajnikant Sen, Dwijendralal Rau, Mukunda Das,
organised by the people.
Syed Abu Mohammad & others. Amar sonar
3) Corps of Volunteers/ Samitis – Ashwini Kumar
Bangla written by Rabindranath Tagore in this
Dutta established Swadesh Bandhab Samiti in
movement was later inspired the liberation struggle
Barisal which emerged a very popular & powerful
of Bangladesh Adopted by it as its national anthem
method of mass agitation. These Samitis played a
2. In painting
very prominent role in generating political
o Abanindranath Tagore – He took the Indian
consciousness amongst the masses through magic
art into new heights which inspired from
lanterns, lectures, swadeshi songs, etc.
Mughal, Ajanta and Rajput paintings. He had
4) Traditional popular festival & melas
established the Indian Society of Oriental Art.
Leaders like Tilak organized Chhatrapati Shivaji &
His paintings were classified as revivalist in
Ganapati festival to gather masses & as a tool of
nature. He emerged as the First exponent of
medium to discuss Swadeshi propaganda. In Bengal,
Swadeshi values in India Art.
folk theatres used to perform the same.
5) Self- religious/Atma Shakti-
It emphasized upon national dignity, honour &
confidence on social & economic reforms of society
such as against caste oppression, early marriages, etc.
151
oNandlal Bose – First recipient of a scholarship

offered the Indian Society of Oriental Art,
founded in 1907.
3. Writer – Krishna Kumar Mitra was a writer and
leader of the Brahmo Samaj. The idea of Boycott
was first suggested by Mitra in his journal
Sanjibani.
4. Science - Jagdish Chandra Bose & Prafulla
Chandra Roy.
Prafulla Chandra Ray Jagdish Chandra Bose
MASS PARTICIPATION
Participation Class Particulars

Students From Colleges and Schools
Womens Especially Urban Middle Class
Peasants o Except Barisal, the movement was unable to mobilize the masses
o Peasants were being exposed to modern political ideas for the first time
Workers o September, 1905 – First instance of Boycott was taken place by 247 clerks of
Burn company against a humiliating working regulation
o Later, Strikes were organised in the tramways, printing press and Jute mills in
Calcutta
o October,1905 – First real labour Union namely the Printers Union was formed
due to strikes in government owned and controlled press
o July 1906 – Railwaymen’s Union was formed
o August 1906 – Indian Millhands Union, Budge Budge was formed when Jute
Mill Workers organised by Ashwini Coomar Banerjee
Muslims o Some of the Muslims participating were Barrister Abdul Rasul, Liaquat
Hussain, Guznavi and Maulana Azad.
o But the majority of Muslims not support the movement. Most of the upper and
middle class Muslims did not join.
o Nawab Salimullah of Dacca supported the participation on the plea that it
would provide them a Muslim Majority East Bengal.
o Muslim Peasants did not support the Movement
Others Certain sections of Zamindars, lower middle class joined the agitation.
⮚ Annulment of Partition A) Reasons for Failure of Movement

⮚ The British Indian government annul the Partition 1) Policy of heavy repression- Adopted by the British
of Bengal in 1911. The decision was taken to curb Indian Government to end the movement by using
the menace of revolutionary activities. They also his force and laws. For instance –: In April, 1906 -
decided to shift the capital to Delhi in order to Barisal, the police attacked the peaceful delegates
appease the Muslims but they fail to please them attending the conference.
⮚ Bihar and Orissa were taken out of Bengal & 2) Failed to create an effective organization
Assam was made a separate provinces structure
3) Ban on meetings and processions.
4) The activities of the press were regulated
⮚ Assessment
through law.
152
5) Carlyle circular – The Bengal Government o The swadeshi movement undermined the
through this circular warned the students who were hegemony of British colonial rule
participating in the movement. The circular o The upcoming nationalist leaders learned a
threatened that disciplinary action would be taken valuable lesson from this kind of freedom
and barred the students from government service in struggle.
future. o This struggle saw adoption of new techniques
6) Ideological clashes B / W moderates & & methods of agitation. Both the moderates &
extremists – The conflict arose openly in the form extremists used their style of opposition but
of Surat split, 1907. This weakened the movement extremists succeeded in putting pressure on the
further. government.
7) Limited Spread of Movement -The movement
largely confined to the upper middle class & ⮚ Important Facts
zamindars. It failed to reach the masses especially 1. Abdul Rasool was the President of Barisal
the peasantry. Conference in April 1906
8) Absence of Strong Leadership - Difficult to 2. In 1898, the scheme of National education was
sustain a mass based movement without strong formulated by Satish Chandra Mukherjee
leaders. The most of the leaders were either 3. Tagore preached the cult of Atmashakti, the
arrested or deported by 1908 main plan of which was social and economic
⮚ B/W 1907-1908, 9 major leaders in Bengal regeneration of the villages
including Ashwini Kumar Dutta & Krishna
Kumar Mitra were deported
⮚ Tilak was sentenced for 6 years imprisonment
in Mandalay
⮚ Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai of Punjab
were deported
⮚ Chidambaram Pillai and Hari Sarvotham
Rao from Madras and Andhra were arrested
⮚ Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh
retired from active politics
10. Limitation of Masses- Though masses
participated but they were not ready for long Rabindranath Tagore
drawn sacrifices especially when they met
with harsh repression by the government. 4. Mukunda Das was a Bengali Poet, Ballard
11. Non-Cooperation of Muslims -The Singer and a nationalist who contributed for the
movement did not receive the support of the spread of swadeshi movement in rural Bengal
majority Muslims especially Muslim
SURAT SPLIT
Peasants
B) Achievements
o Although the revolt was suppressed & end in
early stages but it played a significant role for
upcoming nationalist mass movements
o The Swadeshi movement was the first round in
the national popular struggle against
colonialism. It was the first mass movement.
o The movement made a major contribution in
the field of nationalist ideas. The sections such
as students, women, and some sections of the
urban & rural population participated. The
richness of movement was also extended to art,
science, literature and industry. The split of INC came in Dec, 1907 during the
annual session of congress held at Surat near the
153
bank of river Tapti. During this session, the

Moderate leaders of INC ousted the Extremists
from the congress.
1) Factors & Forces -
Ideological Between Extremists and Moderates
Differences
British Policy of To isolate the Extremists
To conciliate the Moderates
Carrot & Stick To supress the Extremists
2) Circumstances
Banaras Session (1905) Calcutta Session (1906) Surat Session (1907)
President – Gopal Krishna President - Dadabhai Naoroji President – Rash Behari Ghosh
Gokhale Demand of Extremists – Leader of Moderates – G K Gokhale
Demand of Extremists – The Extremists wanted that Leader of Extremists – Lal-Bal-Pal
To extend the Swadeshi & either Tilak or Lala Lajpat Rai Demand Of Extremists –
Boycott movement outside the should become President o Extremist wanted to see Tilak or Lala
Bengal with an objective of Reaction of Moderates- They Lajpat Rai as a President
nationwide mass movement
agreed the Extremists leaders on o They want session to be held in
Reaction of Moderates –
Rejected the proposal and the name of Dadabhai Naoroji as Nagpur
strictly adhered to constitutional President o The leaders were in a mood to
methods Outcome expand the nature & character of
Outcome – o During this time Extremists swadeshi movement
o Supported the Swadeshi & become more aggressive
Reaction of Moderates –
Boycott Movement whereas Moderates lost their
o Liberal party rose to power in Britain
o Condemned the partition of importance
in the general elections. The
Bengal o Hence – Extremists succeeded
Moderates had a firm believe on
in passing 4 resolutions –
Liberal Party
Swadeshi, Boycott, National
o Hence, they were in a no mood to
Education and Swaraj
support the Swadeshi movement and
o Also the moderates and
decided to drop the resolutions on
extremists started interpreting
Swadeshi, Boycott, National
the definition of Swaraj
Education & Swaraj
differently which emboldened
o Moderates succeeded in organizing
the crisis further
the session at Surat (so that Tilak
could not become President because
Surat, Bombay – Home town of
Tilak)
Outcome –
154
Split was happened in this session

and Moderates expelled the Extremists
from INC
3) Assessment 3. It opened an entry of Indians into the executive

▪ Demerits branch of government. The Act provided that
1. After the split, the British Indian Government Indians would also be a member of the Governor-
suppressed the Extremists by bringing 4 new laws General Executive Council and India Council.
between 1907 – 1911 such as (Lord S P Sinha – became the first member of G-
o Seditious meetings Act, 1907 G Executive Council & K G Gupta and Syed
o Indian Newspaper (Incitement to offences) Act, Hussain Bilgrami became the first members of
1908 India Council).
o Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908 4. This Act granted the provision of a separate
o Indian Press Act, 1910 electorate for the Muslims. Under this system,
2. The majority of Leaders either arrested or deported Muslims were to be elected by Muslim voters.
and hence the Swadeshi & Boycott movement die a Thus, it legalised communalism in India and Lord
natural death Minto came to be known as Father of Communal
3. No occurrence of political activity taken place for Electorate.
last 8 years after the split
5. It provided for the separate representation /
▪ Merits electorate of presidency corporations, chambers
1. The Moderates failed to realize the real intentions of commerce, universities and zamindars.
of British Indian Government and the promise of 6. The Act recognised the principle of indirect
council reforms was just to isolate the Extremists election because the British Government believed
rather than to reward the Moderates that India’s territorial representation was not suited
2. Whereas Extremists failed to apprehend that the to the people by classes.
Moderates could act their outline defence in case of
7. It introduced for the first time indirect elections to
state repression
3. These understanding provided a serious lesson not Electoral
Local Bodies
only to the Moderates and Extremists but also College
helped the future Indian nationalists in avoiding a
split when similar situation emerged in future
INDIAN COUNCIL ACT / MORLEY MINTO Non-official Non - Official

REFORMS (1909)- Members of members of
provincial Central
1. This Act enlarged the strength of the Legislative the legislative council. The elected members were
Council between 16-106 members. to be indirectly elected.
2. The powers of non-official members in the 8. This Act was the shortest lived constitutional
legislative members enlarged. experiment of British government because it could
They were given the powers to ask supplementary last for only 10 years when the Government of India
questions, move resolutions, concerning additional Act, 1919 came into force.
grants for local self-governing bodies and can also 9. The Act came to be known as Morley-Minto
suggest any change in taxation system. Reforms. Morley was the Secretary of State for
India and Minto was the Viceroy of India.
155
TOPIC – INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905-1919) Phase 1

{part 2}
INDEX –
TOPIC
Rise of Revolutionary Terrorism/Activities
Ghadar Movement
Lucknow session
Home Rule Movement
Government of India Act, 1919
Other Facts
156
RISE OF REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM / ACTIVITIES –
⮚ Factors and Forces responsible for rise of Revolutionaries
By-product
B of militant nationalism in India which was
spread by the Extremists
Fall down of Swadeshi Movement + Surat Split – Difficult

to find the revolutionaries to disappear in Background
The younger revolutionaries were disillusioned from

Extremists leadership - Because they failed to create
effective organisation
The harsh suppression of peaceful swadeshi movement by

the British Government annoyed the young revolutionaries
⮚ Methods & Programme
Followed the steps

of Irish or Russian
nationalist
Individual Heric
To inspire the
Actions -
masses especially
Assasination of
youth from their
Unpopular British
patroitic acts
officilas
Dacoities and
organzing military
To strike a terror in
conspiracies with
the hearts of rulers
the help from
enemies of Britain
157
⮚ Revolutionaries Activities o Founder – Promotha Mitter

o Other leaders – Jatindranath Banerjee,
All India Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Aurobindo Ghosh
1) Bengal o Journal – Yugantar (1906) by Barindra K Ghosh
o 1870 – Establishment of secret society by Calcutta & Bhupendranath Dutta
Student community o Initial Activities –
o 1902 – 1st revolutionary group organised in
Midnapore by Jnanendranath Basu
o 1902 – 1st revolutionary group was organised in
Calcutta named – Anushilan Samiti
Pulin Das
✔ 1907 – Attempt was made to assassinate Lt.

Governor – Fuller
Barin Ghosh Bagha Jatin ✔ 1907 – Attempt was made to kill the Lt. Governor
o Also known as Bodybuilding society – Sir Andrew Fraser
o How formed - The organisation was formed from a ✔ Later it was divided into parts –
conglomeration of local youth groups & gyms in
Bengal, 1902.
Dhaka Anushilan Samiti Yugantar/Jugantar Group
Also known as Eastern Anushilan Samiti Also known as Western Anushilan Samiti
HQ - Dhaka HQ - Calcutta
Founder / President – Pulin Das in 1905 Founder – Aurobindo Ghosh , Barin Ghosh, Bhupendranath
Dutta & Raja Subodh Mallik in 1906
1908 - Organised Barrah Dacoity Barin Ghosh & Bagha Jatin were main leaders
1915 - Pulin Das did not supported the Indo - Maniktala group - By Barindra Ghosh & Bagha Jatin to collect
German plot arms & ammunitions and manufacture bombs
1918 - Refused to accept the leadership of Gandhiji Also sent some members abroad for military and political
after his release from jail training comprising Surendra Mohan Bose, Guran Ditt Kumar
and Tarak Nath Das were sent to North America, Hemchandra
Kanugo/ Hem Das – sent to Paris
1920 – founded Bharat Sevak Sangha Objective –

o To organise an armed revolt with the help of German
arms and ammunition.
o In these, Virendranath Chattopadhyaya played an
important role for sending ammunitions from Germany
o They had also raised the funds for Indo-German Plot
through conducting a series of Dacoities known as
Taxicab and Boat Dacoities
1915 - Movement was suppressed & Bagha Jatin was died in
firing of Police when he was waiting to deliver German arms at
Balasore
158
o 1908 – Alipore Conspiracy Case/Manicktolla or ✔ By Vasudev Balwant Phadke

Murraipukur conspiracy case ✔ Aim to organize the armed revolt against the British
by disrupting communication lines
✔ Conducting Dacoities to raise funds
✔ Movement was suppressed at an early stage
o 1890 – Role Of Bal Gangadhar Tilak
✔ B.G.Tilak propagated the militant nationalism
though
✔ Organising Festivals – Ganapati (1893) &
Shivaji (1894)
✔ Newspapers - Kesari (1881) in Marathi &
Mahratta (1881) in English
✔ Prafulla Chaki & Khudiram Bose threw a Bomb o 1897 – Chapekar Brothers
at a carriage which supposed to be carrying white
Judge but instead killed 2 white ladies
✔ Government Reaction –
● Whole Anushilan was arrested including Ghosh
Brothers
● Prafulla Chaki shot himself
● Khudiram Bose – tried & hanged
● Aurobindo was released but Barindra and
Ullaskar Dutta were found guilt
✔ During Trial – Narendra Gosain (Goswami) who
had turned approver and witness was shot dead by
Satyendranath Bose and Kanailal Dutt
✔ Disciples of Tilak , the Chapekar Brothers killed the
✔ 1909 – Public Prosecutor shot dead
Plague Commissioner of Poona – The Rand and
✔ 1910 – Dy.SP Samsul Ahmad was also killed his Associate & Lt. Ayerst
while leaving Calcutta Court
✔ The murder of Rand was the first political murder
o Barisal Conspiracy Case (1913) – It was a trail of
in the Indian History of freedom struggle
44 Bengali nationalists who were accused of
o From 1899 – 1906 : Role of Savarkar
inciting rebellion against the British Government.
✔ 1899 – Savarkar and his Brother organised the
The Police authorities in Barisal District of Bengal
Mitra Mela which later merged with Abhinav
had reported that it had seized documents that
Bharat in 1904
carried a Proposal of the Anushilan Samiti to incite
the Indian troops and assassinate the British in huge ✔ 1904 – Founded Abhinav Bharat in Pune by veer
numbers. Hereafter, Anushilan Samiti was Savarkar
banned. ✔ 1906 – Savarkar laid the foundation of Free India
o Newspaper Associated – Sandhya & Yugantar Society in London
✔ 1906 - Savarkar wrote Mazzini Charitra
2) Maharashtra – (Translation of Mazzini’s writings) influenced
o 1879 – Ramosi Peasant force the assassinations of William Wyle and AMT
Jackson. Savarkar was arrested and deported to
India and sentenced to imprisonment of Kala Pani
in Nasik Conspiracy case.
⮚ 1909 – Assassination of AMT Jackson, the
collector of Nashik by Anant Lakshman
Kanhere (member of Abhinav Bharat)
o Newspaper Associated in Maharashtra – Kal
3) Punjab
o Punjab Colonization Act of 1906
159
o The unrest in 4) Madras-

Punjab was built
because of Punjab
Colonization Act of
1906
o It provided that the
property of a
person shall be
transferred to the government if the person died
without leaving any heirs.
o 1906 - Ajit Singh organised a secret society
named Bharat Mata Society, also known as
Anjuman –e-Muhibban-e-Watan in Lahore o Vanchinathan Iyer or Vanchi assassinated the
British Officer Ashe (District Collector)
o Ashe has ordered firing on the crowd protesting the
arrest of Chidambaram Pillai
o Vanchi was a close associate of VVS Aiyar who led
the Pondicherry Branch of Abhinav Bharat Society
o Both were members of Bharat Mata Association
5) Delhi – Delhi Conspiracy 1912
Ajit Singh
o Journal – Bharat Mata in Urdu
o To organize patriots who wanted to go beyond
moderate methods of INC
o Before being extremists, Ajit Singh led group which
was active in urging the non-Payment of revenue
and water rates among Chenab colonists and Bari Rash Behari Bose
Doab peasants Delhi Conspiracy
o Other leaders included Aga Haider , Syed Haider o By Rash Behari Bose & Sachin Sanyal
Raza, Bhai Parmanand and radical Urdu poet o Conducted a spectacular bomb attack on Viceroy
Lal Chand ‘Falak Hardinge while he was making his official entry
o 1907 – Pagdi Sambhal Jatta Movement into the new capital in a procession through
o Ajit Singh also organised the movement to oppose Chandni Chowk at Delhi in December, 1912
the Colonisation Act at a rally in Lyallpur o Other Leaders - Basant Kumar Viswas, Amir
o At a rally in Lyallpur, Banke Dayal introduced the Chand and Avadh Behari
Song Pagdi Sambhal Jatta Pagdi.
o 1907- Government crushed the movement with a B) Abroad
ban on political meetings and deportation of Lala
Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh 1. London
160
o India House /Indian Home Rule Society o She also had a close contacts with socialist party
✔ Set up by Shyamji Krishna Verma in London and Russian socialists who exiled in Paris
(1905) o She is also known as mother of Indian
✔ It act as a centre for Indian Students , a scholarship Revolutionaries
scheme to bring radical youth from India
✔ Leaders like Savarkar and Hardayal became the 3. Germany –
members of India House
✔ Journal – The Sociologist
o 1909 - Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated the
Col.William Curzon Wyllie in London
2. France
Virendranath Chattopadhyaya
o Berlin Committee for Indian Independence – By

Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, Bhupendranath
Dutta , Lala Hardayal and others with the help of
the German office under Zimmerman Plan
o Objective – To gather and mobilise the Indian
o Madam Bhikaji Cama was a Parsi lady from settlers in different countries, to send volunteers and
Gujarat, Born on 24th September 1861. She married arms & ammunition to India with an aim to
Rustam K R Cama. She had served as a private organize an armed rebellion by the Indian troops to
Secretary to Dada Bhai Naoroji liberate the Indian land
o She used to carry out her revolutionary activities o The committee also sent one mission under Raja
from Paris and Geneva Mahendra Pratap Singh, Barkatullah and
o She founded the Paris Indian Society with the help Obaidullah Sindhi to Kabul to organise a Provincial
of Munchershah Burjorji Godrej and S R Rana Indian
in 1905. The organisation was a branch of India Government with the help of Crown Prince Amanullah
Home Rule Society o They also sent missions to Baghdad, Persia, Turkey
o Journal of Paris India Society – Bande Matram. and Kabul to garner the support of Indian Troops
The first issue of Bande Matram was published on and the Indian Prisoner of war (POWs)
September 10, 1909 with Lala Hardayal as an o Journal – Talvar
editor 4. Singapore – On Feb 15, 1915, the mutiny was led
o She also financed the revolutionary journal – by Punjabi Muslim 5th Light Infantry and the
Talvar which was published by Virendranath 36th battalion under Jamadar Chishti Khan,
Chattopadhyaya in memory of Madan Lal Dhingra Jamadar Abdul Gani and Subedar Daud Khan
o She unfurled the First Flag of India on which was crushed ruthlessly.
International Socialist Conference at Stuttgart , 5. Geneva – Ajit Singh
Germany on 3rd August, 1907 6. USA – Ghadar Movement (Led by Lala
o The Flag was designed by Madam Cama , Veer Hardayal – will discuss this part in detail in
Savarkar and Shyamji Krishna Verma upcoming pages)
consisting of Green, Saffron and Red stripes having
8 Lotuses with Vande Matram written in Hindi in
the middle saffron colour. It has now displayed at
the Maratha and Kesari Library in Pune
161
o The Ghadar revolutionaries were largely recruited

from the ranks of Punjabi immigrants who had
settled on the West coast of North America
o These revolutionaries consist of many ex-soldiers
and peasants who had migrated from Punjab to the
USA and Canada in search of better employment
opportunities.
o The hostile attitude of the local population
Lala Hardayal including of White Labour unions and
strengthening of restrictive immigration laws
⮚ Reasons for Decline of Revolutionaries after pushed the Indian community to the realization that
1918 they must organize themselves to resist the racial
1. Heavy Government through use of Force and discrimination imposed on the Indian community.
repressive laws such as o The background for the Ghadar movement has been
o The Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act, prepared by pre – Ghadar revolutionary activity that
1907 had been carried on by Ramdas Puri, G D Kumar,
o The Explosives Substances Act, 1908 Taraknath Das, Sohan Singh Bhakna and Lala
o The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, Hardayal who settled there in 1911
1908 o The first sparked the revolutionary movement was
o The Newspaper (Incitement to offences) Act, provided by Bhagwan Singh, a Sikh priest who had
1908 worked in Hong Kong and Malay states. In May,
o The Press Act, 1910 1913 in Vancouver, Canada – He openly preached
o The Defence of India Rules, 1915 the violent overthrow Of British rule in India and
2. End of World War I and the government released urged the people to adopt Bande Mataram as a
all the Political Prisoners arrested under the revolutionary salute. He had to leave Canada
Defence of India Act,1915 forcefully later on.
3. Montagu’s Declaration 1917 and Montagu- o The Hindi Association/Pacific Coast Hindustan
Chelmsford Act of 1919 created an environment of Association was founded by Lala Hardayal who
compromise assumed leadership in Portland in May, 1913. The
4. Arrival of Gandhiji on national Freedom struggle first meeting was held in the house of Kanshi
and emphasized on non-violence and satyagraha Ram which was attended by Bhai Parmanand,
halted the pace of revolutionary activities Sohan Singh Bhakna, Harnam Singh ‘Tundilat’
and Lala Hardayal. In this meeting, Lala Hardayal
set forth his plan to overthrow British rule. The
GHADAR MOVEMENT (1913-1915) ideas of Lala Hardayal were accepted. A Working
Committee was established and a decision was
taken to start a weekly paper – The Ghadar
(Rebellion) with its Headquarter called
Yugantar Ashram in San Francisco. From here
the Ghadar movement was started.
o President – Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna
o Secretary- Lala Hardayal
o Treasurer – Pandit Kanshi Ram Maroli
o Other leaders – Ram Chandra, Barkatullah
Rahmat Ali Shah, Kartar Singh Sarabha
o Later, in November 1913 – The name of Hindi
Association was changed to the Hindustan
1. Nature and character – Ghadar Party. The party developed active
o The Ghadar party was established in San Francisco members in other countries as well such as Japan,
in 1913. It had branches along the coast and in the China, Philippines, Malay, Singapore, Thailand,
far east South Africa and Mexico.
o The Ghadar paper was launched on 1st
November 1913, from San Francisco. Its first
162
issue was in Urdu followed by Gurumukhi o Komagata Maru Incident –

edition.
o The aim of Ghadar paper is to propagate pro-
independence and anti- British ideas. The caption
on its paper was – Angrezi Raj ka Dushman (an
enemy of British Rule)
1. In March 1914, a Japanese ship named

Komagata Maru had begun its fateful Voyage to
Canada carrying 376 Indians (351 Sikhs and 21
Punjabi Muslims).
2. For some years, Canada had imposed restrictions on
Indian immigration except who had made a
o Further, the front page of each issue carried – continuous journey from India to Canada. But in
Angrezi Raj ka Kaccha Chittha i.e. an expose of Canada- In November 1913, the Supreme Court had
British rule consisting of 14 points highlighting the allowed entry to 35 Indians who had made a
negative effects of British rule. The paper was continuous journey.
widely distributed in North America. It also reached 3. Encouraged by the Judgement, Gurdit Singh, an
to the Indians living in Hong Kong, Philippines, Indian Contractor living in Singapore decided to
China, Malay States, Singapore, Trinidad and the charter a ship and carry to Vancouver, Indians who
Honduras were living in various places in East and SouthEast
o The Ghadar paper published various Poems which Asia. Ghadar activists visited the ship at Yokohama
were put together in the form of a collection called in Japan where they gave lectures and distributed
Gadar-di-Goonj literature.
o Objective – It included the assassination of 4. The press in Punjab warned of serious
officials, publication of revolutionary literature and consequences if the Indian were not allowed on the
work among the Indian troops abroad and raise soil of Canada. Whereas Press in Canada took a
funds. It preached the militant nationalists with a different view and alerted the people to the
completely secular approach. The party pledged to Mounting Oriental Invasion. Also the Government
wage a revolutionary war against the British in of Canada had worked out on Legal Loopholes that
India. had resulted in the November Supreme Court
judgement.
2. Main Events during Ghadar Movement 5. When the ship arrived in Vancouver, it was not
o Hardayal escape to Switzerland –In March, 1914- allowed into the port. The Shore committee was
Lala Hardayal was arrested by US authorities and set up under the leadership of Hussain Rahim,
then escape to Switzerland when he released on bail Sohan Lal Pathak and Balwant Singh to fight for
o Outbreak of First World War – The Ghadarites the rights of the passengers. The funds were raised
find an opportunity to make use of Britain’s and the protest meetings were organised.
difficulties. A special meeting of the Ghadar leaders 6. Soon, the Komagata Maru was forced to leave
was called and the party issued its Ailan-e-Jung Canada and before it could reach Yokohama, World
(proclamation of war). On account of this various War I broke out. Therefore, the British Government
revolutionaries were sent to India for the armed passed an order that the ship would land only at
revolt. Kartar Singh Sarabha and Raghubar Dayal Calcutta and nowhere else.
left for India 7. On landing, the harassed and irritated passenger
confronted the Police in which 18 were killed and
202 arrested.
3. Course Of Revolt
163

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o The Government of India was aware of the

immigrants and hence around 8000 were returned
and nearly 3000 were detained. Yet still many
activists like Kartar Singh succeeded in reaching
Punjab
o Initially the Ghadarists planned to outbreak the
revolt in Punjab but Indian Sikhs did not support
their objection and remained loyal towards British.
o Then one last attempt was made to initiate the revolt
✔ Role of Annie Beasant & Tilak. To appease the
in 1915 under the leadership of Rash Behari Bose
moderates, B.G Tilak had declared that he
and other leaders like Sachin Sanyal and Vishnu
supported a reform of administration and not an
Ganesh. But the government came to know all these
overthrow of the Government. He also denounced
activities and revolt was suppressed before it could
the acts of violence.
rise
✔ The death of two moderate leaders:- Gokhale &
4. Government Repression (1915)
Pherozshah Mehta who had led the moderate
o First Lahore Conspiracy Case – After the failure
opposition to the extremists facilitated the reunion
of Ghadar revolt, the trials were held at Lahore by a
of the INC
special tribunal set up under the Defence of Indian
Act 1915. The government put 42 of revolutionaries ⮚ Lucknow pact between INC – Muslim League
to death and 200 were imprisoned. Many of them o At Lucknow, INC & Muslim league sacked their
after release founded the Kirti Kisan Sabha and differences & put up common political demands
Communist movements in Punjab. before the British Government
5. Reasons for Failure /Weakness – o What is Lucknow Pact-
o Miscalculation regarding the readiness of the ✔ ML accepted and agreed to present joint
people. The Punjabi Sikhs did not support the constitutional demands with the congress to the
revolt. Government
o The Ghadarists also did not understand the mood ✔ In return, the Congress accepted the Muslim
and readiness of the army. They declared Ailan-e- League’s demand of separate electorates
Jung without examining the preparedness of army
✔ Joint demands were
o Underestimated the might of British empire and its
1. Confer self- government on Indians at an early
foundation in India
date
6. Achievements- 2. Expansion of legislative councils with an elected
o They helped in popularising nationalist feelings in
majority & more powers to Indians.
India as well as abroad.
3. Half the members of the viceroy’s executive
o They had prepared a ground to raise a cadre of council should be of Indians.
highly motivated individuals who were willing to
sacrifice for the cause of their nation
⮚ Factors & Forces responsible for Muslim league
o The nationalist and secular character of Ghadarists
shift towards INC
movement which guide the later young leaders to
work on non-religious lines
LUCKNOW SESSION - 1916
⮚ Readmission of Extremists into INC -

o The Lucknow session of INC in 1916 was presided
over by a moderate leader Ambika charan
majumdar.
o Here, the Extremists led by Tilak readmitted to the
Indian National congress
o Reasons for Reunion:-
✔ Old controversies had become meaningless now
✔ Both the sections realised that the split had led to
political inactivity
164
o Refusal of Britain to help the khalifa of Turkey cheated and Indian National Movement entered
(who was Religious- political head of all Muslims) into the 3rd phase or Gandhian phase.
in the way of the Balkans (1912-13) and with Italy ▪ Demerits –
(1911) had angered the Indian Muslims. 1. Though Lucknow pact stood for Hindu-Muslim
o Annulment of Partition of Bengal in 1911 had unity but it did not involve the Hindu-Muslim
hurted the those of Muslims who supported this masses
partition 2. The acceptance for separate electorate threw left
o Refusal of British to set up a university in Aligarh the way open for the resurgence of communalism in
alienated the some Muslims Indian politics
o The role of young league members who were
shifted to boulder nationalists politics. The
Calcutta Session of Muslim League (1912) HOME RULE MOVEMENT
emphasized to work with an objective of protection
⮚ Nature & Character
of interest of Indian Muslims
o The younger Muslims were annoyed by the
repression of the Government during the war
period. Mohammad Ali’s – Comrade and Al
Hilal of Maulana Azad faced suppression. The
Ali Brothers – Maulana Azad and Hasrat
Mohani faced internment. All these activities
generated an anti-imperialist feeling amongst the
younger leaders of the League.
⮚ Significance /Result/ Conclusion
▪ merits – Annie Beasant

1. The Lucknow session reunited the Moderates
and Extremists section of the INC and also
bring the unity between the INC and Muslim
League. This unity provides greater political
consciousness and enthusiasm in the country
2. Even the colonial government decided to
appease the nationalists and announced
Montagu declaration on 20th August, 1917-
in which Indians were promised for gradual
development of self – Government institutions
and responsible Government within British
Empire. S. Subramaniya Iyer
3. After the enactment of 1919 Montagu-
Chelmsford reforms, nationalists were felt
165
The Home Rule movement was launched in 1916 by B.G Tilak and
Annie Besant.
The aim was to convey the message & meaning of Home Rule/
self-government to the common masses.
1
Objective - Attainment of self-rule / self-government Swaraj within

the British Empire by all constitutional means
The Indian Home Rule Leagues were organised on the lines of Irish
Home Rule Leagues.
2
1914 session of INC – Annie Beasant tried to compromise b/w the

Extremists & Moderates but failed
INC Session of 1915 – Compromise again failed but Congress
approved a program of educative propaganda & upliftment of local
3 communities
B.G Tilak started Home Rule League on 28th April, 1916 at Belgaum
during the Bombay Provincial Conference with its Head Quarter at
Poona which was restricted to Maharashtra (excluding Bombay
city), Karnataka, Central province and Berar. It had 6 branches. G S
4 Kharpade was the founding member of Tilak’s League
Annie Besant launched H.R.M on 15th September 1916 in Madras

and covered the rest of India (including Bombay city).It had 200
branches which was loosely organized as compared to Tilak’s
League.
Organizing Secretary – George Arundale
President – Sir S Subramania Aiyar
5 Other members - B.W Wadia and CP Ramaswamy Aiyar
166
⮚ Methods & Programme
1. peaceful constitutional method 6. Annie Besant popularised her

of agitation ideas through New India &
common will.
2. Supprted the British Govt.
during World war II 7. B.G Tilak:- Kesari (Marathi
language) & Maratha (English
Language )
Methods
3.holding conferences, organizing

classes for students on political, 5. promoting political, Education,
education and propaganda
discussion through public
through newspapers, Post-cards,
meetings, organizing libraries &
posters, plays, religious songs etc.
reading rooms which consists of
4. collected funds, organized books on national politics
social work & participation in
local government.
⮚ Factors & Forces
o Disillusionment with Morley – Minto Reforms of

1909 – This act failed to satisfy the Indian
Nationalists especially Moderates. Hence
Moderates also started believing that to attain any
real concessions there is a need of popular pressure
on the colonial government.
o Repression of Ghadar Movement – The harsh
suppression of Ghadar movement increase the
resentment amongst the Indian nationalist leaders
o Outbreak of World War I – o Release of Tilak - Tilak was ready to assume the
✔ The Home rule movement was started in the leadership after his release in 1914 with an
backdrop of World I objective to bring reform in administration rather
✔ The resentment increases amongst the people due to than throwing off the Government. The Moderates
the burden of wartime miseries and difficulties also started believing in Tilak after this
caused by high taxation & a rise in prices. announcement.
✔ This provided an opportunity to create a wave of o Entry of Annie Beasant into politics – Mrs. Annie
nationalism amongst the masses and to attain some Beasant had played an important role in initiating
concessions by pressurizing the British and expansion of Indian Home Rule League on the
Government lines of Irish leagues. She had done an important
work to bring the Moderates and Extremists
✔ This war also exposed the myth of white superiority
together in joining the movement.
and their colonial visions
167
⮚ Reaction of Government – S. Subramaniya Aiyar renounced his knighthood

o The British Government came down with severe while Tilak advocated a programme of passive
repression resistance
o Madras - students were prohibited from attending o On account of Annie Besant arrest, Lord Montagu,
political meetings the secretary of state commented that “Shiva cut his
o B.G Tilak was banned from entering Punjab and wife into 52 pieces only to discover that he had 52
Delhi. In June 1917, Annie Besant & her associates wives” Hence, government released Annie Beasant
B W Wadia and George Arundale were arrested. Sir in 1917 to prevent the protest due to the arrest of
Annie Beasant
⮚ Assessment –
Reasons for Failure Achievements
● Lack of effective organisation ● Movement shifted the emphasis of Indian national

● Communal riots were happened during 1917-18 movement from the educated elite class to the masses &
● Talk of passive resistance by the Extremists pushed the moderates into the background.
leaders like B.G Tilak kept the moderates away ● created an organisational link Between the town and
from the movement country
● The moderates who had joined the congress after ● It prepared a base of masses for the politics of Gandhian
Beasant’s arrest were pacified by 1917 Montagu’s method
statement. ● Reunion of moderates & extremists in Lucknow session
● Tilak had to go England in September 1918 in of INC, 1916
connection with a case ● created a generation of ardent & dedicated nationalists
● Annie Besant vacillated over her response to the ● It widened the social base of Indian national movement.
reforms and the techniques of passive resistance. ● August 1917 declaration of Montagu
● Non-participation of sections like Anglo- ● Montagu- Chelmsford Reforms of 1919
Indians, majority Muslims, non-Brahmins
from South India weakened the movement
further.
MONTAGU DECLARATION OF 20TH GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919/

AUGUST,1917- MONTAGU-CHELMSFORD REFORMS-
1. Statement -“The Government policy is of an 1. The Act provided the devolution of legislative
increasing participation of Indians in every branch authority by the centre to the provinces. It
of administration and gradual development of self- introduced the concept of Diarchy at provincial
governing institutions with a view to the
progressive realisation of responsible government
in India as an integral part of the British Empire.”
2. Importance of Statement - From this statement, Transfer
the nationalist demand for self-government or Category
Home Rule could not be termed as seditious since Provincial
attainment of self-government for Indians now Reserve
became a government responsibility. Category
List
3. Objection of Indians – The Objections of Indian
leaders were two fold – Subjects
● No specific time frame was given. Central Under
● The Government alone was to decide the nature Central
and timing of providing self-government to the Governe
level. According to this provision, all the subjects
Indians. of administration were divided into 2 lists.
168
Transfer Category Reserve Category

o Health o Land Revenue
o Agriculture o Irrigation
o Sanitation o Law & Order
o Local Self Government o Education of Anglo Indians etc.
o Education Except of Anglo-Indians etc.
✔ The subjects under the Transfer Category were performed by the Secretary of State and was paid
comparatively of lesser significance and out of Indian revenues.
administered by the Governor with the help of his 11. The act also provided for the appointment of a
Council of Ministers which were appointed by the Statutory Commission to inquire into a report on
Governor from elected members of the Provincial a work after 10 years of its coming into force.
Legislative Council with being responsible to the
legislature.
✔ The Subjects under the Reserved Category were OTHER FACTS
comparatively of greater significance and
administered by the Governor with the help of his 1. Aurobindo Ghosh – wrote a book New Lamps
Governor-General Executive Council without for Old. In his book, he gave a systematic critique
any responsibility to the legislature. of the moderate politics of the INC in a series of
2. The Central Legislative Council was bifurcated into articles
2 house 2. Fabian Society – The Fabian Society was a British
o Legislative Assembly (Lower House) socialist intellectual movement with an objective to
o Council of State ( Upper House) advance the socialist cause by gradualist and
reformist rather than revolutionary means. Annie
3. For the first time direct elections were introduced Beasant was a proponent of Fabianism. The society
and granted the franchise to the limited number of
was best known for his work in the late 19th century
people on the basis of property, tax and education.
and then up to World War 1. It was established in
4. It further extended the separate electorate for Sikhs, 1884.
Anglo Indians, Indian Christians and 3. WE were not Sikhs or Punjabis, our religion was
Europeans. patriotism’ – By Sohan Singh Bhakna. He is also
5. The Act provided for the establishment of Public known as Ghadari Baba
Service Commission i.e. The Central Public 4. Circular-e-Azad (Circular of Liberty) –
Service Commission was set up in 1926 for published by Ramnath Puri in 1907. He is serving
recruiting civil services. as a political exile and also granted support to
6. It separated the Provincial Budget from the central Swadeshi movement
budget and authorized the Provincial Legislative to 5. Free Hindustan paper – By Taraknath Das. He
enact their Budget. was one of the first leaders of the Indian
7. The act also required that 3 out of the 6 members of Community in North America.
the Viceroy Executive Council were to be Indians. 6. G D Kumar
⮚ Set up Swadesh Sevak Home in Vancouver
8. The Secretary of State for India was to be paid out
on the lines of India House in London
of British exchequer hereafter.
⮚ Journal – Gurumukhi
9. The membership of India Council was reduced
⮚ G D Kumar and Taraknath Das founded the
from 15 to 8-12 members
United India House in Seattle, USA when
10. It provided for the appointment of Indian High they were driven out from Canada
Commissioner as a representative of India and
⮚ In United House – weekly meeting of Indian
Britain and transferred him to some of the functions
labourers were organised
169
7. Comment of Gokhale on Madan Lal Dhingra’s ⮚ The Kirti Kisan Sabha was established on 12th
work of killing Curzon Wyllie – A heinous act to April, 1928. The meaning of Kirti- workers, Kisan
meant to spoil the name of India – peasants and Party – Sabha.
8. Grave Warning was a Pamphlet which was widely ⮚ Founder – Its origin traced to the Kirti movement
distributed in London started by Bhai Santokh Singh (The Ghadarists
9. Lala Lajpat Rai published Punjabee (motto – Leader). He had studied the soviet methods of
self-help at any cost) village propaganda
10. Pamphlet Mukti Kon Pathe urged the Indian ⮚ Objective – To organise small agriculturists,
Soldiers to supply arms to the revolutionaries industrial workers and low paid urban labourers for
11. Aurobindo Ghosh – He published and distributed revolutionary activities
a political pamphlet named – Bhavani Mandir
during the Swadeshi Movement which carried an
article by Barindra Kumar Ghosh. The article
contained a detailed plan for organising a centre for
revolutionary activities.
12. Kirti Kisan Sabha
13. IMP JOURNALS
Books/Pamphlets Author
Vartaman Rananiti Barindra Kumar Ghosh
Bandi Jawan Sachindranath Sanyal
New India Edited by Bipin Chandra Pal

Vande Matram By Bipin Chandra Pal (Edited by Aurobindo Ghosh)
Sandhya Edited by Brahmabandhav Upadhyay

Yugantar Edited By Bhupendranath Dutta
The Punjabee or The Pupil By Lala Lajpat Rai
Karamyogi Aurobindo Ghosh
Nation G K Gokhale
170
CHAPTER 11- National Movement (1919-1929) Phase 2 – Part I
INDEX
Topics
Emergence of Gandhi
Rowlatt Act and Satyagraha
Khilafat Movement and NCM
Other Facts
171
EMERGENCE OF GANDHI - o Formation of Indian Natal Organisation (1893) -

This was Gandhi's first struggle in South Africa
➢ Gandhi in Africa- where he unites the Indians to fight for the political
o Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born at cause.
Porbandar in Gujarat on 2nd October, 1969. In 1893, o This is seen as the beginning of moderate phase of
Gandhiji travelled to South Africa to work with Gandhian struggle in South Africa.
Dada Abdullah & Co. Gandhi was the first Indian o Gandhi sent petitions and memorials to the South
Barrister who had arrived in South Africa. African Legislature, Colonial Secretary in London
Condition of Indians in South Africa - The Indian and British Parliament.
Community in South Africa were comprised of o He also united the Indians of South Africa and tried
indentured or freed labourers working for the white to seek cooperation of Indians living in Britain as
sugar planters, merchants, clerks and assistants. The well as India
conditions of Indians in South Africa was not good and o Indian National Congress also passed a resolution
inherent with following major issues – against the Bill and Gandhi again sent a petition
signed by 10,000 Indians to the Colonial Secretary.
✓ Apartheid i.e. racial discrimination with respect o Hence the Bill was vetoed but the Natal government
to citizenship rights, freedom of trade, right to succeeded in passing the bill in an amended form in
property, prohibition on travelling from 1st & 2nd 1894.
class railway compartments, banning of entry of
Indians in Hotels and restaurants etc. OPPOSITION OF EUROPEANS
✓ Indentured labourers were treated as semi-slaves
and had to pay 3 pounds as poll tax. These labourers 1. Gandhi continued his struggle against racial
were uneducated, knew little English and accepted discrimination through his writings which was
racial discrimination as a part & parcel of their daily disliked by the Europeans living in South Africa.
lives.
2. 1896 -When Gandhi arrived in South Africa after a
✓ Denied the right to vote, not allowed to use
small visit to India, he had faced an opposition of
footpath, to reside only in prescribed location etc.
around 4000 European mobs who even kicked and
✓ Indians were termed as Coolie meaning labour
beat him.
o Experience of Gandhi –
✓ When Gandhi was travelling from Durban to
GANDHI’S SUPPORT DURING BOEING
Pretoria, he faced a series of humiliations. Although
he had bought a first-class ticket but asked to shift
WAR (1899-1902)
in Van compartment and in case of resistance, 1. The Boers were
Gandhi was thrown out from the train. South Africans who
✓ On reaching Johannesburg, he didn’t available a belonged to Dutch
room because of only white reservation in Hotels. origin and were
✓ Hence upon reaching Pretoria, Gandhi called a fighting the British.
meeting of Indians and encouraged them to learn 2. Although both the
English, organize themselves and protest against Parties had not
unjust rule. From here, struggle begins. treated Indians well but Gandhi send a group of
stretchers –bearers as the Natal Indian
➢ Gandhi’s Political Activism in South Africa Ambulance Corps for the treatment of soldiers.
(1893 – 1914)- The British won the war and work of Gandhi was
praised by English newspapers.
STRUGGLE AGAINST
DISFRANCHISEMENT BILL /NATAL
LEGISLATIVE BILL OF 1894 GANDHI IN INDIA - 1901
1) The First Phase (1894-1906) - Moderate Phase- 1. In 1901, Gandhi came to India and attended the
1. What Bill says - It deprived the voting rights of Calcutta Session of INC which was presided over
Indians for parliamentary election in Natal by W E Wacha (This was the first contact of
province. Gandhi with INC). He even succeeded in passing
2. Reaction of Gandhi -
172
a resolution to improve the conditions of Indians ✓ Gandhi founded this association with the aim of
living in South Africa. uniting Indians to boycott the permit offices
2. As he decided to stay in India, a cable reached him ✓ Gandhi first used the method of Satyagraha
from South Africa and he again went back. against this bill.
✓ Boycott was proved to be successful and
government failed to make Indians to get register
PROTEST THROUGH NEWSPAPERS AND themselves
PHOENIX SETTLEMENT (1904) ✓ When the last date of registration was come to an
1. Gandhi returned to South Africa in 1902 and end, many Indians including Gandhi were sent to
resumed his struggle against the Apartheid. Jail
2. He started Journal – Indian Opinion (1903) ✓ Though General Smuts, secretary of Colonies
o It is mouthpiece of Gandhi’s struggle offered to withdraw the legislation if Indians
o The journal Published weekly in English & voluntarily registered themselves but he backed
Gujarati from his words
o Editor – Mansukhlal Naazar ✓ Gandhi gave up the legal practise and resumed the
3. Gandhi was inspired from John Ruskin’s book on Satyagraha again.
Economics and accordingly he and his associates ✓ Meanwhile, the Transvaal government enacted an
shifted to Phoenix near Durban in 1904. Here, immigration law prohibiting new immigrants from
Gandhi started a farm with the complete press and India and satyagraha protest was also started against
office and started living a simple community life. this law as well
These inhabitants of Phoenix later became the
TOLSTOY FARM - 1910
chief participants of Gandhi’s Satyagraha
protest. 1. Gandhi had established the Tolstoy farm to house
the families who involved in Satyagraha. Here
2) The Second Phase (1906-14) – Civil people used to live a simple community life
Disobedience / Satyagraha Phase Until 1906, 2. The financial support was provided to this Gandhi
Gandhi had deep faith in the British sense of ashram by people and associations such as
Justice. But the work of Transvaal government Hermann Kallenbach(German friend of Gandhi),
sparked resentment amongst the Indians and Sir Ratan Tata, Nizam of Hyderabad, Congress
Gandhi began with the method of passive and Muslim League
resistance or civil disobedience or Satyagraha.
CONTINUATION OF PASSIVE RESISTANCE
STRUGGLE AGAINST ASIATIC /SATYAGRAHA
REGISTRATION BILL AND FORMATION OF
PASSIVE RESISTANCE ASSOCIATION (1906
1. Asiatic Registration Bill (1906) –

o The government of Transvaal (province near Natal)
proposed a bill consisting of following Humiliating
points –
✓ Compulsory registration of Indians
✓ Whoever failed to register within the given period
would be guilty and liable to be punished
✓ Indians could be asked to produce registration
certificate any time
✓ The police officers were permitted to enter into an
Indian’s house and check for the registration papers
2. Protest of Gandhi –
o When the bill was passed, Gandhi led a delegation
to England to meet and request the British 1. During 1911-12, on the occasion of coronation of
Authorities to stop the bill from becoming a law but King George V, an agreement was reached
the appeal was failed between the Indians and the government. The
o Formation of Passive Resistance Association – British government even promised the Gopal
173
Krishna Gokhale who had visited South Africa as later played a prominent role in India’s freedom of
a state guest that all discriminatory laws against struggle. The methods were – Satyagraha, non-
Indians will be repealed. violence etc.
2. But the government backed from his promise and o The work of Gandhi in South Africa and its
Satyagraha was widened under the leadership of achievements made him an international
Gandhi against – celebrity. While leadership of Tilak, Lala Lajpat
o Asiatic Registration Act Rai mostly confined to regional level, Gandhi
o Immigration Law emerged as a leader of Indian people which
o Poll Tax – A tax of 3 pounds levied on all ex- provided Gandhi a definite edge in Indian politics
indentured labourers and Freedom struggle.
o Supreme Court Judgement on Marriages –
1n 1913, the Supreme court invalidated all ➢ Gandhi in England –
Hindu, Parsi and Muslim marriages and o Before going to India, Gandhi went to London and
declared these marriages illegal and children meet the Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Meantime,
borne out of such marriages were illegitimate. World War I has been declared.
o In a meeting between Gandhi and Indians residing
3) Conclusion – in England, Gandhi urged them to help the Britain
1. As the protest continued, the satyagrahis were sent in this crisis of hour.
to jail who were treated badly and provided with o Gandhi organised an Ambulance Corps in the war
inhumane conditions. Even Gandhi faced the same time. Because of this, the British Government
treatment. thanked Gandhi by honouring him with Kaiser-e-
2. Hence, Gopal Krishna Gokhale toured the country Hind Gold medal in 1915.
and garnered the support of Indians and even of
Viceroy Hardinge who condemned the oppression ➢ Arrival of Gandhi in India-
of Indians in South Africa.
3. Finally, a series of negotiations were held consists
of Gandhi, Hardinge, General Smuts and C F
Andrews and compromise was reached with
following outcome –
o Major demands of Indians were accepted
o Passing of Indian Relief Act, 1914 –
Abolished the poll tax on freed labourers,
marriages as per Indian rites were declared
legal and domicile certificate was now required
1. Background-
only to enter the Union of South Africa
o Gandhi arrived in India on 9th of January 1915 at the
age of 46. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was the
➢ Significance of Gandhi’s Experience in South
political guru of Gandhi in India.
Africa –
o Though Gokhale wanted that Gandhi to join
o An experience Gandhi earned in South Africa had a
Servants of India Society but he could not join due
long-lasting impact on his life, thoughts, ethics &
to resistance by some of its members.
politics.
o Gokhale advised Gandhi not to take any political
o Gandhi was able to develop a faith in the capacity
stand and to undertake a tour of whole country for a
of masses and their ability to sacrifice.
year.
o In South Africa, Gandhi learned the abilities of
o While travelling, Gandhi established his ashram in
organiser and fund-raiser. He also came across
India at Ahmedabad in 1915 which was later shifted
with the role of journalism in the agitation.
on the banks of river Sabarmati in 1917 and came
o Here, Gandhi learnt to unite the diverse sections of
to be known as Sabarmati Ashram. He had also
Indian society – Hindus, Muslims, Gujaratis,
visited Shanti Niketan, Kumbh Mela in Haridwar.
labourers, merchants, women etc.
o Gandhi did not join the Home rule league with
o Gandhi learned a leadership skill involving facing
an objective of not to bring difficulty to the British
the anger of the enemy as well the followers.
in World war I
o In South Africa, Gandhi tried new techniques and
methods for struggle. He also perfected them which
174
o He attended the Lucknow session of 1916 but not cottage industries, non-payment of taxes and similar
sided either with the moderates and Extremists and other measures.
succeeded in passing a resolution demanding the
abolition of recruiting indentured labourers ➢ Demands –
o The demand for Swaraj was clearly defined for the
2. Entry of Gandhi in Indian Politics – first time by Gandhiji in 1920. According to him,
Swaraj means self-government within British rule if
➢ Nature & Character – possible and outside if necessary.
o The entry of Gandhiji in national agitation marked o Reduction in Land Revenue and Military
the beginning of new phase in the carrier of Indian Expenditure.
National Movement through his ideals and o Reduction in taxes like Salt Tax, empowerment and
methods. enlargement of legislative councils, transfer or more
o During this phase, the national movement assumed powers in Indian hands and to widen the scope of
the character of true mass movement. civil liberties.
o The National Movement became the Pan India in
character. ➢ Methods-
o Gandhi emphasized on secular character of o The constitutional method of protest has lost its
national movement and stood for Hindu-Muslim efficacy. During the Nagpur of INC in 1920, the
unity. constitution of Congress was changed and Gandhiji
o It was based on peaceful and non-violent methods declared that the National agitation would be
of struggle. carried out through peaceful and legal means i.e.
o The national movement included the social Satyagraha.
reforms as well such as upliftment of lower classes o Popularisation of Indigenous goods and boycott of
and eradication of untouchability. foreign products
o The national movement also exhibited the o Non-cooperation and civil disobedience
economic dimensions. Gandhiji emphasized on o Hunger & Industrial Strikes
village reconstruction through development of o Peaceful picketing of liquor shops and organizing
marches
➢ Ideals of Gandhi –
➢ Assessment of Gandhian phase of Indian National movement
Achievements Limitations
175
o The social base of national movement was widened o Failed to check the growth of communalism in
due to participation of many important classes in Indian politics
National movement
o Participation of Peasants, Labourers, rural masses o Unable to bring the Hindu-Muslim unity
and women in National agitation
o Rural /Village reconstruction programme through o Partition of India in 1947
measures like development of cottage industries etc.
o Social Reforms through upliftment of women, o Gandhiji did not supported the activities of
labourers and lower castes or Harijans. Gandhiji revolutionaries and Extremists like Bhagat Singh
opposed the untouchability and Subash Chandra Bose
o Spread of National Movement to the remotest
corners of India
o Attainment of Freedom in 1947
➢ First Political Activism of Gandhiji-
Champaran Satyagrha Ahemdabad Mill

(Bihar,1917) - Kheda Satyagrha
Strike (Gujarat,1918)
(Gujarat,1918) - First
First - First
Non-Nooperation
Civil Disobedience Hunger Strike
o The cultivators were forced to sell Indigo for a

1) Champaran Satyagraha (Bihar,1917)- fixed and usually uneconomic price.
✓ After the production of cheaper synthetic Dye in
Germany, there occurred a sharp fall in demand of
Indigo.
✓ European planters tried to transfer the burden of
these losses to the tenants by increasing the rent and
illegal dues.
o Role of Gandhi –
✓ Raj Kumar Shukla, a peasant from Champaran
village brought Gandhi to help them.
✓ When Bihar government came to know about the
arrival of Gandhi, they issue him an order to leave
on the ground that he was a danger to public peace.
o This was the first political intervention of Gandhi But he refused and this was Gandhi’s first act of
in Indian politics or struggle against the colonial civil disobedience in India.
authority. o What Gandhi had done –
o Also known as the first civil disobedience in the ✓ Gandhi started his investigation with the help of
phase of Gandhian movement. o Brij Kishore,
o What was the Issue - o Rajendra Prasad,
✓ Farmers of Champaran in the Tirhut division of o Mahadev Desai,
north Bihar was seething with discontent due to the o Narhari Parekh,
European Planters and their Tinkathia System to o Mazhar-ul-Haq and
cultivate Indigo. o J B Kripalani.
✓ Tinkathia System – ✓ Appointment of Champaran Agrarian
o A system in which Indian tenant cultivators under Committee –
forced contracts had to cultivate Indigo on • A government appointed committee with Gandhi
3/20th of their land holdings in return for an being one of its members.
advance during the beginning of the cultivation • To study the issues of farmers.
season.
176
• Result- ✓ From here, Gandhi had also gained popularity

o Tinkathia system and illegal exactions were amongst the labour class who had joined the
abolished. national agitation on a large scale.
o 25 percent refund as compensation for illegal
dues. 3) Kheda Satyagraha (Gujarat - 1918)
✓ Planters left the area. o First Non-Cooperation of Gandhian phase
✓ Gandhi won the first battle of civil disobedience.
✓ He also made a ground to bring the peasants to join
the upcoming national movement under his
leadership.
2) Ahmedabad Mill Strike (Gujarat - 1918)
o What’s the Issue –

✓ The Peasants of Kheda in Gujarat had faced a large
scale destruction of Kharif Crops followed by rise
in prices during war period.
✓ The Revenue code provided for the remission of
o First Hunger strike by Gandhi land revenue if crops were less than 25% of normal
o This agitation was not against the British production.
government. ✓ But the authority was in a no mood for remission.
o What’s the matter – o Entry of Gandhi –
✓ The outbreak of Plague in 1917 followed by ✓ Gandhi, who was the President of the Gujarat Sabah
scarcity of labourers forced the textile mill owners then, supported the cause of farmers and said that
in Ahmedabad to pay Plague Bonus as high as 75% the revenue suspension was a legal right of
of the regular wages. peasants.
✓ However, this bonus was discontinued after the ✓ On 22nd March, 1918 – Gandhi organised a
end of epidemic, which in turn led to conflict meeting at Nadiad and decided to launch a
between the workers and Mill owners. Mill owners Satyagraha. The Kheda Satyagraha was the first
were ready to pay 25% hike in wages but the real Gandhian peasant Satyagraha in India.
workers were demanding a 50% raise. ✓ Gandhi persuaded the farmers not to pay land
o Role of Gandhi – revenue.
✓ Here, Gandhi intervened and sided with the workers ✓ Within a month, more than 2000 peasants joined the
cause. Satyagraha with an oath of non-payment of Land
✓ Gandhi after detailed study recommended the revenue.
workers to demand up to 35% wage hike. ✓ Other Leaders –
✓ Gandhi organised the workers and started a o Indulal Yagnik,
Satyagraha against the mill owners. He urged the o Vallabh Bhai Patel and
workers not to resume their work unless the demand o Anasuya Sarabhai
of 35% hike was not accepted. ✓ At last government issued instruction containing the
✓ In this struggle, Gandhi was assisted by Anasuya information that the revenue would be recovered
Sarabhai. only from those who had a capacity to pay.
✓ At a later stage, Gandhi went on his first hunger
strike.
ROWLATT ACT AND SATYAGRAHA (1919)-
✓ Finally, with the award of tribunal, the mill owners
accepted a 35% increase in wages.
177
➢ Rowlatt Act, 1919 - In 1917, the government o Despite strong opposition, Rowlatt Bill was
appointed a committee under the chairmanship of passed and became act on 21st March, 1919.
Sydney Rowlatt to investigate and suppress the o Call of Hartal –
revolutionary activities in the country. The ✓ In response of Rowlatt Act, Gandhi inaugurated his
following were the provisions Satyagraha officially and called the countrymen to
o Continuous of war time restrictions observe a day of Hartal by striking work, fasting
o The Act authorized the government to imprison any and praying.
person without trial and convictions in a court of ✓ The Rowlatt Satyagraha was the first All-India
law. In this way, the Government suspend the right Satyagraha agitation called by Gandhi.
to Haebeous Corpus ✓ The day of Hartal was initially fixed for 30th March
o Detention without trial for up to 2 years but later shifted to 6th April. It was observed as a
o No appeal could be made against the decision of the National Humiliation Day.
court ✓ In Delhi, the Hartal was observed on 30th March
whereas in all the major towns, it was observed on
➢ Satyagraha against Rowlatt Act – 6th April.
✓ Gandhi urged the Satyagrahis to disobey the law
including of containing the prohibited books and
literature.
✓ On 8th April, Gandhi left to Bombay to spread and
promote the Satyagraha in Delhi and Punjab.
✓ But the Gandhi was arrested from a train at Palwal
near Delhi and taken back to Bombay.
✓ The news of Gandhi’s arrest was followed by
outbreak of violence at many places.
o On 24th February, 1919 – Gandhi formed a
Satyagraha Sabha at Bombay to protest against
➢ Jallianwala Bagh Massacre-
the Rowlatt Bill.
o Who Supported the Movement –
✓ The younger elements of Beasant’s Home Rule
League which included leaders like
• Jamnadas Dwarkadas
• Shankarlal Banerjee
• Umar Sobhani
• B G Horniman
✓ On the issue of Khilafat and defeat of Turkey in

World War I, Muslim leaders like Abdul Bari and
Dr. M A Ansari also supported the Gandhi in this
movement.
o Who Opposed the Movement – o On 9th April, 1919 – Two local Congress leaders
✓ The liberal leaders opposed it because they felt it were arrested of Amritsar named, Dr. Saifuddin
could hamper Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal who was agitating
upcoming constitutional reforms. They were against the act. These arrests coincided with
• Surendranath Banerjee Gandhi’s arrest which aggravated the conditions
• D E Wacha further in Punjab.
• T B Sapru o The city was handed over to the General Michael
• Srinivas Sastri O Dyer who had prohibited the public meetings and
✓ Annie Beasant opposed it on the ground that there assemblies.
is nothing in the Act to resist. o On 13th April, 1919 – On Baisakhi day, a large
✓ B G Tilak’s follower N C Kelkar and G S crowd was gathered at Jallianwala Bagh to protest
Kharpade also opposed the Satyagraha.
178
against the arrests. Many of them were not being o These acts of violence shattered the entire nation
aware of prohibition on meetings. and Gandhi called off the Satyagraha movement
o On seeing the crowd, Bg. General Reginald Dyer due to widespread violence. He said it to be a
ordered the Gurkha troops to open fire on the Himalayan Blunder.
peaceful protest of crowd. As per the official o Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood
estimate, around 379 were died but the number was as to protest to this Massacre.
too high. o Hunter Commission was appointed to investigate
o The brutality had not stooped yet. The Punjab was the Jallianwala Bagh massacre by the British Indian
placed under the Martial law and acts of repression Government.
was further intensified by arrests, torture etc.
➢ Evaluation of Rowlatt Satyagraha-
Achievements Limitations
o First time Gandhi had launched and spread o It suffered from several weakness and organisational
the concept of Satyagraha to the entire nation. limitations.
It did not confine to selected local area like
Kheda or Champaran
o The extent of mass participation showed the o Gandhiji failed to understand the efficacy and
faith of people in efficacy of Gandhiji readiness of people for Gandhian style of agitation.
Hence various violence activities were taken place
inspite of peaceful proclamation of Gandhi
o It helped in preparing a ground for masses for o The Congress also played a very limited role in this
agitation in upcoming National movement movement
o In this movement, Gandhi had also received the o Moderates leaders like Surendra Nath Banerjee
support of Muslim leaders and Annie Beasant also not supported the
movement
o Some sections of Home Rule League leaders also o Though Muslims leaders supported but due to their
supported the Satyagraha personal cause of Khilafat and not because against
the act.
o The common masses were first time encountered
with ideas of Gandhi style of struggle other
than Peasants and Labourers.
KHILAFAT AND NON-COOPERATION ✓ During the World War I, Turkey was an ally Of
MOVEMENT (1919-1922)- Germany led group. After the end of war, the allied
powers imposed the Treaty of Sevres on Turkey
which aimed at the fragmentation of Ottoman
Empire.
✓ Since Caliph of Turkey was also the religious and
political head of Muslim throughout the World and
hence Muslims condemned the Treaty of Sevres.
✓ The opposition of the treaty also found expression
in India. The Indian Muslims organize the
movement Known as the Khilafat Movement.
Their Demand was
1. The Khalifa’s position should be restored
2. The Khalifa’s control over the Muslims sacred
place should be given back.
➢ Circumstances-
3. Khalifa should be left with sufficient territory
o The Non-Cooperation movement was the first
to rule.
great mass movement of India.
o Why Khilafat Movement was Launched-
179
✓ Formation of Khilafat Committee (1919) - The • A special session of All India Congress Committee
Khilafat Committee was formed in 1919 and its was called on September 1920 which was presided
leaders were over by Lala Lajpat Rai. During this session, the
• Ali Brothers (Muhammad Ali & Shaukat Ali) Indian National Congress accepted the non-
• Maulana Azad cooperation as its own despite of opposition from
• Ajmal Khan some senior leaders.
• Hasrat Mohani • In this way, INC launched the Non-Cooperation
• Dr. Mukhtaar Ahmed Ansari and others Movement on 4th September, 1920 over the issue
✓ All India Khilafat Conference (1920) – It was of Swaraj, Punjab Wrongs and Khilafat Cause.
held in Delhi where Muslim leaders gave a call for • Supporters -
non-cooperation. ▪ Motilal Nehru
✓ Gandhi was also attracted towards the Khilafat ▪ Jitendra Basu
movement and he believed that the Khilafat cause ▪ Saifuddin Kitchlew
could bring a best opportunity to forge Hindu- ▪ Shaukat Ali
Muslim unity on a permanent basis. Other than ▪ Dr. Ansari
that, it will also strengthen the Indian National ▪ Yakub Hassan
Movement. • Opponents –
✓ In April, 1920 – Gandhi was elected as the ▪ C R Das
President of Khilafat Committee. In February 1920, ▪ Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya
he advised the Khilafat members to launch Non- ▪ Annie Beasant
Cooperation Movement. • What Programme Approved –
✓ On 9th June, 1920 – The Khilafat Committee met 1. Boycott of titles conferred by the British
at Allahabad and accepted the advice of Gandhi. 2. Boycott of foreign goods, schools, arbitration court,
Here, Gandhi declared the programme of non- council etc.,
cooperation with methods such as – Boycott of all 3. Encouraging khadi, national schools etc.
government jobs, Boycott of titles conferred by ✓ Accordingly, the council elections of 1920 were
Britishers and Non-Payment of Taxes. boycotted by all the candidates of Indian National
✓ On 1st August, 1920 – The Non-Cooperation Congress which were held as per the act of 1919.
Movement was launched from Khilafat platform ✓ INC Session of 1920 (Nagpur) -
under the leadership of Gandhi. • President – C. Vijayaraghavachari
o Entry of INC & Launch of Non-Cooperation • The opposition to Gandhi was melted away and
Movement – even critics like C R Das accepted the leadership of
Gandhi.
• Congress accepted the non-violent way of non-
cooperation resolution.
• Formation of Congress Committes
1. Committes from mohalla & village level up to
provincial level.
2. Formation of an All India Committee of 350
members.
3. Formation of a Working Committee of 15
members to act as chief executive.
✓ Initially, almost all the old leaders of Congress were • Detailed aspects of the Non-Cooperation were
not in favour to join the movement. Tilak was not prepared i.e. Destructive and Constructive
in favour of any Hindu-Muslim alliance over a Aspects.
religious cause and movement must be secular in • A new constitution of Congress party was
character. adopted with the reorganisation of party on modern
✓ Meanwhile, the movement was launched on 1st and democratic lines.
August, 1920 but the same day, Tilak passed away. • Goal of INC – Change from attainment of self-
Because of this, the movement got merged with the government by constitutional and legal means to
mourning. attainment of Swaraj by peaceful and legal
✓ Calcutta Session of September 1920 – means.
180
• Here, Gandhi said that – ‘Self-government or

Swaraj within the Empire if possible and outside if
necessary.’
• He also gave the Slogan of Swaraj in one year.
• By this time, many leaders had left the Congress
such as Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Beasant, and
G S Kharpade etc.
➢ Phases of Non- Cooperation Movement-
1) 1st Phase (January – March 1921) – AsafAli

M R Jayakar
2) 2nd Phase (April – June 1921)-
o Focus – To raise one crore rupees for Tilak Swaraj
Fund by August 1921, enrollment of 1 crore
members in Congress & installation of 20 lakh
charkhas.
o The Tilak fund got oversubscribed.
3) 3rd Phase (July 1921 Onwards)-
o Emphasis – Boycott of foreign cloth, boycott of the
visit of Prince of Wales, popularisation of Charka,
Khadi and Jail Bharo Andolan
o Main Emphasis – Boycott of Schools, colleges, o Volunteers went for door-door to boycott the
courts and promotion of charkha foreign cloth, community burning of foreign cloth,
o Role of Students – picketing of Toddy shops etc.
✓ Boycott of Educational Institution in large numbers o Promotion of Khadi was very successful and it
✓ Around 90000 students left government schools & became the uniform of the national movement
colleges o When a student in Madurai complained to Gandhi
✓ C R Das played a prominent role in Bengal while that Khadi was expensive to buy, he suggested for
Subash Chandra Bose became the principle of wearing less clothes. Accordingly, he gave up his
National College in Calcutta Dhoti & Kurta and started wearing only a Langot.
✓ Punjab – Lala Lajpat Rai Soon, Gandhi was acquired the nickname – Half-
✓ Boycott of law courts was not that successful naked Fakir
✓ Many leading lawyers gave up their practise which o July 1921 – Khilafat Committee passed a
included – resolution and urged the Muslims to left the British
• Deshbandhu C R Das Indian Army. In response, Ali Brothers were
• Motilal Nehru arrested for sedition.
• M R Jayakar o Even Gandhi issued a manifesto and asked the
• Saifuddin Kitchlew
• Sardar Vallabhai Patel
• C. Rajagopalachari
• T. Prakasam
• Asaf Ali
Indians to boycott the British government in all its

form.
o November, 1921 – During the visit of Prince of
Wales, the day of Hartal was observed all over
India
181
o Gandhi had lighted a large bonfire of foreign cloth o The Congress Volunteers Corps started acting as
in Elphinstone Mill which was owned by nationalist a parallel Police and country was at the stage of
Umar Sobhani revolt.
o The spread of riots after clash of crowd who
supported Gandhi and Crowd who came returning
from the Prince’s welcome Function
➢ Methods & Programmes-
Constructive Destructive
Aspects Aspects
To develop spirit of Surrender of Tiltles

Dicipline & Sacrifise
Boycott of government
Establishment of National schools & colleges
Education Institutions
Boycoot of Government
Setting up of indigenous Jobs & functions
Arbitration Dispute mechanism
Boycoot of Government
offices & British Court
Abolition of Untouchability
Boycott of Elections to the
Council
Non-Violence & Satyagraha
Boycoot of Foreign goods
Promotion of swadeshi goods and

Hand spining & Hand Weaving
Boycott of elections to central and
provincial legislative assembly
Promotion of Hindu-Muslim Unity
➢ Extent of Participation-
Hasrat Mohani C. Vijayaraghavachari
182
➢ Spread of Movement-
Regions Works
UP o NCM got merged with the Kisan movement
o The peasants followed the methods of riots & violence under the leadership of Baba Ram
Chandra
o Eka Movement of peasants under the guidance of Madari Pasi
Bihar o The several issues like right to graze cattle on government land, right to wear sacred thread
etc. got linked with the NCM
o Major Centres of revolt – Champaran, Saran & Purnia.
Assam o Here, labourers working in Assam tea gardens joined the movement for their personal
cause
o They proclaimed Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai for higher wages & better conditions of work
Rajasthan o Here, Peasants raised the banner of revolt against cesses & begar
o Bijolia movement in Mewar & Bhil Movement under the leadership of Motilal Tejawat
also gained the momentum due to the NCM
Orissa o The tenants of Kanika Raj refused to pay the abwabs
o Abwabs – kinds of taxes or cesses levied by native chiefs on the subjects like house tax,
irrigation tax etc.
Andhra o The issues of tribals & peasants provided impetus to NCM
o Protested against – Forest laws
o They send their cattle into forests for grazing to break forest laws
o Alluri Sitram Raju played a key role in liking of peasants & tribal cause to NCM
Maharashtra o In this province, response was not that positive because of Tilak’s followers did not show
much enthusiasm
o At Malegaon (Nashik) – a few policemen were killed following the arrest of some local
leaders
Karnataka o In Karnataka and parts of Madras presidency, the little participation was seen.
Bengal o Gandhian methods were not very encouraging
o Though Rabindranath Tagore appreciated the Gandhi’s effort but was remain reluctant
to his narrowness & charkha
183
o It brings political awaking amongst the rural and urban masses
➢ Response of Government- ✓ Congress & Khilafat Volunteers Corps were

o May, 1921 – The British Indian Government tried made unlawful
to create a rift between the Gandhi and the leaders ✓ Public meetings & Processions were prohibited
of Khilafat through Gandhi-Reading talks. In this ✓ At many places, police opted for Lathi charge &
meeting, Viceroy Reading tried to persuade and firing at the peaceful Satyagrahis
appease Gandhi so that he could ask the Ali ✓ Offices of Congress & Khilafat raided
Brothers to withdraw from their speeches ✓ All the important leaders were imprisoned except
proclaimed for violence. But the talks were failed Gandhi
o By December, 1921 – Government changed its ✓ In December – The talks were started between the
stand and launched and severe repression measures Lord Reading and Congress through Madan
– Mohan Malaviya. But the repression policy was
continued
➢ Development of NCM up to Chauri – Chaura -
INC session at Ahemdabad (Dec,1921)-

Presided by - C R Das (in Jail)
Acting President - Hakim Ajmal Khan
Result - Gandhi was made as the sole authroity on
the issue to start civil disobedience.
Jan,1922 - All Party Conference

Result - Gandhi discussed his assessment of the Non-
Cooperation Movement
Feb 1,1922 - Gandhi sent a ultimatum to the viceroy and

threatened him of mass civil Disobedience unless
government repression was discontinued & political
prisoners were released
Viceroy unheard the the ultimatum of Gandhi.

Gandhi decided to start the mass civil
disobedience and no tax campaign from
Bardoli (Surat) on 5th Feb,1922.
184
➢ Decline of Non-Cooperation Movement –
o Chauri-Chaura incident (5th Feb, 1922) – o Congress Working Committee (12th Feb, 1922)
✓ At Chauri-Chaura district of Gorakhpur (UP) – – It condemned the Chauri-Chaura incident and
Police tried to stop a procession of the congress and withdrew the Civil Disobedience movement known
Khilafat activists through using force and because as Bardoli resolution.
of this some activists attacked the police. o 10 March, 1922 – Gandhi was arrested and sent to
✓ In return Police open fire on the crowd and entire Yerawada jail (Poona) with 6 years imprisonment.
procession attacked the policemen. When the police o End of Khilafat Movement – In November, 1922,
went inside the police station, the station was set at Mustafa Kamal Pasha declared Turkey as a Secular
fire in which 22 police personnel were killed. and even abolished the Caliphate in 1924. Thus, the
✓ Gandhi was shocked with the incident and withdrew Khilafat movement also came to an end.
the Non-cooperation movement and civil
Disobedience at Bardoli was suspended. He termed ➢ Response of Leaders to withdrawal of NCM-
the movement as ‘Himalayan Blunder’. o Subash Chandra Bose– In his autobiography
named - The Indian Struggle, called it as a
National Calamity
o Jawaharlal Nehru– Expeessed ‘Amazement &
Consternation’ at withdrawal
o Congressmen like C R Das and Motilal Nehru was
also not happy with the withdrawal of NCM
➢ Assessment –
Reasons for withdrawal / Limitations Significance/Achievements

o Chauri-Chaura movement proved that o NCM was the first great mass movement of India. The
people were not trained in the lesson of non- movement witnessed the participation of various classes
violence. and because of this, it assumed the character of true mass
movement.
o The movement was turned as class o The NCM widened the social base of Indian National
movement against Zamindars and the Movement due to participation of peasants and labour class.
efficacy of mass movement was gradually
declining.
o Despite Gandhi’s request of non-violence, o The NCM proved the efficacy of Gandhian form of
the incidence of violence was happened at Struggle. Because of this Gandhi became the undisputed
many places which was not acceptable to leader of NCM.
Gandhian form of struggle
o Gandhi understood that if movement led by o This was the first pan-India movement because agitations
violence could be supressed heavily by the were organised in all parts of India (From South to Northern
government. If repression occurred then the India)
faith of masses would shattered in future for
any form of struggle against the British
government
o By the end of 1921 – Gandhi also realized o The NCM movement exposed the popular nature &
that people is losing their efficacy in the character of INC. The role of Congress led by Gandhi in
185
movement. Students started going back to NCM popularised the INC amongst all the classes of
schools & colleges, lawyers back to courts masses. The Britishers also accepted the popular character
etc. influenced the Gandhi to withdraw the of Congress.
movement before it die naturally
o The movement removed the fear of British rule from the
psyche of Indian people.
o It established the Hindu-Muslim Unity
o This movement prepared the background for mass

movement in future. This movement penetrated the
nationalist spirit amongst the remote parts of India.
OTHER FACTS-
1. Charles Freer Andrews (1871-1940)- o 1923 – President of INC

o He was a Christian Priest and close friend of o Journal – Comrade (English weekly from Calcutta
Gandhi. in 1911) & Hamdard (Urdu Daily, Delhi in 1912)
o He played a key role in convincing Gandhi in o In 1919 – He took the initiative in bringing the
returning to India. Gandhi and Muslim Nationalist Leaders against the
o He was a Christian missionary and educator in British government.
India, o 1920 – He along with Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal
o Gandhi and his students at Stephen College Delhi Khan, Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr.Ansari founded
named him Deenbandhu (friend of poor) for his Jamia Milia Islamia with an objective to promote
contribution in India’s freedom struggle. independent education and social regeneration
amongst the Muslims.
2. Saifuddin Kitchlew (1888-1963)-
o Founder Member of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha 5. Hasrat Mohani (1875 – 1951) -
(Indian Youth Congress) and Jamia Milla o Mohani was an Indian independence activist
Islamia. o He was a noted Urdu poet who wrote under the Pen
o Founder of Urdu daily – Tazim & Swaraj Ashram name – Takhallus.
(Amritsar, 1921). o Founding member of Communist Party of India.
o Strongly opposed the demand of Pakistan. o He had coined the term – Inqilab Zindabad in
o Recipient of Stalin Peace Prize in 1952. 1921.
o First Person to demand Complete Independence
3. Books of Gandhi –
(Poorna Swaraj) for India in 1921 at Ahmedabad
o My Experiments with Truth
o Hind Swaraj Congress Session despite of Gandhi’s opposition.
o 1921 – Also presided the Muslim League session
4. Maulana Mohamad Ali Jauhar (1878-1931)- at Ahmedabad and demanded complete
o He was a journalist and founding member of independence (Azadi-e-Kaamil).
Muslim League.
186
TOPIC- NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1919-29) PART 2

SWARAJISTS AND NO CHANGERS
RISE AND GROWTH OF COMMUNLAISM IN INDIA
SECOND PHASE OF REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM MOVEMENT
GROWTH OF LEFT MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
NATIVE STATES (STATES PEOPLE MOVEMENT)
SIMON COMMISION AND NEHRU REPORT
187
SWARAJISTS AND NO CHANGERS-

➢ After withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement
and Gandhi’s arrest (March 1922), there was
disintegration, disorganisation and demoralisation
among nationalist ranks. A debate started among
Congressmen on what to do during the transition
period, i.e., the passive phase of the movement.
➢ Gaya Session of INC - December, 1922-
o President – C R Das
o Secretary- Motilal Nehru
o Both of them, put forward the proposal of ‘ending ➢ ON 1 JAN,1923- They announced the formation of
or mending’ the councils. Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party or simply
o The opposition was led by C Rajagopalachari. Swarajist Party, with C.R. Das as the president and
o The differences over the question of council entry Motilal Nehru as one of the secretaries. It accepted
between the two schools of thought resulted in the the Congress Programme except in one respect i.e.
defeat of the Swarajist’. It would take part in Council election. Henceforth,
o C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from the a section led by Das-Nehru came to be known as
presidentship and secretary ship respectively of the Swarajist or Pro-Changers and another section
Congress. was known as No-Changers (Orthodox
Gandhians) within the Congress
Pro-Changers No-Changers
o They wanted to participated in Council elections o They wanted to boycott Council entry and focus only
along with constructive programme. on constructive programme.
o Led by – Motilal Nehru and C R Das o Led by – Gandhi (in jail), Sardar Patel, J Nehru, M
A Ansari, C Rajagopalachari & Dr. Rajendra
Prasad.
o Argument- o Arguments –
✓ Entering the councils would not negate the non- ✓ The No-Changers argued that parliamentary work
cooperation programme; in fact, it would be like would lead to neglect of constructive work, loss of
carrying on the movement through other means— revolutionary zeal and to political corruption.
opening a new front. ✓ Constructive work would prepare everyone for the
✓ In a time of political vacuum, council work would next phase of civil disobedience
serve to enthuse the masses and keep up their
morale.
✓ An entry of nationalists would deter the government
from stuffing the councils with undesirable elements
who may be used to provide legitimacy to
government measures.
✓ The councils could be used as an arena of political
struggle; there was no intention to use the councils
as
organs for gradual transformation of colonial rule.
➢ Special Congress Session, 1923, Delhi – o After his release, on 5th Feb, 1924, Gandhi took a
✓ President – Maulana Azad harsh stand against the swarajists.
✓ Here Congressmen i.e. Swarajist got permission o AICC Meeting, June, 1924, Ahmedabad- Gandhi’s
to contest elections. resolution were virtually aimed at eliminating the
➢ Kakinada annual session of Congress,1923- The Swarajists. One Such was Hand Spinning
Swarajist further stated that Non-Cooperation Resolution- It made compulsory for every bearer of
could be practised inside the councils. the Congress to spin 2000 yards of Yarn every
➢ Gandhi’s Attitude – month and the defaulters were to be penalised.
188

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o Eventually, Gandhi dilutes his stand due to ✓ Gandhi gave the swarajists a majority of seats on
following reasons- his working committee.
✓ To avoid the spilt in the Congress on the lines of ✓ Gandhi also stressed on the boycott of foreign
Surat Spilt of 1907. cloth and prescribed constructive programme
✓ Gandhi had full trust in Das and Nehru. He saw like Hindu-Muslim unity, abolition of
them as the most valued and respected leaders untouchability, securing women’s rights etc. as
who had made great sacrifices for the cause of the the chief means for attainment of swaraj.
country. ➢ Swaraj Party-
✓ He felt that the Public opposition to the settled fact
of Council entry would be counterproductive or
could be misunderstood or even seen as a weakness.
✓ The swarajists should not become the limbs of the
government.
✓ By end of 1924- The British government launched
a brutual attack on the civil liberties of swarajists in
Bengal on the pretext of fighting terrorism. Several
Congressmen were arrested including S C Bose and
2 Swarajists – Anil Roy and S C Mitra.
Therefore, Gandhi decided to support the o Aim & objective- The constitution of 1924 laid
Swarajists. down the part’s aim as attainment of swaraj by the
o 6th November, 1924- Gandhi brought the struggle people of India by all legitimate and peaceful
between the Swarajists and no-changers to an end means. The manifesto of the party stated that the
by signing a joint statement with Das and Nehru Swarajists will resort to a policy of uniform,
that the Swaraj Party would carry on work in the continuous and consistent obstruction in the
legislatures on behalf of the Congress and as an council.
integral part of the Congress. o Election Manifesto of Swaraj Party-
o In this way, Gandhi allowed the swarajists as ✓ The guiding motive of the British in governing
agents of the Congress to deal with the India lay in selfish interests of their own country;
government. In return, Swarajists also engaged ✓ The so-called reforms were only a blind to further
themselves in constructive work. the said interests under the pretence of granting a
o Belgaum Congress Session, 1924- responsible government, the real objective being
to continue exploitation of the unlimited resources
of the country by keeping Indians permanently in a
subservient position to Britain;
✓ The Swarajists would present the nationalist
demand of self-government in councils;
✓ If this demand was rejected, they would adopt a
policy of uniform, continuous and consistent
obstruction within the councils to make governance
through councils impossible; Councils would thus
be wrecked from within by creating deadlocks on
✓ President – Gandhi every measure
✓ The Congress approved the Gandhi’s joint
statement between Swarajists and No-changers.
➢ Programme –
INSIDE COUNCIL OUTSIDE COUNCIL
o Refuse Supplies and throw out budget to force recognition o Inter-communal unity
of rights.
o Throw out all proposals which makes bureaucracy all o Removal of untouchability
powerful.
o To help the constructive programme of the Congress. o Organisation of labour in the country
o Follow a definite policy to prevent India’s drain of wealth. o Acquisition of the economic control of
Country
189
o To protect the rights of labour and peasants and adjust the o Establishment of control of nationalists over
relations between landlords and tenants and capitalists and municipal affairs
workers
o Formation of federation of Asiatic countries
to secure mutual solidarity
o Enlisting the support of foreign countries in
securing swaraj
➢ Methods of Swaraj – an independent led by Jinnah. In 1924, it was this

coalition dominated the proceedings of the
legislatures.
o The Swarajists intervened on several issues and

o Method of Sabotage- The policy of continuous, outvoted the government. They mostly focussed on
uniform and consistent obstruction i.e. blocking the 3 issues – Self-government & grant of civil
passage of government bills, creating deadlocks etc. liberties, release of political prisoners and repeal
o Method of patriotism in locomotion – The method of repressive laws and development of
of frequently walking in and walking out. Hence, indigenous industries.
the swarajists earned the nickname of peripatetic o The legislatures formed under the 1919 act did not
patriots. grant real authority to Indians and Governor or
o The Swaraj Party also laid down rules and Viceroy could veto any legislation.
regulations for its members in the legislative o Achievements-
council. ✓ With coalition partners, they out-voted the
➢ Elections- government several times, even on matters relating
o Under the provisions of Government of India Act, to budgetary grants, and passed adjournment
1919 – 3 elections were held namely- 1920, 1923 motions.
and 1926. ✓ They agitated through powerful speeches on self-
✓ 1920- It was boycotted by the Congress due to government, civil liberties and industrialisation.
non-cooperation movement. ✓ 1924- The Nationalist Party led by Swarajists
✓ 1923- The Swarajists participated in the elections rejected the first four demands of the budget and
and secured victory in many provinces. They won did not allow the Finance Bill to be introduced in
absolute majority in Central Provinces and the legislature.
emerged as a single largest party in the central ✓ Vijayaraghavachariar moved
assembly, Bombay and Bengal councils. With this a resolution demanding
victory, they came to be known as Parliamentary provincial autonomy and
wing of the Congress. dominion status for India.
✓ 1926- The Swarajists suffered heavy losses in this
election. Meanwhile, on 16th June, 1925, C R Das ✓ 1924- The Swarajists led by
passed away leaving a great void in the Swaraj Motilal Nehru introduced an amendment
Party. Thus, by the end of 1926, Swaraj Party lost demanding the framing of an Indian Constitution
its ground. by an Indian Constituent Assembly.
➢ Work of Swarajists in the Legislatures- ✓ Motilal also moved a resolution in favour of Round
o In the year, 1924-25, the Swarajists led by Motilal Table Conference to recommend a scheme of
Nehru registered many victories in the Central responsible government. This forced the
Legislative Assembly. government to appoint a Reforms Enquiry
o In Feb, 1924- The Swarajists (not being in majority) Committee under Sir Alexander Muddiman to
formed a coalition of 70 members and came to be inquire into the working of the Act of 1919 and
known as Nationalist Party which consists of suggest remedies. The Government also requested
individuals such as Madan Mohan Malviya and eminent Indians like Motilal Nehru, T B Sapru etc
190
to serve on the committee which was turned down o The No-Changers devoted themselves to
as per the principle of the Swarajists. constructive work that connected them to the
✓ The Swarajists also refused to attend the parties of different sections of the masses.
the viceroy. o Ashrams sprang up where young men and women
✓ When the recommendation of the Lee Commission worked among tribals and lower castes (especially
(To inquire into organisation of civil services in in Kheda and Bardoli areas of Gujarat), and
India), were introduced in the legislature for popularised the use of charkha and khadi.
approval, Motilal moved a resolution which was o National schools and colleges were set up where
carried by a majority of vote. students were trained in a non-colonial ideological
✓ In Bengal and Central Province, where Swarajist framework.
Party was in a majority, it virtually blew up the o Significant work was done for Hindu-Muslim
Dyarchy with its methods of obstruction. unity, removing untouchability, boycott of
✓ Vithalbhai Patel was elected speaker/President foreign cloth and liquor, and for flood relief.
of Central Legislative Assembly in 1925. o The constructive workers served as the backbone
✓ A noteworthy achievement was the defeat of the of civil disobedience as active organisers.
Public Safety Bill in 1928 which was aimed at o Thus, the constructive work provided a common
empowering the Government to deport undesirable platform to both the factions of the Congress –
and subversive foreigners (because the Government the Swarajist and no-changers.
was alarmed by the spread of socialist and ➢ A Critique/Drawbacks on Constructive
communist ideas and believed that a crucial role Programme-
was being played by the British and other foreign
activists being sent by the Commintern).
✓ By their activities, they filled the political vacuum
at a time when the national movement was
recouping its strength.
✓ They exposed the hollowness of the Montford
scheme.
✓ They demonstrated that the councils could be used
creatively. o National education benefited the urban lower
o Drawbacks- middle classes and the rich peasants only.
✓ The Swarajists lacked a policy to coordinate their o Enthusiasm for national education surfaced in the
militancy inside legislatures with the mass excitement of the movement only.
struggle outside. They relied totally on newspaper o In passivity, the lure of degrees and jobs took the
reporting to communicate with the public. students to official schools and colleges.
✓ An obstructionist strategy had its limitations. o Popularisation of khadi was an uphill task since it
✓ They could not carry on with their coalition was costlier than the imported cloth.
partners very far because of conflicting ideas, o While campaigning about the social aspect of
which further limited their effectiveness. untouchability, no emphasis was laid on the
✓ They failed to resist the perks and privileges of economic grievances of the landless and
power and office. agricultural labourers comprising mostly the
✓ They failed to support the peasants’ cause in untouchables.
Bengal and lost support among Muslim members o Although the Swarajists and the No-changers
who were pro-peasant. worked in their separate ways, they kept on best of
➢ Constructive work by No-Changers and terms with one another and were able to unite
Swarajists- whenever the time was ripe for a new political
struggle.
➢ Decline of Swarajists –
o Lure of Office- Later, the Swarajists began to
accept offices and sat on various committees. For
instance, Motilal Nehru sat on Skeen Committee
and Ramaswamy Iyengar sat on Public Accounts
Committee.
o Rise of the spirit of Responsive Cooperation-
✓ The Swarajist Party split into 2 wings-
Responsivists and Non -Cooperation.
191
✓ Responsivists- They wanted to work for reform RISE AND GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM
and hold offices wherever possible. They were IN INDIA-
Madan Mohan Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai and M
R Jayakar, N C Kelkar (All of them became ➢ Meaning – Communalism refers to the allegiance
members of Hindu Mahasabha). to one’s own ethnic group or religious
✓ Non-Cooperation – Leaders like Motilal Nehru community rather than to the society as whole.
belonged to this group and by pointing ➢ Myths regarding Communalism –
Responsivists said that the diseased limb of the o Communalism is not merely the entry of religion
Swaraj Party must be amputated. into politics.
✓ Elitist Outlook of the Swarajists – The Swarajists o Communalism is not caused by religious
represented the upper-class elements of the differences.
Congress had not much faith in direct mass action. o Communalism did not exist in Indian society. It is
Lack of any sound ideological basis, preoccupation a product of a combination of forces in modern
with party politics and lukewarm support to the India.
constructive work distanced the swarajists from the o Factors responsible for rise and growth of
masses. communalism in India –
o Rising Communalism – o Role of socio-economic factors in 19th century in
✓ After 1923- Communalism raised its ugly head and India
the country was repeatedly plunged into communal ✓ The decline of Mughal empire and rise of Britishers
riots. The Muslim League and the Hindu in India was accompanied by the decline of power
Mahasabha were two important communalist and prestige of upper-class Muslims.
parties in India. ✓ The upper-class Muslims were deprived of their
✓ By 1927- An ideological gap was emerged between landholdings and employment in upper posts of
the Swarajists and Hindu Mahasabha. As a army, administration and judiciary.
result, the Responsivists Madan Mohan Malviya ✓ Whereas, Hindus adopted faster than Muslims to
and Lala Lajpat Rai organised a new party of English education, new posts in administration
Congress independents. The leaders of Hindu and culture give rise to the Hindu middle class.
Mahasabha started cooperating the British ✓ Also, the socio-cultural reforms among Hindus
government in securing the rights of Hindu and came early as compare to Muslims.
even blamed Motilal Nehru as anti-Hindu. ✓ Later the Muslim scholars like Sir Syed Ahmad
✓ Later, Motilal tried to make a peace between the two Khan, Abdul Latif etc., Muslims also took to new
factions of the Congress at Sabarmati. However, English education and sought employment in
Sabarmati compromise proved abortive and failed government services.
to keep party united. ✓ According to Jawaharlal Nehru, a conflict arose
✓ In September, 1924- Gandhi wen on a 21 day fast among the Hindu and Muslim middle classes for
in the house of Maulana Muhammad Ali at Delhi state services and this was the beginning of
to do penance for the inhumanity inflicted during communal problem in India.
riots.
o Disintegration of Nationalist Party- Note- Communalism was an expression of the
✓ Before the elections of 1926, the Nationalist Party interests and aspirations of the middle classes in a
(formed in 1924 which was led by Swarajists) had social situation in which opportunities for them
broke down into 3 clear groups- were grossly in ad equate. The communal question
The Swaraj Party or Congress Party therefore, a middle-class question, par excellence.
The Nationalist Party led by Madan Mohan By Bipin Chandra.
Malviya and Lala Lajpat Rai (included Responsive
nationalists and Hindu Mahasabha leaders and o Role of British Policy-
independent Congressmen). ✓ The British policy of divide and rule played a
The Independent Party led by M A Jinnah. significant role in the rise of communalism in India.
o Swaraj party remerge with the Congress- ✓ It must be remembered that the British did not
✓ Calcutta Congress Session, 1928 – In this session, create communalism but they only took advantage
the Swarajist merged with the Congress and gave of the condition ripe for communalism in India.
ultimatum to the British government for the ✓ After the revolt of 1857, the British started
acceptance of Nehru Report by 1929. The Congress appeasing the Muslims in the form of various
started preparing for next mass struggle. concessions.
o Unscientific view on Indian History-
192
✓ The British writer deliberately presented a Aligarh Muslim University

communal and distorted view of Indian History ✓ He also decided to oppose the Congress by
to spread communalist feelings in India. organising a movement of loyalty to the British rule
✓ British Historian James Mill- described the ancient along with Raja Shiv Prasad of Banaras.
period of Indian History as the Hindu period and ✓ In 1888- He set up United Indian Patriotic
medieval period as the Muslim period. This Association to counter the Congress and keep
interpretation was not true in any form. people away from joining the Congress.
✓ In this way, Sir Sayed Ahmad Khan’s ideology
Note – One Communalism does not end the other, provided the 3 main themes of communalism-
each feed on the other and fatten. By J. Nehru Opposition to unifying nationalist forces
Opposition to democratic forces
Loyalty to the British.
o Communal side effects of 19th century o Hindu Overtone of National Movement –
revivalism- ✓ The nationalist movement acquired a Hindu
✓ An emergence of socio-cultural awakening in overtone which also contributed for the rise of
India led to development of society in India but it communalism in India.
also indirectly contributed for the rise of ✓ For instance, many extremists introduced strong
communalism. Hindu elements in nationalist propaganda.
✓ For instance, the Wahhabis preached Dar-ul-Islam o Role of Communal Organisations-
(the world of Islam) and conversion of people in ✓ The foundation of All India Muslim League
India into Muslims, and Shuddhi movement by Arya (1906) and All India Hindu Mahasabha (1915)
Samaj. further aggravated the crisis of communalism in
o Role of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan – India.
✓ The British Government smartly used these
✓ Sir Ahmad Khan founded the communal organisations to counter the rising tide of
Aligarh College and preached nationalism led by Congress.
the harmony between the o Weakness of Nationalist force-
Muslims and Hindus. ✓ The national forces or leaders failed to check the
✓ However, his stand was changed rising tide of communalism in India.
after the foundation of Congress ✓ The Congress failed to comprehend the
in 1885. communalism in India although it tries best to
✓ He disapproved the Congress by terming it as a eradicate it.
Hindu body. He also stressed that India was a
Hindu majority state where the Hindus would Note- 1) We divide and they rule by Maulana
dominate the Muslims once the transfer of power Mohammad Ali
takes place. 2) The question of minority and majority
community is a creation of the British government
and would disappear with their withdrawal. By
Gandhi
o Growth of Communalism in 20th Century-

Developments Important Information
Partition of Bengal o The British government partitioned the Bengal in 1905 with an objective to divide the
(1905) population of Bengal region into religious lines.
o Although the partition was annulled in 1911 due to success of Swadeshi and boycott
movement but it created a gulf between the Hindus and Muslims.
193
Shimla Deputation o A deputation headed by Aga Khan met Lord Minto at Shimla on October, 1906.
(1906)
o They showed loyalty to the British crown and demanded for separate electorates for
Muslims.
o The nationalist leaders including Congress criticsed this deputation.

o Maulana Azad called it a Command Performance.
Formation of Muslim o Following the Shimla deputation, the Muslim leaders founded the All India Muslim
League, 1906 League on 30th December,1906 under the leadership of Nawab Salimullah of Dacca and
with the government patronage, as a political organisation dedicated to advance
Muslim political interests.
o Other founding members- Aga Khan & Nawab Mosin-ul-Malik
Nawab Salimullah of Dacca

o The League under Nationalists (1913-23)-
194
✓ During this period, the league came under the influence of Muslim leaders who
overshadowed the Loyalists.
✓ There was a section of patriotic Muslims who recognised the weakness of the League
and founded the militantly nationalist Ahrar Movement which consists of leaders like
Maulana Mohammad Ali, Maulana Mazhar ul Haq, Hussain Imam and Hakim Ajmal
Khan. They were driven by the modern ideas of local self-government and actively
participated in militant national movement.
o Introduction of Separate Electorates (1909) – Morley Minto reforms of 1909 provided
separate electorates to the Muslims.
Formation of the o 1909- Arya Samaj leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai, Lal Chand and Shadi Lal established
Hindu the Punjab Hindu Sabha and its first session was held at Lahore which was presided
Mahasabha,1915 by Madan Mohan Malviya.
o 1910- Some prominent Hindus of Allahabad organising themselves into All India Hindu
Mahasabha.
o
o 1915- Finally, the first session of All India Hindu Mahasabha was held during the
Kumbh Mela at Haridwar under the Presidentship of Maharaja of Kasim Bazar.
o In coming years, Shuddhi and Sangathan became the objectives of the Sabha.
o It also gave the slogan of Akhand Hindustan against the League’s demand for Pakistan.
o 1938- V D Savarkar became the President of the Hindu Mahasabha. Under him, Sabah
developed a political programme.
o He popularised the concept of Hindu Rashtra maintaining that India comprised of one
nation i.e. only the Hindu nation and the Muslims must accept their position as a minority.
o After Savarkar’s death, Hindu Mahasabha was led by Shyama Prasad Mokherjee who
had a more nationalistic outlook
Lucknow Pact,1916 o Through this pact, Congress accepted the League’s demand for separate electorates to
obtain League’s support, thus formally recognising the communal politics in India. (We
have covered the Lucknow Pact in detail in our previous chapter).
Khilafat Movement o Gandhi and Indian National Congress supported the religious Khilafat cause to gain the
and NCM (1920-23) support Muslim leaders and masses in the National movement.
o However, Majority of Muslims were not secular and left the NCM when Khilafat issue
was resolved.
o This encouraged the wrong habit of looking at political questions from the religious
point of view.
Revival of o Communal riots were occurred at unprecedented scale.
Communalism after o The Congress failed to evolve a suitable strategy to deal with communalism.
195
the withdrawal of o Tabligh (Propaganda) and Tanzim (Organisation) arose among the Muslims.
NCM o Shuddhi and Sangathan amongst the Hindus.
o RSS was founded in 1925.
Simon o In this commission, no single Indian was included which once again provided an
Commission,1927 opportunity for unity.
Delhi Proposal, 1927 o A group of Muslim leaders meet at Delhi in December, 1927 with M A Jinnah presiding
the session.
o In this session, they agreed to forego separate electorates and instead put 4 proposals
for acceptance.
o The Proposals came to be known as Delhi Proposals.
o In December,1927- In Madras Congress Session, the Congress accepted the most of

the demands of Delhi proposals.
o However, the Muslim League split over the issue and a separate annual session of the
League was held at Lahore under the Presidentship of Sir Mian Mohammad Shafi,
worsening the communal situation in India.
o The demands were also rejected by Hindu Mahasabha at All Parties Conference held
at Calcutta,1928.
o Jinnah also rejected the Nehru Report calling it parting of the ways.
o He went back for separate electorates and formulated his 14 points which became the
text of Communal demands.
o It led to the hostility of most Muslim leaders towards CDM.
Era of Extreme o Muslim league did not support the CDM.
Communalism (after o Communal/MacDonald Award,1932 (will discuss in detail in upcoming chapter)
1928) o In 1937 elections, Congress emerged victorious and Muslim League lost immensely.
o In order to achieve its aim, the League led by Jinnah launched a massive campaign for
popularisation of the League. The Congress advised the league members to sign the
Congress pledge and become its members.
o In reply, Jinnah dubbed the Congress a Hindu organisation out to crush all minorities.
The League now began to spread the cry that Muslim minority was in a danger.
o It also put forth the unhistorical theory that Hindus and Muslims were two separate
nations which could hope never live together.
o In 1938- The League appointed a Committee under the Chairmanship of Raja of Pirpur,
to report on the oppression of the Muslims under Congress Ministries.
o The Pirpur report intentionally design and developed false cases of Muslim oppression
in Congress ministries by the Hindus.
o In October,1939- When the Congress Ministries resigned, the League observed it as a
Day of Deliverance and Thanks giving.
o Finally, in 1940- The Muslim League at the Lahore session propounded the two-nation
theory. The Press was quick to describe the resolution as demand for Pakistan, also
known as Pakistan Resolution/ Lahore Resolution.
196
o The Hindu Mahasabha and other Hindu communal organisations declared that India was
the land of the Hindus, thus reinforcing the two-nation theory.
o In 1947, Jinnah transformed the Communalism into mass force through unfair means
ultimately leading to the partition of India and formation of separate state Pakistan.
The Pakistan o 1930- At the Allahabad Session of Muslim League, Mohammad Iqbal (poet and
Movement political thinker) first put forth an idea of separate state for Muslims.
o `1933- An idea was further consolidated and the word Pakistan was coined by Rahmat
Ali.
o He visualised the Punjab, Afghan (NWFP), Kashmir, Sindh and Baluchistan as the
national home of Indian Muslims and coined the term Pakistan.
o 1940-Lahore Session of Muslim League- Demand for Separate State of Pakistan was
formally made by Jinnah.
o 1947- Partition of India and Pakistan came into existence.
o In 1922, during the Gaya Congress Session, Ram

SECOND PHASE OF REVOLUTIONARY Prasad Bismil opposed Gandhi’s withdrawal of
TERRORISM – Non-Cooperation Movement.
o Because of this, INC got divided into two groups-
➢ Background- The Swarajist and Revolutionary Party.
o The revolutionary movement that emerged in India o Subsequently, Bismil drafted the constitution of
after 1922 developed into two strands- One in new party known as Yellow Paper Constitution
(Punjab, UP, Bihar and MP) and others in with the help of his associates and it was later
Bengal. adopted at the first constitutional committee at
o In both the regions, the revolutionary terrorist Kanpur (1924).
movement moved away from individual heroism
and religious nationalism to mass based secular
movement.
197
Ram Prasad Bismil

➢ Major Influences-Upsurge of working-class
trade unionism after the War the revolutionaries Jogesh Chatterjee
wanted to harness the revolutionary potential of the ✓ Objectives-
new emergent class for nationalist revolution. To overthrow the British rule through an armed
o Russian Revolution (1917) and the success of the revolution.
young Soviet state in consolidating itself. To establish a federal Republic of United States
o Newly sprouting communist groups with their of India with a government elected on Universal
emphasis on Marxism, socialism and the Adult Franchise.
proletariat. o HRA Ideology-
o Journals publishing memoirs and articles extolling ✓ Its ideology was based on communistic and
the self-sacrifice of revolutionaries, such as revolutionary principle.
Atmasakti, Sarathi and Bijoli. ✓ Its manifesto- The Revolutionary declared that it
o Role of Sachindranath Sanyal- stood for abolition of all systems which make the
✓ He wrote Bandi Jawan- The textbook of Indian exploitation of men by men possible.
revolutionaries ✓ It also proposed the nationalisation of Railways
✓ He also wrote- HRA Manifesto, the and large-scale industries on the lines of Soviet
revolutionary, Sanyal vs Gandhi debate was Union.
published in Young India during 1920-24. ✓ It also planned to start Peasants and Labour
✓ He was the mentor of revolutionaries like organisation and work towards an organised
Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh. armed rebellion.
o Role of Sarathachnadra Chatterjee-
✓ He wrote Pather Dabi (1926) meaning the o Kakori Robbery (9th August, 1925)
demands of the road.
✓ The book is named after the secret society named
Pather Dabi.
➢ Revolutionaries in Northern India-

o Hindustan Republican Association or Army
(HRA, Kanpur, October, 1924)-
✓ The revolutionaries were reorganised by Ram
Prasad Bismil, Sachindranath Sanyal and
Jogesh Chatterjee.
✓ The most important action of the HRA was the

Kakori robbery. The men held up the 8-Down
train at Kakori, an obscure village near Lucknow,
and looted its official railway cash.
✓ Government crackdown after the Kakori robbery
led to arrests of many, of whom 17 were jailed, four
transported for life and four—Bismil, Ashfaqullah,
Roshan Singh and Rajendra Lahiri were
Sachindranath Sanyal
hanged.
✓ In October, 1924- These revolutionaries founded
Hindustan Republic Association/Army at
✓ In his message from the Prison, Ramprasad Bismil
Kanpur.
urged the youth to give up the desires for revolvers
and pistols, not to get involved in Secret
198
✓ The HSRA decided to work under a collective

leadership and adopted socialism as its official
goal.
✓ The Philosophy of the Bomb- Written by
Bhagwati Charan Vohra with the help of
Chandrashekhar Azad and Yashpal.
Conspiracies but to work in open movement. He
had also urged them to establish communal
harmony and work together under the leadership pf
Congress to overthrow British rule.
✓ Chandrashekhar Azad
was the only HRA leader
who succeeded in escaping
arrest. He lived under
cover for a long period
under the Pseudonym of Bhagwati Charan Vohra
Pandit Harishankar ✓ Henceforth the members also decided to finance
Brahmachari. their activities only by looting government
treasuries and not by targeting private
o Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/Army individuals.
o Saunders Murder Case\ Second Lahore
Conspiracy Case-
Sukhdev
✓ Determined to overcome the Kakori setback, the ✓ when the HSRA revolutionaries had begun to move
younger revolutionaries, inspired by socialist ideas, away from individual heroic action, the death of
set out to reorganise Sher-i-Punjab Lala Lajpat Rai due to lathi blows
o Hindustan Republic Association at a historic received during a lathi- charge on an anti-Simon
meeting in the ruins of Ferozshah Kotla in Delhi Commission procession (October 1928) led them
(9-10th September 1928). once again to take to individual assassination.
✓ Under the leadership of Chandra Shekhar Azad, ✓ On 17th December, 1928- Bhagat Singh, C Azad,
the name of HRA was changed to Hindustan Sukhdev and Rajguru a police officer Saunders in
Socialist Republican Lahore, instead of James Scott who had ordered the
Association (HSRA). The police to lathi-charge the protestors.
participants included
Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev,
Bhagwaticharan Vohra
from Punjab and Bejoy
Kumar Sinha, Shiv
Verma and Jaidev
Kapur from the United
Provinces.
Rajguru
✓ It redefined revolution as “Independence, social, ✓ The assassination was justified with these words:
political and economic aimed at establishing anew “The murder of a leader respected by millions of
order of society in which Political and economic people at the unworthy hands of an ordinary police
exploitation would be an impossibility.” officer...was an insult to the nation. It was the
bounden duty of young men of India to efface it...
We regret to have had to kill a person but he was
199
part and parcel of that inhuman and unjust order

which has to be destroyed.”
o Assembly Bomb Case (April, 1929)-
revolutionaries were tried in a series of other cases.

In jail, these revolutionaries protested against the
horrible conditions through fasting, and demanded
honourable and decent treatment as political
prisoners.
✓ Jatin Das (Jatindranath Das) became the first
✓ The HSRA leadership now decided to let the people
martyr the 64th day of his fast. He died fasting after
know about its changed objectives and the need for
64 days of long hunger in protest against the
a revolution by the masses.
horrible conditions in jail.
✓ The following were the objectives-
To erase the impression that the people of Lahore
had to suffer because of their doings.
To use the case trail as a forum to propagating the
new ideology and programme of HSRA.
To spread an awareness regarding the need for a
revolution by the masses.
To protest against the passage of the Public Safety
Bill and Trade Disputes Bill aimed at curtailing
civil liberties of citizens in general and workers in Jatin Das
particular. ✓ The defence of these young revolutionaries was
organised by Congress leaders. Bhagat Singh
became a household name.
✓ Azad was involved in a bid to blow up Viceroy
Irwin’s train near Delhi in December 1929. During
1930 there were a series of violent actions in Punjab
and towns of United Provinces (26 incidents in
1930 in Punjab alone). Azad died in a police
encounter in a park in Allahabad in February
1931.
Batukeshwar Dutta
✓ Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt had thrown
a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on
April 8, 1929.
✓ The bombs had been deliberately made harmless
and were aimed at making ‘the deaf hear’. The
objective was to get arrested and to use the trial
court as a forum for propaganda so that people
would become familiar with their movement and
ideology.
✓ Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged
o Second Lahore Conspiracy Case Trials – on March 23, 1931.
✓ Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were tried ➢ Revolutionaries in Bengal-

in the Lahore conspiracy case. Many other o Background-
200
J M Sengupta
✓ During the 1920s many revolutionary groups
reorganised their underground activities, while ✓ He was imprisoned from 1926 to 1928 for
many continued working under the Congress, thus revolutionary activity and afterwards continued
getting access to the masses and providing an working in the Congress.
organisational base to the Congress in towns and ✓ He was the secretary of the Chittagong District
villages. Congress Committee. He used to say” Humanism
✓ Many cooperated with C.R. Das in his Swarajist. is a special virtue of a revolutionary.” He was a
work. After Das’s death (1925), the Bengal lover of poetry and an admirer of Tagore and Qazi
Congress broke up into two factions—one led by Nazrul Islam.
J.M. Sengupta (Anushilan group joined forces ✓ Surya Sen decided to organise an armed rebellion
with him) and the other led by Subhash Bose along with his associates—Anant Singh, Ganesh
(Yugantar group backed him). Ghosh and Lokenath Paul and Ambika
✓ The actions of the reorganised groups included an Chakravarty —to show that it was possible to
assassination attempt on the notorious Calcutta challenge the armed might of the mighty British
Police Commissioner, Charles Tegart (another Empire.
man named Day got killed) by Gopinath Saha in
1924. The government, armed with a new
ordinance, came down heavily on revolutionaries.
Surya Sen
✓ They had planned to occupy two main armouries in
Chittagong to seize and supply arms to the
revolutionaries to destroy telephone and telegraph
lines and to dislocate the railway link of Chittagong
Gopinath Saha
with the rest of Bengal.
✓ Many including Subhash Bose were arrested.
✓ The raid was conducted in April 1930 and involved
Gopinath Saha was hanged. Because of
65 activists under the banner of Indian Republican
government repression and factionalism among the
Army—Chittagong Branch.
revolutionaries, revolutionary activity suffered a
✓ A raid was successful. A smaller group of 6 young
setback, but soon many of revolutionaries started
men led by Ganesh Ghosh captured the Police
regrouping.
Armoury.
✓ Among the new ‘Revolt Groups’, the most active
✓ All the revolutionaries gathered around the Police
and famous was the Chittagong group under Surya
armoury where Surya Sen hoisted the National
Sen.
Flag and was declared the President of the
Provincial Revolutionary Government.
o The Chittagong Armoury Raid (18th April,1930)-
✓ Later, the revolutionaries left the town and took
refuge on the Chittagong Hill Ranges. On 22nd
✓ Surya Sen had participated in the Non-Cooperation
April,1930, they got surrounded by British troops
Movement and had become a teacher in the national
on the Jalalabad Hills.
school in Chittagong. Because of this, he was
✓ Surya Sen successfully escaped to neighbouring
popularly known as Masterda
villages.
201
✓ Surya Sen was arrested in February 1933 and o Support from Muslim Community-
hanged in January 1934, but the Chittagong raid Some of the earlier tendency towards Hindu
fired the imagination of the revolutionary-minded religiosity was shed, and there were no more rituals
youth and recruits poured into the revolutionary like oath taking, and this facilitated participation by
groups in a steady stream Muslims. Surya Sen had Muslims such as Satar,
Mir Ahmed, Fakir Ahmed Mian and Tunu Mian
o Novel Aspects of New phase of Revolutionary in his group.
Movement in Bengal- Surya Sen and his men were given active support
✓ Role of Women- There was a large-scale from Muslim villagers.
participation of young women especially under One of the Revolt Groups was founded by Abdul
Surya Sen. These women provided shelter, carried Razzaque Khan of Calcutta.
messages and fought with guns in hand. Siraj-ul-Haq and Hamid-ul-Haq were sentenced
Prominent women revolutionaries in Bengal during to Andamans for their revolutionary activities.
this phase included Dr. Fazlul Kader Choudhary of Bogra
Pritilata Waddedar, who died conducting a raid participated in Hijli Robbery and was sent to
Andaman.
Rezia Khatun was also associated with Yugantar
and Anushilan Samitis.
o Drawbacks-
✓ The movement retained some conservative
elements.
✓ It failed to evolve broader socio-economic goals.
✓ Those working with Swarajists failed to support the
Kalpana Dutt who was arrested and tried along cause of Muslim peasantry against zamindars in
with Surya Sen and given a life sentence Bengal.
➢ Decline of Revolutionary Terrorist Movement

(Second Phase)-
o The British Government came down heavily on the
revolutionaries. An action of the government like
severe imprisonment, hanged till death,
repression of combined group like of Surya sen
army etc become a one of the important for the
Santi Ghosh and decline of this movement.
Suniti Chanderi, o An encounter of Chandrashekhar Azad at
school girls of Comilla, who shot dead the district Allahabad marking the virtual end of the
magistrate. (December 1931) revolutionary movement in Northern India.
and Bina Das who fired point blank at the governor o Surya Sen’s Martyrdom marked an end of
while receiving her degree at the convocation revolutionary movement in Bengal.
(February 1932). o Above all, the mainstream national movement
had come under the leadership of Gandhi, fully
committed to non-violent struggle which led to
neglect of all other forms of struggle for
independence of India.
➢ Significance-
o The second phase of revolutionary movement failed
in its objective of violent overthrow of British rule
and organised a mass -based armed struggle. But
the revolutionaries succeeded in stirring the Indian
✓ Group Action-There was an emphasis on group people with their patriotism and sacrifice.
action aimed at organs of the colonial State, instead o The movement inspired Indian youth with their
of individual action. The objective was to set an courage and heroic actions and restored in them a
example before the youth and to sense of pride and self-confidence.
demoralise the bureaucracy.
202
o The second phase of revolutionaries were o Communism- It functioned as a branch of the

intellectuals of a high order who succeeded in International Communist Movement under the
giving a socialist orientation to the movement. name of Communist Party of India.
o The Slogan of Inqlaab Zindabad which later o The Congress Socialist Party aimed to establish
became the chief slogan of the freedom movement socialist democracy.
was first popularised by the revolutionaries.
o Many of the nationalist leaders including Gandhi ➢ Circumstances leading to growth of Left
admired their patriotism, courage and deep love ideology in India-
for Indian people.
o Gandhi had observed- Our heads bend before
Bhagat Singh’s bravery and sacrifice.
o The All India Congress Committee observed 18th
August, 1929 as Political sufferers’ day All over
India.
GROWTH OF LEFT OVEMENTS IN INDIA-

➢ Basic Terms-
o Left- Left is generally considered to be Great Depression 1929
synonymous with Socialism. Lefts are such groups, o Post-war Economic Recession-
ideology and movements which stand for -radical ✓ After the end of first world war, due to shortage of
reforms in socio-economic structure keeping in demand in the market, the industrialists and
mind the interests of oppressed sections of the employers were unwilling to raise the wages.
society. ✓ Also, the prices of commodities were also rising
o Right- Rightists are such groups which are opposed which annoyed the workers not only in India but
to any change in the existing socio-economic order. also globally.
o Centrists- These group of people stands for limited ✓ Employers also removed workers which led to
change in socio-economic order. unemployment of labourers.
o Socialism- It is an ideology aimed at ending an ✓ Hence, it become an initial factor for the rise of
exploitation of a vast majority of helpless humanity leftist ideology in India.
by handful of powerful minority. It aims at establish o Ideas of Marx and Russian Revolution-
social and economic equality in society. ✓ The Communist theory of Marx and its product the
o Communism- It is the Philosophical, political, Russian Revolution of 1917 also influenced the
social and economic ideology and movement leftist ideology in India.
whose ultimate goal is the establishment of ✓ Russian Revolution was the first political and
Communist Society which consists of common economic experiment based on Marxist and
ownership of means of production, Absence of communist ideology.
social classes, Capital and the State. It is based on ✓ The model of Russian Communist government
the publication of Communist Manifesto by two successfully brought the Economic reforms
German Political thinkers- Karl Marx and whereas western Capitalist countries were facing
Friedrich Engels. severe recession.
o Marxism- It refers to political and economic ✓ All these developments greatly influenced the
theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels later workers and peasants of India.
developed by their followers to form the basis of o Formation of third Communist International (or
communism. Comintern)-
o Difference Between Socialism and Communism- ✓ In 1919, the Communist Government of Russia
Socialism- It is a primarily an economic system that helped in the formation of Third Communist
can exist in various forms under wide range of International or International Organisation of
political systems. different countries.
Communism- It is a primarily a political system ✓ Its aim was assist Communist revolution all over the
which tends to centre on a one-party state that bans world.
most of political dissent. Communism is regarded ✓ Here, Indian leader M N Roy also participated.
as extreme form of Socialism or hard left. o Rise of Trade Union in India-
✓ The workers began to organise themselves to
➢ Two Streams in Left Movement- demand better working conditions and higher
wages.
203
✓ This led to the rise of trade Unions which in turn

prepared the ground for the formation of Leftist
Political Parties.
o Gandhi and Mass mobilisation-
✓ Under the leadership of Gandhi, the country saw its
first true mass national movement in India in the
form of Non-Cooperation movement.
✓ For the first time, the Peasants, workers, Tribals
and Women’s actively participated in this
movement. M N Roy
✓ This provided a fertile ground for the development ✓ Roy said that the Bourgeois nationalists were
of Socialist movement in India. opposed to any progress and that the Communists
o Unsatisfied Nationalists- should carry on their struggle against imperialism
✓ In India, the Left ideology attracted the nationalists independently by forming parties of workers and
who were unhappy with the Gandhian method of peasants.
struggle. For instance, Revolutionaries like Bhagat ✓ It was finally decided that the Communists would
Singh C Azad etc. extend support to the Bourgeois nationalists in the
✓ Also, a section of educated middle class frustrated struggle against imperialism. They would also
with the 19th Century liberalism in the face of work independently by allying directly with the
growing unemployment. Peasants and workers.
✓ These unsatisfied nationalists and frustrated
educated middle class were deeply attracted to the
Leftist ideology in India.
o Economic Depression of 1929-
✓ In the year 1929, USA and other western countries
experienced severe economic slowdown which
includes pay cut, unemployment, inflation etc.
✓ On the other hand, Russia’s Socialist Economy was M N ROY at Tashkent
growing in a good scale. o The Communist Party of India was founded by M
✓ In this way, the Great Depression of 1929, brought N Roy in Tashkent in October,1920. Here, he also
Capitalism into disrepute and drew attention established a military school for training the Indian
towards socialism and communism. border tribes for an armed revolt against the British
rule.
➢ Communist Party of India- o The original name of M N Roy was Narendranath
o Roy-Lenin Debate- Bhattacharya
o In 1922- Roy began publishing his own journal-
Vanguard (official mouthpiece of CPI)
Lenin
✓ In July-August 1920- M N Roy attended the second
Congress of the Communist International at
Mexico.
✓ Lenin’s view- He held that the Communists should
extend active support to the revolutionary ➢ Peshawar Conspiracy Case (1922-23)
movements carried by the Bourgeois (middle o In Tashkent, thousands of Muslim Mujahirs
class). (Pilgrims) joined Roy’s military school due to
disappointment of British attitude towards the
Sultan of Turkey.
o During their return to India, they were caught by the
Police and tried at Peshawar.
204
o This came to be known as Peshawar Conspiracy

Case in which several Mujahirs were sentenced to
rigorous imprisonment including Mian
Mohammad Akbar Shah and Gawhar Rahman
Khan.
➢ Early Communist Group-

o Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, Bhupendranath
Dutt and Barkatullah – These revolutionaries Shaukat Usmani
were working outside India converted to Marxism.
o Shripad Amrit Dange- ➢ Formation of Indian Communist Party of India
(CPI)-
✓ He turned to Communism
after the suspension of non-
cooperation movement.
✓ He organised an early
communist group in
Bombay.
✓ In 1921- He published a
book named Gandhi vs
Lenin in which he showed
his preference for Lenin.
✓ 1922- He founded The Socialist (The first socialist
weekly in India).
✓ 16th September, 1924- S A Dange through his o Sept 1, 1924- Satyabhakta founded the Indian
journal The Socialist announced the formation of Communist Party at Kanpur with himself as a
the Indian Socialist Labour Party of the Indian secretary.
National Congress.
o Singarvelu Chettier- He announced the formation
of the Labour – Kisan Party of Hindustan
(May,1923, Madras) and founded the labour
Kisan Gazette.
Satyabhakta
o Its Provincial constitution declared that the
attainment of complete Independence and
reorganisation of Indian society along communists’
lines as goal.
o 26th December, 1925- Satyabhakta organised an All
India Conference of the Communists at Kanpur
➢ Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case, 1924- under the Presidentship of Singarvelu Chettier.
o The British government was hostile towards Indian
Communists.
o In 1924- The British government initiated a
conspiracy case against the 4 leading communists-
S A Dange, Nalini Gupta, Muzaffar Ahmad and
Shaukat Usmani alleging that they had started a
revolutionary organisation with the aim of
overthrowing British rule in India.
o This case was came to be known as Kanpur
Conspiracy Case as trial was held at Kanpur.
o May 1924- All 4 accused were sentenced to 4 years
rigorous imprisonment.
205
o The Kanpur Conference is regarded as the formal ✓ The formation of this party was attended by the
beginning of the Communist Party of India. British Communist Philips Spratt.
o The CPI was formally affiliated to the Communist ✓ By 1928- All these provincial organisations were
International in 1930. renamed as Workers and Peasants Party and
transformed into an All India Party.
➢ Formation of Workers and Peasants Parties- ✓ All communists were the members of this party.
o Labour Swaraj Party (Bengal 1925-26)- ✓ Aim- To work within the Congress, radicalise its
program and make it a true people’s party.
o The Communists also increased their influence over
trade Unions. During 1927- The Communists led
Railway Workshop Workers Strike in
Kharagpur. In 1928, WPP led a general strike at
Bombay culminating in the formation of Girni
Kamgar Union.
➢ Government Repression of the Communists

Muzaffar Ahmed (1929)-
✓ It was the first organisation of the INC comprising o Public Safety Ordinance- It was introduced by
peasants and workers which later renamed as Lord Irwin in April 1929 for the purpose of
Peasants and Workers Party of Bengal. deporting subversive elements but it was defeated
✓ It was organised by Muzaffar Ahmed with the in the Central Legislative Assembly because of
help of Kazi Nazrul Islam. Swarajists. Therefore, it need to be passed in the
form of ordinance.
o Trade Disputes Act, 1929-
✓ It provided for compulsory appointment of
tribunals for settling industrial disputes.
✓ Strikes were made illegal in public utility services
like Railways, postal service etc.
✓ Each individual worker compulsory gives one-
month advance notice before going on strike
✓ It forbade trade union activities of coercive or
Nazrul Islam purely political nature.
✓ Ahmed also used to publish magazine- Navyug. o Meerut Conspiracy case (1929-33)-
o Congress Labour Party (Bombay,1926)- It
propagated its main program and ideology through
the use of press and publish its main organ Kranti
in Marathi.
o Kirti Kisan Party (Punjab, 1926)-
✓ This party was headed by Sohan Singh Josh and
included many Ghadar members.
✓ Main Journal- Kirti (worker) earlier founded by
Bhai Satokh Singh.
✓ Another Imp Journal- Mihnatkash in Urdu
✓ On 14th March,1929, Lord Irwin carried out severe

anti-communist’s measures in the form of arrests of
31 communists.
✓ The Communists were tried at Meerut allegedly for
Bhai Satokh Singh acting under the direction of Communist
o Workers and Peasant Party (WWP- Meerut, International to deprive the British monarch of his
October 1928) – sovereignty over British India by means of general
strikes and armed rebellion.
206
✓ The accused included two British Communists- o It planned to organise Front Popularie (Popular
Philip Spratt and B F Bradley, one journalist- Front) with all parties that opposed fascism and not
Lester Hutchinson and others were Indian limit themselves to forming a United front with
Communists like Radharam Mitra. those parties based in the working class.
✓ The trial went for 4 years and criticised o Thus, the Indian Communists once again decided to
universally. participate in the Indian National Movement led
✓ It made the Communists as heroes and martyrs. by INC.
✓ The Congress set up Central Defense Committee o The theoretical basis for this change in India was
and the Defense case was pleaded by nationalists laid down by a document called The Anti-
like Jawaharlal Nehru, K N Katju and F H Imperialist People Front in India also known as
Ansari. Dutt -Bradley Thesis of 1936.
✓ Gandhi visited the prisoners in jail and expressed o This thesis stated that the National Congress could
sympathy with the Communist leaders. play a great part in the work of realising the anti-
✓ The trial lasted for around 4 years and ended in the imperialist people’s front.
conviction of Muzaffar Ahmad, S A Dange,
Spratt and others. ➢ The Congress Socialist Party (Bombay,1934)-
✓ The trial proved to be a heavy immediate blow to
the left movement in India.
➢ Suicidal Sectarian Politics of the Communists

(1929)-`
o The 6th Congress of the Comintern revised its
policy of United front in the colonial world i.e.
forming alliances with national bourgeoise in the
colonial countries.
o Consequently, the Communists broke their
connection the Congress by declaring the Congress
as a class party of bourgeoise.
o These Communists leaders described Nehru and o May 1934- The First All India Congress Socialist
Bose as agents of the bourgeoise within the Conference was held at Patna which was convened
national movement. by Jayprakash Narayan and was presided by
o The Communists also dissolved the WPP and gave Acharya Narendra Dev.
a call for the formation of an independent and o The conference passed a resolution asking the
illegal Communist party. Congress to adopt a socialist program.
o The Government banned the CPI on 23rd July, 1934 o Finally, the Congress Socialist Party was formed at
forcing the Communist to work under the aegis of Bombay in October 1934 under the leadership of
the Congress and the newly formed The Congress Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev
Socialist Party. and Minoo Masani.
o The Communists or CPI also participated in the
CDM.
➢ Dutt-Bradley Thesis-
o The first annual session of the All India Congress

Socialist Party was held under the Presidentship of
R. Palme Dutt Sampurnananda.
o In August, 1935- The Communists changed their o Congress Socialists Nehru and Bose did not join
earlier position at the 7th Congress of the the CSP.
Comintern at Moscow.
o They decided to take part in bourgeois led national
movement in the colonial countries.
207
➢ Growth of Socialism in the Indian National

Congress-
o Important Congress leaders like Madame Cama,
Shyamji Krishna Verma, Shapurji Sakhlatvala,
Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, Bhupendranath
Dutta, Lala Hardayal and M N Roy played an
important role for the development of Socialist
ideas in India.
Minoo Masani o Role of Nehru-
➢ Meerut Thesis of the Congress Socialist Party- ✓ Jawaharlal Nehru was

o The thesis laid down that the task of the CSP was to also an important in the
wean the anti-imperialist elements in the development of socialist
Congress away from its present bourgeoise and to ideology in India.
bring them under the leadership of revolutionary ✓ In Feb,1927- He
socialism. represented the INC at
the International
➢ Minor Leftist Party of India- Congress against
o Forward Block (1939)- It was formed by Subash Colonial oppression
Chandra Bose to overthrow the British rule through and Imperialism at
use of military. Brussels.
o Revolutionary Socialist Party (1940)- The party ✓ The Brussels Conference set up an organisation
stood for violent overthrow of British rule and named The League Against Imperialism and for
establishment of British rule in India. It supported national Independence.
the Bose in Gandhi-Bose struggle.
o Other left parties-
✓ Bolshevik Party of India (1939)- By N Dutt
Mazumdar
✓ Bolshevik-Leninist Party (1941)- Indra Sen and
Ajit Roy
✓ The Revolutionary Communist Party (1942)- by
Saumyendranath Tagore
o M N Roy, the pioneer of Communist movement in
India had come back to India in 1930 and organised
a strong group of Royists. In 1940, he organised the
Radical Democratic Party and upheld the idea that
the Indian revolution could be brought about not by ✓ He was appointed member of the executive
proletariats alone but by the leadership of a multi- committee league.
class party. ✓ In November 1927- He visited Soviet Union and
greatly impressed with the economic model of
➢ Weakness of the Left Movement- USSR.
o They failed in their basic goal of establishing the ✓ After 1929, he become a symbol of Socialism in
hegemony of socialist ideas and parties over the India.
national movement. ✓ In Lahore Session, in his Presidential Speech, he
o They failed to make a deep study of the Indian declared that I am a Socialist and a republican
reality. and no believer in King and Princes.
o They failed to understand the Gandhian strategy
of struggle.
o They invariably fought with the Congress over the
wrong issue.
o They constantly overestimated their support from
the people.
o The different left factions failed to work unitedly
over long periods.
208
✓ He also supported the cause of Praja Mandal NATIVE STATES (STATES PEOPLE
Movement in 1927. MOVEMENT)
✓ Nehru popularised his ideas through his books
Autobiography and Glimpses of World History.
✓ He also popularised the notion that political ➢ Background-
freedom was meaningless without economic
freedom.
o Other than Nehru, Bose and Gandhi also
popularised the socialism but in their way. (We
have discussed all the developments in upcoming
chapters and some we have provided in previous
chapters.)
o Also, India had adopted its own way of socialism
where capitalists and government worked hand in
hand for the development of common masses,
workers and peasants.
o In our constitution of India, we have a chapter
named DPSP where the socialist principles have
given same weightage as Gandhian principle.
o India has adopted its own style of progressive
socialism which was different Marxist socialist
ideas.
➢ Other Facts-
o P C Joshi, leader of
Communist party of India (India during 1947 – British India plus princely
(1939)- He wrote in the states)
party weekly, the National The princely states, also called the Indian states,
Front that “the greatest which covered a total area of 7,12,508 square miles
class struggle today is our and numbered no fewer than 562, included tiny
national struggle of which states such as Bilbari with a population of 27
Congress was the main persons only and some big ones like Hyderabad
organ.” (as large as Italy) with a population of 14 million.
o The East India Company acquired, in the process of
o Jayaprakash Narayan- conquest, important coastal tracts, the valleys of the
great navigable rivers and such tracts which were
✓ He popularly known as JP or rich in agricultural products and densely populated
Lok Nayak. by prosperous people, while, generally, the Indian
✓ He was an important nationalist states were “the inaccessible and less fertile tracts
and socialist leader of of the Indian peninsula”.
Congress.
✓ He wrote the book- Why ➢ Struggle for equality (1740-65)-
Socialism o Prior to 1740- The East India was merely a
✓ He was the recipient of commercial body
Magsaysay Award for Social service (1965) and o Starting with Anglo-French rivalry with the
Bharat Ratna (1999) coming of Dupleix in 1751, the East India Company
asserted political identity with capture of Arcot
o Bhagat Singh (1751).
✓ Literary works- o With the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the East India
Why I am Atheists Company acquired political power next only to the
The Lost Leader Bengal nawabs.
✓ He founded Naujawan Bharat Sabha on the lines o In 1765 with the acquisition of the Diwani of
of Mazzini’s Young Italy movement. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa through victory in
✓ He also organised Lahore’s Students Union along Battle of Buxar, the East India Company became a
with Sukhdev significant political power.
✓ He also referred to as Shaheed Bhagat Singh
209
o Thus, during the period of 1740-1765, the Company o In this phase, the East India Company was aimed at
was still subordinate to Indian States and was annexing the Indian states and merged into the
striving for a status of equality with them. British Empire.
o This has to be done through – wars, diplomacy,
➢ Policy of ring fence (1765-1813)- policy of doctrine of lapse, mis-governance etc.
o During this time, the Company followed the policy o The Company was hostile and suspicious towards
of creating buffer state around the Company’s the Princely States.
territories in Bengal. Later it was extended to other
Princely States through Subsidiary Alliance Policy ➢ Policy of subordinate union (1857-1935)-
by Wellesley.
o This policy was reflected in Warren Hastings’
wars against the Marathas and Mysore, and aimed
at creating buffer zones to defend the Company’s
frontiers. The main threat was from the Marathas
and Afghan invaders (the Company undertook to
organise Awadh’s defence to safeguard Bengal’s
security).
o Under the Subsidiary Alliance System, also known
as Trojan Horse tactic in empire building, princely
states were not allowed to have their independent
armed force. Wellesley’s policy of subsidiary
alliance was an extension of ring fence—which
sought to reduce states to a position of dependence
on British Government in India. Major powers
such as Hyderabad, Awadh and the Marathas
accepted subsidiary alliance
➢ Policy of subordinate isolation (1813-1857)- o In 1858, the British crown took the responsibility
of India.
o Because of the states’ loyalty during the 1857 revolt
and their potential use as breakwaters in political
storms of the future, the policy of annexation was
abandoned.
o The Queen’s declaration of 1858 assured the
Indian states that the Government would not carry
any extension further.
o The Indian States had accepted the supremacy or
paramountcy of British Crown and enjoyed
autonomy or independence in terms of internal
administration.
o Now the ruler inherited the gaddi not as a matter of
right but as a gift from the paramount power,
because the fiction of Indian states standing in a
status of equality with the Crown as independent,
sovereign states ended with the Queen adopting the
title of “Kaiser-i-Hind” (Queen Empress of India).
o The British government exercised the right to
interfere in the internal spheres of states—partly in
o The states surrendered all forms of external the interest of the princes, partly in the interest of
sovereignty but retained sovereignty in internal people’s welfare, partly to secure proper conditions
administration. British Residents were for British subjects and foreigners and partly in the
transformed from diplomatic agents of a foreign interest of the whole of India
power to executive and controlling officers of a o The Government of India exercised complete and
superior government. undisputed control in international affairs—it
could declare war, peace or neutrality for states.
According to the Butler Commission in 1927, “For
210
the purpose of international relations, state territory o Butler Committee/ Indian States Committee
is in the same position as British territory and state (1927)-
subjects in the same position as British subjects.” ✓ The question of extent of
o Curzon’s Approach – sovereignty and paramountcy
was still undefined. The Butler
✓ Curzon stretched the Committee (1927) was set up to
interpretation of old treaties to examine the nature of
mean that the princes, in their relationship between the princely
capacity as servants of people, states and government.
were supposed to work side- ✓ Recommendations-
by-side with the governor- Paramountcy must remain
general in the scheme of Indian supreme and must fulfil its obligations, adopting
government. and defining itself according to the shifting
✓ He adopted a policy of necessities of time and progressive development of
patronage and ‘intrusive surveillance’ states.
✓ He thought the relations between the states and States should not be handed over to an Indian
government were neither feudal nor federal, but a Government in British India, responsible to an
type not based on a treaty but consisting of a series Indian legislature, without the consent of states.
of relationships having grown under different Thus, “paramountcy” was left undefined.
historical conditions that, in the course of time,
gradually conformed to a single line. ➢ Policy of equal federation (1935-47)-
✓ The new trend seemed to reduce all states to a single o The Government of India Act, 1935 proposed a
type—uniformly dependent on the British Federal Assembly with 125 out of 375 seats for the
government and considered as an integral part of princes and the Council of States with 104 out of
Indian political system. 160 seats for the princes, under its scheme of an all-
o The Chamber of Prince (Narendra Mandal), India federation, which was subject to ratification
Feb, 1921- by states representing more than half of the
population and entitled to more than half of the seats
in the Council of States.
o This scheme never came into existence and after the
outbreak of World War II (September 1939) it was
dropped altogether.
➢ Princely states and the national movement-

o Misgovernance in Princely States-
✓ The British government provided all the forms of
security to Indian Princes.
✓ Consequently, a majority of Indian rulers felt no
responsibility towards the welfare of their people.
✓ The Princes were enjoying their wealthy lifestyle by
putting burden of taxes and revenue on the
✓ A cordial cooperation between the government and masses.
the Princely states was further consolidated with the ✓ Serfdom, Slavery and forced labour also
formation of Chamber of Princes. flourished in many states.
✓ According to the recommendations of the ✓ However, small faction of ruler had worked
Montford Reforms (1921), a Chamber of Princes immensely not only for the development of modern
(Narendra Mandal) was set up as a consultative ideas and welfare of masses but also for the national
and advisory body. movement of India.
✓ It having no powers to discuss matters concerning ✓ But the British resister such move and the British
existing rights and freedoms. For the purpose of the Residents in the State exercised strict supervision
chamber the Indian states were divided into three in this regard.
categories— ➢ Ideas of Civil Liberty and Democracy-
Directly represented—109 o An idea of Democracy and civil liberties were
Represented through representatives—127 gradually spread to the Princely states also.
Recognised as feudal holdings or jagirs.
211
o In the beginning, these ideas were brought to them ✓ Also, the people of Indian States were also required
by individual nationalists including to develop their own strength and advance their
revolutionaries who took shelter in Princely states. own politically consciousness to further their
o Later, the people of princely states were also specific demands before participating in the more
influenced from the national movement. advanced types of movements in British India.
o In fact, the first ever popular associations in the ✓ Despite above limitations, the Congress and its
state were formed during the non-cooperation members continued to extend the support to the
movement. struggles in the states in a variety of ways.
➢ Praja Mandal/State People Conference - ✓ Tripura Session and Change in Congress policy-
o The first Political organisation in the states emerged ✓ Following, the Growth of popular movements in the
in the form of Praja Mandals or State people states, the Congress lost no time in shedding its self-
conference. imposed restraint and henceforth, increasingly
o Initially, these were set up in states like identified itself with the State People Movements.
Hyderabad, Baroda etc. and later spread to other ✓ A Resolution to that effect was in Tripura session.
states also. ✓ In 1939- Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the
o Imp leaders – Balwantrai President of ASPIC at Ludhiana Session and
Mehta, Maniklal Kothari became a symbol of fusion of the popular
and C R Abhyankar movements in British India and Native States.
o In 1927- These leaders

organised the first All India
gathering of the people of
states that culminated in
the formation of the All
India States People
Conference (AISPC).
CONGRESS AND THE PRINCELY STATES-

o The Congress policy towards Indian states was first
initiated in 1920 at Nagpur session when the INC +
passed a resolution calling upon the rulers of ✓ Quit India in the States (1942)-
princely states to establish a full responsible ✓ In August 1942, the Quit India movement was
government. launched. For the first time Congress gave a call to
o However, the Congress policy was more complex the people of the Native states to join and
over the issue of organising political movements participate fully in the all -India struggle for
in the Indian State. independence.
o Though people of the state were free to become the ✓
member of the Congress and participate in ✓ From now onwards, the struggle of the people of
political & national movement but they were not states were formally integrated with the struggle
to carry any political activity in the states in the of the people in British India.
name of Congress.
o This they could do only either on their own or
through Praja Mandals. MERGER AND INTEGRATION OF
o Why Congress became reluctant to launch any PRINCELY STATES (1947-50)-
political movement in the states?
✓ The reason behind this step of Congress was the
immense difference between the political
condition prevailing in the British India and the
Princely states.
✓ Since, the Congress framed its policies based on the
political conditions in British India, it would not
work directly in the native states.
✓ Further, the states were legally independent
entities and political conditions were also not
similar like of British India.
212
NEHRU REPORT AND SIMON COMMISSION- ✓ Congress – The Congress session in Madras
(December 1927) meeting under the presidency of
M.A. Ansari decided to boycott the commission “at
➢ Appointment of Simon Commission (8th every stage and in every form
November, 1927)-
✓ Who Oppose this Commission-
The Congress
A section of Muslim League- A section of ML
under Jinnah boycotted the Commission.
Liberal Federation led by Tej Bahadur Sapru
The Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress
The Hindu Mahasabha
o The Government of India Act, 1919 had a ✓ Who supported-
provision that a commission would be appointed A section of Muslim League under Muhammad
ten years from date to review the constitutional Shafi
reforms of 1919 and suggest further measures. Unionist Party in Punjab
o An all-white, seven-member Indian Statutory Justice Party in South
Commission, popularly known as the Simon
Commission (after the name of its chairman, Sir o Public Response-
John Simon), was set up by the British government
under Stanley Baldwin’s prime ministership on
November 8, 1927.
o The mandate of commission was to recommend to
the British government whether India was ready for
further constitutional reforms and along what lines.
o Why British Government appointed the

Commission before 2 years-
✓ Although constitutional reforms were due only in
1929, the Conservative government, then in power
in Britain, feared defeat by the Labour Party and
thus did not want to leave the question of the future
of Britain’s most priced colony in “irresponsible
Labour hands”. ✓ The commission landed in Bombay on February 3,
✓ Also, by the mid-1920s, the failure of the 1919 Act 1928. On that day, a countrywide hartal was
to create a stable imperial power had led to several organised and mass rallies held. Wherever the
parliamentary reports and inquiries. The Lee commission went, there were black flag
Commission went into the Raj’s failure to recruit demonstrations, hartal and slogans of ‘Simon Go
enough British officers, the Muddiman Back’.
Commission looked into the deadlock within the ✓ A significant feature of this upsurge was that a new
diarchic dispensation and the Linlithgow generation of youth got their first taste of political
Commission inquired into the crisis of Indian action
agriculture ✓ They played the most active part in the protest,
✓ So, the British government decided to appoint giving it a militant flavour. The youth leagues and
Simon Commission in 1927. conferences got a real fillip.
✓ Nehru and Subhash Bose emerged as leaders of
o Indian Response- this new wave of youth and students. Both travelled
extensively, addressed and presided over
conferences.
✓ This upsurge among the youth also provided a
fertile ground for the germination and spread of new
radical ideas of socialism reflected in the emergence
of groups such as the Punjab Naujawan Bharat
Sabha, Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties and
Hindustani Sewa Dal (Karnataka).
o Reaction of Police-
213
✓ The police came down heavily on demonstrators, ✓ communities) but only until tensions between
there were lathi charges not sparing even the senior Hindus and Muslims had died down. There was to
leaders. be no universal franchise.
✓ Jawaharlal Nehru and G.B. Pant were beaten up ✓ It accepted the idea of federalism but not in the
in Lucknow. Lala Lajpat Rai received severe near future, it suggested that a Consultative
blows on his chest in October 1928 which proved Council of Greater India should be established
fatal and he died on November 17, 1928 which should include representatives of both the
British provinces as well as princely states.
o Impact of Commission on National Movement- ✓ It suggested that the North-West Frontier
✓ It gave a stimulus to radical forces demanding not Province and Baluchistan should get local
just complete independence but major socio- legislatures, and both NWFP and Baluchistan
economic reforms on socialist lines. When the should have the right to be represented at the centre.
Simon Commission was announced, the Congress, ✓ It recommended that Sindh should be separated
which did not have any active programme in hand, from Bombay, and Burma should be separated
got an issue on which it could once again forge mass from India because it was not a natural part of the
action. Indian subcontinent.
✓ The challenge of Lord Birkenhead to Indian ✓ It also suggested that the Indian army should be
politicians to produce an agreed constitution was Indianized though British forces must be retained.
accepted by various political sections, and thus
prospects for Indian unity seemed bright at that o Dr. Ambedkar and Simon Commission-
point of time. ✓ Dr Ambedkar was appointed by the Bombay
Legislative Council to work with the Simon
o Recommendation of Simon Commission- Commission. In October 1928, Ambedkar went
before the commission.
✓ He argued for ‘universal adult franchise’ for both
male and female alike; for provincial autonomy in
the provinces and dyarchy at Centre. (Significantly,
universal adult franchise was at the time yet to be
guaranteed in most of European countries.)
✓ On behalf of the Bahishkrit Hitkarni Sabha, he
submitted a memorandum on the rights and
safeguards he felt were required for the depressed
classes.
✓ Ambedkar said that there was no link between the
depressed classes and the Hindu community, and
stated that the depressed classes should be regarded
as a distinct and independent minority.
✓ The Simon Commission published a two-volume ✓ He asserted that the depressed classes as a minority
report in May 1930. It proposed the abolition of needed far greater political protection than any
dyarchy and the establishment of representative other minority in British India because of its
government in the provinces which should be educational backwardness, its economically poor
given autonomy. It said that the governor should condition, its social enslavement, and for the reason
have discretionary power in relation to internal that it suffered from certain grave political
security and administrative powers to protect the disabilities, from which no other community
different communities. suffered.
✓ The number of members of provincial legislative ✓ In the circumstances, Dr Ambedkar demanded, for
council should be increased. the political protection of the depressed classes,
✓ The report rejected parliamentary responsibility representation on the same basis as the
at the centre. The governor-general was to have Mohammedan minority. He wanted reserved seats
complete power to appoint the members of the for the depressed classes if universal adult franchise
cabinet. was granted. In case universal franchise was not
✓ The Government of India would have complete granted, Ambedkar said he would campaign for a
control over the high court. separate electorate for the depressed classes.
✓ It also recommended that separate communal ✓ He also expressed the need to have certain
electorates be retained (and extended such safeguards either in the constitution, if it was
electorates to other possible, or else “in the way of advice in the
instrument to the governor regarding the education
214

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of the depressed classes and their entry into the T B Sapru

public services Madhav Srihari Aney
✓ The report of the Simon Commission did grant Mangal Singh
reserved seats to the depressed classes, but the Shuaib Qureshi
condition was that candidates who would take part G R Pradhan
in the elections would have, first of all, to get their
competence endorsed by the governor of the o Provisions of Nehru Report-
province. Ambedkar was most displeased with this ✓ Dominion status on lines of self-governing
but, in any case, this report remained a dead letter. dominions as the form of government desired by
Indians.
➢ NEHRU REPORT- ✓ Rejection of separate electorates and instead, a
demand for joint electorates with reservation of
o Background- seats for Muslims at the Centre and in provinces
where they were in minority (and not in those where
Muslims were in majority, such as Punjab and
Bengal) in proportion to the Muslim population
there with right to contest additional seats
✓ Linguistic provinces
✓ Nineteen fundamental rights including equal
rights for women, right to form unions, and
universal adult suffrage.
✓ Responsible government at the Centre and in
provinces—
Motilal Nehru
✓ The Indian Parliament at the Centre to consist of a
✓ As a reaction to the opposition of Indians to the
500-member House of Representatives elected on
Simon Commission, Lord Birkenhead (Secretary
the basis of adult suffrage, a 200-member Senate to
of State for India) threw a challenge to the Indian be elected by provincial councils; the House of
nationalists to unite together and prepare agreed
Representatives to have a tenure of 5 years and the
scheme of constitutional reforms.
Senate, one of 7 years; the central government to be
✓ He also declared that British government would headed by a governor-general, appointed by the
accept and implement that scheme without any
British government but paid out of Indian revenues,
delay. who would act on the advice of the central executive
✓ This challenge was accepted by Indians and All-
council responsible to the Parliament.
Party Conference was organised at Bombay at
✓ Provincial councils to have a 5-year tenure, headed
19th May,1928.
by a governor acting on the advice of the provincial
executive council.
✓ Full protection to cultural and religious interests
of Muslims.
✓ Complete dissociation of State from religion
o Demand of Hindu Mahasabha-

✓ The Hindu Mahasabha was vehemently opposed to
the proposals for creating new Muslim-majority
provinces and reservation of seats for Muslims
majorities in Punjab and Bengal (which would
ensure Muslim control over legislatures in both).
✓ It also demanded a strictly unitary structure. This
attitude of the Hindu Mahasabha complicated
✓ Here, appointed a subcommittee under the matters
chairmanship of Motilal Nehru to draft a ✓ Concessions given to Hindu Mahasabha by Nehru
constitution. This was the first major attempt by Report-
the Indians to draft a constitutional framework for ✓ Joint electorates proposed everywhere but
the country. reservation for Muslims only where in minority.
✓ Member of Nehru Committee- ✓ Sindh to be detached from Bombay only after
Motilal Nehru (Chairman) dominion status was granted and subject to
Jawaharlal Nehru (Secretary) weightage given to Hindu minority in Sindh.
Ali Imam ✓ Political structure proposed broadly unitary, as
Subash Chandra Bose residual powers rested with the centre.
215
strengthened their criticism of the dominion status

o Demand of Jinnah and Muslim League- idea. Nehru and Subhash Bose rejected the
o Amendments by Jinnah- Congress’ modified goal and jointly set up the
✓ At the All Parties Conference held at Calcutta in Independence for India League.
December 1928 to consider the Nehru Report,
Jinnah, on behalf of the Muslim League, proposed
three amendments to the report:
one-third representation to Muslims in the central
legislature
reservation to Muslims in Bengal and Punjab
legislatures proportionate to their population, till
adult suffrage was established and
residual powers to provinces.
o These demands were not accepted.
o Jinnah 14 points- Jinnah went back to the Shafi

faction of the Muslim League and in March 1929
gave fourteen points which were to become the
basis of all future propaganda of the Muslim
League. The fourteen points were as follows.
1. Federal Constitution with residual powers to
provinces.
2. Provincial autonomy.
3. No constitutional amendment by the centre without
the concurrence of the states constituting the Indian
federation.
4. All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate
representation of Muslims in every province without
reducing a majority of Muslims in a province to a
minority or equality.
5. Adequate representation to Muslims in the services
and in self-governing bodies.
6. One-third Muslim representation in the central
legislature.
7. In any cabinet at the centre or in the provinces, one
third to be Muslims.
8. Separate electorates.
9. No bill or resolution in any legislature to be passed if
three-fourths of a minority community consider such
a bill or resolution to be against their interests
10. Any territorial redistribution not to affect the
Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWFP.
11. Separation of Sindh from Bombay.
12. Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and
Baluchistan.
13. Full religious freedom to all communities.
14. Protection of Muslim rights in religion, culture,
education and language
o Unsatisfactory Response of Nehru Report-

✓ Not only were the Muslim League, the Hindu
Mahasabha and the Sikh communalists unhappy
about the Nehru Report, but the younger section of
the Congress led by Jawaharlal Nehru and
Subhash Bose were also angered.
✓ The younger section regarded the idea of dominion
status in the report as a step backward, and the
developments at the All Parties Conference
216
CHAPTER 12– NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1929-1947)

BACKGROUND
FIRST CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
SECOND CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
SIGNIFICANCE
VARIOUS STANDS AT CDM
MISCELLANEOUS
217
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
BACKGROUND –
IMPORTANT v INFORMATION
EVENTS
Calcutta Session of o In this session, the Congress had given an ultimatum to the British government that if
Congress, 1928 the government did not accept the Nehru Report by 31st December,1929, the
Congress would declare complete Independence6 as its goal and would also launch a
civil disobedience movement to achieve the same.
Irwin’s Declaration, o Before the Simon Commission report came out, the declaration by Lord Irwin was
Oct, 1931 made. It was the combined effort of the Labour government (always more
sympathetic to Indian aspirations than the Conservatives) and a Conservative viceroy.
o The purpose behind the declaration was to “restore faith in the ultimate purpose of
British policy”. The declaration was made in the form of an official communique in the
Indian Gazette on October 31, 1929.
o He said - “In view of the doubts which have been expressed both in Great Britain and
in India regarding the interpretations to be placed on the intentions of the British
government in enacting the statute of 1919, I am authorised on behalf of His Majesty’s
Government to state clearly that in their judgement it is implicit in the Declaration of
1917 that the natural issue of India’s constitutional progress as they contemplated is
the attainment of Dominion status
Delhi Manifesto, o On November 2, 1929, a conference of prominent national leaders issued a ‘Delhi
November,1929 Manifesto’ which put forward certain conditions for attending the round Table
Conference. These conditions were-
✓ The purpose of the Round Table Conference should be not to determine whether or
when dominion status was to be reached but to formulate a constitution for
implementation of the dominion status (thus acting as a constituent assembly) and the
basic principle of dominion status should be immediately accepted.
✓ The Congress should have majority representation at the conference and
o There should be a general amnesty for political prisoners and a policy of conciliation.
o Gandhi along with Motilal Nehru and other political leaders met Lord Irwin in
December 1929. They asked the viceroy for assurance that the purpose of the round
table conference was to draft a constitutional scheme for dominion status
o Viceroy Irwin rejected the demands put forward in the Delhi Manifesto.
Lahore Session of o On the expiry of this grace period on 31st December, 1929, the Congress in Lahore
Congress, 1929 session declared Purna Swaraj as its goal and announced the launching of a civil
disobedience movement under the leadership of Gandhiji.
o In Feb, 1930- The Congress Working Committee met at Sabarmati Ashram and
provided Gandhiji with all powers to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
218
o January 26, 1930 was fixed as the first Independence (Swarajya) Day, to be celebrated
everywhere
o 26th January, 1931- The Independence Pledge
✓ Public meetings were organised all over the country in villages and towns and the
independence pledge was read out in local languages and the national flag was hoisted.
This pledge, which is supposed to have been drafted by Gandhi, made the following
points –
It is the inalienable right of Indians to have freedom.
The British Government in India has not only deprived us of freedom and exploited us,
but has also ruined us economically, politically, culturally and spiritually. India must
therefore sever the British connection and attain Purna swaraj or complete
independence.
We are being economically ruined by high revenue, destruction of village industries
with no substitutions made, while customs, currency and exchange rate are manipulated
to our disadvantage.
No real political powers are given—rights of free association are denied to us and all
administrative talent in us is killed.
Culturally, the system of education has torn us from our moorings.
Spiritually, compulsory disarmament has made us unmanly.
We hold it a crime against man and God to submit any longer to British rule.
We will prepare for complete independence by withdrawing, as far as possible, all
voluntary association from the British government and will prepare for civil
disobedience through non-payment of taxes. By this an end of this inhuman rule is
assured.
We will carry out the Congress instructions for purpose of establishing Purna swaraj.
Gandhi’s 11 points o Gandhi decided to negotiate with the British Government before launching the civil
disobedience movement.
o He formulated 11 points of administrative reforms and placed them before Lord
Irwin by 31st January,1930.
o He insisted that there would be no need for any agitation if his 11 points were accepted
which constituted for him the substance of Poorna Swaraj.
o Gandhi’s 11 points were –
● Abolition of salt tax and government’s monopoly over salt.
● Reduction of the Rupee Sterling ratio
● Reduction of the land revenue by half and it be subjected to legislative control
● Reduction of salaries of highest-grade services by half
● Reduction of military and civil expenditure by half
● Protection of Indian Textiles (protective Tariff) and coastal shipping
● Discharge of all political prisoners
● Total Prohibition of Alcohol
● Change in Arms act and right of Indians to carry arms
● Accept postal reservation bill
o Reaction –
● Many national leaders looked at 11 points as a climb down from the demand of Poorna
Swaraj
● Jawaharlal Nehru in his autobiography questioned whether Gandhi’s Poorna Swaraj
was different from theirs.
● British government also rejected these 11 points.
● Hence, with no choice Gandhi decided to launch Civil Disobedience.
219
FIRST CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT- gathered forceful support in interior regions of

Coimbatore, Madura, Vidyanagar, etc.
Although, Rajaji tried to keep the movement non-
violent, violent eruptions of masses and the violent
repressions of the police Began.
o Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience

movement on 12th March,1930.
o On 12th March,1930 – Gandhi started Dandi
March from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi Beach ● Malabar (Kerala) – Led by K. Kelappan
(approx. 375 Km or 240 miles) accompanied by 78 (Calicut to Payannur)
followers.
o 6th April,1930- Gandhi reached Dandi, picked up a
handful of salt and broke the salt law as a defiance
to British laws.
● North East -A Group of Satyagrahis walked

from Sylhet in Assam-Noakhali in Bengal
● Andhra- A number of Sibirums (military style
camps) were established to function as head of
Salt Satyagraha
o Gandhi proclaimed – The British rule in India has
● Peshawar- Another Satyagraha was organised in
brought about moral, cultural, material and spiritual
Peshawar, led by Mahatma Gandhi's disciple,
ruination of this great country. I regard this rule as
Ghaffar Khan. He was arrested in April 1930.
a curse. I am out to destroy this system of
• Orissa-Under Gopalbandhu Chaudhuri, a
government. Sedition has become my religion.
Gandhian leader, salt satyagraha proved effective in
o Subash Chandra Bose had compared the salt march
the coastal regions of Balasore, Cuttack and Puri
to Napoleon’s march to Paris.
districts.
o Programme of Civil Disobedience-
✔ Disobedience of salt wherever possible o Government Repression and Popular Upsurge-
✔ Refusal to pay taxes to the government ✔ The British government response could be
✔ Boycott of law courts, colleges and government understood through the following line- If we do too
schools much then congress will cry repression and if we do
✔ Picketing of shops selling liquor and foreign cloth little then congress will cry victory. This was how
o Salt Satyagraha – the government dilemma was expressed.
✔ After Gandhi, the salt laws were broken all over the ✔ However, seeing the rapid spread of the movement,
country. These were- the British government opted to go for the policy of
● Tamil Nadu – Led by C Rajagopalachari repression.
(Trichinopoly – Vedaranniyam ✔ Arrest of Jawaharlal Nehru- On 14th April, 1930
The event was followed by widespread picketing of – Jawaharlal Nehru was arrested for breaking the
foreign cloth shops, the anti-liquor campaign
220
salt law. His arrest was met with massive

demonstrations and clashed with the police. Later,
the government also arrested most of the other
Congress leaders as well.
✔ Chittagong Armory Raid - In Bengal, the whole
history of civil disobedience was accompanied by Sarojini Naidu
revolutionary terrorism. On 18th April, 1930, the ✔ By June end,
Bengal revolutionaries carried out this raid. The the Congress Working Committee was declared
Chittagong leader Surya Sen managed to remain illegal and Motilal Nehru (Functioning President
underground with the help of villagers (mostly of the Congress) was also arrested
Muslims).
✔ Peshawar Upsurge - On 23rd April,1930, Khan o Forms of Protest -
Abdul Gaffar Khan was arrested and Garhwal
rifles (Hindu soldiers facing a Muslim crowd in6
Non-
protest of this arrest) refused to open fire and payment of
became a symbol of communal unity and land
patriotism. This incident was proof that revenue in
ryotwari Anti-
nationalism had begun to enter the Indian army Defending
Chowkidari
Honour of
(The chief instrument of British rule in India). the Flag
tax
✔ Arrest of Gandhiji – On 4th May, 1930, Gandhi was movement
Boycott of in
arrested and sent to Yerwada jail. His arrest was Foreign Cloth
followed by a massive wave of protest. & Liquor
✔ Sholapur Upsurge – The most massive
No revenue
demonstration took place in the industrial city of Forest
& no rent
Satyagraha
Sholapur. The textile workers went on strike and capmaign
attacked all symbols of government authority Anti-
✔ Dharasana Satyagraha – Cunningha
m Circular
Agitation
o Other forms of Protest-

✔ Prabhat Pheris- Men, women and children went
around at dawn singing nationalist songs.
✔ Patrika- These illegal news sheets were circulated
all over the country to defy the hated press act.
✔ Magic Lanterns - It used to carry the nationalist
messages to the villages.
✔ Vanar Senas- These monkey armies of children
were organised.
o Impact-
● 21st May, 1930 – Sarojini Naidu (First Indian
women of INC), Imam Saheb and Gandhi's son
Manilal led a band of 2000 satyagrahis to defy salt Import of foreign cloth &
laws at Dharasana Salt Works, Gujarat. foreign good fell cosiderably
● As the Satyagrahis moved forward, the police
attacked the crowd with lathis.
● An injured was taken by their comrade, other
satyagrahis took their place to be beaten to pulp and Goverment income from
carried away. different taxes reduced
● Web Miller, who was reporting this incident said
that – In 18 years of my reporting in 20 countries,
during which I have witnessed innumerable civil
disturbances like riots, street fights and rebellions, I Elections to legislative
have never witnessed such harrowing scenes as at assembly were boycotted
Dharsana.
221
o Participation- ✔ There was evidence of limited participation in

regions where Congress was weak or Gandhian
ideas were not popular. These included
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Central
Provinces.
Peasants- o Decline of Civil Disobedience –
✔ Throughout 1930, the Government adopted
repressive measures to contain civil disobedience.
Muslims Womens In the meantime, the Simon Commission
(published its report in 1930) and being a
repressive document, which further upset even the
moderate political opinion.
✔ On 9th July, 1930 – Lord Irwin reiterated the
suggestion of a Round Table Conference as a
Business
Wokers
conciliatory gesture. However, Congress did not
groups participate in this conference (will discuss this topic
in detail in a separate chapter).
✔ Truce Period –
Urban
Tribals
intellengestia
o Regional Variations-
✔ Gujarat emerged as the classic heartland of
Gandhian satyagraha particularly, Kheda, Bardoli
and Ahmedabad.
✔ The Gujarati community of Bombay city also ● 14th Feb, 1931 – With the mediation of Sir T B
participated in this movement. Sapru and M R Jayakar initiated Gandhi-Irwin
✔ The movement also extended to Manipur and talks. The fortnight-long talks culminated in the
Nagaland. In Nagaland, Rani Gaidinliu followed Delhi pact on 5th March, 1931 also known as
the path of Gandhiji and rebelled against the British Gandhi-Irwin pact.
rule. She was arrested in 1932 (During 16 years age)
and imprisoned for life. She was released in 1947
by the government of free India.
Tej Bahadur Sapru

● The pact was signed by Gandhi on behalf of the
Congress and Irwin on behalf of the government
making it the first pact between the Congress and
the government on equal footing.
Rani Gaidinliu
✔ In Bengal- The pattern of participation was most
complex. Some regions witnessed the
developments of powerful Gandhian rural
movements while other regions remained ridden
with communal riots and revolutionary
activities.
222
M R Jayakar
● As per pact, Congress agreed –

● It will withdraw CDM immediately
● It will participate in second Round Table
Congress
● Withdraw the boycott of British goods
● As per pact, British Government agreed –
● It will withdraw ordinances promulgated in
relation to the CDM.
● It will release all political prisoners against whom
there was no allegiance of violence. ● It disassociated and disapproved itself from any
● Return of confiscated land not yet sold to third form of political violence.
parties. ● The Gandhi-Irwin pact was ratified.
● Lenient treatment to government employees who ● The goal of Purna Swaraj was reiterated.
had resigned from the service. ● This session adopted two important resolutions –
● Remit penalties that had not been realized. Fundamental rights and National Economic
● Pay indemnities to those who had suffered in the programme (originally drafted by Jawaharlal
movement. Nehru). By means of these two resolutions,
● The government would not amend the salt act but Congress defined what swaraj would mean for the
will permit the collection and manufacture of salt masses.
freely to the people living within a specified period ● The resolution declared – ‘In order to end the
from the sea shore. exploitation of the masses, political freedom must
● The government also conceded the right to include economic freedom of the starving millions.’
peaceful picketing. ● Resolution on Fundamental Rights –
● Response of Gandhi-Irwin Pact – ● It guaranteed basic civil rights of free speech, free
● In the Congress, some members supported the pact press, free assembly and freedom of association
and some were disappointed with this step of ● equality before law irrespective of caste, creed or
Gandhi. sex,
● Gandhi’s request for remitting the death sentence of ● neutrality of the state in regard to all religions
Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru was turned ● elections on the basis of universal adult franchise
down by the viceroy and was hanged on 23rd March, and
1931. ● free & compulsory primary education.
● The peasants of Gujarat who had sacrificed their life ● Resolution on National Economic Programme –
and property, felt let down but again returned to the ● It promised substantial reduction in rent and
congress after it assumed ministry in Bombay in revenue.
1937 after elections. ● Relief from agricultural indebtedness and control
● For the masses, it was a truce and not a surrender, a of ususary (moneylenders).
time for their soldiers to rest and prepare for the next ● Better working conditions for workers- living
round. wage, limited hours of working, protection of
o Why Gandhi chose salt to register a protest- women workers, the right to organise and form
✔ The salt tax was a universal grievance and affected union to workers and peasants.
all people of all classes i.e. rich or poor. ● State ownership or control of key industries, mines
✔ Therefore, Gandhi thought that it would have a far- and means of transport.
reaching emotional impact on the masses ● The Karachi declaration formed the basic
including the rich and powerful class. document of Congress socio-economic
✔ Later, manufacture of salt became a part of programme for later years.
Gandhi’s constructive programme as
manufacture of Khadi. SECOND CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
o Karachi Special Congress Session (March 1931)- (1932-1934)
✔ Presided by – Sardar Patel o After the failure of talks of Gandhi (representing

✔ It was called to rectify the Gandhi-Irwin pact. Congress) and British government in the second
round table conference, he decided to revive the
✔ A session was held only a few days after the
nationalist movement again.
execution of Bhagat Singh and Gandhi was shown
o However, Lord Willingdon and the higher officials
black flags throughout Karachi. in India criticised the Delhi pact and instead quoted
✔ Congress Resolutions at Karachi-
223
– no pact, no truce, no Gandhi-Viceroy meetings o Several big businessmen also began to collaborate
became the watchwords of the government. with the government. For example, the Bombay
o The British Indian government decided to crush the Mill owners concluded the Lees-Mody pact in
revival of the national movement in India. October, 1933 siding with Lancashire in the
o 24th December, 1931- Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan presence of fear of Japanese competition.
was arrested and severely repressed the Khudai o From 1932 onwards – nationalist and businessmen
Khidmatgars in North West Frontier Province. like G D Birla and Thakurdas also pressurized the
o 28th December, 1931 – Jawaharlal Nehru was congress for compromise
arrested. o Finally, in May, 1933- Gandhi temporarily
o 31st December, 1931 – Gandhi asked a viceroy for suspended the movement and finally withdrew it
a meeting but he refused and instead Gandhi was in April, 1934.
arrested on 4th, January, 1932.
o On the same day, Viceroy Willingdon launched a SIGNIFICANCE-
new policy to deal with the movement known as the
policy of civil martial law which includes passing o Great Mass movement – The CDM was the great
of sweeping ordinances banning all Congress mass movement of India. After the withdrawal of
Organizations. NCM, such mass agitation was sorted for the first
o Civil liberties ceased to exist and the authorities time.
could seize people and property at will. o Raised the national consciousness – The CDM
o Within a week, all leading Congress leaders were carried the Indian national freedom struggle into
put behind the bars. new horizons. It raised the nationalistic
o Nevertheless, Civil Disobedience was restarted and consciousness into new heights. This movement
even received popular response as well. However, penetrated into the remotest corner of India.
the second phase of the CDM did not evoke a o Demand of Poorna Swaraj- First time, the
similar response from the masses. nationalist agitation was launched to attain Purna
o Finally, the movement did not sustain long due to swaraj.
the government policy of repression. In this phase, o Widened the social base – The CDM widened the
the authorities, especially the police , came down social base of national movement because a number
heavily on the masses. Even women were beaten up of classes became a part of national agitation.
harshly. (Follow the above given participants notes)
o With the weakening of movement, voices emerged o New forms- The new forms of methods of struggle
within the Congress advocating a return to council became a part of this movement such as Prabhat
and revival of the Swarajist Party. Pheris, Magic lanterns etc.
o Supporter for entry in Council – Aruna Asaf Ali, S o Boycott of foreign goods- The economic boycott
Satyamurthy (In 1933, he formed the Madras of foreign manufactured products was also highly
Swaraj Party) and Dr. M A Ansari. successful. The income of the government fell
significantly.
o Active participation of Youth leaders- The
significance of CDM was also should be viewed
from the point that it provided an opportunity to the
young leaders to shoulder the responsibility of
masses. The younger leaders like Nehru for the first
time actively participated in anti-British agitation.
o Raised Popular expectation- It raised the popular
Aruna Ali S Satyamurthy expectations. The masses became hopeful of Indian
o Opposed by – Acharya Narendra Dev and Independence because of this the CDM radicalized
Purushottam Tandon. the Indian Freedom Struggle.
o Spread of nationalism in Military – The CDM
penetrated the nationalistic consciousness in the
military as well. The military strength of Britishers
had played an important role in the establishment
and continuance of British rule in India. But this
pillar came under serious attack when the soldiers
of Garhwal regiment refused to open fire on the
unarmed crowd at Peshawar.
Acharya Dev P.Tandon o Criticism of Gandhi – Gandhi’s decision to
o Both the sides tried to tilt the Congress opinion withdraw the movement dismayed many including
without Gandhi’s consent. Jawaharlal Nehru, Subash Chandra Bose and
224
Vithalbhai Patel declared that- Mahatma as a o Difference between no-revenue and no rent
Political leader had failed. movement –
✔ No Revenue Movement/ No tax movement – It
VARIOUS STANDS CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE was directed against the government.
MOVEMENT- ✔ No Rent Movement – It was against the landlords
o Anti-Chowkidari Tax movement –
o Indian National Congress-
✔ The chowkidars were guards who supplemented the
✔ The Civil Disobedience Movement was launched police in rural areas.
by Congress to pressurize the British Indian
✔ They were paid out of tax levied on villages and
government to grant complete Independence to
were much hated as they often acted as spies for the
India.
government and retainers for the landlords.
✔ But a section of Congress was not in favour of mass
✔ The first anti-chowkidari movement was begun in
agitations. The leaders like Mohammad Ali
Bihar.
Ansari, L C Kelkar and Satyamurthy did not
resign the membership of legislative assembly. This ✔ Main leaders – Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Abdul
section came to be known as the new Swarajist. Bari
o Socialist – The socialist leaders of India supported
the Congress because by this time, socialist
ideology had gained popularity in India. Many of
the policies and programmes of CDM were in
consonance with the aspirations of the peasants and
labourers.
o Communists- The Communist also supported the
Congress in the Civil Disobedience movement with
the hope that Congress could be brought under the
influence of Communist ideology. Dr. Rajendra Prasad
o Muslim League – It remained aloof from this ✔ In Bengal, when salt making became difficult with
movement in order to contain an influence of Indian the onset of Monsoon, the protest was shifted to
National Congress in India. anti-chowkidari and anti-Union board agitation.
o Cunningham Circular –
COMPARISON BETWEEN NON-
COOPERATION MOVEMENT & CDM-
o Non-Cooperation Movement was launched on the
issue of ‘Swarajya’ while Civil Disobedience
Movement was launched on the issue of ‘Poorna
Swaraj.’
o The Non-Cooperation Moment’s objective was to
bring the government to stand still by not
cooperating with it whereas the Civil
Disobedience movement’s objective was to
consciously break some laws.
✓ There was a decline in forms of protests involving
the intelligentsia, such as lawyers giving up ✔ J R Cunningham (Director of Public information
practice, students giving up government schools to in Assam) issued a circular in 1930 imposing a
join national schools and colleges. blanket ban on any anti-British and pro-swadeshi
✓ Muslim participation was nowhere near that in the activity by students.
Non-Cooperation Movement level. ✔ The circular also ordered them to sign an
✓ No major labour upsurge coincided with the undertaking to the effect that they would have to
movement. quit their schools and colleges if they participated
✓ The massive participation of peasants and in anti-government movements and forced the
business groups compensated for decline of other students and guardians to furnish assurances of
features. good behavior.
✓ The number of those imprisoned was about three ✔ As a result, thousands of students throughout
times more this time. Assam left their institutions and launched a
✓ The Congress was organisationally stronger powerful student agitation.
MISCELLANEOUS
225
✔ A group of philanthropists started a swadeshi ✓ The Khudai Khidmatgar opposed Partition, a

schools and colleges in the city on the lines of stance that many interpreted as the movement not
national schools in Calcutta, Sylhet etc. being in favour of the creation of the independent
✔ The Kamrup Academy was conceived with Rai nation of Pakistan
Bahadur Kalicharan Sengupta as its founder ✓ He formed an alliance with Gandhi and Indian
President. National Congress and became a formidable force
o Role of Women – The participation of women during the Congress civil disobedience movement
was the most remarkable feature of this and even helped the INC in winning the provincial
movement. Rabindranath Tagore, a celebrated election of 1937.
activist for women rights wrote a novel Char ✔ Ghaffar Khan is also known as Badshah Khan
Adhyaya (1934) in which he condemned the or Frontier Gandhi or Sarhadi Gandhi.
unfeminine role of women. ✔ He had formed the world ’s first non-violent
o Rani Gaidinliu- army, a force consisting of 10,000 Pathans.
✔ At the age of 13, She joined the Heraka religious ✔ The members of this movement came to be known
movement which later turned into a political as Red Shirts or Surkho Posh because of the red
movement seeking to drive out the British rule from uniforms they wore.
Manipur and surrounding Naga areas. ✓ Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre – (23rd 1930)
✔ She resisted the conversion of Nagas to • Abdul Ghaffar Khan and other leaders of the
Christianity. She was arrested at the age of 16 and Khudai Khidmatgar were arrested on April 23, 1930
remained in jail till independence of India. by British police after he gave a speech at a
✔ Jawaharlal Nehru gave her the title of Rani. gathering in the town of Utmanzai in the North-
o Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Khudai West Frontier Province. Protests spilled into the
Khidmatgar Movement- Qissa Khwani Bazaar in Peshawar on the day of
Khan’s arrest.
• British soldiers entered the market area to disperse
crowds that had refused to leave and the British
army vehicles drove into the crowds, killing several
protesters and bystanders.
✔ He was offered Presidency of the Indian National
Congress in 1931 which he refused saying that he
was a simple soldier.
✔ He was against the partition of India.
✔ 1962- He was named as Amnesty International
✔ In 1929, he led the Khudai Khidmatgars Prisoners of the Year.
(servants of god) mobilized to oppose the British ✔ 1985- He was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize.
in India’s North-West Frontier province in a non- ✔ 1987- He became the first person who won Bharat
violent way. Ratna without being an Indian national (Another –
Nelson Mandela)
✔ Anti-Flag agitation-
✔ Indian Nationalists expressed their Anti-British
feelings by unfurling Indian Flag. The British
Indian Government suppressed such attempts
ruthlessly.
✔ Tottanarasiah and P. Krishna Pillai were the two
famous leaders of flag agitation.
✔ When Narasiah attempted to fly Indian flag at
Bundur (Andhra Pradesh). He was beaten violently
by police. The Nationalist spirit of Narasiah could
be seen in the fact that he did not leave the666 flag
even though he fell unconsciously.
✔ P Krishna Pillai led a flag agitation at Calicut.
✔ This movement inspired the thousands of Pashtuns ✔ This flag agitation found expression in novel ways
(also called Pathans) who were known as fierce at Surat. When the Police repeatedly snatched
warriors and others to lay down their arms and use away flags from the kids, the kids decided to wear
civil resistance to challenge British rule. flags as their clothes. These living flags walk
226
confidently in the streets of Surat and Police could government is not giving us protection then we
do nothing but to remain as a near spectator. should join the Indian Nationalist.
o Role of Capitalist Class-
✔ G D Birla led a business group in the Non-
Cooperation movement. He demonstrated the
sympathy of Indian capitalists with the national
movement.
✔ During the non-cooperation movement the Indian
capitalist kept themselves aloof from the movement
but during the Civil Disobedience movement they
participated enthusiastically.
✔ It was due to the following reason: - The Indian
rupee was strengthened in comparison to British
pound on the recommendation of Hilton Young G D Birla
commission in 1926. This was not good for export. ✔ H N Brailsford- He was a British journalist and
After the economic depression of 1929-30 the wrote that- Indians had freed their own minds, they
import duty was raised from 5% to 11% to protect had won independence in their hearts.
Indian Industries but due to the ‘imperialistic o 31ST December, 1929 -At midnight on the banks of
preference’ the British goods were exempted from River Ravi, the newly adopted tricolour flag of
this duty. This angered the Indian capitalist who freedom was hoisted by Jawaharlal Nehru
now started to lean towards the congress. amidst slogans of Inqilab Zindabad.
✔ In the View of this Purushottam Das Thakur, in
a letter to G.D. Birla, told that if the British o
Difference between SWADESHI MOVEMENT,
NCM AND CDM-
SWADESHI NCM CDM
o Swadeshi movement was o Non-Cooperation Movement was o Civil Disobedience Movement
launched on the reaction of launched on the issue of ‘Swarajya’ was launched on the issue of
splitting Bengal into east and ‘Poorna Swaraj.’
west Bengal
o The objective of the swadeshi o The Non-Cooperation Moment’s o the Civil Disobedience
and Boycott movement was to objective was to bring the movement’s objective was to
non-cooperate with the British government to stand still by not consciously break some laws.
government, boycott British cooperating with it
made products and Promote
swadeshi goods.
o First Mass Movement. It o First Great Mass Movement. It also o Second Great Mass
restricted to mostly Bengal geographically spread to almost Movement. In this nationalist
region whole India. agitation- all the sections less or
more participated immensely.
o Led by - BG Tilak, Lala Lajpat o Leaders by - Gandhiji o Led by - Gandhi

Rai, Ajit Singh, Pillai
Chidambaram, Aurobindo
Gosh and so on
ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE
FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE

(LONDON, 12TH NOVEMBER 1930- 19TH
JANUARY, 1931)-
227
reports and to frame further constitutional

reforms for Indians.
o It was opened officially by King George V on
November 12, 1930.
o The first conference was held between the Indians
and the British as equals was opened officially by
Lord Irwin on 12th November, 1930.
o Chaired – British PM Ramsay MacDonald of
Labour Party (Also chief spokesperson of Labour
Party)
o Indian Business leaders also not participated the
conference.
o In all 89 persons were invited to attend the
conference. Of this –
✔ 16 – Represented British Political parties
✔ 58 – British Indian Delegation (Who represents
various parties and interests in India)
✔ Samuel Hoare – Chief spokesperson of
o Is Congress participated – NO (Because of civil Conservative Party
disobedience movement) o Participants –
o The FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE
was organised to discuss the Simon commission
✔
o Note – The princes led by Maharaja of Bikaner expressed their desire to join an All India
Federation.
o Outcome –
✔ It recommended the formation of an All India Federation of British Indian provinces and the Indian
States.
228
✔ It also recommended a responsible government at the centre with certain reservations and safeguards
for the transitional period to maintain the British control over Défense, external affairs and economy.
✔ B R Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for the untouchables.
✔ Even though the conference was attended by some prominent Indian leaders, they could not be termed
real representatives of Indian people.
✔ Therefore, the British government grew anxious in securing the participation of Congress in RTC.
SECOND ROUND TABLE CONGRESS (7ST SEPTEMBER 1931- 1ST DECEMBER, 1931)-
wrote- “Chchello Katoro Jerno aa pee jao Bapu!’’

(Even this last cup of poison, you must drink Bapu).
o Participants –
✔ Indian National Congress – Gandhi represented
as a sole Congress representative
✔ Chief Spokesperson of the British Government
- Sir Samuel Hoare
✔ A majority of Indian delegates were handpicked by
the government who were loyalists to the British
government such as landlords, communalists,
Princely States etc. They were used by the British
government to neutralize Gandhi over the basic
question of freedom for India.
✔ The Government of India was represented by C.P.
o Participation of Congress - Yes Ramaswami Iyer, Narendra Nath Law and M.
o After the Gandhi Irwin pact in March, Gandhiji Ramachandra Rao.
decided to represent Congress in the Second Round ✔ Most of the prominent participants of the first
Table Conference. session returned to attend the second session.
o He travelled to England by the ship S S Rajputana. ✔ The new faces who attended the conference –
o In April, 1931- Lord Willingdon succeeded Lord Gandhi, Madan Mohan Malviya, Mrs. Sarojini
Irwin as Governor-General of India. Naidu, Ali Imam, the great poet Mohammad
o 26th August, 1931- McDonald’s Labour party Iqbal, Capitalist G D Birla and S K Dutta (a
cabinet resigned and a new coalition government prominent Indian Christian).
dominated by Conservatives was formed under the
✔ The Princes led by Maharaja of Patiala wanted a
leadership of Ramsay McDonald only.
confederation instead of a federation. However,
o Sir Samuel Hoare (Conservative) became the
some of the Princely states supported an idea of
Secretary of State for India. This change in
federation.
government in Britain brought about a change in the
attitude and stand of the government in relation of ✔ Outcome-
constitutional reforms. ✔ The session ended with the British PM
o The new government were opposed to any kind of MacDonald’s following announcement –
political and financial concessions to India. ● Two new Muslim Provinces were created –
o Role of Winston Churchill – Sindh and NWFP
✔ He strongly objected to the British government ● Formation of Indian Consultative Committee.
negotiating with the seditious Fakir. ● Three Expert Committees were formed –
o Other than this, The Daily Mail (Conservative Finance, Franchise and States.
party outlook) wrote – “Without India, the British ● The prospect of a unilateral award if Indian
commonwealth would fall to pieces. Commercially, failed to agree.
Politically, economically and geographically, it is ✔ Gandhi suggested for implementation of Nehru
our greatest imperial asset. To imperil our hold on Report.
it would be the worst treason any British could ✔ Gandhi suggested that the communal settlement be
commit.’’ kept pending till the constitutional settlement had
o When Gandhi sailed for London on been arrived at. But the Muslim representatives
29thAugust,1931, nothing much was expected from (especially by Muslim League) insist on separate
the conference as the great Gujarati poet Meghani electorates.
229
✔ This, despite Gandhi giving a Carte Blanche to Jinnah, the communal problem could not be resolved.
✔ In this way, Gandhi’s participation in the second-round table conference ended in a fiasco.
THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (17TH

NOVEMEBER- 24TH DECEMBER, 1932)-
o Participants-
✔ Participation of Congress- NO
✔ Labour Party also boycotted.
✔ Other Participants- Aga Khan III, B R Ambedkar,
N M Joshi, Ramasamy Mudaliar, Begum
Jahanara Shahnawaz, T B Sapru, Sir
Purushottamdas Thakurdas and others.
o Outcome –
✔ After this conference, the British government
prepared a white paper on the new constitution of
India. ✔ This paper was criticsed by All Parties of India as
✔ The White paper published in March 1933, it did not grant Complete Independence.
contained 4 provisions – ✔ A Joint Select Committee was appointed under
● Federation the chairmanship of Lord Lilithgow. In November,
● Provincial autonomy (Responsible government at 1934 the Committee submitted its report. As per
Provincial level) this report, the British Parliament passed the
● Dyarchy at the Centre Government of India Act, 1935.
● Safeguards which vested special powers in the
Central and provincial Executive
Note – DR. Ambedkar and T B Sapru was the only person who attended all Conference
POONA PACT
COMMUNAL AWARD- o Thus, this award accorded separate electorates

for Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, 6Indian
o On 16th August, 1932 – British Christians, Anglo-Indians, depressed classes,
Prime Minister Ramsay and even to the Marathas for some seats in
MacDonald announced a Bombay
proposal on minority o This was another expression of British Policy of
representation, which came to Divide & Rule.
be known as Communal o The Muslims, Sikhs and Christians had already
Award or MacDonald Award. been recognised as minorities
o The Communal Award, based o The Communal Award declared the depressed
on the findings of the Indian Franchise class as minorities and entitled them for separate
Committee (also called the Lothian Committee), electorates. Thus, separating them from the rest of
established separate electorates and reserved seats the Hindus.
for minorities, including the depressed classes o It should be noted here that Dr B.R. Ambedkar in
which were granted seventy-eight reserved seats. the past, in his testimony to the Simon
Commission, had stressed that the depressed
230
classes should be treated as a distinct, independent POONA PACT (24TH SEPTEMBER, 1932)-
minority separate from the caste Hindus.
o But the Simon Commission rejected the proposal of
a separate electorate for the depressed classes.
However, it retained the concept of reserving
seats.
o In the second Round Table Conference held in
London, Ambedkar again raised the issue of
separate electorate for the depressed classes.
o Accordingly, Ramsay MacDonald chaired the
committee on minorities and announced the
Communal Award.
o Provisions of MacDonald Award o Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar supported the
✔ To double the existing seats in provincial Communal award and separate electorates for
legislatures. Depressed or Scheduled classes. As a result,
✔ Retain the system of separate electorates for the Gandhi then in a Yerawada jail sat on a fast unto
minorities. death on 20th September, 1932.
✔ It grants weightage to Muslim community in o Hence, everywhere 20th September was observed as
provinces where they are in minority. a day of fasting and Prayer, temples and wells were
✔ It reserves 3 % seats for women in all provincial thrown open to depressed classes.
o Finally, the Poona pact was signed between Gandhi
legislatures except in the NWFP.
and Dr. B R Ambedkar with the mediation of M
✔ Separate electorates for Depressed classes. C Rajah and Madan Mohan Malviya. This pact
✔ It allocates seats to Labour, landlords, traders averted the political breach between the so-called
and industrialists. Caste Hindus and Scheduled Castes.
✔ The depressed classes where to get ‘double vote’,
one to be used through separate electorates and the
other to be used in the general electorates
o Reaction of Congress –
✔ The Indian National Congress had earlier accepted
separate electorates for the Muslims as per
Lucknow Act,1916, as a compromise with the
Muslim league.
✔ Hence, even though the Congress was not in favour
of this Award as it was against the constitutional
scheme prepared by Nehru Report but it was not
in favour of changing the Award without the o Provisions of Poona Pact-
consent of the Depressed classes. ✔ Dr. Ambedkar accepted the principle of joint
✔ Therefore, it decided neither to accept or reject electorates for Depressed classes and agreed to
it. reject the separate electorates.
o Reaction of Gandhi – ✔ Number of seats reserved for the depressed classes
✔ On the other hand, Gandhi strongly opposed the in provincial legislatures increased from 71 in the
Communal Award. Award to 147 and 18% of total in central
✔ According to him, what was needed was not legislatures.
separate electorates but root and branch eradication ✔ A certain percentage of seats allotted to the general
of untouchability. But once the depressed classes non-Muslim electorates would be reserved for the
were treated as a separate community, the question depressed classes.
of abolition of untouchability would not arise and ✔ Adequate representation of Depressed Classes in
would ensure that untouchables would remain Civil Services.
untouchables in perpetuity. o After signing of Poona Pact, The Working
Committee of the All India Scheduled Caste
Federation demanded for separate electorates.
231
o Even after signing the Poona Pact, Dr B.R. ocean, and a drop of water from the Mahad tank
Ambedkar continued to denounce the Poona Pact were acts of political catharsis and social
till 1947. philosophy.
o Ambedkar advocated for Parliamentary system
GANDHI'S HARIJAN CAMPAIGN- Gandhi was not in a favour for parliamentary
system of governance. Gandhi believed that
o From Yeravda jail itself, Gandhi started the democracy tends to get converted into mass
campaign against untouchability. democracy with a propensity for domination by
o This constructive work for the upliftment of Dalits leaders. Ambedkar was inclined towards mass
and Harijans was a response to the Communal democracy as it could act as a pressure on the
Award. government with the advancement of the
o 1932 - He formed All India Anti-Untouchability oppressed people
League o Ambedkar had certain principles which were very
o 1933 – He started the weekly Harijan rigid, while Gandhi had no rigidities of ideology or
o In August 1933 – Gandhi released from jail and principles except the uncompromising notion of
shifted to Satyagraha Ashram (Also known as non-violence. For instance, Gandhi tried to put
Sevagram Ashram) in Wardha as he had vowed forward simple practical alternatives to the political
in 1930 not to return to Sabarmati Ashram streams of the twentieth century like liberalism,
(Ahmedabad) unless swaraj was won. communism and fascism. Ambedkar, on the other
hand, had a natural inclination for liberalism and
similar ideas.
o Ambedkar’s politics tended to highlight the aspect
of Indian disunity whereas the Gandhian politics
tried to show the aspect of Indian unity.
o In ‘Hind Swaraj’, Gandhi tries to prove that India
has always been a nation prior to the beginning of
the imperial rule and it was the British rule who
broke this cultural unity. Ambedkar, on the other
hand, believed in the notion that Indian unity was
the by-product of the British policies.
o November 1933 – He conducted a Harijan tour of o For Gandhi, ‘Gramraj’ was ‘Ramraj’ and real
the country propagating removal of untouchability independence for Indians. Ambedkar believed
and collecting money for his newly formed Harijan that ‘Gramraj’ would continue the social hierarchy
Sevak Sangh. based on discrimination and inequality. The idea
o Gandhi also undertook two fasts – on 8th May and of the use of compulsion or force for social
16th August, 1934 to convince the people of the integration as well as social reforms was negated by
seriousness of his efforts against untouchability. Ambedkar
o The two leaders also differed in their views and
Note- Gandhi denounced caste system and approaches in respect of the context of development
untouchability but supported the Varna System. for deprived classes. For instance, when Gandhi
named the depressed classes and the untouchables
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF GANDHI AND as ‘Harijan’, Ambedkar denounced it as a clever
AMBEDKAR – scheme. Thus, when the Depressed Classes League
o Gandhi, the principal architect of the Indian was renamed as Harijan Sevak Sangh (by Gandhi),
freedom struggle and B.R. Ambedkar, the Ambedkar left the organisation by claiming that for
principal architect of the Constitution of Gandhi removal of untouchability was only a
independent India shared many ideas, though in platform, not a sincere programme.
many ways they held different beliefs. o Ambedkar held that the centre of religion must be
o The burning of foreign cloth by Gandhi and the between man and man, and not between man
burning of Manusmriti by Ambedkar are not to and God alone, as preached by Gandhi.
be seen as mere acts of sentiment. Rather, foreign o Ambedkar denounced the Vedas and other Hindu
cloth and Manusmriti represented the bondage and scriptures. He held that the caste system and
slavery for India. So too, a pinch of salt from the untouchability were the manifestations of the
232
Hindu religious scriptures. On the contrary, Gandhi machinery and more machinery, civilization and
held that caste system in Hinduism has nothing to more civilization.
do with religious precepts and spirituality. For o The idea of social transformation through
Gandhi, caste and varna are different, and caste democratic and peaceful means got support from
is pervasive degeneration. Ambedkar as well as Gandhi. They never sought a
o Dr. Ambedkar believed in freedom of religion and violent overthrow of any kind.
separation of religion from state or politics. o ` Gandhiji believed in to disobey the law to make
Gandhi also endorsed the idea of freedom of the law more just was a Gandhian principle and its
religion, but never approved a separation of manifestations were noncooperation, hartal,
politics and religion satyagraha and civil disobedience. Ambedkar was
o According to Ambedkar, legal sovereign power more inclined towards the observance of law and
should be limited and people should be the constitutionality in the political process.
ultimate sovereign. Gandhi too believed in limited o Gandhi viewed the untouchables as an integral
sovereign power of the State. According to him, part of the Hindu whole, whereas Ambedkar
absolute sovereign power of the State would regarded the untouchables as a religious
annihilate the spirit and personality of an minority and not a part of the Hindu
individual. Gandhi, in fact, believed in least community, and preferred to call them a ‘political
governance being the best governance. minority’ or ‘minority by force’.
o Ambedkar held absolute non-violence as an end o Ambedkar wanted to solve the problem of
and relative violence as a means, whereas Gandhi untouchability through laws and constitutional
never made such a distinction and was an opponent methods, whereas Gandhi treated untouchability as
of violence in any kind. a moral stigma and wanted it to be erased by acts of
o Ambedkar believed in purity of ends and justified atonement.
means as just when the ends were just. Whereas o An idea of proper education to make the
in Gandhian perception it was purity of means that individual desire for change, reform and
determined the end. integration was the stance where the views of two
o Gandhi was apprehensive about the dehumanizing leaders were the same.
impact of mechanization and held it responsible o As per Justice Iyer- It would thus appear that
for the creation as well as sustaining of exploitative Ambedkar and Gandhi had common allergy for
socioeconomic orders in the world. Ambedkar was social evil and imperial injustice. But a fundamental
of the firm belief that machinery and modern difference, more apparent than real, demarcated the
civilization were of benefit to all, and held that the two minds
slogan of a democratic society must be
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935 AND CONGRESS MINISTRIES
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935- advice of ministers responsible to the provincial

legislatures.
o The act provided for federation in India consisting o The subjects of central administration were divided
of British India and Native States willing to join into 3 lists- Federal, Provincial and Concurrent.
it. The residuary powers were vested with the
o The Dyarchy was removed from the provincial Governor-General.
level and it was introduced at. However, this o This act introduced bi-cameralism in 6 out of 11
provision did not come into practical use. provinces.
o The provinces were granted autonomy which came o The act separated Burma and Aden from India and
into effect in 1937 and was discontinued in 1939. it created two new provinces – Orissa and Sindh.
o The scheme of provincial autonomy was provided o This act provided for the Federal Court in Delhi
for an executive and legislature in every province. which was set up in 1937. the appeal lied in the
o It also introduced responsible government in the privy council against the judgements of the federal
provinces i.e. Governor was required to act with the court.
233
o It also extended the principle of communalism by ● He could restore cuts in grants

providing a separate electorate for depressed ● certify bills rejected by the Legislature
classes, women’s and labours. ● issue ordinances
o It extended the Franchise or voting rights (About ● exercise his veto.
10 % of the population got voting rights). ✔ Although the Governor in the province had
o This act provided for the establishment of the residuary powers but he did not legislate on his
Federal Public Service Commission and joint own.
Public Service Commission. Nationalist Response-
o It abolished the Council of India which was ✔ The 1935 Act was condemned by nearly all sections
established by Government of India Act, 1858. The and unanimously rejected by the Congress.
Secretary of State for India was provided by a team ✔ The Hindu Mahasabha and the National Liberal
of advisors. Foundation, however, declared themselves in
o Power given to Governor –General of India- favour of the working of the 1935 Act in the central
Executive – as well as at the provincial level.
● The governor-general was the pivot of the entire ✔ The Congress demanded, instead, the convening of
Constitution. Subjects to be administered were a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult
divided into reserved and transferred subjects. franchise to frame a constitution for independent
● Reserved subjects—foreign affairs, defence, India.
tribal areas and ecclesiastical affairs—were to be ✔ Initially the congress criticized the Act of 1935. I.
exclusively administered by the governor-general Nehru compared it with a ‘machine with all
on the advice of executive councillors. Executive brakes, no engine’. But despite the disagreement
councillors were not to be responsible to the central the congress accepted this act in the Lucknow
legislature. session of 1936 and decided to contest the election
● Transferred subjects included all other subjects of 1937.
and were to be administered by the governor-
general on the advice of ministers elected by the FORMATION OF CONGRESS MINISTRIES-
legislature. These ministers were to be responsible o After the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience
to the federal legislature and were to resign on Movement, a major debate arose among the
losing the confidence of the body. The Governor- nationalists especially in Indian National Congress
general could act in his individual judgement in the for the future nationalist agitation against the British
discharge of his special responsibilities for the Government for Independence. The following 3
security and tranquillity of India. groups were emerged among the Congress-
Legislative powers - Governor-general had
residuary powers.
Gandhi New Swarajist Leftist

o He and his followers o Another section of Congress advocated for o Another section emerged within
believed in Struggle- the revival of the constitutional methods of the congress known as Leftists.
Truce-Struggle. struggle and participations in the elections of o These leftists advocated for
1934. This section of congress came to be continuation of non-
known as New Swarajist. constitutional mass movement.
o He suggested o IMP Leaders – Dr. M A Ansari, Asaf Ali, o Important leader – J Nehru & S
enrolment in Satyamurthy, Bhulabhai Desai and B C C Bose
Constructive Roy.
programmes o According to them, Political activism is
particularly for the necessary to keep the morale of people high.
upliftment of
Harijans.
234
o He emphasized on o They argued that they would not cooperate o J Nehru considered the other
revival of Village with the government and open another two alternative services as
Crafts. political front to criticize the policies of the Spiritual defeat.
government and prepare people for the next o Nehru criticised Gandhian
mass struggle. strategy of -struggle Truce
Struggle (S-T-S). He put
forward the strategy of Struggle
Through Victory (S-V) i.e.
permanent mass movement
against the British government
till independence.
o He argued that the

period of truce along
with the constructive
programme would
consolidate people’s
energy and power and
facilitate their
mobilisation for the
next phase of mass
struggle.
Efforts towards Constitutionalism- ● Similarly, in elections of the Central Legislative

✔ Gandhi gave a free hand to all saying- I want all Assembly (Nov, 1934) – Indian National Congress
sections to work in all directions towards one thing won 44 seats out of 76 (Congress stood for 55 only).
in their own ways without criticising one another. ● In the Municipality elections of Madurai
Decision of Congress to fight elections- (October,1935)- Congress secured 21 out of 36
● May 1934- Congress called the AICC Meeting at seats.
Patna and was called to set up a Parliamentary ● These elections provided Congress a tremendous
board to fight the elections under the aegis experience in terms of organising and managing
Congress. elections, and also able to test its popular base &
● To appease the left Gandhi supported Nehru for the the support from its allies for funds.
Presidentship of Lucknow Congress (1936). ● However, Congress decided that the election
● Response of Gandhi- Fundamentally, in participation issue related to Government of India
disagreement with Parliamentary Politics, Gandhi Act, 1935 will be settled during the Lucknow
resigned from the Congress in October, 1934 by Session.
refusing its four anna membership. Lucknow Congress Session (April, 1936)-
● Reaction of Nehru – On the other hand, Nehru ✔ Presided by – J Nehru
wondered why I should walk out of Congress and ✔ He advocated socialism which he regarded as the
leave the field clear for reactionary elements. He only key to the solutions of the world’s problem
along with the Socialists decided to remain with and of India’s problem.
the Congress and give priority to the anti- ✔ Nehru also took 3 socialists into the Congress
imperialist struggle for which Congress unity was working committee -Jayprakash Narayan,
of utmost importance. Achyut Patwardhan and Acharya Narendra
Congress Contest Elections to local bodies- Dev.
● From 1934 onwards Congress contested elections to Important Provisions-
the Assembly and local bodies as and when they ● The Provincial Unit of Congress was asked to
were held. conduct Agrarian enquiries and assist in the
● When elections were held in Madras Presidency, a formulation of an All India Agrarian programme.
Congress Civic Board was formed (May,1935) for ● The Congress also resolved to contest elections on
selecting party candidates for local elections. the basis of a manifesto.
● The Candidates were asked to take a pledge for ● The Congress declared = The people of the states
encouraging swadeshi, removing corruption and (Princely states) should have the same right of self-
improving medical and educational facilities. determination as those rest of India and that the
235
Congress that the Congress stands for the same ✔ The Congress also adopted 13 point -temporary
political, civil and democratic evils for every part Agrarian Programme which included the
of India. The Congress also pointed out that the
struggle for liberty must be carried out by the
people of state themselves.
● However, the question of office acceptance was
kept pending i.e. the resolutions to contest
elections while keeping the question of office
acceptance pending was a kind of compromise
between those who wanted to contest elections and
those who had desire to boycott it.
Election manifesto of Congress-
✔ It was drafted by the Parliamentary committee
and aimed at explaining the political and economic
programme of the Congress. It was adopted the
AIIC in August, 1936 –
Manifesto-
following features-
● The manifesto reaffirmed the total rejection of the
act of 1935 by the Congress.
● 50 % reduction in rent & revenue
● The manifesto clarified that the aim of sending
● Exemption of uneconomic holdings from rent
congressmen to the legislatures was not to
and land tax
cooperate with the government but to Combat the
act of 1935. ● Taxation of agricultural income
● It declared that National Independence could give ● Abolition of feudal levies and forced labour
Indians the power to solve their socio-economic ● Cooperative farming
problems and end of exploitation of the masses. ● Wiping out arrears of rent
● It declared that the task of Congress representatives ● Modification of ejectment of laws
was to end all oppressive acts and regulations. ● Recognition of peasant Unions
The following were the promise were made by ✔ The above programme was silent on the issue of
Congress – abolition of the zamindari and Taluqdari system
● Establishment of civil liberty (Because the right wing of the congress was not in
● Release of Political prisoners. favour of abolition of the zamindari system).
● Welfare work for the peasants ✔ Reaction of The Kisan Sabha Leaders – They
● Abolition of untouchability welcomed the programme in general and also
● Equal status for women criticised it on this ground.
● Encouragement to khadi and village industries Congress
● To contain the problem of communalism Election of 1937 (Provinces)-
● Welfare work for working class i.e. Proper hours
of work, decent standard of living, suitable
machinery to settle disputes with employer’s
protection against the economic consequences of
old age.
Note – The Lucknow Session was significant

because during this session that the first session
/meeting of the All India Kisan Sabha was held
under the Presidentship of Swami Sahjanand
Saraswati
Faizpur Session of Congress (Dec,1936) –

✔ President – J Nehru
Important resolutions –
● It passed a resolution condemning Italian
annexation of Abyssinia and Japanese
aggression of China.
● It demanded the formation of constituent
assembly to frame a constitution of India.
236
✔ The federal part of the act of 1935 could not come Voting system First-past-the-post
into force because of the hostile attitude of all the
political parties and the reluctance of the Indian ● Elections were held in 11 provinces and the
rulers. Only the other part of the Act which relates
election yielded significant results. Congress won
to the provinces came into force in 1937.
711 seats out of 1,161 seats it contested. (There
Consequently, elections were held for the
were 1,585 seats in legislative assemblies of the 11
provincial Legislature in February, 1937.
provinces). The congress obtained clear majorities
✔ The names of the Congress candidates were
on five provinces, namely UP, Bihar, C.P, Orissa
recommended by the Provincial Congress
Committee to the Congress parliamentary board, and Madras. It emerged single largest party in
which had a final say in selection of candidates. Bombay, Bengal, Assam and NWFP.
✔ Nehru undertook a country-wide election ● The Muslim league fared relatively badly at the
campaign, travelling 80,000 kms in less than 5 polls. It had secured only 51 of the totals of 482
months. seats reserved for Muslims in provincial
✔ Gandhi did not address a single election meeting. assemblies. It could not show its strength Muslim
Election Result: majority provinces of Punjab, Bengal, and NWFP,
but it made notable gain in Hindu majority
Punjab Provincial Assembly 1937-1946 provinces of UP, Central Provinces (C.P), Bombay
and others.
Structure ● Congress was in position to form a government in 7
provinces. Congress itself formed its mysteries in
Seats 175 (88 seats needed for majority) six provinces. In NWFP and Assam it agreed to
form coalition ministries with the collaboration of
other regional political parties.
● In provinces where congress had gained clear
majority, it refused to give any concession to
Muslim league in the cabinet. It strained the relation
between the Hindus and Muslims.
Congress performance in reserve constituencies:
S.No. Province Seats won by congress

/ Total No. of seats
1 UP 134/228
Political groups Government (120)
2 Bihar 95/152
• Unionist Party(95)
3 CP 70/112
• Khalsa National Board (14)
• Hindu Election Board (11) 4 Orissa 36/60
Opposition (55) 5 Madras 159/215
6 Bombay 87/175
• Indian National Congress (18)
• Shiromani Akali Dal (10) 7 Bengal 60/250

• Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam (4)
8 Assam 35/108
• All-India Muslim League (2)
• National Progressive Party (1)

9 NWFP 19/50
• Independents (20) 10 Sind 8/60

Elections
237
11 Punjab 18/175
Office Acceptance-
● In March,1937- The All India Congress
Committee (AICC) met to decide over the basic
question i.e. Whether to accept the office or not.
● Leaders who opposed the office- J Nehru, S Bose,
Sahjanand Saraswati and Indulal Yagnik. They
saw acceptance of office as cooperation with
Imperialism. According to them, this would side
track the main issues of freedom and economic
justice. C Rajagopalachari
● Supporter – Rajagopalachari, Dr. Rajendra
Prasad, G D Birla Congress Prime Ministers (Premiers in various
● They argued that they will not allow councils to provinces)
lead them into constitutionalism but will lead them S.No Province Congress PM
for revolution. They said that Congress would 1 UP G B Pant
work in favour of Peasants and workers. 2 Bihar Sri Krishna Sinha
● Rajendra Prasad moved a resolution for (SK Sinha)
conditional acceptance of office. The condition 3 CP Dr. Khare
was that the governors would not use their special 4 Madras C Rajagopalachari
powers to intervene in the functioning of the 5 Orissa Hare Krishna
ministries which was also accepted and approved Mehtab
by Gandhi. 6 Bombay B G Kher
7 NWFP Dr. Khan Saheb
● Sind- Congress supported the ministry of Ghulam

Hussain
Hidayatullah.
● Assam- INC
supported the
ministry of
Bardoloi.
● Bengal –
Fazlul Haq of
Krishsak
Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Praja Party invited the Congress to cooperate in
● But when the Congress leaders were invited by the
forming a coalition government but Congress
Governors to form ministries in 6 provinces where
refused and Haq joined hands with the Muslim
Congress was in majority, the Governor turned
League. In Bengal, Muslim league was led by H.S
down the offer of office acceptance put forward by
SUHARWARDI
Dr. Prasad.
● Punjab- Congress was not in a position to play a
● The government now went ahead and formed
dominant role. Here, Unionist party formed the
interim ministries in these provinces. But could
government under the leadership of Sikandar
not continue beyond 6 months.
Hayat khan. -The Muslim League with Unionist
● Due to the pressure made by Rajagopalachari and
Party formed a coalition government in Punjab
capitalist like G D Birla on CWC, Gandhi finally
gave his consent for acceptance, during the CWC
Working of the Provincial Economy-
meet at Wardha.
He argued that they will not allow councils
G B Pant
238
Eleven Provincial Achievement under congress ministries - There was

Ministries of great enthusiasm among the people, suppressed mass
British India: The energy had got released. There was an increase in the
ministries formed prestige of the Congress as it had shown that it could not
in 1937 in eleven only lead people but could also use State power for their
provinces had benefit. But the Congress ministries had some basic
different stories to limitations: they could not, through their administration,
tell. They could not change the basic imperialist character of the system
function smoothly. and could not introduce a radical era. In the 28 months
In Bengal, Sind and Punjab the new setup worked for of Congress rule in the provinces, there were some
ten years. In other provinces the so-called responsible efforts made for people’s welfare.
governments remain in saddle just for two years. In
October, 1939, the congress ministries in eight
provinces tendered their resignation on war issues.
Role of Governors in Congress-ruled Provinces: In
Congress-dominated Provinces the Governors usually
behave decently. They did not interfere much with the
work of the ministries. Instances when the Governor
exercised their special powers were also few. Thus, the
working of Provincial Autonomy till 1939 remained
quite satisfactory. The Governors acted as
constitutional heads. After the resignation of congress
ministries in 1939, they once again became the real
heads of the provinces. Hare Krishna Mehtab
Défense of Civil Liberties - The Congress ministries
S K Sinha did much to ease curbs on civil liberties:
Part Played by Governors in Non-Congress ● Laws giving emergency powers were repealed.
Provinces: In Non-Congress Provinces, the ● Ban on
Governors enjoyed unlimited powers. There was no illegal
strong and organised party to challenge or block their
interference.
organisations, such as the Hindustan

● Seva Dal and Youth Leagues, and on certain
books and journals was lifted.
● Press restrictions were lifted.
Dr. N B Khare
239
● Newspapers were taken out of black lists. Dr. M Munshi

Agrarian Reforms- There were certain basic
constraints due to which the Congress ministries could
not undertake a complete overhaul of the agrarian
structure by completely abolishing zamindari. These
constraints were:
● The ministries did not have adequate powers.
● There were inadequate financial resources as a
lion’s share was appropriated by the Government of
India.
● Strategy of class adjustments was another hurdle
since zamindars, etc., had to be conciliated and
neutralized.
● There was a constraint of time since the logic of
Congress politics was confrontation and not
cooperation with colonialism.
● War clouds had started hovering around 1938.
B G Kher ● The reactionary second chamber (Legislative
● Confiscated arms and arms licences were Council) dominated by landlords, moneylenders
restored. and capitalists in United Provinces, Bihar, Bombay,
● Police powers were curbed and the CID stopped Madras and Assam had to be conciliated as its
shadowing politicians. support was necessary for legislation.
● Political prisoners and revolutionaries were ● The agrarian structure was too complex. In spite
released, and deportation and internment orders of these constraints, the Congress ministries
were revoked. managed to legislate a number of laws relating to
● In Bombay lands confiscated by the government land reforms, debt relief, forest grazing fee, arrears
during the Civil Disobedience Movement were of rent, land tenures, etc.
restored. ● But most of these benefits went to statutory and
occupancy tenants while sub-tenants did not gain
much. Agricultural labourers did not benefit as
they had not been mobilised.
Labour Reforms
● The basic approach of congress ministers was to
advance workers’ interests while promoting
industrial peace. This was sought to be achieved by
reducing strikes as far as possible and by
advocating compulsory arbitration prior to
striking before the established conciliation
machinery.
● Goodwill was sought to be created between labour
and capital with mediation of ministries, while at
the same time efforts were made to improve
workers’ condition and secure wage increases for
them.
Dr. Khan Sahib ● The ministries treated militant trade union protests
● Pensions of officials associated with the Civil as law and order problems, and acted as mediators
Disobedience Movement were restored. as far as possible. This approach was largely
● But there were certain blemishes in the performance successful but not so in Bombay. Also, leftist critics
of the Congress ministries regarding civil liberties. were not satisfied by this approach. Generally, the
Yusuf Maherally, a socialist, was arrested by the ministries took recourse to Section 144 and arrested
Madras government for inflammatory speeches and the leaders.
later released. S.S. Batliwala, a socialist, was ● Nehru was unhappy about these repressive
arrested by the Madras government for seditious measures, but in public supported the ministries to
speech and given a six months’ sentence. Then, protect them from petty and petulant criticism.
K.M. Munshi, the Bombay home minister, used the Although Gandhi was against militant and violent
CID against communists and leftists. methods, he stood for political education of the
masses.
240
● He felt that the popular base of the Congress should ✔ The Left became highly critical of Congress
not erode. He appealed to Congressmen against ministry’s handling of popular protest and accused
frequent resort to colonial laws and machinery. it of suppressing peasants and workers
Social Reforms- These included the following— movement.
● Prohibition imposed in certain areas. ✔ R Plame Dutt commented on this- The dominant
● Measures for welfare of Harijans taken—temple moderate leadership was in practise developing an
entry, use of public facilities, scholarships, an increasing cooperation with imperialism, was
increase in their numbers in government service and acting more and more openly in the interest of
police, etc. upper-class landlords and Industrialists and was
● Attention given to primary, technical and higher showing increasingly marked hostility to all
education and to public health and sanitation. militant forms of struggle.
● Encouragement given to khadi through subsidies ✔ Thus, the policy of ministry formation opened a
and other measures. new crisis in the national movement.
● Prison reforms undertaken. ✔ Gandhi and Nehru began to feel that the positive
● Encouragement given to indigenous enterprises. role of the ministries was getting exhausted.
● Efforts taken to develop planning through the Resignation of Congress Ministries –
National Planning Committee set up under ✓ On 1st September, 1931 – The Second World war
Jawaharlal Nehru (It was formed when S C Bose broke out.
was the president of congress). ✓ 3rd September,1939- Britain dragged India into the
Other Beneficial Results: war without consulting Congress leaders or
● The working of provincial autonomy yielded elected members of Central legislative assembly.
beneficial results in other ways too. ✓ In October, 1939 – The Congress ministry resigned
● It served as the good training ground in public the office in protest.
administration. ✓ Gandhi welcomed the resignation calling it as a
● The minister gained confidence to shoulder the bitter pill which needed to be swallowed to cleanse
responsibility of similar nature after Independence. the Congress of the rampant corruption and
● The short period of congress rule gave a taste of indiscipline.
self-government to the people whose desire for full ✓ The resignation brings the right wing and left wing
independence became stronger day by day in of the Congress together.
succeeding years. ✓ It also highlights that the Congress was not power
Negative outcomes – greedy but its intentions was the freedom of the
✔ The strategy of using offices to promote political Indian People from the foreign rule.
activity created a new dilemma. ✓ The resignation of congress ministry observed by
✔ Dilemma is – How could a party running a the Muslim league observed ‘day of deliverance’ on
government simultaneously organize popular 22 December 1939.
protest and agitations against itself? o Evaluation-
✔ The Congress Ministries promoted civil liberties ✓ Even though Left criticised the congress rule, its
and allowed trade unions and Kisan expectations were fulfilled in a large measure.
organizations to grow. ✓ The Congress Ministries succeeded in handling
✔ The leftist and communists began to operate freely communal riots.
– ✓ The Congress ministries successfully foiled British
● The Communist Party of India brought out its attempt of Divide and Rule by working for the
weekly organ – The National Front from betterment of masses and not for colonial masters.
Bombay. ✓ Fears of provincialisation of Congress was also
● The Communist Party also brought out its journal- disapproved as ministers succeeded in presenting a
The Congress Socialist. common front before the centre.
● The Kirti Communists of Punjab brought out Kirti ✓ The morale of ICS reached a low as they
Lehar from Meerut (UP). understood that Independence is nearby.
✓ The Congress influenced all the sections including
✔ A section of Congress- Communists, Socialists,
lower bureaucracy.
Ryotis and Revolutionary Terrorists felt that civil
✓ Congress Ministry emerged as an alternative to the
liberties should be used to organize militant or
Britsh Imperialist government successfully claimed
violent forms of protest.
that Indians were fit to rule.
✔ Because of this, popular agitations began to clash ✓ The formation of Congress Ministries had changed
frequently with the Congress Governments which the balance of power in relation to British rulers. It
treated all militants’ protests as law and order was a psychological victory over British.
problems.
241
MISCELLANEOUS – recommendations were implemented despite mill

owners’ protests.
Views of Gandhi on Office Acceptance- ✔ Industrial Disputes Act, 1938- It emphasized on
✔ Office acceptance was an attempt to avoid bloody conciliation, arbitrations and negotiations in
revolution on one hand and mass Civil place of direct action. It also had a provision to
Disobedience on the other. prevent lockouts and strikes.
✔ In Harijan, he wrote- These offices have to be held ✔ In May, 1938 - A Labour Enquiry Committee
lightly and not tightly. They should be Crowns of was set up, headed by Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Thorns. They have been taken to quicken the pace recommended an increase in workers wages with a
at which we are moving towards our goal. minimum wage of Rs.15 per month, maternity
o After the formation of Congress Ministries, Nehru benefits to women and recognition of left
observed that the outstanding problem of India is dominated mazdoor. Its recommendations were
the Peasant problem and all else is secondary. implemented by the Congress Government.
o Imp Labour committees during Congress ✔ In Bihar – Labour Enquiry Committee was
Government- established under the chairmanship of Dr.
✔ Bombay- Textile Inquiry Committee – To Rajendra Prasad.
increase wages amounting to crore of rupees. Its
TRIPURA SESSION AND GANDHI BOSE LINKAGES
TRIPURA SESSION, 1939
o Tripuri Crisis (March 1939)
federation and were opposed to any national

struggle that disturbed their parliamentary work.
In January, 1939, Bose won the election and Gandhi
declared Pattabhi defeat as more mine than his.
in 1938 Bose had unanimously elected as congress The CWC members felt that they could not work
president. In 1939, he decided to stand again for with a president who had publicly accused them and
presidential election, but this time as representative doubted their patriotism. Accordingly, 12 CWC
militant and radical groups. members resigned. Jawaharlal was also unhappy
This was objected to by some members of the CWC about Bose’s aspersion on his colleague but he did
including Sardar Patel, Rajendra Prasad and JB not want to bring out differences in open and
Kripalani who declared that the position of the therefore did not resign.
congress president was like that of a constitutional o Tripuri Congress Session (8-12 March, 1939)
head who represented the unity of the nation. With
the support of Gandhi these leadership put up In March 1939, congress met at annual session at
Pattabhi Sitaramayya as their candidate. Tripuri near Jabalpur.
During the election propaganda, Bose openly
accused the Gandhi as compromiser who were
working for compromise on the question of
242
Gandhiji nominated his candidate Pattabhi

Sitaramayya for the presidential candidate and used
his all powers for his candidates.
Bose still won by majority.
Gandhiji resigned and 13 members of Congress
Working Committee (CWC) resigned.
Working Committee requested president to work as
per wishes of Gandhiji. Majority supported Gandhi.
There was a deadlock between Gandhi and Bose
and Gandhi wings made impossible for Bose to
function.
In Tripuri session, the resolution on the “National Bose finally resigned from presidential ship of the
Demand” must be considered a definite political Congress on April 29, 1939.
advance. This resolution calls for nationwide
Struggle, and demands that the congress
organizations and congress should take steps to
prepare for this.
Subhash Chandra Bose was reelected for president
of INC at the Tripuri session in 1939 by defeating
the Gandhiji’s Candidate Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
Bose demanded that congress should deliver a six
months ultimatum to Britain and the event of its
rejection a wide struggle for Poorna swaraj should
be launched in his opinion, as Bose was to write
later, the Congress was strong enough just as the o Objective of Forward Bloc
masses were ready for such a struggle. He felt that
advantage should be taken of the international crisis
to strive for independence.
But Gandhi, on the other hand, was firm in the
belief that it was not the time for such ultimatums
as neither the Congress nor the masses were yet
ready for struggle. He was also aware that there
were communal discord and class strife and a lack
of unified vision and that this would undermine any
movement.
His warning advice went unheeded, his powers as
President were sought to be curtailed. He, therefore
resigned in April 1939 and in May 1939 Bose and Liberation of India with support of peasants, youth
and other organization.
his followers formed the Forward Bloc as a new
party within the Congress. After attaining Independence, Forward Bloc would
work for establishment for a Socialist state through:
o Rift In The Congress
-
a. Reorganization of agriculture and industry on
socialist terms.
b. Abolition if Zamindari system
c. Introduction of a new monetary and credit
system.
Bose Advocated a campaign of mass civil
disobedience to protest against Viceroy
Linlithgow’s decision to declare war on India’s
behalf without consulting the congress leadership.
Bose organized mass protest in Calcutta calling for
At Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh) session Gandhi the ‘Holwel monument’ commemorating the
tried to discourage Bose from standing for re- Black of Calcutta.
election as president of congress foe second term.
Bose still decided to stand for elections. o Challenges faced by the Congress –
243
Surfacing party weaknesses- This period saw said that the “service which Mahatma Gandhi has
emerging of an ideological clash amongst the rendered to India and to the cause of India’s
Congress and bickering became common place. freedom is so unique and unparalleled that his
Bogus Membership- During this time, many name will be written in letters of gold in our
opportunists and office hungry joined the Congress National History—for all time”. Incidentally,
which led to rise of indiscipline and corruption both men considered socialism to be the way
amongst the organisation. forward in India, though in slightly different ways.
Communist Critique- The Congress was o Gandhi did not subscribe to the Western form of
immensely criticsed by Communal parties and socialism which he associated with
Muslim League blamed Congress for Minority industrialization, but agreed with the kind of
politics. socialism advocated by Jayaprakash Narayan. Both
Tripuri Crisis and Resignation of Bose- The Gandhi and Bose were religious men and disliked
resignation of Bose in 1939 crated serious communism. Both worked against untouchability
differences amongst the Congress. and spoke for women’s emancipation. But they
differed widely in their ways and methods and in
NOTE -P C JOSHI OF CPI DECLARED IN their political and economic ideologies.
1939- The greatest Class struggle today is our o Non-Violence versus Militant Approach
national struggle.
GANDHI AND BOSE: IDEOLOGICAL

DIFFERENCES
Gandhi was a firm believer in ahimsa and

satyagraha, the nonviolent way to gain any goal.
He believed that it was the way in which the masses
could be involved. He objected to violence firstly
because an unarmed mass had little chance of
o Gandhi and Subhash Bose had a deep respect for success in an armed rebellion, and then because he
one another despite their hugely differing considered violence a clumsy weapon which
ideologies. Each appreciated the work done by the created more problems than it solved, and left
other in the national struggle for freedom. In 1942, behind hatred and bitterness which could not be
Gandhi called Bose the “Prince among the overcome through reconciliation.
Patriots”. When the death of Bose was reported, Bose believed that Gandhi’s strategy based on the
Gandhi said that Netaji’s “patriotism is second to ideology of non-violence would be inadequate for
none... His bravery shines through all his actions. securing India’s independence. To his mind, violent
He aimed high and failed. But who has not resistance alone could oust the alien imperialist
failed” On another occasion Gandhi said, “Netaji rule from India. He considered the Gandhian civil
will remain immortal for all time to come for his disobedience campaign as an effective means of
service to India.” paralyzing the administration, but did not think it
o Bose was fully aware of Gandhi’s importance as a to be efficacious unless accompanied by a
symbol of Indian nationalism and called him “The movement aimed at total revolution that was
Father of Our Nation” in a radio broadcast from prepared, if necessary, to use violence.
Rangoon in 1944 even though in the same speech o Form of Government
he expressed his own conviction that force was the In his early writings, Bose expressed the opinion
only way to win freedom from the British. that democracy was the acceptable political
o When forced to resign at the Tripuri session, Bose system for India. But later, he seemed to have
said he would “yield to none in my respect for his veered towards the idea that, at least in the
(Gandhi’s) personality”, adding that “it will be a beginning, a democratic system would not be
tragic thing for me if I succeed in winning the adequate for the process of nation rebuilding and
confidence of other people but fail to win the the eradication of poverty and social inequality. In
confidence of India’s greatest man.” Later, Bose an address to students in Tokyo University in 1944,
244
Bose is quoted as saying: You cannot have a so- place and would not require either police or
called democratic system, if that system has to grandiose armies. All effort must be made to arrive
put through economic reforms on a socialistic at peace rather than go to war. War, said Gandhi,
basis. Therefore, we must have a political system demoralizes those who are trained for it.
a State—of an authoritarian character. It brutalizes men of naturally gentle nature. The
When Bose proclaimed, on October 21, 1943, the main causes of war, according to Gandhi, were
formation of the Provisional Government of Azad racialism, imperialism and fascism (in the
Hind (Free India), he held on to his post as context of the Second World War). He also listed
Supreme Commander of the Indian National Army, economic inequality and exploitation as
and also named himself head of state, prime additional causes of war and instability in the
minister, and minister for war and foreign international system. If these were eradicated, there
affairs. He anticipated retaining the position of need not be any war. He was not against defensive
head of state in a free India. This, say some scholars, war: if the innocent were attacked, there was no
indicated the authoritative streak in Bose. As early option but to defend oneself. So, of course, the
as 1930, Bose expressed the opinion that in India military was required for self-defense, but it was to
there should be “a synthesis of what modern be on minimal scale.
Europe calls Socialism and Fascism. We have o Ideas on Economy
here the justice, the equality, the love, which is the Gandhi’s concept of Swaraj had its own brand of
basis of Socialism, and combined with that we have economic vision. He wanted a decentralized
the efficiency and the discipline of Fascism as it economy without state control. Gandhi dismissed
stands in Europe today.” He called this both capitalism and Western socialism—the
‘samyavada’. former for its exploitative excesses and the latter for
Bose admired discipline and orderly approach to its connection to industrialization. Both, he
anything. He admired these qualities in the Fascists believed, led human beings to crave for luxury and
of Italy and in the Nazis of Germany. Indeed, it is self-indulgence. Gandhi wanted people to get rid of
clear from his letters that, despite his dislike of greed and make do with just the bare necessities of
colonial power and his desire to oust the alien life. He developed the idea of village Sarvodaya.
British rule from India, he was impressed by the He advocated a “back to the roots” vision when
methodical and systematic approach of the British production was “simultaneous with consumption
and their disciplined way of life. and distribution and the vicious circle of money
Gandhi’s ideas on government can be found in the economy was absent. Production was for immediate
Hind Swaraj (1909); it was “the nearest he came use and not for distant markets.” What he wanted
to producing a sustained work of political was the revival of ancient village communities in
theory.” Gandhi’s idealized state, his Ramrajya— which agriculture prospered, industry was
a utopia, in fact—did not need a representative decentralized business was through small scale
government, a constitution, an army or a police cooperative organizations.
force. Capitalism, communism, exploitation and He also wanted the participation of people at all
religious violence would be absent. Instead, the levels. In a letter he wrote to Henry Polak in 1909,
country was to be modelled on the India of the past. Gandhi expressed the view that India’s salvation lay
In many ways, Gandhi’s writings call for a pre- in unlearning what had been learnt; he wanted the
modern, morally-enlightened and apolitical railways, telegraphs, hospitals, lawyers, doctors,
Indian state. Swaraj lays stress on self-governance and other modern trappings to be discarded, and the
through individuals so-called upper classes to learn to live the simple
o Militarism life of the peasant.
Subhas Bose was deeply attracted to military He was against largescale industrialization. He
discipline and was thankful for the basic training he had strong objections to labour saving machinery.
received in the University Unit of the India “Men go on saving labour, till thousands are
Defence Force. He volunteered to form a guard of without work and thrown on the open streets to die
honour during the ceremonial functions at the of starvation”. He was not against instruments and
Calcutta session of the Congress in 1930. And it machinery that saved individual labour. He wrote
was done on a massive and grand scale. Bose, in full that mechanization is good when the hands are too
dress uniform, reviewed his ‘troops’. Gandhi and few for the work intended to be accomplished. It is
most of his supporters were uneasy with this an evil when there are more hands than required for
display. the work, as is the case in India.
Gandhi was against the military on the whole. His The capitalist who amassed wealth was a thief,
Ramrajya, being built on the concept of truth and according to Gandhi. In his opinion, if a person had
nonviolence and self-regulation would be a perfect inherited wealth or had made a lot of money through
245

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trade and industry, the amount was to be shared invoking the imagery of Durga, a form of Shakti,
with the entire society and must be spent on the ready to vanquish evil.
welfare of all. He put forward his theory of However, he was not a sectarian. He named his
trusteeship under which he wanted the capitalists force Azad Hind Fauz, and there were many non-
to be trustees, and as such would take care of not Hindus in that army and who were close to him. The
only themselves but also of others. The workers INA was to be a mixture of various religions, races,
would consider the capitalists as their benefactors and castes with total social equality of all soldiers.
and would keep faith in them. So, there would be They were served food cooked in the common
mutual trust and confidence, and as a consequence kitchen and shared space in common barracks
the ideal of economic equality could be achieved. breaking the age-old caste bonds and practices.
Bose considered economic freedom to be the Common celebrations of all religious festivals took
essence of social and political freedom. He was all place in the INA.
in favour of modernization which was necessarily Bose was a secularist with an impartial attitude
to be brought about by industrialization. He to all religions. He said that Free India must have
believed that India’s downfall in the political and an absolutely neutral and impartial attitude towards
material sphere had been brought about by the all religions and leave it to the choice of individuals
people’s inordinate belief in fate and the to profess or follow a particular religion of his faith.
supernatural accompanied by an indifference to Religion is a private matter; the State has nothing to
modern scientific developments, especially in the do with it. He opined that economic issues cut
field of war weapons. He felt the backward across communal divisions and barriers.
agriculture had to be modernized. The labour that o Caste and Untouchability
was ousted from the agricultural sector as a result of Gandhi’s goals for society were mainly three:
such modernization could be helped only with the eradicating untouchability, maintaining the
development. varna distinctions of the caste system and
o Religion strengthening tolerance, modesty and religiosity
Gandhi said “God is Truth and Love; God is ethics in India.
and morality; God is fearlessness. God is the source Gandhi believed that one way of reinvigorating
of Light and Life and yet He is above and beyond India was to wipe out untouchability, which he
all these, God is conscience. He is even the atheism considered to be a pernicious practice preventing
of the atheist. For in His boundless love God millions of peasants from realizing their dreams and
permits the atheist to live.” aspirations. It was incompatible with Swaraj. He
Gandhi was primarily a man of religion. He had a said that if any Shastra propounded
steadfast view on religion, and his religion was the untouchability that Shastra should be
basis of all his other ideas. Truth and non-violence abandoned. He, however, supported the varna
were the two principles that helped Gandhi in system; he believed that the laws of caste were
evolving a comprehensive view of religion that eternal, and were the base for social harmony. In
went beyond narrow sectarianism. For Gandhi there the India that Gandhi visualized, each village would
is no higher way of worshipping God than serving be organized around the four-fold divisions with
the poor and identifying God in them. every member of society doing his or her own duty.
Subhash Bose believed in Upanishadic teachings. As there would be a complete system of reciprocity,
He revered the Bhagavad Gita and was inspired according to Gandhi, no one would be subject to
by Vivekananda. He was also inspired by the India feelings of differences in status.
of the past as reinterpreted by thinkers. According Bose looked forward to an India changed by a
to many scholars, Hindu spirituality formed the socialist revolution that would bring to an end the
essential part of his political and social thought traditional social hierarchy with its caste system; in
throughout his adult life. However, he was free of its place would come an egalitarian, casteless and
bigotry or orthodoxy. He was for total non- classless society. Subhas Bose completely rejected
discrimination on the basis of religion and in social inequality and the caste system. He spoke
context he took up the Hindus’ cause when he in favour of inter-caste marriages. In his public
demanded that Hindu prisoners be given the right to speeches, Bose spoke vehemently against
do Durga Puja just as Muslims and Christians were untouchability. He was inspired by Vivekananda
allowed to celebrate their festivals. in his belief that the progress of India would be
Bose motivated Indians towards freedom struggle possible only with uplift of the downtrodden and the
through Hindu symbolisms as appropriate for the so-called untouchables.
audience. On December 9, 1930, he called upon the
women to participate in the liberation struggle,
246
CONGRESS INSTANCE AND WORLD WAR II
SECOND WORLD WAR AND FOLLOWING ● Nehru’s view- India should neither join the war until
INSTANCE – the country is free itself nor take advantage of
Britain’s difficulty.
● Why Nehru thought so?
✓ He was clear in his mind about the difference between
democratic values and fascism.
✓ He believed that justice was on the side of Britain,
France and Poland, but he also believed that Britain
and France were imperialist powers, and that “the war
was the result of the inner contradictions of capitalism
maturing
✓ since the end of World War, I”. He, therefore,
advocated no Indian participation till India itself
was free. However, at the same time, no advantage
was to be taken of Britain’s difficulty by starting an
immediate civil disobedience movement.
o Second world war started in September 1939 and
✓ At Final, Gandhi also supported the Nehru’s stand
Britain declared India’s support for war without
and remained reluctant to launch any mass movement
consulting Indian opinion.
till 1942.
Congress offer to Viceroy-
● Finally, Nehru’s view was accepted.
✓ Though the Congress did not like the unilateral action
o The congress working committee put the following
of the British of drawing India into the war without
points in its resolution passed in its Wardha in 1939-
consulting the Indians, it decided to support the war
i. Although it condemned fascist aggression but
effort conditionally.
declared that India couldn’t be a party to war being
✓ The hostility of the Congress to Fascism, Nazism,
fought for democratic freedom while it itself was not
militarism and imperialism had been much more
free.
consistent than the British record. The Indian offer to
ii. Condemning the Nazi attack on Poland
cooperate in the war effort had two basic conditions:
iii. If Britain was fighting for democracy and freedom, it
After the war, a constituent assembly should be
should be proved by ending imperialism in its
convened to determine political structure of a free
colonies and establishing full democracy in India.
India.
iv. The government should declare its war aims soon
Immediately, some form of a genuinely responsible
and, also, as to how the principles of democracy were
government should be established at the Centre.
to be applied to India after the war. The Congress
✓ The offer was rejected by Linlithgow, the viceroy.
leadership wanted to give every chance to the viceroy
The Congress argued that these conditions were
and the British Government.
necessary to win public opinion for war.
o The Muslim League supported the British war effort;
Congress Working Committee meeting at Wardha
Muslim soldiers accounted for up to 40% of the
(10-14th September, 1939)-
British Indian Army during the war.
● S C Bose, Acharya Narendra Dev and Jayprakash
o Hindu Mahasabha also supported the British during
Narayan were also invited.
the war.
● The Leftists view- India should not support the British
o Dr. B R Ambedkar also provided support to the
in the war and start CDM on a large scale to seek
British cause and efforts in the war.
Independence
Government Response-
● Gandhian view- Gandhi was in an opinion to
cooperate with the British but his position was not
supported by even his close followers like Sardar ✔ The government response was entirely negative. The
Patel and Dr. Rajendra Prasad and therefore, he viceroy, Linlithgow, in his statement try to use
decided to support Nehru’s view. Muslim league and the prince against the congress. It
said that it would consult, in future, representatives of
all parties and the princes to decide how to Act of
247
1935 could be modified.

Thus, it becomes clear that
government was in no mood
to loosen its control over
India. The government
✔ refused to define British war
aims beyond stating that
Britain was resisting
aggression.
✔ said it would, as part of future
arrangement, consult representatives of several
communities, parties and interests in India, and that he would offer the British moral support during
the Indian princes as to how the Act of 1935 might the war but on a non-violent basis.
be modified. o However, Jawaharlal Nehru reiterated that complete
✔ said it would immediately set up a consultative independence for India must be a precondition for
committee whose advice could be sought whenever Congress support to the British war effort. Subhash
required. Bose continued with his strong militant stand of direct
Congress Response- action against the colonial government forcing it to
agree to the grant of freedom. Once again, he pointed
✔ In response, Congress Ministries Decide to Resign
out that Britain’s difficulty was to be seized as India’s
on October 22, 1939, the CWC meeting.
opportunity.
✔ Congress rejected the viceroy statement as a o The Congress finally declared at the session that the
reiteration of the old imperialist policy. people of India would accept nothing short of
✔ It decided not to support the war. complete independence. Indian freedom could not
✔ They called upon the Congress ministries to resign in be in the form of dominion or any other status within
the provinces. the imperial structure. Sovereignty, said the Congress
✔ Gandhi ji welcomed the resignation calling it ‘bitter resolution, must rest with the people, whether in the
pill ‘which needed to be swallowed in cleanse the States (the princely states) or the provinces. It was
congress of the rampant indiscipline and corruption. also decided that “Congress would resort to civil
Another positive effect of the resignation was that it disobedience as soon as the Congress organization is
brought together the left and rightwing of the considered fit enough or if circumstances precipitate
congress on the question on the participation in the a crisis.
war. The resignation also proves to its critics that the DEMAND FOR PAKISTAN
congress was not out for the freedom of the Indian
people from foreign yoke. o Meanwhile the idea of separate independent
✔ Gandhiji said that the Congress asked for bread and Muslim state has been nourishing among the Muslim
it has got a stone. intelligentsia for quite some time. The ideological and
political background had been prepared by the
✔ The acceptance of the office thus proved to be just
one phase in the freedom struggle. When the time Aligarh movement, the foundation of the Muslim
League and Morley Minto reforms (it introduced
came to leave office, the ministries promptly
resigned. Congress decided to launch Immediate separate electorate for the Muslims.)
o However, it was Muhammad Iqbal who first
Mass Satyagraha in Ramgarh session of March
articulated the demand for a separate Muslim state in
1940.
the Indian subcontinent. He presided over the
RAMGARH SESSION (1940) Allahabad session of the Muslims league in 1930.
o It was held in March 1940 with Maulana Abul o During the Round Table Conference, Rahmat Ali (a
Kalam Azad in the president’s chair. It was an anti- Muslim student in England) conveyed the Muslim
compromise conference. All agreed that a battle delegates, the scheme of separate Muslim nation
must be waged but there was disagreement over the consisting of Punjab, North – West Frontier or
form. It was decided to leave the form and timing to Afghan Province, Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan.
Gandhi. But even now, Gandhi was in favour of The proposed separate Muslim state was to be named
continued cooperation at the provincial level. He said PAKISTAN. The name was derived by taking the
first letter of the first four provinces and the end of
248
the last name province. Rahmat Ali founded the ● The establishment of War Advisory Council
Pakistan National Movement in 1933 to propagate comprising representative of British India.
the idea. He wrote a book Now or Never. ● A representative constitution making body would
o In march, 1940 the Muslim league in its Lahore be set up after the War.
session declared that the Muslims in India must have ● Full weight to minority opinion and that no such
a separate independent state. It was presided by M.A. constitution will be accepted which did not enjoy their
Jinnah. support.
o The Muslim league adopted a resolution on March 21, ● Dominion status of the Westminster variety as soon
1940. In this session, famous Pakistan resolution, as possible after the war.
was passed which totally rejected the Scheme of ● Acceptability of new constitution subject to
Federation given by the Government of India Act, fulfillment of British obligations such as Defence,
1935. Minority right, Treaties with native states and
AUGUST OFFER (AUGUST 8, 1940 OFFER) position of All India Service.
Response of Congress: -
✓ Not surprisingly the congress reaction to the so-called
‘August Offer’ was hostile. The August offer was
rejected by the Congress. Nehru declared that the
whole conception of dominion status was ‘dead as a
door-nail’. Though league welcomed the veto given
to the minorities. In September, 1940, at Shimla
Gandhi had a futile meeting with the Viceroy
Linlithgow.
✓ Gandhi said that the declaration had widened the gulf
between the nationalists and the British rulers.
✓ Meanwhile, the government had already begin
Circumstances making preventive arrest of Congress workers and
✔ In the backdrop of German success in Europe, Britain local leaders. Convinced that the British were in no
was forced to adopt a conciliatory position. To get mood to change their policy in India, Gandhi now
Indian cooperation in the war efforts the viceroy decided to launch passive Civil-disobedience in the
announced the ‘August Offer’. term of limited Satyagraha on the Individual basis by
few selected individuals in every Locality.
✔ The outbreak of world war II and India and India’s
Response of Muslim League-
automatic involvement in it without consultation by
✓ The Muslim League was happy on the veto
England made the Congress to demand a clear-cut
assurance and states that the solution of political
definition of the British government’s war and peace
deadlock was only the partition.
aims as applicable to India.
✓ Later, The Muslim also rejected the offer as it was not
✔ After the resignation of congress ministries, the consider the demand of Pakistan and rights of Muslim
annual session of congress was held at Ramgarh minorities.
(Bihar) in March 1940. In July 1940 the Congress Reaction of Hindu Mahasabha and other parties-
formally asked England to affirm its adherence to the Hindu Mahasabha and other parties also rejected the
goal of Independence for India and to induct August Offer on the same ground as Congress did.
immediately into office, at a centre, a provisional Evaluation
national government.
✔ For the first time, the inherent right of Indians to
✔ In response on August 8, 1940 the viceroy frame their constitution was recognised and the
Linlithgow, offered from Shimla, a set of proposal to Congress demand for a constituent assembly was
the Congress, for securing its cooperation during war. conceded. Dominion status was explicitly offered.
Which are popularly known as August Offer.
✔ In July 1941, the viceroy’s executive council was
✔ The August offer turned down congress demand for enlarged to give the Indians a majority of 8 out of 12
setting up Provisional National Government but it for the first time, but the British remained in charge
offered: - of defence, finance and home. Also, a National
● An immediate expansion of the Viceroy’s Executive Defence Council was set up with purely advisory
Council by inducting into that body a number of functions.
Representative Indians.
249
INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA:
o After Congress being rejected ‘August offer’ The
government had taken the adamant position that no
constitutional advance could be made till the
Congress came to an agreement with the Muslim
leaders. It issued ordinance after ordinance taking
away the freedom of speech and that of the press and
the right to organise associations.
o Towards the end of 1940, the Congress once again
asked Gandhi to take command. Gandhi now began
taking steps which would lead to a mass struggle
within his broad strategic perspective. He decided to
initiate a limited satyagraha on an individual basis
by a few selected individuals in every locality.
Why Individual Satyagraha?

The satyagraha was confined to individual participation because of the following:
✓ While satyagraha would disprove the British claim that India supported the war effort whole-
heartedly, its limited nature would ensure that war efforts again Nazism were not obstruct which
would have been the case if mass agitation was launched.
✓ It would give yet another opportunity to the British to peacefully accept Indian demands
✓ I would prepare the masses for the upcoming mass struggle.
✔ Vallabhai Patel and Nehru were arrested even

before they could start their agitation.
o Acharya Vinoba Bhave (First Satyagrahi, 17th
October 1940) ✔ J.
Nehru became the second individual satyagrahi.

✔ By May 1941, more than 25000 satyagrahis have
been arrested for offering individual satyagraha.
✔ An Individual satyagrahi’s duty was to deliver an o Evaluation of Individual Satyagraha: However,
anti-war speech. In case he was not arrested, he Individual satyagraha could not achieve much due to
would repeat the same act in the next village while restrictions imposed by Gandhi. Participation from
moving in the direction of the Delhi, thus initiating the congressman was also slow to come and nominees
movement which came to be known as ‘Delhi chalo’ showed reluctance in relinquishing posts they held in
movement. municipal bodies.
✔ The Individual Satyagraha was inaugurated by o Suspension of Individual Satyagraha-
Acharya Vinobha Bhave on 17th October,1940 by ✔ By December, 1941, Britain continued to face defeat
delivering anti-war speech at Paunar village near after defeat in the war. For instance, Germany has
Wardha. attacked Russia and Japan destroyed the pearl
harbour (American naval base).
250
✔ Therefore, in December, 1941, CWC passed a

resolution offering full cooperation to the allies if
Britain agreed to give full independence after the war.
✔ Gandhi also denounced Japanese slogan of Asia for
Asiatics and exhorted the Indians to denounce
Japanese goods.
✔ It was during this time Gandhi chose Jawaharlal
Nehru as his successor.
✔ Meanwhile, in 1941, the British government also
lifted the ban on the Communist Party of India after
it decided to support the government in war efforts
following the German invasion of Russia.
251
CRIPPS MISSION (1942)
CIRCUMSTANCES 3) Steps will also be taken to ensure the participation
Attack on pearl harbour ( an American naval base)
of native states in the constitutional making

process
4) British government will accept and implement the
by Japan in 1942 new constitution subject to 2 conditions-
1) The provinces shall have the right to accept or
o The failure of the August offer (1940) continued the reject the constitution
deadlock between the Congress and British Indian 2) The British government could enter into
Government. separate constitution with such non-acceding
o The entry of Japan into the war on 7th December, provinces
1941 transformed the ongoing character of war and 5) Until the framing of Indian constitution, the
balance of power shifted towards the Axis power responsibility of Defense will lie in the hands of
o The US forces suffered the massive casualty when British government.
Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour 6) This proposal invited Indians to participate in
o The allies of Britain pressurized the British various councils of India in the commonwealth.
government to seek India’s cooperation in the war. 7) The rights of minorities and transfer of power
o As the conditions worsened during World War II – would be safeguarded with the negotiations
Germany had invaded Soviet Union and Japan between the British and constituent assembly.
attacked the US Naval base at Pearl Harbour
(December 7, 1941) – President Roosevelt of the USA SIGNIFICANCE OF CRIPPS MISSION
and President Kai-Shek of China put pressure on
Churchill to seek active cooperation of Indians in the
War. under these circumstances Churchill had
announced Cripps mission under chairman of sir
Stafford Cripps.
o Hence, this new crisis opened the channel of
negotiations with the Indian and its leaders.
Accordingly, the Cripps mission arrived in India on
24thMarch, 1942.
CRIPPS PROPOSAL o For the first time, the British government

acknowledged India’s right to be a dominion.
o The Cripps mission is a one-member commission o Indians could frame their own Constitution.
consists of Sir Stafford Cripps. After consultation o The proposal of giving freedom to the provinces to
with the Indian leaders, the Cripps mission put be a separate union turned out to be a model for
forward the following proposal the country’s partition in 1947.
1) Dominion status to be given to India after the end o The right to cede from the Commonwealth
of world war. indicated full sovereignty at a later stage.
2) Also, the steps shall be taken to set up an elected o In the interim period, Indians were guaranteed a
body for the forming of new constitution through good share in the administration
system of proportional representation after the end
of hostilities. VARIOUS REACTIONS TO THE CRIPPS
PROPOSAL
252
1. INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (INC) ● The Hindu Mahasabha and the Liberals were
against the right of states to secede.
o The Cripps proposal failed to satisfy the Indian
aspiration and thus congress rejected it completely. ● The Sikhs objected because they thought any
o Gandhiji cited the proposal as an outdated cheque. partition would leave Punjab in the hands of
o Reasons for rejection- Pakistan.
1. The INC was against the provinces’ right to ● The Depressed Classes objected because they were
separately form unions as damaging to national apprehensive about their status in a country where
unity. they will be in a minority.
2. They were also against the Governor-General’s ● It is also believed that the mission failed because of
power being retained as against him being only a a clear lack of support for it by the Viceroy
constitutional head. Linlithgow, British PM Winston Churchill and
3. They also protested the lack of share in defence. the Secretary of State for India, Leo Amery.
4. There was no concrete plan for the immediate
transfer of power
Note:
2. MUSLIM LEAGUE (ML)- ML rejected the
proposal because it does not accept the demand of After the failure of the mission, Cripps
separate state. returned to England, and the Congress-led
by Gandhi started their new campaign, the
Quit India Movement in August 1942.
EVALUATION-
o The Cripps scheme was meant to please everyone
from the congress to the Muslim League, from
3. The leaders of Hindu Mahasabha and Princes to religious and racial minorities.
representatives of Sikhs also denied the Cripps proposal
However, it ended up pleasing no one. The mission
on the same grounds as congress did. was a reiteration of the August Offer of 1940 and
OTHER ROADBLOCKS FOR ITS ACCEPTANCE failed to meet Indian aspirations. It evoked
suspicion as whether the British were sincerely
1. Other groups also objected to the province's right to committed to transfer of power.
secede. Further, the incapacity of Cripps to go
beyond the Draft Declaration and the adoption of a o The mission smelt more like a sop offered to the
rigid ‘take or leave it’ attitude added to the Indian leaders to secure their active cooperation in
deadlock. war efforts, than a genuine attempt to solve the
Indian deadlock. In April 1942, Cripps Mission
2. The procedure of accession was not well-defined. returned to Britain to , leaving behind even more
frustrated and embittered Indians.
3. It was not clear as to who would implement and
interpret the treaty affecting the transfer of power.
OTHER FACTS
4. Talks broke down on the question of the Viceroy’s
Veto. 1. After the rejection of Cripps proposal Indian
National Congress decided to launch nationwide the
REASON OF CRIPPS MISSION FAILURE Quit India movement
2. Official negotiators for the congress with the Cripps
● The proposals were seen as too radical by the mission - Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Azad
British and as too conservative by the INC who 3. Prime minister of England during the time of Cripps
wanted complete independence. proposal – Winston Churchill
● The Mission was rejected by the INC, the Muslim
League and other Indian groups.
253
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (REVOLT OF 1942)
CAUSE OF THE MOVEMENT OF 1942- therefore launched the Quit India movement to
draw Indian people out of the depression and
The immediate cause of the Quit India movement is remind them of their power and worth.
provided by the following factors: THE ‘QUIT INDIA’ RESOLUTION
o Failure of Cripps Mission-The failure of the Cripps

Mission to solve the constitutional deadlock o In July 1942, the Congress Working Committee
exposed Britain’s unchanged attitude on met at Wardha and resolved that it would
constitutional advance and made it clear that any authorize Gandhi to take charge of the non-violent
more silence would be tantamount to accepting the mass movement. The resolution generally referred
British right to decide the fate of Indians without to as the ‘Quit India’ resolution which was
consulting them. Proposed by Jawaharlal Nehru and seconded by
o Wartime shortages & Rise in Prices-There was Sardar Patel, it was to be approved by the All
popular discontent because of rising prices and India Congress Committee meeting in Bombay
shortage of rice, salt, etc., and because of factors in August. The Quit India Resolution was ratified
such as commandeering of boats in Bengal and at the Congress meeting at Gowalia Tank,
Orissa, who successfully managing war economy at Bombay, on August 8, 1942. The meeting also
home, did not make any serious effort to do the resolved to
same in India. ✔ Demand an immediate end to British rule in
o Imminent British Collapse in war-News of India.
reverses suffered by the British in South-East Asia ✔ Declare commitment of free India to defend itself
and an imminent British collapse enhanced popular against all types of Fascism and imperialism.
willingness to give expression to discontent. The
✔ Form a provisional Government of India after
Japanese troops were approaching the borders of
British withdrawal.
India. Calculation by the Congress leaders, majority
of the Congress leaders, including Gandhi, began to ✔ Sanction a civil disobedience movement against
calculate India’s National interest in the event of an British rule.
Allied defeat, which was very much on the cards in ✔ Gandhi was named the leader of the struggle
the mid-1942.
o British Policy of Repression-British provocation OUTBREAK OF THE MOVEMENT
before passage of the ‘Quit India’ resolution and
their policy of repression after the passage by the
congress were equally responsible for the Revolt of
1942.
o Manner of British Evacuation from South East
Asia- The manner of British evacuation from Malay
and Burma had added fuel to the fire. Here, the
British Residents were evacuated but left Indians
behind for the Japanese. Hence, it was feared that
British would repeat the same in case of Japanese
invasion in India.
o Demoralization among Indians- Gandhi and
Congress understood the mood of Indians and
254
in many places people devised their own methods

o In July 1942, the CWC met at Wardha and of protest that included-
adopted the ‘Quit India Resolution’ Which was ✔ Attack on symbols of British Authority such as
to be later ratified by AICC met at Bombay on police stations, railway stations and post offices.
August 8th, 1942 and passed the famous ‘Quit ✔ Cutting of telegraph wires, telephone, railway
India resolution’, proposing to start a non-violent lines and power lines.
mass struggle to achieve this aim. On the night of ✔ national flag hoisting on public buildings,
this day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘Do or Die’. He satyagrahis offered arrest, patrikas came up.
said “we shall either live in free India or die in the
✔ Disrupting traffic, and striking work, etc.
PROGRESS OF THE MOVEMENT
attempt, we shall not live to see the perpetuation of

our slavery.” Gandhi also stressed that every Indian
who desires freedom and strives for it must be his
own guide. Gandhi’s speech contained specific
instructions for different sections of people which
were as follows- o In the early hours of August 9, 1942, in a single
sweep, all the top leaders of the congress were
✔ Government Servants were asked not to resign arrested (such as Gandhiji, Nehru, Patel,
but to openly declare their loyalty to the Maulana Azad, Sarojani Naidu, etc.)
Congress. o The AICC and PCC’s were also banned. The
✔ The Soldiers were asked not to leave their posts Congress did not get time to plan the line of action
but refused to fire on their own people. and hence what arose as a spontaneous movement
✔ The Princes were asked to accept the which began taking its own course, with people
Sovereignty of their own people rather than of directing their own actions.
Foreigners. o Gandhiji along with Kasturba Gandhi and
o The failure of the Cripps Mission left no meeting Sarojani Naidu was kept in Aga Khan Palace,
ground between Congress and the British Jawaharlal Nehru in Almora jail, Rajendra
Government. The Congress now decided to take Prasad in Bankipur jail and Jayprakash Narayan
active steps to compel the British to accept the in Hazaribagh jail.
Indian demand for Independence. o An all India underground leadership with
o Before congress could start its non-violent prominent members such as Achyut Patwardhan,
movement, the government rounded up all the Aruna Asaf Ali, Ram Manohar Lohiya, Sucheta
important leaders including Gandhi in the morning Kriplani, Chotubahi Puranik, Biju Patnaik, R.P.
of August, 9th. The news of arrests led to Goenka and later after his escape from jail
unprecedented popular outburst throughout the Jayprakash Narayan had also begun to emerge.
country. Since recognized leaders at the centre as ✔ An Underground radio was broadcast by Usha
well as provincial level were arrested, new leaders Mehta.
emerged from among the local cadres, particularly ✔ The Herald and Harijan ceased publication for the
students. entire duration of the struggle.
o In the beginning, the movement was mostly non- ✔ At Ahmedabad, the textile strike lasted for three
violent. The people took out processions and and a half months and the city was later described
struck work. But soon government repression as the Stalingrad of India.
followed that instigated people to take up violence.
Relegating Gandhian principle to the background, PARALLEL GOVERNMENT -
255
Parallel governments were established at many places: loyalty to the British emerged as a striking feature
o Ballia – The first parallel government was of the movement.
proclaimed in Ballia in East U.P. in August 1942 o Soldiers: Do not leave the Army but do not fire on
under the leadership of Chintu Pandey. He got compatriots.
many Congress leaders released o Students: boycotted school colleges all over the
country. They took out procession, wrote and
o Tamluk – Jatiya Sarkar undertook cyclone relief distributed ‘illegal patrikas’ and became courier for
work, sanctioned grants to schools, supplied paddy emerging underground networks. Students from
from the rich to the poor, organised Vidyut Vahinis. Banaras Hindu university decided to spread the
Jatiya Sarkar came into existence on December 17, message of Quit India in rural areas.
1942 and lasted till September 1944. o Peasants: If zamindars are anti-government, pay
mutually agreed rent, and if zamindars are pro-
o Satara – A parallel government or Prati Sarkar government, do not pay rent.
was set up in Satara, Maharashtra. Nana patil, Y.B. o The Youth: especially students, workers and
Chauhan, Achyut Patwardhan were its important peasants provided the backbone of the Revolt.
leaders. Kanyadan Mandals or people’s court o Workers- The working class contributed
were set up and justice dispensed. The Prati Sarkar significantly in the form of non-cooperation and
continued to function from August 1942 till 1945 strikes.
o Women- Women’s had played a proactive role in
this movement. For instance, Aruna Asaf Ali,
Sucheta Kripalani and Usha Mehta were some
examples.
o Businessmen- They provided economic support to
the nationalists and the movement.
o Small Government officials- The small
government officials like clerk, babus, teachers etc
provided their best possible support to the
movement.
o Princely states’ people: Support the ruler only if
.
he is anti-government and declare yourselves to be
Y B Chavan Achyut Patwardhan
a part of the Indian nation.
o Active help was provided by businessmen (through
o Gandhi followed up with the now-famous
donations, shelter and material help), students
exhortation: “Here is a mantra, a short one, that I
(acting as couriers), simple villagers (by refusing
give you. You may imprint it on your hearts and let
information to authority), pilots and train drivers
every breath of yours give expression to it. The
(by delivering bombs and other material) and
mantra is: ‘Do or Die’. We shall either free India or
government officials including police (who
die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the
passed on secret information to the activists).
perpetuation of our slavery.”
PARTICIPANTS OF MOVEMENT
NON-PARTICIPANTS OF MOVEMENT –
Section of people who did not participate in Quit India
movement included the Muslim League, the Hindu
Mahasabha, and the communist party of India.
o The Muslim League condemned the Quit Indian

Movement and instead supported the British in war
efforts, thus growing rapidly in influence with
British.
o The Hindu Mahasabha also condemned the Quit
Indian Movement calling it ‘sterile, unmanly and
injurious to the Hindu cause’ and hindu leaders like
o Government servants: Do not resign but declare VD Sawalkar, BS Munje and Shyama Prashad
your allegiance to the Congress. Infact, erosion of Mukherjee who heartedly supported British war
efforts. RSS also remained aloof.
256
o The communist party of India also did not support

the movement following the involvement of Russia
in the War in December 1941 and their people’s
War strategy.
o Though the above sections decided not to join the
movement but at local and national many leaders of
their joined the Quit India movement.
o Though the Movement did not arouse any mass
Muslim Participation, but it did not arouse their Usha Mehta
hostility either and there was a complete absence of o All the sections of Indian society whether it was
any communal clashes. business, villagers, peasants etc. provided support
o Similarly, many Communists at the local level to the underground movement.
participated in the movement despite the official o However, the significant contribution of the
strand of the Communist Party. underground movement was keeping the spirit of
o Small Zamindars also participated in significant the Quit India Movement aloft even when the
numbers with one of the biggest zamindars – Raja mass phase was brutally repressed.
of Darbhanga supporting the movement.
o A total lack of any anti-zamindari violence by the RESPONSE OF THE GOVERNMENT-
peasants was also an interesting feature of the
movement. o Indian Press was completely banned (The
publication of National Herald and Harijan was
UNDERGROUND MOVEMENT- completely stopped during an entire course of
movement).
o Jay Prakash Narain and Ramnandan Mishra o Government took wide scale arrests, lathi
played an important role in the Underground charges, floggings, firings and even burning of
movement. Villages and Congress offices, impose Defense of
India rule etc.
o Demonstrating crowds were faced machine guns
o Prisoners were tortured.
o Punitive fines were collected from the Residents of
areas affected by the upsurge etc.
o As per official figure, by the end of 1943, more than
90000 persons were arrested and more than 1000
Jayprakash Narayan were killed in police firings. India had not seen
o Underground Social Activities were carried out by such ruthless scenes of repression since the days of
leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali, Ram Manohar 1857.
Lohiya, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kripalani o 1945- Lord Wavell put forward his Wavell Plan at
and Biju Patnaik. Shimla by organizing an All-party conference.
Meanwhile, all the leaders and Congress and other
parties who participated in the Quit movement was
released to attend the conference.
o With this conference, Quit India movement
officially came to an end.
REACTION OF CONGRESS ON VIOLENCE-

Ram Manohar Lohiya
o Usha Mehta started the underground Congress o The Congress did not condemn the violence and
Radio from Bombay also refused to take the responsibility for the
violence committed by the people.
REACTION OF GANDHI ON VIOLENCE AND

HIS FAST-
o Gandhi also refused to condemn the violence and
instead he held the government responsible for it.
257
o Gandhiji decided to observe 21 days fast to register ⮚ SIGNIFICANCE-

his protest against the violence resorted by the o Left without leaders, there was no restraint and
state. violence became common.
o He commenced a fast on February 10, 1943 in Jail o Main storm centres of the movement were in
(Aga Khan Palace). His condition became critical eastern United Provinces, Bihar, Midnapore,
after 13 days. There was a country wide agitation Maharashtra, Karnataka.
for his release. But Viceroy refused to set him free. o Students, workers and peasants were the
In, protest three members of the Viceroy’s backbone of the movement while the upper classes
Executive Council – H.P. Mody, N.R. Sarkar and and the bureaucracy remained largely loyal.
M.S. Aney resigned from their office. o Loyalty to the government suffered considerable
o Lord Wavell, who had taken over as the Viceroy of erosion. This also showed how deep nationalism
India, in October 1943, released him. had reached.
o The movement established the truth that it was no
OBSERVANCE OF PAKISTAN DAY BY longer possible to rule India without the wishes of
MUSLIM LEAGUE- Indians.
o The element of spontaneity was higher than before,
o Even as the Quit India movement continued, the although a certain degree of popular initiative had
Muslim League observed the Pakistan Day on 23rd been sanctioned by the leadership itself, subject to
March,1943. limitations of the instructions. Also, the Congress
o Jinnah also declared that the demand for Pakistan had been ideologically politically and
was the final national goal of all Muslims in India. organizationally preparing for the struggle for a
o The League also adopted a new slogan for the long time.
League-Divide and Quit. o The great significance was that the movement
placed the demand for independence on the
EVALUATION- immediate agenda of the national movement.
After Quit India, there could be no retreat.
⮚ Positive Effect- o In this struggle, the common people displayed
✔ Though the Quit India movement or the Revolt of unparalleled heroism and militancy. The
1942 was crushed at an early stage but it well repression they faced was the most brutal, and the
demonstrated the depth of nationalist feelings in circumstances under which resistance was offered
India and the great capacity for struggle and were most adverse.
sacrifice the people had developed. o The British, though succeeded in suppressing the
✔ This movement also gave a severe blow to the revolt, realized the advantages of trying for a
British government for their rule in India as an negotiated settlement rather than risk another
illusion was broken that the majority of Indians confrontation as massive and violent as this revolt.
were loyalists and favoured continuation of British o The imprisonment of the Congress proved
rule. beneficial to them in an indirect way. For it helped
✔ The biggest contribution of the Quit India them to avoid talking a clear public stand on
Movement was that the demand for independence Japanese war issue, something which otherwise
was now non-negotiable and Poorna Swaraj was an would have been very embarrassing for a new
ultimate aim of Indians. month in 1944 when S.C. Bose’s INA appeared on
the borders of Assam at a time when on the World
⮚ NEGATIVE EFFECTS- scale the allies were clearly winning the war.
o The worst fallout of the movement was o The Revolt weakened the leftist group and parties
consolidation of Muslim League in India considerably. The Socialists and Bose’s
o When the Congress leaders and members were in a followers charged the communists with ‘treachery’
jail, the League consolidated its base in villages and (the communist did not participate in the revolt
promised not only an Islamic state but also a peasant because of their support to the Allies, including
utopia for the Muslim peasants. Soviet Union).
o In 1937, the League could not forma ministry even
in one province and had successfully formed
ministries in five provinces in 1945 elections.
o All these made a demand for Pakistan a closer
reality than ever before.
258
THE PERIOD OF 1942 -45
➢ THE RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA (CR

FORMULA OR RAJAJI FORMULA MARCH
1944)
➢ DESAI-LIAQUAT PLAN (JAN, 1945)-
➢ THE WAVELL PLAN AND THE SIMLA
CONFERENCE (1945)
259
THE RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA (CR forming a provisional government for the transitional
FORMULA OR RAJAJI FORMULA MARCH 1944) period.
✔ At the end of the war, a Plebiscite shall be held in all
⮚ Background
Muslim majority areas in the north-west and the
north-east that would decide whether or not these
o During the Second World
War, the British areas should form a separate state.
government, under the ✔ In case of acceptance of partition, agreement to be
viceroyalty of Lord made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce,
Linlithgow had said that communications, etc.
any move towards an Indian ✔ The above terms shall be binding only in case of full
statehood would be possible transfer of power by Britain to the government of
only if the Indian National India.
Congress (INC) and the
Muslim League resolve
their differences. ⮚ Reaction
o The League was increasingly demanding a separate
nation of Pakistan for the Muslims whereas the INC
was against the partitioning of the country.
o To break this deadlock between the two major
political parties in India, C Rajagopalachari, INC
member who was close to Mahatma Gandhi,
proposed a set of plans called the C R Formula or
Rajaji Formula.
o This was the first acknowledgement by a
Congressman about the inevitability of the partition
of the country and a tacit acceptance of Pakistan.
⮚ Rajaji Proposals o In 1944, Gandhi and M.A. Jinnah held talks on the
basis of the Rajaji Formula. The talks were a failure
as Jinnah had objections to the proposal.
o Jinnah’s objections:
● He wanted the INC to accept the Two-Nation
Theory.
● He did not want the entire population of the
Muslim majority areas to vote on the plebiscite,
but only the Muslim population in those areas.
● He was also against the idea of a common
centre. Also, Jinnah wanted separate
dominions to be created before the English left
India.
o In March 1944, C. Rajagopalachari, realizing the
o The Sikhs also looked upon the formula unfavorably
necessity of a settlement between Congress – League because the formula meant a division of Punjab and
for the attainment of Independence by India and the although the Sikhs were a big chunk of the
issue of accepting the basis of Pakistan, evolved in population, there were not a majority in any of the
1944 a formula, called the CR Formula. The formula districts.
was evolved with full approval of Gandhiji and o V D Savarkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee of
embodied the following terms: the Hindu Mahasabha and Srinivas Sastri of the
National Liberal Federation were also condemned
✔ The league would endorse the demand for the C R Formula.
Independence and cooperate with the Congress in
260
o The INC, which was hitherto opposed to the partition

of the country was willing to give some concessions
in order to get the League on board for talks for
independence, but the League was more interested in
Pakistan than freedom.
DESAI-LIAQUAT PLAN (JAN, 1945)-
Lord Wavell
o After the failure of Gandhi – Jinnah talks based on
C.R. Formula Lord Wavell, the then Viceroy, offered
a new plan to end the Constitutional Deadlock. He
summoned a conference of leaders of all the Indian
Political parties and interest groups at Shimla in
1945 and discussed it.
Bhulabhai Desai Liaqat Khan
o Efforts continued to end the deadlock. Bhulabhai Desai,
leader of the Congress Party in the Central Legislative
Assembly, met Liaqat Ali Khan, deputy leader of the
Muslim League in that Assembly, and both of them came
up with the draft proposal for the formation of an interim
government at the centre, consisting of—
Churchill
o Although the war in Europe came to an end in May
1945, the Japanese threat still remained. The
Conservative government in Britain led by Churchill
was keen to reach a solution on the constitutional
question in India. The viceroy, Lord Wavell was
permitted to start negotiations with Indian leaders.
Congress leaders were released from jails in June
✔ an equal number of persons nominated by the Congress
1945.
and the League in the central legislature.
✔ 20% reserved seats for minorities.
✔ No settlement could be reached between the Congress and
the League on these line
✔
THE WAVELL PLAN AND THE SIMLA
CONFERENCE (1945)
⮚ Background
261
o The Second World War had caused many socio- o The foreign affairs portfolio would be transferred
economic problems in the British Empire, especially from the Governor-General to an Indian member.
when it came to maintaining their overseas colonies. The defence would be handled by a British general
Thus, the British Government saw it fit to grant until the full transfer of power was made.
India the freedom it had been demanding for so long. o A conference would be convened by the Viceroy to
In addition, the Quit India Movement and an get a list of all the members recommended to the
increased revolutionary activity only made the Council from all parties concerned. In case a joint list
British position in India tenuous at best. was not agreed upon, separate lists would be taken
from the parties. This was to be the Simla
o Lord Wavell, who became the Viceroy in 1943, was Conference.
charged with presenting a formula for the future o Representatives of different parties were to submit a
government of India that would be acceptable to both joint list to the viceroy for nominations to the
the Indian National Congress and the All-India executive council. If a joint list was not possible, then
Muslim League, allowing for a smooth transition of separate lists were to be submitted.
power. Lord Wavell was considered a capable person o Possibilities were to be kept open for negotiations on
for this task as he had been the head of the Indian a new constitution once the war was finally won.
Army and thus had a better understanding of the o If this plan worked, similar councils would be formed
Indian situation. in all provinces comprising local leaders.
o This conference officially marked an end of the Quit ⮚ Shimla Conference -Lord Wavell invited 21 political
India Movement. leaders including Mahatma Gandhi and M A
Jinnah to Shimla, the summer capital of British India
⮚ Main Schemes of the Wavell Plan to discuss the Wavell Plan on June 25th, 1945.
o The conference was a failure because the League and

the Congress could not settle their differences.
o Jinnah insisted that only League members could be
the Muslim representatives in the Council, and
opposed to the Congress nominating Muslim
members. This was because Jinnah wanted the
League to be the sole representative of Muslims in
India. Congress would never agree to this demand.
o In the Wavell Plan, there were 6 Muslim

representatives out of 14 members, which was more
than the Muslim share of the population. Despite this,
the League wanted the power of veto to any
constitutional proposal which it believed was not in
o The Viceroy’s Executive Council was to have all
its interest. Congress opposed this unreasonable
Indian members except the Viceroy himself and the
demand also.
Commander-in-Chief.
o Jinnah refused to give the names to the council unless
o It formed the Restructured Council to function as an the government acknowledged that only the Muslim
interim government within the framework of the Act League was the exclusive representative of Indian
of 1935. Muslims.
o The Wavell Plan, thus, was dissolved with the failure
o The council was to have a ‘balanced representation’ of the conference. And with it the last chance to avoid
of all Indians including ‘caste-Hindus’, Muslims, partition.
Depressed Classes, Sikhs, etc. Muslims were given 6 o After this, the war ended and a new Labour
out of 14 members which accounted for more than government was elected in Britain under the
their share of the population (2.5%). leadership of Prime Minister Clement Atlee. This
new government was intent on giving independence
o The Viceroy/Governor-General would still have the
power of veto but its use would be minimal.
262
⮚ Significance of Shimla Conference- This

dissolution of the conference by the Viceroy implied,
as revealed by subsequent developments, official
recognition of the League’s monopoly to speak for
all Muslim and Conference of the Veto power on to
the League for all future negotiations. The failure of
the talks thus strengthened the position of Jinnah and
the league, which was clearly manifested in
to India without much delay and sent the Cabinet

Mission with that purpose.
Clement Atlee
⮚ Reaction -
o Muslim League’s Stand- The League objected the
plan because they wanted all Muslim members to be
League nominees, because it feared that since the
aims of other the same as those of the Congress, this
arrangement would reduce the League to a one-third
minority. (Wavell wanted Khizr Hyatt Khan as the
Muslim representative from Western Punjab.) The
League claimed some kind of veto in the council with
decisions opposed to Muslims needing a two-thirds
majority for approval.
o Congress Stand- The Congress objected to the plan

as “an attempt to reduce the Congress to the status of
a purely caste Hindu party and insisted on its right to
include members of all communities among its
nominees”.
o Wavell’s Mistake- Wavell announced a breakdown

of talks thus giving the League a virtual veto. This
strengthened the League’s position, as was evident
from the elections in 1945-46, and boosted Jinnah’s
position; and exposed the real character of the
Conservative government of Churchill
263
INA – INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY
INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY (INA) ➢
The INA, though founded by Captain Mohan Singh

with the help of Japanese in 1942 itself in Singapore,
remained in a state of suspense till it was taken over
and recognized by Subhash Chandra Bose in 1943.
➢ Between the Revolt of 1942 and the end of the war in

1945, there was a scarcely and political activity in
India. The Indian nationalist movement, however
found a new expression outside the country’s
frontiers in the form of the Indian National Army or
Azad Hind Fauz.
➢ Ras Bihari Bose, an Indian revolutionary who took a
Political refuge in Japan organised a conference in
Tokyo of all Indian leaders living from Malay to
Burma and announced the formation of Indian Capt. Mohan Singh
Independence League in March, 1942. ➢ On 5 July, 1943- Rash Behari Bose handed over the
th
leadership of Indian Independence League and INA

to S C Bose. Bose was now called Netaji by the
soldiers of INA.
Rash Behari Bose

➢ In June, 1942- The League met at Bangkok known as
Bangkok Conference with the following
consequences-
✓ It elected Rash Behari Bose as its President
✓ It resolved to raise the INA
✓ Captain Mohan Singh was appointed as Meeting of Indian Independence League
commander-in-chief of the INA and Subash ➢ On 2nd July, 1943- He reached Singapore and
Chandra Bose was invited to lead the INA assumed the leadership of the INA.
movement. ➢ On 21st October, 1943- Bose set up the Provincial
government of free India or Azad Hind Sarkar,
declaring himself as the Prime Minister and
264
Commander-in-chief of India with H.C. and Rani Jhansi Brigade were also raised. Rani
Chatterjee (Finance portfolio), M.A. Aiyar Jhansi Brigade was an all-women brigade.
(Broadcasting), Lakshmi Swaminathan (Women
Department), etc. at Singapore.
➢ The Azad Hind Fauz crossed the Burma border, and

stood on Indian soil on March 18, 1944. The INA
units subsequently advanced up to Kohima and
Imphal. On April 14, Colonel Malik of the Bahadur
➢ This provisional government declared war on Britain Group hoisted the INA flag for the first time on the
and the United States, and was recognised by the Indian mainland at Moirang, in Manipur (where the
Axis powers. INA Memorial Complex stands today) to enthusiastic
➢ He set up two HQ of the INA- Rangoon and cries of “Jai Hind” and “Netaji Zindabad
Singapore.
➢ One INA battalion commanded by Shah Nawaz

➢ In November, 1943- The Japanese handed over the accompanied the Japanese Army to Indo – Burma
administration of Andaman and Nicobar Islands to front, and participated in the Imphal campaign.
the Provincial governments. Bose himself visited the However, British troops recaptured Rangoon in May,
Islands and renamed as Shaheed Dweep and Swaraj 1945 and INA troops were forced to surrender and
Dweep. made prisoners
➢ In April, 1944- Azad Hind Bank was inaugurated at
Rangoon.
➢ On July 6, 1944, Bose in a broadcast on Azad Hind
Radio addressed to Gandhiji as ‘Father of our
Nation’.
➢ Subash Bose also raised the famous slogan of Jai
Hind, Delhi Chalo and Tum Mujhe Khoon do, me
tumhe Azaadi Dunga. The INA raised 3 fighting
brigades – Gandhi, Nehru and Azad. Later, Subash
265
➢ But with the defeat and final surrendered of Japan in o Mass pressure against the trial of INA POWs,
1945, the INA also surrendered to Allies and S.C. sometimes described as “an edge of a volcano”,
Bose’s was believed to have died in an airplane brought about a decisive shift in the government’s
policy. The British had initially decided to hold public
accident on his way to Tokyo.
trials of several hundreds of INA prisoners besides
➢ But when the INA POWs were brought back to India dismissing them from service and detaining without
after the war to be court-martialled, a powerful trial around 7,000 of them.
movement emerged in their defence. o They compounded the folly by holding the first trial
at the Red Fort in Delhi in November 1945
INA TRIALS AND NAVAL MUTINY-
➢ INA TRAILS
o Another issue was provided by the use of Indian

Army units in a bid to restore French and Dutch
colonial rule in Vietnam and Indonesia. This
enhanced the anti-imperialist feeling among a
section of urban population and the Army.
Red Fort Trials

The INA prisoners were tried in the famous red fort trial in Delhi. Shah Nawaz Khan, Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon,
P.K. Sehgal etc. were put on trial. The defence of INA prisoners was taken up by the Congress. Bhulabhai Desai,
Tej Bahadur Sapru, K.N. Katju, J. Nehru and Asaf Ali appeared in court at the historic Red Fort Trails.
➢ CONGRESS SUPPORT FOR INA PRISONERS –

o At the first post-War Congress session in September
1945 at Bombay, a strong resolution was adopted
declaring Congress support for the INA cause.
o Defence of INA prisoners in the court was organised
by Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash
Nath Katju, Jawaharlal Nehru and Asaf Ali.
266
o INA Relief and Enquiry Committee distributed o The loyalists—the gentlemen with titles—appealed
small sums of money and food, and helped arrange to the government to abandon the trials for good
employment for the affected. Indo-British relations.
o Fund collection was organised. o Men of the armed forces were unexpectedly
sympathetic and attended meetings, received those
➢ INA Agitation- released (often in uniforms) and contributed funds.
o The central theme became the questioning of
Britain’s right to decide a matter concerning Indians.
Britain realised the political significance of the INA
issue, which with each day assumed more and more
of an ‘Indian versus British’ colour.
➢ 3 Upsurges (1945-46)-
o There were three major upsurges—
➢
o The campaign for the release of INA prisoners was
conducted at large scale. The agitation got wide
publicity through extensive press coverage with
daily editorials, distribution of pamphlets often
containing threats of revenge, graffiti conveying
similar messages, holding of public meetings and
celebrations of INA Day (November 12, 1945) and
1. November 21, 1945—in Calcutta over the INA
INA week (November 5-11).
trials. -
o The campaign spread over a wide area of the country
✓ A student procession comprising some Forward
and witnessed the participation of diverse social
Bloc sympathisers, Student Federation of India
groups and political parties.
(SFI) activists and Islamia College students, who
o Nerve Centres- Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras,
had joined up with the League and the Congress, tied
United Provinces towns and Punjab, the campaign
flags as a symbol of anti-imperialist unity, marched to
spread to distant places such as Coorg,
Dalhousie Square—the seat of government in
Baluchistan and Assam.
Calcutta. These protestors refused to disperse and
o Forms of Participation-
were lathi charged.
✓ fund contributions made by many people—from
✓ They retaliated by throwing stones and brickbats. The
film stars, municipal committees, Indians living
police resorted to firing in which two persons died
abroad and gurudwaras to tongawallas
2. February 11, 1946—in Calcutta against the seven-
✓ participation in meetings
year sentence to INA officer Rashid Ali-
✓ shopkeepers closing shops
✓ The protest was led by Muslim League students in
✓ political groups demanding release of prisoners
which some Congress and communist students’
contributing to INA funds
organisations joined. Some arrests provoked the
✓ student meetings and boycott of classes
students to defy Section 144. There were more arrests
✓ organising Kisan conferences and
and the agitating students were lathi charged.
✓ All India Women’s Conference demanding the
3. February 18, 1946—in Bombay, strike by the Royal
release of INA prisoners.
Indian Navy ratings.
o Apart from the Congress, included the Muslim
League, Communist Party, Unionists, Akalis,
Justice Party, Ahrars in Rawalpindi, Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh, Hindu Mahasabha and the
Sikh League.
267
NAVAL MUTINY
✓ On February 18, 1946 some 1100 Royal Indian Navy tram depots, railway stations, banks, besides
(RIN) ratings of HMIS Talwar went on a strike to stopping of rail and road traffic by squatting on
protest against tracks and barricading of streets
racial discrimination (demanding equal pay for ✓ The students boycotted classes and organised hartal
Indian and white soldiers) and processions to express sympathy with other
unpalatable food students and the ratings, there were sympathetic
abuse by superior officers strikes in military establishments in Karachi,
arrest of a rating for scrawling ‘Quit India’ on Madras, Visakhapatnam, Calcutta, Delhi, Cochin,
HMIS Talwar Jamnagar, Andamans, Bahrain and Aden.
INA trials ✓ There were strikes by the Royal Indian Air Force in
use of Indian troops in Indonesia, demanding their Bombay, Poona, Calcutta, Jessore and Ambala.
withdrawal. Patel and Jinnah persuaded the ratings to surrender
✓ The rebellious ratings hoisted the tricolour, crescent, on February 23 with an assurance that national parties
and the hammer and sickle flags on the mast of the would prevent any victimisation.
rebel fleet. Other ratings soon joined and they went
around Bombay in lorries holding Congress flags
threatening Europeans and policemen. Crowds
brought food to the ratings and shopkeepers invited
them to take whatever they needed.
o Other forms of protest-
Mutiny by Royal Air Force
➢ Evaluation and Impact of 3 Upsurges-The three

upsurges were significant in many ways:
o Fearless action by the masses was an expression of
militancy in the popular mind.
o Revolt in the armed forces had a great liberating
effect on the minds of people.
o The RIN revolt was seen as an event marking the end
✓ This phase was marked by a virulent anti-British
of British rule.
mood resulting in the virtual paralysis of Calcutta
o These upsurges prompted the British to extend some
and Bombay.
concessions:
(i) On December 1, 1946, the government announced
✓ There were meetings, processions, strikes, hartal,
that only those INA members accused of murder or
and attacks on Europeans, police stations, shops,
268
brutal treatment of fellow prisoners would be brought Though the INA failed in achieving its objective, it
to trial. did acquire great significance in the history of Indian
(ii) Imprisonment sentences passed against the first National movement
batch were remitted in January 1947.
➢ It broke down the ‘Iron Wall’ between the Army and
(iii) Indian soldiers were withdrawn from Indo-China
and Indonesia by February 1947. the people for a common cause, and thus gave a
(iv) The decision to send a parliamentary delegation to further boost to Indian freedom struggle.
India (November 1946) was taken. ➢ The INA internationalized the question of Indian
(v) The decision to send Cabinet Mission was taken in Independence, and thus speeded up the process.
January 1946. ➢ It proved that the Indian soldier was not merely a
o These upsurges were in the nature of direct and mercenary but a patriot too, and hence British could
violent conflict with authority, which had obvious
no longer depend on him for the subjugation of his
limitations. Only the more militant sections could
participate. own country.
o These upsurges were short-lived and were confined ▪ It also demonstrated that the non – violent methods
to a few urban centres while the general INA of a congress did not exhaust the armory of the
agitation reached the remotest villages. Communal struggle for freedom.
unity witnessed was more organisational than a unity ▪ Its organization set a brilliant example of communal
among the people. Muslim ratings went to the League harmony and comradeship.
to seek advice and the rest to the Congress and the
Socialists.
o Despite considerable erosion of the morale of the
bureaucracy, the British infrastructure to repress was
intact.
o They were soon able to control the situation. It was a
Maratha battalion in Bombay that rounded up the
ratings and restored them to their barracks
➢ CONGRESS STRTAEGY –
o These upsurges were an extension of earlier
nationalist activity fostered by the Congress through
its election campaign, its advocacy of the INA cause
and highlighting of the excesses of 1942.
o These upsurges were distinguishable from the earlier
activity because of their form of articulation. These
were violent challenges to the authority while the
earlier activity was a peaceful demonstration of
national solidarity.
o The Congress did not officially support these
upsurges because of their tactics and timing.
o Negotiations had been an integral part of the
Congress strategy, to be explored before a mass
movement could be launched, especially when the
British were seen to be preparing to leave soon.
o In Gandhi’s opinion, the mutiny was badly advised,
if they mutinied for India’s freedom, they were
doubly wrong, if they had any grievances, they
should have waited for the guidance of leaders
SIGNIFICANCE OF INA-
269
CABINET MISSION PLAN
ELECTION OF 1945- o Performance of Congress-

✓ It got 91 per cent of non-Muslim votes.
In 1945-46- The General elections in British India were ✓ It captured 57 out of 102 seats in the Central
held to elect the members of the Central and Provincial Assembly.
elections. ✓ In the provincial elections, it got a majority in most
provinces except in Bengal, Sindh and Punjab. The
Congress majority provinces included the NWFP
and Assam which were being claimed for Pakistan
o Performance of ML-
✓ It got 86.6 per cent of the Muslim votes. It captured
the 30 reserved seats in the Central Assembly.
✓ In the provincial elections, it got a majority in
Bengal and Sindh.
✓ Unlike in 1937, now the League clearly established
itself as the dominant party among Muslims.
✓ In Punjab A Unionist-Congress-Akali coalition
under Khizr Hayat Khan assumed power
➢ SIGNIFICANCE-
o The Indian National Congress emerged as the
largest party
o The League won all Muslim constituencies and
hence the elections proved to be a strategic victory
for Jinnah.
o The elections witnessed communal voting in
contrast to the strong anti-British unity shown in
various upsurges due to
➢ Election Campaign- 1. separate electorates and
o The two issues were at the centre during this 2. limited franchise—for the provinces, less than 10
election- 1942 Repression and INA trials per cent of the population could vote and for the Central
o The election campaign expressed the nationalist Assembly, less than 1 per cent of the population was
sentiments against the state repression of the 1942 eligible
Quit India upsurge. This was done by glorifying
martyrs and condemning officials. The brave CABINET MISSION PLAN (1946)-
resistance of the leaderless people was lauded;
martyrs’ memorials were set up; relief funds were
collected for sufferers; the officials responsible for
causing pain were condemned; and promises of
enquiry and threats of punishment to guilty officials
were spelt out.
o The Muslim League fought elections with
straightforward communal Slogan- A vote for the
League and Pakistan was the vote for Islam.
➢ Election Result-
The British government, now headed by Atlee of the

Labour party, was eager to solve the Indian problem,
and hence, announced the appointment of a Cabinet
Mission, consisting of three members. The cabinet
Mission arrived in India to find way and means of
270
peaceful transfer of power in India and to settle the be a 389-member body with provincial assemblies
constitutional issue and overcome the tensions between sending 292, chief commissioner’s provinces
Congress and Muslim League. sending 4, and princely states sending 93 members.
➢ Members o In the constituent assembly, members from groups
o Pethick Lawrence (Secretary of State for India) A, B and C were to sit separately to decide the
o Stafford Cripps (President of the Board of constitution for provinces and if possible, for the
Trade) groups also. Then, the whole constituent assembly
o A.V. Alexander (First Lord of Admiralty) (all three sections A, B and C combined) would sit
together to formulate the union constitution.
Note: Pethick Lawrence was the chairman of the
mission.
➢ Arrival of Cabinet Mission

o The Cabinet Mission reached Delhi on March 24,
1946. It had prolonged discussions with Indian
leaders of all parties and groups on the issues of
✓ interim government; and
✓ Principles and procedures for framing a new
constitution giving freedom to India.
o As the Congress and the League could not come to
any agreement on the fundamental issue of the unity
or partition of India, the mission put forward its own
plan for the solution of the constitutional problem
in May 1946.
➢ Cabinet Mission Plan – Main Points
o A common centre would control defence,

communication and external affairs. A federal
structure was envisaged for India.
o Communal questions in the central legislature were
to be decided by a simple majority of both
communities present and voting.
o Provinces were to have full autonomy and
residual powers.
o Princely states were no longer to be under
o The Cabinet Mission arrived in India and they paramountcy of the British government. They
found that he Congress and the Muslim League would be free to enter into an arrangement with
could not produce a plan through consensus. So, successor governments or the British government.
they announced their own plan, which proposed a o After the first general elections, a province was to
Federal Government for the whole of India. be free to come out of a group and after 10 years, a
o Grouping of existing provincial assemblies into province was to be free to call for a reconsideration
three sections: of the group or the union constitution.
• Section-A: Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, o Meanwhile, an interim government was to be
United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa (Hindu- formed from the constituent assembly.
majority provinces)
• Section-B: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province
and Sindh (Muslim-majority provinces)
• Section-C: Bengal and Assam (Muslim-majority
provinces).
o Three-tier executive and legislature at provincial,
section and union levels.
o A constituent assembly was to be elected by
provincial assemblies by proportional
representation (voting in three groups—General,
Muslims, Sikhs). This constituent assembly would
271
CLAUSES OF CABINET MISSION o The creation of Pakistan would not solve the
problem of communal minorities as the percentage
of non – Muslims living in West Pakistan would be
37.93% and those living in East Pakistan would be
48.31% of the total population.
o The very principle of communal self-
determination would claim separation of Hindu-
majority western Bengal and Sikh- and Hindu-
dominated Ambala and Jullundur divisions of
Punjab (already some Sikh leaders were demanding
a separate state if the country was partitioned).
o Deep-seated regional ties would be disturbed if
Bengal and Punjab were partitioned.
o Partition would entail economic and
administrative problems, for instance, the
problem of communication between the western
and eastern parts of Pakistan.
o The division of the armed forces would be
dangerous.
o It would be injurious to disintegrate the
➢ Merits of the cabinet Mission Plan transportation as well as the post and telegraph
system of India.
o The Princely State finds it difficult to join one of the
two Nations.
o The two halves of proposed Pakistan would be
separated by some 700 miles and communications
between them in War and Peace would depends on
the goodwill of Hindustan.
➢ Main Objections- Different parties objected to the

Plan on different grounds.
o Congress
o The main merit was that the constituent Assembly

was to be constituted on the democratic principle of
strength of the population and not on the principle
of ‘weightage’.
o The idea of partition was discarded and all – India
Union envisaged.
➢ Defect of the cabinet Mission plan
o While the Muslim minority amply provided for, no ✓ Provinces should not have to wait till the first
such protection was accorded to any other minority, general elections to come out of a group. They
like the Sikhs in Punjab. should have the option of not joining a group in the
o The provisions regarding provincial grouping first place. (Congress had the Congress-ruled
could be differently interpreted. provinces of NWFP and Assam in mind which had
been included in groups B and C respectively.)
➢ Examination of the scheme of Pakistan and its ✓ The Congress emphasized on grouping as
rejection plan rejected optional.
o Although the sympathies of the Viceroy and AV ✓ Absence of provision for elected members from the
Alexander were with Jinnah, the plan rejected the princely states in the constituent assembly (they
demand for a full – fledged Pakistan (consisting of could only be nominated by the princes) was not
the 6 provinces, viz. Assam, Bengal, Punjab, Sindh, acceptable.
NWFP and Baluchistan) on account of the
following reasons: o League
272
o Jawaharlal Nehru headed the new interim

government and the task of framing a constitution
for the country was started.
o Governments were formed by the Congress in most
provinces including the NWFP. The League formed
the governments in Bengal and Sind. It agitated
against the new central government.
o It urged Muslims to demand and agitate for
Pakistan. Jinnah called for ‘Direct Action Day’ on
16th August 1946.
✓ Grouping should be compulsory with sections B

and C developing into solid entities with a view to
future secession into Pakistan.
✓ The League had thought that the Congress would
reject the plan, thus prompting the government to
invite the League to form the interim government.
➢ Acceptance and Rejection- The Muslim League

on June 6 and the Congress on June 24, 1946
accepted the long-term plan put forward by the
Cabinet Mission. Direct action day by ML -1946 (BENGAL)
o July 1946 Elections were held in provincial o This led to extreme communal violence in many
assemblies for the Constituent Assembly. places starting with Calcutta where the first day saw
o July 10, 1946 Nehru stated, “We are not bound by 5000 deaths.
a single thing except that we have decided to go into o Now the call for the country’s partition became
the Constituent Assembly (implying that the more aggressive. Even those opposed to it
Constituent Assembly was sovereign and would concealed that this could be the only solution to end
decide the rules of procedure). The big probability the brutal riots in the country. The Partition of India,
is that there would be no grouping as NWFP and would become an inevitable reality.
Assam would have objections to joining sections B
and C.”
o July 29, 1946 The League withdrew its acceptance
of the long-term plan in response to Nehru’s
statement and gave a call for “direct action” from
August 16 to achieve Pakistan.
➢ Reasons for Failure of Cabinet Mission
o While the Muslim League agreed to the proposals
and did not wish any changes, the Congress party
did not agree to all the proposals. It was against the
idea of grouping provinces on the basis of religion.
It also argued for a stronger centre.
o Since the May plan was not accepted, a new plan
was proposed in June. This plan proposed the
partition of India into a Hindu-majority India
and a Muslim-majority India. A list of princely
states was also made that could either join the union
or remain independent.
o The second plan was not accepted by the Congress.
It did agree to be part of the Constituent Assembly.
o Lord Wavell invited 14 men from different parties
and representing different religious and social
groups. When the Congress nominated Zakir
Hussain, the League protested claiming Muslims
could be represented only by the League. The
League stayed away from the process.
273
INTERIM GOVERNMENT,1946
INTERIM GOVERNMENT 2. Vallabhbhai Patel: Home, Information and

Broadcasting
⮚ Background 3. Baldev Singh: Defence
4. Dr. John Mathai: Industries and Supplies
5. C. Rajagopalachari: Education
6. C.H. Bhabha: Works, Mines and Power
7. Rajendra Prasad: Agriculture and Food
8. Jagjivan Ram: Labour
9. Asaf Ali: Railway
10. Liaquat Ali Khan (Muslim League): Finance
11. Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar (Muslim League):
Commerce
12. Abdur Rab Nishtar (Muslim League):
Communications
o After the end of the Second World War, the British 13. Ghazanfar Ali Khan (Muslim League): Health
14. Jogendra Nath Mandal (Muslim League): Law
authorities in India released all political prisoners
who had participated in the Quit India movement. FORMATION OF INDIA’S INTERIM
The Indian National Congress, the largest Indian GOVERNMENT
political party, which had long fought for national
independence, agreed to participate in elections for
a constituent assembly, as did the Muslim League.
o The newly elected government of Clement Attlee
dispatched the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India to
formulate proposals for the formation of a
government that would lead to an independent India
o A Congress-dominated Interim Government
headed by Nehru was sworn in on September 2,
1946 with Nehru continuing to insist on his party’s
opposition to the compulsory grouping.
o Despite the title, the Interim Government was little
more than a continuation of the old executive of the
viceroy (Wavell overruled the ministers on the issue
of the release of INA prisoners in his very last o Starting with the Cripps mission in 1942, a number
cabinet meeting in March1947). of attempts were made by colonial authorities to
o Wavell quietly brought the Muslim League into the form an interim government in India.
Interim Government on October 26, 1946. The o In 1946, elections to the Constituent Assembly were
League was allowed to join but with few conditions: held following the proposals of the British Cabinet
● Without giving up the ‘direct action’. Mission dispatched by the British Prime Minister
● Despite its rejection of the Cabinet Mission’s long Clement Attlee.
term and short-term plans. o In this election, the Congress obtained a majority in
● Despite insistence on compulsory grouping with the Assembly, and the Muslim League consolidated
decisions being taken by a majority vote by a its support among the Muslim electorate.
section as a whole (which would reduce the o Viceroy Wavell subsequently called upon Indian
opponents of Pakistan in Assam and NWFP to a representatives to join the interim government.
position of helpless minority). o A federal scheme had been visualized under the
⮚ 14 Ministers of Interim Government- Government of India Act of 1935, but this
(September 2, 1946–August 15, 1947) component was never implemented due to the
opposition from India’s princely states.
1. Jawaharlal Nehru: Vice President of Executive o As a result, the interim government functioned
Council, External Affairs and CommonWealth according to the older Government of India Act of
Relations 1919.
274
⮚ The interim cabinet arrived, and the Belgian Consul-General in Kolkata

was appointed Belgium’s ambassador to India.
o On June 1, the Indian Commonwealth Relations
Department and the External Affairs
Department were merged to form the single
Department of External Affairs and
Commonwealth Relations.
o After Partition was announced on June 3, a
dedicated cabinet sub-committee was formed to
deal with the situation on June 5, and consisted of
Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhai Patel,
Liaquat Ali Khan, Abdur Rab Nishtar and
o On September 2, 1946, the Congress party formed Baldev Singh.
the government. On September 23, the All-India o Later, on June 16, a special cabinet committee
Congress Committee (AICC) ratified the aimed at tackling the administrative consequences
Congress Working Committee’s decision. of Partition was created. It included the Viceroy,
o The Muslim League initially decided to sit out of
Sardar Vallabhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad,
the government, and three of the five ministries
reserved for Muslims were occupied by Asaf Ali, Liaquat Ali Khan, and Abdur Rab Nishtar. This
Sir Shafaat Ahmad Khan, and Syed Ali Zaheer, all committee was later replaced by a Partition
non-League Muslim representatives. Council.
o Two posts remained vacant.
o However, after Lord Wavell agreed to allot all five OBSTRUCTIONIST APPROACH BY ML-
reserved portfolios to the Muslim League if it
agreed to cooperate, the latter finally joined. o The League did not attend the Constituent
o In October, the cabinet was reshuffled to Assembly which had its first meeting on December
accommodate the new Muslim League members, 9, 1946. Consequently, the Assembly had to confine
and Sarat Chandra Bose, Sir Shafaat Ahmad itself to passing a general ‘Objectives Resolution’
Khan and Syed Ali Zaheer from the earlier team drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru stating the ideals of an
were dropped. Baldev Singh, C.H. Bhabha, and independent sovereign republic with autonomous
John Matthai continued to represent minority units, adequate minority safeguards and social,
communities. political and economic democracy.
o The League refused to attend informal meetings of
⮚ Some of the decisions by the cabinet the cabinet to take decisions. The League
o On September 26, 1946, Nehru declared the questioned the decisions and appointments made by
government’s plan to engage in direct diplomatic the Congress members.
o Liaqat Ali Khan as the finance minister restricted
relations with all countries and goodwill missions.
and encumbered the efficient functioning of other
He also expressed support for the independence of ministries.
colonized nations. o The League had only sought a foothold in the
o In November 1946, India ratified the Convention on government to fight for Pakistan. For them, it was a
International Civil Aviation. In the same month, a continuation of the civil war by other means. The
committee was appointed to advise the government Congress demand that the British get the League to
on nationalizing the armed forces. In December, change its attitude in the Interim
o Government or quit was voiced ever since the
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was inducted into the
League joined the Interim Government.
cabinet. o In February 1947, nine Congress members of the
o The year 1947 saw the opening of diplomatic cabinet wrote to the viceroy demanding the
channels between India and many countries. In resignation of League members and threatening the
April 1947, the US announced the appointment of withdrawal of their own nominees. The last straw
Dr. Henry F. Grady as its ambassador to India. came with the League demanding
Embassy level diplomatic relations with the USSR the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. A
crisis seemed to be developing rapidly.
and the Netherlands also started in April. In May,
the first Chinese ambassador Dr. Lo Chia Luen
275
MOUNTBATTEN PLAN AND INDEPENDENCE OF INDIA
PARTITION AND FREEDOM
⮚ Atlee’s Declaration February 20, 1947
o On 20th February 1947,

Atlee’s made a statement in
British parliament that the
date of British withdrawal
from India was fixed as
June 30, 1948 and the
appointment of new
Viceroy, Lord ⮚ Provisions of the Mountbatten Plan (Partition
Mountbatten was announced. Plan)/3rd June Plan/ Dickie Bird Plan
o A deadline of June 30, 1948 was fixed for transfer
of power even if the Indian politicians had not o British India was to be partitioned into two
agreed by that time on the constitution. dominions – India and Pakistan.
o The British would relinquish power either to some o The constitution framed by the Constituent
form of central government or in some areas to the Assembly would not be applicable to the Muslim-
existing provincial governments if the constituent majority areas (as these would become Pakistan).
assembly was not fully representative, i.e., if the The question of a separate constituent assembly for
Muslim majority provinces did not join. the Muslim-majority areas would be decided by
o British powers and obligations vis-a-vis the princely these provinces.
states would lapse with transfer of power, but these
o As per the plan, the legislative assemblies of Bengal
would not be transferred to any successor
government in British India. and Punjab met and voted for the partition.
o Mountbatten would replace Wavell as the viceroy. Accordingly, it was decided to partition these two
The statement contained clear hints of partition and provinces along religious lines.
even Balkanisation of the country into numerous o The legislative assembly of Sindh would decide
states and was, in essence, a reversion of the Cripps whether to join the Indian constituent assembly or
Offer. not. It decided to go with Pakistan.
o A referendum was to be held on NWFP (North-
⮚ Arrival of Mountbatten in India Western Frontier Province) to decide which
o Mountbatten proved firmer and quicker in taking dominion to join. NWFP decided to join Pakistan
decisions than his predecessors because he was while Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan boycotted and
informally given more powers to decide things on rejected the referendum.
the spot. He also had the advantage of the firm
o The date for the transfer of power was to be August
decision of the British government to quit at the
15, 1947.
earliest. His task was to explore the options of unity
and division till October 1947 and then advise the o To fix the international boundaries between the two
British government on the form of transfer of countries, the Boundary Commission was
power. established chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. The
o But he soon discovered that the broad contours of commission was to demarcate Bengal and Punjab
the scenario to emerge were discernible even before into the two new countries.
he came to India. o The princely states were given the choice to either
o The Cabinet Mission Plan was a dead horse and remain independent or accede to India or
Jinnah was obstinate about not settling for anything Pakistan. The British suzerainty over these
less than a sovereign state. But a serious attempt at kingdoms was terminated.
unity would involve supporting those forces which
o The British monarch would no longer use the title
wanted a unified India and countering those who
opposed it. Mountbatten preferred to woo both ‘Emperor of India’.
sides.
276

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o After the dominions were created, the British o The breakneck speed of events under Mountbatten
Parliament could not enact any law in the caused anomalies in arranging the details of
territories of the new dominions. partition and totally failed to prevent the Punjab
o Until the time the new constitutions came into massacre, because there were no transitional
existence, the Governor-General would assent any institutional structures within which partition
law passed by the constituent assemblies of the problems could be tackled.
dominions in His Majesty’s name. The Governor- o Mountbatten had hoped to be the common
General was made a constitutional head. Governor- General of India and Pakistan, thus
providing the necessary link, but Jinnah wanted the
o On the midnight of 14th and 15th August 1947, the position for himself in Pakistan.
dominions of Pakistan and India respectively came o There was a delay in announcing the Boundary
into existence. Lord Mountbatten was appointed Commission Award (under Radcliffe); though the
the first Governor-General of independent India award was ready by August 12, 1947 Mountbatten
and M.A. Jinnah became the Governor-General decided to make it public after August 15 so that the
of Pakistan. British could escape all responsibility for
disturbances.
⮚ Indian response on Plan
WHY CONGRESS ACCEPTED PARTITION –
o The Congress was only accepting the inevitable due

o The Mountbatten Plan was accepted by all political
to the long-term failure to draw the Muslim masses
parties in India, although with great unwillingness.
into the national movement. The partition reflects
They had now recognized the inevitability of
the success-failure dichotomy of the Congress-led
partition. By early 1947 itself, the Congress had
anti-imperialist movement.
begun to acknowledge it:
o The Congress had a twofold task—(i) structuring
o On 20th April 1947, Nehru had said in a public
diverse classes, communities, groups and regions
speech, “The Muslim League can have Pakistan, if
into a nation, and
they wish to have it, but on the condition that they
securing independence for this nation. (ii)While the
do not take away other parts of India which do not
Congress succeeded in building up sufficient national
wish to join Pakistan”
consciousness to exert pressure on the British to quit
o On 28th April, Rajendra Prasad had declared in the
India, it failed to complete the task of welding the
Constituent Assembly, It may be that India may not
nation, especially in integrating the Muslims into the
comprise all provinces. For this, we must be
nation.
prepared.
o In these circumstances-
o The Hindu members of the Bengal and Punjab
Assemblies decided in favour of partition. While ✔ Only an immediate transfer of power could
East Bengal and West Punjab decided to join forestall the spread of ‘direct action’ and
Pakistan, West Bengal and East Punjab joined communal violence. The virtual collapse of the
India. Interim Government also made the notion of
● Referendum in Sylhet and NWFP went in favour Pakistan appear unavoidable.
of Pakistan. ✔ The partition plan ruled out independence for the
● Two Boundaries Commissions were constituted, princely states which could have been a greater
one in respect of each province.
o Thus, the Mountbatten plan became the basis of
Partition of India.
⮚ Problem of Early Integration-
277
danger to Indian unity as it would have meant

Balkanization of the country.
✔ Acceptance of partition was only a final act of the
process of step-by-step concessions to the League’s
championing of a separate Muslim state
o Therefore, Congress had to accept partition to
prevent India from any civil war based on religious
issues.
GANDHI’S HELPLESSNESS-
o Gandhi felt helpless because there had been a General Lord Mountbatten after Indian leaders
communalization of the people. He had no option agreed on the Mountbatten Plan, the last plan for
but to accept partition because the people wanted Independence. The Bill was introduced with the
it. How could there be a movement to fight objective of the transferring power to the people of
communalism involving a communalized people? India and received Royal assent on 18th July. Its
o He asked the Congressmen, however, not to accept main provisions included:
it in their hearts. o The Indian Independence Act was passed in 1947.
The act created two new independent dominions-
RADCLIFFE BOUNDARY COMMISSION-
India and Pakistan.
o Pakistan was split into Pakistan and East Pakistan
o The British government which is now Bangladesh. The Bengal and Punjab
appointed the Boundary provinces were partitioned between the two new
Commission under the countries. These dominions separated the Muslim,
chairmanship of Sir Cyril
Radcliffe. Hindu and Sikh population and caused the biggest
o The objective of the commission forced migration which has ever happened that
is to demarcate an international was not the result of war or famine.
boundary line between India o The Act repealed the use of ‘Emperor of India’ as a
and Pakistan. title for the British Crown and ended all existing
treaties with the princely states.
o The office of Secretary of State was abolished and
his work was to be taken over by the Secretary of
Commonwealth Affairs.
o The Act terminated the suzerainty and paramountcy
of the British Crown over the Indian State.
Agreements between the states and the new
Dominions were to be negotiated.
o The Indian States were free to accede to either of
the two new Dominions (the Act released the States
from all their obligations to the Crown and they
were now technically Independent).
o Lord Mountbatten continued as Governor-General
and Jawaharlal Nehru was appointed India’s
first Prime Minister, Muhammad Ali Jinnah
became Pakistan’s Governor-General and Liaquat
Ali Khan its Prime Minster. The 15th August 1947
has since become celebrated as India’ and
INDIA INDEPENDENCE ACT, 1947- Pakistan’s Independence Day.
o On 4th July, the Indian Independence Bill was
introduced in the House of Commons by the Labour INDEPENDENCE OF INDIA-
government of Clement Atlee and Governor
278
⮚ DAY OF INDEPENDENCE- 4. John Mathai: Minister of Railways and Transport

5. Sardar Baldev Singh: Minister of Defence
6. Jairamdas Daulatram: Minister of Food and
Agriculture
7. Jagjivan Ram: Minister of Labour
8. C.H. Bhabha: Minister of Commerce
9. Amrit Kaur: Minister of Health
10. Rafi Ahmad Kidwai: Minister of Communications
11. Narhar Vishnu Gadgil: Minister of Works, Mines
and Power
12. R.K. Shanmukham Chetty: Minister of Finance
13. K.C. Neogy: Minister of Relief and Rehabilitation
14. B.R. Ambedkar: Minister of Law (belonged to the
Scheduled Castes Federation; resigned in 1951)
15. Shyama Prasad Mokherjee: Minister of Industries
and Supplies [Hindu Mahasabha; first to resign from the
o The Constituent Assembly of India met at 11 p.m. cabinet in April 1950]
on August 14, 1947. Rajendra Prasad presided 16. Narasimha Gopalaswami Ayyangar: Minister
over the session. In a ceremony held in the without
Constituent Assembly (in Parliament House) at portfolio; assigned the task to act as a link between
midnight of August 14-15, 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru, the union government and the cabinet of East Punjab
speaking as the first prime minister of Independent government
India, gave his historic speech. Nehru said, “Long 17. Mohanlal Saxena: Minister without portfolio
years ago, we made a tryst with destiny, and now
the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, NOTE--First and last Indian Governor-General of
not wholly or in full measure, but very India- C Rajagopalachari (1948-50). When the
substantially. At the stroke of midnight hour, Constitution came into force, the office of Governor-
when the world sleeps, India will wake to life and General was abolished and India became a Republic
freedom...” with Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the First President of
o On August 15, 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru, as Prime India.
Minister of India, hoisted the Indian national flag
above the Lahori Gate of Red Fort in Delhi.
⮚ First Cabinet of Free India-
1.Jawaharlal Nehru: Prime Minister; Minister of

External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations;
Minister of Scientific Research
2. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: Deputy Prime Minister;
Minister of Home Affairs and States; Minister of
Information and Broadcasting
3. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: Minister of Education
279
CHAPTER 13-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE IN INDIA

INDIAN ECONOMY AND SOCIETY ON THE EVE OF BRITISH CONQUEST ON INDIA
STAGES OF COLONISATION
ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BRITISH POLICIES ON VARIOUS CLASSES AND SECTORS
NATIONALIST CRITIQUE OF COLONIAL ECONOMY AND DRAIN OF WEALTH
280
INDIAN ECONOMY AND SOCIETY ON THE ✓ It has been correctly said that the village
EVE OF BRITISH CONQUEST ON INDIA (18TH community in India lasted when nothing else
CENTURY INDIA)- seemed to last.
o Stagnation –
➢ Economic Conditions – ✓ The unchanging character of village communities
1) Village Economy- was responsible for socio-economic stability on
one hand and stagnation on the other.
✓ Agriculture was technically backward and
stagnant in nature.
✓ The isolation of village communities obstructed
the creation of a wider market for Indian
handicrafts.
✓ The caste bound socio-economic structure allowed
little mobility of individual and Labour.
✓ Hence, Indian villages represented a picture of
stagnation, untouched and unaware from all modern
scientific development taking place in other parts of
world.
o Self -sufficient & Self-Governing Village
Community –The basic unit of Indian economy 2) Urban Economy –
was the self-sufficient and self-governing village
community which produced almost everything for
its local needs.
o Agriculture and Handicraft Industry – The rural
India economy was characterized by two sectors –
Agriculture and Handicrafts industry. Some of
the few handicrafts of the time such as cotton, silk,
woolen fabrics and metal works. In this way,
Village economy was not only had enough
domestic production but also an exporter of
foodgrains and handicrafts.
o Agrarian Structure-
✓ The concept of private property of land yet not
developed. o From ancient period, India was a land of extensive
✓ Land was belonged collectively to the cultivating manufacturers and Indian manufactured products
community and each family having its share of enjoyed a worldwide recognition.
arable land o There was no sharp division between urban centres
✓ Karl Marx had described this kind of this kind of where industries were concentrated and rural
collective ownership of land as the Indian form of centres which supplied raw materials.
communism. o Hence, Industrial production in India continued to
✓ The land revenue was collected by village be largely a rural based activity.
headmen or Patil who further passed on to the
ruler. ➢ Condition of Indian Industry –
✓ The rate of land revenue varied from 1/3rd-1/6th. o Textiles –
✓ Other land related issues were settled by the Patil in ✓ It constituted the most important part of
consultation with the village panchayat. manufacturing of India.
o Self-Governance – ✓ IMP trading centres –
✓ The Village administration was self-governing in Bengal – Dacca, Murshidabad
nature. Gujarat – Surat, Ahmedabad and Bharuch
✓ The Village Panchayat administered the village Andhra – Masulipatnam, Aurangabad and
affairs and settled disputes. Vishakhapatnam
✓ The local chief or subahdar limited himself to
claiming a crop in the village crops.
✓ Even if rulers and dynasties changed from time to Silk Fabrics of Murshidabad, Lahore and Agra
time, the life in the villages carried on as usual, Woolen shawls and carpet of Agra, Lahore and
phenomena referred to as the unchangeableness of Kashmir
Asiatic communities by Karl Marx.
281
✓ precious stones
✓ drugs
o Major items of Import-
✓ Persian Gulf – pearls, silk, wool, dates, dry fruits
and rose water
✓ Arabia – Coffee, gold, drugs and honey
✓ China – Tea, sugar, porcelain and silk
✓ Tibet – gold, musk, woolen sloth
✓ Indonesian Islands – spices, perfume and sugar
✓ Africa – Ivory and drugs
✓ Europe- Woolen cloth, metal and paper
o The English company used to export the staple
commodities from the Bengal in the 18th century
Cotton Manufacturing was cotton, silk, saltpetre and opium.
o Agro-based industries- Apart from cotton and silk, o Disruption- After the decline of Mughal empire,
the Agro-based industries like dye stuffs (Indigo), Indian trade was severely affected. The land route
sugar, oil, tobacco, opium and alcoholic of Afghanistan was not remained safe, India ocean
beverages were the next most important industrial was dominated by Portugal’s and continuous
sector. foreign & Afghan invasion led to fall down of
o Mining and ship-building - Mining and ship important trade centres.
building was another important developing
industry. ➢ Social Conditions –
o Luxury goods - High class luxury goods were also o Social Stratification –
produced and largely consumed by rich people. ✓ At the apex of the social order was an Emperor
o Manufacturing centres – followed by Nobles. Then came middle class which
✓ Patna (Bihar) consists of merchants, Shopkeepers etc. The poor
✓ Chanderi and Burhanpur (MP) Peasants and artisans were included in the lower
✓ Juanpur, Varanasi and Lucknow (UP) level.
✓ Multan and Lahore (Punjab) ✓ Indian Society was divided on the lines of religion,
region, caste, tribe and language.
o Status of Women-
➢ Condition of Indian Trade – ✓ The Family system was primarily patriarchal in
o Favourable balance of trade – India was self- nature and Women had no say in any political and
sufficient in agricultural production and also an socio-economic matters.
exporter of handloom products throughout the ✓ During this time, Women’s were facing evil
world. Hence, India was an export-based economy practices like child marriage, unhuman conditions
and its trade was heavily balanced in India’s favour. of widows, sati pratha etc.
o Inflow of Bullion- The remarkable rise in Indian ✓ Hence, the status of women was certainly not of
textiles exports ensured a steady flow of bullion and equality.
India came to be known as the sink of precious o Slavery –
metals. Since, there was no demand for European ✓ The prevalence of Slavery was yet another social
goods in India, the purchase of Indian goods had to evil of this time. European travelers have reported
financed by bullion payments. widespread practice of slavery in India.
o Rise of Merchants and Bankers – The self- o However, slaves in India were treated better as
sufficiency of agriculture and Favourable balance compared to slaves in America and Europe. They
of trade led to rise of merchants and bankers or were usually hereditary servants rather than as
simply capitalist class. India was one of the main slaves.
centres of world trade and industry.
o Major items of Exports –
✓ Cotton Textiles
✓ Silk
✓ Indigo
✓ Saltpeter
✓ Rice
✓ wheat
✓ sugar
✓ spices
282
Jaipur –
o State of education-
Jantar – Mantar Jaipur

✓ Indian education was characterized by culture and • Sawai Jai Singh played an important role in
not literacy and learning were linked with development of art and architecture in Jaipur.
religion. The vocational education was imparted • He built the famous pink city of Jaipur.
through one’s varna of family tradition. • He also built five astronomical observatories in-
✓ Elementary Education- Jaipur (Jantar-Mantar), Delhi, Banaras,
Elementary schools were called Pathshalas and Mathura and Ujjain.
Maktabs and were often attached to temples and • He drew up a set of tables called Zij
mosques. Muhammadshahi to enable people to make
The reading, writing and arithmetic as well as astronomical observations.
religious instructions were included in the • He translated texts on geometry and trigonometry
school’s curriculum. translated into Sanskrit including Euclid’s of
The study of science and technology was Geometry.
excluded. • Jai Singh was also a social reformer. He tried to
✓ Higher Education – reduce lavish expenditure by Rajputs on their
The higher education centres were called daughter weddings which had given rise to the
Chautuspathis or tols (for Sanskrit) and madrasas practice of female infanticide.
(for Persian and Arabic). Lucknow -Asaf-ud-Daula built the Bara
Persian was the court language and was learnt by Imambara
Muslims as well as Hindus.
The French traveler Francois Bernier described
Kashi or Banaras as the Athens of India.
✓ Literacy –
Literacy in India was not less than what it was under
the British later.
Warren Hastings described that India had in
general superior endowments in reading, writing,
arithmetic than the common people of any nation in
Europe.
o Hindu Muslim Relations- In 18th century, Hindus
and Muslims enjoyed friendly relation with each Amritsar – Maharaja Ranjit Singh renovated the
other. This resulted in emergence of composite Sikh shrine, decorating the entire upper portion with
Hindu-Muslim culture. a thin layer of gold, giving it the modern name of
o Art & Culture-
✓ In the field of Architecture –
Golden Temple.
283
Kerala – The famous Padmanabhapuram palace Warris Shah

was built here. In Assam, Ahom rulers played a significant role for
the development of literature.
In Gujarat, Dayaram was a famous lyricist.
Dayaram
➢ Other Imp Details-
✓ In the field of literature- o Example of Trading Centres looted by Foreign
During this time, Urdu language and poetry were invaders-
famous. Some of the famous Urdu poets were Mir, ✓ Delhi- Nadir Shah
Sauda, Nazir and Mirza Ghalib. ✓ Lahore, Delhi and Mathura- Ahmed Shah
The Vernacular languages like Hindi, Punjabi, Abdali
Marathi, Bengali, Assamese and Telugu were ✓ Agra – Jats
also developed. ✓ Gujarat and Decaan – Marathas
In South India, Malayalam literature was revived ✓ Sarhind – Sikhs
under the rulers of Travancore – Marthanda o India was a manufacturer of –
Varma and Rama Varma. ✓ Cotton and silk textiles
Kunchan Nambiar arose as one of the greatest ✓ Dyes
poets of Kerala. ✓ Sugar oils
The Kathakali literature, dance and drama ✓ Tobacco & Opium
witnessed its full development during this period. ✓ Alcholic beverages
Some of the famous Sindhi poets were also emerged ✓ Jute
in 18th century like Shah Abdul Latif, Sachal and ✓ Ivory
Sami. ✓ Ships
Abdul Latif composed the collection of poems ✓ Iron and other mineral metals
named Risalo. ✓ Metallic products – Gold & silver jewellery
Warris Shah wrote the famous romantic epic in ✓ High class luxury goods
Punjabi named Heer – Ranjha.
STAGES OF COLONISATION – ✓ During this period no basic changes were

introduced in administration, judicial system,
o First Stage (1757-1813)/ Mercantile Phase transport and communication, methods of
✓ This stage was known as the Merchant Capital agricultural or industrial production, forms of
(Mercantilism), often described as the Period of business management or economic organisation.
Monopoly Trade and Direct Appropriation (or ✓ Nor were any major changes made in education or
the Period of East India Company’s Domination, intellectual field, culture or social organisation.
1757-1813). ✓ The changes were introduced in –
✓ It based on two objectives – (i) in military organisation and technology which
(i) to acquire a monopoly of trade with India, native rulers were also introducing in their armed
against other English or European merchants or forces, and (ii) in administration at the top of the
trading companies as well as against the Indian structure of revenue collection so that it could
merchants; (ii) to directly appropriate or take over become more efficient and smoother.
governmental revenues through control over State In this phase there was large scale drain of wealth
power. from India which constituted 2-3 per cent of
Britain’s national income at the time. It was this
284
wealth that played an important role in financing ✓ Imp Changes –

Britain’s industrial revolution. Britain’s industrial supremacy was challenged by
several countries of Europe, the United States and
o Second Stage – (1813-60)/Industrial Phase Japan.
✓ This stage is also termed as Colonialism of Free As a result of the application of scientific
Trade. knowledge to industry, the pace of industrialisation
✓ It started with the Charter Act of 1813 and increased sharply (use of petroleum as fuel for the
continued till 1860s. Soon after the East India internal combustion engine and the use of electricity
Company became the ruler over most parts of India, for industrial purposes were significant innovations
there was a debate in Britain as to whose interests The world market became more unified due to
the newly acquired colony would serve. revolution in the means of international transport.
✓ Important features – ✓ During this stage, Britain made strenuous efforts to
India’s colonial economy was integrated with the consolidate its control over India. Liberal
British and world capitalist economy. This was imperialist policies got replaced with reactionary
made possible with the introduction of free trade. imperialist policies which were reflected in the
All import duties in India were either totally viceroyalties of Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne and
removed or drastically reduced to nominal rates. Curzon.
Free entry was also granted to the British ✓ The British thus tried to justify their rule over
capitalists to develop tea, coffee and indigo Indians for centuries to come—all in the name of
plantations, trade, transport, mining and modern civilising a barbaric people— “the White Man’s
industries in India. The British Indian Government burden”.
gave active State help to such capitalists.
The Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BRITISH POLICIES
system in agriculture were introduced to transform ON VARIOUS CLASSES AND SECTORS –
traditional agrarian structure into a capitalist one.
Administration was made more comprehensive o Deindustrialization – Destruction of Artisans
and included villages and outlying areas of the and Handicrafts industry-
country. These agricultural products drawn from,
interior villages and remotest parts.
Personal law was largely left untouched since it did
not affect colonial transformation of the economy.
However, the changes related to criminal law, law
of contract and legal procedures were overhauled to
promote capitalist commercial relations and
maintain law and order.
Modern education was introduced to provide
cheap manpower to the vastly expanded
administration. However, it was also aimed at
transforming India’s society and culture for two
reasons: (a) create an overall atmosphere of change
and development and, (b) give birth to a culture of ✓ One-way free trade –
loyalty to the rulers. Charter Act of 1813 allowing one-way free trade
The taxation and the burden on peasant rose sharply for the British citizens. On the other hand, Indian
due to economic transformation and costly products found it more and more difficult to
administration (civil as well as military). penetrate the European markets.
India absorbed 10 to 12 per cent of British exports The British authorities imposed nearly 80 % on
and nearly 20 per cent of Britain’s textile exports. Indian textiles. After, 1820, European markets were
After 1850, engine coaches, rail lines and other virtually closed to Indian exports. Cheap British
railway stores were imported into India at large made cloth flooded the Indian market.
scale. ✓ No modernisation of Indian Industry –
Indian army was used for British expansion of The one-way free trade policy of British
colonialism in Asia and Africa. government destroyed the Indian traditional
industries.
o Third Stage – (1860-1947)/Financial phase It was not accompanied by development of modern
✓ The third stage is often described as the Era of industries.
Foreign Investments and International
Competition for Colonies.
285
This resulted in deindustrialisation of India at a ✓ A thriving ship-building industry was crushed.

time when Europe was witnessing a reintensified The British ships contracted by the Company were
Industrial Revolution. given a monopoly over trade routes, while even the
✓ Ruralisation – Indian merchant ships plying along the coast were
Another feature of deindustrialisation was the made to face heavy duties.
decline of many cities and a process of ruralisation
of India
After the closure of Indian Industries in cities,
artisans and labourers moved to villages for
survival.
o Impoverishment of Peasants –
✓ The colonial British policy had not destroyed Indian
Industry but also damaged the practise of
cultivation.
✓ The land revenue policies of Britishers affected
the life of each and every peasant. (we have
discussed this area in detail in – Land Revenue 19th century shipyards
Policies chapter) ✓ The British did not allow the Indian steel industry
to grow. The British government also placed severe
o Commercialisation of Agriculture- restrictions on the development of Indian Steel
✓ The policies of British government had led to industry by imposing several laws and regulations.
emergence of commercialisation of Indian Tata Steel and Iron Company was established by
Agriculture. Jamshedji Tata in 1907 at Jamshedpur.
✓ The land revenue policies of the British forced the
Peasants to grow Commercial crops like cotton,
jute, groundnut, oilseeds, sugarcane, tobacco,
etc., Which were more remunerative than
foodgrains.
✓ This commercialisation led to adverse effects on
Indian agriculture for long run.
✓ It is one of the factors for occurrence of famines
India during British rule.
✓ Also, it affected the fertility of farmlands.
o Destruction of Indian Industry –
Tata Steel - 1907
✓ Indian traders, moneylenders and bankers had
amassed some wealth as junior partners of English
merchant capitalists in India.
✓ Money-lenders - The Indian moneylender
provided loans to Hard pressed agriculturists and
thus facilitated the state collection of revenue.
✓ Traders - The Indian trader carried imported
British products to the remotest corners and helped
in the movement of Indian agricultural products for
export.
✓ Indigenous Banker – The indigenous bankers
✓ Apart from cotton and textile industry, the policy of
helped both in the process of distribution and
one-way free trade also led to closure of other
collection.
Industries.
✓ However, their role in the development of industrial
sector was limited as they were directly
✓ or indirectly fulfilling the interest of British
government.
286
✓ It was only in the second half of the nineteenth regions were favoured more than the
century that modern machine-based industries others—causing regional
started coming up in India. The first cotton textile disparities. These regional
mill was set up in 1853 in Bombay by Cowasjee disparities hampered the process of
Nanabhoy nation building.
✓ The first jute mill came up in 1855 in Rishra ✓ The rise of an industrial capitalist
(Bengal) by George Acland, in collaboration class and the
with a Bengali financier named Babu Bysumber working class was an important feature of this
Sen and a Dundee jute overseer, phase.
✓ Major industries before independence –
Iron & Steel Industry: It was first set up in 1874
in Kulti which is still working.
Aluminium Industry: It was first set up
Jaykaynagar (West Bengal) in 1837.
Cement Industry: It was first set up in Chennai in
1904.
Chemical Fertilizer Industry: In India, the
beginning of chemical fertilizer industry was with
the establishment of Super Phosphate plant in
Ranipet (Tamil Nadu) in 1906.
Shipping Industry: It was first set up (The
First textile mill- Bombay Hindustan Shipyard) in Vishakhapatnam in 1941.
✓ But majority of industries were foreign-owned and Woollen Textile Industry: It was first set up in
controlled by British managing agencies. Kanpur in 1876 with the brand name ‘Lal Imli’.
✓ The industrial development was characterised by a
lopsided pattern—core and heavy industries and
power generation were neglected and some
o State of Foreign Trade during British rule-
NATIONALIST CRITIQUE OF COLONIAL ECONOMY OR DRAIN OF WEALTH –

o Background -
287
✓ The Drain of wealth refers to a unilateral outflow employment of Europeans was the most important
of a part of Indian resources for which India cause of drain of wealth. He said
receives nothing in return. Before the battle of the drain of wealth was
Plassey, the company had to bring bullions to responsible for the limited
counter balance India trade. growth of modern Industries of
✓ After the Battle of Plassey, the pattern of trade India. He also said Drain of
changed. The company used its political authority wealth facilitate the process of
to generate resources from India for the purchase of foreign capital.
Indian production. These resources were
constituted by 2. M.G. Ranade- Second Indian
Monopolistic exploitation, leader to raise issue of Drain in his famous book
bribes etc. ‘Essays on Indian Economy’. But he failed to link
✓ By using this resource, the drain with Indian poverty.
India products was
purchased & exported out. 3. Bholanath Chandra- Third Indian leader to raise
This mechanism of export the issue of drain in 1873
is known as Indian investment. The Home
charges also formed an important part of drain. It
refers to the expenditure carried out by Britain in 4. G.V. Joshi- Fourth Indian
different lands. The Home charges constituted- leader to raise this drain of
a. Dividends paid by the company to its wealth issue. In 1888 estimated
b. The interest on loans raised in Britain. that 25 crores are drained from
c. The salaries & pensions paid to company’s officials India annually by the Britishers.
in 1858 & officials of British court after the transfer
of Administration from company to crown.
d. Expenditure on purchase of civil & military 5. R.C. Dutt
supplies. ✓ Raised issue in 1901 in London.
e. Expenditure on Indian house He again raised this issue in his
f. Expenditure on wars & battles also formed book ‘The Economic history of
important components of drain of wealth. The India’ published in 2 volumes in
company used its Indian forces to fight Afghanistan 1901-1903. According to him
& war was in Burma. During 1st and 2nd world war land revenue was most important
thousands of Indian soldiers were send to war in constituent of Indian wealth
different parts of world. The expenditure was meet drain.
out of Indian resources but their objective was to ✓ He commented that the moisture raised from Indian
protect interest of Britain. soil descended as the fertilizing rain largely on
o Economic critique of Indian Drain of wealth - England and not in India.
1. Dadabhai Naoroji
✓ He opposed Drain of Wealth theory. He raised this 6. D.E. Wactha - He Raised
issue for the first time in 1867 in his paper the issue in 1901. He said
‘England’s debt to India’ published in London. that 30 to 40 crores annually
✓ He also raised the issue of drain in 1870 in his other are drained from India to
paper ‘The wants & means to India’ published in Britain.
London.
✓ The issue was again raised in another paper ‘on the
commerce of India’ in 1871 in London. He put
forward the drain theory in explosive manner in 7. Gopal Krishna Gokhale
1873 in his paper ‘Poverty of India’. ✓ Held the drain responsible for limited growth of
✓ In 1873 he published his famous book ‘The Modern industry in India. The British Indian
poverty & Unbritish rule in India’ and in this government appointed Wellbey Commission in
book the issue of drain was explained in detail. In 1897 to suggest for better management of Indian
this book he explained year wise estimates of drain. expenditure.
According to him 8 million pounds was drained out ✓ Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale
of India in 1867. He said that per capita income was spoke in front of this commission.
Rs.20 in 1867-68. ✓ Indian National Congress - Congress also raised the
✓ In 1905 the amount of drain became 34 million issue of drain in 1896 & drain was held responsible
pounds. According to him the excessive for Indian poverty & recurring famines.
288
✓ Amrit Bazaar Patrika raised this issue regularly • This tax was abolished in 1865 because mechanism
from 1870 onwards. could not function properly. In 1880 it was
✓ Britisher William Digby raised this issue in his reintroduced in modified form in the new name of
book ‘Prosperous British Rule’. licence tax.
✓ The most compressive theory was put forward by • In 1886, Income tax was introduced in formal way
Theodore Morrison in his book ‘Economic similar in modern way. The revenue from custom
transition of India’. He estimated drain at 21 duty was least in the trade because the Britisher
million pounds. followed the policy of one-way free trade.
✓ John Sullven – president of Board of revenue of
Madras commission commented on issue of drains
that our system acts like a sponge which sucks
everything good from bank of Ganges & squeezes it
on river of Thames.
o Sources of Revenue for the British-
• Land Revenue was most important source. Almost
60% of company’s income come from land
revenue.
• The second important source was salt tax.
• Third was exercise duty
• Opium trade & Opium tax
• Income tax introduced in 1865 by James Wilson.
He became the 1st member of Viceroy executive
councils
o INDIAN AUTHORS AND THEIR BOOKS/PAPER PUBLISHED
Indian Authors/Leaders Books(B)/Papers(P) published

Dadabhai Naoroji (P)- English debt to India (1867)
(P)- The wants and means of India (1870)
(P)- On the Commerce of India (1871)
(B)- Poverty & Unbritish rule in India
(P)- Poverty of India (1873)
Romesh Chandra Dutt (B)- The Economic History of India
M.G. Ranade (B)- Essays on Indian Economy
MISCELLANEOUS
1. Dadabhai Naoroji was 1st Indian to be elected as
member of the House of Commons on Liberal party
ticket in Britain’s Parliament. He also started a
newspaper named ‘Rast Goftar’ in Gujarati
language.
2. Lord Dufferin commented that the excessive
growth of Indian Population was responsible for
large scale poverty in India.
289
CHAPTER 14- LAND REVENUE POLICIES OF BRITISH
WE ARE GOING TO STUDY

INTRODUCTION
LAND REVENUE MECHANISM UNDER DUAL SYSTEM
LAND REVENUE SYSTEM UNDER WARREN HASTING
LAND REVENUE MECHANISMS – PERMANENT SETTLEMENT, MAHALAWARI, RYOTWARI,
MALGUZARI SETTLEMENT & TALUQDARI
EFFECTS OF LAND REVENUE SETTLEMENTS ON INDIAN ECONOMY
MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND QUICK REVISON
290
INTRODUCTION – because of the difference of opinion between the

English Supervisors and Nayab Diwans.
o The English Company arrived in India as a trading o Also, the Dual Government mechanism was
entity and remain indulge in commercial activities completely a disaster for the peasants as it was
in middle of 18th century. exploitative in nature.
o After winning the battle of Buxar (1764), company
received the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II by the LAND REVENUE SYSTEM UNDER WARREN
treaty of Allahabad. HASTING –
o Diwani Rights – It refers to the rights associated
o In 1772- Warren Hasting was
with the collection of land revenue and
appointed as a Governor-
administration of civil justice.
General of Bengal.
o Later, Robert Clive introduced the Dual
o He carried out administrative
Government model to collect the land revenue in an
reorganization of Bengal
efficient manner.
Presidency.
o He abolished the system of Dual
LAND REVENUE MECHANSIM UNDER DUAL Government and took upon the
GOVERNMENT MODEL- complete responsibility of the
administration of Bengal Presidency. The Nawab of
Bengal was pensioned off.
o With this, Office of Nayab Diwan was abolished.
o Warren Hasting divided whole of Company’s
territories into District and appointed European
Collectors for the administration of civil, fiscal and
judicial matters.
o The Districts were grouped into a no of divisions for
administrative convenience. These divisions
✓ Calcutta
✓ Murshidabad
✓ Dacca
✓ Burdwan
✓ Patna
o In 1765, Robert Clive introduced Dual Government ✓ Madras
model in which Nizamat rights (Administration) o In each of this division, a revenue council was set
to Nawab and Diwani Rights (Right to collect up and an Indian officer was appointed with each
Land Revenue) to the Company. council to maintain the records of revenue.
o The Company appointed Nawab Diwans to collect o Supreme Revenue Council was set up at Calcutta.
land revenue. Mohammad Raza Khan was o The treasury was transferred from Murshidabad to
appointed as Nayab Diwan of Bengal and Raja Calcutta.
Dhiraj Narayan was appointed as Nayab Diwan of o Warren Hasting implemented QuimmQueinnal
Bihar. In 1766, Dhiraj Narayan was replaced with system with zamindar for 5-year tenure. The right
Shitab Rai. to collect land revenue were assigned through
o These Nayab Diwans collected land revenue with bidding process (also known as Ijardari system or
the help of traditional revenue farming. The revenue farming).
existing Zamindars were retained. They were asked o This system could not work out properly as the
to deposit 90 % of the reveue with the Company and Zamindars exhibited short term outlook. They tried
they were allowed to retain 10 % for their services. to extract as much as possible from the farmers
This system continued till 1772. because they felt that after 5 years the reveue rights
o Later, Governor Verelst recommended that could be allotted to some other zamindar. Also, no
English supervisors should be appointed with investment was made in Agriculture because of this,
Nayab Diwans. As a result, Governor Cartier had peasants suffered immensely in the hands of
appointed English supervisors with Nayab Diwans. zamindars and British officials.
This Mechanism could not function smoothly
291
o 1776 – Amini Commission was appointed to The right to collect land revenue was assigned to
inquire into the real value of land. The committee indigenously zamindars through bidding on annual
submitted its report in 1778. basis.
o Based on the report of Amini Commission, the five-
year tenure was replaced with annual settlement.
LAND REVENUE MECHANISM-
Land Revenue Important Details Impact on Indian Economy

System
Permanent o The earliest views about Permanent Settlement o CONSEQUENCES –
System (Bengal during the period of 1768-1776. ✓ The Zamindar System found it
region – By o 1776 – Alexander Dow put forward views about difficult to pay the high land revenue
Cornwallis,1793) Permanent Settlement in his book History of and hence many zamindars lost their
Hindustan for the first time. rights. In many cases, bidding
o 1776 – Philip Francis (a member of Calcutta amount was even more than the
Council) put forward his views that Permanent actual production.
Settlement is the only solution of Agrarian ✓ As a result, zamindars exploited the
problems of India. peasants and it led to the
o Pitts India Act, 1784 – It contained a direction destruction of agriculture.
that issue of Land Revenue should be ✓ High tax rate encouraged
permanently. subinfeudation and further led to
o During Cornwallis, two views emerged in exploitation of peasants.
Calcutta Council about the land revenue ✓ The hereditary rights of zamindars
settlements. were annulled.
o James Grant – He opined that the Government is ✓ The position of cultivators was
the owner of the land and therefore government reduced to tenants of zamindars.
could demand as much as from Zamindars. ✓ Also, the system did not produce
fruitful result for zamindars and
peasants.
o John Shore – He said that Zamindar should be

considered as the owner of the lands and land
revenue demands must be in consonance with the
rights of zamindars.
o Lord Cornwallis accepted the recommendations

of John shore.
292
o 1798 – John Shore prepared a minute on land

revenue settlements. He was assisted by Teigen
Mouth. This report became the basis of new land
revenue arrangement on the basis of the shore
minute.
o Decennian Settlements was implemented in
1790 which was made permanent in 1793.
o Mechanism –
British
Zamindars
Peasants
✓ In this system, there was fixed rate of land
revenue as it was during ancient and medieval
period.
✓ The amount of land revenue was to be paid by
zamindars was determined through bidding
process. The highest bidder was given the right to
collect land revenue.
✓ This bidding amount was not having any direct
relationship with any actual agricultural
production.
✓ The bidding amount was fixed as the land revenue
demand by company permanently. Hereafter, the
zamindars were supposed to deposit the same
amount year after year.
✓ The British Government could not increase its bid
amount. Land revenue was fixed at very high level
of Rs. 2 Crore and 65 lakhs. The zamindar had to
pay a fixed tax (10/11) upon it.
✓ It was implemented in Bengal and Bihar in the
beginning. Later on, it was extended to Orissa,
Northern district of Madras, Varanasi and
Gazipur regions of UP and northern
Karnataka.
✓ Later on, Zamindari System was implemented
temporarily in parts of Punjab, Andhra and
Central Provinces.
293
✓ 1794 – Sunset law was passed. As per this, if a

zamindar failed to deposit his revenue by before
sunset of the last day, he may lose his zamindari
rights.
✓ 1799 – Lord Wellesley passed Happen law. This
law enabled the zamindars to oust the peasants
from their lands without following any legal
process if the peasants failed to pay land rent to
zamindars on time.
✓ It covered 19 % area of British India.
Ryotwari System o Th failure of permanent settlement to produce o Impact-
(Madras region desired results. Therefore, many British officials ✓ This type of revenue settlement was
– By Sir Thomas who influenced from utilitarian philosophy in proved to be more exploitative then
Munro and other parts of British India decided to adopt new Permanent Settlement.
Captain land revenue model. ✓ It destroyed the agriculture and
Alexander Reed, o In Madras region, an individual indigenous large number of cultivated lands
1820) peasant practicing agriculture. Because of this, It remained uncultivated.
was practically not possible to implement ✓ Even Ryots had to pay revenue if
permanent settlement. their crops were wholly destroyed.
o Here, the Company officials wanted to remove ✓ The farmers sank deep in poverty
intermediaries between government and and fell into the clutches of
farmers. So that, the authority could extract moneylenders (Chetty).
maximum from agriculture. ✓ This system resulted in
o Alexander Reed – As a Collector of Baramahal, indebtedness and frequent
he undertook earlier experiments of Ryotwari evictions.
model during 1792-99. ✓ It significantly contributed for the
o In 1817 – the Ryotwari Land Revenue System in outbreak of Madras Famine (1867-
Coimbatore, Nellore and Arcot region. 78).
o In 1820 – This model was formally introduced by ✓ In 1855, a survey was conducted by
Thomas Munro (Governor of Madras) in Madras government. The survey
Madras Presidency. found that out of the total land, about
18 million acres land was left fallow
without cultivation and only about
14 million acres of land was under
the plough.
o In Bombay Presidency, it was introduced by

Governor Elphinstone in 1825 under the
influence from Munro.
o Mechanism –
294
British
Peasants
✓ In this system, Land Revenue was settled with
indigenous peasants.
✓ It did not bring about a system of peasant
ownership of land and also declared that the land
revenue was rent and not tax.
✓ Fertility of Soil was taken into consideration for
determining the amount of land revenue.
✓ The amount of actual production was determined
through sample cutting. Later on, guess work
was followed for determining the production.
✓ Also, no survey was carried out in many districts
and assessment was done based on tax paid in
previous years known as Putcut Assessment.
✓ The rate of land revenue varied between 1/3 to
2/5. It was revised after every 20-30 years.
✓ The Peasants were given the choice either to
accept or reject the cultivation of soil on the
terms and conditions fixed by the British
Government.
✓ In case, if peasants refused to cultivate a piece
of land, then this land was offered to some other
peasants on same condition.
✓ In case, nobody agreed to cultivate the land on the
terms fixed by the government then land will
remain uncultivated but terms were not changed.
✓ Since, Land Revenue burden was heavy, majority
of peasants opted to refuse cultivation of lands on
the terms of the government.
✓ Here, no freedom was given to peasants which
lead to the large-scale exploitation of the farmers.
Many of the peasants left their field and escaped
to forest.
✓ Hence, to investigate this, Madras Torture
Commission was established in 1854.
✓ It covered 51% of the British India.
Mahalawari o In this system, Mahal or estate of village o Effect –
System (Simply village) was considered as the owner of ✓ The land tax demanded was very
(Northern the land and settlement was carried out with it. heavy. Because of this, it led to
region, 1822) o The first settlement of this experiment was made impoverishment and dispossession
in Awadh region. of Peasants.
o 1803-04- This experiment was conducted in the ✓ It led to rise in general resentment
territory acquired from the Marathas. amongst the present community
o 1822 – The Mahalawari system was formally which found expression during 1857
introduced by the British Government. This revolt.
system was introduced in in North Western
295
Provinces. Parts of Punjab, Parts of Central

Province and Ganga valley or UP.
o Mechanism –
British
Mahal
(Village) or
Headman
Peasants
✓ In this settlement, Mahal or village was

considered as the owner of the land and the
amount of settlement was fixed for the whole
village.
✓ Tax was collected by Village Headman or
Lambardar.
✓ In case, if Peasants failed to pay revenue to Mahal
then, the head of the village was given the right to
take away land and give it to some other peasants.
✓ In the area inhabitated by Zamindars – Rate of
Revenue was 83 %of produce.
✓ Whereas, in the area inhabitated by an Individual
peasant- Rate of revenue was 90% of produce.
✓ The Mahalawari system was implemented on the
basis of a plan prepared by Holt Mackenzie. He
developed this settlement system in 1819 and
implemented in 1822. Therefore, it is also known
as Mackenzie Plan.
✓ 1833 – It was modified on the basis of a report

prepared by James Thomson and Robert
Martins Bird. Martin Bird had played a
significant role for its modifications and because
of this, this modification plan is also known as
Bird Plan.
✓ In the old system, the settlement was made with
single village but in the new plan – a no. of
villages was grouped together and were
considered as a single unit.
✓ It also prescribed the system of using average
rents for different classes of soil and prescribed
296
for the first time the use of field maps (drawings)

and field registers (records) for assessment.
✓ After this modification, the rate of land revenue

was reduced to 66 % of produce.
✓ William Bentick reduced it to 60 % of produce.
✓ Later, Lord Dalhousie reduced the rate of revenue
to 50 % by the Saharanpur regulation of 1855.
✓ It covered 30 % of British India.
Taluqdari o Zamindars in Awadh region were known as
Settlement (1850 Taluqdars. Because of this, the settlement made
onwards) with them came to be known as Taluqdari
settlement.
o They were hereditary landlords.
o After the annexation of Awadh in 1856, thr
system was formally extended up to Awadh
region. Due to harsh terms & conditions,
Taluqdars lost their hereditary and because of this, _
they participated in revolt of 1857.
o The Bombay Government had appointed Inam
Commission in 1852, the commission took over
their rights of almost 20,000 Taluqdars. Hence,
they also joined the 1857 revolt.
o After the suppression of revolt in 1857, the
government followed the liberal policy towards
Taluqdars and the rights of majority of them were
restored.
Malguzari o The Malguzari’s were hereditary revenue

System, 1861 collectors in central India.
o 1861- The Government carried out revenue _
settlements them.
o The rent of revenue was not uniform and fixed
and it varies from place to place
EFFECTS OF LAND REVENUE SYSTEM ON no investment or concessions was made in the

INDIAN ECONOMY (OVERALL)- development of agriculture.
✓ As a result, it led to impoverishment and
o Exploitation of Peasants – dispossession of Peasants.
✓ The land revenue policies or settlements introduced ✓ The farmers sank deep in poverty and fell into the
by the Company were introduced to serve their clutches of moneylenders.
colonial interest. ✓ These systems resulted in indebtedness of
✓ They design the settlement system to take back as peasants.
much as land revenue from peasants and in return o Destruction of Agriculture –
297
✓ These settlements destroyed the basic fabric of ✓ Land reveue was the most important source of tax
Indian Agriculture. for the English. It contributes more than 50 % of all
✓ Indian lands remained under the stage of taxes collected by the British
backwardness up to independence. No irrigation ✓ Also, the Zamindars and other India Officials
system developed for cultivation. who benefiting from these systems, British goods
✓ It also encouraged the peasants to cultivate were the market for them.
commercial crops in order heavy taxes to the o Development of Feudal structure/Zamindari
British Authority or Zamindars. system-
✓ This commercialization of Agriculture neglected ✓ A high tax rate encouraged subinfeudation or
the enough cultivation of food grains crops and feudal like structure, which also known as
also affected the fertility of land. Hence India Zamindari System.
witnessed a series of famines from 1764-1947. ✓ Through Permanent Settlement, Zamindars were
✓ The condition of Indian agriculture could be became the hereditary owner of farmlands in India
understood in the sense that during Independence, and the rights of peasants were annulled.
India was not self -sufficient in foodgrains ✓ It created two groups in the occupation of
production although it has all the natural conditions agriculture- Zamindars (Wealthy Class) and
pre-requisite for good agriculture. impoverished peasants which continued even after
o Drain of Wealth – the abolition of zamindari system after
✓ The Britsh used to tack back a big amount of land Independence.
revenue to England collected from peasants and
remaining part was invested in strengthening their
colonial rule in India.
MISCELLANEOUS FACTS & QUICK REVISION-
o Views on Permanent Settlement System – ✓ Taluqdari – Lord Dalhousie and Lord Canning
✓ James Grant, Thomas Munro and J S Mill –They ✓ Malguzari – Lord Canning
opposed Permanent settlement.
✓ Marshall- It was a bold brave and wise measure.
✓ Thornton – It was concluded under extra-ordinary o Land Revenue Systems and inventor-
degree of ignorance.
✓ Charles Metcalfe – The system had destroyed all ✓ Permanent Settlement – John Shore and Lord
the existing property in land. Cornwallis
✓ R C Dutt – Permanent Settlement was the most ✓ Ryotwari System- Alexander Reed, Thomas
wise and successful measure by Britishers of India. Munro and Elphinstone.
✓ Mahalawari System- Holt Mackenzie, Robert
o Robert Martins Bird was also known as the Martins Bird and James Thomson
Father of Land Settlements in Northern India.
o Land Revenue Settlements and associated

Governor-Generals –
✓ Permanent Settlement – Lord Cornwallis

✓ Ryotwari System- Lord Hasting
✓ Mahalawari System- Lord Hasting (1822) and
William Bentick (1833)
298
CHAPTER 15- LANGUAGES AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UNDER COMPANY’S RULE
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UNDER BRITISH CROWN
DEVELOPMENT OF VERNACULAR EDUCATION
DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
WARDHA SECHEME OF BASIC EDUCATION, 1937
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION AFTER INDEPENDENCE
EVALUATION
299
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UNDER COMPANY’S RULE –
➢ Background –
o Fort William College – It was set up by Wellesley
in 1800 for training of civil servants of the
Company in languages and customs of Indians
(closed in 1802).
o Role of the Calcutta Madrasah and the Sanskrit
College – It were designed to provide a regular
supply of qualified Indians to help the
administration of law in the Company’s court, and
the knowledge of classical languages and
vernaculars was useful correspondence with Indian
states.
o Why Enlightened Indians want modern western
o After 1765, a no of company’s officials undertook
education – The Enlightened Indians and
steps for the propagation of learning in India. missionaries started exerting pressure on the
o Calcutta Madrasah – It was established by Government to promote modern, secular,
Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study of Muslim Western education, as they thought that Western
law and related subjects. education was the remedy for social, economic and
o Sanskrit College- It was established by Jonathan political ills of the country
Duncan, the resident, at Benaras in 1791 for study
of Hindu law and philosophy.
➢ COMMITTEES/ACTS –
COMMITTESS/ACTS IMPORTANT EVENTS

Charter Act, 1813 o The Act directed the Company to sanction one lakh rupees annually for encouraging
learned Indians and promoting knowledge of modern sciences in the country.
o However, even this petty amount was not made available till 1823, mainly because of
the controversy raged on the question of the direction that this expenditure should
take.
Orientalist and Anglicist o 1833 – William Bentick set up a General Committee on Public Instructions under
Lord Macaulay. The members of this committee got divided into two groups over
the issue of syllabus and medium of instructions.
o Orientalists – The Orientalists put forward the views that the Company’s resources
should be used for traditional Indian Language and medium of instruction should be
vernacular. Mr Princeps and Mr. Wilson were main supporter of this view.
o Anglicists – The Anglicists put forward the views that resources of company should
be used for the propagation of western learning through English Medium. Charles
Trevelyan was the most important supporter of this view.
Lord Macculay’s o Lord Macaulay supported the Anglicists views - Anglicists—the limited government
Minute, 1835 resources were to be devoted to teaching of Western sciences and literature through
the medium of English language alone.
o He held the view that “Indian learning was inferior to European learning”—which
was true as far as physical and social sciences in the contemporary stage were
concerned.
o The committee put forward his report known as Macculay’s Minute on 2nd Feb, 1835.
o On 7th March, 1835 – Governor-General in Council passed a resolution and accepted
Macculay’s Minute.
o This resolution accepted that Western Education through vernacular medium at
primary level and through English medium at higher education levels would be
propagated by the Company.
o It also accepted the Downwards Filtration Theory which was proposed by
Macaulay-
300
✓ The government soon made English as the medium of instruction in its schools and
colleges and opened a few English schools and colleges instead of a large number of
elementary schools, thus neglecting mass education.
✓ The British planned to educate a small section of upper and middle classes, thus
creating a class “Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes, in opinions, in
morals and in intellect” who would act as interpreters between the government and
masses and would enrich the vernaculars by which knowledge of Western sciences
and literature would reach the masses.
✓ This came to be known as Downward Filtration Theory.
Role of Thomson o James Thomson served as the lieutenant-governor of NW Provinces (1843- 53).
o He introduced Mahalawari Settlement in N W Province. The Revenue Reforms
introduced by him required a large no of staff.
o Therefore, he developed a comprehensive scheme of village education the medium
of vernacular languages.
o He established a number of schools at village level.
o The scheme imparted education on Mensuration and Agricultural science.
o He also set up Department of Education and Public Works Department.
o 1847- He set up Roorkee Engineering College.
Wood’s Dispatch, 1854 o The Charter Act of 1853 provided that Governor-General should appoint a
commission to overview educational progress in India and to suggest measures for
further educational progress.
o 1854- Accordingly, Charles Wood (President of Board of Control) prepared a
despatch on an educational system for India. It was Considered as the “Magna Carta
of English Education in India”. This document was the first comprehensive plan
for the spread of education in India.
o Provisions –
✓ It asked the government of India to assume responsibility for education of the masses,
thus repudiating the ‘downward filtration theory’, at least on paper.
✓ It systematised the hierarchy from vernacular primary schools in villages at bottom,
followed by Anglo-Vernacular High Schools and an affiliated college at the district
level, and affiliating universities in the presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras.
✓ Universities should be set up in major cities of India on the pattern of London
University.
✓ It recommended English as the medium of instruction for higher studies and
vernaculars at school level.
✓ It laid emphasis on female and vocational education, and on teachers’ training.
✓ It laid down that the education imparted in government institutions should be secular.
✓ It recommended a system of grants-in-aid to encourage private enterprise.
o Developments based on Wood’s Dispatch –
✓ 1856 - universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were set up.
✓ Later, departments of education were set up in all provinces.
301
✓ The Bethune School founded by J.E.D. Bethune at Calcutta (1849) was the first fruit
of a powerful movement for education of women. Bethune was the president of the
Council of Education.
✓ Agriculture Institute at Pusa (Bihar) and an Engineering Institute at Roorkee

were setup.
✓ 1882 – Punjab University
✓ 1887 – Allahabad University
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UNDER BRITISH CROWN –
COMMITTEES/ACTS IMPORTANT EVENTS

Hunter Education o In 1882, the Government appointed a commission under the chairmanship of W.W.
Commission, 1882 Hunter to review the progress of education in the country since the Despatch of 1854.
o The Hunter Commission mostly confined its recommendations to primary and
secondary education.
o Recommendations –
✓ The committee emphasised that state’s special care is required for extension and
improvement of primary education, and that primary education should be imparted
through vernacular medium.
✓ It recommended transfer of control of primary education to newly set up district and
municipal boards.
✓ It recommended that secondary (High School) education should have two divisions-
literary—leading up to university (it was responsible to prepare the students for
university entrance education).
vocational—for commercial careers.
✓ It drew attention to inadequate facilities for female education, especially outside
presidency towns and made recommendations for its spread.
✓ The government should withdraw itself as soon as from the secondary and college
education.
✓ The steps should be taken to encourage private participation in the progress of primary
education through grants-in aid and by recognising private institutions.
Indian Universities Act, o In 1902, Raleigh Commission was set up to go into conditions and prospects of
1904 and Raleigh universities in India and to suggest measures for improvement in their constitution and
Commission working.
o The primary and secondary education were kept outside the purview of this commissi
o Based on its recommendations, the Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904.
o Provision of 1904 Act –
✓ Universities were to give more attention to study and research.
✓ The number of fellows of a university and their period in office were reduced and most
fellows were to be nominated by the Government.
✓ Government was to have powers to veto universities’ senate regulations and could
amend these regulations or pass regulations on its own.
✓ Conditions were to be made stricter for affiliation of private colleges.
302
✓ Five lakh rupees were to be sanctioned per annum for five years for improvement of
higher education and universities.
o According to Curzon – Lord Curzon justified greater control over universities in the
name of quality and efficiency, but actually sought to restrict education and to
discipline the educated towards loyalty to the Government.
o The nationalists saw in it an attempt to strengthen imperialism and to sabotage
nationalist feelings
o Gokhale termed it as - “retrograde measure
o In 1917, Saddler Commission also accepted that the act of 1904 made Indian
Universities most regulated in whole of world.
Government Resolution o In 1906, the state of Baroda introduced compulsory primary education throughout
on Education Policy, its territories.
1913/ February o The Indian nationalists were demanding that British Government should also introduce
Resolution of 1913 the same concept (Gokhale made a powerful advocacy for it in the Legislative
Assembly).
o Because of this, the government made a policy on Feb, 1913- Government Resolution
on Education Policy.
o Provisions –
✓ The government refused to take up the responsibility of compulsory education, but
accepted the policy of removal of illiteracy and urged provincial governments to take
early steps to provide free elementary education to the poorer and more backward
sections.
✓ Private efforts were to be encouraged for this and the quality of secondary schools was
to be improved.
✓ The resolutions also mention a university was to be established in each province and
teaching activities of universities were to be encouraged.
Saddler o A university, it was decided, was to be established in each province and teaching
Commission,1917 activities of universities were to be encouraged.
o It reviewed the entire field from school education to university education.
o It held the view that, for the improvement of university education, improvement of
secondary education was a necessary pre-condition.
o Recommendations-
✓ School course should cover 12 years. Students should enter university after an
intermediate stage (rather than matric) for a three-year degree course in university.
✓ A separate board of secondary and intermediate education should be set up for
administration and control of secondary and intermediate education.
✓ There should be less rigidity in framing university regulations.
✓ A university should function as centralised, unitary residential-teaching autonomous
body, rather than as scattered, affiliated colleges.
✓ Female education, applied scientific and technological education, teachers’ training
including those for professional and vocational colleges should be extended.
✓ The Duration of Degree course should be 3 years and there should be distinguished
between passed course and honours.
✓ Greater attention should be paid to female education. The special board must be set up
in Calcutta University to look after female education.
✓ University should also provide courses in science and technology.
✓ Teacher training facility should be improved.
o In the period from 1916 to 1921 seven new universities came up at Mysore, Patna,
Benaras, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknow and Osmania.
o In 1920, the Government recommended Saddler report to the provincial governments.
Education under Dyarchy o Under Montagu-Chelmsford reforms education was shifted to provincial ministries
and the government stopped taking direct interest in educational matters, while
government grants, liberally sanctioned since 1902, were now discontinued.
Hartog Committee, 1927 o An increase in number of schools and colleges had led to deterioration of education
standards. The Hartog Committee was set up to report on development of education.
o It was the sub-committee of Simon Commission.
o Recommendations-
303

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✓ According to this committee, Emphasis should be given to primary education but there
need be no hasty expansion or compulsion in education.
✓ Only deserving students should go in for high school and intermediate stage, while
average students should be diverted to vocational courses after VIII standard.
✓ For improvements in standards of university education, admissions should be restricted.
Sergeant Plan of o The Sergeant Plan (Sergeant was the educational advisor to the Government) was
Education, 1944 worked out by the Central Advisor Board of Education in 1944.
o Recommendations -
✓ pre-primary education for 3-6 years age group; free, universal and compulsory
elementary education for 6-11 years age group.
✓ high school education for 11- 17 years age group for selected children, and a university
course of 3 years after higher secondary. high schools to be of two types: (i) academic
and (ii) technical and vocational.
✓ adequate technical, commercial and arts education.
✓ Abolition of intermediate course.
✓ liquidation of adult illiteracy in 20 years.
✓ stress on teachers’ training, physical education for the physically and mentally
handicapped.
✓ This plan proposed a 40-year educational reconstruction plan for India.
DEVELOPMENT OF VERNACULAR EDUCATION –
YEAR IMPORTANT EVENTS

1835- o The reports on vernacular education in Bengal and Bihar prepared by William Adam pointed out defects
38 in the system of vernacular education.
1843- o James Jonathan’s experiments in North- West Provinces (UP), as the lieutenant-governor there, included
53 opening one government school as model school in each tehsildar and a normal school for teachers’
training for vernacular schools.
1853 o Lord Dalhousie supported in favour of vernacular education.
1854 o Wood’s Dispatch had made the following provisions for vernacular education.
✓ Improvement of standards
✓ Supervision by government agency
✓ Normal schools to train teachers
1854- o The government paid some attention to secondary and vernacular education. Hereafter, the number of
71 vernacular schools increased.
1882 o The Hunter Commission held that State should make special efforts for extension and improvement of
vernacular education. Mass education was to be seen as instructing masses through vernaculars.
1904 o Education policy laid stress on vernacular education and increased grants for it.
1929 o Hartog Committee presented a gloomy picture of primary education
1937 o The schools set up by provincial Congress government encouraged the promotion of vernacular
education.
DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION –
YEAR/PERSONALITY IMPORTANT EVENTS

1835 o Medical college in Calcutta
304
1847 o The Engineering College at Roorkee
1856 o Calcutta College of Engineering
1858 o Overseers’ School at Poona was raised to the status of Poona College of
Engineering and affiliated to Bombay University.
o Guindy College of Engineering was affiliated to Madras University.
ROLE OF CURZON o Lord Curzon played an important role for the development of professional
courses –
✓ medicine, agriculture, engineering, veterinary sciences, etc.
✓ He established an agriculture college at Pusa.
305
WARDHA SECHEME OF BASIC EDUCATION, 1937-

o In October, 1937 - The Congress had organised a ✓ First seven years of schooling to be an integral part
National Conference on Education in Wardha. of a free and compulsory nationwide education
o In this conference, Zakir Hussain Committee - system (through mother tongue).
formulated a detailed national scheme for basic ✓ Teaching to be in Hindi from class II to VII and in
education. English only after class VIII.
o The main principle behind this scheme was ✓ Ways to be devised to establish contact with the
‘learning through activity’. It was based on community around schools through service
Gandhi’s ideas published in a series of articles in ✓ A suitable technique to be devised with a view to
the weekly Harijan. Gandhi thought that Western implementing the main idea of basic education—
education had created a gulf between the educated educating the child through the medium of
few and the masses and had also made the educated productive activity of a suitable handicraft.
elite ineffective. ✓ The idea could not last long due to start of the
o Provisions of Scheme – second world war and resignation of congress
✓ Inclusion of a basic handicraft in the syllabus. ministries
.
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION AFTER INDEPENDENCE –
COMMITTEES/ACTS IMPORTANT EVENTS

Radhakrishnan Commission o 12 years free education should be followed.
(1948-49) o The working days of University should be fixed.
o Higher Education should be divided into 3 categories –
✓ General Education
✓ Literary
✓ Vocational
o University Degree should not be considered as an essential qualification for
administrative service.
o Uniform examination pattern should be followed in all universities and levels of
examination should be similar.
o University education must be placed in concurrent list.
o The salaries of university teachers must be increased.
o UGC must be established.
o Based on recommendations, UGC was established in 1953 and it was given the
status of Autonomous body by the Act of Parliament in 1957.
Kothari Commission (1964) o In this commission, various educational experts belonging to different
countries such as US, UK etc had participated as members.
o It emphasis on moral education should be a part of syllabus to inculcate the
sense of social responsibility amongst the students.
o The system of work experience should be followed by giving education.
o Social service should make an integral part of curriculum.
o Emphasis should be made on improving the quality of teacher training
institutions.
306
EVALUATION OF BRITISH POLICY ON EDUCATION-

o To safeguard the colonial rule in India - the engineering college at Roorkee which was open
expansion of modern education was guided by only to Europeans and Eurasians.
concerns other than philanthropic. The British
government undertook measures for the promotion
of education due to following reasons-
✓ Agitation in favour of modern education by
enlightened Indians, Christian missionaries and
humanitarian officials.
✓ The need to ensure a cheap supply of educated
Indians to man an increasing number of
subordinates posts in administration.
✓ the hope that educated Indians would help expand
market for British manufactures in India.
✓ an expectation that Western education would
reconcile Indians to British rule, particularly as it
glorified British conquerors and their
administration.
✓ Thus, the aim of British is to use modern education
to strengthen the foundations of their political
authority in India.
o Decline of Indian Traditional Learning –
✓ The British government declared that applicants for
government employment should possess
knowledge of English.
✓ Therefore, Traditional system of Indian learning
gradually declined for want of support.
✓ In this way, British succeeded in establishing
superiority of western model education and English
Language over Indian traditional learning.
o Neglect of Mass education –
✓ Mass education was neglected leading to
widespread illiteracy (1911—84 per cent and in
1921—92 per cent) which created a wide linguistic
and cultural gulf between the educated few and the
masses.
✓ Thus, the English had not shown keen interest for
spreading of education towards entire masses which
depicts their colonial nature of rule in India.
o Commercialization of education –
✓ Since education was to be paid for, it became
monopoly of upper and richer classes and city
dwellers.
✓ In this way, British initiated the commercialization
of education in India.
o Neglect of Women Education – The British almost
neglected the women education in India mainly due
to two reasons –
✓ the Government did not want to arouse wrath of
orthodox sections.
✓ it had no immediate utility for the colonial rule.
o Neglect of scientific and technical education –
✓ Scientific and technical education was by and large
neglected.
✓ By 1857 there were only three medical colleges at
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, and only one good
307
CHAPTER 16- DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS

BACKGROUND
PRESS REGULATIONS
STRUGGLE BY EARLY NATIONALIST TO SECURE PRESS FREEDOM
FIRST WORLD WAR AND INDIAN PRESS
SECOND WORLD WAR AND INDIAN PRESS
308
BACKGROUND –
o 1780- The first newspaper of

India was published by James o 1859 – Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar started the
James Augustus Hickey started publication of Som Prakash in Bengali.
The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta o 1868 – Motilal Ghosh and Babu Shishir Kumar
General Advertiser. It was Ghosh began the publication of Amrit Bazar
seized in 1872 because of its Patrika in Bengali language from Calcutta.
outspoken criticism of the
Government.
o It was the most nationalist newspaper of India. In

1878, to escape from the vernacular press act, this
newspaper was changed in English Language
o Later, James Silk overnight.
Buckingham continued the
publication of Bengal Gazette
with the new name Calcutta
General. He is known as the
Father of Modern Press in
India.
o 1812- Furdunji Marzban started the publication of
first Indian language Newspaper – Samachar
Press which published in Gujarati language.
o 1816 – Gangadhar Bhattacharya began the
publication of Bengal Gazette. It was the first
newspaper published by Indian in English
language (or First English newspaper by Indian).
o 1818 – The publication of Digdarshan was started
by J C Marshman. This was the first Bengali o Krisho Pal Das (Editor of Hindu Patriot) is
Language Newspaper in India. known as Prince of Indian Press.
o 1822 – Raja Ram Mohan Roy started the o William Bentick, Macaulay, Metcalfe and
Nationalist Press in India. He began the Rippon held liberal views of pres.
publication of Samvad Kaumad (Bengali o Wellesley, John Adams, Canning, Lytton,
Language) and Mirat-ul-Akbar (English). Curzon and Minto II were against the liberty of
o 1823 - Mirat-ul-Akbar had to stop publication due Press.
to the enactment of the Licensing Regulation by o Other Imp Newspaper - The Bengal Journal, The
John Adams. Calcutta Chronicle, The Madras Courier, The
o 1826- Jugal Kishore began the publication of Bombay Herald.
Uddanda Martanda. It was the first Hindi
language newspaper in India published from
Kanpur.
309
PRESS REGULATION –
PRESS DETAILS
REGULATIONS
Censorship of Press o This Act provided that every newspaper was to carry printer, publisher, editor and
Act, 1799 proprietor. It imposed almost wartime press restrictions including pre-censorship.
o The material was to be submitted to the Secretary, Govt of India for pre-censorship.
o 1807- This act also covers the journals, Pamphlets and books as well.
o 1818- Lord Hasting abolished the pre-censorship laws. He had a liberal view about
press.
o It was enacted by Governor-General- Lord Wellesley.
Licensing o According to this act, printer or the publisher of newspaper was required to take
Regulations, 1823 permission from the government before starting the publication.
o As per this, starting or using a press without licence was a penal offence. Later on, the
Act was extended to cover journals, pamphlets and books.
o In case, if publication of a material was started without license, the government can
impose a fine of rupees 400. In case of a repeated violations, the printed material and
press machinery could be seized by the government.
o The Magistrate was authorized to seize the press and cancel its license.
o The Governor-General had the right to revoke any license at any time.
o These restrictions were directed chiefly against Indian language newspapers or those
edited by Indians. Rammohan Roy’s Mirat-ul-Akbar had to stop publication.
o The Calcutta journal was forced to stop its publications and Buckingham (editor)
was deported to London by John Adams.
o Enacted by Governor-General – John Adams
Press Act of 1835 or o Charles Metcalfe is known as the liberator of Indian Press because he repeals the
Metcalfe Act licensing Act of 1823.
o He framed some guidelines for the printers and publishers.

o New Press Act of 1835 – It required a printer and publisher to give a precise account
of premises of a publication. Also, the publisher needs to make a declaration to the
government about the nature of material being published.
310
o The Publisher could stop publication at any time without the approval of government.
o Enacted by – Governor-General Charles Metcalfe.
Licensing Act, 1857 o This act was passed to counter an emergency situation caused by the 1857 revolt.
o It imposed licensing restrictions in addition to the already existing registration

procedure laid down by Metcalfe Act and the government reserved the right to stop
publication and circulation of any book, newspaper or printed matter.
o It re-introduced the concept of licensing and applicable for limited period of time.
o Governor-General- Lord Canning.
Registration Act, 1867 o This replaced Metcalfe’s Act of 1835 and was of a regulatory and not restrictive in
nature.
o This act was known as Press and Registration of Books Act.
o It provided that (I) every book and newspaper was required to print the name of the
printer and the publisher and the place of the publication; and (II) a copy was to be
submitted to the local government within one month of the publication of a book.
o A copy was to be provided to the government without any charge.
o Enacted by – Governor-General Sir John Lawrence
Vernacular Press Act, o This act was passed by Governor-General Lord Lytton to counter the use of
1878 vernacular newspaper for criticising the government and to mobilise people against
the government policies.
o He had to face severe criticism of Indian Press because he neglected the severe famine
of 1876-77 and instead organize massive Delhi Durbar.
o Provisions –
✓ The district magistrate was empowered to call upon the printer and publisher of any
vernacular newspaper to enter into a bond with the government undertaking not to
cause disaffection against the government or antipathy between persons of different
religions, caste, race through published material.
✓ The printer and publisher could also be required to deposit security which could be
forfeited if the regulation was contravened, and press equipment could be seized if the
offence re-occurred.
311
✓ The magistrate’s action was final and no appeal could be made in a court of law.
✓ The Vernacular newspaper could get the exemption from this act by submitting proofs
of innocence to the government.
✓ Under VPA, proceedings were instituted against SomPrakash, Bharat Mihir, Dacca
Prakash and Samachar. (Incidentally, the Amrita Bazar Patrika turned overnight
into an English newspaper to escape the VPA.)
o Reactions –
✓ The Indian Nationalist termed this act as the Gagging Act. The worst features of this
Act were—(i) discrimination between English and vernacular press, (ii) no right
of appeal.
✓ Lord Gram Brooke (then Secretary of State for India) objected to pre-censorship of
this act and because of this, Later, the pre-censorship clause was repealed, and press
commissioner was appointed to supply authentic and accurate news to the press.
✓ Finally, this act was repealed by Lord Rippon.
Newspaper o The partition of Bengal had resulted in large scale popular Agitations. The Indian
(Incitement to Nationalists use newspaper to mobilize masses against the partition of Bengal.
Offences) act, 1908 o To counter this challenge, this act was enacted in 1908.
o The Act empowered the magistrates to confiscate press property which published
objectionable material likely to cause incitement to murder/ acts of violence.
o The British government could force to stop the publication of any material for anti-
government activities.
o The Aggrieved party could appeal within 15 days.
o As per this provision, the prosecutions were launched against newspapers.
o Tilak as the leader of militant nationalists was tried on charges of sedition and
transported to Mandalay (Burma) for six years. This led to countrywide protests.
o In Bombay, the textile workers and railway workshop workers took on the Army
in streets and went on strike for days.
o Lenin hailed this as the entrance of the Indian working class on the political stage.
o Enacted by – Governor-General Lord Minto
Indian Press Act,1910 o This act was enacted to strengthen his hands to counter the challenge of Indian
Newspaper.
o It renewed the provisions of Vernacular Press Act. As per the provisions, the local
government could demand securities from the Publisher.
o The government could fortify securities in case of violation of provision of this act.
o In case of repeated violations, the government could cancel the registration and
confiscate the press property.
o The aggrieved party could appeal within 3 months.
o It also provided that Printer of Newspaper would supply 2 copies of every edition
without any charge.
o Enacted by Governor-General Lord Minto
Indian Press o This act provided extensive powers to the government to take actions against
Emergency Powers newspaper indulge in against the government activity.
Act, 1931 o It provided that publication of sign, name or other visible representation would
incite the feeling of dissatisfaction amongst the public and would be treated as
criminal offense.
o This Act gave sweeping powers to provincial governments to suppress propaganda for
Civil Disobedience Movement. It was further amplified in 1932 to include all
activities calculated to undermine government authority.
312
o Enacted by – Viceroy Lord Willingdon
Press Inquiry o In March 1947, the committee was appointed by the government to review an existing
Committee,1947 press law.
o This committee recommended that an emergency powers Act, 1931 should be repealed
and section 124 & 153 should be amended.
Indian Press o This was the most comprehensive act enacted by government of India till that time.
emergency powers, It amended Article 19 (2) of the constitution to impose some restrictions on press.
1951 o This act provided that government could demand securities from the publishers of
newspapers and could fortify the security in case of publication of objectionable
material.
o The government could seize printed materials and press machineries of unauthorized
press. The aggrieved party was given right to appeal in court and demand by trial by
jury.
o In 1952 – Press Commission under G S Rajadhyaksha to inquire into the press laws.
o This committee submitted its report in August, 1954 and recommendations were
✓ All India Press Council should be set up
✓ The publication of crossword puzzle should be ban.
✓ Price paid schedule should be adopted for newspaper.
✓ Greater control should be imposed on printing of advertising and government should
take measures to check concentration of ownership in few hands.
STRUGGLE BY EARLY NATIONALIST TO o These newspapers were not established as profit

SECURE PRESS FREEDOM- making business ventures but were seen as
rendering national and public service. these
o As early as 1824, Raja Rammohan Roy had newspapers had a wide reach and they stimulated a
protested against a resolution restricting the library movement.
freedom of press. o Their impact was not limited to cities and towns;
o The Indian National Congress in its early days these newspapers reached the remote villages,
relied solely on the press to propagate its resolutions where each news item and editorial would be read
and proceedings. and discussed thoroughly in the ‘local libraries’
o Imp Newspaper and Authors - which would gather around a single newspaper.
Newspaper Indian Nationalist o In this way, these libraries served the purpose of not
The Hindu and G. Subramaniya Aiyar only political education but also of political
Swadesamitran participation. In these newspapers, government
The Bengalee Surendranath Banerjee Acts and policies were put to critical scrutiny. They
Voice of India Dadabhai Naoroji acted as an institution of opposition to the
Amrita Bazar Sisir Kumar Ghosh and government.
Patrika Motilal Ghosh o 1883- Surendranath Banerjee
Indian Mirror N N Sen became the first Indian
Sudharak Gopal Krishna Gokhale journalist to be imprisoned
Hindustan and G P Verma because he had criticsed a Judge
Advocate of Calcutta High Court for being
insensitive to the religious
o Other main newspapers included, Tribune and sentiments of Bengali in one of
Akbhar-i-am in Punjab, Gujarati, Indu his judgements.
Prakash, Dhyan Prakash and Kal in Bombay o Role of Tilak –
and Som Prakash, Banganivasi and Sadharani
in Bengal.
313
✓ B.G. Tilak had started Kesari and murder of Rand on the basis of the publication of a
Mahratta to propagate poem, ‘Shivaji’s Utterances’, in Kesari, and a
nationalist feelings. speech which Tilak had delivered at the Shivaji
✓ He was among the first to festival, justifying Afzal Khan’s murder by Shivaji.
advocate bringing the lower Tilak’s defence of Shivaji’s killing of Afzal Khan
middle classes, the peasants, was portrayed by the prosecution as an incitement
artisans and workers into the Congress fold. to kill British officials.
✓ In 1896, he organised an all Maharashtra ✓ Overnight Tilak became a national hero and was
campaign for boycott of foreign cloth in given the title of ‘Lokmanya’ (respected and
opposition to imposition of excise duty on cotton. honoured by the people)—a new leader who
✓ In 1896-97 he initiated a no-tax campaign in preached with his deeds.
Maharashtra, urging farmers to withhold the ✓ In 1898, Lord Elgin II amended
payment of revenue if their crop had failed. Section 124A and added another
✓ He said -The government has converted the entire Section 153A which made it a
nation into a prison and we are all prisoners. Going criminal offence for anyone to
to prison only means that from a big cell one is bring into contempt the
confined to a smaller one. Government of India or to create
hatred among different classes, that is, vis-vis the
English in India. By this section, the definition of
sedition was amplified.
FIRST WORLD WAR AND INDIAN PRESS-
o To counter the challenge of war, the British Indian

Government enacted Defence of India Act, 1915.
It prohibited publication of any anti-government
materials.
o Defence of India Rules
were imposed for repression
✓ In 1897, plague occurred in Poona. Although Tilak of political agitation and free
supported government measures to check plague, public criticism during the
there was large-scale popular resentment against First World War.
heartless and harsh methods such as segregation o In 1921, on the recommendations of a Press
and house searches. The popular unrest resulted in Committee chaired by Tej Bahadur Sapru, the
murder of the chairman of the Plague Committee Press Acts of 1908 and 1910 were repealed.
in Poona by the Chapekar brothers.
✓ In all these campaigns, his both the newspaper SECOND WORLD WAR AND INDIAN PRESS-
played an important role in mobilising the masses.
o Under the Defence of India Rules, pre-censorship
✓ The government had been looking for an
was imposed and amendments made in Press
opportunity to check this militant trend and hostility
Emergency Act and Official Secrets Act.
in the press.
o At one time, publication of all news related to
Congress activity was declared illegal
✓ They decided to make Tilak a victim to set an

example to the public. Tilak was arrested after the
314
CHAPTER 17- OTHER ASPECTS OF BRITISH RULE IN INDIA

CONSTITUITIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1773-1858)
EVOLUTION OF CIVIL SERVICES IN INDIA
EVOLUTION OF POLICE SYSTEM IN INDIA
MILITARY UNDER BRITISH RULE
DEVELOPMENT OF JUDICIARY IN INDIA
DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT IN INDIA
DEVELOPMENT OF RAILWAYS IN INDIA
FAMINES IN INDIA DURING ERA
315
CONSTITUITIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1773- Amendments (1781) –

1862)- • This amendment was passed to clear the difficulty
faced by the Supreme Court and Governor-
o REGULATING ACT OF 1773 – General in Council.
The 1973 Regulating Act brought about the British • The Supreme Court was to have its own jurisdiction
government’s involvement in Indian affairs in the upto the territory of Calcutta and only over
effort to control and regulate the functioning of the European citizens.
East India Company. • The laws enacted by the Governor-General in
It recognised that the Company’s role in India Council were not required to be registered with the
extended beyond mere trade to administrative and Supreme Court.
political fields, and introduced the element of • The Officials of the Company were exempted from
centralised administration. the Supreme Court for the acts performed by them
The directors of the Company were required to in their official capacity.
submit all correspondence regarding revenue affairs • Social and religious usages of the subjects were to
and civil and military administration to the be honoured.
government. (Thus, for the first time, the British
cabinet was given the right to exercise control o Pitts India Act, 1784 –
over Indian affairs.) This act places the Indian affairs under the direct
This act was passed in British Parliament by Lord control of British Government
Northbrook. beacuse it established the Board of
This act started the process of administrative Control (BOC) representing the
centralisation in India because the Bengal British Cabinet over the Court of
Presidency was given the supervisory control over Directors (COD).
the Presidency of Bombay and Madras. Till this This act was initiated by British PM
time, the Bombay, Madras and Bengal Presidencies Young Pitt
were independent of each other and under the Young Pitt
control of Court of Directors This act was passed by British PM Young Pitt.
(COD). The functions of the company were bifurcated. The
The designation of Governor of Board of Control was made to look after the
Bengal was made Governor- territorial issues and Court of Directors was to look
General of Bengal. Lord after the commercial issues.
Warren Hasting was the first The membership of Governor-General in Council
Governor-General of Bengal. was reduced to 3. The governor-general was to have
a council of three (including the commander-in-
The Governor-General of Bengal was to function chief), and the presidencies of Bombay and Madras
with the help of his executive council of 4 were made subordinate to the governor-general.
members. These members were Barwell, Philip, It instructed the company in aggressive wars and
Monson and Clavering. battles in India. The company was also prohibited
The Governor-General in Council was to take from signing any political and military treaty with
decision as a unit. The Governor-General was not native powers in India.
given any specific over-riding powers over his Thus, this act was significant for mainly two
council. He was given the power of casting his vote reasons –
in case of equality.
• The Company’s territories in India were for the first
Tenure of Council Members – 5 years. time known as British Possession in India
It also provided for setting up of a Supreme Court
• The British Government has complete control over
at Calcutta which was established in 1774. Eliza
company’s affairs in India.
Impey was his first chief justice.
o Regulating Act of 1786 –
Cornwallis wanted to have the powers of both the
governor-general and the commander-in-chief.
The new Act conceded this demand and also gave
him the power.
Cornwallis was allowed to override the council’s
decision if he owned the responsibility for the
Supreme court (Calcutta) decision.
It also prohibited the servants of the Company from
engaging in any private trade or accepting bribes o Regulating Act of 1788 –
and presents from the natives.
316
It made the Board of Control superior to the Court Powers of the Board of Control were further
of Directors. enlarged.
A sum of one lakh rupees was to be set aside for
o Charter Act of 1793 – the revival, promotion and encouragement of
The Act renewed the Company’s commercial literature, learning and science among the natives of
privileges for next 20 years. India, every year. (This was an important
By this act, the special powers given to the Lord statement from the point of State’s responsibility
Cornwallis was extended to all the future Governor- for education.)
General. The regulations made by the Councils of Madras,
It provided that all the officials of the company Bombay and Calcutta were now required to be laid
having a monthly salary of more than Rs.500 were before the British Parliament. The constitutional
to be filled with European citizens. In this way, position of the British territories in India was thus
this act legalised the monopoly of Europeans over explicitly defined for the first time.
the higher post in Company’s administration. Separate accounts were to be kept regarding
It also provided that the salaries and pensions of the commercial transactions and territorial
company’s officials in Britain will be paid from revenues. The power of superintendence and
Indian revenue. This system was continued till direction of the Board of Control was not only
1919. defined but also enlarged considerably.
The Company was empowered to give licences to It legalised the activities of Christian Missionaries
individuals as well as the Company’s employees to in India.
trade in India. The licences, known as ‘privilege’
or ‘country trade’, paved the way for shipments of o Charter Act of 1833 –
opium to China. Hence, it also reserved a small The lease of 20 years to the Company was further
share of Indian trade for private British merchants. extended. Territories of India were to be governed
In this way, this act attacked the commercial in the name of the Crown.
monopoly of company for the first time. This act was influenced by the views of Macaulay
The royal approval was mandated for the and James mill.
appointment of the governor-general, the
governors, and the commander in- chief.
Senior officials of the Company were debarred from
leaving India without permission—doing so was
treated as resignation.
The revenue administration was separated from the
judiciary functions and this led to disappearing of
the Maal Adalats.
The Home Government members were to be paid James mill Macaulay
out of Indian revenues which continued up to 1919. The Company’s monopoly over trade with China
o CHARTER ACT OF 1813 – and in tea also ended. Hence, the company’s
This act was influenced by utilitarian philosophy monopoly was completely abolished.
which dominated the Britain during the first half of It introduced the financial and legislative
19th century. It believed in the policy of Lasseiz centralisation in India. A single Central Fund was
Fare which aims at an end of all forms of created at Calcutta were all the revenues of
monopolies. company were deposited at first and from here all
Lasseiz fare is an economic theory which strongly expenditures of various presidencies were paid our
oppose to any government interventions in later.
business affairs. The legislative powers of Bombay and Madras
The Company’s monopoly over trade in India Presidencies were taken away and only Governor-
ended, but the Company retained the trade with General in Council was to legislate for the whole of
China and the trade in tea. British India. Thus, this was the final step towards
The Company’s shareholders were given a 10.5 per centralization in British India.
cent dividend on the revenue of India. The governor-general was given the power to
The Company was to retain the possession of superintend, control and direct all
territories and the revenue for 20 years more, civil and military affairs of the
without prejudice to the sovereignty of the Crown. Company.
(Thus, the constitutional position of the British Thus, the Governor-General of
territories in India was defined explicitly for the Bengal was made Governor-
first time). General of India. Lord William
317
Bentick was the first Governor-General of India.

o Government of India Act, 1858 –
The first fained beginning of legislative meetings This act transfers the governance of India from East
was found in Charter Act of 1833 because it Indians to the British Crown.
introduced an element of institutional specialisation The Board of Control and Court of Directors were
by differentiating law making meetings from its replaced by a new office known as secretary of
executive meetings. Hence, the fourth member was state for India or India Office.
added in Governor-General in Council who was the A Secretary of State for India was to manage Indian
gentlemen of legal professions and he was to Administration with the help of 15 members and
participated in the meetings of Council when the Governor-General in Council.
purpose was legislative. Lord Macaulay was The Secretary of State was a member of British
appointed as first law member. cabinet and was responsible
This act gave a new name to the Company i.e. East ultimately to the British Parliament.
India Company. The original name was Governor Governor -General of India was
and Company of Merchants of London Trading into given an additional designation of
the East India Company. viceroy. Lord Canning was the
The act advises the company’s administration in viceroy of India.
India to undertake measures for ameliorating or Queens Declaration (1st November, 1858)- It was
improving the conditions of slaves. The slavery announced by Lord Canning on behalf of British
was finally abolished through act file of 1843 by Queen. The following were the provisions –
Governor-General Lord Ellenborough.
It also contains an emigration provision of the act
enabled the entry of European citizens in India and
allowed them to purchase immovable property in
India.
This act introduced a concept of competition plus
nomination for the appointment of civil servants.
Indian laws were to be codified and consolidated.
No Indian citizen was to be denied employment
under the Company on the basis of religion, colour,
birth, descent, etc. (Although the reality was
different, this declaration formed the sheet-anchor • No more territorial expansion. The British
of political agitation in India.). accepted the existence of native states under the
The Act also provided for setting up a law sovereignty of British rule in India.
commission. • No discrimination would be made with Indian
citizens on the basis of place of Birth, religion, sex,
o Charter Act of 1853 – place of Birth, race or creed.
The separation of the executive and legislative • Indian administration would be carried out by
functions of the Government of British India keeping in view the larger interest of India.
progressed with the inclusion of six additional
members for legislative purposes.
EVOLUTION OF CIVIL SERVICES IN INDIA
The law member became the full member of the
governor-general’s executive council. ➢ Basics
The legislative wing came to be known as the o When company came to India all the officials of
Indian Legislative Council. However, a law to be
company were dealing with financial activities
promulgated needed the assent of the governor-
because of this there was no need for Civil services.
general, and the governor-general could veto any
Bill of the legislative council In 1772, the company took upon the responsibility
Local representation was introduced in the Indian of Indian administration directly because of this the
legislature. Thus, representatives of local provinces civil services emerged.
of Madras, Bombay, Calcutta and Agra were for o The officials entered in services at the level of
the first time involved in legislative council. apprentice. From year they were promoted to
The strength of the Court of Directors was reduced writer than junior merchants and then senior
to 18. merchants. In 1772, Warren Hasting divided into
The act provided for open competitive system for districts & appointed European district Collector
the selection and recruitment of civil services. in each district.
The license of the company was renewed for
unspecified period.
318
o Warren Hasting appointed junior and senior o Fort William College was established by Lord
merchants into civil services which mark the faint Wellesley at Calcutta in 1800 to impart training to
of starting of Civil services in India. This district the Civil Servants. But the Court of Directors of the
Collector were required to perform activity of civil Company were not in a favour of this college.
administration and judiciary. The company Therefore, the East India College was set up at
services were divided in 2 - Hailey bury in Britain in 1806. Hence, the Fort
o Lord Cornwallis undertook following measures William College was closed down in 1854.
for improving civil services -
• He diverted the district collector of Judicial power
• Salaries of Collector was raised & fixed as Rs.1500
per month
• The District Collector were also given 1% of total
collected revenue of district
• He had created the
Covenanted Civil Services of
India which later came to be
known as Indian Civil
services.
• Lord Cornwallis is known as o The Charter Act of 1833 provided for competitive
Father of Civil services as he examination for appointment in civil services.
made reforms on large scale. Satyendranath Tagore o The Charter Act of 1853 provided for open
o The Charter Act of 1793 also provided that all commission for appointment in civil servants. So, in
administration post having monthly salary more 1853, first open competitive exam was held in
than Rs.500 should be reserved only for Europeans. London.
This led to all the high post were monopolized by o Indians continuously demanded that the exam
Europeans. should be held in India and finally the demand was
accepted and 1st competitive exam was held in
India at Allahabad in 1922.
o In 1861 the British parliament passed Indian Civil help to meritorious Indians for participating in Civil
Services.
Civil o In 1870 – The British Parliament passed a law about
the Indian Civil Services. This law provided that
services
more number of Indians should be recruited in Civil
Services. To give effect to this law, Lord Lytton
formed a Statutory Civil Services in 1878. In this
Convenanted
Services Unconvenanted Services, Only Indians were appointed. The
Services Statutory Civil Services had lower status and
because of this it was criticised by the Indian
nationalists Leaders. As a result, the Statutory Civil
Services was abolished in 1887-88 on the
Those services which require Temporary kind of recommendations of Aitchison Commission.
signing of agreement involving services
terms & services o Montford Reforms (1919)-
o It stated a realistic policy— “If a responsible
services Act & hence covenanted civil services government is to be established in India, the more
came to be known as Imperial civil services. Indians we can employ in public service, the better.
o In 1863, Satyendranath Tagore became the first o It recommended holding of simultaneous
Indian to join Civil Services examination in India and England.
o In 1871, Surendra Nath Banerjee, R.C. Dutt & o It also recommended that one-third of recruitments
Biharilal Gupta joined as civil servants. Later, be made in India itself—to be raised annually by 1.5
Surendranath Banerjee was dismissed from the per cent
Civil Services on Technical Grounds. o Government of India Act 1919 –
o In 1868 – The Scholarship scheme was launched • The act provided that Public service commission
by the Indian nationalists to provide the financial should be setup in India.
319
• Provincial civil services should be created. o Kimberley, the secretary of state, said, “It is
• Also, this act bifurcated Imperial civil services into indispensable that an adequate number of members
Central services & All India services. of civil service shall always be Europeans.
• In 1926, Public Service commission was ➢ Reaction of Indian leaders on age reduction-
established in India. o Indian Nationalists organised the mass agitation
o Government of India Act, 1935 – against the age reduction.
o Indian Association led by Surendranath
• The 1935 Act recommended the establishment of a
Banerjee played a significant role in these
Federal Public Service Commission and
agitations.
Provincial Public Service Commission under
o Indian Association send the Anand Mohan Ghosh
their spheres.
to London to put forward their case before British
➢ AGE LIMITS –
Government.
o 1855-59 – Maximum Age was 23 years
o Accordingly, in 1892, Maximum Age was
o 1860 – Maximum Age reduced to 22 years
increased to 23 years. In 1906, it was increased to
o 1866- Maximum Age was 21 Years
24 years.
o 1878 – Lord Lytton reduced the Age to 19 years
o 1893, the House of Commons in England passed
a resolution supporting holding of simultaneous
examination in India and England; but the
resolution was never implemented.
➢ COMMITTEES ON CIVIL SERVICES-
Committee name Appointed by Recommendations/Suggestions

Aitchison Lord Duffering o Competitive exam should be held in London and
Committee (1886) Statutory civil services should be abolished.
Dropping of the terms ‘covenanted’ and uncovenanted’;
o
o
classification of the civil service into Imperial Indian
Civil Service (examination in England)
o Provincial Civil Service (examination in India)
o Subordinate Civil Service (examination in India); and,
o Raising the age limit to 23
o It was formed on the demands of Congress.
Islington Committee Lord Hardinge o Simultaneous civil services exam should be held in India.
(1912) o 2. 25% of total seats in civil services should be reserved
for Indians.
Lee Commission Lord Reading (1924) o Public service commission should be established and
Salary of civil servants should be increased
o Existing should be provided with pensions.
o The secretary of state should continue to recruit the ICS,
the Irrigation branch of the Service of Engineers, the
Indian Forest Service, etc.;
o The recruitments for the transferred fields like education
and civil medical service be made by provincial
governments;
o direct recruitment to ICS on basis of 50:50 parity between
the Europeans and the Indians be reached in 15 years;
320
EVOLUTION OF POLICE SYSTEM IN INDIA Department) in the provinces and a Central

Intelligence Bureau at the Centre.
MILITARY UNDER BRITISH RULE
o 1775- faujdar thanas were established in the major

towns of large districts and were assisted by several
smaller police stations. o The military was the backbone of the British rule
o 1791- Cornwallis organised a regular police force in India. It acts as an important pillar for the
to maintain law and order by going back to and establishment, consolidation and survival of British
modernising the old Indian system of thanas rule in India.
(circles) in a district under a daroga (an Indian) o Prior to the revolt of 1857, there were two separate
and a superintendent of police (SP) at the head of sets of military forces under the British control,
a district. He relieved the zamindars of their police which operated in India. The first set of units,
duties. known as the Queen’s army were the serving
o 1808 - Mayo appointed an SP for each division troops on duty in India. The Queen’s army was part
helped by a number of spies (goyendas) but these of Crown’s military force.
spies committed depredations on local people. o The other was the Company’s troops—a mixture of
o 1814 - By an order of the Court of Directors, the European regiments of Britons and Native
appointment of darogas and their subordinates regiments recruited locally from India but with
was abolished in all possessions of the Company British officers.
except in Bengal. o After 1857, there was a systematic reorganisation of
o Role of William Bentick – the Army since, as Dufferin warned in December
• It abolished the office of the SP. The 1888, “the British should always remember the
collector/magistrate was now to head the police lessons which were learnt with such terrible
force in his jurisdiction and the commissioner in experience 30 years ago.”
each division was to act as the SP. o Methods of Reorganisation after 1857 –
• This arrangement resulted in a badly organised
police force, putting a heavy burden on the
collector/magistrate. Presidency towns were the
first to have the duties of collector/magistrate
separated.
o Police Commission (1860)-
• The recommendations of the Police Commission
(1860) led to the Indian Police Act, 1861.
• It recommended a system of civil constabulary—
maintaining the village set-up in the present form (a
village watchman maintained by the village) but in
direct relationship with the rest of the constabulary.
• Inspector-general as the head in a province, deputy
• The Indian branch of the army was to be used for
inspector-general as the head in a range, and SP as
expansion in Asia and Africa, while the British
the head in a district.
section was to be used as an army of occupation—
• The British did not create an All-India Police. The the ultimate guarantee of British hold over India.
Police Act, 1861 presented the guidelines for a
• domination of the European branch over the Indian
police setup in the provinces. The ranks were
branches was ensured.
uniformly introduced all over the country.
• The commissions of 1859 and 1879 insisted on the
• 1902 -The Police Commission recommended the
principle of a one-third white army (as against
establishment of CID (Criminal Investigation
14% before 1857). Finally, the proportion of
321

other questions
format covered

Syllabus Covered
Logical Reasoning
Data Interpretation
Course Features

4 Full Length Test
Sociology Optional
Length Test

All India Ranking
6 7 4

MOCK-I
GS-1
MOCK-II
GS-1
MOCK-III

A

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Europeans to Indians was carefully fixed at one to

two in the Bengal Army and two to five in the
Madras and Bombay Armies.
• A Strict European monopoly over key
geographical locations and departments, such as
artillery, tanks and armed corps, was maintained.
Even the rifles given to Indians were of an inferior
quality till 1900, and Indians were not allowed in
these high-tech departments till the Second World
War.
• Also, no Indians were allowed in the officer rank,
and the highest rank an Indian could reach till 1914
was that of a subedar (only from 1918 onwards were
Indians allowed in the commissioned ranks).
• Sandhurst Committee (1926) -It visualised a 50%
Indianized officer cadre for 1952.
• Moreover, caste and communal companies were
introduced in all the regiments and Indian regiments
were made a mixture of various socio-ethnic.
groups so as to balance each other. Communal,
caste, tribal and regional consciousness was
encouraged to check the growth of nationalist
feelings among soldiers. under a president and two members of the Supreme
• An ideology of ‘martial races’ and ‘non-martial Council
races’was introduced amongst Indian Soldiers • To deal with Criminal disputes, Fauzdari Adalats
which assumed that good soldiers could come only were established and were placed under an Indian
from some specific communities, developed officer assisted by qazis and muftis. These Adalats
particularly from the late 1880s, under Lord also were under the general supervision of the
Roberts, the commander-in-chief (1887-92). collector. Muslim law was administered in
• A conscious effort was made to isolate the soldiers Fauzdari Adalats.
from life and thoughts of rest of the population • The approval for capital punishment and for
through measures such as preventing newspapers, acquisition of property lay to the Sadar Nizamat
journals and nationalist publications from reaching Adalat at Murshidabad which was headed by a
them. deputy nizam (an Indian Muslim) assisted by
• The Indian branch was reorganised on basis of the chief Qazi and chief mufti.
policy of balance and counterpoise or divide and • Regulating Act of 1773 - Supreme Court was
rule. established.
o Reforms under Lord Cornwallis –
DEVELOPMENT OF JUDICIARY IN INDIA
o Reforms under Warren Hasting –
• District Diwani Adalats were established in

districts to deal with civil disputes. These Adalats
were placed under the collector and had Hindu law • The District Fauzdari Courts were abolished and,
applicable for Hindus and the Muslim law for instead, circuit courts were established at Calcutta,
Muslims. The appeal from District Diwani Adalats Dacca, Murshidabad and Patna. These circuit courts
lay to the Sadar Diwani Adalat which functioned
322
had European judges and were to act as courts of

appeal for both civil and criminal cases.
• The Sadar Nizamat Adalat was shifted to Calcutta
and was put under the governor-general and
members of the Supreme Council assisted by the
chief Qazi and the chief mufti.
• He taken back the judicial powers from
Collector and instead appointed district judge.
The collector was now responsible only for the
revenue administration with no magisterial
functions.
• A gradation of civil courts was established (for Bombay High Court
both Hindu and Muslim laws)— 1935: The Government of India Act provided for a
Munsiffs Court under Indian officers, Federal Court (set up in 1937) which could settle
Registrar’s Court under a European judge, disputes between governments and could hear
District Court under the district judge, limited appeals from the High Courts. After
Four Circuit Courts as provincial courts of appeal, independence, it came to be known as Supreme
Sadar Diwani Adalat at Calcutta, and Court of India.
King-in-Council for appeals of 5000 pounds and
Above
o Cornwallis Code –
• Separation of Revenue and Justice
administration
• European subjects were also brought under
jurisdiction.
• Government officials were answerable to the civil
courts for actions done in their official capacity.
• The principle of sovereignty of law was
established.
o Reforms under William Bentick –
• The four Circuit Courts were abolished and their o Evaluation –
functions transferred to collectors under the 1) Negative Aspect –
supervision of the commissioner of revenue and • The judicial system became more and more
circuit. Sadar Diwani Adalat and a Sadar Nizamat complicated and expensive. The rich could
Adalat were set up at Allahabad for the manipulate the system.
convenience of the people of Upper Provinces. • There was ample scope for false evidence, deceit
• He replaced English with Persian Language in in and chicanery.
courts. • Dragged out litigation meant delayed justice.
• 1833 - A Law Commission was set up under • Courts became overburdened as litigation
Macaulay for codification of Indian laws. increased.
• As a result, a Civil Procedure Code (1859), an • Often, the European judges were not familiar with
Indian Penal Code (1860) and a Criminal the Indian usage and traditions
Procedure Code (1861) were prepared.
o Later Developments – 2) Positive Aspects –
• 1860: It was provided that the Europeans can claim • The rule of law was established.
no special privileges except in criminal cases, and • The codified laws replaced the religious and
no judge of an Indian origin could try them. personal laws of the rulers.
• 1865: The Supreme Court and the Sadar Adalats • Even European subjects were brought under the
were merged into three High Courts at Calcutta, jurisdiction, although in criminal cases, they could
Bombay and Madras. be tried by European judges only.
• Government servants were made answerable to the
civil courts.
DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL SELF

GOVERNMENT IN INDIA –
o 1864-1868 –
323
• Local bodies were first formed in this period but in • Mayo’s Resolution emphasised, “Local interest,
most cases consisted of nominated members and supervision and care are necessary for success in
were headed by district magistrates. the management of the funds devoted to education,
• It was merely a body to collect additional taxes. sanitation, medical relief and local public works.
o Mayo’s Resolution of 1870 – • Accordingly, the various provincial governments
• Indian Council Act, 1861 -It • It was done of transfer of certain departments of
introduced Financial administration, such as medical services,
decentralisation education and roads, to the control of provincial
• Mayo resolution stressed that governments.
apart from the annual grant from • This was the beginning of local finance.
imperial Government, the • such as in Bengal, Madras, North-Western
provincial governments were Province, Punjab, passed municipal acts to
authorised to resort to local taxation to balance implement the policy outlined.
their budgets.
o Rippon Resolution of 1882 –
• Lord Rippon is the

father of local self-
government in India.
• Provisions -
Development of local regular grants-in-aid from provincial
bodies advocated to governments except for undertaking large projects.
improve the • The municipalities might undertake the
administration and as an responsibility for primary education and, if
instrument of political and popular education. willing, for middle vernacular schools, otherwise
Policy of administrating local affairs through urban the Government should relieve them of any charges
and rural local bodies charged with definite duties in regard to secondary education hospitals, relief,
and police, veterinary works, etc
entrusted with suitable sources of revenues.
Non-officials to be in majority in these bodies, who
could be elected if the officials thought that it was
possible to introduce elections.
Non-officials to act as chairpersons to these bodies.
Official interference to be reduced to the minimum
and to be exercised to revise and check the acts of
local bodies, but not to dictate policies.
Official executive sanction required in certain
cases, such as raising of loans, alienation of
municipal property, imposition of new taxes,
undertaking works costing more than a prescribed
sum, framing rules and bye-laws, etc.
o Royal Commission on Decentralisation (1908)–
It made the following recommendations - o The Government of India Resolution, 1915- This
• It emphasised that village panchayats should be resolution contained the official views on the
entrusted with more powers like judicial recommendations of the Decentralisation
jurisdiction in petty cases, incurring expenditure on Commission, but most of the recommendations
minor village works, village schools, small fuel and remained on paper.
fodder reserves, etc. The panchayats should be o The Resolution of May,1918 – The resolution
given adequate sources of income. suggested that the local bodies be made as
• It emphasised the importance of sub-district representative as possible of the people with real
boards to be established in every taluka or tehsil, and not nominal authority vested in them.
with separate spheres of duties and separate sources o Government of India Act,1919-
of revenue for subdistrict boards and the district • This act introduced dyarchy in provinces and
boards. Local Self Government was under transferred
• It urged the withdrawal of existing restrictions on category of subjects which was came the
their powers of taxation, and also, the stoppage of
324
supervision of the members of Legislative • It also commented on reluctance of elected

Council. members to impose local taxes.
• It provided Indian an opportunity to work for • It also observed that, generally speaking, the
development of local self-government bodies. management of finances of local bodies had
• But, since finance was a ‘reserved’ subject under deteriorated since the introduction of the reforms of
the charge of an executive councillor, the Indian 1919.
ministers could not do much work in the sphere of o Government of India Act, 1905 – The provincial
local self-government for lack of funds autonomy ushered in by the Government of India
o Simon Commission,1927 – Act, 1935 gave further impetus to the development
• The commission suggested the retrograde step of of local self-governing institutions in Indi
increasing provincial control over local bodies for
the sake of efficiency.
DEVELOPMENT OF RAILWAYS IN INDIA
region to another with less time. This was a

perquisite for growth of nationalism.
✓ It helped the nationalists and reformers to preach
and propagate their ideas to the entire region of
India. For instance, Organizing the Congress
Session in different parts of Country every year was
possible because of railways and Swami
Vivekanand toured the whole India with the help of
railways only.
✓ It promoted people to people interaction of
o The Railway in India was introduced by Lord different regions which contributed to the rise of
Dalhousie in 1853. nationalist feelings in India.
o The first railway line in India was opened for public ✓ Gandhiji also toured India by train only and
traffic on 16 April, 1853 between Mumbai and gathering of people in one place to participate in
Thane over a distance of 34 km. nationalist agitation from distant lands also
o Why British introduced the Railways – possible through railways.
• The British introduced the railway in India in order ✓ After Independence, Railways played a significant
to strengthen their colonial hold over India. role of the development of today’s India.
• It would facilitate the distribution of industrial o Karl Marx commented that the railways as
goods to interior parts of India. forerunners of modern industry in India.
• It would allow an opportunity for investment of o According to G V Joshi - Expenditure on
British Capital in railways operating in India. railways should be seen as an Indian subsidy to
• According to Dalhousie – The railways would help British industries.
the government to control distant parts of the
country and allow movement of army to check and FAMINES IN INDIA DURING BRITISH ERA-
control internal disturbances.
• It also helped the Britishers to drain the wealth of
India from all the possible parts of India.
o How railways contributed for
Indians/India/Indian National Freedom
Movement-
✓ The development of railways in India played an
important role in socio-cultural progress of India.
For instance, people of different caste have to travel
in same compartment.
✓ It helped in connecting different parts of India
which results in smooth travelling of people from
325
• The British trade policies led to the destruction of

Indian handicraft industries. Because of this the
➢ Background large perk of Indian population became
• Famines refer to the conditions of non-availability unemployed & this adversity affected their
of food grains with individuals for their personal purchasing power. The now affordability of food
consumption. This situation was the result of direct grains for majority of Indian masses was an
& indirect consequences of British colonial rule in important factor responsible for recurring famine.
India. • The policy of draining Indian wealth outside also
• Since the British administration was colonial in played a role in creating circumstances responsible
nature, the Britishers exploited the Indians by both for the famine. Since a large part of Indian national
moral & immoral means. The heavy burden of production was not usable for the consumption of
Land Revenue imposed on peasant’s life them with Indian, the situation of scarcity always prevailed in
no surplus & in case the production fluctuated even India.
to a minor amount due to climate or other factors,
the situation of famines emerged.
➢ Important Famines in India –
Year Famine Region

1769-70 Great Bengal Famine Bihar and Western Bengal
1783-84 Chalisa Famine Madras Presidency
1837-38 Agra Famine Delhi, Oudh, Punjab, Rajputana and Kashmir
1860-61 Upper Doab Famine Agra-Delhi region
1865-67 Orissa Famine Orissa
1868-70 Rajputana Famine Agra, western Agra and Eastern Punjab
1873-74 Bihar Famine Bihar
1876-78 Great Famine of 1876-78 Madras and Bombay
1896-97 Indian Famine Bombay, Central provinces, Berar and Ajmer.
1943-44 Bengal Famine Bengal
➢ Famine Committee & their works
Famine region Year Commission Commission Work

Delhi-Agra 1860 Col. Baird Commission Did not perform any important work
Orissa 1866 Richard-Campbell Commission recommended that govt. should
Commission organize relief measures, steps should be
undertaken for employment. They blamed official
system for large scale losses during famine.
Madras, Bengal, 1876-77 Sir Richard Stratchy Commission recommended – 1. Improvement of
Punjab & UP irrigation facilities;
2. land revenue should be suspended or remitted in
case of famine; 3. Famine court should be
formulated for the synchronization of relief
reasons; 4. Statistical data should be collected
about the condition of peasants; 5. A famine fund
should be set up with a corpus of Rs. 1 crore
All provinces 1896-97 James Lyall It did not perform any important work
326
All provinces 1899-1900 Anthony Mc Donald Commission recommended 1. A famine court

should be stipulated; 2. The transportation &
irrigation facilities should be improved; 3.
Agricultural board should be setup
Bengal 1942-43 John Woodhead The commission recommended 1. All Indian food
council should be setup; 2. Dept. of Agriculture &
food should be merged; 3. Steps should be taken
to increase the food production.
327
CHAPTER 18-GOVERNOR GENERALS AND VICEROYS

RELEVANCE
GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF BRITISH INDIA (1772-1857)
VICEROY OF BRITISH INDIA (1857-1947)
QUICK REVISION
o In this Chapter we are going to study a topic on Governor-Generals and viceroy from 1857-1947.
o Rating- 5/5
o Previous year Question (prelims)- 7 (1998-2020)
328
to three from four. Also, Board of Control was setup

GOVERNOR-GENERALS (1772-1857)
in England.
✓ Calcutta became the Capital of Bengal in 1772.
REVENUE REFORMS-
✓ English Collectors were appointed in each district.
✓ Accountant General was appointed.
✓ Board of Revenue was established at Calcutta to
supervise the collection of revenue. It farmed out
the lands by auction for a period of 5 years instead
of one year in order to find out their real value.
Zamindars were given priority in the auction.
However, certain good measures were taken to
safeguard the interests of the peasants. It is also
WARREN HASTINGS (1772-85) known as five-year settlement or Quinquennial
system or Pachashala Bandobast.
BACKGROUND – ✓ The treasury was moved from Murshidabad to
Calcutta.
✓ The Company became a political power after the ✓ Arbitrary cesses and unreasonable fines were
Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the Battle of Buxar in abolished. Besides, restrictions were imposed on
1764. the enhancement of rent.
✓ Robert Clive was the first Governor of Fort ✓ Still the system was a failure. Many zamindars
William under the Company’s rule. He was defaulted and the arrears of revenue accumulated.
succeeded by Verelst and Cartier. ✓ After the expiry of the 5-year settlement, Hastings
✓ In 1772, the Company appointed Warren Hastings reverted to the system of annual settlement
as the Governor of Fort William. (Salana Bandobast).
✓ Hasting became Governor of Bengal in 1772 and
first Governor General of Bengal in 1773 by the
Regulating Act of 1773.
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS-
✓ Abolition of Dual System-
• The East India Company decided to act as Diwan
and to undertake the collection of revenue by its
own agents.
• Hence, the Dual System introduced by Robert Clive
was abolished.
• As a measure to improve the finances of the
Company, Warren Hastings reduced the Nawab’s
allowance of 32 lakh rupees to half that amount.
• He also stopped the annual payment of 26 lakhs
given to the Mughal Emperor.
✓ Established India’s first Supreme Court in Calcutta
based on English law
✓ Regulating Act of 1773 was passed during his
reign.
✓ Regulating Act of 1781 which clearly divided the
jurisdiction between Government and Supreme
Court at Calcutta.
✓ Founded Asiatic Society of Bengal along with Sir
William Jones in 1784.
✓ Pitts India Act of 1784 was passed and strength of
Governor General’s Executive Council was reduced
329
JUDICIAL REFORMS- ✓ Weavers were given better treatment and facilities

were made to improve their condition.
The judicial system at the time of Warren Hastings’ ✓ He also introduced a uniform system of pre-paid
ascendancy was a storehouse of abuses. postage system.
✓ The Nawab who was hitherto the chief ✓ A bank was started in Calcutta.
administrator of justice, misused his powers. ✓ He improved the police in Calcutta and the dacoits
✓ The zamindars acted as judges at lower levels were severely dealt with.
within their own areas, they were highly corrupt and ✓ Translation of Manusmriti as a code of Hindu law
prejudiced. was done.
✓ The judicial institution suffered from extreme ✓ Translation of Geeta and Hitopdesha in English by
corruption. Charles Wilkins.
✓ Warren Hastings reorganised the judicial system. EXPANSIONIST POLICY OF WARREN
✓ Each district was provided with a civil court under HASTINGS-
the Collector and a criminal court under an Indian
Judge. To hear appeals from the district courts two ✓ Warren Hastings was known for his expansionist
appellate courts, one for civil cases and another for policy. His administration witnessed the Rohilla
criminal cases, were established at Calcutta. War, the First Anglo-Maratha War and the Second
✓ Saadar Diwani Adalat – Highest civil court of Anglo Mysore War.
Appeal which was presided over by the Governor- ✓ The Rohilla War (1774)-
General and two judges recruited from among the
members of his council.
✓ Saadar Nizamat Adalat- Highest appellate
criminal court which functioned under an Indian
Judge appointed by the Governor General-in-
Council
✓ Experts in Hindu and Muslim laws were provided
to assist the judges. Hindu law was prepared in
Sanskrit by learned Pandits and it was translated
into Persian. An English translation of it – Code of
Hindu Laws or Code of Gentoo laws – was
prepared by Halhed. • Rohilkhand was a small kingdom situated in
between Oudh and the Marathas.
• Its ruler was Hafiz Rahmat Khan. He concluded a
TRADE REGULATION AND OTHER defensive treaty in 1772 with the Nawab of Oudh
REFORMS- fearing an attack by the Marathas.
✓ Warren Hastings abolished the system of Dastaks, • When Rahmat Khan evaded, the Nawab with the
or free passes and regulated the internal trade. help of the British invaded Rohilkhand.
✓ He reduced the number of custom houses and • Warren Hastings, who sent the British troops
enforced a uniform tariff of 2.5 percent for Indian against Rohilkhand was severely criticised for his
and non-Indian goods. Private trade by the policy on Rohilla affair.
Company’s servants continued but within
enforceable limits. • The Impeachment of Warren Hasting –
✓ The Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was a rude shock and ✓ The Prime Minister’s speech censuring the policy
bitter disappointment for Warren Hastings. of the Government of Bengal was considered by
✓ Warren Hastings as a reflection on his personal Raja Chait Singh of Benares and the pressures on
character. Therefore, he resigned and left India in the Begums of Oudh.
June 1785. ✓ After a long trial which lasted till 1795, Warren
✓ In 1787, Warren Hastings was impeached in the Hastings was completely acquitted. He received
Parliament by Edmund Burke and the Whigs for his pension from the Company and lived till 1818.
administrative excess.
✓ Burke brought forward 22 charges against him. The • Other Important Events –
most important of them were related to the Rohilla
War, the Case of Nanda Kumar, the treatment of
330
✓ Nanda Kumar Case – Background –

• Nanda Kumar was an
✓ Lord Cornwallis, a warrior-statesman, succeeded
influential official in Bengal.
He was hanged to death by the Warren Hastings as Governor-General in 1786. He
verdict of the Supreme Court belonged to an influential and aristocratic family
at Calcutta for a petty offence which had wider political connections.
of forgery. ✓ He was also a close friend of Prime Minister Pitt
and of Dundas, the most influential member of the
• The English law was applied in this judgement.
Board of Control.
• It was contended that Warren Hastings and Sir Elija ✓ He distinguished himself as a remarkable soldier in
Impey, the judge of the Supreme Court conspired
the American War of Independence.
against Nanda Kumar.
✓ Although he surrendered at York Town in 1781
✓ Raja Chait Singh of Banaras –
before the American troops, his reputation was not
• Warren Hastings imposed spoiled. He still enjoyed the confidence of the
heavy penalty on the Raja authorities at Home.
Chait Singh of Benares for ✓ After his return from America he was offered the
his delay in payment of Governor- General.
tribute and deposed him in
an unjust manner.
✓ Begums of Oudh-
• The Begums of Oudh were
mother and grandmother of the Nawab of Oudh.
• Warren Hastings sent his troops to the help of
Nawab who squeezed money from the Begums.
This was a highhanded policy.
ESTIMATE OF WARREN HASTINGS –
✓ He was a gifted personality endowed with ‘strong
will, great energy and resourcefulness’.
✓ His long stay in Bengal ‘in the shadow of the
Mughal cultural tradition’ gave him, enough ✓ Cornwallis was prompted by a strong sense of
opportunity to learn oriental languages such as public duty and enjoyed the respect as well as the
Bengali (the local language) and Persian (the confidence of his fellow countrymen.
diplomatic language) and to develop ‘oriental ✓ The Parliament was prepared to give him
tastes’. extraordinary legal powers to carry out radical
✓ Since he considered Indian culture as a basis for reforms in the administration of Bengal.
sound Indian administration, he patronised the ✓ It amended Pitt’s India Act in 1786 so as to enable
learning of Indian languages and arts. him to overrule the decision of the majority of his
✓ His task was a challenging one since he was council, if necessary.
surrounded by hostile forces. “He faced his external ✓ A new tradition of choosing a person from an
enemies with unflinching courage and unfailing aristocratic family for the post of Governor-General
resource, and his internal opponents with was initiated.
extraordinary patience and firmness.” ✓ It was his good fortune that he had an excellent team
✓ It was on the foundation which Warren Hastings of subordinates comprising John Shore, James
laid down, that others erected a ‘stately edifice’. Grant, and Sir William Jones.
✓ Although Cornwallis commenced his work under
beneficial circumstances, he had to carry out his
LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-93) policy with caution.
331
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS – ✓ There were four provincial courts of appeal at

Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad and Patna, each
under three European judges assisted by Indian
advisers.
✓ District and City courts functioned each under a
European judge. Every district was provided with
a court. He had taken away from the collectors their
judicial powers and made them solely responsible
for the collection of revenue.
✓ As a result, district judges were appointed. Indian
✓ The greatest work of Cornwallis was purification judges or Munsiffs were appointed to all the courts
of the civil service by the employment of capable at the bottom of the judicial system.
and honest public servants. ✓ In criminal cases, Muslim law was improved and
✓ He aimed at economy, simplification and purity. followed.
✓ He found that the servants of the Company were ✓ In civil cases, Hindu and Muslim laws were
underpaid. But they received very high followed according to the religion of the litigants.
commissions on revenues. ✓ In suits between Hindus and Muslims, the judge
✓ He aimed at cleansing the administration, abolished was the deciding authority.
the vicious system of paying small salaries and ✓ He was merciful by temperament. He hated
allowing enormous perquisites. barbarous punishments and abolished those like
✓ He persuaded the Directors of the Company to pay mutilation and trial by ordeal.
handsome salaries to the Company servants in order ✓ He was better known as a law giver than as an
that they might free themselves from commercial administrator. With the help of his colleague,
and corrupting activities. George Barlow, Cornwallis prepared a
✓ He inaugurated the policy of making appointments comprehensive code, covering the whole field of
mainly on the basis of merit thereby laying the administration, judicial, police, commercial and
foundation of the Indian Civil Service. fiscal.
✓ He introduced separation of the three branches of ✓ This Code was based upon the principle of
service, namely commercial, judicial and revenue. Montesquieu, “the Separation of Powers”, which
✓ The collectors, the king-pins of the administrative was popular in the West in 18th century.
system were deprived of their judicial powers and ✓ In order to curb undue exercise of authority,
their work became merely the collection of revenue Cornwallis made all officials answerable to the
courts.
Judicial Reforms-
POLICE REFORMS –
✓ The effective implementation of judicial reforms
required the reorganisation of police administration.
✓ The District Judge controlled the police. Each
district was divided into thanas or police circles
each of which was about 20 square miles.
✓ It was placed under an Indian officer called the
daroga who was ably assisted by many constables.
However, the police organization was not effective.
✓ Marshman, ‘the daroga enjoyed almost unlimited
power of extortion and became the scourge of the
Cornwallis secured the services of Sir William country”
Jones, who was a judge and a great scholar.
✓ Civil and Criminal courts were completely OTHER REFORMS –
reorganized.
✓ At the top of the judicial system, the highest civil ✓ Cornwallis reformed the Board of Trade which
and criminal courts of appeal, namely Sadar managed the commercial investments of the
Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were Company.
functioning at Calcutta. Both of them were presided ✓ With the aid of Charles Grant, he eradicated
over by the Governor -General and his council. numerous abuses and corrupt practices.
332
✓ Fair treatment was given to weavers and Indian SIR JOHN SHORE (1793-98)
workers.
✓ He increased the remuneration for honest service. Played pivotal role in the introduction of Permanent
Settlement in 1793.
OTHER IMPORTANT DETAILS –

✓ Third Mysore war (1790-92) and Treaty of
Seringapatam (1792)
✓ Introduced Permanent Settlement or the
Zamindari system in Bengal and Bihar in the year
1793.
✓ Cornwallis Code of 1793 which included several
judicial reforms along with separation of Revenue
administration from Judicial administration.
✓ Created post of District Judge and introduced Civil
Services (1793), known as Father of Civil Services
in India.
✓ Europeanisation of Administrative machinery took
place during his tenure. • He introduced the first charter of 1793.
✓ Introduced Police reforms • Battle of Kharda between the Nizam and the
Marathas (1795) leading to the defeat of Nizam was
ESTIMATION – fought during his serving period.
• Known for his policy of Non-interference.
✓ Cornwallis, a blue-blooded aristocrat, was an ardent
patriot.
✓ He discharged his duties fearlessly, and his life was
an embodiment of ‘duty and sacrifice’.
✓ He perceived the danger of Tipu’s growing power
and curtailed it by boldly discarding the Policy of
Non-Intervention.
✓ As an administrator, he consolidated the
Company’s position in India and started the
tradition of efficient and pure administration.
✓ Although there were defects in his Permanent
Settlement of Land Revenue, his administrative
and judicial reforms were solid achievements.
✓ He may be regarded as the parent of the Indian
LORD WELLESLEY (1798-1805)
• Background –
✓ The appointment of Richard Colley Wellesley as
Governor- General marks an epoch in the history of
British India.
✓ He was a great imperialist and called himself ‘a
Bengal tiger’.
✓ Wellesley came to India with a determination to
launch a forward policy in order to make ‘the
British Empire in India’ into ‘the British Empire of
India’.
Administrative Service and founder of an efficient ✓ The system that he adopted to achieve his object is
and clean system of administration. known as the ‘Subsidiary Alliance’.
✓ Sir John Shore (1793-98) succeeded Cornwallis as
Governor General and his administration was
uneventful.
333
POLITICAL CONDITION OF INDIA DURING HIS ARRIVAL-
✓ In the north-western India, the danger of Zaman

Shah’s aggression posed a serious threat to the HOW SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE HELPED
British power in India.
WELLESLEY?
✓ In the north and central India, the Marathas
remained a formidable political power. 1. Company’s military strength was increased at
✓ The Nizam of Hyderabad employed the expense of the protected states.
Frenchmen to train his army. The political unrest in 2. Helped to ensure stability of British power in
Karnataka region continued and Tipu Sultan had India as the territories of the Company
remained the uncompromising enemy of the British.
became safe from the ravages of war.
✓ Moreover, the policy of neutrality adopted by Sir
John Shore, the successor of Cornwallis, created a 3. Strengthned the British position against its
kind of political unrest in India and greatly affected non-Indian enemies as well.
the prestige of the English. His non-intervention 4. Aided the expansion of British power.
policy contributed much to the growth of anti-
British feelings.
✓ Further, Napoleon’s move for an Eastern invasion
created a fear among English statesmen. It was in OTHER FACTS-
this light that Wellesley moulded his policy.
✓ Preservation of British prestige and removal of ✓ Wellesley introduced the system of Subsidiary
French danger from India were Wellesley’s twin Alliance, Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799),
aims. Awadh (1801) Peshwa (1802) signed the treaty
✓ He was also thoroughly convinced that only a respective with the company.
strong British power in India could reduce and ✓ Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept
control the existing tyranny and corruption in Indian Subsidiary Alliance.
states. ✓ Madras Presidency was created during his tenure.
✓ Therefore, he reversed the non-intervention policy
of his predecessor and formulated his master plan ✓ 4th Anglo-Mysore war (1799) took place in which
namely the ‘Subsidiary Alliance’ Tipu Sultan died.
334
• In 1799, Wellesley concluded a treaty with Serfoji.

• In accordance with this treaty the British took over
the administration of the state and allowed Serfoji
to retain the title of Raja with a pension of 4 lakhs
of rupees.
ESTIMATION –
✓ An unscrupulous annexationist and an advocate of
forward policy, Wellesley was one of the greatest
empire-builders that England had ever produced
✓ He converted the British Empire in India to the
British Empire of India.
✓ The establishment of British paramountcy in India
was his supreme task.
✓ He located the weak spots of the Indian powers and
applied his political technique (namely Subsidiary
✓ In 1800, he set up Fort William College at Calcutta
Alliance).
with John Gilchrist as its principal. It was setup to
✓ By the annexation of Karnataka and Tanjore he
teach Urdu and Hindi to Civil Servants.
paved the way for the formation of the Madras
✓ Second Maratha war (1803-05)
Presidency.
✓ Subsidiary Treaty of Bassein (1802)
✓ He rightly deserves to be called the maker of the
erstwhile Madras Presidency and the creator of the
IMPORTANT TREATIES WITH TANJORE, Province of Agra.
SURAT AND KARNATAKA – ✓ In this manner a great part of the Indian
subcontinent was brought under Company
✓ Surat – protection. “He turned the East India Company
• The principality of Surat came under British from a trading corporation into an imperial power”.
protection as early as 1759. The nawab of this
historic city died in 1799 and his brother succeeded
him.
SIR GEORGE BARLOW (1805-07)
• The change of succession provided Wellesley an
opportunity to take over the administration of surat.
• The nawab was allowed to retain the title and given
a pension of one lakh rupees.
✓ Karnataka –
• The people of Karnataka had been suffering for a
long time by the double government.
• The Nawab, Umadat-ul-Umara was an
incompetent ruler noted for his extravagance and
misrule.
• He died in the middle of 1801 and his son, Ali
Hussain became the Nawab. Wellesley asked him
to retire with a liberal pension leaving the
administration to the English.
• Since he refused, Wellesley signed a treaty with
Azim-ud Daulah, the nephew of the deceased • Vellore Mutiny (1806)
Nawab in 1801.
• Accordingly, the entire military and civil
administration of the Karnataka came under the
British.
✓ Tanjore –
• The Maratha state of Tanjore witnessed a
succession dispute.
335
• Second Anglo Maratha war ended ✓ The Governor-Generalship of Lord Hastings

witnessed not only territorial expansion but also the
progress of administration.
LORD MINTO 1 (1807-13) ✓ He approved the Ryotwari system of land revenue
introduced in the Madras Presidency by Sir
Thomas Munroe.
• Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh in the year

1809.
• Charter Act of 1813 which ended monopoly of
East India Company in India.
✓ In judiciary, the Cornwallis Code was improved.
✓ The Police system of Bengal was extended to other
LORD HASTINGS (1813-23) regions.
✓ The importance of Indian Munsiffs had increased
during his administration.
✓ The separation of judicial and revenue
departments was not rigidly followed.
✓ The District Collector acted as Magistrate.
✓ Hastings had also encouraged the foundation of
vernacular schools by missionaries.
✓ In 1817, the Hindu College was established at
Calcutta by the public for the teaching of English
and western science. Hastings was the Patron of this
college.
✓ He encouraged the freedom of the Press and
abolished the censorship introduced in 1799.
✓ The Bengali Weekly, Samachar Darpan was
started in 1818 by Marshman, a Serampore
missionary.
• Hastings adopted the policy of intervention and
war. ESTIMATION –
• Anglo-Nepal war (1814-16) in which Gurkha
✓ Lord Hastings was an able soldier and a brilliant
leader Amar Singh Thapa was defeated, ended with
administrator.
Treaty of Sugauli.
✓ His liberal views on education and Press are
• Third Anglo-Maratha war (1817-18) led to the commendable.
abolition of Peshwaship and annexation of his ✓ He suppressed the Pindaris, defeated the Marathas
territories. and curbed the power of the Gurkhas.
• Creation of Bombay Presidency (1818) ✓ His territorial gains strengthened the British power
• Treaty of Poona (1817) with Peshwas. in India.
• Suppression of Pindaris (1817) ✓ He was considered the maker of the Bombay
• Ryotwari settlement was introduced in Madras Presidency.
Presidency by Thomas Munro, the Governor (1820) ✓ In nutshell, he completed and consolidated the work
of Wellesley
REFORMS OF HASTING-
336
LORD AMHERST (1823-28) POLICY TOWARDS PRINCELY STATES -

✓ William Bentinck adopted a policy of non-
intervention and non-aggression with Indian
states.
✓ If at all he interfered in the affairs of the Indian
states, it was only to end any form of
misgovernment and never to annex any territory.
✓ Mysore-
• In Mysore, Hindu rule under Krishnaraja III was
restored by Wellesley.
• In the beginning, the young Raja functioned well
along with his able minister Puranaiya.
• Later, when the young raja assumed full control of
• First Burmese war (1824-26), signed the Treaty of the government, he proved incompetent.
Yandabo in 1826. • The peasantry of the state suffered from many
• Acquisition of Malaya Peninsula and Bharatpur grievances. There was no redressal.
(1826) • Consequently, a revolt of the peasants broke out in
1830 and it was suppressed with the help of an army
LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK (1828-35) from Madras.
• Nonetheless, the British authorities took over the
administration of Mysore State and placed it under
the control of a commissioner.
• The Raja was given a pension. Sir Mark Cubbon
was commissioner from 1834 to 1861 and his
administration was beneficial to the people of
Mysore.
• Even today, the famous Cubbon Park in Bangalore
city has been named after him to remind his services
to Mysore.
✓ Cachar and Jaintia –
• The principality of Cachar lying in the North East
Frontier came under the protection of the British in
accordance with the Treaty of Yandabo concluded
Background – at the end of the first Burmese War.
• The Raja of this small state was assassinated in
✓ Lord William Bentinck assumed the office of the 1832 but there was no heir to succeed him. Bentinck
Governor- General in 1828. Born in 1774 he annexed this state at the wish of the people. Jaintia
commenced his career as a soldier and later at the was one of the territories brought under the custody
young age of twenty-two he became a Member of of the British after the first Anglo-Burmese War.
Parliament. • The ruler of the small country behaved in an unruly
✓ He was appointed the Governor of Madras in way by abducting a few subjects of British India
1803. He supported Sir Thomas Munroe on with the evil intention of sacrificing them to the
revenue administration. goddess Kali.
✓ The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 had resulted in • Therefore, the Governor-General acted promptly to
Bentinck’s recall. avert any recurrence of such cruel abhorrent act and
✓ However, his appointment again to the higher office annexed this country.
as Governor-General shows his real greatness. ✓ Coorg –
✓ As Governor-General, Bentinck had initiated an era • Vira Raja was a ruthless ruler of Coorg who treated
of progress and reforms. his people with savage barbarity and killed all his
✓ He was undoubtedly the first Governor- General of male relatives.
British India who acted on the dictum that- • Lord William Bentinck decided to deal with him
effectively and sent Colonel Lindsay to capture
“the welfare of the subject peoples was a main, Mercara, the capital of the Coorg state.
perhaps the primary duty of the British in India”.
337
• The Raja was deposed in 1834 and the state was languages in the lower courts and English in the
annexed. higher courts in
✓ Punjab – the place of Persian.
• Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor- ✓ Even in matters of revenue Bentinck left his mark.
General to visualise a Russian threat to India. He launched the revenue settlements of the North
Hence, he was eager to negotiate friendly relations West Province under the control of R.M. Bird.
both with the ruler of Punjab, Maharajah Ranjit ✓ This settlement was for a period of 30 years and it
Singh and also with the Amirs of Sind. was made either with the tillers of the soil, or with
• His earnest desire was that Afghanistan should be the landowners.
made a buffer state between India and any possible
invader.
SOCIAL REFORMS-
• As an initial measure, an exchange of gifts took
place between Lahore, the capital of Punjab and
Calcutta, the seat of Governor-General. ✓ Abolition of Sati –
• It was then followed by the meeting of Bentinck and
Ranjit Singh on 25 October, 1831 at Rupar on the
bank of the river Sutlej amidst show and splendour.
• The Governor-general was successful in winning
the friendship of Ranjit Singh and the Indus
Navigation Treaty was concluded between them.
• This treaty opened up the Sutlej for navigation. In
addition, a commercial treaty was negotiated with
Ranjit Singh. similar treaty was also concluded
with the Amirs of Sind.
FINANCIAL REFORMS –
✓ When Bentinck assumed the Governor-
Generalship in 1828, the financial position of the
Company was poor. • He became a crusader against it and promulgated
✓ The exchequer was very weak. The state budget his Regulation XVII on 4 December 1829
showed a deficit of one million rupees. prohibiting the practice of sati.
✓ It became necessary on the part of the Governor- • Those who practiced sati were made liable for
General to take effective steps to improve the punishment by law courts as accessories to the
financial condition. crime. The Regulation was extended to the Madras
✓ To achieve this, he adopted the following measures: and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.
He reduced the salaries and allowances of all
officers and additional staff were removed. ✓ Suppression of Thugs –
✓ In the military department, he abolished the system
of double batta. (Batta was an allowance to
troops on active service.)
✓ By these financial reforms at the time of his
departure, he left the treasury with a surplus of
Rs.1.5 million.
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS –
✓ Bentinck’s administrative reforms speak of his
political maturity and wisdom.
✓ In the judicial department he abolished the • The most commendable measure which Bentinck
provincial courts of appeal established by undertook and which contributed to the material
Cornwallis. welfare of the people was the suppression of the
✓ They were largely responsible for the huge arrears ‘thugs.
of cases. • They were hereditary robbers. They went about in
✓ This step was readily accepted by the Directors small groups of fifty to hundred posing as
since it cut down their expenditure. Another good commercial gangs or pilgrims strangling and
measure of Bentinck was the introduction of local robbing peaceful travellers.
338
• They increased in number in central and northern OTHER INFORMATION-

India during the 18th century when anarchy reigned
✓ Bentinck is considered one of the most liberal and
after the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
enlightened amongst all the Governors-Generals of
• A campaign was systematically organised by
India.
Colonel Sleeman from 1830 against the thugs.
✓ He was first Governor-General of India.
• During the course of five years nearly 2000 of them ✓ Also known as the “Father of Modern Western
were captured. A greater number of them were
Education in India”
exterminated and the rest were transported to the
✓ Passed the Charter Act of 1833 - ended the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
monopoly of East India Company in tea trade and
• For his role in the suppression of thugs, Sir William trade with China.
Sleeman was known as “Thugee Sleeman” ✓ Introduced the Law Member in the Governors-
General Executive Council.
✓ Female Infanticide – ✓ Created Province of Agra in 1834.
✓ Annexed Coorg (1834) and Central Cachar
(1834).
✓ Abolished Provincial Courts of Appeal and Circuit,
appointed Commissioners instead.
✓ First Medical College opened in Calcutta in
1835.
✓ Resolution of 1835 and Educational Reforms,
defined the aims and objectives of British
Government and appointed Lord Macaulay the
President of the Committee of the Public
Instruction.
ESTIMATION –
✓ Bentinck was a “straightforward, honest, upright,
• Female infanticide was one of the horrible and benevolent, sensible man”.
heartless deeds committed even by civilized people. ✓ His social reforms such as abolition of sati and
• This practice of killing female infants was very prevention of child sacrifice eradicated age-old
much prevalent in places like Rajputana, Punjab, evils from Hindu society.
Malwa and Cutch. ✓ It is gratifying to note that “Bentinck acted where
• Bentinck took effective steps to prevent the ritual of others had talked”.
child sacrifice at Saugar Island in Bengal. ✓ To enforce the regulations regarding the prohibition
• He not only prohibited female infanticide but of sati, he was prepared to risk his own position.
declared them as punishable crime. ✓ Such courage and straightforwardness were seldom
found among the administrators of those days.
✓ Introduction of English Education – ✓ His educational reforms heralded a new age
• The introduction of English Education was a
significant event of Lord William Bentinck’s
administration.
• He appointed a committee headed by Lord
Macaulay to make recommendations for the
promotion of education.
• In his report, Macaulay emphasized the promotion
of European literature and science through English
medium to the people of India.
• This recommendation was wholeheartedly accepted
by William Bentinck.
• The Government Resolution in 1835 made English
the official and literary language of India. In the
same year, William Bentinck laid foundation of the
Calcutta Medical College
339
LORD METCALFE (1835-36) • Brought an end to the first Anglo-Afghan war

(1842)
• Sindh was annexed by Charles Napier (1843). He
was appointed as the first Governor of Sindh.
• Abolished slavery
• War with Gwalior; forced Scindia of Gwalior to
sign a humiliating treaty (1843)
LORD HARDINGE (1844-48)
• Granted freedom of press by passing the famous

Press law
• Also known as the Liberator of Press in India.
LORD AUCKLAND (1836-42)
• First Anglo-Sikh war (1845-46) and the Treaty of

Lahore (1846)
• He introduced social reforms like prohibition of
female infanticide and human sacrifice which was
practiced among the Gonds (a tribe of Central
India)
• Gave preference to the English educated in
employment.
LORD DALHOUSIE (1848-56)
• First Afghan War (1836-42) to make Afghanistan

a buffer state between Russian empire and British
India. The war proved to be a disaster and lead to
the recall of Auckland.
• Death of Ranjit Singh (1839)
LORD ELLEN BOROUGH (1842-44)
Background –
✓ Lord Dalhousie was the youngest Governor
General of India when he assumed charge at the age
of 36 in 1848.
340
✓ He studied in Christ Church, Oxford. He became ✓ Dalhousie’s territorial acquisition transformed the
Member of Parliament and enjoyed the confidence map of India.
of Sir Robert Peel, the Prime Minister of England. ✓ He was not only a conqueror but also a great
He did much for the progress of railway administrator.
construction in England as the president of 6the ✓ The appointment of a Lieutenant Governor to
Board of Trade. Bengal enabled Dalhousie concentrate on
✓ In 1847, he was offered the Governor Generalship administration.
of India which he accepted and arrived at Calcutta ✓ His greatest achievement was the molding of the
in January 1848. new provinces into a modern centralized state.
✓ For the newly acquired territories, he introduced the
centralized control called “Non- Regulation
EXPANSIONIST POLICY- System”.
✓ Under this system a Commissioner was appointed
for a newly acquired territory.
✓ Under military reforms Dalhousie shifted the
headquarters of Bengal Artillery from Calcutta to
Meerut. Shimla was made the permanent
headquarters of the army.
DEVELOPMENT OF RAILWAYS –
✓ The most important aspect of Dalhousie’s

administration is related to “the great drama of
annexation”.
✓ His aims for expanding the Company’s territories
were administrative, imperial, commercial and
financial. ✓ The introduction railways in India inaugurated a
✓ Although he used different reasons for annexation, new economic era.
his main objective was to end misrule in the ✓ There were three major reasons for the British to
annexed states, as in the case of annexation of take interest in its quick development.
Oudh. ✓ The first reason was commercial.
✓ He aimed at providing the beneficent administration ✓ The second main reason was administrative.
to the people of the annexed states. ✓ The third reason was defence.
✓ At the same time, he had in his mind the advantages ✓ At the time of revolt and disturbance, movement of
of annexation to the British such as imperial the forces was much easier through railways.
defence, commercial and financial benefits. ✓ Lord Dalhousie’s contribution in the development
✓ Though Dalhousie did not come to India to follow of railways is worth commending.
a policy of annexation, but he was able to ✓ In 1853, he penned his Railway Minute
consolidate British rule in India by his policy of formulating the future policy of railways in India.
annexation. ✓ He started the “guarantee system” by which the
✓ To fulfil his objectives, he mainly used Doctrine of railway companies were guaranteed a minimum
Lapse. interest of five percent on their investment.
✓ His great annexations include the Punjab, Lower ✓ The government retained the right of buying the
Burma, most of the Central Provinces and Oudh. railway at the end of the period of contract.
✓ The first railway line connecting Bombay with
Thane was opened in 1853.
DOMESTIC REFORMS-
341

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✓ Railway lines connecting from Calcutta to the ✓ A new Post Office Act was passed in 1854.
Raniganj coal-fields was opened in 1854 and from ✓ Consequently, irrespective of the distance over
Madras to Arakkonam in 1856. which the letter was sent, a uniform rate of half an
✓ The first railway in the world was opened in 1825 anna per post card was charged throughout India.
in England. ✓ Postage stamps were introduced for the first time.
TELEGRAPH – DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION
Mumbai University
✓ Similarly, the use of Telegraph brought marvellous ✓ Dalhousie had also evinced in the development of
changes in communication system. In India, Lord education.
Dalhousie’s contribution in this respect is ✓ The educational Despatch of Sir Charles Wood
commendable. (1854) was considered the “Intellectual Charter of
✓ In 1852, O’Shaughnessy was appointed the India”.
Superintendent of Telegraph Department. ✓ It provided an outline for the comprehensive
✓ Main cities of the country viz., Calcutta, scheme of education at primary, secondary and
Peshawar, Bombay and Madras were collegiate levels.
telegraphically connected. ✓ Dalhousie fully accepted the views of Charles
✓ About 4000 miles long Telegraph lines were laid Wood and took steps to carry out the new scheme.
before the departure of Dalhousie.
✓ During the 1857 Revolt, the system of telegraphic
communication proved a boon for the English and
the military value of Dalhousie’s creation was much
realized at that time.
POSTAL REFORMS –
University of Calcutta
✓ Departments of Public Instructions were organized.
✓ The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras were founded in 1857.
✓ The foundation of modern postal system was laid

down by Lord Dalhousie.
342
✓ Exhausted by his years of overwork in India, he fell

ill and died in 1860.
✓ There is no doubt that Dalhousie was an able
University of Madras administrator and visionary.
PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT – ✓ He increased the extent of British India and
consolidated it.
✓ Before the period of Dalhousie, the job of the Public ✓ He inaugurated an era of progress on many sides.
Works Department was done by the Military Board. ✓ He was the father of Railways and Telegraphs.
✓ Dalhousie created a separate Public Works ✓ He introduced the process of modernization of
Department and allotted more funds for cutting India.
canals and roads. ✓ Hence, he is hailed as “the maker of modern
✓ The Upper Ganges Canal was completed in 1854. India”.
✓ Many bridges were constructed.
✓ By modernizing the Public Works Department, he
laid the foundations of the engineering service in LORD CANNING (1856-57)
India.
OTHER FACTS –
✓ Abolished titles and Pensions
✓ Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and annexed
Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849),
Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854)
and Awadh (1856) on the plea of misgovernance.
✓ Woods Educational Dispatch (also known as
Magna Carta of Modern Education in India) of
1854 and British assumption of the responsibility of
educating the masses.
✓ Introduction of the Railways (1st train Bombay to
Thane), Telegraph (1st line from Agra to
Calcutta) and the Postal System in 1853. • Revolt of 1857
✓ Post and Telegraph Act (1854) was passed. • Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
✓ Widow remarriage Act (1856) introduced, Ishwar were established in 1857
Chand Vidyasagar extensively supported the act. • He was the last Governor-General of India.
✓ Santhal Uprising (1855-56), led by Sidhu and
Kanhu. VICEROYS OF INDIA (1857-1947)-
✓ Establishment of a Public Works Department in

every Province (1854) LORD CANNING (1858-62)
• Estimation – • Lord Canning was the first Viceroy of India.
✓ Dalhousie left India in 1856. • Government of India Act, 1858 was passed which
✓ The outbreak of Mutiny in the following year led had ended the rule of East India Company; transfer
to a severe criticism of his policy of annexation. of control from East India Company to the Crown.
343
• Queen Victoria’s proclamation was published at

Allahabad on November 1, 1858 which had the
following provisions:-
QUEEN’S PROCLAMATION
i. No further annexation
ii. No forceful conversion
iii. Appointments in the Public Services would be
based on merits and qualifications.
iv. Indian Tradition to be given due respect while
framing the laws.
v. Full protection to the ownership of properties and
succession.
vi. Peasants to have their rights on land as long as they
• Setting up of High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay,
pay the revenue. Madras (1865)
• Telegraph Communication with Europe opened.
• The Punjab Tenancy Act was passed.
• The Indian Penal Code was passed, which came • fourth High Court was setUP in United Province
into force from 1860. at Agra (1866), later shifted to Allahabad.
• The Code of Criminal Procedure 1859 was passed • Followed the policy of Non-Intervention in the
which came into force from 1861. matters of Afghanistan, policy came to be known as
• The Indian High Courts Act 1861 was enacted. “Policy of Masterly Inactivity”
High Courts were opened in 1865
• The Indian Council Act 1861 was passed, which is
considered a landmark in the constitutional LORD MAYO (1869-72)
History of India.
LORD ELGIN (1862-63)
• Introduced financial decentralisation in India and

made the first Provincial Settlement in 1870.
• Established the Rajkot College in Kathiawar and
• Suppressed Wahabi Movement Mayo College at Ajmer for training of Indian
• Because of his premature death, Sir Charles Princes.
Napier and Denison acted as Viceroys between • He organised the statistical survey of India.
1862 and 1864.
• The first census was conducted in 1872.
• He established the Department of Agriculture
and Commerce.
SIR JOHN LAWRENCE (1864-69) • Introduced State Railways.
• He was the only Viceroy to be murdered while in
office.
• Anglo-Bhutanese War (1865).
344
LORD NORTH BROOK (1872-76) • Repealed the Vernacular Press Act and Arms Act of
1878.
Kuka Rebellion in Punjab (1872) lead by Ram Singh • The first Factory Act of 1881 to improve labour
conditions was passed.
• Continued with the policy of financial
decentralisation.
• First regular census was conducted in 1881.
• Ripon introduced Local self-government in 1882
and is known as father of local self-government in
India.
• Appointment of Hunter Commission (1882) under
Sir William Hunter for educational reforms,
especially to give importance to primary education.
• Ilbert Bill controversy (1883).
• Famine Code (1883) was adopted.
• Famine in Bihar (1874)

• Prince of Wales (later Edward Seven) visited India
in 1875.
• He resigned over Afghanistan question.
• Trial of Gaekwad of Baroda.
LORD LYTTON (1876-80)
• Foundation of Punjab University.

• Rendition of Mysore.
LORD DUFFERIN (1884-88)
• Indian National Congress was founded (1885).

• Garden tea party at Calcutta was attended by
delegates of Congress, given by Dufferin, who
• Royal Titles Act of 1876 was passed; Queen
called Congress Party a ‘Microscopic Minority’.
Victoria assumed the title of ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’.
• Third Burmese war and annexation of Burma
Delhi Durbar was organised in 1877 at Red Fort to
(1885)
welcome the Queen.
• The First Congress session was attended by 72
• Severe famine in many parts of India (1876-78),
members with Kadambini Ganguli as the only
appointment of famine commission under Richard
female member.
Strachey (1878)
• Bengal Tenancy Act, 1885.
• The Vernaculas Press Act of 1878 which censored
local language newspapers but not English
newspapers was passed.
• The Arms Act of 1878 was passed which
disallowed Indians from carrying arms.
• Lowered the maximum age of ICS from 21 years to
19 years.
• Second Afghan War (1878-80)
LORD RIPON (1880-84)
345
LORD CURZON (1899-1905)
LORD LANSDOWNE (1888-94)
• The Factory Act of 1891.

• Categorisation of Civil Services into Imperial,
Provincial and Subordinate Services
• Indian Council Act of 1892.
• Durand Commission (1893)- which defined • Appointed a Police Commission (1902) under
boundaries between Afghanistan and British India Andrew Frazer.
that came to be known as Durand line. Now that line • Based on the recommendation of Raleigh
is Commission 1902 which recommended for
reforms in University Education, Indian
Universities Act (1904) was passed in order to gain
control over Universities and arrest the growth of
rising Nationalist sentiments.
• Establishment of Department of Commerce and
Industry.
• Partition of Bengal (1905) was announced.
• Calcutta Corporation Act 1899.
• He passed the Ancient Monuments Protection
Act 1904 to restore India’s Cultural Heritage. Thus,
between Afghanistan and Pakistan. the Archaeological Survey of India was
• In 1891, Age of Consent Act was passed, under established.
which marriage of a girl below 12 years was • Famine Commission appointed under
prohibited. MacDonnell.
• Passed the Indian Coinage & Paper Currency
LORD ELGIN II (1894-98) Act 1899 and put India in gold standard.
• Irrigation Commission appointed under
Moncrieff (1901).
• PUSA Agricultural Institute in 1903
LORD MINTO II (1905-10)
• Swadeshi and Boycott Movement.

• Establishment of Muslim League by Aga Khan in
1906 at Dacca.
• Surat Split of 1907.
• Mundas Uprisings of 1899. • Indian Councils Act 1909 and Minto-Morley
• Great Famine of 1896-97. Reforms. Provision of separate electorate for
• Lyall Commission appointed after famine. Muslims.
• Assassination of two British officials by the • Newspapers Act 1908
Chapekar Brothers in 1897. • Muzaffarpur Conspiracy of 1908 in which
attempt was made to kill Kingsford, the
controversial Magistrate by Khudiram Bose and
Prafulla Chaki.
346
• Government of India Act, 1919 which came to be

known as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms.
• Formation of Home Rule League by Annie Besant,
1916
• Lucknow Session of the Congress and Lucknow
Pact in 1916.
• Foundation of Women’s University at Poona
(1916)
• Foundation of Sabarmati Ashram; Champaran
Satyagraha (1916), Kheda Satyagraha (1918) and
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918).
• Saddler Commission on Educational Policy
LORD HARDINGE II (1910-16) Reforms (1917)
• Annulment of the partition of Bengal (1911), Bihar • Repressive Rowlatt Act (1919)
and Orissa were separated. • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13th April 1919)
• Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911) • Appointment of Hunter Commission to look into
• Darbar in Delhi and Coronation of George Five and Jallianwala Bagh tragedy.
Queen Mary. • Chamber of Princes (1919) established.
• Ghadar Party was formed at San Francisco by • Formation of Khilafat Committee by Ali Brothers
Lala Hardayal (1913) and launching of the Khilafat Movement (1919-
• Beginning of First World War on 28 July 1914. 20)
• Arrival of Mahatma Gandhi from South Africa • Beginning of Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)
• Death of Tilak (1st August 1920)
• Appointed S.P. Sinha as Governor of Bihar (1st
Indian to become a Governor)
LORD READING (1921-25)
(1915).
• Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha by Madan
Mohan Malaviya (1915)
LORD CHELMSFORD (1916-21)
• Chauri Chaura incident at Gorakhpur, U.P (5th

February 1922) and withdrawal of Non-
Cooperation Movement (on 12th February 1922 at
Bardoli).
• Repeal of Rowlatt Act of 1919 and the Press Act
of 1910.
• Moplah Rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala.
• Formation of Congress Khilafat Swarajist Party
(Swaraj Party) in the year 1922 by C.R. Das and
Motilal Nehru.
• Holding of simultaneous Examination for the ICS
in England and in India from 1923.
347
• Formation of Hindustan Republican Army in • Second Round Table Conference (1931) and
Kanpur by revolutionaries. failure of the conference, resumption of the Civil
• Communist Party of India founded by M N Roy Disobedience Movement.
(1925). • Gandhi participated in the Second Round Table
• Kakori train robbery (1925). Conference in London as the sole representative of
• RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh) founded in Congress.
1925. • Communal Award (1932) by Ramsay
• Murder of Swami Shraddhaand (1926). MacDonald, the then British Prime Minister, under
• Royal Commission on Agriculture. which separate Communal Electorates were setup.
• Young Hilton Committee (1926) for Currency
Notes.
• Lee Commission (1924) for Public Services.
LORD IRWIN (1926-31)
• Simon Commission was appointed (1927) and its

arrival in India (1928).
• Appointment of the Butler Indian States
Commission (1927).
• Formation of All India States People’s • ‘Fast unto death’ by Gandhi in Yerawada prison,
Conference (1927). broken after the Poona pact.
• Irwin was also known as Christian Viceroy. • Third Round Table Conference (1932)
• All India Youth Congress was formed (1928). • Government of India Act 1935.
• Nehru Committee Report of 1928. • Establishment of All India Kisan Sabha (1936) and
Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev
and Jai Prakash Narayan.
• Burma separated from India, 1935.
LORD LINLITHGOW (1936-44)
• Royal Commission for Indian Worker, 1929.

• Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs
in the Central Legislative Assembly (1929)
• ‘Deepawali Declaration’ by Lord Irwin (1929)
• Purna Swaraj Resolution was passed at Lahore
Session (1929), presided by Jawaharlal Nehru.
• First Round Table Conference (1930), Congress • First General Elections (1936-37); Congress
boycotted it. gained absolute Majority.
• 26th January was celebrated as Independence Day. • Resignation of Congress Ministers after the
• Gandhi-Irwin pact on 5th March 1931. outbreak of Second World War (1939).
• Dandi March (12 March 1930) by Gandhi and • Deliverance Day by Muslim League (September
launch of Civil Disobedience Movement. 1939)
• Sharda Act, 1929 under which marriageable age of • Tripuri Session of INC (1939) and formation of
girls (14 years) and boys (18 years) was raised. Forward Block by Subhas Chandra Bose.
• Lahore resolution (March 1940) by the Muslim
League and demand for separate state for Muslims.
LORD WILLINGDON (1931-36)
348
• August Offer by the Viceroy and Individual • June Third Plan (3rd June 1947) announced. Also
Satyagraha launched (1940). known as Mountbatten Plan.
• Cripps Proposal (1942) which offered Dominion • Independence of India (15th August 1947)
status to India and setting up of Constituent
Assembly, its rejection by the Congress.
• Quit India Movement (1942)
• ‘Divide and Quit’ slogan at the Karachi session of
the Muslim league (1944)
LORD WAVELL (1944-47)
• C.R. Formula (1944), failure of Gandhi-Jinnah

talks to resolve communal issue (1944)
• Shimla Conference and Wavell Plan, failed too
(1945).
• INA trials (1945)
• RIN Mutiny (1946)
• Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) • Appointment of two boundary commission under
Sir Cyril Redcliffe for the partition of Bengal and
Punjab.
• Last British Viceroy of British India and First
Governor-General of Free India.
C RAJAGOPALACHARI (1948-50)
• He was the first and last Indian who hold this

position.
• Formation of the Interim Government with

Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister (September
1946)
• Formation of Constituent Assembly (1946)
• Direct Action Day (16th August 1946) observed by
Muslim League for demand of separate nation of
Pakistan.
• Announcement of end of British rule in India by
Clement Attlee on Feb 20, 1947.
LORD MOUNTBATTEN (1947-48)
QUICK REVISION –
GOVERNOR-GENERAL (1772-1857) GOVERNOR-GENERAL/ VICEROY (1857-1947)
Warren Hasting (1772-85) Lord Canning (1858-1862)
Lord Cornwallis (1786-93) Lord Elgin (1862-63)
Sir John Shore (1793-98) Sir John Lawrence (1864-69)
349
Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) Lord Mayo (1869-72)
Sir George Barlow (1805-07) Lord Northbrook (1872-76)
Lord Minto I (1807-13) Lord Lytton (1876-1880)
Lord Hasting (1813-23) Lord Rippon (1880-84)
Lord Amherst (1823-28) Lord Dufferin (1884-88)
William Bentick (1828-35) Lord Lansdowne (1888-94)
Lord Metcalfe (1835-36) Lord Elgin II (1894-98)
Lord Auckland (1836-42) Lord Curzon (1898-1905)
Lord Ellenborough (1842-44) Lord Minto (1905-1910)
Lord Hardinge (1844-48) Lord Hardinge (1910-16)
Lord Dalhousie (1848-56) Lord Chelmsford (1916-21)
Lord Canning (1856-57) Lord Reading (21-26)
Lord Irwin (1926-31)
Lord Willingdon (1931-36)
Lord Linlithgow (36-44)
Lord Wavell (1944-47)
Lord Mountbatten (1947-48)
Rajagopalachari (1948-50)
350
APPENDIX
IMPORTANT JOURNALS /BOOKS
BOOKS AUTHOR
Bengal Gazette (also 1780, Calcutta General James Augustus Hicky
Advertiser),
India Gazette Henry Louis Vivian Derozio associated with it.
Calcutta Journal J.S. Buckingham
Bengal Gazette Calcutta (First Bengali Harishchandra Ray
newspaper)
Sambad Kaumudi (Weekly in Bengali) Raja Rammohan Roy
Mirat-ul-Akbar Calcutta (First journal in Raja Rammohan Roy
Persian)
Jam-i-Jahan Numah, Calcutta (First paper in An English firm
Urdu)
Banga-Duta (a weekly 1822, Calcutta in four Rammohan Roy, Dwarkanath Tagore and others
languages—English, Bengali, Persian, Hindi)
Bombay Samachar 1822, Bombay (First paper in
Gujarati)
East Indian (daily Henry Vivian Derozio
Bombay Times (from 1861 onwards, The Times of Foundation laid by Robert Knight, started by
India) Thomas Bennett.
Rast Goftar (A Gujarati fortnightly) Dadabhai Naoroji
Hindu Patriot Girish Chandra Ghosh (later, Harishchandra
Mukerji became owner-cum-editor)
SomPrakash, Calcutta (First Bengali political Dwarkanath Vidyabhushan
paper)
Indian Mirror (fortnightly— Early 1862, Calcutta Devendranath Tagore
first Indian daily paper in English)
Bengalee (this, and Amrita 1862, Calcutta Bazar Girishchandra Ghosh (taken over by S.N.
Patrika—the first vernacular papers) Banerjea in 1879)
National Paper Devendranath Tagore
Madras Mail Madras (First evening paper in
India)
Amrita Bazar Patrika (Bengali in the beginning, Sisirkumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh
later English, a daily)
Bangadarshana (in Bengali) Bankimchandra Chatterjee
Indian Statesman, Calcutta (later, The Statesman) Robert Knight
The Hindu (in English) G.S. Aiyar, Viraraghavachari and Subba Rao
Pandit (among the founders)
Tribune (daily) Dayal Singh Majeetia
Paridasak (a weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal (publisher)
Yugantar Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutta
Sandhya Brahmabandhab Upadhyay
Reshwa Ajit Singh
Bombay Chronicle (a daily) Started by Pherozshah Mehta, Editor—B.G.
Horniman (Englishman)
351
The Hindustan Times Founded by K.M. Panikkar as part of the Akali

Dal Movement
The Milap (Urdu daily) Founded by M.K. Chand
Leader (in English) Madan Mohan Malaviya
Kirti Santosh Singh
Bahishkrit Bharat 1927 (Marathi fortnightly) B.R. Ambedkar
Kudi Arasu (Tamil) E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar)
Kranti S.S. Mirajkar, K.N. Joglekar, S.V. Ghate
Langal and Ganabani Gopu Chakravarti and Dharani Goswami
National Herald (daily) Jawaharlal Nehru
352
IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES-
• An active member of Ghadar Party.

ANNIE BESANT 1847-1933
AK FAZLUL HAQ
• Founded the Theosophical Society in India and
started the Home Rule League. • Founder member of All India Muslim League and
• Established Central Hindu School and College at its member from 1916 to 1921.
Banaras (later Bill]). • Represented the league in the three Round Table
• President of the Calcutta Session of INC, AD Conferences.
1917. • Founded the Krishak Praja Party in 1937 and
• She did not attend the AD 1920 Session at Nagpur worked as Chief Minister of Bengal from 1938-43.
due to growing difference with Gandhiji as she felt
that Government of India Act, 1919 were a means AMIR CHAND 1869-1915
to free India.
• Newspapers — New India and Commonweal. • He was a revolutionary activist and associate of
• She prepared the Lotus Song, a translation of 'Gita' Lala Hardayal and Ras Behari Bose.
into English. • He was arrested in connection with Lahore Bomb
and Delhi Conspiracy cases.
• He was accused of throwing a bomb on Lord
ACHARYA NARENDRA DEV 1889-1956 Hardinge and was sentenced to death.
• He was a scholar, socialist, nationalist and a AMRITLAL VITHALAL THAKKAR 1869-1951

lawyer by profession. He gave up his practice and
joined Non-Co-operation Movement. • A social activist, founder of Bhil Seva Mandal and
• He became the President of Patna's Socialist member of Bharatiya Adamjati Sangh (tribal
Conference in 1934 and a member of UP welfare association).
Legislation Assembly in 1937. • He also served as the Secretary of the Harijan
• He was appointed as the Principal of Kashi Sevak Sangh.
Vidyapeeth in 1925 and also became the Vice-
Chancellor of Lucknow and Banaras Universities. ANAND MOHAN BOSE 1847-1906
• He founded the Socialist Party in 1948.
• Founder member of the Indian Association of
ACHARYA PRAFULLA CHANDRA RAY 1861- Calcutta (1876), Indian National Conference
1944 (1883) and Indian National Congress (1885).
• Presided over the Madras Session of INC (1898).
• He was a pioneer of chemical research in India.
His book ‘History of Hindu Chemistry’ was ARUNA ASAF ALI 1909-1996
published in 1902.
• Research work in Ayurveda with French Chemist • Nicknamed as Aruna Ganguli, she married to Asaf
Berthelot. Ali, Indian’s first Ambassador of the USA.
• President of Indian Science Congress in 1920. • She was imprisoned during the Civil Disobedience
Movement (1930, 1932) and for participating in
ACHYUT S PATWARDHAN 1905-1971 Individual Satyagrah (1940).
• In 1942, she hoisted the Indian National Congress
• Founder member of Congress Socialist Party and Flag tricolour at Mumbai’s Gowalia Tank
an active participant in Quit India Movement. Grounds.
• He left politics after independence. • Elected as first Mayor of Delhi, 1958.
• She was awarded the International Lenin Prize in
AJIT SINGH 1964.
• Newspapers (alongwith Edanta Narayana and AV
• He was a revolutionary nationalist arrested in 1907 Baliga) — Link and Patriot.
and deported to Mandalay.
• He founded the Bharat Mata Society and launched BHAGAT SINGH 1907-1931
a journal, Peshwa.
• Member of Hindustan Socialist Republican Army.
353
• He started the Militant Naujawan Bharat Sabha in • He condemned child marriage and forced
Punjab. widowhood in his Notes on Infant Marnage and
• He killed British Official Saunders in 1928 and Enforced Widowhood (1884).
was involved in Lahore Conspiracy and bombed • He founded a social service organization known as
the Central Legislative Assembly. Seva Sadan.
• He was executed on March 23, 1931. • His works include Nitivinod (1875), the Indian
Muse in English Garb (1876), and Gujarat and
BADRUDDIN TYABJI 1844-1906 Gujarati’s.
• He was the first Barrister in Bombay. BHULABHAI DESAI 1877-1946

• Appointed to the Bombay Bench in 1895 and in
1902 and also became the second Indian Chief • He participated in the Home Rule Movement
Justice. (1916) and was imprisoned during Civil
• He advocated Tilak’s case on seditious writings in Disobedience Movement.
new laters journal, Kesari. • He represented INC in the Central Legislative
• Founder member of Bombay Legislative Council Assembly for nine years.
(1882) and INC (1885). • He formulated the Desai-Liaqat formula in 1944
• Presided over the third INC Session in Madras. for negotiations with the League.
• He stressed upon modernization of Muslims and • He advocated from the prisoner’s sides during the
also served as President of the Bombay based INA trials
Anjuman-i-Islam.
CHANDRA SHEKHAR AZAD 1906-1931
BALIRAM KESHAV RAO HEDGEWAR 1899-
1940 • He was a famous revolutionary activist, member of
the Hindustan Republican Association and leader
• He was a medical graduate and an active member of the Hindustan Social Republican Army.
of the Congress. He also participated in Tilak’s • He gained his title “Azad” during the Non Co-
Home Rule Movement. operation Movement when he was arrested and the
• He established the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh court asked his name, he repeatedly answered
on September 27, 1925. “Azad”.
• He was involved in Kakori Conspiracy of 1925,
BANKIM CHANDRA CHATTOPADHYAY 1833- Second Lahore Conspiracy, the Delhi Conspiracy,
1894 the killing of Saunders in Lahore and Central
Assembly bomb episode.
• He was a great scholar best known for the • He shot himself while fighting with the police at
composition or the hymn Bande Mataram. Alfred Park in Allahabad.
• His first novel was Durgesnandini, published in
1864. and he started the journal Bangadarsan. CHHAKRAVARTI RAJAGOPALACHARI 1879-
1972
BARINDRA KUMAR GHOSH 1880-1959
• He was a politician and lawyer from Tamil Nadu.
• He was a revolutionary activist and founder • He gave up his practice during NCM.
member of the secret organization. Anushilan • He held the post of the General-Secretary of the
Samiti, started in Calcutta in 1902. INC in 1921-1922 and was a member of Congress
• He also helped in launching the weekly, Yugantar. Working Committee from 1922 to 1924.
• He was sentenced to life imprisonment in 190b but • He hoisted the CDM in Tamil Nadu and was
w released in 1919, and then he associated himself arrested for leading a Salt March from
with The Statesman and Basumati. Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore
coast.
BEHRAMJI M MALABARI 1853-1912 • He was elected as the Chief Minister of Madras in
1937 Elections.
• He was an eminent scholar and social reformer. • He resigned from INC in 1942 for not accepting
• He worked for the cause or women and by his the Cripp’s Proposal.
efforts the Age of Consent Act (1891) was passed. • He prepared the CR Formula for Congress-League
Co-operation.
354
• He served as the Governor of Bengal (August- Indian Labour Party and Scheduled Caste
November 1947) and was the first and last Indian Federation.
Governor-General of India (1948-50). • Chairman of the Drafting Committee of Indian
• He became the Minister of Home Affairs in the Constitution.
country’s first Cabinet. • As the first Law Minister of Independent India, he
• He founded the Swatantra Party in 1959. introduced the Hindu Code Bill.
• His rational ideas are reflected in the • He started ‘The Republican Party’ in 1956.
collection Satyameva Jayate. • Towards the end of his life, he embraced
• He was awarded the ‘Bharat Ratna' in 1954. Buddhism.
CR DAS 1870-1925 DR RAJENDRA PRASAD 1884-1963
• A lawyer by profession, he defended Aurobindo in • Participated in Swadeshi Movement (established

the Alipur Bomb Conspiracy case. Bihari Students, Conference), Champaran
• He was the member of the Congress Enquiry Satyagrah, NCM, CDM and Quit India Movement.
Committee set up to look into Jallianwala Bagh • Founded the National College at Patna.
Massacre. • Minister in charge or Food and Agriculture in the
• He founded the All India Swaraj Party in 1923. Interim Government (1946).
• He was elected as the first Mayor of the Calcutta • President of the Constituent Assembly.
Co-operation in 1924. • First President of the Indian Republic.
• He prepared the Das Formula for Hindu-Muslim • Honoured with ‘Bharat Ratna' in 1962.
Co-operation. • Newspaper — Desh (Hindi weekly).
• He was nicknamed as Deshbandhu Chittaranjan.
• His works include Malancha in 1895 DR ZAKIR HUSSAIN 1897-1969
(poems), Mala in 1904, Antaryami in
1915, Kishore-Kishoree and Sagar-Sangit in • An educationist and nationalist from Hyderabad,
1913. Hussain was the student of Mohammedan Anglo-
• Newspapers/Journal-Narayana (Bengali monthly) Oriented College at Aligarh.
and Forward. • He was appointed as the Vice-Chancellor of Jamia
University at the age of 29 years.
DADABHAI NAOROJI 1825-1917 • In 1937, he participated in the National
Conference on Education in Wardha.
• First to demand ‘Swaraj” in the Calcutta Session • He was elected to the post of vice-Chancellor of
of INC, 1906. the Aligarh Muslim University in 1948 and was
• Title — “Indian Gladstone”, “Grand Old Man of selected to the executive board of the UNESCO.
lndia’. • He served as the 3rd President of Indian Union and
• First Indian to be selected to the “House of was honoured with Bharat Ratna in 1963.
Commons” on Liberal Party ticket. • He translated Plato’s Republic and Edwin
• He highlighted the draining of wealth from India Cannan’s Elementary Political Economy also
by the British and its effect in his book “Poverty wrote a book titled Die Botschaft des Mahatma
and un-British Rule in India “(1901). Gandhi in German. The Dynamic
University contains his addresses during the
DR BHIMRAO RAMJI AMBEDKAR 1891-1956 convocation ceremonies. He also wrote a book on
short stories for children, named Ruqayya
• Leader of the depressed class and an eminent Rehana.
jurist.
• He founded the Depressed Classes Institute (1924) DHONDO KESHAV KARVE 1858-1962
and Samaj Samata Sangh (1927).
• He set up a network college in the name of Peoples • A social reformer and educationalist who worked
Education Society. for the upliftment of women.
• Participated in all the Three Round Table • He founded the Vidhva Vivahottejak Mandali
Conferences and signed the Poona Pact with (Society for the promotion of widow remarriage)
Gandhiji in 1932. in 1893 which was named as Vidhwa Vivaha
• He was in the Governor General's Executive Pratibandh Nivarak Mandali in 1895.
Council from 1942 to 1946 and organized the
355
• Other institutions include-Mahisasuramardini • He participated in the agitation against the Simon

(home for widows) in 1898, Mahila Vidyalaya, Commission, CDM and Quit India Movement.
Nishkam Karma Math Monastery of Disinterested • He was the first Chief Minister of UP and prepared
Work in 1908, Indian Women’s University in 1916 the “Pant Report” on agrarian reforms in UP.
and Samata Sangh in 1944. • He abolished Zamindari System in UP.
• He was awarded Padma Vibhushan' in 1955 and • He was elected as the Home Minister in 1955 and
‘Bharat Ratna in 1958. is a recipient of ’Bharat Ratna'.
DINBANDHU MITRA 1830-1873 INDULAL YAGNIK 1892-1972
• He was a Bengali writer who highlighted the cause • He was a social reformer freedom fighter and
of Indigo planters through his play ‘Neel Darpan journalist from Gujarat.
Natakam’, published in 1860. • He participated in Home Rule Movement and
• The play was translated in English by Madhu Kaira Satyagrah.
Sudan Dutt. • He was n member of Antyaj Seva Mandal and set
up schools for tribal children.
DURGABAI DESHMUKH 1909-1981 • He presided over the Akhil Hindu Kisan Sabha in
1942.
• She was popularly known as “Iron Lady.” • He founded the Gujarat Vidyapeeth and
• She organized Salt Satyagrah during CDM in established Maha Gujarat Janta Parishad after
Madras and was imprisoned. independence.
• She was a member of the Constituent Assembly. • Newspapers/Journals—Navjivan Ane Satya
• She was awarded the Tamrapatra and Paul (monthly), Nutan Gujarat (daily)
Hoffman Award after independence in recognition
to her service to the society. JAWAHARLAL NEHRU 1889-1964
• Her social works include the establishment of
Andhra Mahila Sabha (1941), Andhra Education • General Secretary of INC in 1928 and its President
Society, Sri Venkateswar College in the Delhi in 1929.
University, Central Society welfare Board and she • The Independence resolution was passed under his
also edited the journal Andhra Mahila. Presidentship at the Lahore Session.
• First Prime Minister of Republic India (from 1947
GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHALE 1886-1915 to 1964), also known as the architect of Modern
India.
• Gandhiji regarded him as his political guru. • He authored the Doctrine of Panchseel and
• President or the Banaras Session of INC, 1905, believed in the policy of non-Alignment.
supported the Swadeshi Movement. • Books — ‘The Discovery of India', 'Glimpses of
• Founded the Servants of Indian Society in 1905, to world, History’, 'A Bunch of Old Letters', ‘The
train people who would work as national Unity of India’, ‘Independence and After', ‘India
missionaries. and the world’ etc.
• His autobiography was entitled as
GOPAL HARI DESHMUKH ‘LOKAHITWADI’ “Autobiography".
1823-1892
JAMNALAL BAJAJ 1889-1942
• He was a social reformer from Maharashtra.
• He founded the Punar Vivah Mandal at • An industrialist and freedom fighter from
Ahmedabad to encourage widow remarriage. Rajasthan, he was given the title of Rai Bahadur in
• He wrote articles in the Maharashtra weekly, 1921.
Prabhakar, under the pen name, Lokhitwadi. • He founded Gandhi Seva Sangha, Gau Seva
• He helped in the launch of periodicals like Jhan Sangha, Sasta Sahitya Mandal and assisted in the
Prakash, Indu Prakash and Lokhitwadi and also establishment of Satyagrah Ashram at Wardha.
started a weekly ‘Hitechchhu’ in both Gujarati and • He gave Seagon village to Gandhiji who renamed
English. it as Sevagram.
• He remained as the treasures or INC throughout
GOVIND BALLABH PANT 1889-1961 his life.
356
JAYAPRAKASH NARAYANA 1902-1979 • He was appointed as Home Minister Bombay in

1937 elections.
• A freedom fighter from Bihar, he is popularly • He was also arrested during individual Satyagrah
known as Loknayak. (1940).
• He was a follower of Marxist philosophy and • He was a member of Constituent Assembly.
advocated for the nationalization of heavy • He played a significant role in merging Hyderabad
industries and abolition of Zamindari. with the Indian Union.
• He joined INC on Nehru’s offer and was jailed • He served as Union Food Minister in 1952
during CDM. Cabinet, and Governor of UP (1953-58).
• He formed the All India Socialist Party in 1934. • In 1960, he joined the Swatantra Party.
• He actively participated in Quit India Movement • Magazines/journals- Bhargava, Gujarat, Social
and was imprisoned. Welfare, Journal.
• He Joined the Bhoodan Movement of Vinoba • Books—’I Follow the Mahatma', ‘The Creative
Bhave. Art or Life', ‘Akhand Hindustan, and Pilgrimage to
• In 1975, he protested against the National Freedom’.
Emergency and founded the Janata Party.
KASTURBA GANDHI 1869-1944
JATINDRA NATH DAS 1904-1929
• A freedom fighter and wife of M K Gandhi,
• A revolutionary activist and freedom fighter from popularly known as “Ba”.
Bengal, he was arrested for his involvement in the • She supported Gandhi in all his political
Lahore Conspiracy Case. programmes and was the first woman to be
• He died in imprisonment after observing 63 days imprisoned by the British in Transvaal.
fast, demanding better conditions of living for • She was arrested during Quit India Movement in
Indian prisoners. 1942 and died in Poona jail two years later.
JYOTIBA PHULE 1827-1890 KHUDIRAM BOSE 1889-1908

• A social reformer from Maharashtra, he worked • A revolutionary from Midnapore, he participated
for the upliftment of the low castes. in the Swadeshi Movement and later joined the
• He was against the Brahmins’ organization like Revolutionary Party of Bengal.
Prathana Samaj and Sarvajanik Sabha as they were • He was arrested for organizing a bomb attack on
concerned about the upper Varna only Phule the carriage of Kingsford, the Session Judge at
wanted to replace Hindu religion with Muzaffarpur (Bihar) and was sentenced to death.
the “Sarvajanik Ishwar Pranit Satya".
• He founded the Satyasadhak Samaj in 1873 for KHAN ABDUL GHAFFAR KHAN 1890-1988
educating low caste people and authored the
Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak. • Title — Frontier Gandhi, Badshah Khan or
Sarhadi Gandhi, Fakhar-e-Afghan.
KALPANA DUTT 1913-1978 • Founded an organization of non-violent
revolutionaries known as ‘Red Shirts” or “Khudai
• A woman revolutionary from Bengal, she was Khidmatgars”. He opposed partition.
influenced by Surya Sen, hence joined the • Participated in NCM, CDM and Quit India.
Chittagong Republican Army. • Newspaper — Pakhtoon (In Pushto), later
• She was sentenced to transportation for life for published as Das Roza.
participating in Chittagong Armoury Raids. • Honoured with ‘Bharat Ratna’ in 1987.
• After her release in 1936, she joined the
Communist Party of India. LAKSHMINATH BEZBARUA 1868-1938
KANAHIYALAL MANAKLAL MUNSHI 1887- • A writer from Assam, he started his journal Janaki
1971 in 1889 and also wrote the Assamese state anthem.
• A freedom fighter and lawyer from Gujarat, he

LALA HARDAYAL 1884-1939
participated in the Salt Satyagrah and CDM as
Congress member.
357
• A revolutionary from Delhi, he took up the cause • A revolutionary from Punjab, he was the member
of India's freedom to a foreign land in order to win of Indian Home Rule Society, the Abhinav Bharata
international support for the freedom movement and the India Houses.
• He was the first President of the Ghadar Party • He was sentenced to death for assassinating Sir
founded in San Francisco in 1913. William Curzon Wyllie, an Advisor to the
• He founded the Indian Independence Committee in Secretary of State of India during a public function
Germany and an Oriental Bureau to translate the in the Imperial Institute, London.
writings in the local language.
• Books – Wealth of Nations, and Hints for Self- MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA 1861-1946
Culture.
• A moderate leader and a lawyer by profession, he
MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD 1890-1958 served the provincial and central legislature for
many terms.
• Joined INC during Swadeshi Movement. • Through his efforts a memorial was built at the
• President of Khilafat Committee. Presided over the Jallianwala Bagh site.
Congress Special Session at Delhi in 1923, to • He founded the Nationalist Party in 1926.
become the youngest President. Also, the longest- • He was appointed as the Vice-Chancellor of
serving President of INC. Banaras Hindu University.
• He headed the Jamiat-ul-Ulema (1924), Nationalist • He served as the editor of Hindustan, Abyudaya
Muslim Conference, Shimla Conference (1945) and the Indian Union.
and negotiated with Cabinet Mission, 1946.
• Elected as the member of Constituent Assembly in MARGARET ELIZABETH NOBLE (SISTER
1946 and became Minister of Education and Arts NIVEDITA 1867-1911)
in the Interim Government.
• First Education Minister of Independent India. • An Irish lady, Elizabeth met Vivekananda in 1890
Also given the portfolios of natural resources and and inspired by him, she joined the Ramakrishna
scientific research. Mission and became a nun. She worked as a
• Contributed in the foundation of UGC, AICTE and social-it reformer for the upliftment of women.
IIT Kharagpur. She organized relief works during the plague
• Book – ‘India Wins Freedom’. epidemic in 1899 and during the Bengal famine of
1905. She wrote the articles—The Master as I
MUKHTAR AHMED ANSARI 1880-1936 Saw Him and The Web of Indian Life.
• A freedom fighter and surgeon from UP, he helped MOTILAL NEHRU 1861-1931
in organizing the All-India Medical Mission to
Turkey in 1912-13. • A lawyer by profession, Motilal became an active
• He participated in Home Rule Movement, NCM supporter of the Home Rule Movement in 1916
and Khilafat Movement. and started the journal ‘The Independent'.
• He was elected as the General Secretary of • He headed the Congress Commission looking into
Congress in 1927 and President over the All the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
Parties Conference and convention in 1928. • He gave up his practice during NCM and was
• He also helped in the establishment of Jamia arrested while following the visit of Prince Wales.
Millia Islamia in 1920. • He founded the Swarajya Party along with CR
Das.
MADAM BHIKAJI CAMA 1861-1936 • He had renamed Anand Bhawan as the Swaraj
Bhawan and gifted it to the Congress.
• She was a freedom fighter from Mumbai.
• She participated in the Socialist Congress at MUHAMMAD IQBAL 1873-1938
Stuttgart in 1907.
• She founded the Free India Society and the Bande • He was a renowned poet and a lawyer by
Mataram. profession.
• He joined Muslim League and presided over its
MADAN LAL DHINGRA 1887-1909 Allahabad Session in 1930.
358

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• He was the first person to give the idea of a • In 1915, British Crown granted him a ‘knighthood’
separate Muslim State. which he renounced after the Jallianwala Bagh
• He composed the song, “Share Jahan Se Achha.” Massacre.
• His compositions were chosen as National Anthem
MOHAMMAD ALL JINNAH 1876-1948 by two nations
(i) India — Jana Gana Mana
• He was inspired by the ideas or Gopal Krishna (ii) Bangladesh — Amar Shonar Bangla
Gokhale.
• In 1906, he signed a memorandum against separate RAIKUMARI AMRIT KAUR 1889-1964
electorates for Muslims.
• Joined the All-India Muslim League in 1913 and • A freedom fighter from Punjab, she participated as
played a major role in signing or Lucknow Pact. a Congress activist in the Satyagrah of 1930. She
• In 1917, joined the Home Rule Movement of was arrested during the Quit India Movement.
Annie Besant. • She was appointed as the first Health Minister of
• His differences with Congress began after the India, after independence.
entry of Gandhiji in Congress. He opposed the • She founded the Indian Council of Child Welfare
NCM of Gandhiji. and was the founder member of the All India
• In 1929, he proposed his Fourteen Point Demands. women's Conference.
• Lahore Session of Muslim League (194o) passed
the “Pakistan Resolution” demanding for a RAM MANOHAR LOHIA 1910-1968
separate state for Muslims. Jinnah stuck to
League's demand in all the negotiations with • He was the founder member of the Congress
Britain, and finally, Pakistan was formed. Socialist Party (1934) and edited the journal, The
• He became the first Governor-General of Pakistan. Congress Socialist’.
• He played a major role in building the foreign
PHEROZSHAH MEHTA 1845-1915 relations of the Congress Party.
• He founded the Socialist Party of India after
• He was a moderate leader from Bombay. Independence and worked for the development of
• He had denounced the Ilbert Bill in 1883. Hindi as the National Language.
• He was appointed as the Vice-Chancellor of the
Bombay University in 1915. RAM PRASAD BISMIL 1897-1927
• He presided over the Lahore Session of Congress
(1907) after the Surat Split. • A revolutionary from Uttar Pradesh, he was a
• He was given the title of “The uncrowned king of member of the Hindustan Socialist Republican
Bombay”. Association
• He started a newspaper, ‘The Bombay Chronicle’ • He was sentenced to death in the Kakori Mail
and founded the Central Bank of India. Dacoity Case (August 9, 1925).
• His most famous composition is “Sarforoshi ki
RABINDRANATH TAGORE 1861-1941 Tamanna ab hamare dil mein hai”.
• He was a poet, philosopher, educationist, RANI GAIDINLIU 1915-1981

internationalist and a patriot.
• He has his elder brother, Satyendranath Tagore, • She was a nationalist leader from Nagaland.
the first Indian to become an ICS. • She organised tribal revolts against the Britishers
• His first poem was published in the 'Amrit Bazar in Manipur. She was arrested in 1932 and was
Patrika' and then he wrote 'Banaphul' (story and released only after independence.
‘Bhanusinher Padavali’ (series of lyrics). • JL Nehru gave her the title of “Rani of the Nagas”.
• He founded Shantiniketan near Bolpore on
December 22, 1901. RAS BEHARI BOSE 1886-1945
• He wrote 'Gitanjali', which fetched him the Nobel
• A revolutionary from Bengal, Bose organized
Prize in 1913.
several clandestine activities in UP, Delhi and
• He inaugurated Raksha Bandhan festival to oppose Punjab at an early age.
the Partition of Bengal (1905).
• He was associated with Hardinge Bomb Case and
• He founded the Vishva Bharati University. Lahore Conspiracy Case after which he managed
to escape to Japan.
359
• He founded the Indian Muslim League and SAROJINI NAIDU 1879-1949

organized its first session at Bangkok in 1942.
• He also served as the President of the Council of • Popularly known as the “Nightingale of India”,
Action for the formation of INA, and later handed was a nationalist and poetess from Uttar Pradesh.
it over to Subash Chandra Bose. • She was married to Dr Govindarajulu Naidu in
• Bose died in Tokyo on January 21, 1945. 1893.
• Under the guidance of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, she
SACHINDRA NATH SANYAL 1895-1945 became the first woman to participate in India's
struggle for independence.
• An associate of Ras Behari Bose, Sanyal organized • She participated in the Dandi March with Gandhiji
a revolt by the soldiers of 7th Rajput Regiment in and presided over the Kanpur Session of Congress
the United Provinces. in 1925.
• He was the founder member of Hindustan • She was the first woman to become the Governor
Republican Association and was sentenced to life of Uttar Pradesh State.
imprisonment in the Kakori Conspiracy Case in • Her famous poetries include - The Golden
1925. Threshold (1905), The Feather of the Dawn;
The Bird of Time (1912) and The Broken
SACHIDANANDA SINHA 1871-1950 Wing (1917).
• A lawyer and educationist from Bihar, Sinha SARVEPALLI RADHAKRISHNAN 1888-1975

joined Congress in 1899 as a moderate leader.
• He participated in the Home Rule League • An educationalist from Tamil Nadu.
Movement and served as a member of Executive Radhakrishnan was associated with many
Council of Government of Bihar and Orissa in educational institutions in India.
1921. • He served as the Vice-Chancellor of Andhra
• He held the post of Vice-Chancellor of Patna University (1931) and Banaras Hindu University
University from 1936 to 1944. (1942).
• He was the Interim President of the Indian • He gave lectures on theology and philosophy in
Constituent Assembly. the universities of Chicago, Manchester, London
• He published the journal, ‘Indian Nation’ and and Oxford, among others.
edited ‘Hindustan Review’. • He was the leader of the Indian delegation to
UNESCO from 1946-50, its chairman in 1948 and
SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE 1897-1945 President of UNESCOs University Education
Commission in 1952.
• He passed the Indian Civil Services Examination • He was also appointed as the Vice-President of
in 1920 in England but left it on Gandhiji's call of International PEN.
NCM. • In 1962, he represented the Calcutta University at
• Founded the Independence for India League with the Congress of Philosophy at Harvard University.
JL Nehru. • He was twice elected as the Vice-President of
• Elected as the President of INC at its Haripura India (1952-56 and 1957-62) and served as the
Session (1938) and Tripuri Session (1939) hut President of the nation from 1962 to 1967.
resigned from Tripuri due to differences with • His birthday (5th September), is celebrated as
Gandhiji. ‘Teacher’s Day'.
• He founded the Forward Block (1939) and Kisan • His works include — The Ethics of the Vedanta
Sabha. and its Material Presupposition (1908); The
• He escaped to Berlin in 1941 and met Hitler. He Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore (1918):
took the charge of Indian Army (Azad Hind Fauz) Idealistic view of Life (1932); Eastern Religion
in 1943 in Singapore and set up Indian Provisional and Western Thought: Indian Philosophy and
Government there. Kalki on the Future of Civilization.
• He addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the “Father of
the Nation.” VINAYAK DAMODAR SAVARKAR 1883-1966
• He supposedly died in a plane crash in 1945.
• He was a poet, scholar, social worker, historian,
• Slogans — “Dilli Chalo” and “Jai Hind”.
and one of the earliest revolutionaries from
• Autobiography — ‘The Indian Struggle’.
Maharashtra.
360
• He founded the Mitra Mela (Assembly of friends) • He was the first national leader to be arrested
in 1889 and renamed it as the Abhinav Bharat, during the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Society (New India Society) in 1904. • He participated in Gandhi’s Individual Satyagrah
• He founded the Free India Society in London in and Quit India Movement.
1906. • In the post-independence period, he was appointed
• He described the Revolt of 1857 as the first war or as the First Deputy Prime Minister of India along
independence in his book, ‘Indian war of with the portfolios of the Information and
Independence’. Broadcasting and Home Ministry.
• He was arrested for his involvement in Nasik • He played a major role in integrating the 562 states
Conspiracy Case. in the Indian Union.
• He was elected as the President of the Hindu
Mahasabha in 1937. VITHALBHAI PATEL 1871-1933
VALLABHBHAI PATEL 1875-1950 • A freedom fighter from Gujarat and elder brother
of Vallabhbhai Patel, Vithalbhai rebelled against
• A freedom fighter and social reformer from the leadership of Gandhiji over the abortion of the
Gujarat, he is popularly known as Sardar Pater and NCM and formed the Swarajya Party.
honoured with the title of “The Iron Man of India”. • He was elected for the Central Legislative
• His father, Jhaverbhai Pate), is supposed to have Assembly in 1923.
fought in the army of Rani of Jhansi in the Revolt • He rejoined Congress upon the declaration of
of 1857. Poorna Swaraj but after the end of Salt Satyagrah,
• He started the Kheda or Kaira Satyagrah in 1918 he became a fierce critic of Gandhi and a strong
and fought for the rights of the peasants in Bardoli ally of Subhas Chandra Bose.
Satyagrah. Here, he was honoured with the title
“Sardar”.
361
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3 RISE OF REGIONAL STATES 19

4 BRITISH CONQUEST OF INDIA 32

5 POPULAR UPRISINGS BEFORE 1857 66

7 POPULAR UPRISINGS FROM 1857-1947 88

8 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS 103

9 BEGINNING OF STRUGGLE-(1805-1905) 138

10 NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905-1919) 146

11 NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1919-1929) 171

12 NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1929-1947) 217

13 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE IN INDIA 280

14 LAND REVENUE SYSTEM IN INDIA 290

15 DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA 299

16 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS 308

17 OTHER ASPECTS OF BRITISH RULE IN INDIA 315

18 GOVERNOR GENERAL OF INDIA (1773-1950) 328

CHAPTER 1 – LATER MUGHALS

The Wide spread of Mughals reign

INTRODUCTION- 1. BAHADUR SHAH 1 (1707-1712)-

2. JAHANDAR SHAH (1712-13)-

• Farrukh siyar became Emperor with the help of

4. MUHAMMAD SHAH RANGEELA (1719-

• After Farrukh, Sayyid Brothers brought two young

• Deposed by the Marathas who captured Delhi in

9. BAHADUR SHAH 2 (1837-57)

• He declared himself as the emperor at Patna in 1759

CHAPTER 2- ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS IN INDIA

Portugal (1498) Dutch (1602) English (1608)

French (1667) Danes (1620)

ARRIVAL OF PORTUGUESE (1498) -

IMPORTANT PORTUGUESE GOVERNORS –

o Francisco De Almeida (1505-09) - o The Portuguese administration in India became

YEAR PERSONALITY IMPORTANT EVENTS

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BACKGROUND – o 1610 – They had signed a treaty with the king of

YEAR Important Personalities Important Events

1623 - o Amboyna Massacre (1623) – It took place in Indonesia where the

1690 - o The Dutch transferred the HQ from Pulicat to Nagapattinam

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