Water Use and The Environment

Water Use and
the Environment
Chapter 13: Fresh Water Resources
Figure 13.1: When you look at it from space, it’s easy to see why Earth is called “the blue planet.”
Did You Know? WATER’S FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE

Water is one of the most widely occurring substances on Earth. It covers seventy
• You can survive about a percent of the planet’s surface. Water is the only substance that exists naturally in
month without food, but only
all three states—solid (ice), liquid, and gas (water vapour and steam). Water falls
5 – 7 days without water.
as various types of precipitation—rain, hail, sleet, snow—and collects on the
• Plasma (which makes up surface in glaciers, lakes, marshes, rivers, and oceans. It can be suspended in the
55 percent of our blood air or found deep underground. Its presence helps regulate Earth’s temperature.
volume) is 90 percent water.
• Remains of water storage Water is essential for all living species. Humans drink water and use it for
dams found in Jordan, agriculture, for industry, and for recreation. It is also valued in aesthetic and
Egypt and other parts of spiritual ways. In most of the world’s major religions, water has an important
the Middle East date back symbolic or ceremonial role. Not surprisingly, the development of human
to at least 3000 BC. civilization has been closely linked to the presence of water. Historically, people
settled or moved between places where water was plentiful and good for
drinking. These two factors—water’s quantity and its quality—continue to
shape how we use, manage, and discuss water today.
Fresh Water Resources 441

Did You Know?
Water’s high surface tension
means it tends to clump
together in drops rather than
spread out in a film. This
makes capillary action
possible. It carries water and Water (H2O) is an odourless, tasteless, and colourless
the substances dissolved in liquid formed by a combination of two atoms
it through the roots of plants of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
and the tiny blood vessels
in living bodies. Pure water has a neutral pH of 7, which
means it is neither acidic nor basic.
Polarity explains many of water’s properties such as

its low melting and boiling points, its high surface tension,
its expansion when frozen, and its ability to dissolve other substances.
Figure 13.2: A representation of a water molecule: two atoms of hydrogen (H) and one atom of oxygen (O).
Image courtesy Department of Environment and Conservation
What Monitoring Reveals

The Universal Solvent
• In 1981, in the Adirondack
Mountains, 217 lakes were
Water can dissolve more substances than almost any other liquid. That’s why it is often
tested for acidity. More than called the “universal solvent”.Wherever water travels through the air, the ground, and
110 of them had a pH of less even our bodies, it picks up and carries chemicals, minerals, and nutrients.
than 5.0. In 100 of those lakes,
no fish of any species were Water’s solvent properties are what make it so important to life because it allows
found. the transfer of nutrients that are vital to animals and plants. But, it also means that
water can pick up material harmful to life. A drop of rainwater falling through
• In Canada, 202 lakes have
been studied since the early
the air, for example, dissolves atmospheric gases. If this rainwater becomes acidic,
1980s. Of these, 33 percent it affects the quality of land, rivers, and lakes.
have reduced their initial
levels of acidity; 56% have Fresh and Salty Water
not changed; 11 percent have Water in nature can be either fresh or salty. Salty water has a salt content of
become more acidic. between 0.5 percent and 25 percent. The most common salty water, found in the
oceans, is referred to as saltwater and contains about 3.5 percent salt. The saltwater
• Data from acid rain monitoring
sites in Newfoundland and
in oceans and seas accounts for most of the planet’s water, 97.5 percent.
Labrador during the 1990s
indicated that the most acidic Fresh water has less than 0.5 parts per thousand of dissolved solids. Fresh water
precipitation fell on the occurs on the surface of Earth in lakes, ponds, and rivers. It is also found in the soil,
southwest corner of the island. in all forms of precipitation, as condensation in the air and underground in aquifers.
As prevailing weather comes
from the southwest, this pattern
Fresh water accounts for only 2.5 percent of Earth’s water supply. More than two-
indicated that the source of the
sulphate pollution was from
thirds of that amount (68.9 percent) exists in forms that we cannot easily use, in
outside the province. glaciers, ice caps, and permanent snow cover. Only 0.01 percent of the water on
Earth is available for drinking or other human uses.
442 Unit 4 • Chapter 13
A Fresh Look at Home Waters
Compared to other provinces, a high percentage of Newfoundland and Labrador’s
surface area is fresh water. Lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams cover roughly eight percent
of the province’s area.
The Water Cycle
Water that is found on the Earth’s surface—in streams, lakes, rivers, and oceans
—is called surface water. If it is underground, it is called groundwater.
Did You Know?
Raindrops are not tear-shaped. In nature, water’s major pattern of movement is the water cycle (or hydrological
Scientists, using high-speed cycle). The sun, by heating ocean water, is the main source of energy propelling
cameras, have discovered that this cycle. Surface water evaporates into the atmosphere, falls back again in some
raindrops are shaped like form of precipitation, and moves over or under the surface of the Earth in response
small hamburger buns! to the force of gravity. Because of this cycle of movement and return, fresh water
is considered one of Earth’s few non-living renewable resources.
Figure 13.3: More than two-thirds of all the water on Earth (68.9 percent) exists in forms
that we cannot easily use; in glaciers, ice caps, and permanent snow cover.
The Freshwater/Saltwater Link

If all precipitation falls as fresh water, why does Earth have huge bodies
of salt water? Because the fresh water that flows into the oceans, seas, and
land-locked lakes has picked up minerals (including salts) along the way.
The minerals are left behind when water evaporates. Gradually, over millennia,
the concentration of salts increased and transformed the final-destination
water body into a saltwater, rather than a freshwater, environment.

Not all salty water The Water Cycle
is the same
The concentration of salts in
fresh water is usually so small
that it is stated in parts per
million (ppm). Here are some Cloud Formation
sample concentrations: Precipitation
Source Salt
concentrations
Evaporation Transpiration
Distilled water 0 ppm
Rain 10 ppm
Ocean 35,000* ppm Runoff
Dead Sea 250,000 ppm
*This is an average figure. The concentration

of salt in the world’s oceans varies. The Red
Sea and the Persian Gulf have the saltiest
water due to high rates of evaporation.
Of the major oceans, the North Atlantic
is the saltiest.
Uptake Infiltration to
by Well Plant Uptake Groundwater
Groundwater
Did You Know? Figure 13.4: The Water Cycle. Image courtesy Derek Peddle
• Water is nearly pure in its

gaseous state. As water passes through the water cycle it is naturally cleaned of some impurities.
The cleansing of water by the environment, called self-cleaning, can be
• Plant leaves emit water scientifically studied and assessed. How well and how quickly water is self-cleaned
vapour by a process called
depends on many variables. These include the volume of water in a given system,
transpiration. Every day a
how quickly and turbulently it flows, the characteristics of the bottom and bank
growing plant transpires 5 to
material, variations of sunlight and temperature, and the chemical nature of the
10 times as much water as it
can store at any one moment.
water itself. As you will see, all of these natural self-cleaning processes are also
harnessed in human-engineered water treatment processes.
How does water clean itself?

There are several natural ways by which water becomes cleaner:
Physical processes include the filtering that occurs as rain trickles through
the ground or flows over sand and soil in rivers. In standing bodies of water,
some contaminants simply settle out. Clay in ambient water actually collects
other materials as it settles to the bottom. Called “adhesion”, this process can
help remove dissolved and suspended substances. In addition, when water
evaporates or freezes, it leaves impurities behind.

Bio-chemical processes occur when water is purified mainly by the actions
of living organisms. Energy from sunlight drives the process of photosynthesis
in aquatic plants, which produces oxygen that is used by bacteria to break down
organic material such as plant and animal waste. This decomposition produces
the carbon dioxide, nutrients, and other substances that aquatic plants and
animals need. The purification cycle continues when these plants and animals
die and bacteria decompose their remains, providing nourishment for new
generations of organisms.
Wetlands help remove impurities as well. The plants typically in wetland

ecosystems are able to consume nutrients and some types of dissolved
metals in water.
The process of sunlight radiation can kill some bacteria in water—

sunlight acts as a natural disinfectant. The success of this process depends
on many factors, including the type of bacteria, the clarity of the water, and
the geographic location. It is most effective in latitudes near the equator.
How long is groundwater in the ground?

It varies enormously—from days or weeks to 10,000 years or more. It is not
unusual for groundwater to stay underground for hundreds or even thousands
Concern about Water: an of years. River water, on the other hand, takes about two weeks to completely
International Response replace itself.
In 2004, The United Nations
(UN) declared that 2005 –
2015 would be the “Decade for OUR COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP WITH WATER
Action —Water for Life”. It also Today, the world’s water resources are under increasing pressure because of
made March 22 of each year
population growth and humanity’s call for more water in more places for more
“World Day for Water”. Through
uses. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 1.1 billion people
these efforts, the UN hopes to
promote public awareness of in the world do not have access to safe drinking water and 2.4 billion people do
water conservation and the not have access to adequate sanitation. In 2003 alone, diseases related to poor
development of worldwide water quality killed more than six thousand children every day. In addition, about
water resources. 3,800 cubic kilometres of fresh water is withdrawn each year from the world’s
lakes, rivers, and aquifers—that’s twice the volume withdrawn just fifty years ago.
The demands for water in Newfoundland and Labrador are also growing.
Compared to other places in the world, we have plenty of water suitable for
drinking and other purposes. We are, however, also facing challenges, including
having one of the highest per-capita water use rates in the country.

The Demand for Water: At Home and In Our Communities
Three Ways to Enjoy Water Water plays a big role in our lifestyles. At home, we use it to cook, wash, drink,
water plants, and remove human wastes. This is often referred to as “domestic water
use”. Outside the home, water is used in similar ways in schools and the workplace.
We swim in it, fish in it (and harvest from it), and boat on it. We use it to clean up
working areas, to generate hydroelectric power, and also in lumber, milling, mining,
and other industrial processes, as well as in agriculture and livestock-raising.
Figure 13.5: White water rafting. Environment Canada estimates that for domestic purposes alone, the typical
Photo courtesy Department of
Environment and Conservation
Canadian uses about 350 litres of water per day. Here are some of the statistics:
• Toilet flush:15 – 19 litres
The way we use water for • Five minute shower: 100 litres or 50 litres with a low-flow shower head
recreation can be divided • Bath tub: 60 litres
into three sub-categories:
• Primary—swimming
• Automatic dishwashing: 40 litres
• Dishwashing by hand: 35 litres
Did You Know?
and playing in it • Hand washing: 8 litres (with tap running) Only five percent of daily
• Secondary—fishing • Brushing teeth: 10 litres (with tap running) water use is for drinking and
or boating on it cooking.
• Outdoor watering: 35 litres /min
• Tertiary—admiring • Washing machine: 225 litres
(painting viewing,
photographing) it from Modern lifestyles and appliances, as well as piped-in water and sewage disposal,
a distance have increased our use of water from the time when all water had to be pumped
and carried by hand.
Litres of water used for various daily activities
Toilet flush 17
5 min. shower 100
Bath tub 60
Automatic dishwashing 40
Dishwashing by hand 35
Hand washing 8
Brushing teeth 10
Outdoor watering 35
Washing machine 225
Litres of water 0 50 100 150 200 250
Figure 13.6: Some typical water consumption amounts for daily activities in Canada.
Data Source: Environment Canada

Monitor your use of water in a day and estimate its volume. Are you over
or under the Canadian average (which was 335 litres per day in 1999)?
How much water is needed to make a car?

At least 120,000 litres of water is used to manufacture a car: 80,000 litres
to make the steel and 40,000 litres in the
fabrication. More water is used to
make its plastic, glass, and fabric.
The Demand for Water: Industry

Industry puts many demands on water. Water is used as a raw material, a coolant,
a solvent, a transport agent, and a source of energy. In Canada, industry accounts
Global Industry for about sixteen percent of total fresh water consumption. It comes in second
Water Withdrawals
behind thermal power generation, which uses sixty three percent.
• World-
22% of total water use Agriculture consumes a great deal of water. It can be the biggest consumer in
• High-income countries- agriculture-based countries. Water is needed for irrigation and for spraying
59% of total water use fertilizers and pesticides. All of these activities can affect the quantity and quality
of water in a region.
• Low-income countries-
8% of total water use Managing water resources is a complex
matter. Managers must satisfy a growing
demand for water while also carefully
balancing the sometimes conflicting
environmental, economic, and social
considerations.
Shipping “Bulk”Water
Unlike bottled water, bulk water is exported in large quantities,
unpackaged. There are three ways this is possible (though not necessarily
economically or technically feasible):
1. As icebergs (towed by ships),
2. In huge bags (towed by ships)
3. In container ships or tankers (as in the Gisborne Lake proposal).
In some places, pipelines and barges (carrying water trucks)
Figure 13.7: Industrial water consumption
are also used. in Canada by industry.

Case Study
Water—An Export Product?
Because the Earth has an expanding population and a finite water supply,
some people expect that water will become “the oil of the twenty-first
century”; a blue gold.
Compared to many places in the world, Canada is rich in water. This does not
necessarily mean we are sitting on a big pot of gold, however. Containing and
selling bulk water for profit has many implications—environmental, economic,
and moral. The main question is:
“Should water be considered a “vital resource” (like air) that

belongs to everyone, or a “commodity” (like oil) that can be
sold and traded the same way other natural resources are?”
In Canada, managing water resources is a provincial responsibility while export
and trade are federal responsibilities. Any export or trade across our national
borders is also subject to international agreements. Some people are concerned
that if we treat our water as a “commodity”, other nations may be able to gain
access to vast amounts of it under the terms of the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA).
In the fall of 1999, the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador passed

the Water Resources Protection Act that prohibited bulk water removal (that
legislation was replaced in 2002 by the Water Resources Act). In 1999, the
Province also signed a national bulk water prohibition agreement. It was called
the Accord for the Prohibition of Bulk Water Removal from Drainage Basins.
This voluntary agreement was signed by eight other provinces and territories
(the “drainage basins” in the title refers to the five major basins across the
country). These activities were the culmination of months of debate about
the export of water in our House of Assembly and in legislative chambers
(and kitchens) across Canada.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, the catalyst for the discussion was a proposal
to export water in bulk from Gisborne Lake, which is near Grand Le Pierre
on the south coast of Newfoundland. The project’s organizers argued that the
development would be sustainable (that is, it would not damage the
environment or deplete the lake) and it would provide much-needed jobs in

the nearby communities. The project was not approved at first (1999), but when
Roger Grimes became Premier, the discussion was reopened (2001). This led to
an investigation into the pros and cons of the issue by a specially appointed
Ministerial Committee.
The Committee recommended continuing the ban on bulk water exports and,
to date, that is still the case. The main reasons for their recommendation were
economic—the costs of exporting the water by tanker were too high to make
the effort profitable. Significantly, the Committee’s report concluded that
exporting water would not have implications for other provinces, under the
terms of NAFTA (which had been a concern across the country).
Given the need for water around the world, it seems likely that the discussion
will continue.
1. List and discuss the pros and cons of bulk water export.
2. The province also produces bottled water. What sources of water is this
industry using? What are the issues that come up in relation to this enterprise?
Pressure on Water Resources: Pollution and Contamination

Every day, manufacturing and service industries, households,
and institutions discharge water that carries hundreds of
different substances into rivers and lakes. According to
Environment Canada, at least 100,000 tonnes of toxic pollutants
were discharged directly into Canada’s surface waters in 2003.
Whatever and wherever its source, the degrading of water quality

can affect both aquatic life and human uses of water. For example,
higher concentrations of nutrients (nitrogen or phosphorus from
fertilizers) may result in uncontrolled plant growth and reduce the
amount of dissolved oxygen available in the water for fish and
other aquatic animals.
These combined pressures, plus demand for water and decreasing

water quality due to human activities, reinforce the need to
understand water and our effects on it, and to manage it wisely.
Figure 13.8: Sewage outfall.

Photo courtesy DFO/Laura Park

AMBIENT WATER: A CLOSER LOOK
The quality of the water in the environment is affected by the type and quantity of
Did You Know? materials that are dissolved in it by natural processes or by human activity. Before
we look at what these materials are and how they find their way into water sources,
In water resource management,
let’s examine how fresh water moves in the natural environment and the nature of
a watershed is always described
some of the province’s most important freshwater aquatic environments: wetlands,
in relation to its “outlet”. Outlets
rivers, and large bodies of water.
can be dam sites, drinking
water sources, locations where
The Watershed
streams join together, or any
A watershed or drainage basin is an area of land in which the surface water and
number of other points. The
groundwater all drain to a common waterway such as a stream, wetland, lake, or
outlet is the lowest point, and
even the ocean.
all of the area higher than it,
which drains into it, is that
A watershed’s shape, size, and area are determined by the highest points of land
outlet’s watershed.
that surround it. On the far side of these high points, water flows towards different
waterways in different watersheds. If you draw a line through the highest points
of elevation—also called drainage divides—around a river on a map, you have
Did You Know? outlined its watershed.
There are five ocean drainage
Watersheds vary in size—they can be drawn for a single stream or pond, or for
basins in Canada.Water in
a whole system of waterways that come together to flow to the ocean. The drainage
them flows to:
basin for an entire river takes in the watershed areas of all its tributaries.
• Atlantic Ocean;
• Hudson Bay;
• Arctic Ocean;
• Pacific Ocean; and
• Gulf of Mexico.
The individual Canadian river
system with the largest drainage
area is the MacKenzie
(1,805,200 km2).
In Newfoundland and
Labrador, the Churchill River
has the largest drainage area
(92,500 km2).
Figure 13.9: Water running

into St. Paul’s Lake, NL from
the surrounding watershed.

The water that flows out of a watershed is called its runoff. Runoff
quantities are often directly related to the amount of precipitation as well
as the size and shape of the watershed area. Generally, given the same amount
of precipitation, larger watersheds have more total runoff than smaller watersheds.
The Churchill River in Labrador, for example, has a vast drainage basin and
produces more than 50 billion cubic metres of runoff every year. In Newfoundland
and Labrador, the large volume of rain and snow we receive contributes to high
runoff rates, which can reach almost 300 billion cubic metres a year.
All activities that take place in a watershed, whether they are natural
processes or human-driven, can affect the quality and quantity of water
in the watershed.
Watersheds and Water Management

Because each watershed is an integrated and interconnected system
of water ways, watershed management is an effective way to approach
water quality management.
Watershed management is an innovative, holistic planning

process that considers all the known elements within a
watershed. The approach is based
Figure 13.10: Runoff Volume on geography and ecosystem science and it relies
Graph. Arrows indicate the
Nutrient Levels
amount of annual regional on shared responsibility for partnership and Because runoff in Newfoundland
mean runoff volumes in billions stewardship among water resource authorities, and Labrador is high, the nutrient
of cubic metres (BCM) for the municipalities, and other important stakeholders. levels in most water bodies in the
province. The total annual
runoff from watersheds in For watershed management to work, all those province are low (they are
Newfoundland and Labrador involved in decision making must use the best oligotrophic). This is because the
is estimated to be 295 BCM: available science, and all decisions and activities nutrients are either flushed out to
190 BCM from Labrador and sea or their concentrations are
105 BCM from Newfoundland. should reflect the informed preferences of the
Image courtesy Department of people who live in the watershed. diluted. Systems with moderately
Environment and Conservation enriched nutrient levels are called
mesotrophic. Those with highly
Mapping a watershed, identifying potential
enriched nutrient levels are
sources of contamination, and assessing the
eutrophic.
possibility of water-quality problems are critical
elements of watershed management and Changing the natural nutrient levels
protection. Watershed management requires in an aquatic system can disrupt
a watershed plan, which should outline effective the balance of its food web and
strategies for sustainable development of affect water quality.Adding nutrients
resources and for protection of public health to an aquatic system is called
and the environment. eutrophication.A common cause
of eutrophication is the use of
fertilizers within a watershed or the
discharge of untreated sewage.

Freshwater Ecosystems
Many types of freshwater ecosystems can exist in a watershed or
drainage basin. They include wetlands, streams and rivers, ponds
and lakes, and even underground aquifers. Distinctly different from
one another, they provide aquatic habitats for a wide variety of plants
and animals. Physical and natural elements combine to make each
type of habitat unique.
Water is the main physical component of all aquatic habitats.

Geography and climate affect water’s properties: whether it freezes,
how it accumulates, how fast it flows, and what nutrients it carries,
for example. The characteristics of the water, in turn, affect the types
and interactions, as well as the variety of plants and wildlife that
Figure 13.11: Peatland. grow in the system (the biodiversity).
Photo courtesy K. Slaney
Wetlands
What’s a Peatland? Wetlands are areas saturated by surface water or groundwater.
A peatland is a wetland in which The plants found there are adapted for life in waterlogged soil
peat (or “turf ”) is found. Peat is a conditions. Aquatic and wetland habitats together account for more
type of soil with a high proportion than 20 percent of the total area of Newfoundland and Labrador—
of dead organic matter (mainly plants). about 168,000 square kilometres. As in the rest of Canada, the
This organic material has built up wetlands in this province are primarily peatland.
over thousands of years. The material
Wetlands are an important part of the
has not decomposed because
waterlogged conditions (and a lack environment. They collect and store
Did You Know?
of oxygen) prevent micro-organisms runoff thereby, reducing or moderating Canada has 1.27 million square
from breaking down the dead flooding and erosion downstream. kilometres of wetlands. That
plant materials. By controlling runoff, wetlands also is 14 percent of the country.
play an important role in reducing Canada’s wetlands represent
the build-up of sediment in rivers. 25 percent of all the wetlands
They also filter and purify water, on the planet.
maintain river flow during dry periods,
$$ Value, Too! Migratory routes for caribou
help replenish groundwater, and
Wetlands attract hunters, bird often cross large tracts of
provide distinct habitats for plants
watchers, hikers, and photographers. peatland.
and animals.
These activities can generate regional
economic benefits through tourism
The table on the next page lists the major wetland types and their
dollars and recreational spending.
characteristics, some of which are explored in more detail
Peatlands are also considered prime
on the following pages.
areas for berry picking. The sale of
bakeapples (cloudberries in Europe)
in particular, contributes to this
province’s economy.

Wetland Type Characteristics
Bog
Water comes only from precipitation; the soil is acidic
and nutrient levels are low. Dominant vegetation are
mosses (including sphagnum moss). Plants, such as
the pitcher plant, use insects as a source of nutrients.
Bogs are peat-covered. Groundwater level is close to
BOG
the surface.
Fen
Water comes from precipitation and groundwater
movement. The soil is less acidic and contains more
nutrients than bogs. Dominant vegetation are grasses;
mosses are also present. Groundwater is above the
surface and there are open water areas with
FEN
flowing water.
Swamp
Water comes from several sources. Soil is totally
submerged or periodically submerged. Dominant
vegetation are trees or tall shrubs. There are moderate
SWAMP
and variable amounts of nutrients in the soil/water;

the peat is wood-rich. Groundwater is mostly below
the surface.
Marsh
Mineral-rich soil is totally submerged or
periodically submerged (groundwater can be at or
below the surface). Dominant plants are reeds, cattails,
and sedges. Surface water is shallow and levels
MARSH
fluctuate daily.
Figure 13.12: Types of wetland. Photos courtesy K. Slaney

Bogs
Typical bogs have acidic water, spongy peat deposits, and a thick carpet
Did You Know? of sphagnum moss. Most (or all) of their water enters the ecosystem via
precipitation, not from runoff, groundwater, or streams. Because of this bogs
Sphagnum moss produces are low in the nutrients that are needed for plant growth. Acid-forming peat
acid. By holding up to twenty mosses add to their low pH levels.
times its weight in water and
releasing hydrogen ions, it Bogs are formed in two ways:
maintains the high acidity of 1. When sphagnum moss grows over a lake or pond and slowly
the bog. This means that the fills it (terrestrialization).
bacteria that normally break 2. When sphagnum moss covers dry land and prevents water from
down plant matter cannot leaving the surface (paludification).
thrive. Dead sphagnum moss
(and other plant material) Whichever way they begin, as the centuries pass many metres of acidic peat
accumulates rather than deposits can slowly build up.
decomposes, eventually
forming peat. Bogs are generally associated with locations that experience low temperatures
and short growing seasons, and where lots of precipitation and high humidity cause
excessive moisture to accumulate. The unique characteristics of bogs give rise to
plant and animal communities that have adapted to low nutrient levels, waterlogged
conditions, and acidic water. The specialized flora and fauna that grow in acidic
conditions are called acidophiles.
Plants found in bogs generally require acidic conditions and include cotton grass,
cranberry, blueberry, dwarfed black spruce, and tamarack, as well as Labrador tea
and other dwarf-shrubs. Moose, caribou, and lynx are a few of the animals that
use northern bog habitats.
Bogs can take hundreds (sometimes thousands) of years to form naturally, but
can be destroyed in a few days. Historically, they were drained and the area used
for growing crops. In some places they were mined for their peat, which was
burned as fuel or used as a soil conditioner.
Recently, the role that bogs and other peatlands play in regulating global
climate has been recognized. Peat deposits store large amounts of carbon, thereby
reducing atmospheric CO2. Reduction of this greenhouse gas should help slow
climate change.
Fens
Fens, like bogs, are peat-forming wetlands. Unlike bogs, they receive water and
nutrients from other sources besides precipitation. It drains from uphill sources
and from groundwater.

Figure 13.13: As shown here, extensive damage can be done to wetlands (in this case a fen)
by the use of ATVs. Photo Courtesy K. Slaney
Fens differ from bogs in two main ways:

1. Fens are less acidic than bogs.
2. Fens have higher nutrient levels than bogs.
As a result of these differences, fens support more diverse plant and animal
communities than bogs. They are often covered by grasses, sedges, rushes, and
wildflowers.
Like bogs, fens occur mainly in the northern hemisphere (and are found across
much of Canada). They are generally associated with low temperatures and short
growing seasons accompanied by lots of precipitation and high humidity. This
causes moisture to accumulate. The fens in Newfoundland and Labrador are not
as numerous as the bogs.
Fens provide important benefits in a watershed. Like bogs, they prevent or reduce
the risk of floods, improve water quality, and provide habitat for unique plant and
animal communities.
Rivers
Rivers usually begin as a stream—a body of running water that flows under gravity
through clearly defined natural channels to lower and lower elevations. Once a
natural stream has collected a substantial volume of water (the volume of running
water is larger) it is called a river.

Because of its movement and weight, flowing water
has tremendous energy. Quickly moving streams and
rivers can reshape the landscape carving deep grooves
in rocks and shifting huge volumes of earth. This
reshaping most often happens in the higher parts of
the river’s drainage basin. In lower elevations, where
the slope is flatter, the river slows down and sediments
begin to settle to the bottom—this usually occurs
near the river mouth. This settling of material can
sometimes create deltas where flowing water meets
a standing body of water.
The volume and speed of water plus the timing of its

flow determines how a river shapes the surrounding
landscape, what it picks up, what it deposits, and how
people can use the water.
Figure 13.14: A stream
or a river?Photo courtesy The interface between the land and a river or stream is referred to as
Stephen Elliot a riparian zone. Riparian zones (sometimes called buffer zones) are
characterized by plant communities that are adapted to very wet and
flood conditions, and which grow along the margin of the river or
What’s a Flashy River? stream. These plant communities can be mainly grassland, woodland,
It’s a river whose flow tends to have sudden or wetland depending on the land through which the river flows. The
increases after rainfall. The high levels vegetation surrounding the river or stream helps shade the water and
decrease just as quickly when the rain stops. prevents rapid temperature changes. The plants and their root systems
In this province, flashy rivers occur where absorb some of the stream energy,
drainage or catchment areas have a lot of
slowing soil erosion and reducing Did You Know?
exposed bedrock and have little vegetation
damage from floods. Riparian zones On cold nights when the
or few wetland areas. Rainfall cannot be
also help increase biodiversity in an wind blows hard over open
absorbed well in these conditions and so
the runoff proceeds quickly to the river.
area by providing a habitat for a variety stretches of water, it speeds
of wildlife. These zones also provide a the formation of ice. On the
wildlife corridor where aquatic and Exploits River, between the
riparian organisms move along the Millertown dam and Grand
river system while avoiding the drier Falls, sometimes more than
land community. two million cubic metres
of ice can be produced in
one night!
Figure 13.15: Flashy River Water Levels. This graph of

river flow on the Isle aux Morts River shows how quickly
(time in hours is on the x-axis) a flashy river can react and
reach high levels (shown in metres as “stage” on the y-axis).
Photo courtesy Department of Environment and Conservation

Ponds and Lakes
In most of North America, the terms “lake” and “pond” have distinct and different
meanings. The water bodies referred to as lakes have water layers with different
temperatures. Their shores are windswept and are characterized by rooted plants
that only grow close to shore. The water bodies referred to as ponds are smaller
bodies of water that have no more than one of these characteristics. These
definitions do not apply in Newfoundland and Labrador where the terms are used
interchangeably. In this text, for the purpose of discussion, we will use the
definitions above.
One of the main reasons why lakes are ecologically important is because they
can store water when there is a lot of precipitation and then gradually release it.
This helps balance the flow of the rivers that run out of them.
Did You Know?
Oxygen levels decrease when
water temperatures increase.
The cooler the water, the more
oxygen can dissolve in it—
which makes more oxygen
available for aquatic life at low
temperatures. One of the
reasons fish are found at
different water depths through
the year is their need to follow
desirable oxygen levels and
water temperatures.
Figure 13.16: View of a pond/lake, Penguin Arm, Bay of Islands, Newfoundland.

Photo courtesy Paul Saunders
The greater the size or number of lakes, the greater the moderating effect on
connected rivers. For example, take Beaver Brook and Northeast Brook which are
both located near Roddickton, on the island of Newfoundland. Beaver Brook has
an annual maximum-to-minimum flow ratio of about 35. That means its maximum
flow rate is about 35 times more than its minimum flow rate. Northeast Brook’s
ratio is about 18. The rivers are similar in many ways. The difference in flow rate
ratios is largely because Northeast Brook has more lakes and wetlands in its
watershed (17 percent of its drainage area) than Beaver Brook (8 percent).
Is it a Lake or is it a Pond?
If you’re having trouble deciding what a body of water near you should be called, conduct
an Internet search to identify the specific characteristics and compare with the body of
water in question.

How does light affect the pH of an aquatic ecosystem?
Plants are unique among living things because they make their own food.
Through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light, water, and carbon
dioxide, plant leaves make sugars that are important for growth.
In this activity, you will investigate the process of photosynthesis in an

aquatic ecosystem.You will collect data using a pH sensor, then compare
and organize information in tables and graphs to identify pH patterns
related to light.
By placing a small aquatic plant and a snail in a plastic bag filled with
water, you can measure the change in the rate of photosynthesis based
on pH. The live snail produces carbon dioxide, which is dissolved in the
water in the form of carbonic acid. The plant needs the carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis. The plant will only undergo photosynthesis if ample light
is available. During the night or at lower light levels, unused carbon dioxide
increases in water ecosystems and as a result pH decreases.
Note:
Working with live snails requires respect and care in treatment. Once the activity
is completed, return all organisms to their original environment.
Calibrate the pH meter before taking your readings for this activity.
Have you seen a blue pond?
An area about an hours drive
Materials:
south of Corner Brook on the
• pH sensor
Trans-Canada Highway (TCH) is
underlain with limestone. There • Two aquatic snails
are two ponds there that are fed • Fluorescent light
by underground limestone-based • Stream or pond water
springs. They have a spectacular • Two small plastic bags (water tight)
blue-green colour which you can • Two aquatic plants with roots
spot from the TCH. The colour
• Aluminum foil
of the water is caused by the
• Graph paper/spreadsheet software
light bouncing off the calcium
carbonate suspended in the water.
Procedure:
1. Place a snail and a small aquatic plant with attached roots into
each small plastic bag filled with stream or pond water.
2. Record the pH of each bag.
3. Describe your aquatic ecosystems in your notes.
4. Place one bag within a half metre of a fluorescent bulb.
5. Wrap the other bag in aluminum foil.
6. Predict which plastic bag will have the highest pH after 5 hours.
7. Construct a chart and measure the pH of your aquatic ecosystems
every 20 minutes over a five hour period.
Did You Know? Analyze and Conclude
• Canada has the largest lake 1. Graph the pH of each bag (Time on the horizontal axis).
area of any country in the 2. How did the pH of the two bags vary over time?
world. It has 563 lakes that 3. How do your results compare to your predictions?
are larger than 100 square 4. Are your results close to what you expected? Why or why not?
kilometres. 5. How do you explain any differences in pH? How does it relate
• The Great Lakes contain to photosynthesis?
eighteen percent of the 6. Would the results have been the same if different types of plants
world’s fresh lake water. were used?
• Gander Lake is 300
7. What evidence have you observed that plants consume carbon dioxide?
metres deep—as deep
8. What evidence have you observed that animals produce carbon dioxide?
as Conception Bay.
9. What evidence have you observed that light affects how plants
• The largest body of water
produce carbon dioxide?
in NL is a man-made lake —
the Smallwood Reservoir on 10. What does the pH of a solution indicate about the amount of
the Churchill River. It has a dissolved carbon dioxide in the water?
surface area of 6,527square
kilometres. Further Investigations:
• On the island, the largest 11. How would the pH change if the plastic bag had more snails or plants?
water body is Grand Lake, 12. Keep one of your plastic bags outside. Measure pH every hour
with a surface area of 494 throughout a 24 hour period. Is there evidence of a cycle?
square kilometres.
1. What is a watershed? Can you determine the name of the watershed

you are living in?
2. Which river in Newfoundland and Labrador has the largest
drainage basin?
3. Why are wetlands considered important for the health
of the environment?
4. List the types of wetlands found in Newfoundland and Labrador.
5. What are the main differences between bogs and fens?
For Further Discussion and/or Research

6. With respect to nutrient levels in a pond or lake, what is the difference
between oligotrophic, mesotrophic, and eutrophic?
7. Investigate the process of “turnover”, which occurs in lakes during
the spring and fall, and explain why this process is important to the
ecological health of a lake.

WATER QUALITY: START WITH THE GUIDELINES
What constitutes “safe” water differs from use to use. The quality of water needed
to support aquatic life, the quality of water that can be used in industry, and the
quality of water required for drinking are not necessarily the same. This is why
any discussion of water quality must always be linked to what the water is used
or needed for.
The Government of Canada has produced science-based guidelines that outline

the “safe” levels of various substances that can be found in water which are linked
to each of water’s uses. Specifically, there are guidelines for:
• Drinking water—which define safe levels for more than eighty-five

Did You Know? different microbiological, physical, chemical, and radiological parameters
Newfoundland and Labrador is such as bacteria, odour, arsenic, and radon.
the only provincial government
that has taken responsibility • Recreational water—which define safe water parameters for swimming,
for monitoring drinking-water boating, and other activities in which water should be as free as possible
quality and reporting to the of microbiological, physical, and chemical hazards.
public. Elsewhere in Canada,
municipal governments • The aquatic environment—which classify water parameters that are
monitor drinking-water quality safe for plants and animals that live in lakes, rivers, and oceans.
and report to the provincial
regulatory agency. • Agricultural water—which ensure that sensitive crop species are not
exposed to harmful substances during irrigation, or that livestock are not
harmed by the water they drink.
There are also guidelines that outline the sediment quality needed to protect
aquatic organisms as well as levels of contaminants that wildlife can tolerate.
Using guidelines requires laboratory analysis of a water sample. The results reveal
the types and amounts of substances in the water. Guidelines are most often
employed by people who manage water resources, but they are available to
everyone (and easily accessed online).
The CCME Water Quality Index

A major tool for reporting water quality information in a more easily understood
way is the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) Water
Quality Index (or WQI). The Index translates the technical, mathematical water
quality data that emerge from laboratory analysis into simple terms (“excellent”,
“good”,“fair”, etc. - see box). The WQI is similar to the ultra-violet (UV) index and
air-quality index - it’s a consistent and easily understood way of reporting water-
quality information to water resource managers and the public.

In Newfoundland and Labrador, WQI scores are used to rank water
Interpreting the CCME WQI Values bodies across the province, relative to each other.
• Excellent (Value 95-100): Water quality

To see these rankings go to the Department of Environment and
is protected with a virtual absence of
Conservation’s website and click on the link to the latest Drinking
threat or impairment. Conditions are very
Water Quality Community Report. The Water Quality Index has also
close to pristine levels. These index values
been used to evaluate drinking water quality, to determine if water
can only be obtained if all measurements
are within the objectives virtually all of is suitable for aquaculture and for suitable management practices
the time. in a watershed.
• Good (Value 80-94): Water quality is Ambient Water Quality

protected with only a minor degree of
Ambient water is the water that exists all around us—the province’s
threat or impairment. Conditions rarely
surface and groundwater. Regular monitoring of ambient water
depart from desirable levels.
gives us a picture of our overall water quality—which compounds
• Fair (Value 65-79): Water quality is or elements are found in our water, at which locations, and in what
usually protected, but occasionally quantities. It can also indicate changes that are occurring
threatened or impaired. Conditions in the environment.
sometimes depart from desirable levels.
• Marginal (Value 45-64): Water quality In 1986, the Canada-Newfoundland and Labrador Water Quality
is frequently threatened or impaired. Monitoring Agreement (WQMA) was signed. The Agreement
Conditions often depart from natural called for the creation of a network of ambient water-quality
or desirable levels. monitoring stations across Newfoundland and Labrador. It also
helped coordinate and integrate the water monitoring activities
• Poor (Value 0-44): Water quality is almost
of the federal and provincial governments.
always threatened or impaired. Conditions
usually depart from desirable levels.
Since the Agreement was signed, water-quality data have been
collected at 111 monitoring sites (hydrometric stations) across
Newfoundland and Labrador. The number of stations reporting
at any one time varies, as stations are introduced or deactivated.
The water samples are sent to Environment Canada laboratories.
Biological or bacteriological analysis can be done at the province’s
public health laboratories.
What can I see at a hydrometric station?

Not very much! The monitoring “stations” are simply spots
noted on a map and by accurate description, so that water
samples can always be taken from the same locations.
For a list of all the locations in the province refer to the
Department of Environment and Conservation’s website.

The Environment Canada laboratories provide data on more
than three dozen parameters and are divided into four major types
of water-quality indicators:
WQMA Stations • physical parameters and chemical elements;
Newfoundland and Labrador
• major ions;
• nutrients; and
• metals and trace elements
This information provides an essential, baseline water-quality assessment of

every water body that is tested. The results are available on the Internet at the
Canada-Newfoundland/Labrador Aqua Link (or CANAL) website.
Federal and provincial agencies use this information to guide:

• water resource management programs;
• pollution control regulations;
• changes in water quality guidelines;
• water quality modeling
(simulation and prediction);
• environmental assessments;
• legislation; and
• other federal, provincial, and international
agreements and commitments.
Figure 13.17: Water sampling
sites that have been included
under the Canada-Newfoundland Real Time Water Quality Monitoring
and Labrador Water Quality Several of the ambient water-quality monitoring stations in this province are
Monitoring Agreement (WQMA).
Image courtesy Department of Real Time Water Quality (RTWQ) stations. The stations consist of water-sampling
Environment and Conservation equipment with sensors for recording the physical and chemical properties of
water. The equipment is left in place in a water body and transmits information
via satellite (or, in some cases, through a phone line).
Water quality varies over time, according to weather, seasons, and human
activities. When it comes to understanding and managing fluctuations in
Did You Know? water quality, the more continuous the information is, the more helpful it is.
Newfoundland and Labrador The province’s RTWQ stations sample water quality and transmit the data at
was the first province in Canada regular intervals throughout the day. They measure a few key parameters,
to display near real-time water including water temperature, pH, specific conductance, dissolved oxygen (DO),
quality data on a web page. This and turbidity. The province’s RTWQ stations on the island and in Labrador
makes it easy for the general form the Real Time Water Quality Network.
public to access water quality
data from any of the RTQW The station locations and the information they transmit are all available online
stations. through the Department of Environment and Conservation’s website and are
updated each day.

The continuous collection of water quality data allows us to monitor the health
of aquatic ecosystems, identify water-quality trends, and determine when specific
events happen. Government, environmental groups, and other stakeholders use
Big Numbers this data. By monitoring the data, it is possible to recognize changes in water
If an RTWQ station measures quality almost as they occur and
water quality parameters every intervene if needed. This can
15 minutes, then it will collect minimize environmental impacts
175,200 readings over the
should contaminants or unusual
course of a year.
readings occur.
Figure 13.18: Water Quality Monitoring

Agreement (WQMA) sampling equipment.
This portable water-quality monitoring device
is called a Minisonde. It is used during WQMA
sampling to record a variety of water quality
parameters. Photo courtesy Department of
Case Study
Real Time Water Quality (RTWQ) Monitoring at Voisey’s Bay
Because it provides plentiful and regular readings, RTWQ monitoring

is particularly helpful near natural resource development projects. Three
of the province’s earliest RTWQ stations are at Voisey’s Bay, in Labrador,
where a new nickel mine is now in operation.
Their installation marked the first time in Canada that data from water-quality
monitoring at a mine site were made available to the public in near-real-time.
Monitoring the data transmitted by these stations can reveal whether changes
in water quality are natural or are caused by the nickel mining activity.
Launched in 2003, the monitoring project at Voisey’s Bay

is a partnership of the Water Resources Management
Division (in the provincial Department of Environment
and Conservation), Environment Canada, and Voisey’s
Bay Nickel Company Limited. This partnership exists
to ensure that development activity does not harm the
sensitive northern aquatic environment. From spring
through fall,“Datasonde” equipment sits in the water
Figure 13.19: A water quality sources. Three sites were carefully selected to begin with, in areas that would
instrument (Datasonde) used for provide the most meaningful data. The equipment remains in the river during
RTWQ monitoring. Photo courtesy
the warm months and is removed for winter (when the river freezes).
Department of Environment
and Conservation

Of the three initial sites, one is in pristine water (Reid Brook) upstream from
Who Gets Priority? the development. Water contaminants cannot flow upstream so this is the control
When more than one group site. The Camp Pond Brook station is closest to the mining development. Its
is interested in using water readings would most quickly indicate if any events related to the mining were
resources, whose needs come affecting water quality. The Lower Reid Brook site (downstream from Camp
first? The Province’s Water Pond) would indicate if an event was affecting the water where the river reaches
Resources Act prioritizes the sea. The area of mining development will move closer to this site over time.
the list as follows:
• domestic use; The monitoring has revealed “spikes” in the data on a few occasions, which
• municipal purposes; resulted in investigations and corrections. For example, in September 2003
• agricultural use; there were several big spikes in turbidity levels in Camp Pond Brook. Each
• commercial, institutional, was reported to Voisey’s Bay’s on-site environmental officer. Investigations
and industrial purposes; determined that the spikes occurred because of a pump failure in a
• water and thermal power sedimentation pond (which was corrected).
generation; and
• other purposes. The real-time monitoring results and the quick corrective responses by
Voisey’s Bay Nickel Company Limited are good examples of environmental
stewardship. The readings are available to all partners and the public through
the Department of Environment and Conservation’s website.
1. Why is water called the universal solvent? Why is this characteristic

so important for organisms on Earth?
2. What variables influence how quickly a water body can cleanse itself?
3. List four ways that water can naturally clean itself.
4. Describe the three parameters that the CCME Water Quality
Index measures.
5. What are the benefits of real-time water quality stations over traditional
methods of obtaining quantitative and qualitative water data?

6. Of the major oceans, why is the North Atlantic the saltiest?
7. Use the Department of Environment and Conservation’s website
to learn the types of information collected at each station.
8. Use the Department of Environment and Conservation’s website to
compare the data of the station closest to your community with one
at a different location in the province. Explain the differences in the
water quality data at each site.

Figure 13.20: Shallow, but fast moving, sections of streams often have more oxygen
resulting in high quality water.
FRESHWATER QUALITY
Natural seasonal changes bring changes to freshwater ecosystems. Some are
related to temperature fluctuations and some are related to quantity of water.
Rate of movement also affects water’s characteristics and has an impact on the
nature of an aquatic ecosystem. Standing bodies of water, such as ponds or
lakes, have little or no current, though streams and rivers may flow into and out
of them. Standing bodies of water are slow moving systems. They tend to have
more nutrients than faster moving systems and they have less oxygen.
Different varieties of plants, fish, and wildlife find habitat in different types
of aquatic ecosystems. Each has adapted to the system’s specific characteristics.
Some species require different types of aquatic ecosystems at different points in
their life cycles. For example, shallow but fast moving sections of streams often
have more oxygen and gravel beds, which make excellent spawning locations
for fish such as brown trout. Sections with shallow water but slower flow provide
good habitat for young fish. Deeper water is cooler and has a slower flow and
is more suited to mature fish that are looking for shelter, food, and shade.
A number of other environmental factors also affect the quality of ground

and surface water. They are physical, chemical, and biological, and are created
or introduced by processes that occur naturally in the environment. Many
of these are measurable and have corresponding water quality guidelines.

Physical Parameters Significance for Aquatic Life
Turbidity The measure of solid particles suspended in water —also called

cloudiness. Cloudiness can affect light penetration, which can slow
photosynthesis for underwater plants. Turbidity is measured
photometrically (percentage of light that is either absorbed or scattered).
Colour Organic material in water can give it colour. The tea-coloured water
common in Newfoundland and Labrador is caused by tannins and lignins,
which are produced by decomposing wood and plant material. Colour is
measured in true color units (TCU). It can affect light penetration.
Temperature Important for wildlife, particularly fish. Temperature affects how much
oxygen can dissolve in water and can affect other chemical reactions.
Total solids Total solids (TS) are composed of total suspended solids (TSS) and total
dissolved solids (TDS). TS is measured by evaporating a water sample
and drying the remaining mixture. Suspended solids are solids that can
be removed by filtration. Dissolved solids represent the “salt” content in
the water. Suspended solids can affect fish (by clogging their gills) and
add smothering layers over bottom-dwelling plants and creatures when
they settle out.
Taste and odour Organic material in surface water, such as decomposing leaves and
other plant material, can give water a taste or odour. In groundwater, they
often result from dissolved gases such as methane or hydrogen sulphide.
Odour is measured as a Threshold Odour Number, or TON. Substances
that cause water to have an off taste or odour can have the same effect
on aquatic life (so this parameter can cause problems for aquaculture
or fisheries activities).
Chemical Parameters
Dissolved Measured in milligrams per litre. Fish and aquatic animals need oxygen
Oxygen (DO) to breathe.
Salinity The amount of salt dissolved in water – fresh water usually has less than
0.1% salt; seawater has about 3.5% salt. Different flora and fauna species
are adapted to different levels.
pH The measure of a solution’s acidity or alkalinity. Neutral solutions have

a pH of 7. Acidity increases as pH drops from 7 to 1; alkalinity increases
as pH rises from 7 to 14. Low pH is caused by natural geology, acid rain,
or pollution; low pH (high acidity) can kill aquatic organisms (pH 4).
Biological Parameters
Pathogens Pathogens are found in water on or near the surface, but rarely in water
from deep underground. Common pathogens include bacteria, protozoa,
fungi, algae, and viruses. Water is usually tested for Ecoli bacteria for
Figure 13.21: Key two reasons: its presence indicates pollution of the water source and its
Water Quality Variables for
absence indicates the water is pathogen-free. Pathogens can harm life
Aquatic Life in this Province.
Source: Department of
forms harvested in aquaculture such as mussels.

CORE LABORATORY ACTIVITY
Water Quality Testing
In this activity, you will evaluate the water quality of a local waterway
through a series of indicator tests. The results of the water quality testing
will enable you to identify the major threats to the waterway. Once data
are collected you can combine the information and look for patterns and
relationships between land use, community attitudes and behaviours,
and water quality.
Procedure:
Part A: General Information
Record the following information on the data sheet provided.
1. The name of the river, date sampled, and who did the sampling.
2. Describe the watershed area. Include: size, soil, rock characteristics,
anthropogenic (human) influences, or other relevant information.
3. Record stream order. Stream order is a method of assigning a number
to stream segments in a watershed. It indicates the relative importance
of the segment within the drainage basin.
4. Site photographs (5 per site). Due to the expense of field collection,
it is often impossible to go back to a site. Photographs of the location
can often help to solve any problems that may arise during laboratory
analysis. These photographs also provide a valuable record of conditions
at the site.
Part B: Reach Characteristics

1. Flow State: This is a basic description of the type of habitat present
at the site. It describes the stream and provides an indication of what
type of organisms may be expected, as different plants and animals
can withstand different amounts of water flow.
2. Canopy Coverage: The amount of canopy coverage is important for

two reasons. First, canopy cover provides shade, which keeps the water
cool in the summer. Second, extensive canopy cover can determine the
relative amount of external (what falls in) versus internal (what grows
in the water) plant material in the stream. That in turn affects the types
of animals present. More plants mean more food. If there’s lots of food,
one would expect more animals.
3. Riparian Vegetation: The forested land along rivers, streams, and lakes is
Figure 13.22: Water called the “riparian zone”. This area protects the water from disturbance
quality testing.
and acts as a buffer between the stream and general activities in the
watershed. It protects the banks from erosion. The width of the riparian

zone from the bank is roughly the distance from the bank to the base of the
tallest tree that could reach the channel.
Part C: Water Chemistry:

The dissolved materials in freshwater come from eroded material originating
in the drainage area or watershed of the river. The chemicals in the water
come from both the underlying bedrock and the rock on the surface.
Measurement of several key variables that affect the invertebrates can
provide a great amount of information about the types of pollutants and
their impact on a stream. Certain activities produce specific pollutants.
By identifying specific pollutants, we can identify some activities that may
be having an impact on the stream.
Temperature:
Temperature is an important physical variable that directly affects many of
the physical, biological, and chemical factors influencing aquatic organisms.
Aquatic organisms survive within a specific range of temperatures. If it gets
too cold or too warm, the animals can’t tolerate it and they become stressed
and may die. The result is a change in the types of organisms inhabiting the
stream. Some of the factors that influence temperature are weather, removal
of riparian vegetation, increased turbidity (suspended sediments in the
water), and dams.
2. pH:
The relative acidity of water is ranked on a scale of pH from 0 to 14.
The pH scale is logarithmic. Each change of 1 pH unit represents a 10 fold
change in acidity. A stream with a pH of 6 is 100 times more acidic than
one with a pH of 8. Water with a pH of 6.5 to 8.5 is suitable for the greatest
diversity of aquatic organisms.Young fish and aquatic insects are especially
sensitive to extreme pH values outside their optimum range. Stream pH is
usually determined by the surrounding geological makeup, but acid rain,
wastewater discharges, and drainage from coniferous forests (which are
acidic) can decrease the pH of a stream.
3. Conductivity:
Conductivity is a measure of the dissolved salts present in the water.
It is determined by how well these salts conduct an electrical current.
For example, pure water has a conductivity of 0. Measuring conductivity
is a good way of determining how much dissolved material is present in
the water. Conductivity is a useful tracer of point source discharges and
sudden increases along a stream can indicate a pollution source.

Part D: Benthic invertebrate sampling:
In aquatic ecosystems, populations of macro invertebrates are often studied
because they give a good indication of the health of watersheds. They are
widely used because they are fairly easy to collect and identify. They also
reliably reflect the condition of the environment they live in.
Benthic macro invertebrates are important in moving energy through food

webs. The term “benthic” means “bottom-living”. These organisms usually
inhabit bottom substrates for at least part of their life cycle. The prefix
“macro” indicates that these organisms are caught by net mesh sizes of
200-500 mm. They are big enough to see easily.
The most diverse group of freshwater benthic macro invertebrates is the

aquatic insects. They account for around 70% of the known species of major
groups of aquatic macro invertebrates found in North America. More than
4000 species of aquatic insects and water mites have been reported from
Canada. Thus, as a highly diverse group, benthic macro invertebrates are
excellent candidates for studies of changes in biodiversity.
Part E: Substrate characteristics

The composition of the streambed material is important in identifying
hydrological characteristics of the river and the type of habitat available
to aquatic organisms. Insects need to attach themselves to the stream
bottom or live within the bed materials. The more attachment or living
spaces available the greater will be the variety and number of organisms
found. Gravel provides a lot of suitable habitat. Bedrock or sand does not.
With an increase in the amount of sand and silt present, the suitability
and availability of living space for invertebrates decreases, even if there
are rocks under the sediment.
i. Dominant Substrate and Embededdness: A substrate score can

be assigned based on the size of the two main substrates, the size
of the material around the main substrates, and the amount of
embeddedness.
ii. Substrate Dimensions and Water Depth: A final estimate of the size
of the substrate is obtained by simply measuring a randomly selected
sample of the substrate.
iii. Stream Width: As flow decreases, water will cover less of the stream
bottom. This limits the available habitat for aquatic organisms.
iv. Stream Cross-section, Flow, and Discharge: The shape of the

channel and thus the habitat available for invertebrates is a

consequence of the local geology and the total discharge of the
stream. For many small streams there are no discharge records
available and in these cases, current discharge can be estimated
from the cross-sectional area of the stream and the flow of water
through the stream.
v. Velocity: In addition to determining discharge at selected

points, it is important to obtain a measurement of the velocity
from the area from which the invertebrate sample was taken, as this
represents the conditions to which the invertebrates are exposed.
This completes the field measurements. As a final check, verify that all
of the field measurements have been taken and are legibly recorded.
Ensure that all equipment is taken with you from the site.
Analyze and Conclude:
1. What areas of the stream showed the greatest diversity?

What areas had the lowest diversity? Explain why.
2. Describe how water pollution might affect the diversity you observed.
3. How do adaptations of the insects allow them to inhabit different
niches in an aquatic ecosystem?
4. How would groundwater and rainwater entering a stream affect
its temperature?
5. Explain why turbidity often increases in a stream when the
flow increases.
6. How does pH affect aquatic life in a stream?
7. How might different land uses (logging, agriculture, construction)
affect turbidity, pH, and temperature of nearby streams?
8. What are the characteristics of a healthy stream? What would make
a stream “unhealthy”?
9. Describe what will happen when the balance of a natural stream
is disturbed.
10. Which macro-invertebrates are most sensitive to pollution?
11. Which macro-invertebrates are tolerant to pollution?
What does information like this tell us about the stream quality
and overall health?
12. Why does a stream bed need lots of gravel rather than sand and clay?

FRESH WATER QUALITY: THE HUMAN FACTOR
If human activities do not take place inside a framework of stewardship
or sustainability, they can have a big impact on the quality and quantity
of ambient water.
Did You Know? Water use (millions of cubic metres)
240 Large volumes of water are used by
Fish processing plants in this
220 Fish Plants industries such as mining and pulp
province use fresh and salt
200 Pulp & Paper and paper production. Other activities
water.At peak production,
180 Mining
the average plant uses 10,000 involved in logging and mining also
160
Oil Refinery use or affect ambient water, as do
m3/year. This is a tiny amount 140
Others hydroelectric power dams.
compared to the pulp and 120
paper, and mining industries 100
here. Mining uses 215 million 80
This section examines the impact
m3/year. Pulp and paper 60 that industrial and domestic activities
production uses just under 40 can have on the quantity and quality
120 million m3/year. 20 of water resources in Newfoundland
0 and Labrador.
Industry
Figure 13.23: Annual average water use by industry in Newfoundland and Labrador.
Preventative measures and Image courtesy Department of Environment and Conservation
best management practices
for forestry: The Impacts of Forestry Activity
Newfoundland and Labrador forests are harvested for pulpwood and lumber.
• Leave large buffer zones of In addition, the public, with appropriate permits, can harvest trees for firewood
uncut areas along stream
on crown land.
channels and water bodies.
• Protect and retain wetlands. Carrying out forestry operations involves several activities that can affect water
quality and aquatic habitat. They include: harvesting, replanting, road construction
• Maintain as much vegetation
and maintenance, and even long-term management. These operations can, at
cover as possible (high
biodiversity). various times, change water levels, stream temperatures, sediment dynamics,
nutrient dynamics, and stream habitats. In some cases they also introduce
• Keep exposed soil surfaces pesticides and herbicides and change the vegetation cover.
to a minimum.
• Minimize the road network Of all these activities, road construction and maintenance may have the greatest
and stream crossings. impact on watersheds if not developed carefully. The least costly way to build
these access roads is through a valley bottom, which can have the greatest impact
• Prevent direct drainage into
on a stream. Roads can divert the natural stream, change surface characteristics
streams, lakes, and wetlands.
and increase surface compaction, and change surface runoff and subsurface water
• Minimize water yield changes flow. Among other effects, roads can change the sediment dynamics in water
by reducing the harvested area. bodies and the rate and pattern of their flow. Over time, when roads are not
• Use innovative vegetation used, their disintegration can lead to blocked culverts, flooding, and changes in
management (type, diversity, stream flow regimes. The federal government, under authority of Fisheries Act
density, structure, vegetation). provisions regarding habitat, has guidelines for road development designed to
minimize impact.

Logging can drastically change the surface and subsurface conditions in a
watershed. The effect is often cumulative, making it harder to foresee impacts
while the trees are being harvested. Removing trees affects evapotranspiration
and drainage, which can lead to more extreme temperature regimes. The impact
of losing the forest cover on stream temperature can be dramatic. Some temperature
increases can be beneficial for productivity, but large swings in temperature
can be lethal to fish.
In addition to lethally high summer water temperatures, the effects of increased

stream temperature caused by loss of forest protection on fish can include:
• accelerated development of embryos in gravel and earlier
emergence in spring;
• inhibition of migration;
• increased susceptibility to disease;
• higher respiration rate and reduced
metabolic efficiency; and
• changes in competitive advantage.
Traditional clear-cutting methods and partial logging result in different pressures

on the freshwater habitat. Clear cutting affects flooding, increases sediment
production, and leads to greater terrain instability and more rain-on-snow events
(flooding). The more dispersed activity pattern of partial logging on the other
hand, leads to a more extensive road network and the negative effects associated
with that infrastructure, continuous disturbance and more edges to the remaining
forest areas (which can affect microclimates).
The rate of pesticide and herbicide use in forestry is relatively low compared to
use in agriculture, but can be more widespread. Low doses mean low risk, but risk
from aerial applications increase due to wind drifts with a potential direct impact
on the food chain. This is of most concern where groundwater replenishment
allows the chemicals to leach into aquifers.
The Impact of Mining Activity

Mining can cause ground disturbances that affect water
quality. This is one of the reasons why real-time water quality
stations have been set up near Voisey’s Bay in Labrador and
other mine sites in the province. Additional monitoring of all
discharges from mining sites is required under the Certificate
of Approval process that the provincial government oversees.
Figure 13.24: Water quality monitoring, Voisey’s Bay, Labrador.

Photo courtesy INCO

The effects of mining can be local or regional, short-term or long-term. The impacts
on streams, lakes, and wetland environments vary depending on the:
• mineral being mined;
• extraction process: strip, pit, or underground mining;
• reclamation, treatment, and mitigation techniques being used;
• site conditions; and
Preventive Measures
and Best Management
• local climate (including rainfall amounts).
Practices for Mining
Mining activities (surface and underground) involve removing vegetation, surface
These steps can minimize soil, and rock. The ore is extracted, tailings dumped, and when mining operations
the effects of mining on
are completed, the area is reclaimed. These activities affect surface runoff,
ambient water:
groundwater flow, and impact the regional groundwater table.
• Minimize the area that will
be disturbed as well as the Some mining operations have the potential problem of acid mine drainage. Many
road network. metals such as lead, zinc, copper, and gold occur in sulphide-based ore bodies.
• Stockpile and re-use the When mined and exposed to the air, sulphide rapidly oxidizes and forms sulphuric
best soil material. acid. The processed rock ore, which can still contain these sulphites, is usually
deposited into tailings ponds as slurry. The ponds are considered permanent
• Maintain tailing ponds and storage. As long as the tailing material is covered by water, the sulphides are not
build a series of secondary
harmful. However, this system has its risks. If, for any reason, the ponds begin to
emergency ponds.
drain, or their containment structure fails, then the highly toxic sulphuric acid is
• Take steps to avoid created and the metals are released. The effects of such failures on the ecosystem
groundwater contamination. and the watershed are catastrophic and can last for decades. When acid is released
• Maintain saturated
into the environment it can:
conditions to minimize • reduce decomposition processes;
oxidation. • harm fish and aquatic biota—few fish can tolerate
conditions below pH 4.5;
• Take precautionary measures • harm local biodiversity and possibly impact on Species at Risk;
to avoid acid drainage.
• make metals more soluble in water and sediments; and
• lower the quality of drinking water sources.
For these reasons, after mining has stopped, tailings ponds and rock dumps
require long-term monitoring, water detention, and treatment to ensure there
is no environmental damage. Building and managing a safe, structurally sound
tailings pond is crucial to prevent overflow, seepage, and structural failure that
can release untreated water and cause environmental damage downstream.
Some mining processes produce salts and limestone (depending on climate

conditions and rock materials), which can make their way into the ambient water.
The effects of this include increasing both pH levels and dissolved solids levels.

Mining activities often involve water diversion. This will change flow patterns
downstream and affect fish habitat and biota (flora and fauna) that lives there.
Large amounts of sediment enter the water and must be managed to reduce their
effect on the environment.
Finally, most mines move and deposit large quantities of material—soil, rock,
and gravel. Unless it is well contained, this loose material can be moved by rain and
flooding. It must not be allowed to enter streams or other water bodies directly.
Currently, there are strict federal and provincial regulations in place to help deter
mining companies from damaging the environment. However, enforcement of these
regulations, particularly in remote mine sites, presents its own set of challenges.
The Impacts of Hydroelectric Development
Did You Know?

• Canada has the highest
net generation of hydro-
electricity in the world.
Figure 13.25: A hydroelectric dam near Deer Lake, Newfoundland.
• There are 200 dams
used for hydro power
in Newfoundland and
Labrador. Hydroelectric power development has the reputation of being a clean or green
• Most of the province’s energy source with few environmental impacts. This is only partially true.
electricity needs are Hydroelectric power does have many advantages over fossil-fuel burning methods,
met with water power. but there are also a number of negative impacts associated with hydroelectricity.
These include:
• high long-term environmental costs;
• not meeting the proposed benefit-cost ratio—
that is, the reservoir’s life is often much shorter than
estimated when it was built;
• disruption to people and wildlife caused by reservoirs; and
• cumulative and heavy impacts downstream.

Hydroelectric facilities may or may not meet standards for green certification.
Their advantages or disadvantages are related to such things as location,
technologies used and their impacts on the land, the water course, and the biota.
Most hydro developments require building a dam which increases (and helps
control) the amount of water available to a power plant. The dam creates a
reservoir by blocking a river’s natural flow. The presence of the dam, as well
as the interruption in flow, has a variety of environmental impacts.
Environmental Impacts of Dams and Reservoirs

• Upstream land area changes from a valley to a reservoir (a terrestrial
to an aquatic environment). Each type has separate systems of flora
and fauna. This results in a loss of habitat for some species and a gain
for others. It may also affect Species at Risk.
• The river changes from a flowing to a larger standing body of water
with different temperature ranges and nutrient and oxygen levels.
• The presence of the new reservoir can modify the microclimate.
• The dam changes the evaporation and groundwater regimes.
• Biodiversity can be reduced as a result of the four points listed above.
• Bioaccumulation of pollutants, mercury in fish, for example,
can increase.
• The river below the dam changes due to changes in quantity
and flow rates.
• Water quality below the dam changes and sediment transport
is reduced.
• The river changes its flow pattern and rate, which can result in less
flushing in downstream areas in the summer.
Did You Know? • Dams can obstruct migrating fish.
The Churchill Falls • There is a loss of riverine/riparian/flood-plain habitat because
hydroelectric project flooded there is less flooding.
a huge area. However, because • There is an increased release of greenhouse gases (CO2 and methane)
of its northern location, the into the atmosphere from decomposing plants and animals killed by
reservoir was not a major flooding the reservoir.
producer of CO2. Large tropical
reservoirs can produce more The creation of a large reservoir has another, more global, environmental effect.
greenhouse gases than a The new lake kills plant and animal species, which cannot adapt to underwater
modern coal-fired generator. conditions. Shortly after flooding dead organisms from the bottom of the reservoir
However, it has been estimated begin to decompose producing two of the harmful greenhouse gases, carbon
that the flooding displaced 990 dioxide and methane. The process is more pronounced in warmer climates.
pairs of geese, 1,400 pairs of
Dabbling Ducks, and 3,740 In addition, the newly submerged ground may be a source of heavy metal
pairs of Diving Ducks. contamination such as mercury. Any heavy metals that enter the aquatic
ecosystem will quickly enter the food chain and begin to accumulate in plants

Figure 13.26: Large city encroaching on
wetland area.
Areas symbolized with two colors represent
Implications of Interfering shared drainage areas.
with Wetlands
Urban expansion, road building, and an
increasing demand for land for industrial
purposes can affect many types of
environments. However, these intrusions
are particularly devastating for
wetland ecosystems.
The most dramatic changes occur when

wetlands are drained for development.
But these areas are also threatened and can
deteriorate, or even disappear, when roads
and buildings are permitted to be developed
too close to their boundaries. How?
• Roads and ditches can alter the flow

of water and thereby drain wetlands. Figure 13.27: Hydroelectric developments across Newfoundland and Labrador.
The effects of hydroelectric development extend far beyond the development
• Drainage from nearby development itself. Photo courtesy Department of Environment and Conservation
can send fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides,
and pollutants into the wetland areas. and animals (bioaccumulation). The toxic effects of heavy metals
This can increase the nutrient level of are seen in higher order predators first such as birds of prey.
the wetland and affect plant life. The
presence of the nutrients can change the Water is used to cool the machinery involved in power generation.
wetland habitat in less than ten years. This heated water is returned to the water source, which can
Over eighty percent of the wetlands near unnaturally rise its temperature. Water that we would find too cool
major urban centres have been converted for a bath (27º C) is lethal to a trout. Unnatural warmth can disrupt
to agricultural use or urban expansion. the natural balance of an ecosystem and must be avoided.

The Impacts of Urbanization
There are several ways that the presence of cities and communities affect local
water quality. First of all, they can reduce the amount of water absorbed in to the
soil. For example, paved roads and parking lots create areas where precipitation
cannot be absorbed into the ground as it once was. Downspouts from buildings
that feed directly into storm water drainage systems further reduce the amount
Did You Know? of water that goes back into the water table. Paving also removes vegetation,
which reduces transpiration.
All of the Atlantic Provinces
de-ice their roads with salt Related changes and effects include:
or sand. Road salt contains • There is increased runoff.
chloride, sodium, sulphide, • Streams become much flashier, with rapid changes in water
calcium, potassium, iron, flows and levels.
silicate, aluminum, magnesium, • Stream systems have more erosive power and stream banks
and manganese. These become unstable.
substances dissolve in water • Stream bank alteration destroys riparian vegetation resulting
and eventually are added to in loss of large woody debris and higher summer temperatures.
surface water bodies or seep • Water quality deteriorates because contaminants (oil, salt) that
into the ground and enter are generated by cars and trucks and by road treatment are not
the water table. absorbed by soil and vegetation, but are instead flushed quickly
into the stream system.
These impacts occur almost immediately after roads and paved areas expand.
There are also long-term and cumulative impacts to consider:
• A variety of pollutants from known and unknown sources can be added
from the urban watershed. Concentrations of these pollutants will vary
greatly over time.
• Many pollutants can interact with each other to intensify their impact
on the ecosystem.
• Many factors related to water quality (pH, alkalinity, hardness, dissolved
organic matter) and sediment quality (particle size, organic matter
content, presence of iron, and manganese oxides) can also determine
how pollutants interact and affect aquatic biota.
The Impacts of Recreation

Some recreational activities can have an adverse effect on the water quality
and aquatic habitats. Some of the actions or activities that can affect aquatic
environments include:
• re-arranging or removing vegetation on land or in the water that
provided specific habitats;
• changing shoreline configuration;
• using fertilizer or pest control sprays;
• shampooing in the water;

Recreation Water Use in • creating a beach where one did not exist before;
Newfoundland and Labrador • dumping or spilling gas, oil, paint, or varnish into the water
Type of Recreation Area Total or near your drinking water supply;
National Parks 2 • running sewage or grey water waste into the pond, lake, or ocean;
Provincial Parks 54 • speeding in your boat in areas that are susceptible to wake
Cottage Areas 100 disturbance; and
Canoe Routes 30 • dumping fish offal into the water (which can attract pests
Schedule Salmon Rivers 159 and can add nutrients to the water).
Figure 13.28: This chart shows
the number of designated
recreational areas in Newfoundland
and Labrador. Leisure activities can
adversely affect water in these
areas. Courtesy Department of
Figure 13.29: Use caution when operating recreational vehicles.
1. What is the relationship between turbidity of water and the depth

to which light can penetrate it?
2. How is land use related to water quality and quantity?
Can you provide local examples?
3. What are the similarities between domestic and industrial water use?
4. How can the addition of nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates,
result in a reduction of the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water?
5. What are some activities that influence water quality during
forestry operations?
6. Why is tree harvesting on a steep hill near a water body prohibited?
7. How may clear cutting during forestry operations affect nearby
Did You Know? water habitats?
8. What is the concern for freshwater environments due to acid
One drop of oil can render mine drainage?
up to 25 L of water unfit 9. What are the potential environmental impacts of a large scale
for drinking. hydroelectric development?
10. Although hydroelectric developments are considered “green” sources
of energy, how can they release large amounts of carbon dioxide
and methane?
11. How does urbanization influence the amount of water entering
surrounding rivers?

Chapter 14: Drinking Water
Figure 14.1: We take it for granted that the water we drink is safe.
One of the most essential human uses of water is for drinking. In the Western
world, many people take it for granted that you can turn on the tap and safely
drink the water that flows out. Much research, legislation, and effort goes into
ensuring that this is so.
In the Western world, many people take it for granted that you
can turn on the tap and safely drink the water that flows out.
Water that is fit for drinking is called potable water. We often think of
good water quality in terms of our senses: it looks clear and it tastes and smells
good. These sensory appraisals are not safe tests for potable water. Many harmful
substances that cannot be detected by the human senses are found in water.
Did You Know? Ambient water can be contaminated by natural and human processes and
More than 500 water supply
actions. To determine if water is safe to drink, it must be sampled, tested under
systems serve the communities
controlled circumstances, and the results compared to the guidelines for drinking
in this province.
water quality. In addition, all public water supplies must be disinfected.
Before we look at the various ways water is treated, let’s take a closer look at
our drinking water sources.
Drinking Water 479

DRINKING WATER SOURCES IN NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR
Unlike people in many other parts of the world, Newfoundlanders and Labradorians
are fortunate to have an abundance of water sources to draw on for drinking water.
These sources are regularly replenished by precipitation.
Did You Know? Most residents of the province depend on public water supplies for their domestic
The drilled well in Badger can water needs. Just over half of the public water systems draw on surface water. These
supply almost 900 litres per source ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and rivers are numerous and easily accessible.
minute. Once the water reaches
the surface, it is pumped to a The rest of the population uses groundwater supplies, which are accessed through
storage tank on a hill. The tank’s dug or drilled wells (private or public). Another source of potable groundwater in
elevation is high enough to give Newfoundland and Labrador is from springs. There are about 200 public
the required water pressure groundwater sources in the province. Drawing on this reliable source of drinking
through gravity only—no extra water has some advantages. Groundwater is accessible, renewable, and generally
pumping is needed. From there safer than surface water. In contrast to untreated surface water, it usually has fewer
it flows by gravity into the town. pathogens and is cool year round.
This process is more energy
efficient than pumping water
on demand, and it provides How deep do we dig?
water reserve if the pumping In this province, dug wells are usually between two and five metres deep
system has to be shut down depending on how far down the bedrock is. Drilled wells are usually deeper
temporarily for any reason. (15 to 150 metres), averaging 45 metres deep and 15 centimetres in diameter.
Vented, Vermin
Proof Well Cap Vent With Fly Screen Tight Fitting Cap
60 cm 5.0 m
(16.7 ft.) Water-tight Seam
(24 in.)
Mounded Earth Water-tight Ground Sloped
Casing 3m Away From Well
(10’ deep)
Back Water-tight Back
Fill Fill Topsoil
Commercially Seal
Electrical Lines
Well Depth Minimum
Manufactured
Pitless Adapter To Pump Pipe to Pump
3.6m (12’)
To House
6.0 m
(20 ft.) Hardpan
Clay
Annular Seal
Water-bearing Soil
Well Casing
Water Line
Figures 14.2: Diagram of drilled and dug wells showing provincial specifications.
Photos courtesy Department of Environment and Conservation

Tapping groundwater can be a cost-effective method of supplying drinking water.
Many of our rural communities are spread over large areas. It is more economical
to provide wells for clusters of houses and businesses than to construct long
waterlines from a single surface source to service buildings that are a long way
from the surface water and from each other.
Factors that limit the use of groundwater wells for public water supplies include:
aquifers with poor yields, salt water intrusion into the water source, and other
sources of natural or human-caused contaminants.
The quality of groundwater can also be affected by the kinds of rock and soil
formations through which it flows, and by how long it stays in the ground.
In general, shallow groundwater flows faster and has less dissolved material
in it than deeper groundwater.
Aquifers
An aquifer is an
underground formation
of permeable and porous
rock, which can produce
useful quantities of water
when tapped by a well.
Aquifers can vary in
size and depth below Sandy Soil
the surface. They can
vary in thickness from
a few metres to hundreds Clay
of metres from top to
bottom. They can be only
a few hectares in area or Deep Aquifer
underlie thousands of
square kilometres of
land area.
Clay
Figures 14.3: Aquifer. Illustration

courtesy Derek Peddle
The natural quality of a groundwater source differs from a surface water source
in two main ways:
1. Its quality, temperature, and other parameters vary less over time.
2. The range of material that can be dissolved in it is much greater.
As groundwater flows through an aquifer it is naturally filtered. Therefore, groundwater

usually has less suspended material than surface water. This filtering, plus the length
of time the water is stored underground, helps ensure that groundwater is usually free
Drinking Water 481

How to protect groundwater sources of disease-causing micro-organisms. As you will see later in this
chapter, with the Walkerton case study, a source of contamination
DO:
close to a well can still be harmful to human health.
• Do inspect your oil tank for leaks.
• Do keep livestock away from wells. Community Wells: Where to Drill?
• Do locate wells and septic tanks How do town councils decide where to drill public water wells?
at least 16 m apart. The short answer is: with great care. Unlike surface-water sources,
• Do put your septic field downhill which are plainly visible, a lot of planning must go into choosing
from your well (and follow the the location for a well where the water is unseen.
Department of Health regulations).
• Do have a secure cover on your well. Years ago it was not uncommon to have a local “dowser” or “
• Do seal abandoned wells. water witch” walk around the community holding out metal rods
DON’T: or a Y-shaped stick. When the rods bent down uncontrollably,
the spot was deemed a likely location to find water. There is no
• Don’t dump waste oil on the ground.
scientific basis for this method, but many people still believe it
• Don’t store gas or cleaning fluids
works. Community well locations today, however, are chosen
near a well.
by a hydro-geologist or engineer trained in locating underground
• Don’t apply more pesticides or
water sources.
fertilizers than recommended.
• Don’t flush large amounts of
The process begins with an assessment of how much water the
household cleaners down the
community needs. Then the investigative work starts. A typical
drain (it can kill the bacteria
plan covers these points:
in your septic tank).
• Review existing water well records in the
• In coastal areas, don’t drill a well
area for information including:
deeper than the level where you
- well yield;
first encounter fresh water.
- depth of the bedrock;
- locations where groundwater was encountered; and
- groundwater quality.
• Review of geology maps. Wells drilled into bedrock
typically have lower yields than wells drilled into more
porous materials such as sand and gravel.
• Talk with well owners and well drillers who
are familiar with the area.
• Check for a history of contaminants spilled in the area.
• Review aerial photos which can show fault lines in the
bedrock (good places to drill for groundwater).
• Review land ownership.
Based on the results of this investigation the council then has the
information it needs to select a site and drill a well. This process
usually creates suspense and anticipation as the hole is drilled—

will they find any water? How much water will be
found? Will it be good water? And, will there be a
high yield? A “high-yield well with good groundwater
quality” is a reliable source with enough water for the
community’s needs without costly treatment.
After water is “struck”, the well undergoes a pump

test for several days to find out if the water yield is
sustainable. A well that has lots of water for a few
days but then goes dry is of little use. But if the
well continues to replenish itself as fast as the water
is pumped, then it is determined to be a reliable
source of water. The next step is to build a
distribution system that connects the local users
to the water source.
Sometimes more than one well is needed to meet

the water needs of a community. A number of wells
are drilled and the resulting system is called a well
field. Wells in a well field must be drilled far enough
apart that they do not drain water from each other.
Stephenville and Happy Valley-Goose Bay are two
communities served by well fields in Newfoundland
and Labrador.
Figure 14.4: A well that is being drilled with the hope of
“striking” water in both high quality and high quantity.
What causes sinkholes?

Although they are not common in Newfoundland and
Labrador, sinkholes do exist here. A good example is the
one in the community of Woodville in the Codroy Valley.
Woodville is underlain by gypsum. Groundwater flowing
through gypsum can cause it to dissolve, causing cavities
to form underground. The cavities enlarge over time and
even reach the surface.When they do, they form a sinkhole.
Some breakthroughs happen suddenly, but most are gradual.
Figure 14.5: A sinkhole in Newfoundland and Labrador. As you

can see, a sinkhole-prone area is a risky place to build a house.
Drinking Water 483

PATHOGENS AND DRINKING WATER
Water can support thousands of biological species, from microscopic organisms
to large fish. When it comes to drinking water, the most important waterborne
biological species to be aware of are those that are classified as pathogens.
They are the species of organisms that can infect humans or transmit diseases.
Pathogenic species include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and parasitic worms.
A virus is the smallest biological structure known to contain all the genetic
information necessary to reproduce.Viruses are so small they can only be seen
with a powerful electron microscope. They cannot replicate without a living host.
Bacteria are the most abundant of all organisms on Earth and can be both harmful
and useful to the environment or to humans. These single-cell microorganisms
play a role in disease, but they are also important in natural decomposition.
Protozoa are highly adaptable unicellular organisms that are more complex than
bacteria or viruses. They can be either free-living or parasitic. Many species are
found in water, but only a few species are pathogenic.
Parasitic worms, also called helminthes, often need two or more animal hosts. They
pose the most danger to people who come in direct contact with untreated water.
Among the people with most exposure are sewage plant operators, people who swim
in lakes polluted by sewage or by storm-water runoff from cattle feedlots.
Many pathogens are not native to aquatic systems, but they can survive in natural
water systems. In most cases, they need an animal host to grow and reproduce.
While in water, they can maintain their infectious capabilities for significant periods
of time. Disinfectants and boiling can kill bacteria and other pathogens in drinking
Figure 14.6: E. coli bacteria. water, thereby preventing contamination and reducing the risk of infection.
Figure 14.7: Significant Common Pathogens
Pathogen and common example Symptoms

From severe vomiting and diarrhoea to minor intestinal
Bacteria— E. coli
irritation and nausea.
Protozoa— Giardia Diarrhoea, gas, cramps, upset stomach, and nausea.
Fatigue, joint aches, abdominal pain, vomiting,
Virus— Hepatitis loss of appetite, dark urine, fever, enlarged liver,
and jaundice.
Symptoms vary depending on the type of worm,
but can include upper abdominal discomfort, diarrhoea,
Parasitic worm — Tapeworm
and loss of appetite. The worm lives in the intestinal tract
of humans and steals the nutrients from digested food.

Giardia— A Naturally Occurring Threat
In this province, Giardia may be present in the surface water of ponds, rivers,
and springs. People who drink water contaminated by this protozoan parasite
may become infected. The symptoms include dehydration and more severe
complications. This disease is often called Beaver Fever because that animal
was once thought to be the source of the disease.
In fact, Giardia cysts may be found in the wastes of any animal. During its life
cycle the Giardia parasite lives in an intestinal tract of many wildlife species.
Figure 14.8: Giardia. Boiling It is then excreted with the feces which in turn may contaminate surface water.
all water for 5 minutes is the
best way to destroy pathogens Giardia can be destroyed by boiling water for at least five minutes before using
in water. it for drinking, cooking, or brushing teeth.
ENVIRO-FOCUS
When Human Error
Threatens Water Quality
In 2000, one of Canada’s worst water contamination tragedies struck

the people of Walkerton, Ontario. A town of less than 5,000, located about
200 kilometres northwest of Toronto, Walkerton is in an agricultural area.
Its municipal water supply comes from a well field.
Following heavy rains in early May of 2000, one of the wells was unknowingly
contaminated with a deadly form of the E. coli (Escherichia coli) bacteria.
As a result of drinking the contaminated water, seven people died and more
than 2,300 became ill. The source, it was later discovered, was cattle manure
spread on a nearby field.
Figure 14.9: The Walkerton

Memorial. The people of Walkerton
created this memorial water
garden to commemorate the
tragedy of 2000. Photo courtesy
Dr. S.E. Hurley
Drinking Water 485

E. coli is a type of fecal coliform bacteria usually found in the intestines
of animals and humans. A water source where E. coli is present has been
contaminated by sewage or animal waste washed into the water source by
rainfall, snow melt, or other types of precipitation.
There are hundreds of strains of E. coli. Most are harmless, but E. coli O157:H7
produces a toxin that can cause severe illness. Infection leads to diarrhea,
abdominal cramps, fever, and dehydration. Infection can also cause kidney failure
in some people (mostly children under five years of age and the elderly).
These are some of the key events and responses that took place in Walkerton
in 2000. The following timeline shows how quickly the crisis developed.
May 12 Torrential rains wash bacteria from cattle manure over the
area near one of Walkerton’s town wells (Well 5). Authorities
knew this shallow well (fifteen metres deep) was susceptible
to pollutants. It was drilled in 1978 without approval from
the provincial government. The environment ministry said
it could be used if chlorination piping was installed to kill
bacteria. The installation was never performed.
May 13 Over the next few days, residents were exposed to E. coli
O157:H7 through the town’s tap water.
May 15 The town’s Public Utilities Commission (PUC) began drawing

water samples for testing.
May 17 The first symptoms of E. coli infection appeared. Family and

emergency room physicians did not detect a pattern (and thus the
public-health threat) for two more days. Some suspected food
poisoning and, tragically, suggested patients drink more water.
May 18 The Public Utilities Commission (PUC) received a fax from a lab
confirming E. coli O157:H7 contamination from the May 15
samples, yet Water Manager Stan Koebel failed to notify the
Ministry of the Environment or the public health office.
May 19 The region’s Medical Health Office (MHO) learned several

patients had E. coli symptoms. Staff at the office made repeated
calls to the utility over the next few days asking about the safety
of the water. According to Dr. Murray McQuigge, the medical
health officer for Grey-Bruce County at the time, the utility
reported no problem.

May 21 The MHO began independent water testing and issued a boil-
water warning.
May 22 The first death directly linked to E. coli O157:H7 was reported.
May 23 Health officials’ tests confirmed E. coli O157:H7 contamination

of Walkerton’s water. By now, more than 150 people are reported
to have sought hospital treatment and another 500 were
complaining of symptoms. A two-year-old girl becomes the
second person to die from the disease.
May 24 Dr. McQuigge stated: “This is Canada’s worst outbreak of E. coli”.

More cases were expected (E. coli O157:H7 has an incubation
period of up to ten days and can spread from person to person).
June 12 Walkerton started cleaning up, beginning with a house-by-house

disinfection program. Throughout the summer, chlorinated water
was pumped through 2,500 locations to treat water pipes and five
kilometres of water mains were replaced, as was Well 7’s filtration
system.Walkerton remained under a boil-water order.
July 25 The seventh person died from E. coli O157:H7.
November 16 The Province declared Walkerton’s water supply safe, but let the
health office deal with lifting the boil-water advisory.
December 5 The health unit lifted the boil-water advisory. Some residents
remained unsure about the safety of drinking tap water. Later,
a 2002 study found that most people who fell ill from E. coli
O157:H7 infection had “recovered”, though hundreds still
suffered from gastrointestinal problems.
Figure 14.10: Walkerton’s

Well 5. The well, which became
contaminated, was permanently
decommissioned and a memorial
plaque erected at the site.
Photo Courtesy Dr. S.E. Hurley
Drinking Water 487

The Ontario Government called an official inquiry into the events.
Headed by Justice Dennis O’Connor, it issued two reports in 2002. The second
report listed ninety-three recommendations regarding safeguarding public
water supplies. It can be found online at:
www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/english/about/pubs/walkerton/.
There are several notable aspects to this tragedy:

• The events occurred despite the fact that there had been problems
noticed with the water supply over a period of time.
• The inquiry concluded that the crisis was not due to inadequate
regulation, but a failure to observe and enforce existing regulations,
plus lack of training for the operators of the municipal water treatment
plant. It was apparent that the operators (two of whom were charged
criminally and convicted) did not know how to respond to unusual
test results. Despite guidelines and regulations, they:
- failed to use appropriate doses of chlorine;
- failed to monitor chlorine residuals daily;
- made false entries about residuals in operating
records; and
- misstated the locations at which microbial
samples were taken.
It was a wake-up call for those who manage drinking water

across the country—and for the water-drinking public.
It was a wake-up call for those who manage drinking water across the country
—and for the water-drinking public. Despite all that happened, however, a
2001 Ontario study found that half of provincial water plants were still violating
safety laws implemented after the tainted water tragedy. In 2002, the Ontario
Government passed the Safe Drinking Water Act as well as a number of
regulations. The purpose of the Act was to safeguard health by controlling
and regulating drinking water systems and testing.
The first recommendation of the Commission of Inquiry dealt with aquifer

protection and management, and advised a watershed-based source
protection system.
It points out how widespread is the misguided perception that groundwater

is safe and clean—and the tragedy that can result from not understanding
and acting on proper water-quality guidelines and management practices.

Walkerton: Measuring the Costs
In addition to the deaths and health issues, Justice O’Connor’s report
estimated these dollar costs for the events in Walkerton:
• At least $64.5 million in total, but if human suffering is factored
in, the total rises to $155 million.
• Every household in the town spent about $4,000 on average
(total of $6.9 million).
• Real estate values in Walkerton fell a total of $1.1million.
• Costs for businesses (for bottled water or disinfecting and replacing
equipment) totalled about $651,422.
• Lost revenues (May 1, 2000 to April 30, 2001) were about $2.7 million.
• More than $9 million to disinfect and fix the town’s water system.
• The Ontario Government spent about $3.5 million on legal fees and
another $1.5 million to supply clean water to institutions.
Others connected to the tragedy have estimated that the boil-water advisory added
three to four extra work hours to every adult’s day. Municipal taxes in Walkerton
rose to three times higher than normal and insurance rates also increased.
DRINKING WATER ISSUES IN NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR
Community Demographics
Newfoundland and Labrador covers 405,720 square kilometres. The population
of the province is estimated to be more than 516,000 people, which by world
standards is very low for such a huge area. In addition, more than 95 percent
of the population lives on the island portion of the province. Our population
density is about half the national average.
Early settlement in the province occurred mainly along the coastline because
most people made their living from the fishery. Easy access to fresh water shaped
the settlement pattern that followed. Today, about 90 percent of the population is
still concentrated along the coast.
The province’s community demographics—many communities but a relatively small

population that’s spread over a large geographical area—makes it very challenging to
administer public water-supply systems and cost-effectively provide safe drinking water.
Due to their small size, remote locations, and limited tax base, many communities have
limited technical and financial resources for meeting these challenges.
Boil Water Advisories

The provincial government issues boil-water advisories when local water sample
tests do not meet the water quality guidelines. For example, the tests can show
Drinking Water 489

Reasons for Boil Water Advisories higher than accepted amounts of coliforms (bacteria). They can also
be issued if the disinfection processes are not up to standard. In either
case, a boil-water advisory would be issues for people on the affected
water supply system.
When this happens, the authorities alert the affected communities

right away. Regional medical officers of health are also advised
that the community has been alerted so that they are aware of the
Gross Contamination 0.8% situation and can conduct necessary follow-up.
No Disinfection System 28.2%
System is Turned off by Operator 9.2% Information on boil-water advisories in Newfoundland and Labrador
System Broken or no Chlorine 15.1% is available online through the Department of Environment and
Operational Problems
in Distribution System 8.0% Conservation’s webpage.
Residual Chlorination Problem 30.3%
Figure 14.11: Pie chart indicating reasons for issuing boil-water advisories during
Microbiological 8.4%
May 2005. There are many different reasons why advisories are issued and it isn’t
Unspecified 0.0% often due to microbial contamination. Photo courtesy Department of Environment and
Waterborne Disease Outbreak 0.0% Conservation
1. What are the two ways the natural quality of a groundwater

source differs from a surface water source?
2. List four pathogens sometimes found in aquatic systems.
3. What is Giardia? How does Giardia get into water bodies?
4. Although you may go camping in seemingly pristine areas of
Newfoundland and Labrador, why is it important to boil water
prior to consumption?
5. As a result of Justice O’Connor’s Walkerton Inquiry, what were
determined to be the causes of the Walkerton water tragedy?
6. Why are communities sometimes subject to a “boil-water advisory”?

7. Research the various reasons why boil-water advisories are issued.
8. Check online for notices about communities in your area. How many
and which ones have boil water advisories? Have they all been issued
for the same reason?
9. For each of the elements listed, explain how they are naturally and/or
artificially introduced to drinking water supplies and explain what
health complications may result if ingested in large concentrations.
a) Uranium
b) Arsenic
c) Fluoride

ENSURING DRINKING WATER QUALITY:
THE MULTI-BARRIER APPROACH
The delivery of drinking water has several stages— from source collection
Our “Source to Tap”Status through to the tap in your home. As the Walkerton case study illustrates, keeping
In 2001, the Province issued water clean and safe through all those stages poses challenges. The process is
a report on the overall state further complicated by the many ways human activity and natural processes
of our public water supplies, can affect water quality.
called From Source to Tap.
It, and the supplementary Newfoundland and Labrador has adopted a multi-barrier approach to ensuring that
reports that have followed, public water systems provide clean, safe drinking water. The multi-barrier approach is
can be downloaded from the
designed to enable water resource managers to insert adequate barriers at each stage
Department of Environment
of the water supply system “from source to tap”. This allows them to minimize the
and Conservation’s website.
possibility of pathogens and other contaminants entering the water supply system.
The main components of the multi-barrier approach are:

• Level One: source protection, water treatment,
water distribution.
• Level Two: water-quality monitoring and reporting,
regulatory inspection and mitigation planning,
operator education and training, management.
• Level Three: legislation, guidelines,
research, public education.
For this course, we will limit our discussion of the multi-barrier

approach to the Level One components. For information on Level
Two and Level Three, see the supplementary resource materials.
The Multi-barrier Strategic Action Plan
3
Legislative and Policy Frameworks
Public Participation
LEVEL Guidelines Standards and Objectives
Research and Development
2
Inspection and Enforcement
Figure 14.12: A technologist performing Monitoring
a drinking water analysis in a laboratory.
Management
Operator Education and Training
1
Source Water Protection
Figure 14.13: The Multi-barrier Strategic
Action Plan for the protection of our drinking
Drinking Water Treatment
water. All three levels are needed to ensure Drinking Water Distribution System
water consumption safety. Photo Courtesy Clean, Safe, Reliable Drinking Water
Department of Environment and Conservation
Drinking Water 491

Level One Barriers
Figure 14.14: It is very

important that all water
supplies in the province be
protected so that they do
not become contaminated.
Protecting the Source

Protecting the source of public water supplies is an extremely important first
stage in the multi-barrier approach.
Newfoundland and Labrador has one of the most well-established source-water

protection programs in the country. Most of the major water supply areas have
Did You Know? been designated as Protected Water Supply Areas. Some potential areas have been
identified and others are in the process of being designated. This means that almost
Hippocrates is considered
the father of modern medicine. all of the province’s population (89.3 percent) is supplied with drinking water from
In the fourth century B.C. protected surface and groundwater sources.
he wrote that “…whosoever
wishes to investigate medicine Designating a watershed as a protected area is only one step in protecting the source,
properly should consider the however. In addition, all activities in the watershed are monitored and managed.
water that the inhabitants use,
for water contributes much Drinking Water Treatment
to health”. Written records of treating drinking water have been dated to 4,000 years ago
when boiling and filtering water were described. Filtering systems are pictured
in Egyptian drawings from 1300 B.C. And they are described in early Greek
and Roman literature.
Drinking Water and Travel

To determine if it is safe to drink the tap water in the country you are traveling to,
see www.safewateronline.com.

Different types of treatment systems are used to remove different types of chemical
and physical contaminants from drinking water. Generally, each treatment belongs
to one or more of the following methods:
1. Pre-treatment: This includes screening that removes debris, and
pre-sedimentation that removes silt and other similar materials.
2. Coagulation and Flocculation: This involves adding chemicals to
the water and rapidly mixing them. As a result, small particles come
together, or coagulate, to form larger particles called floc, which can
then settle out of the water.
3. Sedimentation: Also known as clarification, this process allows floc,
sand, and other solids to settle out by gravity.
4. Filtration: This removes suspended solids that are not removed
by the sedimentation process.
There are many variations of these treatment methods. They can be customized
to suit the treatment needs of a specific drinking water supply.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, there are more than a dozen conventional drinking
water treatment plants in operation. These treatment plants service more than
135,000 people, which is about one quarter of the entire population of the province.
Treatment
Sometimes pre-chlorination or re-chlorination is necessary if drinking water has
been stored before distribution or use.
Did You Know? In practice, all public water supplies are disinfected to free them from biological
Before community water contaminants. In addition, water is treated as needed to remove the effects of
was chlorinated, typhoid fever other contaminants and to ensure that it meets drinking water quality standards.
killed about 25 out of 100,000 The water quality of public water supply sources in Newfoundland and Labrador
people in the U.S. every year. is generally acceptable. Disinfection is usually all that is required to deliver clean
This death rate is almost the and safe drinking water.
same as the current rate for
car accidents in that country. Treating drinking water to kill bacterial contamination is the primary drinking
water treatment process. Water can be disinfected by adding chlorine, chloramines,
or ozone to the water supply. It can be disinfected by irradiating it with ultra-violet
(UV) light. Disinfection usually occurs as close as possible to the final delivery
points to reduce the chances of the water becoming re-contaminated after
treatment. Chlorination is widely used in North America. Ozonation is more
widely used in Europe.
Proper disinfection treatments must kill microorganisms but not harm humans.
The disinfection agent should kill quickly and only persist long enough to prevent
the biological pathogens from re-growing while water is in the distribution system.
Drinking Water 493

DISINFECTION METHOD 1: CHLORINATION
Adding chlorine to water reduces or eliminates the microorganisms that can make
us ill. In Newfoundland and Labrador, as well as all over North America and in
many other parts of the world,
chlorination is the most common
Did You Know? way of disinfecting drinking water.
Less chlorine is needed to In fact, more than 200 million
disinfect at colder temperatures. Canadians and Americans receive
Do you know why? chlorine-disinfected drinking
water every day.
Figure 14.15: The Marystown chlorination station.
Chlorination is necessary to ensure the safety
To effectively disinfect water,
of our drinking water. Photo courtesy Department
chlorine must be added in amounts of Environment and Conservation
that are high enough to kill bacteria,
but low enough not to adversely affect people. Chlorine cannot completely disinfect
water. It has no effect on resistant organisms such as viruses, cysts and
ova, and its effectiveness is reduced by turbidity.
Chlorine is added to water treatment systems in one of

three forms: chlorine gas, liquid hypochlorous acid (bleach),
or powdered hypochlorite (HTH). Chlorine gas and HTH must
be dissolved in water either before or when it is injected into the
water system. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages.
Figure 14.16: Raw water (left) and water after
treatment (right) at the Clarenville water treatment
plant. Photo courtesy Winston Lethbridge,
treatment plant operator
Figure 14.17: Advantages and disadvantages of adding different states of chlorine to a water system.
Form Advantages Disadvantages

Did You Know? Gas (Cl2) Low chemical cost Hazardous
Strong disinfectant Needs special handling equipment
• In Newfoundland and Requires
Labrador, 85.7 percent of • Special training to use
public water sources are • Separate, well-ventilated room
• Emergency planning
chlorinated. They use gas,
liquid, and powdered Liquid Easy to handle Requires large volume of water
chlorine processes. Simple injection equipment Loses strength in storage
Highest chemical cost
• In addition to killing
microorganisms, chlorine Powdered Easy to store Requires mixing equipment
Simple injection equipment Medium chemical cost
can help remove colour, iron, Loses strength in storage
and sulphur compounds. Forms deposits on equipment

Chlorine needs to be in contact with microorganisms for a few minutes to ensure
that the organism is killed and that disinfection takes place. Contact time takes
Did You Know? place in storage tanks. Once chlorination is completed, the water can be distributed
Chlorine residuals can to the community.
be easily measured at taps
throughout the system to Another important factor influencing the effectiveness of chlorine is its residual
ensure that all customers concentration—the amount of chlorine that remains in the water after the
receive safe water. disinfection process has occurred. In Newfoundland and Labrador, all water
entering the distribution system (or public facility) after at least twenty minutes
of contact time with chlorine must have a chlorine residual concentration
of 0.3 milligrams per litre.
DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS: THM

In addition to destroying microorganisms in water, chlorine
also reacts with any organic matter in the water such as
decaying leaves. The group of chemicals it can form are referred
to as “disinfection by-products”. The most common by products
formed by chlorination are trihalomethanes, or THMs.
The THMs found most often in drinking water are:
• chloroform;
• bromodichloromethane;
• dibromochloromethane; and
• bromoform.
Chloroform is the most common THM in drinking water

and is found in the greatest concentrations. The Guidelines for
Canadian Drinking Water Quality lists a Maximum Acceptable
Concentration (MAC) for THMs of 0.100 milligrams per litre.
The guideline was based on an average of at least four samples
a year at a location in the distribution system that had the
highest potential levels of THMs.
Figure 14.18: Chlorine
can react with dead leaves Some scientific studies have linked THM to increased risk of cancer.
in the water supply and form
Several studies have linked a small increase in the risk of bladder cancer and
chemical byproducts known
as THMs. colorectal cancer. Beyond the cancer concerns, some investigations have found
that chlorination by-products may be linked to heart, lung, kidney, liver, and
central nervous system damage. Other studies have linked THM to reproductive
problems including miscarriages.
The use of chlorine is widespread. Water and health experts agree that not
using chlorine would pose far greater health risks. Scientific research shows that
the benefits of chlorination (reduced frequency of waterborne disease) are much
greater than any health risks from THMs and other disinfection by-products.
Drinking Water 495

DISINFECTION METHOD 2: OZONE
Ozone is a toxic form of oxygen gas that, when bubbled through water, kills
microorganisms. There are advantages and disadvantages to its use. On the
positive side, it may be more effective than chlorine in killing resistant strains
of bacteria and viruses. Also, it does not produce THMs. On the negative side,
the process takes longer than chlorination and is two to three times more costly.
Unlike chlorine, which is extremely toxic and must be transported, ozone can
be easily produced on site. But ozone is chemically unstable so it must be used
immediately. It has to dissolve in water so it must be mixed thoroughly to ensure
contact with any pathogens.
Some people argue that Canadian water treatment plants should use this process
Alternative Treatment
Methods instead of chlorination. To do this, existing treatment facilities in Canada would
1. Boiling have to be retrofitted to use ozone instead of chlorination. The costs associated
2. Carbon filtering with those changes would be very high.
3. Distillation
4. Reverse osmosis In addition, one of the most important reasons why ozonation is not used more
widely is the shorter duration of ozone disinfection compared with chlorination.
There is a risk of ozonated water becoming re-contaminated in the water
distribution system. However, small amounts of chlorine or other disinfectants
can be added to ensure the water remains potable.
Figure 14.19: Potable

water dispensing unit which
uses ozone. Photo courtesy
the Town of St. Lawrence
DISINFECTION METHOD 3: ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION

Irradiating water with ultraviolet (UV) light kills microorganisms. It forms
no residual compounds, but, as with ozonation, the disinfection effects do
not last as long as chlorination.
Post-treatment
There are other ways in which the water in the distribution system can be altered
besides disinfection. For example, thousands of communities worldwide adjust
the fluoride content of their water to an optimal level. When this water is ingested
regularly, it can help prevent tooth decay. Communities with water fluoridation
report improved oral health among residents.
When water contains a significant amount of calcium and magnesium, it is

called hard water. Hard water can clog pipes and inhibit soap and detergent from
dissolving. Water softening removes the calcium and magnesium ions. Iron ions
may also be removed during softening. The best way to soften water is to use
a water softener unit and connect it directly to the water supply.
Water Distribution
Once it is treated and meets water-quality guidelines, water is distributed
Figure 14.20: To detect leaks by a supply network to homes and businesses. The distribution network must
in the water distribution system, be built and maintained to ensure drinking water quality.
a technician must listen through
hydrophones for telltale noises.
It takes training and good Distribution systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments
hearing to recognize the sound such as communities or cities. The system planning and design requires the
of a pipe leaking underground.
Photo courtesy Department of expertise of planners and civil engineers. They are trained to consider many
Environment and Conservation factors such as location, current demand, future growth, leakage, pressure, pipe
size, pressure loss, and fire fighting flows. Areas where water might leak out,
or contaminated water might leak in, must be identified and fixed. There can
be no accidental cross-connections with the sewer system.
The challenges of maintaining a safe, clean water-distribution system includes dealing

with aging infrastructure, and finding and retaining qualified and trained operators.
1. What is the purpose of the Government of Newfoundland

and Labrador’s “multi-barrier” approach to water quality?
2. What are the three components of the “multi-barrier” approach
to water quality?
3. What are the three main steps in the water treatment sequence?
4. What are some advantages and disadvantages of chlorination over
other types of water treatment?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using ozone
to disinfect public water supplies?

6. In some jurisdiction, people are permitted to use community water
sources (lakes and rivers) for recreation such as fishing or boating.
Why don’t we do that in Newfoundland and Labrador?
7. It is common knowledge that many community water supplies
(e.g., lakes) have very healthy trout populations. Why are people
not allowed to fish in these “protected” water supplies?
Drinking Water 497

Did You Know? WASTEWATER
What comes into our homes and businesses as high quality water leaves as
In small amounts, nitrogen wastewater through our drainpipes and into the sewer system. If this wastewater
and phosphorus from sewage is returned to the environment untreated, it can pollute water bodies such as lakes
have only a short-term effect. and ponds, rivers, and eventually the ocean. Some households and communities
By adding additional water in Newfoundland and Labrador have treatment plants or septic tanks that treat
to dilute the concentration
wastewater before returning it to the environment. Others do not.
of pollutants, the ecosystem
may better be able to recover
The wastewater produced by a municipality can be divided into two types:
its natural nutrient balance.
grey water and black water (which is commonly called sewage). Grey water
is the water that drains from sinks and dishwashers, laundry tubs, and washing
machines, bathtubs, and showers. It contains particles of soap, fat, food, cleaning
solvents, and other materials. Black water is the water and its contents flushed
Looking Ahead: treating away in toilets.
and re-using grey water
Reusing, or treating and
Households generally produce more grey water than black water. Even though
recycling, grey water separately
grey and black water differ in several ways and can be handled differently, most
from black water can be done
communities that have wastewater plants in this province usually process grey and
at either the household or the
black water together. In addition, storm runoff may also be included in the mix.
community level. In some
places, treated grey water is
used for irrigation or as toilet Households are not the only Liters a Day (l/d) of Wastewater
source of wastewater. Wastewater from a Typical Household: Greywater (G)
water. Recycling grey water has
and Blackwater (B) Combined
many conservation benefits, from industry can contain a variety
including: of industrial chemicals harmful
• Reducing demand for fresh to aquatic ecosystems. Most
water as well as the strain industrial wastewater is required
on septic tank or treatment to be tested before it is released
plants to ensure it will have minimal
• Requiring less energy and impact on the ecosystem.
fewer/reduced chemicals
to treat Untreated Wastewater Usage Litres Percentage
• Replenishing groundwater If piped untreated, or raw, back into Toilet (B) 303 40%
(if used for irrigation) the environment, human wastes Miscellaneous (G) 38 5%
• Supporting plant growth can add quantities of nitrogen and Laundry 114 15%
phosphorus that are extremely Kitchen (G) 76 10%
Reuse of grey water must be Bath (G) 227 30%
harmful to aquatic organisms. In
managed carefully or it can pose
addition, the accumulation of raw Figure 14.21: Domestic wastewater pie chart
health hazards. For example, if
waste in water can lead to the growth showing the types and proportion of wastewater
it is not used immediately and is produced in a typical North American household
left to stand, pathogens appear, of disease-causing microorganisms. each day. Notice the amount of blackwater versus
the water forms a sludge, and For these and other reasons, treating greywater produced. Data source: www.greywater.com
foul odours are created. sewage is a healthy and ecologically
wise approach.

In Newfoundland and Labrador, for the most part, the large volumes of wastewater
we produce flows untreated back into the environment. About fifteen percent of
Did You Know? the population has a centralized municipal treatment plant; thirty-five percent
have an on-site treatment system (septic tank). Most of the remaining untreated
Both raw and treated sewage
are dumped into the Great discharge ends up in the ocean or other water bodies. We are fortunate that our
Lakes by Ontario and eight water resources are so vast that their contact with our own waste is minimized.
American states. Cities such Unfortunately, this invisible pollution can foster an “out of sight, out of mind”
as Detroit, Toronto, and Buffalo mentality toward wastewater treatment and disposal.
with combined populations
of over six million people Sending raw sewage into a river or the ocean does have an effect, which we
discharge sewage effluent ignore to our peril. Improper disposal of human waste is a problem for close
into the Great Lakes. to three billion people including the people of Newfoundland and Labrador.
Astonishingly, Lake Ontario
is also the source for domestic Sewage Treatment
water supply for the city Treatment Plant
of Toronto! The typical complete system in a wastewater treatment plant has four main
steps that removes toxic substances from wastewater, and returns the treated water
to a river, lake, or marine environment without causing harm. Treatment facilities
are never 100 percent effective, which means that some water quality problems
remain after treatment.
The main steps for treating sewage in a wastewater treatment plant are:
Step 1: Screening or pre-treatment: This removes items that will not
break down or are too large such as garbage or non-biodegradable
materials that have been flushed down the toilet.
Step 2: Primary treatment: This removes more than fifty percent of the
biosolids, which form a semi-solid sludge on the bottom of a settling
tank. The sludge can then be further treated or dried and disposed
of in a number of ways.
Step 3: Secondary Treatment: Wastewater that remains after Primary

Treatment is seeded with aerobic bacteria. These bacteria break
down organic molecules or biosolids more quickly than anaerobic
bacteria to leave nutrient molecules. Some form of aeration must be
employed to keep a high rate of bacterial digestion/decomposition.
Figure 14.22: This oxidation ditch,

in Holyrood on the Avalon Peninsula,
Step 4: Tertiary Treatment: Filters, particular species of plants and/or chemical
is an example of secondary treatment. (chlorine) or UV treatments, are used to disinfect the effluent,
Photo courtesy Department of Environment removing phosphorus, nitrates, and ammonia. Plants have the ability
and Conservation
to take up nutrients that may cause Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD) problems. Some plant species even have the ability to take
up toxic metals.
Drinking Water 499

ENVIRO-FOCUS
The Sewage Situation
in St. John’s
Discharging raw sewage into the ocean was once acceptable (out of sight,
out of mind). Today we know that it can damage aquatic ecosystems and
the environment in general. We also know that untreated discharge poses
a human health hazard.
Raw sewage has been flowing from the sewers of St. John’s into its harbour for
decades. This situation is not unique to the capital city. Many Newfoundland and
Labrador communities release untreated, highly diluted sewage discharges into
the ocean. Most of the freshwater discharges into rivers or lakes are provided
with secondary treatment before they are released.
Every day in 2005, 120 million litres of untreated sewage flowed

into St. John’s harbour. This came from residential areas, industry,
commercial operations, and institutions (as well as storm runoff).
The once pristine harbour is so polluted with bacteria, pathogens,
and heavy metals that it was once ranked as the dirtiest harbour
in Canada. But the Sierra Legal Defence Fund’s 2004 National
Sewage Report Card no longer ranked St. John’s Harbour as the
dirtiest, although it only received an “E”. Montreal was given an
“F” and no improvement noted; Victoria, B.C., the worst offender,
was “suspended”.
Figure 14.23: The St. John’s
Harbour Primary Treatment The federal, provincial and municipal governments (St. John’s, Mount Pearl, and
Facility, 2009. Photo courtesy
Paradise) are working together to build a new multi-phase collection and treatment
City of St. John’s
facility. The first step has been completed: the City built the Southside Road pumping
station in 1999. It conveys wastewater from the Waterford Valley to a diffused interim
outfall in the middle of the harbour. This step has greatly improved water quality
at the mouth of the Waterford River, where the outfall used to be located.
The primary treatment plant is now under construction. The plan calls for a
secondary treatment plant to follow, as required.
To track of progress on the project, see the City of St. John’s web site:
www.stjohns.ca/cityservices/environment/harbour/cleanup.jsp.
Investigate: A good reference on how cities across the country deal with sewage
is the Sierra Legal Defence Fund’s “Sewage Report Card”. Find out who ranks well
(and who is failing terribly) at: www.sierralegal.org/m_archive/pr04_09_08.html.

Lagoons: A Low-maintenance Treatment Alternative
Lagoons are shallow basins that hold wastewater for several months,
allowing natural decomposition of contaminants to occur.
Lagoons slow the movement of wastewater and the solids
settle to the bottom where they begin to break down.
If land is available, using lagoons for primary (or

secondary) sewage treatment is cost-effective. Lagoons
need far less energy than a treatment plant and require
fewer people to oversee them because they are relatively
Figure: 14.24: Several towns maintenance-free. In addition, they can work with variable flow conditions.
in Newfoundland use lagoons
for sewage treatment. This On the down-side: lagoons do not have a bacterial disinfection step, and the
lagoon is in Whitbourne on
the Avalon Peninsula. water that comes out of them is not high quality.
Constructed Wetlands
In nature, wetland vegetation contributes significantly to nature’s ability to
self-clean ambient water. Taking note of this, scientists and engineers have “built”
wetlands as a way of treating wastewater. These artificial wetland systems are
useful for treating municipal, industrial, and commercial wastewater, as well as
treating storm-water, agricultural runoff, and animal waste. In Europe, constructed
wetlands have been used for wastewater treatment since the mid-1980s; in this
province they began to appear in 2006.
Constructed wetlands are made of an excavated basin, or trench, that is filled with
sand or gravel and planted with wetland vegetation (reeds and rushes). Wastewater
is flooded into the area either via the surface water or in a trench or bed filled with
sand or gravel and covered by an impermeable layer of clay. In this second type,
the sand layer fosters wetland plants and
the wastewater is treated by filtration and
other processes.
These wetlands take a bit of effort to build,

but, like lagoons, they take little energy to
run. They have a pleasing look and can actually
provide habitat area for wildlife and insects.
They do require a relatively large land area,
however, and are not as successful with
wastewater that has a lot of chemical or Figure 14.25: Constructed wetlands are
industrial pollution. In addition, they are not also used across the province for sewage
treatment. This is a constructed wetland
as effective in locations that have long winters in Marystown on the Burin Peninsula.
(which slow degradation activity). Photo courtesy Department of Environment
and Conservation
Drinking Water 501

The Septic Tank System
In areas with low population, wastewater is often treated using septic systems.
Many households in the province use a septic field to deal with the liquid wastes
from the septic tank.
Septic systems must meet sanitation regulations administered by the Department

of Government Services. The systems must be properly maintained for efficient
operation and must be composed of three parts:
• Septic tank: This provides primary treatment that produces three layers:
soapy-fatty scum, liquid effluent, and sludge. Only anaerobic bacteria can
live in a septic tank, which means that decomposition is slow, and the sludge
will eventually have to be removed. If not, the sludge and scum can build
up and enter the disposal field (see below) and block up holes to the soil.
• Distribution box: This receives the liquid effluent from the septic
tank and distributes it to a series of pipes in the disposal field.
• Disposal Field: This series of pipes in the soil distributes the
effluent, which then forms an underground mat composed of bacteria
and effluent products. Aerobic bacteria help reduce the remaining
wastes, and water seeps through the soil in all directions. To prevent
contamination, the disposal field must be at least thirty metres from
all surface water and dug wells.
Septic tank systems can be any size, but they must be

built properly so that bacteria and natural filtering can
return the water to the environment in a cleaner form.
When they are well built and maintained, septic tanks
will settle out the majority of solids, and the soil will act
as a filter. Effluent must move slowly in the disposal field,
and fine particles must be trapped, for the system to work
properly. Some removal of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD) wastes, nitrates, phosphates, and pathogenic
Figure 14.26: Some septic bacteria will take place. Organisms on the mat formed in the disposal field
tanks service only one home
will help remove other harmful bacteria.
while others can service whole
communities. This is the large
septic tank during installation Outhouses
in Trinity on the Bonavista
In places with no running water (in the country and at remote cabins), many people
Peninsula. Photo courtesy
Department of Environment use pits or outhouses to dispose of human waste. A properly constructed outhouse
and Conservation confines wastes in a safe place, reducing the chance that people will be exposed to
pathogenic organisms.
In addition to properly locating an outhouse, it is important to maintain it

according to carefully established guidelines (see table below for details). Following
these guidelines helps keep waste contents away from surface water or groundwater.

An outhouse should never be placed in a marshy area, on exposed bedrock, or
anywhere that there is only a thin layer of soil. Once the pit from an outhouse is full,
the hole must be filled with soil (so rain will not cause an overflow) and a new
The layered ocean location chosen.
The ocean can be divided into
layers according to temperature Figure 14.27: Provincial Standards for Pit Privies
and salinity. Pit dimensions 1 x 1 m; 1.5 m deep
• The top mixed layer can be
as deep as 200 metres. It is the
Distance above groundwater, water table, or bedrock 1m
warmest layer and is mixed Distance from buildings 7.5 m
by wind and wave action. Distance from embankments and property boundaries 4.5 m
• The thermocline is the layer Distance from drilled wells 16 m
between the mixed layer and Distance from dug wells, springs, or surface water 30 m
deep ocean waters. This zone
of decreasing temperature
can extend to a depth of
1,000 metres.
• The deep water layer
includes anything below the
thermocline and is almost
completely devoid of sunlight.
Figure 14.28: Outhouse.

Most Newfoundlanders
and Labradorians have
used an outhouse at
one time or another.
1. Distinguish between “grey water” and “black water”.

2. Describe the four main steps in treating sewage.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of constructed wetlands
and lagoon sewage treatment methods?

4. Refer to the Sierra Club of Canada’s most recent “Sewage Report Card”
to find out which cities have received “failing grades” and which have
“passed” or “shown improvement”.
5. Research the regulations surrounding the installation of domestic
septic systems.
6. Investigate the maintenance requirements of a domestic septic system.
Drinking Water 503

Chapter 15: Fisheries and Aquaculture
Did You Know?

Envirofact:
Garbage from Newfoundland
and Labrador is carried by
ocean currents to wash up on
the beaches of Scandinavia?
This is tangible proof that
actions we take locally can
have impact globally.
Figure 15.1: Seventy-one percent of Earth is covered by water.
The marine environment is incredibly vast. It includes all the seas and oceans
which cover approximately seventy-one percent of the world’s surface. Hundreds
of millions of years ago the oceans provided habitat for the earliest life on Earth.
For many millennia the oceans were the exclusive home of all life on Earth as
the earliest plants and animals evolved from this biotic “soup”.
The topography of the ocean floor is as varied as any landscape. Shallow coastal
waters give way to vast plateaus teeming with life, which in turn give way to steep
inclines leading into the cold, dark depths of the ocean. The ocean floor is also
home to mountain ranges, volcanoes, and deep trenches. Some of the deepest
trenches in the Pacific Ocean exceed 11,000 metres.
THE MARINE ECOSYSTEM

Such a vast and unfathomable underwater world is difficult to explore and even
more difficult to study. The diversity of marine life is evidence of how different
organisms adapt to radically different environments. Every part of the ocean has
physical characteristics that support life in a unique way. There is much that
remains unknown about marine ecosystems. But there is also much we can learn.

The ocean environment can be classified as follows:
• ESTUARIES are in coastal areas where rivers meet the sea. An estuary
is a semi-enclosed body of water in which tidal salt water mixes with,
Estuaries indicate and is diluted by, fresh river water. In Newfoundland and Labrador, and
environmental health
in the Maritime Provinces, an estuary may also be known as a barachois.
The mixing action of tidal
An estuary extends inland along the river as far as the ocean tides can
and river waters in an estuary
reach. This nutrient-rich sediment, carried off the land by erosion, is
is effective in flushing and
dispersing pollutants, both
important to the estuarine ecosystem. However, estuarine life is not
upstream and out to sea. as diverse as that found in other coastal marine zones. This is because
There is, however, a limit to the environment is much more demanding. Species that flourish
the amount of pollution an in estuaries need to withstand highly variable conditions of water flow,
estuary may be able to flush. sedimentation, and salinity levels, as well as large daily and seasonal
This situation is worsened fluctuations in temperature.
by the fact that human
behaviour can alter the size • THE INTERTIDAL ZONE is the area between the water levels at high and
and shape of an estuary. low tide. It is the zone where the terrestrial and aquatic environments
If deepened, an estuary will mingle as it is alternately flooded and dried out, and where the
have a higher volume, which temperature changes dramatically over very short periods of time.
means that the tidal flow However, intertidal zones are very productive habitats for the plant and
and mixing processes will
animal life capable of tolerating this extreme environment. Salt marshes
be smaller and slower. In
and swamps are important intertidal habitats. Salt marshes, which can
turn, the estuary will not be
be very large, occur in mid-latitude temperate zones around the world
as effective in flushing large
volumes of pollution or
between the tropics and the Arctic and Antarctic.Vegetation includes
other effluent.An estuary is grasses, herbs, and dwarf shrubs. Such marshes are found in many
a very sensitive gauge of the areas along the east coast of Canada.
destructiveness of industry
and population growth. Both swamps and marshes are home to many species usually found in
shallow marine sediments. They are often home to many species that exist
nowhere else. Swamps and marshes provide creeks and plant-covered pools
in which single-cell organisms, algae, and suspension feeders flourish.
The intertidal zone also has qualities of a terrestrial ecosystem, bringing
marine animals like crabs together with spiders, snails, and insects.
Intertidal zones are also important feeding stop-overs for shorebirds
during annual migrations.
Many extensive intertidal marshes and mudflats are part of estuarine

ecosystems. And like estuaries, these marshes are particularly vulnerable
to pollution from debris, oil, sewage, and industrial and agricultural
runoff. Once tides and winds carry harmful materials into a salt marsh
or estuary, these materials can accumulate in food chains by the process
of bioaccumulation.
Fisheries and Aquaculture 505

• LITTORAL/SUBTIDAL are relatively shallow coastal waters, usually no more
than around seventy metres in depth. The littoral zone is usually teeming
with a wide variety of life, partly because in shallow littoral waters (usually
to a depth of ten metres):
- Sunlight can penetrate to the seabed.
- Temperatures are seasonally warmer than deeper waters, and
- Coastal currents and tides facilitate good mixing of essential
nutrients like carbon (mainly in the form of carbon dioxide and
bicarbonates), nitrogen, and phosphorus. This allows a variety
of plant life to grow on the ocean floor.
• BENTHIC (of or relating to the sea bed) and pelagic (of or relating to the
open water column) organisms are interconnected with greater complexity
in the littoral zone than in any other part of the ocean. Many commercial
species of ground fish, pelagic fish, scallops, oysters, crabs, and lobsters
are fished in the littoral zone.
Envirofact: a little plant with a big job

The most productive area for sea life lies near the ocean surface where phytoplankton thrives.
These so-called “grasses of the sea”are microscopic single-celled marine plants and cyanobacteria.
Phytoplankton is the foundation of the entire marine food web. Newfoundland and Labrador has
one of the most productive habitats for phytoplankton in the world. Microscopic animals called
zooplankton consume phytoplankton. In turn, zooplanktons are eaten by fish larvae and these
larvae are eaten by bigger fish.
Because phytoplankton uses carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, they are an important means
for removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. The larger the phytoplankton population,
the more carbon dioxide can be removed from the atmosphere. These organisms are capable of
doubling their numbers every day during high productivity periods.An individual phytoplankton
only lives for one or two days before sinking to the bottom of the ocean, taking with it the carbon
dioxide it consumed from the atmosphere. Over millions of years the world’s ocean floor has
become an enormous storage site or “sink”for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Ninety percent of the
carbon dioxide that exists in the world has settled to the bottom of the ocean, much of it dead
biomass from phytoplankton. This means that large populations of phytoplankton are needed
to slow the increase of the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide.
Figure 15.2: An aerial photograph

of a “bloom” of phytoplankton • SEAGRASS MEADOWS are found in littoral zones in temperate and tropical
(light blue) in a water body.
areas around the world, though they are most abundant in tropical areas.
Very few animals feed on seagrass, with the exception of some geese
(hence the Newfoundland term “goosegrass”), fish, turtles, and sea
urchins. However, the large amounts of decaying materials (detritus)
from seagrass as it breaks down are an important source of nutrients

for bacteria, which provide food for plankton. Seagrass also supports
algae and is an important nursery for many species of fish since it is
possible to conceal eggs and young fish from predators in the grasses.
• THE CONTINENTAL SHELF is a transitional zone between shallow subtidal

and deep subtidal zones. A continental shelf is composed of underwater
extensions of the continental landmass, commonly described as having
depths between 200 and 1,000 metres, and being made up of continental
rock types rather than ocean floor rocks. The resource-rich Grand Banks
of Newfoundland is a very extensive part of the North American
continental shelf.
The Grand Banks is one of the most biologically productive areas in

the world. Due to available mineral nutrients and favourable water
temperatures, phytoplankton grows quickly or “blooms” there in
the spring and autumn attracting a vast range of sea life to the area.
Phytoplankton growth may be just as rapid in summer, but the
population is suppressed because of the many animals that eat them.
Continental Shelf
Labrador
Quebec
Flemish
Cap
Newfoundland
Nose of
Grand the Banks
Figure 15.3: A portion of the Banks
continental shelf along the east
coast of North America. Note
the location of the Grand Banks
and the Flemish Cap, two very
Tail of
resource-rich areas. Illustration the Bank
courtesy Derek Peddle

The abundance of mineral nutrients for phytoplankton on the
Grand Banks is due to several things:
1. Nutrients are heavily concentrated in coastal areas due to runoff

from rivers and tidal action. In deep water these nutrients must
be circulated by water moving to the surface from the ocean floor.
2. The productivity of the offshore shoals and banks on the Grand

Banks is enriched by upwelling deep ocean currents that follow the
rising slopes of the Grand Banks carrying nutrient rich waters from
the depths to the surface where the nutrients support plant and
animal life.
3. During the winter, strong currents and storms stir up the ocean
bottom on this shallow bank. This also brings nutrients and
minerals to the surface providing nutrients for phytoplankton
when warmer weather arrives in the spring.
4. The oceanographic processes driving upwelling and re-suspension

of nutrients and minerals from the seafloor are particularly active
in the vicinity of the Grand Banks compared to banks elsewhere
in the world.
• THE DEEP OCEAN is the largest marine zone. This zone was long thought
to have limited biodiversity. Recent technological advances have made
it possible to explore at these depths. We now know that there is great
biodiversity in the deep sea, but still have a very limited understanding
of the number of types of organisms that exist there. Continental shelves
often drop off dramatically to a much deeper ocean floor known as the
abyssal plain. This plain is thousands of metres below the ocean surface,
receives no sunlight, and is barren compared to other marine zones.
Yet the deep ocean is home to specialized species adapted to conditions
there. Particles such as dead plankton and fecal matter rain slowly down
through the water column and eventually reach the ocean floor. Bacteria
consume these particles, and these bacteria are in turn consumed by other
organisms. There are also areas of the seafloor provided with nutrients
from thermal vents that are very rich in plant and animal life.

ENVIRO-FOCUS
Eelgrass
Along many shorelines hidden underwater meadows grow in areas

protected from strong currents and powerful waves. These meadows
are formed by eelgrass and they are important to the survival of many
fish species.
Eelgrass is not seaweed, but rather an underwater grass that grows up to one
metre tall in muddy or sandy shallow areas near the shore. It grows during the
spring and summer and then decays in the fall and winter. A variety of animals
take advantage of this species’ lifecycle for food and shelter.
Many juvenile fish including herring (Clupeidae),

cod (Gadus morhua), and salmon (Solmo salar) use
eelgrass beds as nurseries. They feed on smaller
creatures including sea anemones, marine worms,
snails, and crabs that live among the eelgrass blades
or burrow into the sediments. Eelgrass also offers
small fish a hiding place from predators.
Eelgrass as a Food Factory

Each blade of eelgrass is its own food factory.
Bacteria and decaying plant and animal matter
Figure 15.4: An underwater gather on eelgrass leaves, giving them a brown felt-like appearance. This
meadow formed by eelgrass. material provides food for many species of tiny invertebrates including
This grass forms a “nursery” worms, crustaceans, and snails. These invertebrate colonies, in turn, make
for many juvenile fish and helps
control coastal erosion. eelgrass beds rich feeding areas for fish and marine birds. As eelgrass dies,
bacteria and fungi feed on the dead leaves and break them down into tiny
particles. This decaying plant material provides vital nutrients for the
near-shore food web.
Eelgrass Controls Erosion

Eelgrass meadows cushion the impact of waves and currents on coastlines.
This slows or curtails erosion. During low tides, eelgrass also shelters small
animals and plants from extreme temperatures. On tidal flats, eelgrass beds
hold moisture like a sponge, thereby protecting small animals. Damage to
eelgrass meadows harms the stability of shorelines and negatively impacts
numerous populations of animals including salmon, waterfowl, and shellfish.

GLOBAL FISHERIES
Humans have probably eaten fish for as long as our species has been able to catch
them. We know from archaeological evidence, such as discarded fish bones and
cave paintings, that seafood was an important food for prehistoric peoples. When
humans began to live in permanent settlements fishing became very important
to many human populations. In fact, the ocean’s resources have provided for many
of humankind’s needs for thousands of years.
Today, because of technology and increasing human demands, we are placing

unprecedented pressure on marine resources. The United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) monitors and ranks the status of the world’s
wild fish stocks. In 2005, FAO estimated that:
• Fifty percent of the world’s fish populations are fully exploited.
This means we cannot harvest them more intensely without driving
them toward extinction.
• Twenty five percent of the world’s marine fish populations can yield
no more than they are already yielding without being driven into decline.
• Twenty five percent of marine fish populations are overexploited and

being driven toward extinction.
The bottom line is that existing fishing practices are not sustainable given present
consumption rates.
Consumption, Production, and Trade

Fisheries and aquaculture are critical sources of food and nutrition. Fish is a
primary source of protein for many of the world’s poor, particularly in Asia and
parts of Africa. It is an important part of the diet of even more people. In Asia,
nearly one billion people rely on fish as a primary source of animal protein.
Fish are used for other purposes as well. According to the FAO, nearly one fourth
of the global fish catch is turned into feed for livestock and farmed fish, as well
as fish oil and other products.
Aquaculture:
This demand for fish provides much needed employment, income, and a means
Also called fish farming,
of subsistence for many coastal communities. According to the World Bank, there
aquaculture is the raising
of fish species in captive or are approximately 38 million full-time fishers worldwide. The livelihood of another
controlled settings. 150 million people is based on fisheries, aquaculture, and associated activities.
Through fisheries world-wide, humans take more wildlife than through any other
process on Earth. In addition, aquaculture is the fastest growing sector of the
global agricultural economy, making up for more than thirty percent of total fish
food production. Asia produces most of this. Fish is the most heavily traded food
commodity on international markets, and a significant source of foreign exchange
for many developing nations. In 2002, the value of the world’s fish trade was $68
billion CAN, half of which was from developing countries. It exceeded the combined
net exports of rice, coffee, sugar, and tea.
Trends in Global Fisheries
Figure 15.5: Redfish on ship’s

deck. Photo courtesy Department of
Fisheries and Oceans
Before 1945, fishing fleets did not have the technology or the capacity to catch
and preserve large enough quantities of fish so fish stocks were generally able
to reproduce faster than they could be caught. The advent of trawlers, then factory
freezer trawlers in the 1950s, enabled countries and fishing companies to send
their fishing fleets anywhere in the world. Factory freezer
trawlers could catch and freeze large volumes of fish for
months on end before having to return to port. The result was
a significant increase in fish catches around the world including
off Newfoundland and Labrador. Between 1945 and the early
1970s, global capture of fish increased from fourteen million
to sixty million tonnes. This rapid upward trend continued in
the 1980s and 1990s. By 2002, catches worldwide had reached
an estimated ninety million tonnes.
The most critical issue in the global fishery today is

Figure 15.6: Factory overfishing. Close to home we have seen the decline in many of our stocks such
Freezer Trawler. as cod, American plaice (Hippoglossoides platessoides), redfish (Sebastes marinus)
and Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides). In addition to overfishing,
certain fishing practices can have significant impacts on marine environments.
For example, bottom trawlers that drag large nets along the ocean floor can damage
sensitive habitats such as deepwater corals, and can sweep up non-target species.
Ghost fishing by gillnets (nets that have been lost at sea but continue to catch fish)
has been identified as a large and destructive process that does a great deal of

harm to fish species around the world. Globally, losses to by-catch (fish species
unintentionally caught in nets) are measured in the millions of tonnes.
“Rapidly growing coastal populations, poverty, rising demand for fish, changes in fishing
technology and subsidies, habitat destruction, and weak governance of the shared fish
resources all conspire to bring many of the world’s fisheries to the brink of collapse”.
Warren Evans, Environment Director, The World Bank
Other Issues Affecting Fish Resources

In 1950, there were 2.5 billion people living on Earth—by 2006 the number stood
at approximately 6.4 billion people. Worldwide, a rapid growth in the populations of
coastal communities indirectly affects fisheries through agricultural and industrial
runoff, increased erosion, and altered coastal ecosystems. These sensitive areas are
nursery grounds for many fish species. The rapid increase in the world’s human
population has further increased pressures on marine resources.
MARINE FISH RESOURCES OFF NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR

Fish Population
The terms “fish population” and “fish stock” can be used
interchangeably. The terms generally refer to a group of
interbreeding individuals. This could be all individuals
of a species, but usually there are numerous populations
within a species. They are often separated by physical
barriers. For example, the cod on the Flemish Cap are
separated from the cod on the Grand Banks by the Flemish
Pass, which is a very deep undersea canyon. Biological
studies have shown that the cod on the two sides of the
Pass differ in numerous ways indicating that the Pass is
a barrier to intermixing. However, in most cases, physical
separation is not obvious and telling different populations
apart may be difficult.
The term “fish stock” is also a fisheries management term.

For management purposes, stocks in the Northwest Atlantic
are defined along geographic lines. These lines, called
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) boundary
lines, separate NAFO subareas, divisions, and subdivisions.
The original lines were first drawn up by The International
Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF)
Figure 15.7: The areas of the Northwest Atlantic Ocean to correspond as closely as possible to known cod
covered under the NAFO convention. population boundaries.

Because fish move around and different groups of a species may occupy a given
geographic area at the same or different times, it is often difficult to define a
management stock so that it corresponds exactly to a distinct population.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):
The EEZ refers to that portion There are three types of commercial fish stocks in our waters. These are:
of the sea extending to 200 miles • Domestic stocks – those stocks that exist totally within Canada’s
off the coast of a state. Coastal Exclusive Economic (EEZ). Some examples are northern Gulf cod,
states have the right to control the
2GH cod, SA2+3K American plaice (Hippoglossoides platessoides).
living and nonliving resources of
the sea in their EEZ, while allowing
freedom of navigation to other • Transboundary stocks – those stocks that live both inside and outside
states beyond twelve miles, as Canada’s EEZ. Examples are 2J3KL cod, 3NO cod, 3Ps cod (with France),
agreed at the sixth session of the 3LNO American plaice, 3NO capelin.
Third U.N. Conference on the
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Coastal • International stocks – those stocks that exist totally outside Canada’s
states also have the responsibility
EEZ. All of the stocks on Flemish Cap (NAFO Division 3M) belong
for managing the conservation
of all natural resources within
to this group.
their EEZ.
HISTORICAL FISHING TRENDS IN NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR
The Story of Cod is the Story of

Introduction
Even before John Cabot reported back to England in 1497 that
the waters of the Grand Banks were “teeming with fish”, cod
fish have been an important part of the story of Newfoundland
and Labrador. It is said that cod were once present in such
vast schools off the coast that the cod could be “dipped up
in baskets”.Although this was clearly an exaggeration, the
seemly inexhaustible cod stocks sustained communities in
Newfoundland and Labrador, as well as the North-eastern
United States, and Eastern Canada for centuries.
By 1578, nearly
400 ships from
England, France, Spain, and Portugal
were taking part in the Newfoundland fishery.
Figure 15.8: Codfish was once
St. John’s became the busiest port in North
used as Newfoundland Currency.
America during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. While small numbers of settlers were
struggling to survive in New York and Boston,
Figure 15.9: Working on a fishing flake,
St. John’s was a bustling, thriving town, the located on the northeast side of St. John’s
largest European community in North America. Harbour. Photo courtesy PANL-CMCS

Did You Know? The abundance of fish brought fishermen and their families from England and
Ireland to Newfoundland where they eventually settled in hundreds of coastal
The northern cod stock (2J3KL) communities. The majority of settlers’ livelihoods were dependent upon the
of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) northern cod inshore fishery. That stock thrived in an area stretching from
occupies the area from the southern Labrador to the northern Grand Banks. Some communities, especially
southern Labrador Shelf to those on the Burin Peninsula, also depended on the offshore dory fisheries.
the northern Grand Banks.
To most, it seemed as though the cod were limitless.
Exploited for centuries, annual
landings increased to about
Decline of the Cod Stock
300,000 tonnes during the early
part of the twentieth century.
Most cod stocks around Newfoundland and Labrador declined dramatically during
The early fishery was limited the 1960s and 1970s as a result of overfishing by distant-water fleets from Europe.
to shallow nearshore waters. Fishing by distant-water fleets decreased substantially after the 200-mile limit was
established in 1977, and the cod populations off southern Labrador and eastern
In the 1950s, longliners were Newfoundland partially recovered. In a move that was clearly wrong in hindsight,
introduced to near-shore waters
Canada permitted Canadian trawlers to replace the foreign fleets, and catches
and distant water trawlers from
skyrocketed again. Cod stocks declined rapidly during the late 1980s and early 1990s.
Europe exploited large numbers
In July of 1992, Canada declared a moratorium on northern (2J3KL) cod. This was
of cod found in winter near the
edge of the continental shelf.
followed by closures of other cod stocks on the Flemish Cap (3M), the southern Grand
Bank (3NO), off our south coast (3Ps), and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence off our west
The highest catch recorded coast (3Pn4RS). Since these closures, some cod stocks recovered partially, and
was over 800,000 tonnes in fisheries have reopened off the south and west coasts and in inshore areas of 2J3KL.
1968. Catches began to decline But there has been almost no sign of recovery of northern cod in the offshore.
rapidly after the high catches
of 1968 and 1969.
Why did the northern cod fishery collapse?
The declaration of the Canadian EEZ in 1977 contributed to an increase in the
Canadian catch of northern cod during the 1980s. It is not clear, however, that the
stocks themselves recovered by an appreciable amount
Total Allowable Catches (2J3KL)
since improved fishing methods enables fishers to find
300 and net the cod more easily. A second, more severe,
250
collapse occurred in the late 1980s.
200 In July 1992, almost 500 years after Cabot’s voyage to

TAC (000t)
Newfoundland, the long era of the fishery for northern

150
cod officially came to an end when the then federal
100 fisheries minister, John Crosbie, imposed a moratorium
on fishing. The effect on communities was devastating.
50
Approximately 30,000 fisheries workers lost their jobs as
0
nets were stowed away and processing plants closed their
’85 ’86 ’87 ’88 ’89 ’90 ’91 ’92 ’93 ’94 ’95 ’96 ’97 ’98 ’99 ’00 ’01 doors. It was the largest single layoff in Canadian history.
Year
People living in hundreds of communities throughout
Figure 15.10: Historical Cod landings from 2J3KL. Total allowable
catches (TACs) and landings (thousands of tons) by non-Canadian Newfoundland and Labrador lost their livelihoods.
fleets and Canadian fleets, with the latter divided into mobile gear Depopulation caused by the decline in fish stocks still
(offshore) and fixed gear (mainly inshore). Graph courtesy of threatens the survival of many rural towns.
Department of Fisheries and Oceans

The Collapse of the Cod Fishery
While the ultimate cause of the collapse of the cod fishery was overfishing, the
Did You Know? severity of the decline suggests that other factors were involved. It is also not clear
Foreign fleets severely depleted why the offshore components have failed to recover since 1992 in the absence of
the cod off northern and intensive fishing. Certainly, by the time the moratorium came into force, there
central Labrador (known as were far too many people—using bigger and more efficient fishing technology—
2GH). Catches there soared chasing too few fish. However, questions remain as to what roles environmental
from less than 10,000 tonnes change, fishing technology, and over-fishing played in destroying one of the
per year in the early 1960s
world’s greatest fisheries.
to 95,000 tonnes at its peak.
Landings plummeted to Overfishing seems a likely answer if we look back to the 1950s when several
less than 5,000 tonnes during European nations introduced one of the most efficient fishing machines ever
the 1970s to less than 1,000 invented, the factory freezer trawler. As mentioned earlier, these vessels allowed
tonnes in the late 1980s and fishing crews to remain at sea for months at a time, catching and storing huge
finally zero in 1991.Although volumes of fish. As a result, cod stocks in waters adjacent to Newfoundland and
many years have passed since Labrador declined dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s.
intensive fishing took place
in this area, the cod stock
After Canada declared its EEZ, the intent was to fish conservatively and promote
has not yet recovered.
the growth of stocks of cod and other species. This did not occur, however, as
fishermen and fish plant operators demanded, and were given access to what
people were calling “surplus” fish. In retrospect, it is clear that the size of some
cod stocks was overestimated during the 1980s and that mortality caused by
fishing was higher than intended. This was especially the case for the northern
cod off southern Labrador and eastern Newfoundland (2J3KL). In 1988 - 89,
scientists stated that the size of the northern cod stock had been seriously
overestimated for several years.
This change in scientific estimates implied that a large reduction in Total

Allowable Catch (TAC) was required for sustainable fishing. However, only a
limited reduction in TAC was implemented by the federal government because it
was feared that the consequences for the industry of a greater catch reduction would
be too severe. Instead, fishing mortality was allowed to increase, ensuring a more
Total Allowable Catch:
severe collapse at a later time. By the early 1990s, much hope was placed on two
Total catch, measured in tonnes,
allowed from a stock during a strong incoming year-classes of fish, which scientists hoped would improve the size
specified period of time. of the northern cod stock. This never happened. Instead, these younger fish, along
with older fish, disappeared from catches and research surveys.
It is very clear the northern cod were badly overfished prior to the collapse. It has
also been suggested that harsh environmental conditions (low water temperatures
and extensive ice cover) in the early 1990s contributed directly or indirectly to the
collapse. Although the Earth’s atmosphere was gradually warming during the last

three decades of the twentieth century, the ocean off Newfoundland and Labrador
became cooler, with particularly cold years in the early 1970s, early to mid-1980s,
and especially the early 1990s. These unfavourable conditions slowed the growth
of fish, and may have contributed to lowered recruitment of young fish and higher
mortality of older fish.
Environmental change may have also altered distribution

patterns making the fish more vulnerable to Canadian and
non-Canadian fleets. The impact of the changing environment
is also evident from the dramatic declines that were seen in
most other groundfish including species that were not heavily
fished and some that were not even targeted by commercial
fisheries. In addition, capelin, the major prey for cod off eastern
Newfoundland, experienced many changes that clearly were
not caused by fishing.
Figure 15.11: Cod caught
in Gillnet. Photo courtesy
The Future of Cod
Despite the lack of an offshore fishery directed at northern cod since 1992, the
offshore fish stock has not recovered. Research shows that in 2006, fourteen years
after the declaration of the moratorium, the population was still only one to two per
cent of levels recorded in the 1980s. Recruitment of young fish has been very low
and mortality is extraordinarily high, so there are few fish older than age five and no
longer than fifty centimetres. Recovery has not yet started and when and if it does,
is expected to take a very long time.
Some inshore cod populations appear to have been more productive than the
offshore populations since the mid-1990s. Considerable research has been
conducted to evaluate the size of these localized stocks.
Fish tagging studies have shown that there are at least two groups of cod currently
in the inshore of eastern Newfoundland. One of these is comprised of resident
populations that live all year round in from western Trinity Bay northward to
western Notre Dame Bay. The largest of these populations over-winters in Smith
Sound in Trinity Bay. The second group is migratory: it over-winters in the 3Ps area
off Newfoundland’s south coast and moves northward perhaps as far as Trinity Bay
during the spring and summer.
The future of the inshore populations depends to a large extent on how intensively
they are fished. They declined dramatically during the limited inshore fishery of 1998
– 2002, but started to increase again when the partial moratorium was reinstated in
2003. The inshore fishery was reopened in 2006. By carefully studying the success of
this fishery and the recovery of this cod stock during the coming years, we may learn
a great deal about how to successfully build a sustainable inshore fishery.

Other Fisheries in the Waters of Newfoundland and Labrador
Although cod is regarded as “fish” to most people in Newfoundland and Labrador,
Commercially there are many other economically important species that have been, or are being,
Important Species
harvested from our marine waters. As commercial fisheries, as well as fisheries
Shellfish and other research, expanded to new and deeper areas off our shores, they found huge
Invertebrates: concentrations of many different species of fish. Most of these were of great
• crab, shrimp, lobster, commercial interest. Fisheries by many nations expanded to exploit these new found
scallops, clams, whelks, sources of food. There are many species of shellfish, pelagic fish, and groundfish,
squid, sea cucumber as well as eels, seals, and whales that have made important contributions not
Pelagic fish: only to the health of the marine environment but also to the livelihood of
• capelin, herring, mackerel, Newfoundlanders and Labradorians.
tuna, salmon
From groundfish to crab and shrimp: the new faces of fisheries
Groundfish: As cod and other groundfish populations declined, some shellfish species became
• lumpfish, haddock, pollock, increasingly abundant. Snow crab and shrimp, which were of minor importance
white hake, American plaice, prior to the 1990s, are now the mainstay
yellowtail flounder, witch of the province’s fishing industry. Since
flounder, blackback flounder, cod and other groundfish fed heavily
Greenland halibut (turbot), on shrimp and crab, removal of these
Atlantic halibut, redfish, predators is clearly a major cause of this
roundnose grenadier, population growth. The lack of growth
roughhead grenadier, of another predated species, capelin,
monkfish, hagfish, skates indicates that there are other factors
involved that are not yet understood.
Did You Know? Regardless of the reasons, the snow crab Figure 15.12: Shrimp. Photo Courtesy DFO
Pandalus borealis, a cold fishery in Newfoundland and Labrador
water pink shrimp, is the main
has grown rapidly since it began in the
species of shrimp harvested
early 1970s. Most of the growth occurred
in Atlantic Canada. They are
during the 1990s when the total allowable
caught in water depths ranging
from 200 m in the south to
catch increased from 10,500 tonnes in
600 m in the north. 1990 to 61,000 tonnes by 1999. However,
snow crab populations tend to fluctuate
Shrimp are hermaphrodites: every few years and catches fell to 55,600
they first mature as males, tonnes in 2004.
mate as males for one to
several years, then change
Northern shrimp in the Gulf of Figure 15.13: Snow Crab.
sex and spend the rest of their
St. Lawrence off Nova Scotia and off
lives as mature females.
the northeast coast of Newfoundland and Labrador has become dominant
within the fishing industry. Factory freezer trawlers also harvest shrimp from
eastern Newfoundland and north to Davis Strait. Landings in 2004 were
approximately 100,000 tonnes, compared with a mere 2,000 tonnes per year
in the early 1970s.

The move from a large groundfish fishery to one dependent on crab and shrimp has
transformed the nature of the industry in this province. These two shellfish species
fetch a far higher price per pound for fishers compared with other species such as
cod. In 2004, the value of crab and shrimp surpassed $500 million, while the value
of groundfish barely reached $60 million.
“The unthinkable has come to pass: The wealth of oceans,

once deemed inexhaustible, has proven finite, and fish, once
dubbed ‘The poor man’s protein’, has become a resource coveted.”
-Michael Parfit, 1995
1. What is the most crucial issue facing the global fishery?

2. Why are fish so important to mankind?
3. In Newfoundland and Labrador “cod” and “fish” have the same meaning.
What does this tell us about the historic place of cod in our culture?
4. What are some of the possible reasons for the demise of the once great
northern cod stock?
5. What other species found in our waters have commercial value?

6. Describe the trends in historical cod landings. What happened to cod
Did You Know? landings between 1958 – 1968; 1969 – 1978; 1979 – 1988; and
The original three-mile limit 1989 – 2006? What portion of the Newfoundland fishing fleet expanded
was the recognized distance to catch the “surplus” that existed when foreign trawlers were banned?
from a nation's shore over Did this “surplus” exist?
which that nation had sovereign 7. Is it likely that northern cod (inshore and offshore) will make a come
jurisdiction. This border with back in the next few years? Explain.
international waters, or the
“high seas”, was established
because, at the time, three
miles was the longest range FISHERIES MANAGEMENT
of any nation’s most powerful
guns. Therefore, it was the limit International Fisheries Laws and Management
at which shore batteries could Driven by their concerns and their need to preserve fish stocks, fishing nations
enforce the nation’s laws. established the International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries
(ICNAF) in 1950. It aimed to protect and conserve the fish resources of the
Northwest Atlantic area on the basis of then modern fishery science. At the time,
there was only a three-mile territorial limit off our coast. Beyond three miles was
considered international waters and foreign vessels could fish freely in sight of our
shores. ICNAF’s mandate included the waters beyond three miles within the ICNAF
Convention Area (now the NAFO Convention Area).

Did You Know? ICNAF carried out many scientific investigations through the 1950s and 1960s
aimed at conserving fish resources. Studies often focused on appropriate fish
In 2006, NAFO released a list mesh sizes and overall types of gear that were most appropriate. ICNAF also
of fisheries violators: its Illegal, examined the introduction of limitations on fishing. These included controls on
Unregulated and Unreported fishing effort. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, it had become clear that work in
Fishing List. These vessels
many of the Northwest Atlantic fish stocks was continuing. ICNAF then moved
belonging to non-members
to the introduction of quota controls for the various species and stocks being fished.
have repeatedly ignored
In 1972 and 1973, the first quota controls were introduced in the Northwest Atlantic.
fisheries regulations and as
a consequence some NAFO
However, due to political influences, the science was often ignored, and the quotas
countries, including Canada, set too high to halt the continuing declines.
have banned these vessels
from their ports. In 1977, the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea enacted the 200-
mile limit Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) which gave coastal nations control of
waters within 200 nautical miles of their shores. Like most coastal nations, Canada
imposed its 200-mile economic zone in 1977 allowing it to control fishing over
a vast area in the Atlantic and the Pacific.
200 Mile Limit
With the extension of jurisdictions to 200 miles, the mandate of ICNAF was
no longer valid, and in 1979 it was replaced by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries
20 Organization (NAFO). The role of NAFO is to contribute to the rational
0
m
ile management and the conservation of fisheries resources in the waters
L im of the Northwest Atlantic. NAFO members include the European
it
Economic Community, Bulgaria, Canada, Cuba, Denmark (for the
Faroe Islands and Greenland), France (for St Pierre et Miquelon),
Iceland, Japan, Korea, Norway, Russian Federation, Ukraine,
and the United States. Today, NAFO is one of many
Labrador
Regional Fisheries Management Organizations
(RFMO’s) that attempt to regulate fishing
200
Quebec throughout most of the world’s oceans.

m il
NAFO’s counterpart in the Northeast

eL
im i
Newfoundland Atlantic is the Northeast Atlantic

t
Grand Fisheries Commission (NEAFC).

Banks
NAFO functions as both a scientific body through
its Scientific Council and a management body
through its Fisheries Commission. Each year,
based on specific requests from the Fisheries
Commission, as well as coastal states, the Scientific
200 mile Limit
Council meets to provide advice regarding the management of various fish stocks
Continental Shelf within its mandate. Information provided mainly focuses on the most appropriate
quotas, but other information may also be provided for such things as most
Figure 15.14: The 200
mile limit. Illustration courtesy appropriate mesh sizes, stock recovery plans, required research, and data issues.
Derek Peddle

Since its inception, NAFO has adopted a wide range of measures for the
Did You Know? conservation and management of the stocks in the area regulated under the
Aboriginal subsistence Convention. These have included:
whaling means whaling for • setting total allowable catches and quota allocations of
purposes of local aboriginal member nations;
consumption carried out
• technical conservation measures such as minimum fish sizes,
by aboriginal, indigenous,
minimum mesh sizes, and chafing gear requirements;
or native peoples who share
• measures designed to promote and coordinate scientific
strong social and cultural
cooperation; and
ties related to a traditional
dependence on whaling. • measures of surveillance, control, and enforcement.
Domestic Fisheries Management

Decisions affecting Canada’s fisheries are based on several factors.While federal
and provincial governments have the power to make decisions and establish laws
and regulations, they do so based on a wide range of needs and
A fishery can be considered sustainable if it continues interests. These include political, economic, social, environmental,
to provide the fullest possible range of economic, social, and international considerations. Often, governments are
and ecological benefits without jeopardizing the future challenged to negotiate between conflicting interests. This
of the fish stock.
further complicates the job of managing fisheries.
The modern process of decision making in Canada’s fisheries

is the outcome of more than a century of evolution. Canada’s earliest legislation
concerning fisheries is found in the Constitution Act of 1867. The Act gave sole
power to the federal government for managing inland and sea-coast fisheries. Over
time, the provinces challenged the federal government’s claim to sole authority.
Federal and provincial governments currently share responsibility for the

management of fisheries. Conservation remains the federal government’s primary
objective, along with promoting sustainable fisheries. Fisheries and Oceans Canada,
also known as the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), manages fisheries
primarily through the authority of two acts.
1. Under the Fisheries Act, the Minister is responsible for management
of fisheries, habitat, and aquaculture. In early 2007, the Minster of
Fisheries and Oceans introduced amendments to the Fisheries Act.
2. Under the Oceans Act, the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans is

responsible for leading oceans management.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, the provincial Department of Fisheries and

Aquaculture (DFA) is responsible for licensing fish processors, as well as
supporting and promoting the development of sustainable and viable fishing
and aquaculture industries.

Following the moratorium on northern cod in
1992, the federal government provided income
assistance to fisheries workers for two years.
Shortly afterwards, the government introduced
The Atlantic Groundfish Strategy (TAGS), a five-
year, $1.9-billion program designed to help
displaced fishers and plant workers. TAGS offered
income support, retraining, licence buy-backs,
and early retirement for fish harvesters and
plant workers, with the goal of reducing fishing
capacity in the province by fifty percent. The effort
reduction was successful. While there are still
more than enough licenses to harvest groundfish
resources, the returns (financial) per licence are
much higher today.
1. What was ICNAF and when was it established?

2. Why was ICNAF replaced by NAFO?
3. What is the role of NAFO?
4. What are some measures NAFO has adopted to improve the
conservation and management of fish stocks?
5. What is the significance of the Canadian Constitution Act of 1867
with respect to fisheries management?

6. In our province, what are the respective roles of the federal
and provincial governments in managing fishing industry activities?
7. Can you think of reasons why federal jurisdiction of the fisheries is
sometimes challenged in the courts?
8. Why did the provincial government create the Professional
Fish Harvesters Certification Board? What purpose does it serve?
9. Research the conservation measures that were introduced
by the federal government in the 1990s to assist the recovery
of the cod stocks?
10. Argue for or against the right of Aboriginal people to harvest whales.

FISHERIES SCIENCE
Figure 15.15: Dockside

inspection. Photo courtesy
Department of Fisheries
and Oceans
Fisheries Data Collection

As a first step in making management decisions, such as the setting of total
allowable catches, fisheries managers must turn to information and advice found in
fisheries stock assessments. A stock assessment determines such things as how
Biomass: many fish there are in a stock or population and how this compares with the size of
The total weight of all the living the stock historically, the age or size distribution of fish in the population, whether
organisms in a given population the population is increasing or decreasing, and whether there are many or only a
or area.
few young fish entering the population (recruitment). Using this information, it is
possible to determine if various catch levels will cause the population to increase,
decrease, or stay the same.
In Canada, DFO scientists use information collected from at least two main
sources—commercial fisheries and scientific surveys—to estimate the numbers
and biomass of fish in the sea and the rate at which these change. This same
process is used in many other countries around the world.
• COMMERCIAL FISHERIES
Commercial fisheries include any fishery conducted for profit, either
by an individual or a company. Fishing enterprises, whether they be
individual fishers or large company-owned trawlers, are required to
maintain logbooks in which they record their catch weight, as well
as the gear used and amount of effort required (for example, the number
of hours trawled, number of hooks, number of gillnets). Commercial

catches are also sampled at sea by observers or in port by technicians
to obtain information on size, age, sex, and maturity of the fish.
Scientists are also interested in Catch per Unit Effort (CPUE).

Catch Per Unit Effort:
The weight of fish landed given
This refers to how much effort is used to catch fish. For example,
a specific amount of effort. if commercial fishers caught an average of sixty kilograms of fish for
each day and each net they had in the water last year, and this year they
caught an average of only fifty kilograms, then this may suggest that the
stock has declined in abundance. However, there may be bias built into
Did You Know? commercial CPUE, as fishers are experts at locating concentrations of
Initially, tagging was done fish even when the overall population size may be declining. As a
using a tagging gun that was result, CPUE may remain high even with
originally designed to place a declining population.
price tags on clothes. Rewards
are offered to people who
• SCIENTIFIC SURVEYS
return the tags.
DFO scientists and other scientists, from
Memorial University of Newfoundland or
other government institutions, also carry out
a number and variety of their own studies
independent of commercial fisheries. Figure 15.16: CCGS Leonard J.
Cowley. Photo courtesy Department of
• FISHING
Stratified random sampling: Government research ships or industry-provided ships routinely conduct
Dividing an area into smaller stratified random bottom-trawl surveys off Canada’s east coast where they
sections or blocks, then randomly catch groundfish species such as cod and flounder. This research provides
sampling within each block. important information on fish distribution, recruitment, sex, age, and size
of fish in the population. It also enables scientists to draw conclusions
about their growth, maturity, and condition. Trends in population size
can be determined when a number of years of data have been collected.
• HYDROACOUSTICS
Sounders, or fish finders, have been used by fishers to locate fish for
many years. They work by transmitting sound waves down into the water
that reflect off the fish (and bottom) back to a receiver on board the vessel.
Scientific hydroacoustics involves the use of very sophisticated sounders to
locate fish. From the information gathered, it is possible to determine fish
biomass, as well as their distribution both over an area and up and down
the water column. This method works especially well when the fish are
heavily concentrated and not located very close to the bottom. Scientists
have used hydroacoustics to estimate the quantity of cod in specific areas
during the winter months to determine the population size of herring
stocks, and to estimate the quantity of capelin off the east coast
during spring.

• FISH TAGGING
Fish tagging is an important method for learning about migration
patterns and mortality of fish. In Newfoundland and Labrador, tagging
studies focus on several species, most notably cod and yellowtail flounder
(Limanda ferruginea). By collecting tags that fishers return from their
catches, scientists can determine the movement of specific fish
populations. For example, tagging has demonstrated that in recent years,
most of the cod in the inshore of eastern Newfoundland remain inshore
throughout the year. This distinct behavioural pattern may mean that
this is a different population from the cod population that historically
migrated to the inshore from the offshore.
• THE SENTINEL FISHERY

Before the northern cod moratorium in 1992, scientists relied primarily
on commercial and research data from the offshore for the assessment
of the stock. A great deal of data was collected from commercial vessels
that belonged to large fishing companies. DFO also used its own research
ships. Only limited information was collected from the
various inshore fisheries. However, this latter group was
later recognized as an important primary source of inshore
fishery related information.
In 1995, DFO established the Sentinel Fishery Program.

It became the first rigorously scientific survey program
carried out by inshore commercial fishers for determining
the relative abundance of inshore cod populations in
eastern Canada.
Under the Sentinel Fishery, experienced, professional

inshore fishers work with DFO scientists to gather
Figure 15.17: Sentinel fisherpersons
information about cod along the Newfoundland and Labrador coasts.
sorting the catch. Photo courtesy Department
of Fisheries and Oceans Fishers chosen to participate in the sentinel fishery are given extensive
training in gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data about fish biology
and oceanography.
Although DFO assesses data from the

sentinel fishery, the work of collecting
information is coordinated with the
Fish Food and Allied Workers Union,
as well as the Fogo Island Cooperative
Figure 15.18: Sentinel fisherpersons

logging data. Photo courtesy Department of

(the Petty Harbour Cooperative was also involved until 2002). Sentinel
fish harvesters set fishing gear on traditional fishing grounds at traditional
times throughout the year—usually three days per week for ten weeks
during the fishing season. Participants are given limits about the quantity
of fishing gear they can use—six gill nets and 1,000 hooks on long lines.
They must also use at least one-third of their gear on a fixed “control” site
that remains unchanged in order to allow for unbiased comparisons between
years. Harvesters are free to select locations for their remaining gear.
Detailed logs are kept, including recording the times gear is set and then
hauled, the exact locations of gear, the weather and water conditions, and
species caught or seen in the area. Once gear is hauled, the catch is weighed
and each fish is sexed and measured. Ear bones or otoliths are removed
from some of the fish to determine their ages.
Otoliths have rings similar

to the rings in trees. By counting
the rings, scientists can determine
the age of the fish.
Figure 15.19: Otoliths.

Illustration courtesy Derek Peddle
Some of the catch may be sent to laboratories for detailed biological

sampling. From these samples, information on reproductive status,
condition of the fish, and diet are gathered.
The sentinel fishery has also been a valuable program for tagging cod.
Recaptures of tagged cod are plotted on maps giving scientists and fishers
valuable information about the behaviour and migration of inshore cod.

ECO SPOTLIGHT:
David and Irene Bath—
Sentinel Fish Harvesters
When David and Irene Bath from Too Good

Arm began fishing during the mid-1970s,
they expected to spend their entire working
lives catching fish just as their parents
and grandparents had done.
The years had a predictable rhythm. In late

April, the husband and wife duo began Figure 15.20: Measuring
catching lobsters.A few weeks later it was a cod. Photo courtesy Department
salmon and then cod in early June. During of Fisheries and Oceans
June and July they fished all three species. They needed the long days of summer
so they had time to pull lobster pots and cod traps,
and set salmon nets. The lobster and salmon seasons
ended by July. In August, the Baths had to follow the
cod farther offshore where they switched to gill nets
and hand lines to catch them. By October, the inshore
fishing season was over for that year.
In 1992 the lives of the Baths and thousands

of fishing families throughout Newfoundland and
Labrador changed when the federal government
imposed a moratorium on fishing for northern cod.
Cod traps, gill nets, and hand lines, as well as boats,
were stowed away—perhaps forever.
Figure 15.21: Irene and
David Bath, 2006. Photo In the mid-1990s, the Baths became part of the sentinel fishery. Since then,
courtesy Irene and David Bath
David and Irene have worked with fisheries scientists to assess growth of
cod populations in their region.“I always liked fishing cod, so I was delighted
when our names were picked”, David said.
The Baths follow a strict regimen during the sentinel fishing season. They
set three fleets of gill nets, two nets for each fishing station each week. Catches
are taken ashore where David and Irene measure, weigh, and determine the
sex of each fish. They also remove the otoliths and send them to scientists
at Fisheries and Oceans Canada who use them to determine the ages of fish.
They occasionally tag fish. And David said he has learned a great deal
about cod migration from this activity.“Some of my fish have been caught

off Labrador and Smith Sound, and we’ve found fish from all over the island
in our nets”, he said.
The sentinel fishery proved controversial in other communities throughout

the province, but not in Too Good Arm. David said fish harvesters realize
how important the sentinel fishery is to assessing stock recovery. Without
this program he said, scientists would have no reliable way of determining
whether cod populations are growing.
Did You Know? Since

Estimating Population Size and Fish Stock Status
the early 1970s, Fisheries and Oceans Canada has conducted extensive
A Stock Assessment scientific research into the status of numerous fish species that live in the waters off
determines the production Canada’s east coast. The primary purpose of collecting information about the size
of a fish stock, which is the
and composition of fish stocks is to provide recommendations to decision-makers
sum of the recruitment of
in the federal government, or ICNAF/NAFO, regarding harvesting limits.
young fish, plus the growth of
larger fish, minus the natural
mortality or numbers that are
As we have learned, scientists collect data about catch sizes, as well as length, and
dying. If the sum is positive age ranges of fish. They also determine how much fishing gear is needed to catch
then the stock will grow, but fish—the catch per unit effort. By doing this work over a period of years, scientists
if the sum is negative the are able to obtain information about population trends for targeted fish species.
stock will decline.
In assessing the status of a fish stock, and working at determining the production
When we fish, we increase the
of the stock, scientists must try to determine not only the addition of young
fish stock mortality and this
individuals to the stock (known as recruitment), and the removal of individuals
will reduce the production.
An objective of fisheries
(by the fishery or by natural causes), but also the growth of individual fish because,
management is to ensure that unlike humans and other mammals, fish continue to grow throughout their lives.
production is not reduced to The number of older, larger female fish is a particularly important clue to the health
a negative value, which of a fish stock because older, larger female fish produce many more eggs than
signals a stock in decline. young adult females.
In practice, estimating the number of fish is challenging, and it is complicated

by the biology and behaviour of the fish. The marine environment is largely closed
to humans—fish are hidden from view and many migrate unseen and largely
untracked over vast distances in search of food or to reproduce.
Mathematical models are useful for making estimates about the size of fish
populations. The model most often used to determine the size of a commercially
fished stock is Sequential Population Analysis (SPA).
In SPA, annual estimates of the total numbers of fish caught belonging to each year-
Year-class: Fish of the same age
that are hatched in the same year.
class are used to estimate the numbers that must have been in that same year-class
in the past. When the numbers of each year-class have been estimated for each year,

then the total population numbers for each year is estimated by adding up the
numbers of all the different year-classes existing in that year. Both natural and fishing
mortality are taken into consideration when estimating these population numbers.
There are numerous uncertainties with this modeling approach. For example,
catches may not be reported accurately, natural mortality is difficult to measure,
and estimates of fishery discards may be inaccurate or lacking. For these reasons,
some people would prefer to determine stock trends by looking at simple indices
from the fishery. However, it has long been recognized that these, too, may be
misleading. For example, as we have already learned, CPUE from commercial
fishing can give an over-optimistic view of the status of a stock because fish
harvesters are skilled at finding fish, even if there are not many fish to find.
CPUE can, therefore, remain high even when stock size is decreasing, as
happened with northern cod.
The use of additional fishery independent information helps in alleviating these

problems. For example, data from research vessel surveys should not have the
problem of bias that exists with commercial CPUE.
All of the methods described above can help determine current stock sizes,
however, the complexity and nature of the problem means that estimates will
always be uncertain to a greater or lesser degree. It is important that this
uncertainly be acknowledged in management decisions for all fisheries.
1. Why do we assess fish stocks?

2. Briefly describe the different sources of data that scientists
use when assessing fish stock status.
3. What has recent fish tagging taught us about the population of cod
in the inshore waters of eastern Newfoundland?
4. What is the purpose of the sentinel fishery?
5. What is meant by ‘production’ when talking about fish populations?
Why is important to know fish production?
6. What are some of the uncertainties with the sequential population
model of estimating fish stocks?

7. In an earlier unit, you learned how wildlife managers calculate
population size for such animals as moose and caribou. In what ways
are the methods used to calculate the population of fish species similar
to that used for land mammals? In what ways is it different?
8. Which do you think would be the most difficult to get an accurate
measurement of population size, a moose population or a
fish population? Explain your reasoning.

CAREER SPOTLIGHT:
Dr. Joanne Morgan
Scientist, Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Dr. Joanne Morgan is a research scientist

at the Science Branch, Groundfish Section
in the Aquatic Resources Division at
Fisheries and Oceans (DFO),
Newfoundland and Labrador Region.
Joanne’s Childhood Influences:

Joanne grew up in North Sydney, a community
along the eastern coast of Cape Breton Island, in Nova Scotia. Joanne has
always loved being outside and active. One of her favourite things to do
as a child was to snorkel and watch for different types of fish at the beach.
Main Interests:
In the summer, Joanne likes to camp and play tennis with family and friends.
Joanne is also an avid curler but she says her team just plays for fun.
Strong Life Influences:

“Of course my family has always been a major influence. My mother always
encouraged me to do whatever I wanted and believed that I could succeed
in anything I worked hard at”, says Joanne.
She continues,“In high school, I did a math honours course and I found
the teacher of that course to be excellent. She pushed us hard to do our best
and she was very good to her students. My honours professor at university
encouraged me to continue my education and to go on to graduate school.
Once I graduated with my PhD, I found a job with DFO in Newfoundland.
The section head of my department was very encouraging and he gave me
the opportunity to pursue my interests in studying stock assessments, and
that has been a major influence in terms of where I am today in my career”.
Joanne’s University Background:

Joanne completed her undergraduate degree at Mount Allison in Sackville,
New Brunswick. Afterwards, she graduated with a PhD from Queens University
in Kingston, Ontario where she studied the schooling behaviours of fish.
Favourite University Courses:

Joanne really enjoyed history classes but, of course, science classes—
specifically biology—were Joanne’s favourites.

A Typical Day at Work
“I don’t really have a typical day, but I will explain the tasks I am responsible
for: some days I will do all of them and other days just one depending on
the task.
“I spend my time doing research and some of that time is spent travelling.
I have traveled as far as Iceland and Portugal to work on research projects and
to attend conferences. When I research, I study the reproduction of different
types of groundfish to understand their population dynamics. I look at factors
such as what affects their reproduction and at what age they become adults.
While I don’t spend a lot of time in the lab anymore, I do oversee the progress
in the lab and take the data for further analysis.
“When I’m in my offices you might find me drafting budgets, analyzing data,
writing proposals, analyzing graphs, and reading and writing scientific papers.
I also attend meetings with others in the science sector to find out what the
progress is on certain projects and to see what different projects my colleagues
are working on. I find I spend a lot of time interacting with other researchers
and scientists who I work with and some who work for me”.
“In terms of the big picture, my work is important because I study fish resources which
have been, and continue to be, influential to the Newfoundland and Labrador economy.”
Dr. Joanne Morgan
Importance of the Job

“My work is very important to me because I still find what I do very interesting
and I enjoy the projects that I get to work on. I get to decide what I research,
so I guess that gives me the freedom to investigate what I’m interested in.
“In terms of the big picture, my work is important because I study fish
resources which have been, and continue to be, influential to the Newfoundland
and Labrador economy.
“I feel that my work here at DFO is important because it improves the

overall knowledge of fish reproduction. This information is very useful as it
is necessary to understand when it is ok to start fishing certain species and
when other species need to be protected. My hope is that, here at DFO, we can
continue to provide reliable advice that will be used in the management of
fish resources”.

A message from Joanne to you, the Students of Environmental Science:
“I think if you want to become a research scientist you must be prepared to work
hard in school in the subject areas of biology, fish biology, and math. I also think
that it’s important to be very interested in what you are studying because self-
motivation and drive are going to be imperative if you want to find a career
for yourself as a biologist or a research scientist. For example, I have always
been very interested in how things work and, more specifically, why fish do
the things they do, and how they interact with one another.
I also think that it would be a good idea to become aware of the job market
and seek advice from your teachers and professors”.
SUSTAINABILITY OF MARINE RESOURCES

There are several factors, both natural and human-made, that affect the
sustainability of marine resources.
Status of fish populations

Changes in the status of a fish population can affect other fish species associated
with, or dependent upon, the harvested species. For example, those species which
are predator or prey of the targeted species will be impacted if the targeted fish
species population declines. It is important to look at the impacts of fishing a
particular stock on other members of the food web, and to know
how changes in the food web affect the harvested species.
Research shows, for example, that capelin is an important
prey for many species of fish, marine mammals, and marine
birds. With capelin playing such a key role in the food web,
the capelin fishery must be managed carefully to ensure
that a sufficient amount of food is left for its predators.
Biological characteristics of a fish species

The biology of a fish species is important in deciding how well a fish
Figure 15.22: Caplin.
population can sustain fishing pressure and how many fish can be caught without
Photo courtesy Department
of Fisheries and Oceans negatively impacting the stock. Short lived, fast growing fish species, like herring
and capelin, generally recover more quickly from fishing pressure than species
such as skates and sharks that reproduce more slowly.
Even within a single species, there can be large differences in growth rates from
one geographic area to another. This in turn affects the type of fishery that the
species in a given location can sustain. Because Cod in the cold waters off
Newfoundland and Labrador grow much more slowly than cod in the relatively
warm waters of Georges Bank off the Northeastern United States, the northern
cod must be fished more cautiously.

Changes in the environment
Populations of marine wildlife may fluctuate over time in response to external
environmental factors such as climate and oceanic conditions. During the early
1990s, the waters off Newfoundland and Labrador became colder, with extensive,
long-term ice cover. These conditions lowered the ability of the cod to grow,
reproduce, and survive.
Fishing Pressure
As we learned earlier, if productivity is positive a fish resource will grow, but
it will decline if productivity is negative. Fishing pressure is most often key to
whether a resource is sustainable or not. It can cause productivity to become
negative if not carefully monitored and controlled.
By-catch
In 2003, more than seven million tonnes of by-catch was discarded worldwide
including species such as dolphins, turtles, and albatrosses. This figure represents
nearly ten percent of the global fish catch. While all fisheries have
some by-catch, what kind, how much is caught, and how much of
it survives, varies greatly between fisheries and between countries.
One way to reduce by-catch is by carefully selecting the area to be

fished. In areas where the cod fishery is closed, for example, fishers
harvesting species other than cod are required by law to stop fishing
or to move to another area when the quantity of cod taken as by-
catch exceeds a preset level. Within NAFO, regulations restrict
by-catch of species under moratoria to less than five percent.
Restrictions placed on gear as well as modifications to gear can

also reduce by-catch. For example, in Canada, the mesh of gillnets
and bottom (otter) trawls used to catch skates must be large enough
to allow most other groundfish to pass through unharmed.
Figure 15.23: Leatherback turtle
caught as by-catch. Photo courtesy Habitat destruction
The biodiversity, or variety of species,
of an ecosystem is an important measure
of ecosystem health. To maintain diverse,
healthy marine resources, the habitats
that sustain them have to be protected.
In the open ocean, certain fishing and

offshore oil practices can have significant
impacts on marine ecosystems. Figure 15.24: Oiled Thick Billed Murre.
Photo courtesy Tony Power

Other human activities such as aquaculture or fish farming can lead to habitat
destruction by altering ecosystems where many marine and land species live and
breed. An estimated five percent of all of the mangrove destruction worldwide is
due to the building of shrimp farms.
Pollution and disease
Figure 15.25: An abandoned,

rusty oil drum that has contributed
to contaminating a local water body.
Agricultural run-off, as well as human and industrial wastes, can cause pollution
in coastal waters and impact marine plant and animal populations. This may make
commercial species unfit for human consumption or render areas unsuitable for
aquaculture. For example, there is a ban on eating fish caught in St. John’s harbour.
Fish farming is like any other livestock operation. When a lot of animals are densely
packed into one area, large amounts of waste are produced from surplus food, feces,
and additives like hormones or antibiotics. Without careful management, this waste
may pollute the aquatic environment surrounding fish farms.
Responsible Fishing
For fish to be a renewable resource, fish stocks, after harvesting by humans, should
be capable of replenishing themselves naturally. If too many fish are killed, then
populations cannot maintain their numbers. That is what happened to the northern
cod fishery and made the moratorium necessary.
To ensure that fish populations remain healthy, fish harvesters must practise
responsible fishing. The basic idea is to use fishing gear and fishing methods that
allow a fishery to be sustained indefinitely. In addition, it means respecting catch
limits and ensuring that other fish stocks, other marine life, and the entire marine
environment are not damaged as a result of fishing activities.

Responsible fishing is promoted widely in Canada’s fishing industry in three ways:
1. Encouraging the use of fishing gear and fishing practices that

promote conservation of fish stocks.
Fishing gear must be designed to allow for the catching of a certain size
range of fish. Smaller fish, or larger fish, must be able to escape capture.
This is important in managing fisheries because the future of any fish stock
is influenced by the size and maturity of fish that are captured. It is also
important to use fishing gear that only catches the targeted fish species.
This reduces the problems caused by catching and discarding unwanted fish.
Envirofact: 2. Professionalization of fish harvesters and training in responsible

Whale interactions with fishing practices.
fishing vessels For many years, the fishery was viewed as being the occupation of last
In some fisheries, whales prey
resort for people living in rural regions of Newfoundland and Labrador.
on hooked fish as longlines are
This attitude has changed since the early 1990s, with much of the credit
being reeled in. Fishers try to
going to the Fish Food and Allied Workers Union (FFAW). The FFAW, with
deal with this apparently new
behaviour by changing the
the assistance of the federal and provincial governments, began developing
way they reel in their lines, standards for knowledge, skills, and experience among fish harvesters.
thereby confusing the whales. In many cases, professionalization is a way of building on the hands-on
While whales can be a nuisance experience required by fish harvesters.
to fishers, evidence suggests
that some fishers have 3. Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing
encouraged whales to hang In addition to endorsing the International Code of Conduct for Responsible
around vessels by feeding Fishing approved by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
them fish entrails! (FAO) in 1995, Canada was the first country to adopt a national Responsible
Fishing Code. This Code is important for maintaining a sustainable fishing
industry and is promoted by the FFAW to be applied by fish harvesters in
Newfoundland and Labrador.
Benefits of Responsible Fishing—An Example

A responsible attitude towards fishing requires that a fish harvester does not set
more gillnets than can be checked within a reasonable period of time. Fish that
are caught in nets that are left in the water for too long begin to decay. Catches
then result in poor quality landings, which fetch a lower price from buyers than
high quality catches. Or if the decay is too advanced, the catch has to be dumped.
In cases like this, not only is the fisher’s time and money wasted, but the health
of fish stocks may also be harmed because fish that would not have ordinarily
been caught die in nets with small mesh size before they can reproduce.
Responsible fishing practices would include checking nets frequently, using
larger mesh, and avoiding situations where fish will be dumped.

1. What is sustainable fishing?
2. What are the different factors that can affect the sustainability
of marine resources?
3. Why is capelin considered a “keystone” species of the
North Atlantic Ocean?
4. How much by-catch has been estimated to be discarded worldwide?
5. What are the key elements to responsible fishing?
6. What is “responsible fishing”? How is it promoted in Canada?
Census of Marine Life

Human activities threaten NEW FISHERIES PERSPECTIVES, PRACTICES, AND RESEARCH
many marine habitats and
species. The majority of Impact of Mobile Bottom Fishing Gear
the world’s governments Mobile bottom fishing gears (MBFG) are towed
recognize this fact. Many directly on the seabed in order to harvest target
of them have made species of fish, scallops, and clams.
commitments to identify
and conserve biodiversity.
MBFG have been in use since the 1940s and
The Census of Marine have had profound negative effects on continental
Life is a commitment agreed shelf ecosystems. More recently, larger and more Figure 15.26: Mobile Bottom Fishing
Gear. Illustration courtesy Derek Peddle
to by seventy nations. powerful vessels are allowing many countries to
Over the course of ten years fish in deep water habitats (for example, to 2,000 metres) and, as a result,
(2000 - 2010), scientists the impacts of MBFG are extending into deeper waters around the world.
will try to assess and explain
the diversity, distribution,
Within the path of MBFG, seabed habitat features are dragged, removed, damaged,
and abundance of marine
or buried. These features include physical elements such as boulders, bedforms
life in the oceans, past,
(e.g. sand ripples), and benthic organisms.
present, and future.
The impact of MBFG depends on: What are benthic organisms?

• type of fishing gear; Organisms that live on or just below
• pattern of fishing activity; and the seabed surface are called benthic
• habitat type and associated while organisms that live in the water
biological communities column are called pelagic. Examples
of benthic organisms include:
Three kinds of MBFG operate in • sponges;
Atlantic Canadian waters: • corals;
1. bottom otter trawl; • sea stars; and
2. scallop dredge (or rake); and • crabs.
3. hydraulic clam dredge.
While trawls and dredges typically do not penetrate deeply into the sediment,
hydraulic clam dredges dig as much as twenty centimetres into the sediment in

order to harvest burrowed clams. Environmental impacts from trawlers have
been given the greatest attention since trawlers have been in use since the 1940s
and because there are more of them.
While the full extent of MBFG impacts is not known, we can be certain that
Decisions are also guided by fewer and fewer areas of the seafloor at fishable depths can be thought of as
the precautionary approach, pristine (untouched by human activity).
whereby scientific uncertainty
should not serve as an excuse An example of an impact from a MBFG is the destruction of deep-sea coral habitat.
for inaction. Precautionary Although fishers have known of deep-sea corals for a long time, scientific research
steps should still be taken to
in Atlantic Canada only started during the 1990s.
protect the environment from
human activities.
Some species of deep-sea corals are known to be slow growing and can live to
ages of several hundred years. Since they grow in a tree-like fashion (to heights
of centimetres to metres), they are very vulnerable to deep sea trawling.
Not only are corals living organisms, they are home to many other forms of marine
life. To date, dozens of species of invertebrates have been found associated with
deep-sea corals including hydrozoans, basketstars, clams, and shrimp. The potential
importance of deep-sea corals to the population dynamics of fish is an active area
of research. When corals are damaged or destroyed, then the life forms which they
support are affected.
Ghost Fishing
Ghost fishing occurs when traps or nets
lost at sea continue to ensnare marine life.
Ghost nets can be very destructive as they
may continue fishing for months or years
after they are lost.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, gillnets

are the main ghost fishing problem.
Gillnets are lost for a number of reasons.

Some are lost in storms or in heavy tides.
Some are lost when they become entangled
with other gear or when their buoy lines are
Figure 15.27: “Ghost” Gillnet. accidentally cut by vessels. Others are cut loose or simply abandoned at the end of
Illustration courtesy Department of the fishing season. Once lost, it is impossible to know how much damage a gillnet
will cause or for how long it will continue to destroy marine life.
Awareness of ghost fishing became more widespread in the 1970s. One report
in 1975 suggested that 5,000 gillnets had been lost in waters off Eastern Canada

during the preceding year. Recovery efforts in the mid-1970s
yielded hundreds of lost gillnets. Fewer and fewer nets were
lost or found in the following decade suggesting that the
problem had peaked.
While ghost fishing has declined since the 1970s, it still occurs
and can have serious consequences. During the 1999 –2000 cod
fishing season on Newfoundland’s south coast, 184 gillnets were
reported lost in Placentia Bay due to an unusually high number
of fishers in the area. The sixty nets later recovered contained
Figure 15.28: Crab caught in lumpfish, lobster, winter flounder, snow crab, seals, and around 13,600 kilograms of
retrieved ghost net. Photo courtesy
decayed cod.
This type of destruction has made some people call for gillnets to be
Measures to avoid losing gillnets: banned.Apart from ghost fishing, gillnets have other drawbacks.While
• use radar reflectors;
the mesh of a gillnet determines the size of fish it will catch, it does not
• use inflatable buoys on the end
control the type of fish, which may lead to wasteful by-catch. Because of
of each fleet;
bad weather and other reasons, nets may be left to fish for as long as ten
• buoy lines should be at least ½ inch
days; fish that are trapped for several days deteriorate quickly and may
in diameter;
• buoy lines should be at least become prey for hagfish, sea lice, and snow crabs.
1 ½ times the depth of the water;
• attach lead ropes to each buoy line Advocates for gillnets maintain that, like any fishing gear, properly
5 fathoms below surface; used gillnets are safe and can yield a high quality catch.
• set only as much gear as can be
retrieved in a day; The Canadian and provincial governments’ focus today is on preventing
• avoid setting nets across other gear loss of nets as the best approach. Preventive measures include using
or in areas of high vessel traffic; radar reflectors, inflatable buoys, and reinforced buoy lines.
• have a gillnet retrieval device or
“creeper” on board; and
• report lost nets and begin Creeper
onboard
searching immediately.
Net tag
Lead-rope
Did You Know?
A creeper is used to retrieve
lost nets.A fishing vessel drags
the creeper along the seafloor,
where it hooks into lost gear.
Gillnet fishing vessels should

always have a creeper on board.
Figure 15.29: Gillnet in fishing order. Photo courtesy Department of Fisheries and Oceans

Species at risk as by-catch: By-catch
Three species of wolffish are listed By-catch refers to the unintentional harvesting of marine animals.
under Canada’s Species At Risk Act. It is Some by-catch occurs when species that are similar in size to the target
illegal to catch and keep the two that are species, and found in the same area, are harvested in nets, traps, trawls,
listed as “Threatened”(northern wolffish or on longlines. Other times, larger animals are ensnared in gear used
and spotted wolffish).Wolffish are caught for catching smaller fish.
in bottom trawls, gillnets, crab traps,
and hook and line ground fisheries. By-catch occurs in virtually every fishing fleet around the world,
regardless of the type of gear being used. Often, by-catch is discarded
Reducing wolffish by-catch:
at sea without being reported. Animals caught as by-catch sometimes
• In many cases, proper handling and survive, but mortality rates are high. By-catch poses a serious problem
quick release of wolffish gives them to conservation efforts and threatens the survival of some marine
a strong chance of survival. animal populations.
• Recovery tanks are sometimes used
There are two basic types of by-catch:
on vessels. These tanks provide a
• By-catch of species that have commercial value and which
flow of water that allows the fish to
often supplement income earned from targeted species. This
rejuvenate and get oxygen so that it
type of by-catch is sometimes called non-target catch. Non-
will be stronger when released.
target species caught in this way often become target species
• For gillnet fishers, nets should be due to their marketability.
hauled frequently and not left to fish • By-catch of species that have little or no commercial
for long periods. value. This includes seabirds, sea turtles, and marine
mammals. It also includes species that are illegal to harvest
• Trawls with separator grates reduce
due to being listed under Canada’s Species at Risk Act
the incidence of wolffish by-catch.
(SARA). In Newfoundland and Labrador for example, it is
• Another way to reduce by-catch is to illegal to harvest spotted and northern wolf fish.
completely avoid areas where wolffish
are found. In Newfoundland and Labrador, improvements in fishing gear and
techniques are helping to reduce by-catch in some fisheries. Fishers
take a lead role in proposing ways to reduce by-catch by improving
gear. Fishers work closely with fishing gear technicians to conduct
tests on new gear. Small adjustments in fishing gear can have very
significant effects in reducing by-catch.
The Nordmore Grate Capelin by-catch in shrimp fisheries

END
O COD
NON-SHRIMP BYCATCH T Shrimp trawlers have been used in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence for
RELEASE HOLE
decades. Through the use of the Nordmore grate, Greenland halibut and
redfish escape from trawls, and by-catch of those species has been greatly
reduced. However, the grate alone did not reduce the by-catch of capelin.
SHRIMP PASS OTHER SPECIES Tests did show that by including a square-mesh panel behind the grate
THROUGH GRID SHRIMP and a fifty millimetre square-mesh codend, by-catch of capelin drops to a
very small percentage of the total catch. However, to date, square mesh
Figure 15.30: Nordmore Grate.
Illustration courtesy Derek Peddle panels and codends are not used commercially.

Impact of Seals and the Seal Fishery on Fish Stocks
Figure 15.31: Seals on the ice.
A common misconception is that the Atlantic Canadian harp seal (Phoca

groenlandica) hunt is carried out to protect and revive depleted cod stocks.
This is not the case. The seal hunt is an important economic activity for sealers.
In managing the seal fishery, quotas are set to maximize sealers’ economic returns,
while maintaining a healthy seal population. As a result, the Northwest Atlantic
harp seal population increased in size from the early 1970s until the mid 1990’s.
It then remained relatively stable at a high level until 2005 when an estimated
500,000 animal decline (nine percent) in the population occurred. The 2005
estimate, however, still suggested a population of 5.3 million harp seals.
The relationship between seals and their environment is an important research

subject in Atlantic Canada. Scientists are trying to understand the impact of seal
predation on cod stocks and whether seals are hindering the recovery of depleted
stocks in some areas. Scientists still have much to learn and are not yet able to
determine the impact of seals on commercial fish stocks.
There is no simple answer to how seals impact cod because the relationship
between species in an ecosystem is complex. In order to understand the
relationships between species, scientists must also consider both direct and in
direct effects of seals on their prey. Seals can have a direct effect on cod by preying
on them, as well as indirect effects by preying on other species that interact with
cod. Research is complicated by the difficulty of observing through out most
of the year.

To assess the impacts of seals on their prey, research
proceeds through a number of steps.
1. Determine the amount of fish (or other prey)
DA
GREENLAND consumed. This is done using a bioenergetics
VIS
BA
FF
ST
IN model that predicts the total amount of food
RA
ISL
IT
AN
D energy required to sustain the seal population
based on the number of seals of each age in
LABRADOR the total population, the size of seals of various
SEA
ages, and the energy required by seals of
HUDSON STRAIT different sizes.
2. Once the total amount of energy required by

FR
ON the population is estimated, scientists then try
T to determine where the seals get their food,
recognizing that seals change locations across
different seasons. They need to gather answers
GULF
to several questions. For example:

• What is the overall pattern in seasonal
distribution of the seal population?
• Do seals of different ages and/or sexes
vary their travel routes?
• How many of the seals in the population
occur in the area of interest and how long
Figure 15.32: Map depicting the movement of harp seals. do they stay?
Photo source: Department of Fisheries and Oceans, illustration courtesy Derek Peddle
• Given that seals do not feed at certain
times of the year, where are they building
up their energy reserves? When are they
Did You Know? feeding at low levels or not at all?
Satellite Telemetry: Since
the 1980s, scientists have been 3. With this information, scientists then generate a mathematical consumption
using satellite tags to track seal model to help with their estimations of this complex issue. Seals eat different
movements. Recent advances foods at different times of the year and in different places. In some cases,
in technology allow scientists males and females eat different prey.Also, young seals often eat different
to tag young seals. Tags are food than older ones. In addition, diets may change from year to year for a
now capable of detecting water
large number of seals. From these complex scenarios, data is compiled and
temperature and salinity. This
entered into a mathematical model to estimate the amount of each prey
provides information that is
species the seals consumed. The model must take into account the fact that
useful in seal research. It can
any of the variables can change from year to year.
also be used by oceanographers
to create models of the marine
environment, which can then DFO scientists have constructed models to estimate the amount of prey
be used by the Coast Guard in eaten by seals in Atlantic Canada. They found that although Atlantic cod
search and rescue operations. are eaten in some places, overall, cod make up only a very small part (less
than five percent) of the total diet. The vast majority of prey eaten is small

pelagic forage fish such as capelin, Arctic cod (Boreogadus saida, a distant
relative of Atlantic cod that is not fished), sand lance, and herring.
Although these consumption models estimate the amount of cod eaten by

seals, they cannot help to determine the impact of this predation on the cod
population. In order to do that, it is important to relate the amount eaten by
seals to the total size of the cod population and the amount of mortality
caused by other sources. These questions are more difficult to answer.
Estimating the direct impact of seals on cod does not tell us everything about the
relationships between seals and cod. There are also indirect impacts that need to be
taken into account:
• Seals can bring benefits by preying on species that prey on cod.
For instance, seals feed on herring which eat cod eggs.
• Seals may also prey on species that cod rely on. For instance,
grey seals eat sand lance, which is an important part of the
diet of cod.
In order to see the indirect impacts of seals on cod, scientists work to understand
the population dynamics of the whole range of seal prey. Seals are only one part
of a complicated food web, although they are a very important part. Many marine
species prey on only one or two other species. Seals prey on a wide range of species
and can therefore play a large role in the food web. Depending on the specific
dynamics of populations, seals can either destabilize or stabilise prey populations.
ENVIRO-FOCUS
Challenges to the
analysis of seals diet
Research into seals diet and its potential impact on commercial fish stocks
is currently being carried out by Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Since 2003,
the Atlantic Seal Research Program has been investigating the ecological
role of harp, hooded, and grey seals.
Harp and hooded seals are found off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador.
All three species are found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Large numbers of grey
seals are also found in waters near the Sable Island, while relatively few occur
around Newfoundland and Labrador.
Different types of analysis are used to determine the diet of seals. Each type of
analysis has a different bias meaning that they may reveal some parts of diet,

but not others. By combining different types of analysis, scientists get the
best overall picture of diet. Two important forms of analysis follow:
Traditionally, analysis of stomach contents and feces gave scientists the best
window into diet. The drawback of this approach is that only the contents of
the last meal can be known and analysis depends on the presence of hard,
undigested materials like fish bones. The consumption of prey species that
do not have hard parts (for example, jellyfish) or the taking of only soft parts
of the fish (for example,‘belly-biting’ which refers to feeding only on the fleshy
belly of a fish) is unaccounted for in this method.
A more recent form of analysis is to use the fatty acid signature of the prey
to determine if they are present in seal diet. This is possible because each fish
species has its own signature combination of fatty acids. Therefore, when seal
blubber is analyzed for the presence of different fatty acids, the proportion of
specific acids reflects the presence of different fish species in the seal’s diet.
It is even possible to tell, from the basis of seal blubber, the difference between
those seals that ate cod fed on lean squid, and those seals that ate cod fed on
fatty mackerel. This method, referred to as Quantitative Fatty Acid Signature
Analysis (QFASA), holds promise for understanding the diets of many marine
animals. If successful, it will allow scientists to look at diets over longer time
periods than the most recent meal. However, the methods for determining both
the proportion of each prey eaten (compared with simple presence or absence)
and diets in a specific locale are still being developed.
Managing the interactions between seals and other species requires a great
deal of study. Scientists do not yet have conclusive answers on the impact of
seals on cod or other groundfish. The complexity of ecosystems, and our lack
of understanding of some components, makes it impossible to say at this time
if reducing seal numbers would help cod stocks recover, have no impact, or
even hinder recovery.
Figure 15.33: Illustration

of Harp Seals. George Brown
Goode (1887)

Climate Change and Implications on the Fishery
The warming of the Earth’s atmosphere has direct consequences on the Arctic
marine environment. In turn, this has both direct and indirect consequences for
the marine environment along the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. Changes
in the marine environment will lead to changes in the fishery. As described in the
box at the left, more data reflecting a longer period of time will improve our
understanding of the changing ocean.
Climate change research is challenging

Climate change research can be compared to an imaginary poll: suppose you wanted to find out if people in
Newfoundland and Labrador eat more tuna than salmon during the year 2007. If you ask 100 people in January
of that year if they ate more tuna or salmon, you would not be able to say very much at all about the preferences
of Newfoundlanders and Labradorians overall for the year.
If you asked 1,000 people the same question in January, you would have a better idea of preferences. Asking
more people than that would give you little additional information. However, looking to other sources of data,
like the amount of each type of fish that was sold in stores, would provide more detailed information.
But you would still not know about preferences overall for the year. It might be that people ate more salmon
that month, but that might not be true for the following eleven months.
Similarly, up to some number, the more measurements over time of water temperature, salinity, ice cover,
fish recruitment rates, and population size that you have, the better your understanding of the relationships
between those factors will be. And the overall picture will improve with the number factors that you include.
Predator-prey relationships, fishing, disease—all of these things must be factored in to any understanding
of the climate’s effects on the fisheries.
SEA ICE: Arctic sea ice plays an important role in the ecosystems of the North
Thermohaline Circulation
refers to the vertical Atlantic. It provides essential habitat for large mammals like polar bears, seals, and
movement of water in the walrus. It contributes to thermohaline circulation and affects the nutrient content of
oceans. This movement is the top layers of the ocean where phytoplankton grow.
caused by differences in
temperature and salinity IMPLICATIONS FOR MARINE ORGANISMS: Changes in sea-ice have direct consequences
at different depths.
for some marine organisms. A reduction in sea-ice means a reduction in habitat for
large mammals. At the same time, more areas of open water will benefit some whale
species and populations of those species could be distributed further north.
With less ice-cover, primary production of phytoplankton would likely increase due
to increased sunlight and nutrients near the ocean surface. Zooplankton would also
increase in response to the abundance of phytoplankton. In turn, this could lead to
an increase in some fish species. However, in areas that are currently ice-free, an
increase in cloud cover could limit primary production, and the most productive
zones could shift northward.

Impact of Warming Trends on Fish Stocks There are other consequences of reduced ice coverage for
Past warming trends: Scientists compare trends marine animals, but these need to be considered alongside
in ocean temperatures with population surveys of a discussion of changes in water temperature, salinity,
different species. However, a correlation between and currents. These issues are closely related to changing
temperature change and population can be difficult sea-ice patterns.
to establish. Data from one year may appear to show
a relationship, but it takes data compiled over TEMPERATURE: As the climate warms, the water temperature
several years, if not decades, to give scientists in the North Atlantic is also likely to change. While it is
enough information to accurately describe that certain that the atmosphere is warming and sea-ice is
relationship. Here are some outcomes of research on
diminishing, there are different views on whether the surface
past climatic variations and commercial fisheries:
mixed layers of the ocean are warming. Some cooling is
• Atlantic cod—Many studies conclude that possible depending on how wind and cloud cover patterns
overfishing is the principle cause of the collapse develop. It is also important to bear in mind that the ocean
of the cod stock. Some studies also suggest is a complex environment with a wide range in temperature
a link between dropping temperature and and salinity throughout.
increasing sea ice cover with increases in
natural mortality and declines in recruitment.
There is strong evidence that cod flourish
under warmer temperatures.Yet factors like
low spawning, high predation, and fishing
make it difficult to predict the effects of climate
on stock recovery.
• Capelin diminished in size during the 1990s.

Population distribution also changed. This was
attributed in part to colder than usual water
temperatures. However, temperatures have
returned to normal, while changes in capelin
biology have not reverted. This suggests that
there are factors besides climate that influence
capelin biology. Zooplankton abundance may
be a factor, although it is not well-understood.
• Northern shrimp stocks have increased in

density and distribution since the early 1980s.
This may be due in part to declining predation
by cod and other groundfish. Scientists have
found that high abundance of shrimp is
correlated with sea-ice cover six years earlier.
This suggests that sea-ice and/or cold water
benefit the early life stages of shrimp.
• Snow crab—Some evidence suggests that

snow crab also benefits from cold temperatures
early in its life-cycle. Figure 15.34: Melting ice due to a warming atmosphere and warming
water, which is believed to be closely linked to climate change.

SALINITY: Sea-ice cover and salinity are related since the formation of ice increases
the concentration of salt in the cold water below. Increase in salinity is one of the
major causes of ocean currents. As the saltier, denser water sinks to the bottom and
flows southward there are effects on currents that are difficult to predict. Decreases
in ice cover are likely to reduce currents.
Implications and Uncertainty

While there is a possibility of a return to a groundfish-focussed fishery, the outcome
of climate change is extremely difficult to predict. Scientists can look at past periods
of warming to make some predictions of what will result from the current warming
trend. However, there are gaps in the data that make it difficult to compare the past
with the present situation. The collapse of northern cod population, along with the
last few decades of fisheries exploitation, also makes it difficult to predict the future
of the fishery. In addition, advances in fishing technology over the last few decades
cannot easily be compared to anything in the history of the fishery. As a result of
the uncertainty of our knowledge in these three areas, the long term outcome for
fisheries is clearly in doubt.
1. What are some of the environmental impacts of mobile

bottom fishing gears?
2. What does following a precautionary approach mean?
3. What is ghost fishing?
4. What have been some regulations introduced by DFO to reduce
the amount of ghost nets in the ocean?
5. List the advantages and disadvantages of using gillnets
to fish for marine species.
6. What is by-catch and why is it an important issue?
7. How do scientists determine the diet of seals?
8. What are some of the difficulties in determining the impact
of seals on fish stocks?
9. What environmental factors are important for marine species?
10. What role does sea ice play in global climate?

11. Investigate the ecological impact of MBFG. Should their use
be curtailed or prohibited? Conduct a class debate on this issue.
12. Should gillnets be banned? Explain your reasoning.

CAREER SPOTLIGHT:
Garry Stenson
Scientist, Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Garry Stenson is a research scientist and

head of the Marine Mammals Section of
the Science Branch at Fisheries and
Oceans Canada (DFO), Newfoundland
and Labrador Region. During his career,
Gary has published over 100 scientific
papers including more than 45 in
scientific peer reviewed journals, and in 2006 he
received the National Spokesperson of the year award for DFO Canada.
Garry is also an adjunct professor at Memorial University of Newfoundland
and a member of the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in
Canada Marine Mammal Subcommittee.
The majority of Garry’s research is focused on harp and hooded seals.

He is also researching other seals and whales found in the waters around
Garry’s Job
The majority of Garry’s research is focused on harp and hooded seals.
He is also researching other seals and whales found in the waters around
Newfoundland and Labrador. He monitors population dynamics (changes),
fisheries interactions, and studies the ecological role of harp and hooded
seals. Garry and his team use research results to answer questions such as
how many seals are there? What do they eat? Why do the number of seals
that get pregnant vary? Where do seals go and why do they go where they
do? How do they use their environment? How deep do they dive and how
long can they stay underwater?
Garry’s Influences
Originally from Edmonton, Alberta, Gary completed his Bachelor of Science
and moved west to complete his graduate studies at the University of British
Columbia. While a graduate student, he took some time to teach introductory
biology and zoology courses at a college affiliated with the University of Alberta.
As a Visiting Fellow with DFO studying reproduction of harp seals, Gary was
asked to move to Newfoundland and Labrador to work. When a permanent job

came up Garry applied. That was more than twenty years ago and counting!
While he believes that luck helped him achieve his current position, Gary
emphasizes that it also came with willingness to work hard and to look for
opportunities that appealed to him.
Main Interests
Garry has always been interested in anything to do with nature. He loves being
outdoors, hiking, bird-watching, and playing hockey. He also enjoys research
and has a great interest in travel, biology, and history. He says,“I love to travel;
I find it so interesting, visiting new places and having the opportunity to explore
new surroundings”.
Strong Life Influences

Garry had many teachers who influenced him greatly and is thankful for the
teachers who encouraged him to think for himself. Garry’s university professors
who addressed different and sometimes challenging issues were also a great
influence. However, he was most influenced by his graduate supervisor who
taught him to always be curious and never be too serious. On top of that is
the love and support of his family who have inspired and supported him
along the way.
Garry’s University Background

Garry obtained a B.Sc with Honours in Zoology from the University of
Alberta in 1975. He graduated from the University of British Columbia in 1985,
completing his Ph.D. on the reproductive behaviours of otters. He has worked
with DFO since 1985.
Favourite University Courses

Science courses were some of Garry’s favourite subjects in school. He especially
liked animal behaviour, anatomy, and wildlife management. He also enjoyed
sociology and psychology courses in the Arts Department.
A Typical Day at Work

“There’s no such thing as a typical day at work for me”, says Garry.“Yesterday
I spent the entire day talking to different people such as media and fishers about
seals. I spend other days out in the field researching from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m., and
when the weather’s bad I spend my time writing proposals or analyzing results.
My work can also involve a lot of travel as I spend time in Greenland and other
areas carrying out research”.

Some of the responsibilities Garry will normally carry out as the section head
of the Marine Mammals Section include administrative tasks, seeking funding,
and acting as a team leader for his section. Here his role is to work with the
other scientists and technicians in his research team to identify research that
needs to be carried out, plan and carry out the studies, and interpret the results.
As a research scientist, Garry has three major areas of work. First, he is

responsible for field research to collect data, study trends, and conduct other
forms of exploration. Second, Garry must fulfill a management science role
by, for example, writing proposals for new research projects, or acting as a team
leader. Third, he is responsible for representing his research and responding
to client requests. For instance, Garry may be asked to discuss his research
findings with fishers, journalists, students, managers, and other clients.
Importance of the Job:

Members of the media, fishers, scientists, and other stakeholders all rely
on him for information as much as he relies on them for information. When
thinking about the big picture, Garry and his team’s work is very influential.
They all know they have to be very careful since they are the authority, in
terms of knowledge, on seals, a very high profile mammal around the world.
A message from Garry to you

“Working in a position such as mine can be very rewarding. If you are
interested in this kind of work, I promise you’ll never get bored. There are
no set hours; this is definitely not a 9-5 job.
“Anyone thinking about a career as a research scientist has to be very

open-minded, curious, and interested in learning new things”, says Garry.
“So, if you are thinking about pursuing a career as a research scientist,

I encourage you to do it, but I want to caution you that you might not end up
where you plan (this is not a bad thing) and know that the journey is what
teaches you”.

AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture techniques
enable the culturing of both
crustaceans and molluscs.
Crustacean: An aquatic
arthropod of the class
Crustacea including lobsters,
crabs, shrimps and barnacles,
characteristically having a
segmented body, a chitinous
exoskeleton, and paired
jointed limbs. Figure 15.35: An aquaculture site near Pool’s Cove, Newfoundland and Labrador, which is owned
and operated by Northern Harvest Sea Farms; a New Brunswick based company. Photo courtesy Rex Hillier
Mollusc: A marine
invertebrate of the phylum Aquaculture is the farming of fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and aquatic plants.
Mollusca having a soft, If traditional fishing is compared to hunting animals in the wild, an aquaculture
unsegmented body usually business is more like land-based agriculture, with fish kept in enclosures. Like
enclosed in a shell, including farmers, aquaculturists provide their stocks with basic animal needs including
mussels, oysters, and snails. shelter, feed, and veterinary care.
To meet the growing gap between fish supply and demand, aquaculture has
grown significantly worldwide with the greatest percentage in Asia and the Pacific.
The cultivation of fish, especially vegetarian species, can reduce the pressure on
wild stocks.
The rise of modern aquaculture in Canada coincided with a

global surge in the industry during the 1970s. While Canada
harvests a range of finfish and shellfish, salmonids (including
Atlantic, Pacific, and Chinook salmon, rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdneri), and Arctic char (Salvenlinus alpinus)) are the most
commonly grown species, accounting for roughly two thirds
of aquaculture production. Finfish generally make up seventy
five percent of Canadian aquaculture production. Shellfish
production is dominated by mussels and oysters.
Figure 15.36: Mussel Aquaculture. Photo Courtesy
Department of Environment and Conservation/Tara Kelly

Aquaculture has the potential to bring economic stability to rural communities that
Aquaculture in Labrador?
have been affected by declining fisheries. Growth in the sector has been slow due
As of 2008 there was no
aquaculture in Labrador.
mostly to lack of investment. Operating a salmonid farm costs as much as eight
Water temperatures along the million dollars a year with feed accounting for seventy percent of this cost. A new
Labrador coast are often too salmonid farm is therefore very expensive to operate before it becomes profitable.
cold for farmed fish.
Figure 15.37: Newfoundland Aquaculture in 2005.
Species Production Value Licences Water area

(Tonnes) (Hectares)
Salmonids
(Atlantic salmon, steelhead trout) 5,006 $26.6 million 22 salmon;
638
21 trout
Blue mussels 3,157 $7 million 82 3,729
Atlantic cod - - 6
As with any new marine development, attention must be given to the potential
impacts of aquaculture on the environment. Aquaculture operations also have to
As with any new negotiate for space with other commercial and recreational uses of coastal areas.
marine development, While modern aquaculture has been practiced for decades, the industry is still
attention must be developing in Newfoundland and Labrador. For that reason, aquaculturists in this
province have had the advantage of learning from, and avoiding, mistakes made
given to the potential in other places. For instance, the industry and the provincial government have
impacts of aquaculture implemented policies meant to both prevent diseases and protect the environment.
on the environment. Species separation, year-class separation, fallow periods, and minimum fish size
at sea water entry; all contribute to maintaining sound fish health and a sound
environment. Other jurisdictions have learned from their mistakes and are only
now implementing these policies. By implementing these policies at an early stage,
the industry in Newfoundland and Labrador hopes to avoid the problems that
other regions have faced.
How can a hydroelectric station help a trout farm?

Coastal waters around Newfoundland often reach winter temperatures
so cold, they are lethal to farmed trout.
For aquaculture in Bay d’Espoir, the local hydroelectric station provides

a source of warm water for the fish kept in sea cages.
Water is heated as it flows through hot equipment at the station. When the
water is discharged into the bay it is very warm. This creates a lens of water
that protects the fish from cold temperatures, even when surface ice forms
in the bay.

Aquaculture and the Environment
Funding for Aquaculture

Funding for new aquaculture
operations is available federally
from the Atlantic Canada
Opportunities Agency (ACOA)
and provincially from the
Department of Fisheries and
Aquaculture (DFA), or the
Department of Innovation,
Trade and Rural Development
(DINTRD). Other funding
may be available through banks Figure 15.38: The aquaculture site near Pool’s Cove, Newfoundland and Labrador, follows strict
guidelines to prevent their operations from contaminating the environment. Photo courtesy Rex Hillier
and venture capital funds.An
entrepreneur should be prepared
to supply at least twenty percent
Some concerns have been raised over the impact of aquaculture on the
of the cost of development.
environment. These include:
This may be as much as $5
million. Loans are available • possible interaction of escaped fish with wild stocks;
only in cases where commercial • pollution of the water and environment where the farm
licences have been approved. is located; and
• pollution of the microenvironment within the farm itself,
which affects the quality of the stock.
While any new industry should be monitored to control environmental impact,

it is also important to separate fact from fiction. Canadian aquaculture adheres
to principles of good stewardship, so that the industry is economically and
Did You Know? environmentally sustainable.
Envirofact: Canada’s total
aquaculture production is The responsibility for the regulation of aquaculture is shared by the provincial
carried out in a total area and federal governments. Through the Aquaculture Act and Regulations, the
equivalent to the size of the Province is responsible for approving facility sites, granting licenses, monitoring
city of St. John’s? fish health, and maintaining a registry of operators.
Aquaculture is a sustainable industry that can only succeed in a clean, healthy

environment. For this reason, aquaculturists work to ensure their operations are
not contaminating the environment that they depend on. It is also in the interest
of aquaculture that pollution outfalls, such as sewage or industrial waste, are not
located near aquaculture sites. The Canadian government works with the industry
to monitor and protect environmental conditions in order to produce safe food.

Eastport Peninsula Lobster However, it must be remembered that aquaculture has an impact on
Protection Committee the environment. Government and industry are working to establish
Low lobster catch rates and reports of low
policies and practices to minimize the industry footprint on the
egg production and non-compliance with
ecosystems where they are established.
legal fishing methods encouraged a group of
lobster harvesters from Bonavista Bay to form
the Eastport Peninsula Lobster Protection
• MANAGEMENT PLANNING
Committee. Their goal was to revive and The federal government sets out criteria for managing
enhance lobster populations through aquaculture as a sustainable industry. First, the
conservation and enforcement measures environmental effects of aquaculture need to be monitored
and to collect data to track their progress. and controlled as much as possible (these effects may
include escaped fish, accumulation of waste below cages,
Following recommendations of the
or the spread of diseases to the wild populations in the
committee, the Department of Fisheries and
area). The effects of other industries on aquaculture also
Oceans introduced regulations to completely
close some areas to fishing and to restrict fishing
need to be controlled. This is especially important with
in traditional areas to those participating in the regard to water quality. Effects on other species and
project. In addition, illegal pots were eliminated, ensuring the safety of fish for consumption are also
and egg-bearing and undersized lobsters were significant challenges. These issues are regulated through
voluntarily released. codes of standard practices around the country.
A national code is currently being developed.
Scientists from Memorial University, DFO,
and Parks Canada are involved in scientific
The province also controls the environmental impact
information gathering and study.
of aquaculture by separating the sites of operations.
The participants of this project believe that Too many farms in one area may affect the local
the economic impact of the project has been environment, to the detriment of the species being
substantial. The size of landed lobsters has cultured. The province also has a policy to leave sites
increased, resulting in improved earnings. fallow for periods of time between use. Leaving an
As well, catches have been less variable than
aquaculture site dormant for periods of time allows the
in areas without these measures.
environment to return to its original state. Provincial
Long-term planning, conservation, and management plans are developed for aquaculture
science have successfully been used to increase through consultation with the industry, public, and
the sustainability and economic value of this other government departments. These plans are
natural resource. The area has now become implemented on a provincial, regional, or local basis.
a Marine Protected Area.
• CODE OF CONTAINMENT
Salmonid producers in Newfoundland and
Local and non-Native Stocks
Labrador who use cage culture have developed,
Every salmon-populated river has its own genetically distinct
and adhere to, a Code of Containment. The intent
stock. These stocks are usually genetically better suited to their
of the code is to minimize escapes of farmed
environments than stocks from other places.
salmonids and to provide the industry with a
Atlantic Canadian farms use salmon that originated from mandate for sound practice. Salmon and trout
a New Brunswick stock that has proven to be highly adaptable farmers must agree to the code as a condition
to environmental conditions throughout the region. of their license.

Elements of the Code include:
Envirofact: - regulations for equipment design and installation;
Problem seals?
- precautions for preventing escape when fish are being handled
Seals can be a nuisance to or equipment is being towed;
fish farms. A high density - guidelines for submitting reports on inventories and
of fish in a small space equipment testing;
makes a tempting snack for - inspections of equipment; and
a seal. They have been known - a plan for recapturing escapes.
to try and bite fish through
the mesh of an enclosure • SITE SELECTION
and, on rare occasions, have Site selection is determined by the specific biological needs of the
entered cages killing fish and species to be cultured. Typically, blue mussels thrive in the cold climate
allowing many more to on the North coast of the island. Salmonids need warmer temperatures
escape. While Newfoundland and access to both fresh water and salt water. The presence of these
has not yet had a problem
conditions in the Coast of Bays region makes it ideally suited as the
with seals on aquaculture
centre of salmonid production in the province.
sites, New Brunswick fish
farms have had to add an
extra predator net around
• FISH HEALTH AND BIOSECURITY
each cage. The health of farmed stocks depends on good husbandry practices, the
maintenance of water quality, nutritional feed, and appropriate density
of stocks within enclosures. Imported fish are given the same vaccinations
that are used for local stocks so there is very little chance for the spread
of disease. In Newfoundland, all fish are screened for disease before they
Diploids and Triploids are imported or moved to sea cages. Disease in cultured fish can also
Triploids are fish that have come from wild fish stocks.
been rendered incapable of
spawning. In some parts of the Diseases that may occur in salmonids include fungal infections during
world, aquaculture operations egg incubation and bacterial gill disease during fry and fingerling stages.
use triploids in order to prevent
Two bacterial diseases, Furunculosis and Vibriosis may cause high
interactions between escapes
and wild stocks. Trout
mortality in caged stocks if not treated immediately. Antibiotics and
aquaculture in Newfoundland vaccines are used for these and other bacterial diseases as needed
and Labrador use female (see section on Food Safety), although fish health is generally maintained
diploids, which have a low through good husbandry.
possibility of reproducing with
wild fish. Salmon aquaculture Blue mussels are filter feeders and will accumulate toxins from their
uses a mix of female and
environment. For this reason, clean water is essential for mussel farms.
male diploids.
You will learn more about toxins in mussels in the section on Food Safety.

Sustainable Aquaculture • IMPACT ON WILD STOCKS
in Newfoundland and Labrador The possible impacts of escaped cultured fish on wild
With an export value of $22 million in stocks must be taken seriously by government and
2004, shellfish, salmonid, and cod industry. If cage and net design continue to improve,
aquaculture presents significant economic they will lessen the possibility of escapes. Concerns
and job opportunities, especially for rural have been raised that aquaculture escapes can affect
areas of the province. The provincial wild stocks in a number of ways:
Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture - Escaped fish may compete with native fish for food
and the federal Department of Fisheries and access to spawning habitat. Sometimes farmed
and Oceans are responsible for ensuring fish will spawn in greater numbers than native fish,
that this industry is economically and but will not survive the sea environment as well.
environmentally sustainable. This could lead to a situation in which native stocks
The high up-front costs and risks decline and are replaced by other strains of fish that
associated with this developing industry cannot sustain the resource.
make it difficult for start-up companies to - Farmed and native fish may breed and produce
obtain enough working capital financing to hybrid offspring incapable of spawning.
get through to the first harvest. The Province - The spread of disease or parasites between wild
funds an Aquaculture Working Capital and farmed fish is possible.
Loan Initiative for qualified companies to
facilitate development within the salmonid To date, there is no evidence of escaped salmonids having a
aquaculture sector. Initiatives such as negative impact on local stocks around Newfoundland. Nor is there
these are intended to enhance economic evidence of escaped salmonids spawning in greater numbers than
development both within the industry wild stocks. There is evidence that farmed trout in Bay d’Espoir
and in rural communities. compete poorly with wild stocks—gravel and twigs were found
in the stomach of escaped trout.
Aquaculture needs a healthy marine
environment for success. Measures are Shared Water Use
in place to support environmental Our coastal waters are valued for a number of purposes including
sustainability. The Department of Fisheries traditional fishing, recreational sailing, and pristine views. Not
and Aquaculture has a mandatory site everyone welcomes aquaculture. They recognize that it may limit
fallowing (leaving areas uncultivated) policy access to fishing areas, contaminate the environment, interfere with
to allow site conditions to return to baseline free navigation, and change the appearance of the coastline. As a new
levels. Sites are also subject to provisions and growing industry, aquaculture has to negotiate for space with
of the Canadian Environmental Assessment these other users and find ways to minimize any negative impacts.
Act, which require site monitoring before
and during operations as well as throughout Food Safety
the fallowing periods. The industry has Some people believe that farmed fish may be dangerous to eat
also developed a Code of Practice to support because of the use of antibiotics, feeds that might be contaminated,
methods that respect safety and minimize and the higher fat content of cultured fish compared with wild fish.
waste and environmental effects. These and Government and researchers, on the other hand, maintain that
other programs safeguard environmental farmed fish are as safe to eat as wild fish. A guarantee of industry
quality for the success of both cultured and quality is enforced by the federal government’s CFIA.
wild species.

The Future of Aquaculture in Newfoundland and Labrador
Aquaculture is a promising industry for parts of rural Newfoundland. Three
species—Atlantic salmon, steelhead trout, and blue mussels —all grow well and
enjoy strong markets. Farmed cod promises to be a similar success. Aquaculture
operations flourish under very specific environmental conditions and succeed
in a limited number of appropriate sites around the island. The employment
opportunities created by supporting services and industries (such as cage
construction or veterinary services) are not necessarily site-specific. For this
reason, aquaculture brings economic benefits to the province as a whole. In order
to continue growing, the industry needs more qualified aquaculturists and
supporting trades people.
Provincial and federal governments continue to work with industry to ensure

that conflicts are minimized between aquaculture and other uses of coastal
waters. Government continues to monitor aquaculture operations to prevent
negatively affecting the environment or wild fish stocks. Maintaining a clean,
healthy environment is important to aquaculturists. Therefore, a well-regulated,
environmentally sound industry is in everyone’s best interest. Some of the biggest
challenges facing the industry are attracting investment, finding enough qualified
professionals, educating the public on the risks and benefits of eating farmed
fish, and determining how aquaculture can best be carried out in an
environmentally sustainable manner.
1. What are some concerns about the impact of aquaculture on the

marine environment?
2. What is the purpose of the Code of Containment for salmonid
fish farmers? What are some of the main points of this code?
3. What are some factors influencing the health of farmed stocks?

4. How might escaped aquaculture fish affect wild fish stocks?
5. A company wants to develop an aquaculture facility near your
community. Would you be in favour of this project? Explain.
6. Are the risks to wild stocks worth the investment into the
aquaculture industry? Explain your reasoning.

CAREER SPOTLIGHT:
Danny Boyce
Aquaculturist
Danny Boyce is originally from Bonavista.

Danny’s great grandfather, Daniel Boyce
of Jersey’s Harbour, Newfoundland and
Labrador, had a schooner fleet that sold
both slated and dried fish to Clyde Lake
of Crosbie & Company in the late 1800s
and early 1900s.
Daniel studied at Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN) where he

completed a bachelor’s degree, graduate diplomas in aquaculture and fisheries
development, and a Master of Science in aquaculture. He was a Fellow of the
School of Graduate Studies and earned a joint Masters certificate in Project
Management from York University and Memorial’s School of Business.
Mr. Boyce has fifteen years experience in fisheries and aquaculture. He has
worked in various capacities in salmonid hatcheries, marine finfish hatcheries,
and commercial cod sites, and has conducted numerous research and
development projects.
In 1991 – 92, he began his aquaculture career as a fish hatchery technician

on a trout farm in Montebello, Quebec. He then moved to Memorial University’s
Ocean Sciences Centre (OSC).
Figure 15.39:
Ocean Sciences Centre.
Photo courtesy Memorial
University of Newfoundland
and Labrador

The OSC is a research-oriented academic unit within the Faculty of Science
at MUN. The OSC and its Aquaculture Research and Development Facility
(ARDF) offer scientists local, national, and international scientists access to
leading facilities for cold ocean research. According to Danny, the OSC provides
quality graduate education in a broad range of marine science and related
disciplines. At this facility, Danny worked as a research assistant with the late
Dr. Joseph Brown on a halibut project. He also participated in a pilot habitat
cod study that took him from Sunnyside through Gander Bay up to Gilbert’s
Bay in Labrador.
Following the 1992 cod moratorium, he became a project coordinator with

Sea Forest Plantation Limited, and was responsible for delivering a cod farm
training program throughout twelve communities in rural Newfoundland
and Labrador.
In 1994, Danny returned to the OSC to work as a research assistant on

various aquaculture projects. In 1999, he accepted the position of Facility and
Business Manager of the new Aquaculture Research and Development Facility
(ARDF). Current research is focused on aquaculture, biological and chemical
oceanography, and fundamental principles of behaviour, biochemistry,
and physiology.
His current responsibilities include the day-to-day management of all aspects

of the ARDF including policy and project management, proposal writing, contract
negotiations with industry partners, and cash flow. His duties take him to many
parts of Newfoundland and Labrador. Besides this, Mr. Boyce has traveled to
numerous local, national, and international workshops, conferences, and
aquaculture sites.
As if all that wasn’t enough, Danny is also manager of a project that has a cod
research cage site in the community of Poole’s Cove on the south coast of NL.
What is an aquaculturist?
An aquaculturist is responsible for raising and harvesting fish, shellfish,
crustaceans, and plants in fresh and salt water.
Aquaculture is the fastest growing food production sector in the world.

The stocks (fish and shellfish) raised in aquaculture operations are the private
property of aquaculturists who care for them throughout the rearing period
of the various animals and plants.

As an aquaculturist, you are the first to see and respond to challenges with
production.You are responsible for feeding the fish or shellfish, and figuring
out how much food is needed.You are also responsible for maintaining optimal
water quality.
Daily tasks could involve installing, operating, maintaining, and cleaning

pumps, filters, and other equipment.You clean and maintain the nets used to
hold the fish in the sea cages. If you are working in an operation that sells the
fish for human consumption, you also harvest, clean, and prepare the fish
for market.
In the course of your career, you may become manager or owner of an

aquaculture operation, supervising technicians and others. To become a
manager or owner, you need good administrative skills and you must know
how to deal with people.
How do you become an Aquaculturist?

To become an Aquaculturist you should consider obtaining a degree, preferably
a Bachelor of Science in biology or life sciences. Then you may want to specialize
in aquaculture, with further studies such as an advanced diploma in sustainable
aquaculture. This education path will provide you with academic knowledge and
management level skills required to participate in aquaculture development.
Danny would also suggest obtaining a Master of Science degree in aquaculture

that can be completed as you work, and does not necessarily have to be taken
immediately after completing the other programs of study.
According to Danny, the best advice he can give is to constantly challenge

yourself. More and more, the challenges that the industry is facing are open-
ended. Knowledge alone isn’t enough to reach innovative solutions. Creative
thinking is a skill. And you will need it in this line of work. Therefore, if an
opportunity arises to take a course, to travel, or to attend a conference or
workshop, take it. It is also important for you, as an employee of a research
facility or aquaculture operation, to maintain a good working relationship
with faculty, students, and other staff members. Many of these people will
be friends for life.

Chapter 16: Stressors on the Marine Ecosystem
Figure 16.1: Despite the vast size of many marine ecosystems, they can be stressed significantly
by human actions.
Ocean water circulates around the world in vast currents. These ocean currents also
circulate pollutants around the world. These pollutants include garbage, debris, and
sewage that enter the ocean from countless sources. These sources, such as landfills,
river runoff, shipping, and fishery waste, introduce huge volumes of debris into the
oceans all around the world. In all of these cases, most of the pollutants are
deposited locally; however, plumes of sewage from coastal areas such as harbours
carry these toxins into the greater ocean environment. There, ocean currents carry
some pollutants far out to sea.
HABITAT DESTRUCTION
Human activities in coastal zones can have a wide range of ecological impacts.
If the impacts can be anticipated, then steps can be taken to protect coastal habitats
from the damage. But there are other impacts that are unforeseen. And these can
be difficult to reverse or repair.
Coastal infrastructure includes any structure built in marine zones, whether on

the surface of the water or on the seabed. Examples include causeways, slipways,
wharfs, docks, and moorings. It also includes other large scale structures like
drilling platforms.
Stressors on the Marine Ecosystem 559

A conservation approach to marine infrastructure seeks to minimize negative
effects on fish and on their habitat. In some cases, informed construction practices
can enhance fish habitat as a way of compensating for lost space. The Department
Moorings – Instead of of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) supports research into construction methods that
dropping temporary anchors, protect habitat. DFO also has responsibilities under the Fisheries Act to ensure that
vessels can be secured to
conservation-based practises are followed by reviewing projects to make sure they
moorings. This saves the
minimize the impacts on fish habitat in the marine (and freshwater) environment.
seabed from damage caused
by dragging anchors.
Moorings typically consist of
concrete blocks on the seabed,
attached by chains to one or
more floats and markers at the
water’s surface. However, the
concrete base of a mooring
displaces seabed habitat and
so the construction of
moorings must also follow
measures to protect habitat.
Figure 16.2: Marine infrastructure on the St. John’s waterfront.
When infrastructure is installed in marine settings it has the potential to harmfully

Silt fences are barriers made alter, disrupt, or destroy fish and fish habitat. The best way to prevent this is to
of filter fabric and fence posts follow proper mitigation procedures. Mitigations include actions taken during the
or stakes. Filter fabric allows planning, design, construction, and operation to lessen potentially adverse effects
water to flow through it while
on fish habitats. DFO provides projects with advice on mitigations that can be used
preventing the passage of
sediment. Silt fences are a
during marine construction. Among the negative impacts of construction activities
useful way of containing upset in the marine environment are the following:
sediment during construction. • Structures built on or in the seabed have the potential to harmfully
Silt fences are not installed alter, disrupt, or destroy fish habitat formerly occupying the same area.
as permanent structures, • Structures that cover the surface of the water can become the source
though they require routine of debris on the seabed. Material that escapes through cracks or spaces
maintenance and cleaning
in a dock or wharf and accumulates on the seabed can destroy habitat
to be effective.
below and around the structure.
• Sediment can enter water and harm habitat during construction.
• Machinery can be a source of pollution. Oil, grease, and other chemicals
can enter the intertidal environment through leaks or surface grime.
• Toxic preservatives such as pentachlorophenol (PCP), creosote, or fresh
pressure-treatment can leach from wood into the water.
• Water circulation can be interrupted by marine structures.
Standard mitigations are applied during the construction of coastal infrastructure
to avoid negative impacts on marine life and marine life habitat. These include the
following:
• All wood is cut, sealed, and stained away from the water and is dry before
entering the water.
• Dredging, infilling, or blasting activities are minimized.
• Sediment and erosion controls are in place prior to construction.
Silt fences are commonly used.
• Machinery is clean and free of leaks.
• Structures are built in such a way to allow for the free circulation
of water in and around the structure as much as possible.
• Habitat can be created or enhanced to counter the habitat that is lost.
• Moorings and other concrete structures should be clean.
• Moorings should use anchors large enough that they will not drag along
the seabed and chains that will not disrupt seabed habitat.
Over time navigational channels such as harbours,

marinas, boat launches, and other port facilities may
become narrower and shallower. This can pose a
danger to the vessels that use this infrastructure.
Dredging is one method to restore these channels.
Tools used in dredging activities include backhoes,
draglines, and clam buckets. Dredging activities can
have negative impacts on fish and fish habitat by
harmfully altering, disrupting, or destroying the
sea floor. Dredging can also introduce suspended
sediment into the water.
Figure 16.3: Dredging
a navigation channel. INVASIVE MARINE SPECIES
Photo Courtesy Department
of Fisheries and Oceans
From time to time various plant and animal species are carried from one part
of the world to another where they invade foreign ecosystems unaccustomed
to the presence of these organisms. Such invasive species can multiply at a very
rapid rate. Their presence in large enough numbers can have serious consequences
for aquaculture facilities, recreational boaters, fish harvesters, and for others
who depend on marine resources. For example, the spread of some forms of
toxic phytoplankton has caused farm closures in the Australian shellfish industry.
One common method by which invasive species reach foreign shores is by attaching
themselves to the hull of ocean-going vessels. In this way, they can travel great
distances on international routes. Once in a new marine environment without any
natural predators their population can increase rapidly. Once an invasive species
is established in a new habitat, it can be very difficult to eradicate. Government
efforts are therefore focused on preventing the arrival and spread of potentially
invasive species in Canadian waters.

Invasive species can also arrive in the ballast water of ships. Ballast water is
pumped in and out of ocean-going vessels to improve stability in open water.
A vessel that pumps in ballast in Newfoundland and Labrador waters will take
on any organic material present in that water. If the vessel then pumps out its
ballast at a port in Prince Edward Island, then the organic material from
Newfoundland and Labrador waters is introduced into that marine ecosystem
including potentially invasive species.
Ballast can carry zooplankton, phytoplankton, bacteria, and viruses. Species

that have inactive stages can remain in ballast for long periods of time.
According to Canadian authorities, only a few invasive species have been introduced
through ballast into the Canadian marine environment. There are likely others that
we haven’t learned to recognize yet. Canada conducts testing of ballast waters to
attempt prevention. The invasive European green crab (Carcinus maenas) probably
entered southern Newfoundland waters this way. It is one of three invasive species
that have been detected in Atlantic Canadian waters since the mid 1990s that are
currently causing significant problems for coastal resource users:
• TUNICATES are native to the western Pacific Ocean, off the northeast coast
of Asia. Clubbed tunicates (Styela clava) first appeared in waters around
Prince Edward Island in 1998. Since then, violet (Botrylloides violaceus),
golden star (Botryllus schlosseri) and vase (Ciona intestinalis) tunicates
have also been detected in Prince Edward Island waters.
The clubbed tunicate has caused the most severe impact to date. This jelly-
like animal can reach lengths of sixteen to eighteen centimetres and grows
in dense clumps. As many as 1000 clubbed tunicates can occupy one
Figure 16.4: Tunicate (Styela clava). square metre. They can infest docks, buoys, moorings, drilling platforms,
Photo Courtesy Courtnay Hermann
or any other hard surface up to a depth of five metres below low tide level.
This can add a great deal of weight to marine structures, causing them to
become unstable.
Tunicates are also a serious threat to aquaculture. They compete for

space and food with mussels and oysters. Mussel lines, on which the
mussels grow, can be badly fouled by clubbed tunicates. In October 2001,
the mussel industry in Prince Edward Island was badly limited by an
explosive growth of clubbed tunicates.
• GREEN CRABS (Carcinus maenas) are small, aggressive predators of shellfish

Figure 16.5: Green Crab. such as mussels and clams. They originated off the European coast and
were discovered in Nova Scotia in 1995. Since then, their populations have
expanded along the coasts of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island.

Green crabs also harm the eel fishery because eels will not enter a trap
infested with green crabs.
• OYSTER THIEF (Codium fragile tomentosoides) is a type of alga that anchors

on shellfish. This species originated in Japan and was detected in Prince
Edward Island in 1996. Oyster thief is very dense and smothers mussels
or oysters by preventing them from opening their shells, leaving them
unable to filter feed. In some cases, oyster thief will lift shellfish off the
seabed and float away with them – hence its name.
Figure 16.6: Oyster thief.
Photo Courtesy Courtnay Hermann So far only the green crab has been detected in waters off Newfoundland and
Labrador. The Canadian Coast Guard continually monitors marine infrastructure,
including navigational buoys, during routine cleaning and inspection. Buoys can
serve as marine habitat.All marine habitats are colonized in stages, first by protozoa,
algae and fungi and later by more complex organisms including kelp and barnacles.
Clubbed tunicates, if present, would also appear in these later stages of colonization.
Small boat owners can take steps to ensure their vessels are not carrying
unwelcome visitor species. These steps include washing the boat, anchor, and other
equipment with vinegar; removing plants and animals; and allowing the boat to
dry completely before trailering.
Large vessel operators can use anti-fouling paint that reduces the number of
organisms settling on the hull. Ballast waters should not be taken or released
in port or near aquaculture sites.
MARINE DEBRIS
Marine debris is garbage found in the ocean and
on beaches. Marine debris is a global problem. It is
hazardous to virtually every species that depends
on the oceans for food—including humans.
The most common marine debris is petroleum-

based products such as plastic. While debris
related to the fisheries and marine navigation
has been washing up on beaches for hundreds
of years, plastic has only been in use since the
1950s. It is not biodegradable and has therefore,
accumulated quickly in landfills and in the marine
Figure 16.7: Plastic is the environment. Plastic marine debris includes not only disposable plastic but also
most common type of marine plastic that is not intended to be disposable—such as the plastic used in appliances
debris and is often found at
the high tide mark. or as part of a piece of furniture. In some locations, plastic accounts for ninety
percent of all the debris.

Next to plastic, wood and rubber, both synthetic and natural, are the second and
third most common debris. Other materials that accumulate in the marine
environment include metals, cloth, glass, paper, and cardboard.
Problems with Plastic

• Persistence: it takes centuries for most plastics to biodegrade.
• Toxins and carcinogens: burning some plastics releases toxins into the air.
For example, PVC (polyvinyl chloride) releases dioxins and HCl. Burning
plastic is prohibited by the Newfoundland and Labrador Air Pollution
Control Regulations.
• Additives: can make up as much as fifty percent of the final plastic product.
Additives can leach out into the environment. Common additives include:
- dyes and pigments;
- toxic metals-lead, cadmium, tin, antimony arsenic, chromium,
and zinc; and
- flame retardants-56.7 million kg of deca-BDE (polybrominated
diphenyl ethers) are produced annually. Deca-BDE is used in high-
impact polystyrene, which is used for appliance casings (computers,
toasters, televisions, printers, telephones, etc). Deca-BDE negatively
affects neurodevelopment and reproduction.
• Risk to animals: fish, seabirds, seals, turtles, dolphins, and whales are all
at risk from plastic debris:
- Animals can be strangled by plastic debris.
- Animals often eat plastic which cannot be digested.
It builds up in the digestive systems of the animals,
blocking normal digestion and the animals starve
to death.
- Sometimes plastic in an animal’s belly will cause it
to float, preventing the animal from hunting
or escaping prey.
- Chemicals like PCBs build up in large fish as they eat
small fish that have ingested plastic. Even if the small
fish ingest small amounts, the chemicals become more
concentrated in the animals further up the food chain.
• Risk to humans: humans are at risk in a number of ways:

- Eating fish contaminated by marine debris is harmful.
- Divers can become ensnared in lost fishing gear.
Figure 16.8: Discarded plastic - Plastic debris clogs the water intakes for cooling and
6-pack around neck of bird. Photo pumping systems on boats and gets tangled around
Courtesy Environment Canada/Peter Thomas
propellers, creating serious navigation hazards.

The Source of Marine Debris
Garbage blows off landfills or is carried by rivers, sewage systems, and storm
drains into the ocean.
Typically, on beaches near cities and large towns, an enormous amount of

Envirofact: household garbage washes up. This includes such items as food and cleaning
product containers, shopping bags, and building materials. Recreational areas are
Marine Junk Food
often littered with bottles, cigarette butts, and glass and food containers. Fishing
Through a process called
debris appears on most beaches. Commercial shipping routes are typically littered
photodegradation, sunlight
breaks down floating plastic with bulk packaging, lube oil containers, and pallets.
debris into small pieces.While
these pieces of plastic are tiny, Because of the variation in ocean currents and prevailing winds, debris doesn’t
they still do not biodegrade- accumulate in the same way on every beach. Some beaches will have very little.
they simply float around the Others are flooded with garbage. The flow of currents pulls debris along with
ocean. Some pieces are small them and causes it to build up in particular places. For instance, currents and
enough that even zooplankton winds cause marine debris to accumulate in Placentia Bay. Then the prevailing
can ingest them. winds push most of the debris onto the beaches that face west or south-west.
East-facing beaches in Placentia Bay are relatively clear of the debris.
While some debris is from nearby sources, other garbage is carried great distances
along ocean currents. Much of the marine debris that originates in Eastern Canada
winds up in the North Sea off the coast of Europe. Ireland, Scotland, Norway,
Denmark, and Sweden all have to deal with Canadian garbage in their waters
and on their beaches.
Reducing Marine Debris?

Several steps must be taken together in order to
successfully reduce marine debris. Some of these steps
are already being implemented, while others steps
are new practices, or not yet widely adopted.
• EDUCATION: Educate people regarding the Figure 16.9: Jessica Whyte, a

student at Christ the King School,
problems with marine debris using different is collecting marine debris from a
approaches such as posters or teaching. beach near the town of Rushoon on
the Burin Peninsula. Photo Courtesy
Eastern School District/Allison Dyke
• COMMUNITY BEACH CLEAN-UPS: In this
province, beach clean-ups are organized by communities or by non-
profit organizations like Ocean Net. Ocean Net works with schools, fish
harvesters, community groups, government, and environmental agencies
to clean up beaches, retrieve ghost nets, and develop educational materials
for the public. Between 1997 and 2006, Ocean Net carried out nearly 1,000
beach clean-ups.

• THE FOUR R’S: REDUCE, RECYCLE, RE-USE, AND RECOVER: Several hundred
types of plastics are not commonly recycled. Plastics that are recycled are
often used to make products like plastic lumber and clothing that are not
recycled. Reducing the overall amount of plastics we use is essential.
Recycling alone will not deal with the problem. Recovery of energy from
wastes is a more involved process that usually targets industry.
• GREEN PLASTICS: There are several kinds of green plastics on the market
today and new products are being developed rapidly. Green plastics should
be biodegradable, non-toxic, and made from renewable resources, but not
all products that claim to be green meet all of these goals.
• DESIGNATED DISPOSAL SITES: Carefully choosing sites for disposal of

garbage and offal from fish plants can help minimize their impacts on
the marine environment. There are sections of the federal Fisheries
Act that attempt to limit dumping at sea.
• TREATMENT OF DISCHARGE: Treatment of human sewage and waste

before it enters the ocean is important in minimizing marine debris and
pollution. A key component of the St. John’s harbour clean-up is the waste
management system that is being constructed. It will be an important tool
for cleaning up the waters by removing pollutants flow into the harbour
and from there through the Narrows into the open ocean.
1. Describe some ways that coastal activities can impact marine habitat.
2. Where do invasive species come from and why should we be concerned
about them?
3. Plastics continue to litter the marine environment. Describe some
ways we can reduce this threat to the marine environment.

4. If there is a beach near your area contact Ocean Net and find out how
your class can assist in a beach clean up project. More information is
available at www.oceannet.ca.

HYDROCARBONS AND THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Figure 16.10: Locations of Terra Nova, White Rose, Hibernia, and Hebron oil and gas fields.
Photo Courtesy Department of Natural Resources/Jillian Owens
The offshore oil and gas industry in Newfoundland is concentrated on the

Grand Banks, south east of the Avalon Peninsula. The Terra Nova, White Rose,
and Hibernia oil and gas fields together produce, on average, over 52, 000 cubic
metres of crude oil per day. Other discoveries that are currently undeveloped
include Hebron, Ben Nevis, West Ben Nevis, Hibernia South, and the White Rose
Extentions. Exploration is ongoing in other areas both on land and off the coast
of Newfoundland and Labrador with one onshore well established near Cape
St. George, Port au Port Peninsula, on the province’s west coast.

Types of drilling muds
Both water-based (aqueous) and
oil-based (non-aqueous) drilling
muds are used according to
different circumstances.
Aqueous muds are suitable for:
• drilling through stable
formations;
• drilling vertical wells; and
• drilling at moderate
temperatures.
Non-aqueous muds are
suitable for:
• drilling through water-
sensitive formations to
prevent caving;
• drilling slanted and
horizontal wells; and
• drilling deep wells at high
temperatures.
Non-aqueous muds are more
likely to prevent the drill bit from
getting stuck in the borehole.
Figure 16.11: (Clockwise from the top) An exploration rig drilling near Cape St. George,
Port au Port Peninsula, Newfoundland and Labrador. SeaRose FPSO. Hibernia Platform.
Photos Courtesy Department of Natural Resources
Environmental Impacts of Oil and Gas Exploration and Production

To understand the environmental impact of the offshore hydrocarbon industry,
both extraction and transportation methods have to be considered:
• DRILLING FLUIDS OR “MUDS”: In hydrocarbon extraction, drilling muds

are composed of chemicals and minerals in a water or oil solution. These
muds are used in a complex drilling process. This process includes a drill
string that extends down from the drill ship or production platform.
At the end of this string is a rotating drill bit that bores through layers
Did You Know? of rock to reach oil and gas deposits far below the seabed. Drilling muds
For every 100 kg of material are pumped down the drill string and are ejected at very high pressure
discarded overboard, through nozzles in the drill bit.
6.9 kg of it can be synthetic
based muds. The drilling muds, with immersed drill (rock) cuttings, are removed
from the well by pumping them back to the surface. If drill cuttings
are discharged at sea, they contaminate the marine environment with
compounds from the drilling muds including heavy metals and
hydrocarbons. While this is true, tremendous efforts are always being

taken by both the regulatory bodies and the petroleum companies to
Research and monitoring
minimize the effects of drill cuttings and associated muds. For example,
of waste disposal
synthetic based drilling muds have been developed and chosen for use
The Department of Fisheries
and Oceans carries out extensive
while drilling in the offshore environment. These muds, due to their
studies on the fate and effects special chemical composition and structure, have the potential to be less
of petroleum hydrocarbons, toxic and more biodegradable, thereby having less of a negative impact
drilling wastes, and produced in the offshore environment. Despite these drilling muds being more
waters. These studies are used expensive than other non-aqueous drilling muds, the petroleum
for assessment purposes as companies are still choosing to use them. As an additional example,
well as the development of drill cuttings are separated from the drilling muds by shakers and
environmental effects monitoring centrifuges, and further processed to lessen the amount of oil and gas
programs (EEM). left on them prior to them being discarded overboard. Regulatory bodies
enforce that 6.9 % of the total weight of the material that is discarded
EEM programs must be overboard can be synthetic based muds.
conducted on an ongoing basis
at hydrocarbon development sites
• PRODUCTION WATER: Water is withdrawn from hydrocarbon-bearing layers
in the offshore. The Canada—
during the extraction of oil and gas.All producing projects at the present
time are averaging a 3:1 oil to water ratio. Produced water is composed of
Offshore Petroleum Board
(C-NLOPB) regulates the EEM
formation water found in the reservoir itself or water re-injected into the
programs of all three developers reservoir to maintain pressure and oil flow. Major contaminants in produced
on the Grand Banks: Terra water include hydrocarbons, metals, and process chemicals. The hydrocarbon
Nova, Husky, and Exxon-Mobil. content of produced water, as well as drilling muds, is regulated under the
Their programs study sediment Canadian Offshore Waste Treatment Guidelines. Produced waters are also
impacts, effects on fish health, and subject to regular toxicity screening by the oil industry.
fish and shellfish contamination.
The transhipment terminal in • TRANSPORTATION OF OIL: Large quantities of oil are transported along
Placentia Bay, where crude oil Newfoundland’s coast throughout the year. On occasions during the winter
from the Grand Banks is held months, tanker traffic typically moves closer to shore to avoid ice.
before being shipped to Canadian
and international refineries, Year Number of Visits Oil brought in (tonnes) Oil taken out (tonnes)
also has a similar monitoring
program in place. 2001 255 8,867,357 7,874,953
2002 380 16,459,982 15,394,260
2003 557 24,223,611 23,128,065
2004 544 24,423,229 22,191,672
2005 513 22,228,805 20,455,709
Figure 16.12: Information on the number of tanker visits and the amount of oil brought in and
taken out of Placentia Bay for each year from January 1, 2001 – December 31, 2005, including
both the Come By Chance refinery and the transshipment terminal. Note that the difference between
the amount of oil brought in and the amount of oil taken out is largely due to the fact that a large
amount of oil is taken from the two locations by other means of transportation (e.g. tractor trailers).
Only an extremely small amount of oil is lost due to the actual refining process.

Bunker C is a very thick, heavy
fuel commonly used in ships.
Figure 16.13: Transshipment Terminal near Arnold’s Cove, east coast Newfoundland and Labrador.
It needs to be heated to a very
Photo courtesy Come By Chance Refinery
high temperature in order to
be sprayed as a mist into the
There is also considerable general traffic related to oil and gas shipments around
injectors of large engines.
Bunker fuel is very cost efficient coastal Newfoundland and Labrador. For example, large vessels ship bunker C oil
for travelling long distances at to Corner Brook, Botwood, and Holyrood. Gasoline and diesel are also shipped in
sea.When bunker C enters the bulk to many coastal communities in Newfoundland and Labrador.
cold ocean water, it tends to
behave almost like a solid and Marine Oil Pollution
can persist for a very long time
Marine oil pollution refers to the presence of petroleum hydrocarbons in the ocean
in the marine environment.
environment. Approximately 3.2 million tonnes of petroleum is dumped or spilled
into the world’s oceans each year. This pollution comes from a variety of sources
including spills, illegal bilge dumping, and industrial runoff. Oil pollution can have
devastating impacts on wildlife, especially seabirds. By creating a layer of sediment
on the seabed, oil spills smother the plant and animal life. It ruins beaches and
hinders recreational uses of coastlines. Also, by destroying fish, fouling boating
gear, and devastating aquaculture sites, such spills also have serious negative
social and economic consequences for humans.
Sources of Oil Pollution

Oil pollution calls to mind images of massive tanker spills blanketing coastlines
with a thick green slick and poisoning animals. But tanker spills account for
a relatively small amount of the total petroleum hydrocarbons in the oceans.
Marine oil pollution is far more common than many people realize and it
comes from many sources besides major spills:

• TANKER ACCIDENTS such as collisions or groundings receive a large
amount of media coverage due to the large size of spills associated with
them. Even a few large accidents may account for a large amount of oil
pollution. However, such accidents contribute only 12 percent of the
world’s oil pollution each year.
• OTHER KINDS OF TANKER SPILLS are more frequent, although they may
be much smaller than spills resulting from major accidents. As much as
75 percent of tanker spills occur while vessels are carrying out routine
operations such as loading and unloading oil.
• BUNKERING is another source of spillage.Vessels burn bunker fuel in their

engines. Bunkering is the marine equivalent of filling up a gas tank on a
car. Often these spills are small, but if they occur frequently in the same
area, they become a significant source of pollution. A small spill can have
major consequences if, for example, it was to happen at the transhipment
terminal in Placentia Bay during lobster season. Many precautions are
required during bunkering operations to limit and contain any releases
that occur.
• BILGE DUMPING is a significant source of chronic pollution. Bilge water

comes from the workings of various machines and accumulates in the
hull of a vessel. Oil leaking from machinery builds up in the bilge water.
When the bilge is dumped at sea the oil is also dumped. Bilge dumping
is a source of constant and deliberate pollution. Ironically, this situation
is avoidable because all large ocean-going vessels are required to have oil
water separators on board and to use them before dumping their bilge.
In addition, it is illegal to dump oil contaminated bilge at sea and such
activity is subject to heavy fines, but regulations are difficult to enforce.
So many vessel operators continue to dump the polluted bilge at sea.
The south coast of Newfoundland is affected by a large number of releases

from large ocean going vessels to and from North American ports. These
vessels include as many as 8,000 container ships, cargo ships, and tankers
a year en route to ports in the St. Lawrence River. A large number also use
this route on the way to and from ports along the Eastern Seaboard of the
United States. Releases from vessels en route to ports up the St. Lawrence
River pose the most danger to our coastal marine environment because
they pass closer to the southern coast of the island to avoid ice in winter.
This is a major concern for those striving to protect the marine
environment in this area.

Figure 16.14: (Left to right) A rock
outcrop on the northern peninsula, • MARINE HYDROCARBON SEEPAGE accounts for the presence of some
Newfoundland and Labrador, showing marine oil. Seepage occurs in areas of tectonic activity such as underwater
naturally seeping petroleum along a
earthquakes. Newfoundland and Labrador has several known marine
fracture surface.
seeps along the coast of the island and off Labrador. One well-known seep
Oil seeping out of the ground near
the community of Parsons Pond on is called Old Harry, located off the west coast community of Cape Ray.
the northern peninsula, Newfoundland Hydrocarbons also enter the ocean via river run-off from the erosion
and Labrador. of exposed oil-rich sediments. It is difficult to know the amount of
A rock sample containing petroleum hydrocarbons originating from these sources, though it is likely no more
taken from the Cow Head area
than seven percent of the total amount of oil pollution in the oceans.
on the northern peninsula,
Photos courtesy Department of Natural Offshore drilling platforms may experience blowouts. This occurs when pressure
Resources from the well exceeds the capacity of the well to contain it. However, in the modern
era, blowouts are relatively uncommon—much like tanker accidents. In fact, there
has never been a blowout offshore Newfoundland and Labrador. A more common
source of pollution from drilling occurs when oil is released due to equipment
failure or process interruption. This can result in a release of crude or other
products from the production facility. And this happens in Newfoundland and
Labrador’s offshore. For example, the largest crude oil spill on the East Coast of
Canada occurred in November 2004 when 160,000 litres of crude oil leaked from
the Terra Nova FPSO because of equipment failure. It should be noted that
engineering modeling supports only a 0.6 % chance of shoreline contamination in
the event of an oil spill.
Did You Know? Other coastal activities that introduce hydrocarbons into the ocean may include
irresponsible land-based disposal of oil. Most oil spills in Canada occur on land.
1 L of oil can cover a 12 sq.
• Used motor oil that is not properly disposed of can make its way into
km area of water.
sewage discharge, streams, or storm drain runoff. This has been the source

of fish kills in and around St. John’s in the past, as people do not realize
that storm sewers and sewage drains do not go to the same place. Some
storm sewers have outlets in local water bodies so any toxins dumped in
a storm drain can kill fish. Runoff from landfills can also be a significant
source of marine hydrocarbon pollution.
• Small marine motors and 2-stroke outboard motors are source of small
spills at the wharfs around the province.
Oil Spills Around the World

Large spills are dramatic as massive volumes of oil are quickly released into small
areas. But the impact of these large toxic spills may not always have the same
impact on marine life. For example, if a large spill happens far from land, the oil’s
impact is largely confined to offshore wildlife. By comparison, inshore oil spills are
devastating to fish, seabirds, marine mammals, nesting areas, and beaches.
What is ITOPF?
Since 2000, the average number of large spills has dropped to less than four spills per
The International Tanker
Owners Pollution Federation year. In general, the quantity of oil spilled each year has also declined since the 1970s.
is a not-for-profit group of more One or two very large spills often account for the bulk of oil spilled in a given year.
than 4,800 tanker owners from
around the world.Virtually all The tanker industry has gained valuable knowledge from past spills in the areas of
of the world’s oil and gas prevention and response. International regulations, together with organizations like
transportation is conducted
International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF), work to reduce spills
by members of ITOPF. It is one
and to deliver fast and effective containment and clean-up responses.
of the world’s primary sources
of expertise on responding to
ship-source oil pollution. Effects of Oil Spills on the Marine Environment
There are many reasons to be concerned about the presence of oil pollution in the
marine environment, although not every oil spill has the same effect. In order to
understand the impact of oil pollution, several things must be considered:
• What type of oil is spilled?
• Where is the spill location and how much oil is spilled?
• Has the spill occurred in an area of chronic pollution?

If so, what are the cumulative effects of the pollution?
• Do climate conditions, such as currents and wind, make

containment and clean-up difficult or impossible?
• Does fishing or other activities take place in the area?

How will the spill affect those activities?

Physical properties of oil
Properties affecting behaviour
Oil floats and can cover a wide area, carried along by wind and ocean
of spilled oil
currents. Spilled oil is generally classified according to whether it is
persistent or non-persistent. Persistent oils dissipate slowly and often
Four properties of oil are considered
require clean-up. Crude and some refined oils are included in this
in predicting the behaviour of a spill:
category. Non-persistent oils dissipate much quicker. These include
• Specific gravity is the density of
gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and diesel. It is worth noting that even
oil in relation to pure water which though the volatile compounds that comprise the non-persistent oils
has a specific gravity equal to 1. do evaporate rather quickly, they can still contaminate the remaining
Most oils are lighter than water water supply.
and therefore, have a specific gravity
less than 1. This means the oil will Following a spill, oil undergoes several processes that affect the
float on water. overall environmental impact and clean-up requirements.
• Distillation characteristics Short-term processes take effect in the first few days
describe the volatility of oil. following a spill:
Compounds in oil have different
boiling points. Those with lower • SPREADING: Oil begins to spread as a coherent slick
boiling points evaporate more at a rate determined by its viscosity.
quickly, but are often more toxic.
• EVAPORATION: The rate of evaporation is determined
by the volatility of the oil.
• Viscosity describes resistance to
flow. High viscosity oil flows very • DISPERSION: Turbulence and wave motion cause oil
slowly and with difficulty, while to form various size droplets. Large droplets rise back
low viscosity oil flows with ease. to the surface while smaller droplets may be suspended
Viscosity drops as the temperature in the water column.
of oil rises. For this reason, water
temperature and heat from the sun • EMULSIFICATION: Oils often absorb water creating a highly
can affect the behaviour of a spill. viscous emulsion. Emulsification can increase by three or
four times the total volume of the pollutant.
• Pour point is the temperature
• DISSOLUTION: Some components of oil will dissolve
below which oil will not pour.
slightly in water.
Oil with a temperature lower than
its pour point will behave as a solid. Long-term processes take effect over months and years:
• OXIDATION: Some hydrocarbons react with oxygen to create

persistent tars, sometimes seen as tar balls on beaches.
• SEDIMENTATION: Some sedimentation occurs when organic

particles or other suspended solids cling to drops of oil
causing them to sink.
• BIODEGRADATION: Various micro-organisms use oil as an

energy source.

Depending on location, sea and atmosphere conditions, and the type of oil spilled,
the weathering processes that occur may cause a rapid dissipation of the spill (as in
the evaporation of light compounds) or may lead to the persistence of pollution (as
in sedimentation along a beach or in-shore seabeds). Offshore oil spills tend to
dissipate faster than inshore oil spills simply because high-energy ocean conditions
speed up the weathering process.
There are a number of effects of oil spills:
• SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT: Contamination of popular recreational or

tourist areas has an obvious economic impact. Apart from clean-up,
restoration of public trust in the safety and cleanliness of an area
polluted by oil can be a considerable challenge. Similarly, reports of oil
contamination in or near a fishing area can have disastrous effects on the
livelihood of the fishers. This is often true regardless of the fact that oil
rarely has any lasting effect on fish populations and may pose no danger
to the consumer. Oil can also destroy fishing gear, causing further financial
strain to fishers.
• BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND FOULING OF THE INTERTIDAL ZONE: Oil can damage
marine life through physical contamination and smothering, or through
its toxicity. Damage to habitat also affects marine life.
• Negative impacts on aquaculture operations: A spill near a fish farm

can soil equipment. Enclosed fish are unable to escape the pollution and
may become contaminated. As with spill sites in fishing grounds, cultured
fish that have been exposed to or near oil pollution may be difficult to sell
to a market that is averse to such risk. Again, this may be the case whether
the dangers posed by an oil spill are real or imagined.
Figure 16.15: A major oil

spill in the waters off Newfoundland
and Labrador would have a major
impact on our fishing and
tourism sectors.

Oiled birds and marine mammals
How does oil kill seabirds?

Oil can kill birds in three ways:
• Seabirds have two layers
of feathers – an inner layer
to insulate and keep the
bird warm and an outer
layer to keep the bird dry.
The outer layer is a mesh
connected by fine hooks.
Even a tiny amount of oil
(the size of a thumbprint)
is enough to destroy the
waterproofing of this layer.
Then cold ocean water can
Figure 16.16: Gulls in the water offshore Newfoundland and Labrador. They could be affected
soak the inner layer of negatively by oil pollution.
feathers causing the bird
to die of hypothermia—
Over 40 million pelagic seabirds spend winters along the southeast coast of
the most common cause
Newfoundland. This area has one of the highest levels of seabird mortality
of death.
anywhere in the world. Chronic oiling from vessel traffic along the south coast
• Seabirds nibble at oiled is suspected to be a prime reason for this mortality.
feathers in an effort to
clean them. In the The primary visible victims of oil pollution are seabirds. This is particularly true
process they swallow the
in Newfoundland and Labrador where it is estimated that 300,000 seabirds die every
contaminants and die of
year from oil pollution. Murres (Uria allge allge) and dovekies (Plautus alle alle)
poisoning of the liver,
account for 80 percent of oil-related seabird mortality. The other impacted seabird
lungs, kidneys, and
species include puffins (Fratercula arctica arctica), guillemots (Cepphus grille atlantis),
intestines.
gannets (Morus basanus), gulls (Laridae), terns (Laridae), petrels (Hydrobatidae),
• Oiled seabirds may also and cormorants as well as near-shore birds such as loons (Gaviidae), eider ducks
starve to death as the (Somateria sp.), and long-tail ducks.
oiling interferes with their Envirofact:
normal ability to forage.
Rescuing oiled birds is difficult. The birds are already Small spills make a big kill
They are also easy prey
weak. Handling them adds to their stress. But that is Small spills can cause serious
for predators.
the only way to save them. Treatment requires licensed, damage when they occur near
trained personnel with veterinary support. Even a drop large seabird populations.
of oil can be fatal. So, if the birds are not totally cleaned, In the winter of 1989-90,
then their death may simply be prolonged. In addition, approximately 17,500 murres
this process also poses a threat to human health washed up in Placentia Bay.
hazards because of the toxic vapours. The suspected source of
pollution was bilge waste
ejected from passing ships-
Some marine animals are also susceptible to oil
a form of intentional and
pollution. While cetaceans (whales and dolphins)
avoidable pollution.
tend to avoid spill sites, sea turtles and seals can
be exposed to inshore pollution.
ENVIRO-FOCUS
The plight of the Murre
Thick-billed (Uria lomvia lomvia) and Common Murre (Uria aalge aalge),
also known as turrs, are two species of auks that live along Newfoundland’s
Avalon Peninsula and south coast. Turrs can live over twenty years and are
slow to reproduce. Turrs raise only one chick per year. At around four or five
years of age, a female lays her first egg in the Arctic breeding ground and will
continue to do so each year throughout her lifetime.
Turr populations are among the largest of any seabird in the northern
hemisphere. It is estimated that there are as many as 2,000,000 breeding pairs
of thick-billed turrs in Canada’s eastern Arctic. Without factoring in oil-related
mortality, the entire population grows by around 3.5 percent each year.
Every winter, sea ice forms in Canada’s Arctic and along the coasts of
Greenland, Iceland, and northwestern Europe. With this seasonal change, turrs
migrate south from their Arctic summer breeding grounds. After flying and
swimming for thousands of kilometres, they
congregate on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
Unfortunately, this long journey leads turrs into
waters that pose many dangers. Newfoundland and
Labrador has a traditional turr hunt every year,
in which many young, immature birds are shot.
Turrs often become snagged in gillnets. But most
significantly, the south coast of Newfoundland is a
shipping route known for the highest incidence of
seabird oiling in the world. Hundreds of thousands
of turrs are killed by oil pollution every year.
Figure 16.17: Common murre
(Uria aalge) in the water offshore Turrs are especially vulnerable to oil contamination because they fly low over
the water, beating their wings very rapidly. Turrs show their speed and agility
Natural Resources by diving and pursuing prey under water, giving the appearance of being able
to fly below the ocean’s surface. But because they spend so much time at the
water’s surface, they are at high risk of encountering surface oil slicks.
The first step in estimating the consequences of oiling on turrs is to predict the
number of birds affected. This is done through beached bird surveys. Surveyors
routinely walk along beaches collecting bird carcasses. These are examined for
signs of oiling and for evidence of abandoned gillnets. Beached bird surveys
allow researchers to predict annual turr mortality due to oiling, by-catch, and

hunting. One oiled bird washing up on a beach is usually a sign that there are
many others that never made it to shore.
In 2001, a conservative estimate suggested that approximately 200,000 thick-billed turrs are
killed by illegal and chronic dumping of bilge oil along Newfoundland’s south coast.
Combined with the annual hunt, research shows that oiling is reducing the
population growth of Thick-billed Turrs to around one percent per year.
Because of the slow reproductive cycle of turrs, the population as a whole
would take a long time to recover from any sudden decrease in adult numbers—
a potential outcome of a major spill. With large spills in consecutive years,
turr populations could begin to decrease.
Concern over seabird mortality in Canadian waters has led the federal
government to introduce changes to the Migratory Birds Convention Act and
Canadian Environmental Protection Act. The need for these changes became
apparent in 2002 when the Tecum Sea, a Panamanian-owned bulk carrier
was diverted to shore in Newfoundland after being identified as the source
of a 116 kilometre-long oil slick. As oiled birds began to wash ashore near
Cape St. Mary’s, the ship’s owner, captain and chief engineer were charged with
illegal dumping of oil in Canadian waters. Charges were later dropped when
it appeared that the existing Migratory Birds Convention Act might only apply
to a twelve-nautical mile territorial limit. The Tecum Sea was 170 kilometres
off the coast when it was identified and called in to port.
The Tecum Sea got off easy and created the impression that Canadian Justice was
lenient with polluters. Since this incident, the Migratory Birds Convention Act and
the Canadian Environmental Protection Act have been amended under Bill C-15,
which came into effect in 2006. This bill extends the application of the Migratory
Birds Convention Act to the 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone. Ships’
officers and the directors of the owning companies are now held personally
responsible for violations. The legislation also raises fines to a maximum of $1
million, making them comparable to fines imposed by the United States.
Bill C-15 is an important step toward protecting highly vulnerable seabirds

like turrs. Improvements in surveillance include the use of satellite tracking
and state of the art imaging. In spite of these measures, oil pollution is an
ongoing problem. Seabirds will continue to be lost as long as there are owners
and operators of large vessels who are indifferent to the problem, or who
would rather cause environmental degradation and risk major fines instead
of making the small investment of money and time necessary to properly
and safely dispose of bilge wastes.

Figure 16.18: Rescue workers washing an oil soaked bird.
Preventing, Monitoring, and Cleaning Oil Spills

Chronic spills occur in Placentia Bay and along the southern Avalon Peninsula,
often from unknown sources. This problem, along with fear of a major accident,
Newfoundland Offshore
Burn Experiment:
has prompted government to look into oil response preparedness along the south
This experiment was conducted coast. Some people fear it would take too long to deploy containment and clean-up
to evaluate the air emissions of equipment, or that available equipment is of little use in rough seas. The ability of
on-site burning of an oil spill. government and industry to respond to a major accident is constantly under review.
The experiment demonstrated
that no negative health effect The Canadian Coast Guard (CCG), Environment Canada (EC), and Transport
could be experienced beyond
Canada (TC) work together to prevent and monitor oil spills off Newfoundland
500 metres from the fire. On-
site burning therefore holds
and Labrador as well as in other areas of Canada. All three agencies work toward
some promise as a safe and educating vessel operators about the dangers of oil spills and about the
efficient way to remove oil consequences of illegal spills in Canadian waters.
from the marine environment.
In 1998, the CCG, EC, and TC started the Integrated Satellite Tracking of
Polluters (ISTOP) program to help detect pollution and possible polluters. Satellite
images of the ocean surface can reveal dark areas which may be oil. Once an area
is suspected as oil, an aircraft is dispatched to the location to verify that the dark
area on the image is oil. Many illegal bilge dumps occur at night simply because
ship owners illegally dumping their bilge know that oil is difficult to see at night.
Satellite tracking will help overcome this problem.

In the fall of 2006, the TC surveillance aircraft began using the MSS 6000 side
looking radar developed by the Swedish Space Agency. Canada is the first country
to employ this state of the art surveillance equipment. The MSS 6000 will:
• allow for night time operations;
• increase detection area from 2 nautical miles (nmi) on either side

of the aircraft to 25 nmi; and
• increase efficiency while decreasing the cost of the

surveillance operations.
Who is responsible for cleaning oil spills?

It is the vessel owners who are responsible for oil spills from their vessels.
The Canadian Coast Guard takes responsibility for ensuring there is an appropriate
response in place for ship source spills. They also take the lead in addressing
spills of unknown origin.
Mitigation strategies
Preparedness
Preparedness is the key to successful oil spill response. Both government and
industry share responsibility for spill preparedness. The Coast Guard, as Canada’s
lead agency in oil spill response, takes several approaches to preparedness
including contingency planning, exercising (practising), training, and research
and development.
Containment and Clean-up Methods

There are several technologies for dealing with spills. The technology used must be
appropriate to the type of spill, degree of weathering, and ocean and atmospheric
conditions. In some cases, clean-up may not be feasible, while in other cases it can
be carried out rapidly and effectively.
• BOOMS are deployed to surround and contain

spills by creating a barrier along the surface
of the water. Booms can be used offshore or
in harbours to surround vessels and spills.
The choice of a boom type depends on many
factors. Wave height, speed of current, ease of
deployment and handling, buoyancy, and
strength all need to be considered.
Figure 16.19: An oil boom is used to contain a spill.

The major disadvantage of most booms is that they fail to contain oil
when current speeds exceed two knots.
• SKIMMERS remove oil from water. Like booms, the choice of a skimmer
Special concerns during must take into account the location and environment of the spill, as well
a clean-up
as the characteristics of the oil.
Sensitivity maps can help
determine whether there are
special circumstances that
Disadvantages of skimmers include mechanical complexity and difficulty
need to be considered during in transporting them to remote spill sites. They are also expensive to
a clean-up response. For operate and maintain. Another disadvantage of skimmers is that they
instance, aircraft surveillance often remove oily water along with oil. Temporary storage of large volumes
is usually an important part of excess fluids during recovery can be difficult given the limitations of
of an emergency response. available storage space during clean-up.
However, there may be
situations in which use of • BIOLOGICAL REMEDIATION or bioremediation uses nutrients (nitrogen and
aircraft needs to be limited. phosphorus) to accelerate the degradation of oil. Typically, bioremediation
The noise from aircraft is a final step taken after other physical clean-up efforts have removed
engines may be detrimental most of the oil from the shoreline.
to bird rookeries or to
mammal habitat during
Bioremediation can be performed with designer bacteria. (These are
pupping season. Sensitivity
bacteria bred by scientists for their ability to perform a particular task).
maps help determine these
These bacteria are particularly effective at breaking down oil. However,
special needs by compiling
relevant information about
any use of such bacteria must have approval from Environment Canada
the coastal area in question. since the introduction of exotic bacteria may have undesirable
consequences as an invasive species in the local ecosystem.
• DISPERSANTS are chemicals designed to cause oil to form small droplets

that disperse throughout the water column. Under ideal conditions,
dispersants can work quickly to stop oil spills from harming sensitive
areas. However, two drawbacks of dispersants limit their usefulness:
- Dispersants used in the 1960s and 1970s proved to be highly toxic
and caused damage to marine life. Current dispersants are generally
less toxic than many types of oil.
- Without the necessary sea conditions and oil properties,

the use of dispersants is not always effective.
- They require wave action to help break apart the oil slick.
Without wave action, the oil will not disperse. If seas are
too rough, the oil may be submerged and the dispersant
will not come into contact with it.
- They are also not effective with highly viscous oils.

• STEAMING AND MANUAL CLEANUP are labour-intensive and time-consuming
methods of beach cleanup. Steam-cleaning uses steam to remove oil from
boulders, rock, and human-made structures. Manual methods include the
use of rakes and shovels to remove emulsified oil or tar balls from beaches.
This is generally done when oiling is sporadic and does not warrant the
use of heavy machinery. It can be destructive of beach habitat.
Disposal
When spilled oil is collected, either from the sea surface or from the shoreline,
the collected oil is usually mixed with a large quantity of water, debris, and beach
material. Ideally as much of the collected oil as possible should be reprocessed
through an oil refinery or recycling plant. However, this is not possible if the oil
contains physical debris and seawater.
There are a variety of methods available for the disposal of dirty oil. These
include direct disposal in controlled landfill sites; use in land reclamation, use in
road building; incineration; or biological degradation.
The method of disposal depends on a number of factors including the amount

and type of oil and debris collected, the location of the spill, the costs involved
and environmental, legal, or practical limitations. Most jurisdictions establish
pre-approved disposal sites and methods through consultation with municipal,
provincial, and federal governments. Such consultation also includes representation
from native and non-governmental organizations.
1. What are the different sources of oil pollution in Newfoundland

and Labrador?
2. Who is responsible for cleaning up oil spills and what are some
of the strategies used for clean-up?
3. How are sensitive coastal areas identified and mapped?
4. Explain why oil is a problem in the marine environment.
5. Describe the three strategies involved in an oil spill response plan.

PROTECTING OUR MARINE SPACES
Canada’s marine environment is under increasing pressure from many sources.
Sewage and oil pollution, industrial run-off, marine debris, overfishing, habitat
destruction, and climate change all threaten the health of marine life. Maritime
industries like oil and gas exploration and development, mapping, mining, fishing,
aquaculture, and tourism all compete for access to ocean resources.
With so many interests competing for marine resources, stakeholders need a

process to help communicate and cooperate with each other. These competing
interests add to the existing environmental pressures of pollution and habitat
destruction. The federal government passed the Oceans Act in 1997. This act
established Integrated Management, the framework for a new way to manage
marine resources.
The Act also allows for the establishment of a system of Marine Protected Areas
(MPAs). MPAs are established through the Integrated Management framework.
Figure 16.20: Salvage is

the closest community to the
Duck Island Marine Protected
Area. Photo courtesy of Fisheries
and Oceans Canada
Marine Protected Areas

According to Canada’s Oceans Act, a Marine Protected Area (MPA) is “any area
of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora
and fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other
effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment”. In other words,
it is illegal to carry out activities that threaten or harm the plant and animal life
within an MPA.Activities that are forbidden are determined on a site-specific basis,
which means that each MPA can have different designs and rules. For instance, some
types of fishing may be permitted in one but not another, depending on what species
are being protected in a particular area to meet the area’s conservation goals. The
importance of such a conservation measure for recovering stocks is supported by
science and is discussed by stakeholders during the evaluation stage of the MPA

proposal. Fishers often initiate the MPA process, in recognition of the need to
protect the resources that they rely on for their livelihoods.
Components of Canada’s
Marine Protected Areas
Strategy A marine protected area can be established in order to conserve and protect:
MPAs are one of several • commercial and non-commercial fisheries resources,
conservation programs that including marine mammals and their habitats;
form the strategy. The three • endangered or threatened marine species and their habitats;
main programs include: • unique habitats; and
Oceans Act MPAs protect • marine areas of high biodiversity or biological productivity.
and conserve marine habitats,
endangered marine species Canada’s MPA Strategy establishes individual MPAs as part of a wider,
and areas of high biodiversity. interconnected network. While individual MPAs have ecological benefits, a carefully
selected network of MPAs can greatly increase those benefits. For instance, although
Marine Wildlife Areas protect
an MPA may protect an important spawning ground, many marine species are
and conserve habitat for wildlife
migratory. They need multiple habitats for various life stages. These habitats may
including migratory birds and
be far apart and so a network of MPAs at different locations all work together to
endangered species.
support a larger ecosystem.
National Marine Conservation
Areas protect and conserve The MPA strategy is built upon co-operation between government agencies,
representative examples of communities, and industry. The strategy is lead by the federal Department of
natural and cultural marine
Fisheries and Oceans, which is the agency responsible for MPAs designated under
heritage for the education and
the Oceans Act. Other government agencies with responsibility for the MPA strategy
enjoyment of the public.
include the federal departments of Environment, Transport, National Defense, Natural
Additional programs contribute Resources, Indian and Northern Affairs, and Foreign Affairs, and Parks Canada.
to the strategy. These include
Migratory Bird Sanctuaries, What do Marine Protected Areas Mean for Newfoundland and Labrador?
National Wildlife Areas and In Newfoundland and Labrador, three MPAs and one Area of Interest were initiated
National Parks with a marine by local community and fishing-related organizations. By initiating the process to
component.
create MPAs, communities that rely on the fishery are able to play an important
role in directing the stewardship of marine resources.
Gilbert Bay, along the southeast coast of Labrador, has a designated MPA. In
Eastport, there are two adjacent MPAs: one near Duck Island and another near
Round Island. Leading Tickles is currently the only Area of Interest (AOI) in the
province. An AOI is one step in the process of creating an MPA.

ECO SPOTLIGHT:
The Eastport Example
During the 1990s, Eastport lobster fishers

noticed a serious decline in lobster stocks.
They suspected the decline was a result
of increased lobster fishing, after other
fisheries closed.Various lobster conservation
efforts led to the creation of the Eastport
MPA, which is comprised of two sites.
The following order of events illustrates
how the MPA was established at Eastport:
Figure 16.21: Spawning
lobster. Photo courtesy of Fisheries
• Since 1997, the Eastport Peninsula and Oceans Canada
Lobster Protection Committee (EPLPC)
has advocated for the conservation of important lobster habitat near
Round Island and Duck Island.
• The EPLPC approached DFO in 1999 with a proposal for establishing

an MPA in the area. They believed that an MPA designation would help
their efforts to conserve lobster stocks and sustain a stable fishery.
• In 2000, DFO designated the two sites at Eastport as AOIs. DFO

biologists began screening the proposal according to the national
framework for the establishment of MPAs.
• In 2002, a steering committee led by DFO and EPLPC members

began the evaluation and recommendation process. Ecological,
technical, and socio-economic assessments of the proposed MPA
began. Consultations were also started with local stakeholders.
• The final drafting of legislation for the proposed MPA was done by
the Department of Justice Canada, with close input from DFO. The
Eastport sites qualified for MPA status for several reasons:
- They provide habitat for commercial species
such as lobster.
- They provide habitat for wolffish, which is an
endangered species.
- They display high biological productivity.
- They contribute to a national network of MPAs.

On October 11, 2005, the legislation was completed and the Eastport MPA
was established. The Gilbert Bay MPA in Labrador was also established at
the same time.
No marine organism can be removed from the Eastport MPA. This is not
the case in all MPAs; in Gilbert Bay some recreational and commercial fishing
is permitted. Also, no dumping, discharge, or any activity that will disturb the
ecology of the MPA is permitted. Some monitoring and educational activities
are permitted with approval from DFO.
Benefits of the Eastport MPA

• Protects the breeding habitats of an important species, lobster.
• Enhances the sustainability of lobster, which in turn provides long term

benefits to the local fishery and to those affected by the fishery.
• Brings greater recognition of the region’s ecology to scientists, fishers,

tourists, and the general public.
• Increases access to funds for carrying out other research in the area,
bringing economic benefits to the Eastport area.
• Creates opportunities and economic benefits for surrounding

communities.
1. What are Marine Protected Areas? Why are they important?

2. Besides Marine Protected Areas, what other components make
up Canada’s Marine Protected Areas Strategy?
3. Where are there Marine Protected Areas in Newfoundland
and Labrador and why are they important?

4. How do Marine Protected Areas fit within Integrated Management?
5. Is the formation of Marine Protected Areas an effective strategy
for protecting our marine resources? Explain your reasoning.

Summary
Water is essential for all life on the planet. In fact, it was a water “soup” from which
the earliest life forms on this planet arose. Because of the shear volumes of water,
and in some cases that sense that it is an infinite resource, we have tended to use
our oceans, lakes, and rivers as a place to hide the stuff we don’t like. Garbage,
wastes, and waste waters have always been flushed into the waters. But now we are
seeing clear evidence that water in not an infinite resource. Unequally distributed
around the plant, many have none and others too much. With the application of
environmental sciences and new technologies, proper management, and respect for
resources, we can ensure that our water resources will be here for the enjoyment of
our children and the children of the future.

Unit 4: For Further Reading
Trends in Canada’s Environment

Environment Canada has released the fourth annual results of the Canadian
Environmental Sustainability Indicators (CESI) Initiative. The CESI initiative
provides indicators on three issues of concern: air quality, water quality and
greenhouse gas emissions. http://www.ec.gc.ca/indicateurs-indicators.
Ocean Debris and Coastal Cleanups

The Ocean Conservancy report entitled “A Rising Tide of Ocean Debris and
What We Can Do About It” documents the types and sources of debris and its
impact on wildlife and connection to global climate change. It also includes
recommendations for eliminating marine debris.
http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/PageServer?pagename=icc_report.
The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (2009). Canada-wide

strategy for the management of municipal wastewater effluent. The strategy
articulates the collective agreement reached by the 14 ministers of the
environment in Canada to ensure regulatory clarity in managing municipal
wastewater effluent under a harmonized framework. http://www.ccme.ca
/ourwork/water.html?category_id=81.
Establishing Resilient Marine Protected Area Networks - Making It Happen

This guide reviews the role of MPAs and MPA networks at local and regional
scales to achieve marine conservation. It utilizes current scientific knowledge,
institutional experience, and global case studies to outline the latest
information pertaining to building resilient and functional MPA networks.
http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/mpanetworksmakingithappen_en.pdf.
Natural Resources Canada (2005). Freshwater: the role and contribution of Natural
Resources Canada. Retrieved March 18, 2009, from http://www.nrcan-
rncan.gc.ca/sd-dd/pubs/h2o/pdf/freshwater.pdf.
Department of Environment and Conservation, Water Quality Resources Division,

Government of Newfoundland and Labrador (n.d.). Canadian Water Quality Index
(CWQI). Retrieved March 18, 2009, from http://www.env.gov.nl.ca
/env/Env/waterres/WQMA/WQI/CanadianWQI.asp.
Department of Environment and Conservation (2008). Strategic plan 2008-2011.

Retrieved April 9, 2009, from www.assembly.nl.ca/business/tabled/envirocon
_strategic08-11.pdf.

Water Use and The Environment

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Water Use and

Did You Know? WATER’S FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE

Fresh Water Resources 441

Polarity explains many of water’s properties such as

What Monitoring Reveals

The Freshwater/Saltwater Link

Fresh Water Resources 443

sample concentrations: Precipitation

*This is an average figure. The concentration

• Water is nearly pure in its

How does water clean itself?

444 Unit 4 • Chapter 13

Wetlands help remove impurities as well. The plants typically in wetland

The process of sunlight radiation can kill some bacteria in water—

How long is groundwater in the ground?

Fresh Water Resources 445

Litres of water used for various daily activities

Litres of water 0 50 100 150 200 250

446 Unit 4 • Chapter 13

How much water is needed to make a car?

Data Source: Environment Canada

The Demand for Water: Industry

Fresh Water Resources 447

“Should water be considered a “vital resource” (like air) that

In the fall of 1999, the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador passed

448 Unit 4 • Chapter 13

Pressure on Water Resources: Pollution and Contamination

Whatever and wherever its source, the degrading of water quality

These combined pressures, plus demand for water and decreasing

Figure 13.8: Sewage outfall.

Fresh Water Resources 449

Figure 13.9: Water running

450 Unit 4 • Chapter 13

Watersheds and Water Management

Watershed management is an innovative, holistic planning

Fresh Water Resources 451

Water is the main physical component of all aquatic habitats.

452 Unit 4 • Chapter 13

and variable amounts of nutrients in the soil/water;

Figure 13.12: Types of wetland. Photos courtesy K. Slaney

Fresh Water Resources 453

454 Unit 4 • Chapter 13

Fens differ from bogs in two main ways:

Fresh Water Resources 455

The volume and speed of water plus the timing of its

Figure 13.15: Flashy River Water Levels. This graph of

456 Unit 4 • Chapter 13

Figure 13.16: View of a pond/lake, Penguin Arm, Bay of Islands, Newfoundland.

Fresh Water Resources 457

In this activity, you will investigate the process of photosynthesis in an

1. What is a watershed? Can you determine the name of the watershed

For Further Discussion and/or Research

Fresh Water Resources 459

The Government of Canada has produced science-based guidelines that outline

• Drinking water—which define safe levels for more than eighty-five

The CCME Water Quality Index

460 Unit 4 • Chapter 13

• Excellent (Value 95-100): Water quality

• Good (Value 80-94): Water quality is Ambient Water Quality

What can I see at a hydrometric station?

Fresh Water Resources 461

This information provides an essential, baseline water-quality assessment of