Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci (English: /ˌliːəˈnɑːrdoʊ də ˈvɪntʃi, ˌliːoʊˈ-,

Leonardo da Vinci
ˌleɪoʊˈ-/;[a] 14/15 April 1452[b] – 2 May 1519) was an Italian
polymath of the High Renaissance who is widely considered one of
the most diversely talented individuals ever to have lived.[4] While his
fame initially rested on his achievements as a painter, he also became
known for his notebooks, in which he made drawings and notes on
science and invention; these involve a variety of subjects including
anatomy, astronomy, botany, cartography, painting, and
palaeontology. Leonardo's genius epitomized the Renaissance
humanist idea,[5] and his collective works compose a contribution to
later generations of artists rivalled only by that of his contemporary
Michelangelo.[6]

Leonardo was born out of wedlock to a notary, Piero da Vinci, and a

peasant woman, Caterina, in Vinci, in the region of Florence, Italy.
Leonardo was educated in the studio of the renowned Italian painter
Andrea del Verrocchio. Much of his earlier working life was spent in
the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan, and he later worked in
Rome, Bologna and Venice. He spent his last three years in France, Portrait attributed to Francesco
where he died in 1519.
Melzi, c. 1515–18[1]
Although he had no formal academic training,[7] many historians and Born Leonardo di ser
scholars regard Leonardo as the prime exemplar of the "Renaissance Piero da Vinci[2]
Man" or "Universal Genius", an individual of "unquenchable 14/15 April 1452
curiosity" and "feverishly inventive imagination."[8] According to art Anchiano, Vinci,
historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were Republic of
without precedent in recorded history, and "his mind and personality
Florence (present-
seem to us superhuman, while the man himself mysterious and
day Italy)
remote."[8] Scholars interpret his view of the world as being based in
logic, though the empirical methods he used were unorthodox for his Died 2 May 1519
time.[9] (aged 67)
Clos Lucé,
Leonardo is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time. Amboise, Kingdom
Mona Lisa is the most famous of his works and the most famous
of France
portrait ever made.[10] The Last Supper is the most reproduced
religious painting of all time[8] and his Vitruvian Man drawing is also Known for Painting, drawing,
regarded as a cultural icon.[11] In 2017, Salvator Mundi was sold at sculpting, science,
auction for $450.3 million, setting a new record for most expensive engineering,
painting ever sold at public auction.[12] architecture,
anatomy
Leonardo is also revered for his technological ingenuity. He
Notable work Virgin of the Rocks
conceptualized flying machines, a type of armored fighting vehicle,
concentrated solar power, an adding machine,[13] and the double hull. (c. 1483–1493)
Relatively few of his designs were constructed or even feasible during Lady with an
his lifetime, as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and Ermine
engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance. Some (c. 1489–1491)
of his smaller inventions, however, entered the world of The Vitruvian Man
manufacturing unheralded, such as an automated bobbin winder and a (c. 1490)
machine for testing the tensile strength of wire. He is also sometimes
The Last Supper
credited with the inventions of the parachute, helicopter, and
(c. 1492–1498)
tank.[14][15] He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil
engineering, geology, optics, tribology, and hydrodynamics, but he Salvator Mundi
did not publish his findings and they had little to no direct influence (c. 1499–1510)
on subsequent science.[16] Mona Lisa
(c. 1503–1516)
Movement High Renaissance
Contents Signature
Biography
Early life
Verrocchio's workshop
Professional life
Old age and death
Personal life
Painting
Early works
Paintings of the 1480s
Paintings of the 1490s
Paintings of the 16th century
Drawings
Journals and notes
Scientific studies
Anatomy and physiology
Engineering and inventions
Legacy
Location of remains
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links

Biography

Early life

Properly named Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci,[c] Leonardo was born on 14/15 April 1452[b] in the Tuscan
hill town of Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno river in the territory of the Medici-ruled Republic of
Florence.[19] He was the out-of-wedlock son of Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a wealthy
Florentine legal notary, and a peasant named Caterina,[d] identified as
Caterina Buti del Vacca and more recently as Caterina di Meo Lippi
by historian Martin Kemp. There have been many theories regarding
Leonardo's mother's identity, including that she was a slave of foreign
origin or an impoverished local youth.[18][21][22][23][e] Leonardo had
no surname in the modern sense—da Vinci simply meaning "of
Vinci"; his full birth name was Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci,[2][26]
Leonardo's childhood home in
meaning "Leonardo, (son) of ser Piero (from) Vinci."[19][c]
Anchiano, Vinci, Italy
Leonardo spent his first years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the home
of his mother, and from at least 1457 lived in the household of his
father, grandparents and uncle in the small town of Vinci.[27] His father had married a 16-year-old girl named
Albiera Amadori, who loved Leonardo but died young[28] in 1465 without children. In 1468, when Leonardo
was 16, his father married again to 20-year-old Francesca Lanfredini, who also died without children. Piero's
legitimate heirs were born from his third wife Margherita di Guglielmo, who gave birth to six children, and his
fourth and final wife, Lucrezia Cortigiani, who bore him another six heirs.[29][30] In all, Leonardo had 12 half-
siblings, who were much younger than he was (the last was born when Leonardo was 40 years old) and with
whom he had very little contact.[f]

Leonardo received an informal education in Latin, geometry and mathematics. In later life, Leonardo recorded
a few distinct childhood incidents. One was of a kite coming to his cradle and opening his mouth with its tail;
he regarded this as an omen of his writing on the subject.[32][33] The second occurred while he was exploring
in the mountains: he discovered a cave and was both terrified that some great monster might lurk there and
driven by curiosity to find out what was inside.[28] He also seems to have remembered some of his childhood
observations of water, writing and crossing out the name of his hometown in one of his notebooks on the
formation of rivers.[27]

Leonardo's early life has been the subject of historical conjecture.[34] Giorgio Vasari, the 16th-century
biographer of Renaissance painters, tells a story of Leonardo as a very young man: A local peasant made
himself a round shield and requested that Ser Piero have it painted for him. Leonardo, inspired by the story of
Medusa, responded with a painting of a monster spitting fire that was so terrifying that his father bought a
different shield to give to the peasant and sold Leonardo's to a Florentine art dealer for 100 ducats, who in turn
sold it to the Duke of Milan.[35]

Verrocchio's workshop

In the mid-1460s, Leonardo's family moved to Florence, which at the

time was the centre of Christian Humanist thought and culture.[37]
Around the age of 14,[31] he became a garzone (studio boy) in the
workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio, who was the leading Florentine
painter and sculptor of his time.[37] This was about the time of the
death of Verrocchio's master, the great sculptor Donatello.[g]
Leonardo became an apprentice by the age of 17 and remained in
training for seven years.[39][40] Other famous painters apprenticed in
Landscape of the Arno Valley (1473),
the workshop or associated with it include Ghirlandaio, Perugino,
probably the first true landscape in
Botticelli, and Lorenzo di Credi.[28][41] Leonardo was exposed to
art[36]
both theoretical training and a wide range of technical skills,[42]
including drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster
casting, leather working, mechanics, and wood-work, as well as the
artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting, and modelling.[43][h]
Leonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli, Ghirlandaio and Perugino,
who were all slightly older than he was.[44] He would have met them at
the workshop of Verrocchio or at the Platonic Academy of the Medici.[28]
Florence was ornamented by the works of artists such as Donatello's
contemporaries Masaccio, whose figurative frescoes were imbued with
realism and emotion, and Ghiberti, whose Gates of Paradise, gleaming
with gold leaf, displayed the art of combining complex figure
compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds. Piero della
Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective,[45] and was the first
painter to make a scientific study of light. These studies and Leon Battista
Alberti's treatise De pictura were to have a profound effect on younger
artists and in particular on Leonardo's own observations and
artworks.[38][46][47]
The Baptism of Christ (1472–
Much of the painting in Verrocchio's workshop was done by his assistants. 1475) by Verrocchio and
According to Vasari, Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his The Leonardo, Uffizi Gallery
Baptism of Christ, painting the young angel holding Jesus' robe in a
manner that was so far superior to his master's that Verrocchio put down
his brush and never painted again, although this is believed to be an apocryphal story.[48] Close examination
reveals areas of the work that have been painted or touched-up over the tempera, using the new technique of
oil paint, including the landscape, the rocks seen through the brown mountain stream, and much of the figure
of Jesus, bearing witness to the hand of Leonardo.[49] Leonardo may have been the model for two works by
Verrocchio: the bronze statue of David in the Bargello, and the Archangel Raphael in Tobias and the
Angel.[21]

By 1472, at the age of 20, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of Saint Luke, the guild of artists and
doctors of medicine,[i] but even after his father set him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Verrocchio
was such that he continued to collaborate and live with him.[28][50] Leonardo's earliest known dated work is a
1473 pen-and-ink drawing of the Arno valley,[41] which has been cited as the first "pure" landscape in the
Occident.[j][36] According to Vasari, the young Leonardo was the first to suggest making the Arno river a
navigable channel between Florence and Pisa.[51]

Professional life

In January 1478, Leonardo received an independent commission to paint an

altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in the Palazzo Vecchio,[52] an
indication of his independence from Verrocchio's studio. An anonymous early
biographer, known as Anonimo Gaddiano, claims that in 1480 Leonardo was
living with the Medici and often worked in the garden of the Piazza San
Marco, Florence, where a Neoplatonic academy of artists, poets and
philosophers organized by the Medici met.[21][k] In March 1481, he received
a commission from the monks of San Donato in Scopeto for The Adoration of
the Magi.[53] Neither of these initial commissions were completed, being
abandoned when Leonardo went to offer his services to Duke of Milan
Ludovico Sforza. Leonardo wrote Sforza a letter which described the diverse
things that he could achieve in the fields of engineering and weapon design,
and mentioned that he could paint.[41][54][55] He brought with him a silver Virgin of the Rocks,
string instrument (either a lute or lyre) in the form of a horse's head.[54] c. 1483–1493,[d 1] Louvre
version
With Alberti, Leonardo visited the home of the Medici and through them came to know the older Humanist
philosophers of whom Marsiglio Ficino, proponent of Neo Platonism; Cristoforo Landino, writer of
commentaries on Classical writings, and John Argyropoulos, teacher of Greek and translator of Aristotle were
the foremost. Also associated with the Platonic Academy of the Medici was Leonardo's contemporary, the
brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola.[44][47][56] In 1482, Leonardo was sent as an
ambassador by Lorenzo de' Medici to Ludovico il Moro, who ruled Milan between 1479 and 1499.[44][21][57]

Leonardo worked in Milan from 1482 until 1499. He was commissioned to paint the Virgin of the Rocks for
the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception and The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle
Grazie.[58] In the spring of 1485, Leonardo travelled to Hungary on behalf of Sforza to meet king Matthias
Corvinus, and was commissioned by him to paint a Madonna.[59] Leonardo was employed on many other
projects for Sforza, including the preparation of floats and pageants for special occasions, a drawing and
wooden model for a competition to design the cupola for Milan Cathedral (which he withdrew),[60] and a
model for a huge equestrian monument to Ludovico's predecessor Francesco Sforza. This would have
surpassed in size the only two large equestrian statues of the Renaissance, Donatello's Gattamelata in Padua
and Verrocchio's Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, and became known as the Gran Cavallo.[41] Leonardo
completed a model for the horse and made detailed plans for its casting,[41] but in November 1494, Ludovico
gave the bronze to his brother-in-law to be used for a cannon to defend the city from Charles VIII of
France.[41]

Salaì, or Il Salaino ("The Little Unclean One," i.e., the devil), entered
Leonardo's household in 1490 as an assistant. After only a year, Leonardo
made a list of his misdemeanours, calling him "a thief, a liar, stubborn, and a
glutton," after he had made off with money and valuables on at least five
occasions and spent a fortune on clothes.[62] Nevertheless, Leonardo treated
him with great indulgence, and he remained in Leonardo's household for the
next thirty years.[63] Salaì executed a number of paintings under the name of
Andrea Salaì, but although Vasari claims that Leonardo "taught him a great
deal about painting,"[64] his work is generally considered to be of less artistic
merit than others among Leonardo's pupils, such as Marco d'Oggiono and
Boltraffio.

When Ludovico Sforza was overthrown by France in 1500, Leonardo fled

Leonardo's horse in Milan for Venice, accompanied by his assistant Salaì and friend, the
silverpoint, c. 1488[61] mathematician Luca Pacioli.[65] In Venice, Leonardo was employed as a
military architect and engineer, devising methods to defend the city from naval
attack.[28] On his return to Florence in 1500, he and his household were
guests of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata and were provided with a workshop
where, according to Vasari, Leonardo created the cartoon of The Virgin and Child with St Anne and St John
the Baptist, a work that won such admiration that "men and women, young and old" flocked to see it "as if
they were attending a great festival."[66][l]

In Cesena in 1502, Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as a
military architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with his patron.[65] Leonardo created a map of
Cesare Borgia's stronghold, a town plan of Imola in order to win his patronage. Upon seeing it, Cesare hired
Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect. Later in the year, Leonardo produced another map for his
patron, one of Chiana Valley, Tuscany, so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic
position. He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to
Florence, in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons.
Leonardo had left Borgia's service and returned to Florence by early
1503,[68] where he rejoined the Guild of Saint Luke on 18 October of
that year. By this same month, Leonardo had begun working on a
portrait of Lisa del Giocondo, the model for the Mona Lisa,[69][70]
which he would continue working on until his twilight years. In
January 1504, he was part of a committee formed to recommend
where Michelangelo's statue of David should be placed.[71] He then
spent two years in Florence designing and painting a mural of The
Battle of Anghiari for the Signoria,[65] with Michelangelo designing
its companion piece, The Battle of Cascina.[m] Leonardo's map of Imola, created for
Cesare Borgia
In 1506, Leonardo was summoned to Milan by Charles II d'Amboise,
the acting French governor of the city.[74] There, Leonardo took on
another pupil, Count Francesco Melzi, the son of a Lombard aristocrat, who is considered to have been his
favourite student.[28] The Council of Florence wished Leonardo to return promptly to finish The Battle of
Anghiari, but he was given leave at the behest of Louis XII, who considered commissioning the artist to make
some portraits.[74] Leonardo may have commenced a project for an equestrian figure of d'Amboise;[75] a wax
model survives and, if genuine, is the only extant example of Leonardo's sculpture. Leonardo was otherwise
free to pursue his scientific interests.[74] Many of Leonardo's most prominent pupils either knew or worked
with him in Milan,[28] including Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio, and Marco d'Oggiono. In
1507, Leonardo was in Florence sorting out a dispute with his brothers over the estate of his father, who had
died in 1504. By 1508, Leonardo was back in Milan, living in his own house in Porta Orientale in the parish
of Santa Babila.[76]

Old age and death

In 1512, Leonardo was working on plans for an equestrian monument

for Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, but this was prevented by an invasion of
a confederation of Swiss, Spanish and Venetian forces, which drove
the French from Milan. Leonardo stayed in the city, spending several
months in 1513 at the Medici's Vaprio d'Adda villa.[78] In March of
that year, Lorenzo de' Medici's son Giovanni assumed the papacy (as
Leo X); Leonardo went to Rome that September, where he was
received by the pope's brother Giuliano.[78] From September 1513 to
1516, Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere
An apocalyptic deluge drawn in black Courtyard in the Apostolic Palace, where Michelangelo and Raphael
chalk by Leonardo near the end of were both active.[76] Leonardo was given an allowance of 33 ducats a
his life (part of a series of 10, paired month, and according to Vasari, decorated a lizard with scales dipped
with written description in his in quicksilver.[79] The pope gave him a painting commission of
notebooks)[77] unknown subject matter, but cancelled it when the artist set about
developing a new kind of varnish.[79][n] Leonardo became ill, in what
may have been the first of multiple strokes leading to his death.[79] He
practiced botany in the Gardens of Vatican City, and was commissioned to make plans for the pope's proposed
draining of the Pontine Marshes.[80] He also dissected cadavers, making notes for a treatise on vocal cords;[81]
these he gave to an official in hopes of regaining the pope's favor, but was unsuccessful.[79]

In October 1515, King Francis I of France recaptured Milan.[53] Leonardo was present at the 19 December
meeting of Francis I and Leo X, which took place in Bologna.[28][82][83] In 1516, Leonardo entered Francis'
service, being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé, near the king's residence at the royal Château
d'Amboise. Being frequently visited by Francis, he drew plans for an immense castle town the king intended
to erect at Romorantin, and made a mechanical lion, which during a pageant walked toward the king and—
upon being struck by a wand—opened its chest to reveal a cluster of lilies.[84][64][o] Leonardo was
accompanied during this time by his friend and apprentice Francesco Melzi, and supported by a pension
totalling 10,000 scudi.[76] At some point, Melzi drew a portrait of Leonardo; the only others known from his
lifetime were a sketch by an unknown assistant on the back of one of Leonardo's studies (c. 1517)[86] and a
drawing by Giovanni Ambrogio Figino depicting an elderly Leonardo with his right arm assuaged by
cloth.[87][p][q] The latter, in addition to the record of an October 1517 visit by Louis d'Aragon,[r] confirms an
account of Leonardo's right hand being paralytic at the age of 65,[90] which may indicate why he left works
such as the Mona Lisa unfinished.[88][91][92] He continued to work at some capacity until eventually
becoming ill and bedridden for several months.[90]

Leonardo died at Clos Lucé on 2 May 1519 at the age of 67, possibly
of a stroke.[93][92][94] Francis I had become a close friend. Vasari
describes Leonardo as lamenting on his deathbed, full of repentance,
that "he had offended against God and men by failing to practice his
art as he should have done."[95] Vasari states that in his last days,
Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to receive the
Holy Sacrament.[96] Vasari also records that the king held Leonardo's Drawing of the Château d'Amboise
head in his arms as he died, although this story may be legend rather (c. 1518) attributed to Francesco
than fact.[s][t] In accordance with his will, sixty beggars carrying Melzi
tapers followed Leonardo's casket.[56][u] Melzi was the principal heir
and executor, receiving, as well as money, Leonardo's paintings, tools,
library and personal effects. Leonardo's other long-time pupil and companion, Salaì, and his servant Baptista
de Vilanis, each received half of Leonardo's vineyards.[98] His brothers received land, and his serving woman
received a fur-lined cloak. On 12 August 1519, Leonardo's remains were interred in the Collegiate Church of
Saint Florentin at the Château d'Amboise.[99]

Salaì owned the Mona Lisa at the time of his death in 1524, and in his will it was assessed at 505 lire, an
exceptionally high valuation for a small panel portrait.[100] Some 20 years after Leonardo's death, Francis was
reported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini as saying: "There had never been another man born
in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that
he was a very great philosopher."[101]

Personal life
Within Leonardo's lifetime, his extraordinary powers of invention, his
"outstanding physical beauty," "infinite grace," "great strength and
generosity," "regal spirit and tremendous breadth of mind," as described by
Vasari,[102] as well as all other aspects of his life, attracted the curiosity of
others. One such aspect was his love for animals, likely including
vegetarianism and according to Vasari, a habit of purchasing caged birds and
releasing them.[103][104]

Leonardo had many friends who are now renowned either in their fields or for
their historical significance. They included the mathematician Luca
Pacioli,[105] with whom he collaborated on the book Divina proportione in
the 1490s. Leonardo appears to have had no close relationships with women
Saint John the Baptist except for his friendship with Cecilia Gallerani and the two Este sisters,
c. 1507–1516,[d 2] Louvre. Beatrice and Isabella.[106] While on a journey that took him through Mantua,
Leonardo is thought to have he drew a portrait of Isabella that appears to have been used to create a
used Salaì as the model.
painted portrait, now lost.[28]
Beyond friendship, Leonardo kept his private life secret. His sexuality has been the subject of satire, analysis,
and speculation. This trend began in the mid-16th century and was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries,
most notably by Sigmund Freud in his Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood.[107] Leonardo's most
intimate relationships were perhaps with his pupils Salaì and Melzi. Melzi, writing to inform Leonardo's
brothers of his death, described Leonardo's feelings for his pupils as both loving and passionate. It has been
claimed since the 16th century that these relationships were of a sexual or erotic nature. Court records of 1476,
when he was aged twenty-four, show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy in
an incident involving a well-known male prostitute. The charges were dismissed for lack of evidence, and
there is speculation that since one of the accused, Lionardo de Tornabuoni, was related to Lorenzo de' Medici,
the family exerted its influence to secure the dismissal.[108] Since that date much has been written about his
presumed homosexuality and its role in his art, particularly in the androgyny and eroticism manifested in Saint
John the Baptist and Bacchus and more explicitly in a number of erotic drawings.[109]

Painting
Despite the recent awareness and admiration of Leonardo as a scientist and inventor, for the better part of four
hundred years his fame rested on his achievements as a painter. A handful of works that are either
authenticated or attributed to him have been regarded as among the great masterpieces. These paintings are
famous for a variety of qualities that have been much imitated by students and discussed at great length by
connoisseurs and critics. By the 1490s Leonardo had already been described as a "Divine" painter.[110]

Among the qualities that make Leonardo's work unique are his innovative techniques for laying on the paint;
his detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, botany and geology; his interest in physiognomy and the way
humans register emotion in expression and gesture; his innovative use of the human form in figurative
composition; and his use of subtle gradation of tone. All these qualities come together in his most famous
painted works, the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper, and the Virgin of the Rocks.[111]

Early works

Leonardo first gained attention for his work on the

Baptism of Christ, painted in conjunction with Verrocchio.
Two other paintings appear to date from his time at
Verrocchio's workshop, both of which are Annunciations.
One is small, 59 centimetres (23 in) long and
14 centimetres (5.5 in) high. It is a "predella" to go at the
base of a larger composition, a painting by Lorenzo di
Credi from which it has become separated. The other is a Annunciation c. 1472–1476,[d 3] Uffizi, is thought
much larger work, 217 centimetres (85 in) long.[112] In to be Leonardo's earliest complete work
both Annunciations, Leonardo used a formal arrangement,
like two well-known pictures by Fra Angelico of the same
subject, of the Virgin Mary sitting or kneeling to the right of the picture, approached from the left by an angel
in profile, with a rich flowing garment, raised wings and bearing a lily. Although previously attributed to
Ghirlandaio, the larger work is now generally attributed to Leonardo.[57]

In the smaller painting, Mary averts her eyes and folds her hands in a gesture that symbolised submission to
God's will. Mary is not submissive, however, in the larger piece. The girl, interrupted in her reading by this
unexpected messenger, puts a finger in her bible to mark the place and raises her hand in a formal gesture of
greeting or surprise.[38] This calm young woman appears to accept her role as the Mother of God, not with
resignation but with confidence. In this painting, the young Leonardo presents the humanist face of the Virgin
Mary, recognising humanity's role in God's incarnation.
Paintings of the 1480s

In the 1480s, Leonardo received two very important commissions and

commenced another work that was of ground-breaking importance in
terms of composition. Two of the three were never finished, and the
third took so long that it was subject to lengthy negotiations over
completion and payment.

One of these paintings was Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, which

Bortolon associates with a difficult period of Leonardo's life, as
evidenced in his diary: "I thought I was learning to live; I was only
learning to die."[28] Although the painting is barely begun, the
composition can be seen and is very unusual.[v] Jerome, as a penitent,
occupies the middle of the picture, set on a slight diagonal and viewed
somewhat from above. His kneeling form takes on a trapezoid shape,
with one arm stretched to the outer edge of the painting and his gaze
looking in the opposite direction. J. Wasserman points out the link
Unfinished painting of Saint Jerome between this painting and Leonardo's anatomical studies.[113] Across
in the Wilderness c. 1480–1490,[d 4] the foreground sprawls his symbol, a great lion whose body and tail
Vatican make a double spiral across the base of the picture space. The other
remarkable feature is the sketchy landscape of craggy rocks against
which the figure is silhouetted.

The daring display of figure composition, the landscape elements and personal drama also appear in the great
unfinished masterpiece, the Adoration of the Magi, a commission from the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. It
is a complex composition, of about 250 x 250 centimetres. Leonardo did numerous drawings and preparatory
studies, including a detailed one in linear perspective of the ruined classical architecture that forms part of the
background. In 1482 Leonardo went to Milan at the behest of Lorenzo de' Medici in order to win favour with
Ludovico il Moro, and the painting was abandoned.[21][57]

The third important work of this period is the Virgin of the Rocks,
commissioned in Milan for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception.
The painting, to be done with the assistance of the de Predis brothers, was to
fill a large complex altarpiece.[114] Leonardo chose to paint an apocryphal
moment of the infancy of Christ when the infant John the Baptist, in
protection of an angel, met the Holy Family on the road to Egypt. The
painting demonstrates an eerie beauty as the graceful figures kneel in
adoration around the infant Christ in a wild landscape of tumbling rock and
whirling water.[115] While the painting is quite large, about
200×120 centimetres, it is not nearly as complex as the painting ordered by
the monks of St Donato, having only four figures rather than about fifty and a
rocky landscape rather than architectural details. The painting was eventually
finished; in fact, two versions of the painting were finished: one remained at
the chapel of the Confraternity, while Leonardo took the other to France. The Lady with an Ermine,
Brothers did not get their painting, however, nor the de Predis their payment, c. 1489–1491,[d 5]
Czartoryski Museum,
until the next century.[41][65]
Kraków, Poland
Leonardo's most remarkable portrait of this period is the Lady with an
Ermine, presumed to be Cecilia Gallerani (c. 1483–1490), lover of Ludovico
Sforza.[116][117] The painting is characterised by the pose of the figure with the head turned at a very different
angle to the torso, unusual at a date when many portraits were still rigidly in profile. The ermine plainly carries
symbolic meaning, relating either to the sitter, or to Ludovico who belonged to the prestigious Order of the
Ermine.[116]

Paintings of the 1490s

Leonardo's most famous painting of the 1490s is

The Last Supper, commissioned for the refectory of
the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. It
represents the last meal shared by Jesus with his
disciples before his capture and death, and shows
the moment when Jesus has just said "one of you
will betray me", and the consternation that this
statement caused.[41]

The writer Matteo Bandello observed Leonardo at

The Last Supper,[d 6] Convent of Santa Maria delle work and wrote that some days he would paint from
Grazie, Milan, Italy (c. 1492–1498) dawn till dusk without stopping to eat and then not
paint for three or four days at a time.[118] This was
beyond the comprehension of the prior of the
convent, who hounded him until Leonardo asked Ludovico to intervene. Vasari describes how Leonardo,
troubled over his ability to adequately depict the faces of Christ and the traitor Judas, told the Duke that he
might be obliged to use the prior as his model.[119]

When finished, the painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design and characterization,[120] but it
deteriorated rapidly, so that within a hundred years it was described by one viewer as "completely
ruined."[121] Leonardo, instead of using the reliable technique of fresco, had used tempera over a ground that
was mainly gesso, resulting in a surface subject to mould and to flaking.[122] Despite this, the painting remains
one of the most reproduced works of art; countless copies have been made in various mediums.

It is recorded that in 1492, Leonardo, with assistants painted the Sala delle Asse in the Sforza Castle in Milan,
with a trompe-l'œil depicting trees, with an intricate labyrinth of leaves and knots on the ceiling.[123]

Paintings of the 16th century

In 1505 Leonardo was commissioned to paint The Battle of Anghiari in the Salone dei Cinquecento (Hall of
the Five Hundred) in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Leonardo devised a dynamic composition depicting four
men riding raging war horses engaged in a battle for possession of a standard, at the Battle of Anghiari in
1440. Michelangelo was assigned the opposite wall to depict the Battle of Cascina. Leonardo's painting
deteriorated rapidly and is now known from a copy by Rubens.[124]

Among the works created by Leonardo in the 16th century is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa or La
Gioconda, the laughing one. In the present era, it is arguably the most famous painting in the world. Its fame
rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman's face, its mysterious quality perhaps due to the subtly
shadowed corners of the mouth and eyes such that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. The
shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called "sfumato," or Leonardo's smoke. Vasari,
who is generally thought to have known the painting only by repute, said that "the smile was so pleasing that it
seemed divine rather than human; and those who saw it were amazed to find that it was as alive as the
original."[125][w]
Other characteristics of the painting are the unadorned dress, in which the
eyes and hands have no competition from other details; the dramatic
landscape background, in which the world seems to be in a state of flux; the
subdued colouring; and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly
technique, employing oils laid on much like tempera, and blended on the
surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable.[x] Vasari expressed the
opinion that the manner of painting would make even "the most confident
master...despair and lose heart."[128] The perfect state of preservation and the
fact that there is no sign of repair or overpainting is rare in a panel painting of
this date.[129]

In the painting Virgin and Child with St. Anne, the composition again picks up
the theme of figures in a landscape, which Wasserman describes as
"breathtakingly beautiful"[130] and harkens back to the St Jerome picture with
the figure set at an oblique angle. What makes this painting unusual is that Mona Lisa or La Gioconda
there are two obliquely set figures superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee c. 1503–1516,[d 7] Louvre,
of her mother, St Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he Paris
plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice.[41] This
painting, which was copied many times, influenced Michelangelo, Raphael,
and Andrea del Sarto,[131] and through them Pontormo and Correggio. The trends in composition were
adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese.

Drawings
Leonardo was a prolific draughtsman, keeping journals full of small sketches
and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that took his attention.
As well as the journals there exist many studies for paintings, some of which
can be identified as preparatory to particular works such as The Adoration of
the Magi, The Virgin of the Rocks and The Last Supper.[132] His earliest dated
drawing is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the
mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great
detail.[28][132][y] According to art historian Ludwig Heydenreich, this is "The
first true landscape in art."[133] Massimo Polidoro says that it was the first
landscape "not to be the background of some religious scene or a portrait. It is
the first [documented] time where a landscape was drawn just for the sake of
it."[36]

Among his famous drawings are the Vitruvian Man, a study of the proportions
Presumed self-portrait of of the human body; the Head of an Angel, for The Virgin of the Rocks in the
Leonardo (c. 1510) at the Louvre; a botanical study of Star of Bethlehem; and a large drawing
Royal Library of Turin, Italy. (160×100 cm) in black chalk on coloured paper of The Virgin and Child with
St. Anne and St. John the Baptist in the National Gallery, London.[132] This
drawing employs the subtle sfumato technique of shading, in the manner of
the Mona Lisa. It is thought that Leonardo never made a painting from it, the closest similarity being to The
Virgin and Child with St. Anne in the Louvre.[134]

Other drawings of interest include numerous studies generally referred to as "caricatures" because, although
exaggerated, they appear to be based upon observation of live models. Vasari relates that if Leonardo saw a
person with an interesting face he would follow them around all day observing them.[135] There are numerous
studies of beautiful young men, often associated with Salaì, with the rare and much admired facial feature, the
so-called "Grecian profile."[z] These faces are often contrasted with that of a warrior.[132] Salaì is often
depicted in fancy-dress costume. Leonardo is known to have designed sets for
pageants with which these may be associated. Other, often meticulous,
drawings show studies of drapery. A marked development in Leonardo's
ability to draw drapery occurred in his early works. Another often-reproduced
drawing is a macabre sketch that was done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479
showing the body of Bernardo Baroncelli, hanged in connection with the
murder of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo de' Medici, in the Pazzi
conspiracy.[132] In his notes, Leonardo recorded the colours of the robes that
Baroncelli was wearing when he died.

Like the two contemporary architects Donato Bramante (who designed the
Belvedere Courtyard) and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, Leonardo
experimented with designs for centrally planned churches, a number of which
appear in his journals, as both plans and views, although none was ever The Vitruvian Man (c. 1485)
realised.[44][136] Accademia, Venice, Italy

Journals and notes

Renaissance humanism recognised no mutually exclusive polarities between the sciences and the arts, and
Leonardo's studies in science and engineering are sometimes considered as impressive and innovative as his
artistic work.[41] These studies were recorded in 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, which fuse art and
natural philosophy (the forerunner of modern science). They were made and maintained daily throughout
Leonardo's life and travels, as he made continual observations of the world around him.[41] Leonardo's notes
and drawings display an enormous range of interests and preoccupations, some as mundane as lists of
groceries and people who owed him money and some as intriguing as designs for wings and shoes for walking
on water. There are compositions for paintings, studies of details and drapery, studies of faces and emotions, of
animals, babies, dissections, plant studies, rock formations, whirlpools, war machines, flying machines and
architecture.[41]

These notebooks—originally loose papers of different types and sizes, were

largely entrusted to Leonardo's pupil and heir Francesco Melzi after the
master's death.[137] These were to be published, a task of overwhelming
difficulty because of its scope and Leonardo's idiosyncratic writing.[138]
Some of Leonardo's drawings were copied by an anonymous Milanese artist
for a planned treatise on art c. 1570.[139] After Melzi's death in 1570, the
collection passed to his son, the lawyer Orazio, who initially took little interest
in the journals.[137] In 1587, a Melzi household tutor named Lelio Gavardi
took 13 of the manuscripts to Pisa; there, the architect Giovanni Magenta
reproached Gavardi for having taken the manuscripts illicitly and returned
them to Orazio. Having many more such works in his possession, Orazio
gifted the volumes to Magenta. News spread of these lost works of
Leonardo's, and Orazio retrieved seven of the 13 manuscripts, which he then
A page showing Leonardo's gave to Pompeo Leoni for publication in two volumes; one of these was the
study of a foetus in the Codex Atlanticus. The other six works had been distributed to a few
womb (c. 1510), Royal
others.[140] After Orazio's death, his heirs sold the rest of Leonardo's
Library, Windsor Castle
possessions, and thus began their dispersal.[141]

Some works have found their way into major collections such as the Royal
Library at Windsor Castle, the Louvre, the Biblioteca Nacional de España, the Victoria and Albert Museum,
the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, which holds the 12-volume Codex Atlanticus, and the British Library in
London, which has put a selection from the Codex Arundel (BL Arundel MS 263) online.[142] Works have
also been at Holkham Hall, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and in the private hands of John Nicholas
Brown I and Robert Lehman.[137] The Codex Leicester is the only privately owned major scientific work of
Leonardo; it is owned by Bill Gates and displayed once a year in different cities around the world.

Most of Leonardo's writings are in mirror-image cursive.[143][36] Since Leonardo wrote with his left hand, it
was probably easier for him to write from right to left.[144][aa] Leonardo used a variety of shorthand and
symbols, and states in his notes that he intended to prepare them for publication.[143] In many cases a single
topic is covered in detail in both words and pictures on a single sheet, together conveying information that
would not be lost if the pages were published out of order.[147] Why they were not published during
Leonardo's lifetime is unknown.[41]

Scientific studies
Leonardo's approach to science was observational: he tried to understand a
phenomenon by describing and depicting it in utmost detail and did not
emphasise experiments or theoretical explanation. Since he lacked formal
education in Latin and mathematics, contemporary scholars mostly ignored
Leonardo the scientist, although he did teach himself Latin. In the 1490s he
studied mathematics under Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of drawings of
regular solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as plates for Pacioli's book
Divina proportione, published in 1509.[41] While living in Milan, he studied
light from the summit of Monte Rosa.[74] Scientific writings in his notebook
on fossils have been considered as influential on early palaeontology.[148]
Rhombicuboctahedron as
The content of his journals suggest that he was planning a series of treatises published in Pacioli's Divina
on a variety of subjects. A coherent treatise on anatomy is said to have been proportione (1509)
observed during a visit by Cardinal Louis d'Aragon's secretary in 1517.[149]
Aspects of his work on the studies of anatomy, light and the landscape were
assembled for publication by Melzi and eventually published as A Treatise on Painting in France and Italy in
1651 and Germany in 1724,[150] with engravings based upon drawings by the Classical painter Nicolas
Poussin.[151] According to Arasse, the treatise, which in France went into 62 editions in fifty years, caused
Leonardo to be seen as "the precursor of French academic thought on art."[41]

While Leonardo's experimentation followed scientific methods, a recent and exhaustive analysis of Leonardo
as a scientist by Fritjof Capra argues that Leonardo was a fundamentally different kind of scientist from
Galileo, Newton and other scientists who followed him in that, as a "Renaissance Man", his theorising and
hypothesising integrated the arts and particularly painting.[152]

Anatomy and physiology

Leonardo started his study in the anatomy of the human body under the apprenticeship of Verrocchio, who
demanded that his students develop a deep knowledge of the subject.[153] As an artist, he quickly became
master of topographic anatomy, drawing many studies of muscles, tendons and other visible anatomical
features.

As a successful artist, Leonardo was given permission to dissect human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria
Nuova in Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and Rome. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies
with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre. Leonardo made over 240 detailed drawings and wrote about 13,000
words towards a treatise on anatomy.[154] Only a small amount of the material on anatomy was published in
 Leonardo's Treatise on painting.[138] During the time that Melzi was ordering
the material into chapters for publication, they were examined by a number of
anatomists and artists, including Vasari, Cellini and Albrecht Dürer, who
made a number of drawings from them.[138]

Leonardo's anatomical drawings include many studies of the human skeleton

and its parts, and of muscles and sinews. He studied the mechanical functions
of the skeleton and the muscular forces that are applied to it in a manner that
prefigured the modern science of biomechanics.[155] He drew the heart and
vascular system, the sex organs and other internal organs, making one of the
first scientific drawings of a fetus in utero.[132] The drawings and notation are
far ahead of their time, and if published would undoubtedly have made a
major contribution to medical science.[154]
Anatomical study of the arm Leonardo also closely observed and recorded
(c. 1510) the effects of age and of human emotion on
the physiology, studying in particular the
effects of rage. He drew many figures who
had significant facial deformities or signs of illness.[41][132] Leonardo also
studied and drew the anatomy of many animals, dissecting cows, birds,
monkeys, bears, and frogs, and comparing in his drawings their anatomical
structure with that of humans. He also made a number of studies of
horses.[132]

Leonardo's dissections and documentation of muscles, nerves, and vessels

helped to describe the physiology and mechanics of movement. He attempted
to identify the source of 'emotions' and their expression. He found it difficult
to incorporate the prevailing system and theories of bodily humours, but
Leonardo's physiological
eventually he abandoned these physiological explanations of bodily functions.
sketch of the human brain
He made the observations that humours were not located in cerebral spaces or
and skull (c. 1510)
ventricles. He documented that the humours were not contained in the heart or
the liver, and that it was the heart that defined the circulatory system. He was
the first to define atherosclerosis and liver cirrhosis. He created models of the
cerebral ventricles with the use of melted wax and constructed a glass aorta to observe the circulation of blood
through the aortic valve by using water and grass seed to watch flow patterns. Vesalius published his work on
anatomy and physiology in De humani corporis fabrica in 1543.[156]

Engineering and inventions

During his lifetime, Leonardo was also valued as an engineer. With the same rational and analytical approach
that moved him to represent the human body and to investigate anatomy, Leonardo studied and designed many
machines and devices. He drew their “anatomy” with unparalleled mastery, producing the first form of the
modern technical drawing, including a perfected "exploded view" technique, to represent internal components.
Those studies and projects collected in his codices fill more than 5,000 pages.[157] In a letter of 1482 to the
lord of Milan Ludovico il Moro, he wrote that he could create all sorts of machines both for the protection of a
city and for siege. When he fled from Milan to Venice in 1499, he found employment as an engineer and
devised a system of moveable barricades to protect the city from attack. In 1502, he created a scheme for
diverting the flow of the Arno river, a project on which Niccolò Machiavelli also worked.[158][159] He
continued to contemplate the canalization of Lombardy's plains while in Louis XII's company[74] and of the
Loire and its tributaries in the company of Francis I.[160] Leonardo's journals include a vast number of
 inventions, both practical and impractical. They
include musical instruments, a mechanical
knight, hydraulic pumps, reversible crank
mechanisms, finned mortar shells, and a steam
cannon.[28][41]

A design for a flying machine An aerial screw (c. 1489),

(c. 1488), first presented in the suggestive of a helicopter,
Codex on the Flight of Birds. from the Codex Atlanticus.

Leonardo was fascinated by the phenomenon of flight for much of his

Leonardo's drawings of a scythed
life, producing many studies, including Codex on the Flight of Birds
chariot and a fighting vehicle.
(c. 1505), as well as plans for several flying machines, such as a
flapping ornithopter and a machine with a helical rotor.[41] A 2003
documentary by British television station Channel Four, titled
Leonardo's Dream Machines, various designs by Leonardo, such as a parachute and a giant crossbow, were
interpreted and constructed.[161][162] Some of those designs proved successful, whilst others fared less well
when tested.

Research performed by Marc van den Broek revealed older prototypes for more than 100 inventions that are
ascribed to Leonardo. Similarities between Leonardo's illustrations and drawings from the Middle Ages and
from Ancient Greece and Rome, the Chinese and Persian Empires, and Egypt suggest that a large portion of
Leonardo's inventions had been conceived before his lifetime. Leonardo's innovation was to combine different
functions from existing drafts and set them into scenes that illustrated their utility. By reconstituting technical
inventions he created something new.[163]

In his notebooks, Leonardo first stated the ‘laws’ of sliding friction in 1493.[164] His inspiration for
investigating friction came about in part from his study of perpetual motion, which he correctly concluded was
not possible.[165] His results were never published and the friction laws were not rediscovered untill 1699 by
Guillaume Amontons, with whose name they are now usually associated.[164] For this contribution, Leonardo
was named as the first of the 23 "Men of Tribology" by Duncan Dowson.[166]

Legacy
Leonardo's fame within his own lifetime was such that the King of France carried him away like a trophy, and
was claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him in his arms as he died. Interest in Leonardo and
his work has never diminished. Crowds still queue to see his best-known artworks, T-shirts still bear his most
famous drawing, and writers continue to hail him as a genius while speculating about his private life, as well as
about what one so intelligent actually believed in.[41]

The continued admiration that Leonardo commanded from painters, critics and historians is reflected in many
other written tributes. Baldassare Castiglione, author of Il Cortegiano (The Courtier), wrote in 1528:
"...Another of the greatest painters in this world looks down on this art in which he is unequalled..."[167] while
the biographer known as "Anonimo Gaddiano" wrote, c. 1540: "His genius was so rare and universal that it
can be said that nature worked a miracle on his behalf..."[168] Vasari, in the enlarged edition of Lives of the
Artists (1568)[169] introduced his chapter on Leonardo with the following words:
 In the normal course of events many men and women are born
with remarkable talents; but occasionally, in a way that
transcends nature, a single person is marvellously endowed by
Heaven with beauty, grace and talent in such abundance that he
leaves other men far behind, all his actions seem inspired and
indeed everything he does clearly comes from God rather than
from human skill. Everyone acknowledged that this was true of
Leonardo da Vinci, an artist of outstanding physical beauty, who
displayed infinite grace in everything that he did and who
cultivated his genius so brilliantly that all problems he studied he
solved with ease.

The 19th century brought a particular

Statue outside the Uffizi, admiration for Leonardo's genius,
Florence, by Luigi causing Henry Fuseli to write in
Pampaloni (1791–1847) 1801: "Such was the dawn of
modern art, when Leonardo da Vinci
broke forth with a splendour that
distanced former excellence: made up of all the elements that
constitute the essence of genius..."[170] This is echoed by A.E. Rio
who wrote in 1861: "He towered above all other artists through the
strength and the nobility of his talents."[171]
The Death of Leonardo da Vinci, by
By the 19th century, the scope of Leonardo's notebooks was known, Ingres, 1818[t]
as well as his paintings. Hippolyte Taine wrote in 1866: "There may
not be in the world an example of another genius so universal, so
incapable of fulfilment, so full of yearning for the infinite, so naturally refined, so far ahead of his own century
and the following centuries."[172] Art historian Bernard Berenson wrote in 1896: "Leonardo is the one artist of
whom it may be said with perfect literalness: Nothing that he touched but turned into a thing of eternal beauty.
Whether it be the cross section of a skull, the structure of a weed, or a study of muscles, he, with his feeling for
line and for light and shade, forever transmuted it into life-communicating values."[173]

The interest in Leonardo's genius has continued unabated; experts study and translate his writings, analyse his
paintings using scientific techniques, argue over attributions and search for works which have been recorded
but never found.[174] Liana Bortolon, writing in 1967, said: "Because of the multiplicity of interests that
spurred him to pursue every field of knowledge...Leonardo can be considered, quite rightly, to have been the
universal genius par excellence, and with all the disquieting overtones inherent in that term. Man is as
uncomfortable today, faced with a genius, as he was in the 16th century. Five centuries have passed, yet we
still view Leonardo with awe."[28]

Twenty-first-century author Walter Isaacson based much of his biography of Leonardo[108] on thousands of
notebook entries, studying the personal notes, sketches, budget notations, and musings of the man whom he
considers the greatest of innovators. Isaacson was surprised to discover a "fun, joyous" side of Leonardo in
addition to his limitless curiosity and creative genius.[175]

On the 500th anniversary of Leonardo's death, the Louvre in Paris arranged for the largest ever single exhibit
of his work, called Leonardo, between November 2019 and February 2020. The exhibit includes over 100
paintings, drawings and notebooks. Eleven of the paintings that Leonardo completed in his lifetime were
included. Five of these are owned by the Louvre, but the Mona Lisa was not included because it is in such
great demand among general visitors to the Louvre; it remains on display in its gallery. Vitruvian Man,
however, is on display following a legal battle with its owner, the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice. Salvator
Mundi [ab] was also not included because its Saudi owner did not agree to lease the work.[178][179]
 Location of remains
While Leonardo was certainly buried
in the collegiate church of Saint
Florentin at the Château d'Amboise
in 12 August 1519, the current
location of his remains is
unclear. [180][181] Much of Château
Leonardo Museum in Vinci, which d'Amboise was damaged during the
houses a large collection of models French Revolution, leading to the
constructed on the basis of
church's demolition in 1802.[180]
Leonardo's drawings.
Some of the graves were destroyed in
the process, scattering the bones
interred there and thereby leaving the
whereabouts of Leonardo's remains subject to dispute; a gardener may have Tomb in the chapel of Saint
even buried some in the corner of the courtyard.[180] Hubert at the Château
d'Amboise where a plaque
In 1863, fine-arts inspector general Arsène Houssaye received an imperial describes it as the
commission to excavate the site and discovered a partially complete skeleton presumed site of Leonardo's
with a bronze ring on one finger, white hair, and stone fragments bearing the remains.
inscriptions "EO", "AR", "DUS", and "VINC"—interpreted as forming
"Leonardus Vinci".[99][180][182] The skull's eight teeth corresponds to
someone of approximately the appropriate age and a silver shield found near the bones depicts a beardless
Francis I, corresponding to the king's appearance during Leonardo's time in France.[182]

Houssaye postulated that the unusually large skull was an indicator of Leonardo's intelligence; author Charles
Nicholl describes this as a "dubious phrenological deduction."[180] At the same time, Houssaye noted some
issues with his observations, including that the feet were turned towards the high altar, a practice generally
reserved for laymen, and that the skeleton of 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) seemed too short.[182] Art historian Mary
Margaret Heaton wrote in 1874 that the height would be appropriate for Leonardo.[183] The skull was
allegedly presented to Napoleon III before being returned to the Château d'Amboise, where they were
re-interred in the chapel of Saint Hubert in 1874.[182][184] A plaque above the tomb states that its contents are
only presumed to be those of Leonardo.[181]

It has since been theorized that the folding of the skeleton's right arm over the head may correspond to the
paralysis of Leonardo's right hand.[87][93][182] In 2016, it was announced that DNA tests would be conducted
to determine whether the attribution is correct.[184] The DNA of the remains will be compared to that of
samples collected from Leonardo's work and his half-brother Domenico's descendants;[184] it may also be
sequenced.[185]

In 2019, documents were published revealing that Houssaye had kept the ring and a lock of hair. In 1925, his
great-grandson sold these to an American collector. Sixty years later, another American acquired them, leading
to their being displayed at the Leonardo Museum in Vinci beginning on 2 May 2019, the 500th anniversary of
the artist's death.[99][186]

Notes
General

a. LEE-ə-NAR-doh də VIN-chee, LEE-oh-, LAY-oh-[3]

b. His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grandfather Ser Antonio:[17] "A grandson of
mine was born April 15, Saturday, three hours into the night". As it was Florentine time and
sunset was 6:40 pm, three hours after sunset would be sometime around 9:40 pm, which was
still 14 April by modern reckoning.[18]
c. Italian: [leoˈnardo di ˈsɛr ˈpjɛːro da (v)ˈvintʃi] ( listen) The inclusion of the title 'ser' (shortening of
Italian Messer or Messere, title of courtesy prefixed to the first name) indicates that Leonardo's
father was a gentleman.
d. Between 1493 and 1495, Leonardo listed a woman called Caterina among his dependents in
his taxation documents. When she died in 1495, the list of funeral expenditures suggests that
she was his mother.[20]
e. It has been suggested that Caterina may have been a slave from the Middle East "or at least,
from the Mediterranean" or even of Chinese descent. According to art critic Alessandro
Vezzosi, head of the Leonardo Museum in Vinci, there is evidence that Piero owned a slave
called Caterina.[24] The reconstruction of one of Leonardo's fingerprints shows a pattern that
matches 60% of people of Middle Eastern origin, suggesting the possibility that Leonardo may
have had Middle Eastern blood. The claim is refuted by Simon Cole, associate professor of
criminology, law and society at the University of California at Irvine: "You can't predict one
person's race from these kinds of incidences, especially if looking at only one finger". More
recently, historian Martin Kemp, after digging through overlooked archives and records in Italy,
found evidence that Leonardo's mother was a young local woman identified as Caterina di Meo
Lippi.[25]
f. He also never wrote about his father, except a passing note of his death in which he overstates
his age by three years.[31] Leonardo's siblings caused him difficulty after his father's death in a
dispute over their inheritance.[30]
g. The humanist influence of Donatello's David can be seen in Leonardo's late paintings,
particularly John the Baptist.[38][37]
h. The "diverse arts" and technical skills of Medieval and Renaissance workshops are described
in detail in the 12th-century text On Divers Arts by Theophilus Presbyter and in the early 15th-
century text Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato Della Pittui by Cennino Cennini.
i. That Leonardo joined the guild by this time is deduced from the record of payment made to the
Compagnia di San Luca in the company's register, Libro Rosso A, 1472–1520, Accademia di
Belle Arti.[21]
j. On the back he wrote: "I, staying with Anthony, am happy," possibly in reference to his father.
k. Leonardo later wrote in the margin of a journal, "The Medici made me and the Medici destroyed
me."[28]
l. In 2005, the studio was rediscovered during the restoration of part of a building occupied for
100 years by the Department of Military Geography.[67]
m. Both works are lost. The entire composition of Michelangelo's painting is known from a copy by
Aristotole da Sangallo, 1542.[72] Leonardo's painting is known only from preparatory sketches
and several copies of the centre section, of which the best known, and probably least accurate,
is by Peter Paul Rubens.[73]
n. Pope Leo X is quoted as saying, "This man will never accomplish anything! He thinks of the
end before the beginning!" [79]
o. It is unknown for what occasion the mechanical lion was made, but it is believed to have
greeted the king at his entry into Lyon and perhaps was used for the peace talks between the
French king and Pope Leo X in Bologna. A conjectural recreation of the lion has been made
and is on display in the Museum of Bologna.[85]
p. Identified via its similarity to Leonardo's presumed self-portrait[88]
q. These two portraits were announced on the 500th anniversary of Leonardo's death.
 r. "... Messer Lunardo Vinci [sic] ... an old graybeard of more than 70 years ... showed His
Excellency three pictures ... from whom, since he was then subject to a certain paralysis of the
right hand, one could not expect any more good work." [89]
s. This scene is portrayed in romantic paintings by Ingres, Ménageot and other French artists, as
well as Angelica Kauffman.
t. On the day of Leonardo's death, a royal edict was issued by the king at Saint-Germain-en-Laye,
a two-day journey from Clos Lucé. This has been taken as evidence that King Francis cannot
have been present at Leonardo's deathbed, but the edict was not signed by the king.[97]
u. Each of the sixty paupers were to have been awarded in accord with Leonardo's will.[56]
v. The painting, which in the 18th century belonged to Angelica Kauffman, was later cut up. The
two main sections were found in a junk shop and cobbler's shop and were reunited.[113] It is
probable that outer parts of the composition are missing.
w. Whether or not Vasari had seen the Mona Lisa is the subject of debate. The opinion that he had
not seen the painting is based mainly on the fact that he describes the Mona Lisa as having
eyebrows. Daniel Arasse in Leonardo da Vinci discusses the possibility that Leonardo may
have painted the figure with eyebrows that were subsequently removed. (They were not
fashionable in the mid-16th century.)[41] Pascal Cotte said in 2007 that, according to his
analysis of high-resolution scans, the Mona Lisa had eyebrows and eyelashes that have been
subsequently removed.[126]
x. Jack Wasserman writes of "the inimitable treatment of the surfaces" of the painting.[127]
y. This work is now in the collection of the Uffizi, Drawing No. 8P.
z. The "Grecian profile" has a continuous straight line from forehead to nose-tip, the bridge of the
nose being exceptionally high. It is a feature of many Classical Greek statues.
aa. He also drew with his left hand, his hatch strokes "slanting down from left to right—the natural
stroke of a left-handed artist".[145] He also sometimes wrote conventionally with his right
hand.[146]
ab. Salvator Mundi, a painting by Leonardo depicting Jesus holding an orb, sold for a world record
US$450.3 million at a Christie's auction in New York, 15 November 2017.[176] The highest
known sale price for any artwork was previously US$300 million, for Willem de Kooning's
Interchange, which was sold privately in September 2015.[177] The highest price previously
paid for a work of art at auction was for Pablo Picasso's Les Femmes d'Alger, which sold for
US$179.4 million in May 2015 at Christie's New York.[177]

Dates of paintings

1. Virgin of the Rocks (Louvre version)

Kemp 2019, p. 41: c. 1483–1493
Marani 2003, p. 339: between 1483 and 1486
Syson et al. 2011, p. 164: 1483–c. 1485
Zöllner 2019, p. 223: 1483–1484/1485
2. Saint John the Baptist
Kemp 2019, p. 189: c. 1507–1514
Marani 2003, p. 340: c. 1508
Syson et al. 2011, p. 63: c. 1500 onwards
Zöllner 2019, p. 248: c. 1508–1516
3. The Annunciation
Kemp 2019, p. 6: c. 1473–1474
Marani 2003, p. 338: c. 1472–1475
Syson et al. 2011, p. 15: c. 1472–1476
Zöllner 2019, p. 216: c. 1473–1475
4. Saint Jerome in the Wilderness
Kemp 2019, p. 31: c. 1481–1482
Marani 2003, p. 338: probably c. 1480
Syson et al. 2011, p. 139: c. 1488–1490
Zöllner 2019, p. 221: c. 1480–1482
5. Lady with an Ermine
Kemp 2019, p. 49: c. 1491
Marani 2003, p. 339: 1489–1490
Syson et al. 2011, p. 111: c. 1489–1490
Zöllner 2019, p. 226: 1489/1490
6. The Last Supper
Kemp 2019, p. 67: c. 1495–1497
Marani 2003, p. 339: between 1494 and 1498
Syson et al. 2011, p. 252: 1492–1497/1498
Zöllner 2019, p. 230: c. 1495–1498
7. Mona Lisa
Kemp 2019, p. 127: c. 1503–1515
Marani 2003, p. 340: c. 1503–1504; 1513–1514
Syson et al. 2011, p. 48: c. 1502 onwards
Zöllner 2019, p. 240: c. 1503–1506; 1510

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70. Fuseli, Henry (1801). "Lectures". II.
71. Rio, A.E. (1861). "L'art chrétien" (https://archive.org/details/ldpd_10800128_000).
72. Taine, Hippolyte (1866). "Voyage en Italie" (https://archive.org/details/voyageenitalie00taingoo
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73. Berenson, Bernard (1896). "The Italian Painters of the Renaissance".
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art_id=1240). Art News Online. Archived from the original (http://www.artnewsonline.com/curre
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76. Crow, Kelly (16 November 2017). "Leonardo da Vinci Painting 'Salvator Mundi' Sells for $450.3
Million" (https://www.wsj.com/articles/leonardo-da-vinci-painting-salvator-mundi-sells-for-450-3
-million-1510794281). The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660 (https://www.worldcat.org/iss
n/0099-9660). Retrieved 16 November 2017.
77. Leonardo da Vinci painting 'Salvator Mundi' sold for record $450.3 million, Fox News (http://ww
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0-3-million.html), 16 November 2017
78. "Leonardo da Vinci's Unexamined Life as a Painter" (https://aleteia.org/2019/12/01/louvre-exhi
bit-has-most-da-vinci-paintings-ever-assembled/). The Atlantic. 1 December 2019. Retrieved
1 December 2019.
79. "Louvre exhibit has most da Vinci paintings ever assembled" (https://aleteia.org/2019/12/01/lou
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80. Nicholl 2005, p. 502 (https://archive.org/details/leonardodavinci00char/page/502).
81. Isaacson 2017, p. 515.
82. Montard, Nicolas (30 April 2019). "Léonard de Vinci est-il vraiment enterré au château
d'Amboise?" (https://www.ouest-france.fr/leditiondusoir/data/49693/reader/reader.html?t=15566
39116403#!preferred/1/package/49693/pub/71961/page/4) [Is Leonardo da Vinci really buried
at the Château d'Amboise?]. Ouest-France (in French). Retrieved 4 May 2019.
83. Heaton 1874, p. 204 (https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA204), "The
skeleton, which measured five feet eight inches, accords with the height of Leonardo da Vinci.
The skull might have served for the model of the portrait Leonardo drew of himself in red chalk
a few years before his death.".
84. Knapton, Sarah (5 May 2016). "Leonardo da Vinci paintings analysed for DNA to solve grave
mystery" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/05/05/leonardo-da-vinci-paintings-analyse
d-for-dna-to-solve-grave-myst/). The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
85. Newman, Lily Hay (6 May 2016). "Researchers Are Planning to Sequence Leonardo da Vinci's
500-Year-Old Genome" (https://slate.com/technology/2016/05/scientists-at-the-leonardo-project
-want-to-sequence-da-vinci-s-genome.html). Slate Magazine. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
86. Messia, Hada; Robinson, Matthew (30 April 2019). "Leonardo da Vinci's 'hair' to undergo DNA
testing" (https://www.cnn.com/style/article/leonardo-da-vinci-hair-lock-intl-scli/index.html). CNN.
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worldcat.org/oclc/1394808).
Giovio, Paolo (1959) [c. 1527]. Goldscheider, Ludwig (ed.). Leonardo da Vinci; life and work,
paintings and drawings. London, England: Phaidon Press. OCLC 1394808 (https://www.worldc
at.org/oclc/1394808).
Vasari, Giorgio (1965) [1568]. Lives of the Artists. Translated by George Bull. Penguin Classics.
ISBN 978-0-14-044164-2.

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om/books?id=QwQxDJMKRE4C). New York City, New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
ISBN 978-0-300-09878-5.
Berti, Luciano (1971). The Uffizi. Scala.
Bortolon, Liana (1967). The Life and Times of Leonardo. London: Paul Hamlyn.
Brown, David Alan (1998). Leonardo Da Vinci: Origins of a Genius (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=z34SeyFWV8oC). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-
07246-4.
Brucker, Gene A. (1969). Renaissance Florence (https://archive.org/details/renaissanceflore00
bruc). Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-11370-6.
Capra, Fritjof (2007). The Science of Leonardo (https://archive.org/details/scienceofleonard00c
apr). US: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-51390-6.
Ottino della Chiesa, Angela (1967). The Complete Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci. Penguin
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Clark, Kenneth (1961). Leonardo da Vinci (https://books.google.com/books?
id=fXifCgAAQBAJ). City of Westminster, London, England: Penguin Books. OCLC 187223 (htt
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Da Vinci, Leonardo (1971). Taylor, Pamela (ed.). The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. New
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Gasca, Ana Millàn; Nicolò, Fernando; Lucertini, Mario (2004). Technological Concepts and
Mathematical Models in the Evolution of Modern Engineering Systems (https://archive.org/detai
ls/springer_10.1007-978-3-0348-7951-4). Birkhauser. ISBN 978-3-7643-6940-8.
Hartt, Frederich (1970). A History of Italian Renaissance Art. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-
0-500-23136-4.
Heaton, Mary Margaret (1874). Leonardo Da Vinci and His Works: Consisting of a Life of
Leonardo Da Vinci (https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUaAAAAYAAJ). New York City, New
York: Macmillan Publishers. OCLC 1706262 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1706262).
Isaacson, Walter (2017). Leonardo da Vinci (https://books.google.com/books?id=vkA5DwAAQ
BAJ). New York City, New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-5011-3915-4.
Kemp, Martin (2006). Leonardo Da Vinci: The Marvellous Works of Nature and Man (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=oJwVDAAAQBAJ). Oxford, England: Oxford, England. ISBN 978-0-
19-920778-7.
Kemp, Martin (2011) [2004]. Leonardo (Revised ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
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Kemp, Martin (2019). Leonardo da Vinci: The 100 Milestones. New York City, New York:
Sterling. ISBN 978-1-4549-304-26.
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle (http://libmma.
contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/84801/rec/2). New York
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Magnano, Milena (2007). Leonardo, collana I Geni dell'arte. Mondadori Arte. ISBN 978-88-370-
6432-7.
Marani, Pietro C. (2003) [2000]. Leonardo da Vinci: The Complete Paintings. New York City,
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0mart). Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-56006-8.
Nicholl, Charles (2005). Leonardo da Vinci: The Flights of the Mind. London, England: Penguin
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 O'Malley, Charles D.; Sounders, J.B. de C.M. (1952). Leonardo on the Human Body: The
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Pedretti, Carlo (1982). Leonardo, a study in chronology and style (https://books.google.com/boo
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Rosci, Marco (1977). Leonardo. Bay Books Pty Ltd. ISBN 978-0-85835-176-9.
Syson, Luke; Keith, Larry; Galansino, Arturo; Mazzotta, Antoni; Nethersole, Scott; Rumberg,
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Journals and articles

Brown, David Alan (1983). "Leonardo and the Idealized Portrait in Milan". Arte Lombarda. 64
(4): 102–116. JSTOR 43105426 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/43105426).
Cennini, Cennino (2009). Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato Della Pittui. US: BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-
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Cremante, Simona (2005). Leonardo da Vinci: Artist, Scientist, Inventor. Giunti. ISBN 978-88-
09-03891-2.
Giacomelli, Raffaele (1936). Gli scritti di Leonardo da Vinci sul volo. Roma: G. Bardi.
Heydenreich, Ludwig Heinrich (28 April 2020). "Leonardo da Vinci | Biography, Art & Facts |
Britannica" (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonardo-da-Vinci1). Encyclopædia
 Britannica. Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Kemp, Martin (2003). "Leonardo da Vinci" (https://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/view/10.10
93/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000050401). Grove Art Online.
Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T050401 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgao%2F9781884446054.article.T050401). ISBN 978-1-884446-05-4.
(subscription or UK public library membership (https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public)
required)
Lupia, John N. (Summer 1994). "The Secret Revealed: How to Look at Italian Renaissance
Painting". Medieval and Renaissance Times. 1 (2): 6–17. ISSN 1075-2110 (https://www.worldc
at.org/issn/1075-2110).

Further reading
Bayer, Andrea (2004). Painters of reality: the legacy of Leonardo and Caravaggio in Lombardy
(http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/96665).
New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-116-2.
Bérence, Fred (1965). Léonard de Vinci, L'homme et son oeuvre. Somogy. Dépot légal 4°
trimestre 1965.
Broek van den, Marc (2018). Leonardo da Vincis Erfindungsgeister. Eine Spurensuche.
Germany: NA Verlag. ISBN 978-3-96176-045-9.
Broek van den, Marc (2019). Leonardo da Vinci Spirits of Invention - A Search for Traces.
Germany: A.TE.M. ISBN 978-3-00-063700-1.
Priwer, Shana; Phillips, Cynthia (2006). The Everything Da Vinci Book: Explore the Life and
Times of the Ultimate Renaissance Man (https://archive.org/details/everythingdavinc0000phil).
Adams Media. ISBN 978-1-59869-101-6.
Santi, Bruno (1990). Leonardo da Vinci. Scala / Riverside.

External links
Universal Leonardo (http://www.universalleonardo.org/index.php), a database of Leonardo's
life and works maintained by Martin Kemp and Marina Wallace
Works by Leonardo da Vinci (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1629) at Project
Gutenberg

(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7785)Leonardo da Vinci by Maurice Walter Brockwell (http

s://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7785) at Project Gutenberg
Works by Leonardo da Vinci (https://librivox.org/author/12252) at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)
Works by or about Leonardo da Vinci (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%
3A%22Vinci%2C%20Leonardo%20da%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Vinci%2C%20Leonar
do%20d%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Vinci%2C%20L%2E%20d%2E%22%20OR%20
subject%3A%22Leonardo%20da%20Vinci%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Leonardo%20d%
2E%20Vinci%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22L%2E%20d%2E%20Vinci%22%20OR%20subje
ct%3A%22Vinci%2C%20Leonardo%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Leonardo%20Vinci%22%
20OR%20creator%3A%22Leonardo%20da%20Vinci%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Leonard
o%20d%2E%20Vinci%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22L%2E%20d%2E%20Vinci%22%20O
R%20creator%3A%22L%2E%20da%20Vinci%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Vinci%2C%20L
eonardo%20da%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Vinci%2C%20Leonardo%20d%2E%22%20O
R%20creator%3A%22Vinci%2C%20L%2E%20d%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Vinci%
2C%20L%2E%20da%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Leonardo%20Vinci%22%20OR%20crea
tor%3A%22Vinci%2C%20Leonardo%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Leonardo%20da%20Vinci%
 22%20OR%20title%3A%22Leonardo%20d%2E%20Vinci%22%20OR%20title%3A%22L%2
E%20d%2E%20Vinci%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Leonardo%20Vinci%22%20OR%20descri
ption%3A%22Leonardo%20da%20Vinci%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Leonardo%20
d%2E%20Vinci%22%20OR%20description%3A%22L%2E%20d%2E%20Vinci%22%20OR%
20description%3A%22Vinci%2C%20Leonardo%20da%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Vin
ci%2C%20Leonardo%20d%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Leonardo%20Vinci%22%
20OR%20description%3A%22Vinci%2C%20Leonardo%22%29%20OR%20%28%221452-15
19%22%20AND%20Vinci%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet
Archive
Complete text and images of Richter's translation of the Notebooks (http://www.sacred-texts.co
m/aor/dv/index.htm)
The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci (https://www.fulltextarchive.com/page/The-Notebooks-of-
Leonardo-Da-Vinci-Complete1/)
Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomist (http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/leonardo-da-vinci-a
natomist) The Queen's Gallery, Buckingham Palace, Friday, 4 May 2012 to Sunday, 7 October
2012. High-resolution anatomical drawings.

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