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1 INDIAN HISTORY

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

Pre Historic Period– It is the history of human culture prior to written records. The humans of this period
INDIAN HISTORY

were not civilized. The history of this period is studied by Archaeological evidences.
This period is divided into 3 parts —
(1) Palaeolithic Age (from early period to 8000 B.C.)
(2) Mesolithic Age (8000 B.C. to 4000 B.C.)
(3) Neolithic Age (4000 B.C. to 2500 B.C.)
Protohistory – It is the period between prehistory and history, during which a culture or civilization has not
yet developed writing, but other cultures have already noted its existence in their own writings, Duration of this
period is 2500 B.C. to 600 B.C.
Historical Period – The historic period whose information is available in written records is considered as
Historical Period. Human of this period were civilized and historical activities after 600 B.C. are included in this
Period.

INDIAN HISTORY AT A GLANCE

(B.C.) 230 – Establishment of Satvahanas.

6000 – Earliest evidence of agriculture and animal 200 – Greece’s invasion of India.
domestication in India is from Mehargarh and 185 – Establishment of Sunga dynasty.
Burzahom. 75 – Foundation of Kanva Dynasty
5000-4000 – Earliest evidence of sheep-goat 58 – Beginning of Vikram era
domestication at Bagor and Adamgarh. 30 – Satvahanas dynasty in Deccan, Pandyan dynasty
4000-3000 – Spread of Civilizations based on agriculture in South.
and animal domestication. 22 – Trade relations of Cholas and Pandayas with the
2500-1750 – Time period of Harappan Civilization on the Romans.
basis of Radio Carbon dating. (A.D.)
1500 – Rigvedic Period, coming of Aryans in India. 14-15 – St. Thomas came to India.
1000 – Later Vedic Period, spread of Aryans in the 40 AD – Sakas in power in Indus Valley and Western
Gangetic plain. India
950 – Mahabharata (Kurukshetra War) 50 AD– The Kushans and Kanishkas
877 – Birth of Parshvanatha (23rd Tirthankara of 65 – Chinese King Sent representative in India for
Jainism) collecting information about Buddhism.
600-550 – Emergence of Sixteen Mahajanapadas, 77 –Plini wrote book Natural History.
composition of the Upanishads. 78 AD – Saka Era begins
563 – Birth of Gautama Buddha (Founder of Buddhism) 78-100 – Regime of Kanishka.
540 – Birth of Mahavira (Real Founder of Jainism) 86-128 – Resurgence of Satvahana dynasty by Satkarni
540-468– Life Period of Vardhamana Mahavira and Pulumavi.
544-412 – Haryanka Dynasty (Bimbisara, Ajatashatru 130-150 – Emergence of Rudradamana in West India.
and Udayin) 225 – Foundation of Vakataka dynasty.
516 – Irani ruler Darius–I invasion of India. 226 – Emergence of Sasaniyan dynasty in Parsia.
483 – Buddha attained Nirvana, First Buddhist Council in 250 – Decline and disintegration of Satvahana dynasty.
Rajagriha. 240-280 – Foundation of Gupta dynasty.
563-483 – Life Period of Gautama Buddha. 280-319 – Regime of Ghatotkacha.
468 – Mahavira attained Nirvana 320 AD – Chandragupta I establishes the Gupta dynasty
412-344 – Foundation and expansion of Nag Dynasty 360 AD – Samudragupta conquers the North and most of
383 – Second Buddhist Council in Vaishali. the Deccan
362 – Nanda Dynasty came to power in Magadha 375 – Death of Samudra Gupta, Ram Gupta Became
327-325 – Alexander’s invasion of India. Successor.
323 – Death of Alexander in Babylon. 380 AD – Chandragupta II comes to power; Golden Age of
21 – Chandragupta Maurya’s accession to the throne of Gupta Literary Renaissance
Magadha. 405 AD – Fa-hein begins his travels through the Gupta
305 – Defeat of Seleucus at the hands of Chandragupta Empire
Maurya. 415 AD–Accession of Kumara Gupta-I
298 – Bindusara became king. 415 – Establishment of Nalanda University.
467 AD – Skanda Gupta assumes power
273-232 – Ashoka’s reign.
476 AD – Birth of astronomer Aryabhatta
261 – Conquest of Kalinga. 500-532 – Emergence of Hun dynasty by Tormana and
257 – Ashoka became follower of Buddhism. Mihirkula.
251 – Third Buddhist conference in Patliputra. 532 – Yashovardhan defeated Mihirkula.

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 Indian History

606 AD–Accession of Harshavardhan 1320-1325 – Ghiyasuddin Tughluq founded Tughlaq

INDIAN HISTORY
609 – Pulakeshin-II became king. dynasty.
622 AD – Era of the Hejira begins 1325-1351 – Muhammad bin Tughlaq reign.
629-645 – Hiuen-Tsang came to India 1333-1342 – Ibn Battuta travaled in India.
636 – First invasion of Sindh by Arabians. 1336 – Foundation of Vijayanagar Empire by Harihar
711 AD – Invasion of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim and Bukka.
725 – Nagbhatta founded Pratihara dynasty 1347 – Bahmani dynasty founded by Bahamanshah.
753-973 – Regime of Rashtrakuta dynasty in deccan. 1351-1388 – Firoz Shah Tughlaq reign.
760-1142 – Regime of Pala dynasty in Eastern India. 1390-1394 – Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah reign.
770-810 – Regime of great Pala king Dharmpala, 1393 – Foundation of Jaunpur kingdom.
Establishment of Vikramshila University.
1394-1412 – Mahmud Shah Tughlaq.
783-1036 – Regime of Gurjar-Pratihara dynasty in
Northen India by Vatsraja of Rajasthan. 1398 – Taimur invades India.
788-820 – Period of Shankaracharya, philosopher of 1414-1421 – Khizr Khan, power in the hands of Sayyids,
Advaita. emergence of Sayyid dynasty.
835-885 – Arab trader Suleman came to India, during the 1421-1434 – Mubarak Shah
regime of Gurjar - Pratihara dynasty. 1434-1443 – Muhammad Shah
836 – Mihirbhoj became king. 1443-1451 – Alauddin Alam Shah
850 – Vijayalaya defeated Pandya, became the king of 1451-1489 – Bahlol Lodhi, establishment of Lodi dynasty
Tanjore (Thanjavur). 1455 – Birth of Sant Kabir
851 – Arab Traveler wrote book over India. 1469 – Birth of Guru Nanak, founder of Sikh religion.
860 – Sumatra’s king Balputra established Buddha Vihar 1472 – Birth of Sher Shah Suri
in Nalanda. 1483 – Birth of Jahiruddin Babur in Fargana.
871-1173 – Regime of Chola dynasty in Tanjore.
1489-1517 – Sikandar Lodhi rule
883-1026 – Hindushahi in Punjab and Kabul.
1490 – Nizam Shahi dynasty at Ahmednagar
892 AD – Rise of the Eastern Chalukyas
1498 – First voyage of Vasco-da- Gama
907 – Coronation of Chola king Parantak–I.
915-925 – Arab traveler Al-Masudi came to India, during 1509 – Krishnadev Raya became king.
the regime of great Rashtrakuta’s king Indra–III. 1510 – Portuguese captures Goa
916-1205 – Regime of Chandel dynasty in Jejakbhukti, 1517 – Coronation of Ibrahim Lodi
establishment of temples in Khajuraho by chandel 1518 – Kutub Shahi dynasty at Golkunda
dynasty. 1519 – Entry of Babur in India
950-1195 – Regime of Tripuri’s kalachuri in central India. 1526 – Establishment of the Mughal Dynasty; First Battle
973-1238 – Regime of Solanki in Anhilwada (Kathiyavad). of Panipat : Babur defeats Lodhis
977 – Invasion of Subuktageen in India. 1526-1530 – Reign of Babur
985 AD – The Chola Dynasty : Accession of Rajaraja. 1527 – Battle of Khanwa, Babur defeated Rana Sanga.
1001 AD – Defeated of Jaipal by Sultan Mahmud 1529 – Ghagara battle Babur defeated Afgani invaders.
1026 – Mahmud Ghazni sacks Somnath Temple 1530 – Humayun succeeds Babur
1027 – Last invasion by Mahmud Ghazni. 1532 – Birth of Tulsidas.
1030 – Death of Mahmud Ghazni, Albruni came to India. 1538 – Death of Guru Nanak
1191 – Prithviraj Chauhan routs Muhammad Ghori : the 1539 – Sher Shah Suri defeats Humayun and becomes
first battle of Tarain. Emperor of Delhi.
1192 – Ghori defeats Prithviraj Chauhan : the second 1555 – Humayun recovers the throne of Delhi.
battle of Tarain 1556 – Death of Humayun; Accession of Akbar.
1194 – Jayachanda of Kannauj was defeated in battle of 1562 – End of slavery system by Akbar.
Chandavar by Muhammod Ghori. 1563 – Abolishment of tax on pilgrims.
1206-1210 – Qutubuddin Aibak establish Slave dynasty. 1564 – Akbar abolishes Jizya, a poll tax on Hindus.
1210-1211 – Aram Shah came to the throne. 1565 – Battle of Talikota : Muslim rulers in Deccan
1211-1236 – Iltutmish Reign. defeats and destroys Vijayanagar Empire.
1221 – Invasion of Changej Khan in India. 1568 – Fall of Chittor.
1236-1240 – Raziya Sultan Reign. 1569 – Birth of Jahangir.
1240-1242 – Bahram Shah Reign. 1571 – Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri by Akbar
1242-1246 – Masud Shah Reign. 1572 – Akbar annexes Gujarat
1246-1266 – Nasiruddin Reign. 1573 – Surat surrenders to Akbar
1266-1287 – Ghiyasuddin Balban. 1575 – Battle of Tukaroi
1279 – Revolt by Tugaril Khan in Bengal. 1576 – Battle of Haldighati : Akbar defeats Rana Pratap;
1287-1290 – Kaikubad Subjugation of Bengal
1290-1296 – Jalaluddin Khalji establishes Khalji dynasty. 1577 – Akbar troops invade Khandesh
1296-1316 – Alauddin Khalji reign. 1579 – Akbar introduces Mahjarnama
1309-1313 – Deccan mission by Malik Kafur. 1580 – Accession of Ibrahim Adil Shah II in Bengal;
1315 – Returning of Malik Kafur from Deccan. Rebellion in Bihar and Bengal
1316-1320 – Qutubuddin Mubarak Khalji.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

1581 – Akbar’s march against Muhammad Hakim and 1675– Execution of Guru Tegbahadur by Aurangzeb
INDIAN HISTORY

reconciliation with him 1678– Marwar occupied by the Mughals

1582 – Divine Faith promulagated 1679 – Aurangzeb imposes Jazia tax on non-Muslims
1586 – Annexation of Kashmir 1680 – Death of Shivaji; Rebellion of Prince Akbar
1591 – Mughal conquest of Sindh 1685 – British Shift’s company headquarters to Mumbai
1592 – Annexation of Odisha from Surat.
1595 – Siege of Ahmednagar; Annexation of Baluchistan 1686 – English war with the Mughals; Fall of Bijapur
1597 – Akbar completes his conquests 1689 – Execution of Sambhaji
1600 – Charter to the English East India Company 1690 – Peace between the Mughals and the English
1602 – Formation of the United East India Company of 1691 – Aurangzeb at the zenith of his power
Netherlands 1698 – The new English company trading to the East
1605 – Death of Akbar and Accession of Jahangir Indies
1606 – Rebellion of Khusrav; Execution of the Fifth Sikh 1699 – First Maratha raid on Malwa
Guru, Arjan dev by Jahangir 1700 – Death of Rajaram and regency of his widow Tara
1607 – Sher Afghan first, husband of Nur Jahan, killed Bai
1608 – Malik Ambar takes Ahmednagar 1702 – Amalgamation of English and the London East
1609 – The Dutch open a factory at Pulicat India Companies
1611 – The English establish a factory at Masulipatnam 1707 – Death of Aurangzeb; Battle of Jajau
1611 – Marriage of Jahangir and Nurjahan 1708 – Death of Guru Govind Singh in Nanded
1612 – The Mughal Governor of Bengal defeats the (Maharashtra)
rebellious Afghans; Mughals annex Kuch Hajo 1712 – Death of Bahadurshah-I, Jahand became king
1615 – Submission of Mewar to the Mughals; Arrival of 1713 – Balaji Vishwanath became Peshwa.
Sir Thomas Roe in India 1714 – Husain Ali appointed Viceroy of the Deccan; The
1616 – The Dutch establish a factory at Surat treaty of the Marathas with Husain Ali
1620 – Capture of Kangra Fort; Malik Ambar revolts in 1715 – Execution of Sikh Leader Bandabahadur.
the Deccan 1717 – Farukh Siyyar Permits East India Company for
1622 – Shah Abbas of persia besieges and takes free trade.
Qandahar 1720 – Accession of Baji Rao Peshwa at Poona
1623 – Shah Jahan revolts against Jahangir 1739 – Nadir Shah conquers Delhi; The Marathas capture
1624 – Suppression of Shah Jahan’s revolt Salsette and Bassein
1626 – Rebellion of Mahabat Khan 1740 – Accession of Balaji Baji Rao Peshwa; The Marathas
1627 – Death of Jahangir; Accession of Shah Jahan invade Arcot
1628 – Shah Jahan proclaimed Emperor 1740 – Aliwardi Khan becomes king of Bengal.
1631 – Death of Shah Jahan’s wife Mumtaz Mahal; The 1742 – Marathas invade Bengal
construction of Taj Mahal 1747 – Ahmad Shah Abdali invades India
1632 – Mughal invasion of Bijapur; Grant of the “Golden
1748 – First Anglo-French war
Firman” to the English Company by the Sultan of
Golkunda 1750 – War of the Deccan and Carnatic Succession;
1633 – End of Ahmednagar Dynasty Death of Nasir Jung
1636 – Aurangzeb appointed Viceroy of Deccan 1751 – British wins Arcot
1639 – Foundation of Fort St. George at Madras by the 1751 – Treaty of Alivardi with the Marathas
English 1756 – Siraj-ud-daulah captures of Calcutta
1646 – Shivaji captures Torna 1757-63 – Third Anglo-French war
1648– Construction of Shahajanabad started by 1757 – Battle of Plassey : The British defeat Siraj-ud-
Shahjahan. daulah
1656 – The Mughals attack Hyderabad and Golkunda; 1758 – Francis wins Fort Saint David.
Annexation of Javli by Shivaji 1760 – Battle of Wandiwash : The British defeat the
1657 – Invasion of Bijapur by Aurangzeb; Aurangzeb French
captures Bidar and Kalyani 1760 – Mir Kasim becomes Nawab of Bengal.
1658 – Coronation of Aurangzeb 1761 – Third battle of Panipat : Ahmed Shah Abdali
1659 – Battles of Khajwah and Deorai defeats the Marathas; Accession of Madhava Rao
1659 – Shivaji kills Afjal Khan Peshwa; Rise of Hyder Ali
1661 – Cession of Bombay to the English; Mughal capture 1762 – Madhava Rao takes power in his own hands.
of Cooch Behar Raghunath Rao approaches Nizam for help.
1664 – Shivaji sacks Surat and assumes royal title 1763 – Expulsion of Mir Qasim. Re-instatement of Mir
1664 – Francis East India Company established. Jafar. Raghunath Rao recaptures power and keeps
1665 – Treaty of Purandar between Shivaji and Mughals Madhava Rao in confinement.
1666 – Death of Shah Jahan; Shivaji’s visit to Agra and 1764 – Battle of Buxar. The English defeat Shah Alam,
his escape Shuja-ud-daula and Mir Qasim.
1670 – Shivaji again sacks Surat 1765 – Grant of the ‘Diwani’ of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha
1674 – Shivaji assumed the title of Chhatrapati to the East India Company by Shah Alam II under

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 Indian History

Treaty of Allahabad. Clive, Company’s Governor in 1788-1795 – Impeachment of Warren Hastings. It was a

INDIAN HISTORY
Bengal. Death of Mir Jafar. failed attempt.
1765-1767 – Clive’s second Governorship. 1789-1803– Marathas control Delhi.
1766 – Nizam cedes Northern Sarkars to the English. 1789 – Tipu attacks Travancore.
1767 – Departure of Clive. Verelst, Company’s Govenor 1790-1792 – Third Mysore War following ‘Triple Alliance’
in Bengal. between English, Marathas and Nizam against Tipu.
1767-1769 – The First Mysore War. Hyder Ali advances 1792 – Tipu surrenders half his kingdom. Ranjit Singh
on Madras and forces the English to enter into a succeeds his father as leader of a Sikh Misl. Sanskrit
defensive alliance. College founded at Varanasi by English resident,
1770 – The Great Bengal Famine Jonathan Duncan “for endearing our Government to the
1771 – Marathas attack Hyder Ali. Marathas occupy native Hindus”.
Delhi and restore Shah Alam who was till then under 1793-1798 – Sir John Shore, Governor-General.
English protection at Allahabad. 1793 – The Permanent Settlement of Bengal.
1772-1785 – Warren Hastings, Governor of Fort William. 1794 – Death of Mahadavji Sindhia at Poona.
1772 –Marathas invade Rohilkhand. 1795 – Battle of Kharda between the Nizam and the
1772-1833 – Raja Rammohan Roy. Marathas.
1773 – The Regulating Act passed, bringing the 1796 – Baji Rao II Peshwa.
Comapny partially under Parliament’s control and the
1797 – Jacobin club sets up by Francis in
Presidencies under Calcutta’s control.
Shrirangpattanam.
1774 – The Marathas again invade Rohilkhand. Nawab of
1797 – Zaman Shah, grandson of Ahmad Shah Abdali,
Awadh assists Rohillas. Marathas withdraw but Rohillas
takes Lahore. Death of Asaf-ud-daula of Awadh and
refuse to pay Rs. 40 lakhs to Awadh as agreed upon.
succession of Wazir Ali.
Establishment of Supreme Court, at Calcutta. Rohilla
War between Rohillas and Nawab of Awadh assisted by 1798 – Wazir Ali deposed and succeeded by Sa’dat Ali at
the English. Rohilla Chief Hafiz Rahmat Khan killed. Awadh.
Rohilkhand annexed by Awadh. 1798-1805 – Wellesley, Governor- General.
1775 – Trial and execution of Nanda Kumar who alleged 1799 – English attack Tipu without provocation. Fourth
that Warren Hastings had taken bribe from the Mysore War. Fall of Shrirangpattnam. Death of Tipu.
Begums of Awadh. English restore previous Hindu dynasty in Mysore.
1775-1782 – The First Anglo- Maratha War. Partition of Mysore. Shah Zaman appoints Ranjit
1776 – The Treaty of Purandhar between the English and Singh as the Governor of Lahore. William Carey opens
Poona’s Ministers, who were opposed to Raghunath Baptist Mission at Serampore.
Rao. 1800 – Death of Nana Phadnavis. Establishment of the
1777 – Birth of Kunwar Singh College of Fort William.
1779 – Convention of Wadgaon stipulating that all 1801 – Annexation of the Carnatic and part of Awadh by
acquisitions of Maratha territory, made since 1773 by the English.
the Company, be restored and the advance of English 1802 – Holkar defeats combined forces of Sindhia and the
force from Bengal be stopped. Peshwa at Poona, Peshwa Baji Rao flees to Bassein and
1780 – Capt. Popham’s capture of Gwalior. signs the Treaty of Bassein with the English.
1780-1784 – Second Mysore War, Both parties agree to 1803 – Treaty of Surji Arjun Village
give up their conquests under the Treaty of Mangalore. 1803 – Occupation of Delhi by Lord Lake, War with
1781 – Deposition of Chait Singh of Banaras. Calcutta, scindia.
Madrasa founded by Warren Hastings to conciliate the 1803-1805 – Second Anglo-Maratha War.
Mohammedans of Calcutta. 1804 – Emperor Shah Alam places himself under British
1782 – Asaf-ud-daula exports money from the Begums protection. Lake’s war with Holkar.
of Awadh with the English help. The Treaty of Salbai 1805 – Siege of Bharatpur fails and Lake makes peace
between the English and the Marathas, Death of Hyder with the Raja.
Ali. 1805-1807 – George Barlow, Governor-General.
1782-1798 – Tipu Sultan, ruler of Mysore. 1806 – Mohd, Akbar II succeeds his father Shah Alam II.
1783 – Fox’s India Bills give more powers to Parliament 1807-1813 – Lord Minto I, Governor-General,
and to the Governor-General. 1809 – Treaty of Amritsar-Ranjit Singh and British sign
1784 – Treaty of Mangalore between Tipu and the English treaty of perpetual amity.
who promise not to assist enemies of Tipu, in return 1809-1811 – Ranjit Singh takes Kangra from the Gurkh
for Tipu giving up English territory. Pitt’s Act passed, 1813-1823 – Lord Hastings, Governor-General.
setting up Board of Control for East India Company.
1814-1816 – Anglo-Gurkha War resulting in the cession
Asiatic Society of Bengal founded.
of Garhwal and Kumaon by the Gurkhas to the
1786-1793 – Lord Cornwalis, Governor-General. English.
1786 – Marathas and Nizam raid Mysore. 1817-1818 – Pindari War-Peshwar defeat at Kirkee.
1787 – Treaty between Tipu, Marathas and Nizam, 1817-1905 – Debendranath Tagore who reorganised the
Marathas the gainers. Brahmo Samaj.
1788 – Ghulam Kadir Rohilla seizes Delhi and blinds Shah
1817-1898 – Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, founder of Aligarh
Alam II. Bedar Bakht put on Delhi’s throne.
Muslim University.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

1817-1819 – Last Anglo-Maratha War. Hostile princes like 1844 – Lord Hardinge decides to employ, in Government
INDIAN HISTORY

Sindhia and Holkar become allies of the English. service, Indians educated in English schools.
1818 – First Bengali newspaper, the weekly Samachar 1845 – First Anglo-Sikh War.
Darpan published by the Baptist Mission, Serampore. 1846 – Defeat of the Sikh Army, Treaty of Lahore.
1819-1827 – Elphinstone, Governor of Bombay. 1847 – Engineering College founded in Roorkee.
1820 – Munro, Governor of Madras. 1848-1856 – Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General.
1821 – Sanskrit college founded at Poona. 1848 – Annexation of Satara. Rising at Multan.
1823-1828 – Lord Amherst, Governor-General. 1848-1849–Second Anglo-Sikh War.
1823 – Raja Rammohan Roy’s memorial to Government, 1849 – Defeat of Sikhs and annexation of the Punjab.
protesting against the Press Ordinance of 1823. Opening of a Hindu Girls’ Schools in Calcutta by
1824 – Mutiny at Barrackpore. Large numebr of Indian Drinkwater Bethune. Dalhousie’s proposal to end
soldiers killed on parade for demanding more pay for Mughal dynasty in Delhi.
fighting in Burma. 1851 – Foundation of “British Indian Association” in
1824-1826 – First Burmese War. Arakan and Tenasserim Calcutta.
annexed. 1852 – Second Anglo-Burmese War. Annexation of
1824-1883 – Swami Dayanand Saraswati, founder of Arya Rangoon and Pegu.
Samaj. 1853 – Railway opened from Bombay to Thane. Telegraph
1826 – English caputre Bharatpur. Conquest of Assam by line from Calcutta to Agra. Annexation of Nagpur
East India Company. Treaty of Yandbu. and Jhansi. Cession of Berar by Nizam. Competitive
1828-1835 – Lord William Bentinck, Governor-General. examiantion for Civil Service.
1829 – Brahmo Samaj founded by Raja Rammohan Roy, 1855 – Santhal insurrection in Bihar. Beginning of the
Prohibition of Sati. jute industry in India. Foundation of Anjuman-i-Islami
in Calcutta.
1829-1837–Suppression of Thuggee.
1856 – Annexation of Awadh. University Act. Hindu
1830-1833 – Raja Rammohan Roy visits England.
Widow’s Remarriage Act.
1831 – Raja of Mysore deposed and its administration 1856-1862 – Lord Canning, Governor-General and the
taken over by the Company. Meeting of Ranjit Singh first viceroy of India.
and William Bentinck at Rupar.
1857 – Universities set up at Bombay, Calcutta, and
1832 – Annexation of Jaintia. Madras.
1833 – Abolition of the Company’s trading rights. 1857-1858 – Revolt of 1857. Revolt at Meerut begins on
Legislative power centralised. Indian Law Commission May 10, 1857.
appointed. 1858 – British India placed under the direct Government of
1834 – Annexation of Coorg. Maculay, Law member. the Crown. Queen Victoria’s Proclamation.
Government establishes tea garden. Formation of Agra 1859 – Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
Province. 1859-1861 – Indigo Riots in Bengal.
1835-1836 – Sir Charles Metcalf, Governor-General. 1860 – Introduction of Budget.
1835 – Macaulay’s Education Resolution. English made 1861 – Indian Councils Act. Indian High Courts Act.
official language instead of Persian. Abolition of Press Archaeological Survey of India set up.
restrictions and inland transit duties.Company strikes 1862 – Penal Code introduced. Amalgamation of the
its own coins omitting Mughal emperor’s name. Supreme and Sadar courts into High Courts.
1836-1842 – Lord Auckland, Governor-General. 1862-1863 – Lord Elgin, Viceroy.
1837 – Bahadur Shah II succeeded by Akbar II. 1863 – Death of Amir Dost Muhammad. Afghan War of
1838 – Tripartite Treaty among Shah Shuja, Ranjit Singh Succession. Sher Ali, Amir of Afghanistan receives an
and the English. annual grant of six lakh of rupees.
1838-1884 – Kesav Chandra Sen, another pillar of 1863 – Formation of “Mohmmaden Association” in
Brahmo Samaj. Calcutta, Establishment of Patna College.
1839 – Death of Ranjit Singh.New treaty forced on the 1863-1902 – Swami Vivekananda.
Amirs of Sind. Work begun on G.T. Road, between 1864-1869 – Sir John Lawrence, Viceroy.
Calcutta and Delhi. English declare Shah Shuja, Amir 1865 – Telegraphic communication with Europe opened.
of Kabul. 1866 – Establishment of Allahabad High Court.
1839-1842 – The First Anglo-Afghan War. 1869 – Ambala Conference with Amir Sher Ali. Amir
1840 – Amir Dost Mohammad surrenders. Yakub’s rebellion in Afghanistan. Opening of Suez
1841 – Foundation of “Desh Hiteshi Sabha” in Calcutta. Canal. Birth of M.K. Gandhi (2 October).
1842 – Simla Proclamation of Ellenborough. Govenror- 1869-1872 – Lord Mayo, Viceroy.
General agrees to recognise the Amir of Afghans’ 1870 – Mayo’s Provincial Settlement. Erection of Red Sea
choice. telegraph.
1842-1844 – Lord Ellenborough, Governor-General. 1872 – First census in India
1843 – Return of Dost Muhammad to Afghanistan as 1872 – Kuka Revolt.
its Amir. Conquest of Sind by the British. Slavery 1872 – Assassination of Lord Mayo
prohibited in British India. 1872-1876 – Lord Northbrook, Viceroy.
1844-1848 – Lord Hardinge, Governor-General. 1874 – Bihar Famine.

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 Indian History

1875 – M.A.O. College, Aligarh founded by Syed Ahmad Anglo-Russian Convention. Mrs. Annie Besant succeeds

INDIAN HISTORY
Khan. Mayo College, Ajmer, opened. Visit of the Prince Col. Olcott as President of Theosophical Society.
of Wales. Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda. 1908 – Newspapers Act. Tilak convicted of sedition (July
1876 – Occupation of Quetta. Indian Association of 22).
Calcutta. The Queen of England proclaimed Empress 1908 – Khudiram Bose sentenced to death.
of India. 1908 – Imprisonment to Gandhi (First time)
1876-1880 – Lord Lytton, Viceroy. 1909 – Morley-Minto Reforms. Appointment of S.P. Sinha
1877 – Lytton’s Delhi Durbar. to the Governor-General’s Council. Indian Councils Act
1878 – Vernacular Press Act. passed (May 21). Madan Lal Dhingra shoots dead Curzon
1878-1880 – Second Afghan War. Flight of Sher Ali. Whyllie in London (July 1).
1878 – Appointment of Famine Commission under the 1909 – Gandhi writes book “Hind Swaraj”
presidency of Richard Strachey. 1910-1916–Lord Hardinge II, Viceroy.
1879 – Madam Blavatsky (Russian) and Col. Olcott 1910 – Death of Edward III and accession of George V.
(American) come to India from USA and set up 1911 – Delhi Durbar. Partition of Begal modified. Census
Theosophical Society at Adyar, Madras. of India. Transfer of Capital to Delhi announced.
1880 – Abdur Rahman recognised as Amir of Afghanistan. 1912 – Removal of the Imperial Capital of Delhi. Province
Famine Commission. of Delhi created by a proclamation, Attempt of Lord
1880-1884 – Lord Ripon, Viceroy. Hardinge’s life.
1881 – Factory Act. Rendition of Mysore. 1913 – Education Resolution of the Government of India.
1882 – Repeal of Vernacular Press Act. Nobel Prize for Rabindranath Tagore.
1882 – Hunter Commission . Indian Education 1913 – Formation of “Gadar Party” in San Francisco.
Commission. University of Punjab set up. 1914-1918 – First World War.
1883 – Indian National Conference held in Calcutta. 1914 – Tilak released from Mandale Prison.
1883-1884 – Illbert Bill controversy. 1915 – Gandhi arrives in India (January). Defence of
1884-1888 – Lord Dufferin, Viceroy. India Act. Death of Gokhale (February 19). Mrs. Besant
1885 – First Meeting of the Indian National Congress. announces the formation of the Home Rule League
Bengal Tenancy Act. Bengal Local Self-Government (September 25).
Act. Third Anglo-Burmese War. 1916– Lucknow Pact of Indian National Congress and
1886 – Annexation of Upper Burma. Ramakrishna All-India Muslim League. Foundation of Women’s
Mission founded. Delimitation of Afghan northern University at Poona. Banaras Hindu University
boundary. established at Varanasi.
1888–University set up at Allahabad. 1916 – Formation of Home Rule League by Tilak and Mrs.
1888 – Establishment of “United Indian Patriotic Besant.
Association” by colonel Beck. 1916-1921–Lord Chelmsford, Viceroy.
1888-1894 – Lord Landsdowne, Viceroy. 1917 – Sadler Commission. British declaration on Indian
1889 – Second visit of the Prince of Wales. self-government. Montague becomes Secretary of State,
1891 – Factory Act, Age of Consent Act. Manipur visits India. Announcement of granting of responsible
Rebellion. government. Gandhi tried for Champaran Satyagraha
1892 – Indian Councils Act introduces the principle of (April 18). Mrs. Besant interned by Madras Government
election. (June 15).
1893 – Durand’s mission to Kabul. Mrs. Besant arrives 1918 – Indians made eligible for King’s Commission,
in India. Rowlatt (Sedition) Committee submits its report.
1894-1899 – Lord Elgin II, Viceroy. 1919 – Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. Rowlatt Act
1895 – Shivaji Festival started by Bal Gangadhar Tilak. passed. Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar
1897 – Frontier Risings. Plague at Bombay. Indian (April 13). Third Afghan War. Royal Proclamation.
Education Service set up. Government of India Act, 1919 passed.
1897 – Tilak Sentenced to 18 months imprisonment. 1920 – Khilafat Movement and Non- Cooperation
1898 – Ramakrishna Math and Mission founded at Belur Movement. Lord Sinha, Governor of Bihar and Orissa.
by Swami Vivekananda. Mahatma Gandhi Leads the Congress. All India Trade
1899-1905 – Lord Curzon, Viceroy. Union Congress founded. Aligarh Muslim University
1900 – Famine Commission, Land Alienation Act, North- established.
West Frontier Province created. 1921 – Chamber of Princes inaugurated. Moplah Rebellion.
1902 – Gurukul Kangri started at Haridwar. Prince of Wales visits India. Census of India.
1904 – Act passed empowering the Universities to appoint 1921-1926 – Lord Reading, Viceroy.
professors and lecturers. Cooperative Societies Act. 1921 – Harappa excavations begin.
Archaeological Department established by Curzon. The 1922 – Resignation of Montague. Mohenjodaro
Youghsband Expedition to Tibet. excavations begin. Chauri Chaura incident.
1905 – First Partition of Bengal. Morley, Secretary of State Visvabharati University started by Rabindranath
for India. Tagore.
1905-1910 – Lord Minto II, Viceroy. 1923 – Swarajists in India Councils. Certification of Salt
1906 – Muslim League formed at Dhacca (Dhaka). Tax. Tariff Board set up. Question of Indianising the
Congress declaration regarding ‘Swaraj’. command of certain regiments.
1907 – Surat Congress, Moderate-extremist clash. The

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

1923 – Foundation of Indian Party by Madan Mohan Congress Ministries formed in seven out of eleven
INDIAN HISTORY

Malviya. Provinces. In NWFP the pro-Congress Red Shirt Party of

1924 – Kanpur Conspiracy Case. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan wins majority.
1924 – Gandhi became president of Congress session at 1938 – V.D. Savarkar elected President of the Hindu
Belgao (Belgaum) Mahasabha. Death of Sarat Chandra Chatterjee
1925 – All-India Depressed Class Association. Cotton (born 1876) and of Sir Muhammad Iqbal (born 1877).
excise abolished. Reforms. Enquiry Report. Death of Subhash Chandra Bose elected President of the Indian
Chittaranjan Das (C.R.) Sikh Gurdwaras Act passed to National Congress.
enable Sikhs to take over control of Gurdwaras from 1939 – Second world war begins. Subhash Chandra Bose
Mahants. Vithalbhai J. Patel elected as the first Indian elected president of Congress again but resigned latter.
President of the Legislative Assembly. 1940 – Proposal of separate Pakistan first passed in
1926 – Trade Union Act passed. Swami Shraddhanand Lahore session by the Muslim League.
Assassinated (December 23). 1940 – Individual Satyagraha started. Vinoba Bhave was
1926-1931 – Lord Irwin, Viceroy. the first Satyagrahi.
1927 – Indian Navy Act. Appointment of Simon 1941 – Subhash Chandra Bose escaped to Berlin from
Calcutta.
Commission.
1942 – Quit India Movement started (8 August, 1942).
1927 – Foundation of All India Woman Conference.
1943 – Subhash Chandra Bose took the charge of Azad
1928 – Simon Commission comes to India. All Parties’
Hind Fauj in Singapore and set up Indian Provisional
Conference set up. Nehru Report. Royal Commission on
Government.
Agriculture appointed.
1944-1947 – Lord Wavell, Viceroy.
1928 – Foundation of Hindustan Socialist Republic
1944 – Gandhi-Jinnah talks opened in Bombay
Association (HSRA)
on Rajagopalachari’s proposals for solution of
1929– Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutt drop bombs constitution deadlock (September 9). Talks break
in the Legislative Assembly (April 8). Establishment of down on Pakistan issue (September 27). INA reaches
the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research. Meerut Indian soil.
Conspiracy case trial begins. 1945 – Labour Government in Britain. Lord Wavell’s
1929 – Lahore session of Congress presided by Pt. JL b ro ad cast anno u ncing British Go vern m e n t ’ s
Nehru, Passed a resolution declaring Poorna Swaraj determination to go ahead with the task of fitting
(Complete Independence) to be the congress objective. India for self-government (September 19). End of
1930-1932 – Boycott of the Simon Commission, Civil Second World War. Germany surrenders (May). Japan
Disobedience Movement. surrenders (June) INA Surrenders to the British (May),
1930 – Sharda Act Passed. Congress leaders released (June). First trial of INA men
(November 5).
1930 – Gandhijis Dandi March, Rebellion in Burma.
1945 – Elections to the Central Legislative Assembly held
Round Table Conference (First Session). January 26,
(December).
Independence Pledge.
1946 – Mutiny of the Indian Naval ratings in Bombay
1931 – Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed. Census of India. Round
(February 18). Violence in Bengal. Announcement
Table Conference (Second Session). Publication of the
of special Mission of Cabinet Ministers of India
Royal Labour Commission’s Report.
(February 19). Cabinet Mission’s plans announced
1931 – Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged (June 16). Muslim League decides to participate in
till death on March 23 at Lahore Jail. Interim Government. Congress announces acceptance
1931-1936–Lord Willingdon, Viceroy. of the longterm part of May 16 plan, but refuses
1932 – Second Civil Disobedience Movement. Round invitation to participate in Interim Government (June
Table Conference (Third Session), Communal Award 25). Jawaharlal Nehru takes over Presidentship of
announced. Poona Pact signed. Indian Military the Congress (July 6). Muslim League withdraws its
Academy, Dehra Dun set up. acceptance and decides on a policy of direct action (July
1934 – Civil Disobedience Movement called off. Bihar 29). This leads to outbreak of mob violence in Calcutta
Earthquake (January 16). (August 16). Interim Government formed (September
1934 – Foundation of congress socialist party in Patna, 2). Muslim League members sworn in (October 26).
Foundation of Royal Indian Navy. Constituent Assembly’s first meeting (December 9).
1935 – Indo-British Agreement signed. Government 1947-1948 – Lord Mountbatten, Viceroy.
of India Act, 1935 passed by British Parliament 1947 – British Government’s historic announcement of
(August 2). transfer of power to “responsible hands”, not later
1936 – Death of King George V (January 21). Accession than 1948 (February 20). Announcement of Lord
and abdication of Edward VIII. Accession of George VI. Mountbatten’s plan for Partition of India (June 3).
1936-1944 – Lord Linlithgow, Viceroy. Indian Independence Act passed (July). Creation of
1937 – Inauguration of Provincial Autonomy (April 1). free India and Pakistan (August 14-15, 1947).

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 Indian History

achievements etc.

INDIAN HISTORY
SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY ³³ The two great epics, the Ramayana and the
1. Literary Sources : Vedic, Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and Mahabharata, may also be used as a source. It
other literature and foreign accounts. is generally held that there have been constant
2. Archaeological : epigraphic, numismatic and interpolations in these works.
architectural remains, archaeological explorations and ³³ The Puranas may not satisfy the modern definition
excavations of historio-graphy or those who wrote it may not
™™ study of development of scripts: palaeography. have been aware of the “historian’s crafts”, but they
™™ study of inscriptions: epigraphy. seem fully aware of the purpose of their work and the
purpose of history itself.
™™ study of coins: numismatics
™™ study of monuments, material remains: Archeology. RAMAYANA, VALMIKI
LITERARY SOURCES ³³ Composition started in 5BC. passed through five
stage. fifth stage in 12AD.
INDIAN TRADITION OF HISTORY WRITING ³³ 24000 verses.
³³ As a whole, this text seems to have been composed
³³ Many foreign scholars opined that Indians had no
sense of history writing and whatever was written later than Mahabharata.
in the name of history is nothing more than a story
MAHABHARATA, VYAS
without any sense.
³³ But this appears to be a very harsh judgment. Because ³³ Reflects the state of affairs between 70BC to 4AD.
the knowledge of history was given a very high place in ³³ Originally 8800 verses, collection dealing with victory.
ancient India. It was accorded sanctity equal to a Veda. ³³ Later raised to 24000 verses- came to be known as
³³ Atharvaveda, Brahmans and Upanishads include Bharata after Bharat tribe
Itihas-Purana as one of the branches of knowledge. ³³ Mahabharata also known as Satasahasri Samhita.
³³ Kautilya in his Arthashastra (fourth century B.C.) ³³ Didactic portion from Post Maurya, Gupta times.
advises the king to devote a part of his time every day
for hearing the narrations of history. PURANIC LITERATURE: LIMITATIONS
1. Most of the ancient literature is religious in nature,
PURANIC LITERATURE and those which are claimed to be history by Indians,
i.e., puranic and epic literature, contain no definite
³³ The Puranic literature is very vast. dates for events and kings.
³³ 18 main Puranas, 18 subsidiary Puranas and a large 2. In the Puranas and epics, we find genealogies of kings
number of other books. and sometimes their achievements. But it is difficult
³³ According to the Puranas, following are the subject to arrange them in chronological order.
matters of history : 3. Puranic literature helps tracing Lord Ram of Ayodhya
³³ Narration of Puranas were a part of the annual ritual around 2000B.C. but the extensive exploration in
in every village and town during the rainy season Ayodhya donot show any settlement around that
and at the time of festivals. It was treated as a date. Similarly, Lord Krishna can be traced to 200
powerful vehicle of awakening of cultural and social BC-300AD. But excavations in Mathura, donot attest
consciousness. his presence. Counter argument: The epics Ramayana
³³ In all the Puranas royal genealogies are dealt with and Mahabharata have undergone several editions
the reign of Parikshit, the grandson of Arjun, as a through ages, hence difficult to tie up with specific
benchmark. era.
³³ All the earlier dynasties and kings have been
mentioned in past tense. VEDIC LITERATURE
³³ While the latter kings and dynasties have been ³³ The Four Vedas : We cannot find much trace of
narrated in future tense. political history in the Vedas, but can have reliable
³³ This may be because of the fact that the coronation of glimpses of the culture and civilization of the Vedic
Parikshit marks the beginning of Kali Age. period.
³³ Many scholars think that perhaps the Puranas were ³³ Vedic literature are entirely in a different language,
completed during the reign of Parikshit. which can be called the Vedic language. Its vocabulary
³³ In the context of the Puranas it may be remembered contains a wide range of meaning and at times
that in ancient India, History was looked upon as a different in grammatical usages.
means to illuminate the present and future in the ³³ It has a definite mode of pronunciation in which
light of the past. emphasis changes the meaning entirely.
³³ The purpose of history was to understand and ³³ Four vedas in the chronological order are ; Rig veda,
inculcate a sense of duty and sacrifice by individuals Yajur veda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda.
to their families, by the families to their clans, by the VEDANGA
clans to their villages and by the villages to Janapada
and Rashtra and ultimately to the whole humanity. Six vedangas (limbs of Vedas) were evolved for the proper
understanding of the Vedas.
³³ History was not meant to be an exhaustive compendium
of the names of the kings and dynasties and their 1. Siksha (phonetics)
2. Kalpa (rituals)

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

3. Vyakarna (grammar) DHAMASUTRAS AND THE SMRITIS

INDIAN HISTORY

4. Nirukta (etymology) ³³ These are rules and regulations for the general public
5. Chhanda (metrics) and the rulers
6. Jyotisha (astronomy) ³³ It can be termed in the modern concept as the
constitution and the law books for the ancient
SUTRA Indian polity and society. These are also called
³³ Each vedanga has developed a credible literature Dharmashastras.
around it which are in the sutra form i.e., precepts. ³³ These were compiled between 600 and 200 B.C.
³³ This is a very precise and exact form of expression in ³³ Manusmriti and Arthashastra are prominent among
prose which was developed by the ancient Indians. them.
LATER VEDIC LITERATURE KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHASTRA
Brahmanas elaborate on vedic rituals. ³³ A book on statecraft was written in the Maurya period.
Aranyakas give discourses on different spiritual and ³³ The text is divided into 15 chapters known as books.
philosophical problems.
³³ Different books deal with different subject matter
Upanishads Secret knowledge imparted by the guru concerning polity, economy and society.
to his pupils. It specify philosophical ³³ Even before the final version of Arthashastra was
knowledge and spritual learning.
written in the fourth century B.C. by Kautilya, there
Sulvasutra prescribe measurements for sacrificial appeared a tradition of writing on and teaching of
altars. Mark the beginning of study of statecrafts because Kautilya acknowledges his debt
geometry and maths. to his predecessors in the field.
Srautasutra account of royal coronation ceremonies. ³³ Mudrarakshusha, by Vishakhadatta, gives a glimpse
Grihyasutra domestic rituals with birth, naming, of society and culture.
marriage, funeral etc.
NOTABLE WRITERS
JAIN AND BUDDHIST LITERATURE Kalidasa Malavikagnimitra tells the love story
literature written in notes of Malavika a maiden of Queen and
Agrimitra the son of Pushya mitra
Jain Prakrit was a form of Sanskrit language Shunga dynasty which followed the
Buddhist Pali As the form of Prakrit language Mauryas. Abhgyanshakuntalam:
which was in vogue in glimpse of Guptas.
Magadha/South Bihar. Bhasa and Sudraka written plays based on historical
Most of the early Buddhist events.
literature is written in this Banabhatta Harshacharita throws light on many
language. historical facts
With the Buddhist monks it Vakpati wrote Gaudauaho, based on the
reached Sri Lanka, where it is a exploits of Yasovarman of Kanauj.
living language. Bilhana Vikramankadevacharita describes
Provides details of contemporary the victories of the later Chalukya
kings in Magadha, North Bihar king Vikramaditya.
and East UP. Kalhana His book Rajatarangini. It is a
Ashokan edicts are also in this chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir.
language. It was written in Sanskrit language.
³³ Since the modern historians have discarded most of BIOGRAPHICAL WRITINGS
the dynasties mentioned in the Puranas, Mahavira
and Buddha are considered historical personalities, Banabhatta’s 7th AD·
only those portions of the puranic dynastic lists have Harshacharita
Describes the early career of
been accepted which are supplemented and supported
by the Buddhist and Jaina literature. Harshavardhana- courtlife
and social life in his age.
JATAKA STORIES Sandhyakara Nandi Ramacharita. 12th AD·
³³ These are Buddhist books. conflict between Kaivarta
³³ Before he was born as Gautama, the Buhddha passed peasants and Pala prince
through more Than 550 births, in many cases in Ramapala. Prince wins.
animal-form.
Bilhana’s Vikramaditya, the sixth A.D.
³³ Each birth story is called Jataka. There are more than
550 such stories. Vikramanakadevacharita
³³ Throw light on socio-economic conditions between Atula Mushika Vamsha- this
5BC to 2BC. dynasty ruled in Northern
Kerala.

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 Indian History

³³ Kumarapalacharita of Jayasimha,

INDIAN HISTORY
MEGASTHENESE :
³³ Kumarapatacharita or Duayashraya Mahakauya of
³³ The Greek ambassador (in the court of Chandragupta
Hemachandra,
Maurya c. 324-300 B.C.)
³³ Harnmirakavya of Nayachandra,
³³ Megasthenese wrote extensively in a book called Indica
³³ Navasahasankacharita of Padmagupta, which is no longer available to us.
³³ Bhojaprabandha of Billal,
³³ We know about Megasthenese’s Writings through
³³ Prithvirajacharit of Chandbardai. various extracts of the writings of Diodorous, Strabo
³³ Limitations : These writers made lot of exaggerations and Arrian.
to please their patron kings.
³³ These fragments of Indica, provide valuable information
LIMITATIONS OF INDIAN LITERARY SOURCES on Maurya Administration, social classes and
1. Printing was not known. Everything was written on economic activities.
soft materials like birch bark, palm leaf, paper etc. ³³ The existence of a list of 153 kings whose reigns had
2. Since the old manuscripts become fragile in course of covered a period of about 6053 years uptill then.
time, they had to be manually copied. But At the time ³³ Indica is not free from credulity and exaggerations.
of copying, some errors tend to creep in or sometimes ³³ Megasthenese had little understanding of Indian
even additions are made. society and social systems. For example, he mentions
3. Alexander’s Invasion finds no mention in Indian that Indian society comprised of seven castes (jatis).
sources. We’ve to reconstruct his exploits entirely on ³³ Discrepancies because he did not know any Indian
basis of Greek sources. language, was not a part of Indian society and psyche.
4. Many of them religious in nature- while they give some
idea on prevailing social conditions but hard to put it GREEK WRITERS
in context of time and place. Darius India figures in his foreign inscriptions.
Ctesian got Info of India from through the Persian
SANGAM LITERATURE sources.
³³ Earliest Tamil text Herodotus in his “Histories” gives us much information
³³ Kings and chiefs patronized poets. about Indo-Persian relations.
³³ These poets assembled in colleges and compiled Arrian detailed account of the invasion of India by
poems over a period of 3 to 4 centuries. This Alexander on the basis of information from
those who accompanied the campaign.
is Sangam literature.
anonymous Book: “Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” by an
³³ Describes many kings and dynasties of South India.
anonymous author, who was a Greek, settled
³³ This literature generally describes events upto the in Egypton the basis of his personal voyage
fourth century A.D. of Indian coast in about A.D.80. He gives
³³ Total 30,000 lines of poetry valuable information about the Indian coasts.
³³ Arranged in eight Anthologies called Ettuttokai Ptolemy wrote a geographical treatise on India in the
³³ Two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (18 lower second century A.D.
collections) and the Pattupattu (ten songs). The former GREEK LIMITATIONS
is older than the latter. 1. Most of the Greek writing about India are based on
³³ Some kings and events are supported by inscriptions secondary sources resulting in numerous errors and,
also. contradictions.
2. Except for Megasthenese all others have touched
FOREIGN ACCOUNTS Indian history in the true sense very marginally.
3. They were ignorant of the language and the customs
GREEK AMBASSADORS :
of the country and their information is full of
³³ Ambassadors were sent to Pataliputra by Greek kings. unbelievable facts and fancies.
³³ Notable: Megasthenese, Deimachus and Dionysios. 4. The works of Megasthenese and other Greeks of those
³³ They mention Sandrokottas (Chandragupta Maurya)- who accompanied Alexander, have been lost and are
help fixing his date of accession at 322BC. This helps available only in fragments as quoted in later works.
as sheet-anchor in Ancient Indian Chronology.
CHINESE TRAVELERS
HISTORIANS : ³³ visited India from time to time- as Buddhist pilgrims
and therefore their accounts are somewhat tilted
³³ Notable : Herodotus, Megasthenese, Nearchus,
towards Buddhism. Three important pilgrims were
Plutarch, Arrian, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, and Ptolemy
(Geography). NOTABLE CHINESE WRITERS
³³ They were concerned mostly with the north western Fa-Hien Came in India in 399 A.D. in the
part of India and primarily the areas which were either reign of Gupta ruler Chandragupta II
part of the Persian and Greek Satrapies or Alexander’s ‘Vikramadity’ He was the first Chinese
campaign. travaler to come to India.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

Hiuen-Tsang 7 th C e n t u r y I n t h e a g e o f ³³ And its existing undergoes decacy into an isotope C12.

INDIAN HISTORY

Harshavardhana and some other ³³ We can measure the decaying of C14 to C12 and identify
contemporary kings of Northern India. the number of years elapsed.
I-tsing 7th Century
INSCRIPTIONS
CHINESE TRAVELERS: LIMITATIONS
³³ One of the most important and reliable sources of
1. Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang have given somewhat history writing are inscriptions.
exaggerated account of Buddhism during the period ³³ An inscription, being a contemporary document, is
of their visit. free from later interpolations.
2. For example Hiuen-Tsang depicts Harsha as a ³³ It comes in the form it was composed in and engraved
follower of Buddhism but in his epigraphic records for the first time. It is almost impossible to add
Harsha mentions himself as a devotee of Siva. something to it at a later stage.
3. Counter argument : Indian rulers always have, like ³³ The earliest system of writings is found in the
their subjects, been multi-religious people, it is not Harappan seals. (2500BC) However, there has been
difficult for a foreigner to be confused. no success in deciphering it. They are pictographic
script- ideas/objects expressed in form of picture.
ARAB HISTORIAN: AL-BERUNI ³³ Thus, the writing system of the Ashokan inscriptions
³³ Abu Rihan better known as Al-Beruni. (in Brahmi script) are considered to be the earliest
³³ Born in central Asia in 973 A.D. and died in Ghazni (3rd AD).
(present-day Afghanistan) in 1048 A.D. ³³ Ashoka’s views on dhamma and conquests of
³³ Contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni. Samudragupta, and several others would have
³³ When Mahmud conquered part of central Asia, he took remained unknown without their epigraphs.
Al-Beruni with him. ³³ Limitation of inscription: they never speak of defeats/
weaknesses.
³³ Though Al-Beruni deplored his loss of freedom, he
appreciated the favourable circumstances for his work. ASHOKAN INSCRIPTION
³³ Unlike Megasthenese, Al-Beruni studied Sanskrit ³³ These were recorded in different years of his reign and
language and tried to gain a precise knowledge of
are called edicts because they are in the form of the
Indian sources. The list of works consulted by him
king’s order or desire.
is long and impressive. His observations range from
philosophy, religion, culture, society to science, ³³ They also give a glimpse of Ashoka’s image and
literature, art and medicine. personality as a benevolent king concerned with the
³³ Al-Beruni’s work can be termed as fairly objective and welfare of not only his subjects but also of the whole
wherever he has faltered- is not because of any other humanity.
reason but his lack of proper understanding. ³³ These are found written in four scripts.
³³ Does not give any political information of his times.
³³ Comparatively free from religious or racial biases. LANGUAGE USED IN ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS
³³ While Al-Beruni also possess a well defined religious
Empire Script used in Ashokan Edicts
and hermeneutics awareness, he was essentially a
scholar and not driven to preach his faith. He was Afghanistan 1. Aramaic 2. Greek scripts
essentially a scholar and not driven to preach his faith. Pakistan 3. Kharoshthi. Kharoshthi
³³ However, sometime Al-Beruni does show his evolved on the Varnantata
annoyance when he says sarcastically, “… the Hindus system of the Indian languages
believe that there is no country but theirs, no nation is written from right to left.
like theirs, no kings like theirs, no religion like theirs,
no science like theirs”. Kalsi in the north 4. Brahmi.
in Uttaranchal upto ³³ written from left to right.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES Mysore in the south.
³³ Its individual letters were
modified century after century
MEGALITHS :
and through this process all
³³ Some people in South India, buried their dead with the scripts of India, including
tools, weapons, potteries etc. Such graves were Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and
encircled by a big piece of stone. These structures Malayalam in the south and
are called Megaliths. Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla., etc.
in the north have developed
CARBON-DATING PRINCIPLE from it.
³³ Half life period during which, half of the material ³³ This modification in the
decays out. form of individual letters
³³ Half-life of C14 is 5730 years. gave another advantage. It
³³ Carbon is associated with all living beings. has made it roughly possible
³³ When an object ceases to live, it stops receiving fresh to ascertain the time or
supply of Carbon C14 the century in which the
inscription was written.

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 Indian History

FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ ³³ Some coins were issued by merchants and guilds with

INDIAN HISTORY
³³ He found an Ashokan Pilar inscription from Topra, permission of rulers prove that commerce had became
Haryana, brought it to Delhi and asked Pandits to important in later history of Ancient India.
decipher it. They failed. ³³ Largest number of coins found in post-Maurya period
³³ Later, British started epigraphic studies in the late trade had increased.
eighteenth century and deciphered it. ³³ Coins found in systematic excavations are less
in number but are very valuable because their
JAMES PRINSEP chronology and cultural context can be fixed precisely.
³³ Made a complete chart of Ashokan Alphabets in 1837.
After this the study of epigraphs became a subject in TYPES OF COINS
itself. India is particularly rich in epigraphic material.
PUNCH-MARKED
He was the first person to decipher Ashokan Edicts.
³³ Earliest coins
³³ Inscriptions of the Indo-Greeks, Saka-kshatrapas and
Kushanas adopt Indian names within two or three ³³ Punch-marked coins are the earliest coins of India
generations. These inscriptions show them engaged in and they bear only symbols on them.
social and religious welfare activities like any other Indian. ³³ Each symbol is punched separately, which sometimes
overlap the another.
SANSKRIT
³³ They do not bear any inscription, or legend on them·
³³ Most of the Gupta epigraphs give genealogy. This These have been found throughout the country from
became the practice of the subsequent dynasties. Taxila to Magadha to Mysore or even further south.
They took the opportunity to give an account of their ³³ The earliest punch-marked coins were made largely
conquests and achievements of their predecessor of silver, though a few copper coins also existed.
including mythology of their origins. Some gold punch-marked coins are also reported to
³³ Sanskrit came to occupy a prune place since the have been found, but they are very rare and their
Gupta period. authenticity is doubtful.
J u n a g a r h R o c k of Rudradaman is considered INDO-GREEK
inscription as an early example of chaste ³³ It were the Indo-Greek rulers who first of all issued
Sanskrit, written in mid second the gold coin.
century A.D.
³³ The portrait or bust of the king on the observe side
Allahabad Pillar enumerates the achievements of appear to be real portraits.
Samudragupta ³³ On the reverse some deity is depicted.
³³ From these coins we know that than forty indo-Greek
Aihole inscription. Chalukya king Pulkeshin II gives
rulers who ruled in a small north-western region of
a dynastic genealogy.
India.
Gwalior inscription of Bhoja gives full account of ³³ We know about several Saka-Parthians kings about
his predecessors and their whom we would have no information from any other
achievements. sources.

From the inscriptions we also KUSHANAS

came to know that Learned ³³ Kushanas issued mostly gold coins and numerous
Brahmans (called Agraharas) copper coins which are found in most parts of north
were given grant of land, free from
India up to Bihar.
all taxes.
³³ Indian influence can be seen on them from the very
COINS/NUMISMATICS beginning.
³³ We could not have known about most of the Indo
³³ The coins of Vima Kadphises bear the figure of Siva
Greek, Saka-Parthian and Kushana kings without
standing beside a bull. He was the first person who
numismatic sources.
issued gold coins on a large scale.
³³ After inscriptions, coins/Numismatics is considered as
³³ In the legend on these coins the king calls himself
the second most important source for reconstructing
Maheshwara, i.e. devotee of Siva.
the history of India.
³³ Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva etc. all have this
³³ Ancient India did not have banking system. People
kept money in earthen posts as precious hoards. depiction on their coins.
Later they’re found while digging field or excavating ³³ We find many Indian gods and goddesses depicted
foundation for the construction of a building, making on Kushana coins besides many Persian and Greek
road etc. deities.

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GUPTAS
INDIAN HISTORY

Chalukyas of Vishnuvardhana Vengi

³³ Issued largest number of Gold coins. Vengi
³³ Guptas appear to have succeeded Kushanas in the
Chalukyas of Vijayaditya Manyakhet
tradition of minting coins. They completely Indianised
Kalyani
their coinage
³³ Kings are depicted engaged in activities like hunting Rashtrakutas Dantidurg Manyakhet
a lion or rhinoceros, holding a bow or battle- Slave Dynasty Qutubuddin Aibak Delhi
axes, playing musical instrument or performing
Ashwamedh yajna. Khalji Dynasty Jalalludin Khalji Delhi

EXCAVATIONS Tughlaq Dynasty Ghiyasuddin Delhi

Tughlaq
³³ In addition to epigraphic and numismatic sources
there are many other antiquarian remains which Saiyyads Khizr Khan Delhi
speak much about our past. Lodi Dynasty Bahlol Lodi Delhi
³³ Temples and sculptures are found all over the country
Pandayas Nediyan Madurai
right from the Gupta period upto recent times.
³³ These show architectural and artistic history of the Cholas Vijayalaya Tanjaur
Indians. Yadavas Bhillan Devagiri
³³ They excavated large caves in the hills in Western
Hoysalas Vishnuvardhan Dwarasamudra
India which are mostly Chaitya and viharas.
Sangam Dynasty Harihar and Bukka Vijaynagar
IMPORTANT DYNASTIES, FOUNDER Saluvas Narsingha Vijaynagar
AND CAPITAL
Tuluvas Vir Narsingha Vijaynagar
Dnasty Founder Capital
Haryanka Dynasty Bimbisara Rajgriha Aravidu Dynasty Tirumala Penukonda

Shishunaga Shisunaga Vaishali Bahmani Dynasty Hasan Gangu Gulbarga

Dynasty Qutubshahi Quli Qutubshah Golkunda
Nanda Dynasty Mahapadmananda Pataliputra Dynasty

Maurya Dynasty Chandragupta Patliputra Adilshahi Dynasty Adilshah Bijapur

Maurya
Nizamshahi Malik Ahmad Ahmednagar
Shunga Dynasty Pushyamitra Patliputra Dynasty
Shunga
Imadshahi Amir ul Barid Bidar
Kanva Dynasty Vasudeva Pataliputra Dynasty
Satavahanas Simuka Paithan
Solanki Dynasty Mulraj Anhilwara
Kushanas Kujula Kadphises Purushpura
Kalchuris Kokkal Tripuri
Guptas Sri Gupta Patliputra
Sharqui Dynasty Malik Sarvar Jaunpur
Hunas Toraman Sialkot
Mughal Dynasty Babur Delhi/Agra
Vardhans Pushyabhuti Thaneswar/
Kannauj Bhonsle Dynasty Shivaji Raigarh
Sena Dynasty Samanta Sena Lakhnauti Pala Dynasty Gopala Munger
Parmaras Upendra Dhara Hyderabad State Nizam-ul-Mulk Hyderabad
Chandellas Nannuk Khajuraho/ Karkota Dynasty Durlabhvardhan Kashmir
Mahoba
Utpal Dynasty Avantivarman Kashmir
Gahadvalas Chandradeva Kannauj
Gurjar Pratiharas Nagabhatta-I Kanauj Lohar Dynasty Sangramraj Kashmir

Pallava Dynasty Simbhavishnu Kanchipuram Vakatakas Vindhyashakti Nandivard-

han
Chalukyas of Pulakesin-I Badami
Badami Faruqi Dynasty Malik Raza Burhanpur

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 Indian History

1756-1763 – Third Carnatic War.

INDIAN HISTORY
IMPORTANT BATTLES OF INDIAN HISTORY
1757 – Battle of Plassey. Siraj-ud-daulah, the Nawab of
327-326 B.C. – Alexander invades India. Defeats Porus in Bengal, defeated by Clive.
the Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum) 326 B.C. 1760 – Battle of Wandiwash, in which the English under
305 B.C. – Chandragupta Maurya defeats the Greek king Sir Eyre Coote defeated the French under Count de
Seleucus. Lally.
261 B.C. – The Kalinga War. Conquest of Kalinga by 1762 – Third Battle of Panipat. Marathas defeated by
Ashoka. Ahmad Shah Abdali.
155 B.C. – Menander’s invasion of India. 1764 – Battle of Buxar. The English (under Munro)
90 B.C. – The Sakas invade India. defeated Mir Kasim, the Nawab of Bengal and Nawab
A.D. 454 – The first Huna invasion. Shuja-ud-daulah of Awadh and Mughal Emperor Shah
A.D. 495 – The second Huna invasion. Alam II.
1767-1769 – First Mysore War.
A.D. 711-712 – The Arab invasion of Sind under Mohammed-
bin-Qasim. 1774 – The Rohilla War between the Rohillas and
the Nawab of Awadh supported by the East India
1000-1027 – Mahmud Ghazni invades India 17 times.
Company.
1175-1206– Invasions of Muhammad Ghori. First
1775-1782 – First Maratha War.
Battle of Tarain, 1191, Prithvi Raj Chauhan defeats
Muhammad Ghori; Second Battle of Tarain, 1192, 1780-1784 – Second Mysore War.
Muhammad Ghori defeats Prithviraj Chauhan; Battle 1792 – Third Mysore War.
of Chandawar, 1194, Muhammad Ghori defeats 1799 – Fourth Mysore War. Defeat and death of Tipu
Jayachandra Gahadvala of Kannauj. Sultan.
1294 – Alauddin Khalji invades the Yadava kingdom of 1802-1804 – Second Maratha War.
Devagiri. The first Turkish invasion of the Deccan. 1817-1818 – Third Maratha War.
1398 – Taimur invades India. Defeats the Tughlaq Sultan 1845-1846 – First Sikh War.
Mahmud Shah; the Sack of Delhi. 1846 – Battle of Aliwal between the English and the
1526 – Babur invades India and defeats the last Lodi Sikhs. The Sikhs defeated.
Sultan Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat. 1848-1849 – Second Sikh War and annexation of the
1539-1540 – Battle of Chausa or Ghaghra (1539) and Punjab to British India.
Kanauj or Ganges (1540) in which Sher Shah defeats 1857 – The Revolt of 1857 (The First War of Indian
Humayun. Independence).
1545 – Battle (siege) of Kalinjar and death of Sher Shah
IMPORTANT INDIAN RULER, DYNASTY
Suri.
AND TITLES
1556 – Second Battle of Panipat. Akbar defeats Hemu.
Rulers Dynasty Titles
1565 – Battle of Raktakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota) in which
the forces of the empire of Vijayanagar under King Bimbisara Haryank Shrenika
Sadasiva Raya and his regent Rama Raya routed by
Ajatshatru Haryank Kunika
the confederate forces of the Deccani states of Bijapur,
Golkunda, Ahmadnagar, and Bidar. Mahapadmananda Nanda Agrasen
1576 – Battle of Haldighati. Akbar defeats Rana Pratap Dhanananda Nanda Agramese
of Mewar.
Chandragupta Maurya Sandrocottus,
1632-1633–Conquest of Ahmadnagar by Shah Jahan. Maurya Androcottus
1658 – Battles of Dharmat (April-May 1658) and
Bindusara Maurya Amitraghat
Samugarh (June 8, 1658). Dara Shikoh, eldest son of
Shah Jahan, defeated by Aurangzeb. Ashoka Maurya Devanampiya
1665 – Shivaji defeated by Raja Jai Singh and Treaty of Piyadassi
Purandhar. Chandragupta II Gupta Vikramaditya
1739 – Invasion of India by Nadir Shah.
Harshvardhana Pushyabhuti Siladitya
1746 – First Carnatic War.
1748-1754 – Second Carnatic War.

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INDIAN HISTORY

Narsimhavarman I Pallava Vatapikonda ANCIENT INDIA

Amoghvarsha Rashtrakuta Vir Narayan PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD
Pulakesin II Chalukyas Parmeshvar ³³ The Pre-historic phase can be roughly divided into 3
(Vatapi) parts i.e., paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic.
Mahendravarman I Pallava Vichitrachita PALEOLITHIC AGE
Govinda III Rashtrakuta Jagtung (5,00,000-10,000 B.C.) (OLD STONE AGE)
Vikramaditya IV Chalukyas Tribhuvan, ³³ Paleolithic Culture developed in the Pleistocene period
(Kalyani) Malla (Ice coverd the earth surface)
³³ Robert Bruce Foote (British geologist and archaeologist)
Vikramaditya II Chalukyas Sikandar
(Vengi) was discovered first Palaeolithic tool in India.
³³ The main tools used during this period are handaxes,
Ibrahim Qutubshah Qutubshahi Malik Brahim
cleavers, Choppers, flakes, burins, scrapers.
Qutubuddin Aibek Slave dy- Lakh Baksh, ³³ Their tools were made up of hard rock called ‘quartzite’.
nasty Malik
³³ The paleolithic sites are spread in practically all parts
Jauna Khan Tughlaq Muhammad bin of India except the alluvial plains of the Indus and
Tughlaq, Ulug Ganga.
Khan ³³ The people of this age lived on hunting and gathering
Hala Gautami Putra Satvahana Kavivatsal wild fruits and vegetables.
³³ Man during this period used tools of unpolished,
Satkarni Satvahana Kshatriya Darp
Mardan undressed rough stones and lived in cave rock
shelters.
Kanishka Kushana Devaputra
³³ They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire, or pottery
RajaRaja Chola Mummadi of any metal.
Chola, ³³ Important Sites : Hathnora, Narmada Valley
Arumoli, Raj Pallavaram, Chennai, Bhimbetka, M.P., Adamgarh,
Kesari
M.P.
Rajendra I Chola Gangaikonda ³³ Homo sapiens first appeared in the last of this phase.
Chola ³³ It has been pointed out that Paleolithic men belonged
Mahmud Ghazni Ghazni Yamin-ud-Daula to the Negrito race.
³³ The Paleolithic Age in India has been divided into
Krishnadevaraya Tuluva Andhra Bhoj,
three phases according to the nature of stone tools
Yavanraj Sthap-
- Early or lower Paleolithic, middle Paleolithic and
anacharya
upper Paleolithic.
Ibrahim Lodi Lodi Ibrahim Shah
MESOLITHIC AGE
Babar Mughal Ghazi
(10,000-6,000 B.C.) (MIDDLE STONE AGE)
Sher Shah Sur Hazrat-i-Ala
³³ It was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic
Bairam Khan Mughal Khan Baba Age and the Neolithic Age
³³ Blade, Mesolithic tools are microliths.
Akbar Mughal Islam-i-Adil
³³ Blade, Core, Point, Triangle, Lunate and Trapeze are
Jahangir Mughal Shekh Salim the main types of Mesolithic tools.
Mehrunissa Mughal Nurjahan ³³ Important sites of Mesolithic Age are Bagor, Langhraj,
Sarai Nahar Rai, Birbhanpur.
Dara Shikoh Mughal Shah-Iqbal
³³ Bhimbetka, Adamgarh and Mirzapur.
Aurangzeb Mughal Alamgir, Ghazi
³³ According to excavated evidence, the earliest
Shivaji Marathas Chhatrapati evidences of domestication of animals in India have
been found at Adamgarh, M.P. and Bagor, Rajasthan.
Balaji Bajirao Marathas Nana Saheb

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 Indian History

Civilization because the first excavated site is

INDIAN HISTORY
CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE
Harappa.
Name of the ³³ It belongs to the Bronze Age.
Period
Culture ³³ Major Settlements are in the Ghaggar-Hakra belt.
Kayatha 2000-1800 B.C. ³³ More than 1000 sites have been excavated.
Ahar or Banas 2000-1400 B.C. ³³ Copper, bronze, silver, gold were known but not iron.
Savalda 2000-1800 B.C. ³³ Seals were made up of steatite
³³ Majority of the seals have an animal engraved on it
Malwa 1700-1200 B.C. with a short inscription. The most frequently found
Prabhas 1800-1500 B.C. animal is unicorn bull.
Rangpur 1400-700 B.C. ³³ Earliest evidence of Silver.
Chirand 1500-750 B.C. Manda
(Kashmir)
³³ Bone implements have been reported from Sarai
Nahar Rai, Damdama and Mahadaha, as per book N
Sutkagendor Alamgirpur
Puratattva Vimarsh written by Dr. Jai Narayan (Pakistan) W E (Uttar Pradesh)
Pandey.
³³ Three human Skeltons in a single grave were
S
recovered at Damdama, U.P. A grave with four
human skeltons have been found at Sarai Nahar Rai. Daimabad
³³ People in mesolithic age were still dependent on (Maharashtra)
hunting but how they began domesticating animals
like dog, sheep goat etc. Bhimbetka
• Famous for Pre historic paintings.
NEOLITHIC AGE (6000-2500 B.C.) NEW STONE AGE)
• UNESCO included Paintings in the list of its world
³³ The term ‘Neolithic’ was coined by Sir John Lubbock heritage.
in his book ‘Pre Histroic Times’.
• Caves situated in Abdullah ganj Raisen.
³³ The beginning of agriculture was the most important
District (M.P.)
discovery of this age.
³³ Neolithic men cultivated land and grew fruits and corn ³³ They worshipped, Proto-Shiva, Mother-Goddess, Bull,
like ragi and horse gram. They domesticated cattle, and Pipal tree.
sheep and goat.
³³ The pictures of elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, deer,
³³ Important sites are Gufkaral, Burzahom, Chirand,
sheep, etc. are depicted on the seals and terracotta
Mehargarh, Piklihal.
arts of Harappan culture.
³³ Chopani Mando provides the earliest evidence of the
use of pottery in the World. ³³ Cow was not depicted on the seals and terracotta art
³³ The Earliest evidence of Settled life in Mehrgarh. of the Harappan cultures.
³³ Earliest evidence of agriculture – Mehrgarh (Pakistan) ³³ People worshiped Shiva (Rudra).
and in Indian Sub-Continent - Lahuradeva (U.P.). ³³ Harappan civilization was the first urban civilization.
³³ The First Cereal used by man – Barley, around 8000 ³³ Most of the sites of Harappan civilisation is found in
B.C. state of Gujarat.
STONE - COPPER PHASE (CHALCOLITHIC PHAGE) ³³ Alexander Cunningham was the first archeologist
(3500 BC TO 2500 BC) who excavated Harappa, but could not recognize its
³³ Chalcolithic people were not acquainted with burnt significance.
brick. ³³ Their Pottery was red or black Pottery.
³³ People used different types of Pottery of which Black ³³ The script was pictographic.
and Red ware was most popular.
³³ The writing was Boustrophedon.
³³ They worshipped Mother Goddess and Bull.
³³ Mohenjodaro a Sindhi word meaning “Mound of the
³³ They generally lived in thatched houses.
dead.”
³³ Ash mounds have been fround from a Neolithic site
Sangana Kallu. ³³ Rakhigarhi is the latest site discovered in India and
³³ The evidence of burying the dog with human body is Dholariron is the second largest site.
found in Burzahom (J & K). ³³ Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the
³³ The evidence of pit dwelling Burzahom. world.
HARAPPAN OR INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION Note : Two big mounds of Harappan sites found at
Rakhigarhi in Hisar district of Haryana in January
³³ According to Radio Carbon dating Harappan
civilization developed between 2500 B.C. to 1750 B.C. 2014. It has led to archaeologists establishing it
³³ Indus Civilization is also called as Harappan as the biggest Harappan civilization site.

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Site : Archaecological Finds

INDIAN HISTORY

Harappa : Stone symbols of Lingam (male sex organ) and Yoni (female sex organ), Painted pottery, Clay
figures of Mother Goddess, Wheat and Barley in wooden mortar, Copper scale, Crucible for
bronze, Copper-made mirror, Vanity box, Dice. 6 Granaries in row, Working floors, Workmen’s
quarters, Virgin-Goddess (seal), Cemetery (R-37, H).
Mohenjodaro : Great Bath, Great Granery (the largest building of civilization), Assembly hall, Shell strips,
Pashupati Mahadeva/Proto-Shiva (seal), Bronze Image of a nude woman dancer, Steatite image
of bearded man, Human skeletons huddled together, The evidence of an Indian ship (figured on
a seal). Painted seal (Demi-God), Clay figures of Mother Goddess, A fragment of woven cotton,
Brick Kilns, 2 Mesopotamian seals, 1398 seals (57% of total seals of Harappan civilization), Dice.
Chanhudaro : City without a citadel, Inkpot, Lipstick; Metal-workers’, shell-ornament makers’ and bead-mak-
ers’ shops; Imprint of dog’s paw on a brick, Terracotta model of a bullock cart, Bronze toy cart.
Lothal : Dockyard, Rice husk; Metal-workers’, shell-ornament makers’ and bead-makers’ shopes; Fire
altars, Terracotta figurine of a horse, Double burial (burying a male and a female in a single
grave), Terracotta model of a ship, Dying vat, Persian / Iranian seal, Baharainean seal, Painted
jar (bird and fox).
Kalibanga : Ploughed field surface (Pre-Harappan), 7 Fire altars, Decorated bricks, Wheels of a toy cart,
Mesopotamian cylindrical seal, camel bone.
Banawali : Lack of chess-board or gridiron pattern town planning, Lack of systematic drainage system,
Toy plough, Clay figures of Mother Goddess.
Dholavira : A unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, a large “well and
a bath (giant water reservoirs), Only site to be divided into 3 parts, Largest Harappan
inscription used for civic purposes, A stadium.
Surkotada : Bones of horse, Oval grave, Pot burials.
Daimabad : Bronze images (Charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant and rhinoceros)

IMPORTANT HARAPPAN SITES

Site Excavator Present Position
Harappa Dayaram Shahani (1921) Montogomery (Punjab) Pakistan
Mohenjodaro Rakhal Das Banerjee (1922) Sindh (Pakistan)
Kalibanga Amlananda Ghosh, B. B. Lal Hanumangarh (Rajasthan)
Lothal S. R. Rao (1957) Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
Banwali R. S. Bist (1973) Hissar (Haryana)
Rangpur M. S. Vatsa (1931) Gujarat (near Madar river)
Ropar Y. D. Sharma (1955-56) Punjab (Sutlej Bank)
Alamgirpur Y. D. Sharma Meerut (Hindon river)
Sutkagendor A. Stein, George Dales Baluchistan (Dashak river)
Surkotada J. P. Joshi (1964) Gujarat (Kuchchh Plain)
Dabarkot Macay (1935) Baluchistan
Chanhudaro N. G. Majumdar (1931) Sindh (Pakistan)
Ali Murad K. M. Kazzak Sindh (Pakistan)
Mitathal Punjab University Bhiwani
Rakhi Garhi Suraj Bhan Jind (Haryana)
Sutkakoh Dales (1962) 8 km from Perin
Manda Jagpati Joshi Akhnur

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 Indian History

INDIAN HISTORY
TOWNS NEAR RIVER BANKS
Towns Rivers Towns Rivers
Mohenjodaro Indus Harappa Ravi
Banwali Ghagghar Kalibanga Ghagghar
Lothal Bhogava Rojdi Bhadar
Malavan Tapti Sutkakoh Shadi Kaur
Sutkagendor Dashak Chanhudaro Indus
Bhagtrav Kissagar confluence Alamgirpur Hindon
Rangpur Bhadar Kot Diji Indus

THEORIES OF DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATIONS

Cause Historian
Aryan invasion Wheeler, Gordon, Childe
Ecological disturbance Fairservice
Change in river course Dales, M.S. Vatsa
Low rainfall Stein
Flood Maickey, S. R. Rao
Drying of Ghaghar D. P. Agrawal and Sood
Earthquake Raikes and Dales

THE VEDIC AGE (1500-600 B.C.)

THE EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1500-1000 B.C.) ³³ King was elected in Samiti.
³³ It is also known as Rig Vedic Age. ³³ ‘Gana’ is mentioned for 46 places in Rigveda.
³³ Rig Vedic Age gives us knowledge about the Aryans ³³ Leader of Gana was called as ‘Ganapati’.
they came in India from central Asia (Steppe region). ³³ Dasyus were the most bitter enemies of the Rigvedic
³³ The earliest Aryans lived in the land of ‘Sapta people.
Sindhava’ i.e., land of Seven rivers. ³³ Rigvedic people were not aware of Iron.
³³ The early vedic society was Pastoral. ³³ Indra was the most important God.
³³ Cattle was the chief measure of wealth and wealthy ³³ Indra was known as Purandar, Vritrahan and
man was called ‘Gomat’. Marutavant.
³³ The term Aghanya or not to be killed, has been used ³³ Varuna Uphold the natural order and moral order
for cows. (Rita).
³³ The Raja or chief is called ‘Gopati’. ³³ Varuna was punisher of sin.
³³ In the Rigveda Godhuli is used as a term for a measure ³³ Agni was called as Bhuvan-chakshu.
of time. ³³ IXth book is devoted to Soma.
³³ Apart from Yava or Barley, no other grain is mentioned. ³³ Gayatri Mantra is mentioned in IIIrd Mandal of
³³ Indra was the greatest God of Aryans Agni occupied Rigveda.
the second position. ³³ Asvins and Nasatyas were divine physicians.
³³ Varuna occupied the third position and he personfied ³³ Yama was the Lord of the dead.
water. ³³ Aditi is the mother of Surya.
³³ The Battle of Ten Kings ended with the victory of the ³³ Varuna bears the title ‘Asura’.
Bharatas led by Sudas. ³³ River Indus was the most important river in Vedic
³³ The Battle of Ten Kings held on the back of river Ravi. period.
³³ Gayatri Mantra is attributed to Savitri. Aditi was ³³ River Sarswati was the most sacred river in Vedic
goddess of eternity. period. It referred as matetama, Devitama, Naditama
³³ Widow marriage and Niyoga prevailed in the society. in the Rig veda.
³³ Important functionaries were Purohita, Senani, and ³³ The word ‘yava’ mentioned in Rig veda is used for the
gramini. food grain Barley.
³³ Important tribal Assemblies were Sabha, Samiti,
Vidath and Gana. THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000-600 B.C.)
³³ Sabha performed judicial and administrative ³³ The period assigned to later Vedic phase is 1000 B.C.
functions. to 600 B.C.
³³ King attended Sabha but was not elected by it. ³³ These communities used a particular kind of pottery
³³ Samiti is mentioned nine–times in Rigveda. called the Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
³³ Samiti was presided over by king. ³³ More than 700 PGW sites have been found in the upper

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Ganga basin. Some important PGW sites are Atranji ³³ Rudra was the God of animals.
INDIAN HISTORY

Khera, Ahichhatra, Noh, Hastinapur, Kurukshetra, ³³ Institution of Gotra appeared during later vedic period.
Bhagwanpura and Jakhera. ³³ Duties of four varnas are given in Aatreya Brahamana.
³³ Iron objects are common to most PGW sites. This ³³ Three roomed mud house has been discovered at
metal was introduced around 1000-800 B.C. It is Bhagwanpura.
mentioned as Ayas.
³³ Largest deposit of Iron weapon have been found at
³³ Society was clearly divided into four Varnas namely– Atranjikhera.
Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudras.
³³ Two furnaces for iron smelting have been found at
³³ The upper three classes were known as Dvij (twice
Suneri village in Jhunjhunu district.
born).
³³ Legend of ‘Videha Madhav’ is mentioned in Satapatha
³³ Education begin with investiture ceremony
Brahamana.
(upanayana).
³³ Eight forms of marriages are given in Ashvalahayan
³³ Sometimes girls were also initiated. Woman lost
Grihyasutra.
Importance.
³³ Satapatha Brahamana says that ‘wife is half her
³³ Gotra first appeared in Atharvaveda with the meaning
of clan. husband’.
³³ There was practice of class exogamy. ³³ Women enjoyed freedom and respect but their status
deteriorated compared to the early vedic period.
³³ There was reference to sati but not in common fashion.
³³ Earliest clear reference to the four ashrams is given
³³ There were instances of child marriage.
in Jabala Upnishad.
³³ Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (the
creator) became supreme. THE VEDIC LITERATURE
³³ Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and
³³ The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Vidi’
protector of the people.
meaning, to know or knowledge par excellence.
³³ Pushan became God of Shudras.
³³ Vedic texts are divided between Sruti (based on
³³ Sacrifices became more important and elaborate.
hearing), which is distinct from Smriti (based on
³³ There were 33 deities during later Vedic period.
memory).
³³ The king’s influence was strengthened by rituals.
³³ Rajasuya conferred supreme power on king. ³³ Four Vedas and their Samhitas, the Brahmanas,
³³ Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling was the Aranyakas and the Upanishads form a class of
the main pastime. literature known as Sruti.
³³ Vajapeya was a drink of strength. RIG VEDA
³³ Aswamedha was the horse sacrifice.
³³ It is divided into 10 Books or Mandalas. Books II to VII
³³ Kings were known with different names in different
region. are considered the oldest. Book I, VIII and X seem to
be later additions.
N (Virat)
³³ A collection of 1028 hymns of a number of priestly
families.
³³ Written between 1700-1500 B.C. when Aryans were
still in Punjab.
(Svarat) W (E) (Samrat)
Raja
³³ Its also called as family books. They are attributed to
Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vasudeva, Atri, Bhardwaj,
Vashishtha, Kanva and Angiras.
³³ The IX mandala is dedicated exclusively to Soma.
S (Bhoja) ³³ The singer of the Rig veda is called the Hotra.
³³ Gayatri Mantra is the most sacred hymn of Rig Veda.
³³ Earliest evidence of medicine comes from Atharvaveda.
Mentioned in 3rd mandal, written by Viswamitra.
³³ Parikshit has been called as the king of ‘Mrituloka in
Atharvaveda’. YAJUR VEDA
³³ King used to visit the house of each Ratnin in ³³ A ritualistic Veda.
Ratnavimshi ceremony.
³³ It is divided into Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna
³³ A regular army was maintained for the protection of
the kingdom. Yajurveda.
³³ Atharvaveda mentions Sabha and Samiti as daughters ³³ Written in prose, it deals with procedure for
of Prajapati. performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well
³³ According to Kathak Samhita 24 oxen were employed as hymns.
for agriculture. ³³ The singer of the Yajur Veda is called Ardhavayu.
³³ During later vedic period Prajapati came to occupy
the Supreme position. SAMA VEDA
³³ Pushan was the God of Shudras. ³³ Sam Veda derives its roots from Saman, which means
a melody.

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³³ A collection of melodies. ³³ Yajur Veda—Shatapatha (the oldest and the largest

INDIAN HISTORY
³³ It contains the Dhrupada Raga. Brahamana) and Taittariya.
³³ The singer of Sama Veda is called Udgata. Atharva Veda—Gopatha.
³³ The word Aranya means ‘the forest’. The ‘forest texts’
ATHARVA VEDA were called Aranyaka, because they were written
³³ A collection of 711 hymns, it is divided into 20 mainly for the hermits and the students living in
khandas. jungles. The Aranyaka are the concluding portions
³³ It is the latest Veda. of the Brahamanas.
³³ Atharva Veda is a book of magical formula medicinal ³³ The Upanishadas are philosphical texts. They are
treatises etc. generally called Vedanta, as they came towards
the end of the Veda. There are 108 Upanishadas.
³³ It contains charms and spell to ward off evil and
Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest Upanishada.
disease.
³³ The word Satyameva Jayate has been taken from
³³ Its content throws light on the practices of non-
Mundakopa-nishad.
Aryans.
³³ The word Tamsoma Jyotirgamaya is mentioned in
³³ In Atharvaveda, Sabha and Samiti are described as Brihadaranyaka Upanishada.
uterine sisters–The two daughters of Prajapati.
³³ This veda is also known as Brahma Veda. LITERATURE OF VEDIC TRADITION (600 BC-600 AD)
³³ Literature of Vedic Tradition (Smriti i.e. rememberance
VEDIC LITERATURE (1500 BC-600 BC)
literature) comprises of 6 literary works : 1. Vedangas/
³³ It is presumed that the Rig Veda was composed while Sutras 2. Smritis Dharmashastras 3. Mahakavyas
the Aryans were still in the Punjab. (Epics) 4. Puranas 5. Upvedas 6. Shad-Dharshanas.
³³ Vedic Literature comprises of four literary productions: ³³ There are six Vedangas :
1. The Samhitas or Vedas 2. The Brahamans 3. The (i) Shiksha (Phonetics): Pratishakhya’-the oldest text
Aranyakas 4. The Upanishads. on phonetics.
³³ Vedic Literature had grown up in course of time (ii) Kalpa Sutras (Rituals) : (a) Shrauta Sutras/
and was really handed down from generation to Shulva Sutra – deal with the sacrifices, (b) Grihya
generation. Hence these are called Shruti (to hear). Sutras—deal with family ceremonies, (c) Dharma
³³ The most important of Vedic Literature are Veda. Sutras—deal with Varnas, Ashramas etc.
Vedas are called Apaurasheva i.e. not created by man (iii) Vyakarana (Grammar) : ‘Ashtadyayi’ (Panini) —
but God-gifted and Nitya i.e. existing in all eternity. oldest grammar of the word.
³³ There are four Vedas—Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur (iv) Nirukta (Etymology) : ‘Nirukta’ (Yask) based on
Veda and Atharva Veda. The first three Vedas are ‘Nighantu’ (Kashyap)—a collection of difficult vedic
jointly called Vedatrayi i.e. trio of Vedas. words—(‘Nighantu’—the oldest word-collection of
³³ Of the four Vedas, the Rig Veda (Collection of lyrics) the-world; ‘Nirukta’—the oldest dictionary of the
is the oldest text in the wold, and therefore, is also world).
known as ‘the first testament of mankind’. The Rig (v) Chhanda (Metrics) : ‘Chhandasutras’ (Pingal)–
Veda contains 1028 hymns, divided into 10 mandalas. famous text.
Six mandalas (from 2nd to 7th mandalas) are called (vi) Jyotisha (Astronomy) ‘’Vedanga Jyotisha’ (Lagadh
Gotra/ Vamsha Mandalas (Kula Granth). Muni – the oldest Jyotisha text.
³³ The Sama Veda (book of chants) had 1549 hymns. All ³³ There are six famous smritis : (i) Manu Smriti
hymns (excluding 75) were taken from the Rig Veda. (Pre-Gupta Period)— the oldest Smriti text;
The hymns of the Sama Veda were recited by Udgatri. Commentators : Vishwarupa, Meghatithi, Gobindraj,
This Veda is important for Indian music. Kulluk Bhatt. (ii) Yajnavalkya Smriti (Pre-Gupta
Period)— Commentators: Vishwarupa, Vijayaneshwar,
³³ The Yajur Veda (book of sacrificial prayers) is a ritual
Apararka (a king of Shilahar Dynasty) (iii) Narad Smriti
veda. Its hymns were recited by Adhvaryus.
(Gupta period), (iv) Parashara Smriti (Gupta period)
³³ The Atharva Veda (book of magical formulae), the (v) Brihaspati Smriti (Gupta period), (vi) Katyayana
fourth and the last one, contains charms and spells Smriti (Gupta period).
to ward off evils and diseases. For a very long time it
³³ There are mainly two Mahakavyas (Epics) :
was not included in the category of the Vedas.
(i) The Ramayana (Valmiki) : It is known as ‘Adi
³³ The Brahmans explain the hymns of the Vedas. They
Kavya’ (the oldest epic of the world). At present, it
are written in prose and ritualistic in nature. Brahma
consists of 24,000 shlokas i.e. verses (Originally
means ‘sacrifice’. The various sacrifices and rituals
6,000, Later - 12,000, Finally - 24,000) in 7
have been elaborately discussed in the Brahamanas.
Kandas i.e. sections. 1st and 7th Kandas were
Every Veda has several Brahamanas attached to it :
the latest additions to the Ramayana.
³³ Rig Veda—Aitareya and Kaushitikij Sankhyan. (ii) The Mahabharata (Ved Vyasa) : The longest epic
³³ Sam Veda—Panchvisha (Tandya Maha Brahamana), of the world. At present, it consists of 1,00,000
Shadvinsh, Chliandogya and Jaiminaya. shlokas i.e. verses (Originally–8,800-Jay Samhita,

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Later-24,000–Chaturvinshati Sahastri Samhita/

INDIAN HISTORY

Bharata, Finally-l,00,000-Shatasahastri Samhita/ Kubha Kabul Afghanistan

Maha Bharata) in 18 Parvans i.e. chapters, plus Suvastu Swati Afghanistan
the Harivamsa supplement. Bhagavad Gita is
extracted from Bihshma Parvan of Mahabharata. Krumu Kurram Afghanistan
Shanti Parvan is the largest parvan (chapter) of the Gomati Gomal Afghanistan
Mahabarata.
³³ Originally the Mahabharata is known as Jayasamhita.
³³ The Purana means ‘the old’. There are 18 famous 12 Ratninas (Satapatha Brahamana)
‘Puranas’. The Matsya Purana is the oldest Puranic 1. Purohita The Priest
text. The other important Puranas are the Bhagavata, 2. Mahishi The Queen
the Vishnu, the Vayu and the Brahmanda. They
describe genealogies of various royal dynasties. 3. Yuvaraja Crown prince
³³ The Upavedas (the auxiliary vedas) were traditionally 4. Suta/Sarathi The Royal herald/ the Charioteer
associated with vedas : 5. Senani The General
Upavedas Associated with
6. Gramani Head of the village
1. Ayurveda i.e. Medicine Rig Veda
2. Gandharvaveda i.e. Music Sama Veda 7. Kshata Gateman/ Chamberlain
3. Dhanurveda i.e. Archery Yajur Veda 8. Sangrahitri Treasurer
4. Shilpveda/Arthaveda i.e. Atharva Veda 9. Bhagadudha Collector of taxes
the science of craft/wealth
10. Akshavapa Courier
(Vishwakarma)
³³ There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known as 11. Palagala Friend of King
Shad-Darshanas. 12. Govikarta Head of forest department

S. Darshana Founder Basic Text TYPES OF HINDU MARRIAGE (VIVAHA)

No. Brahma Vivaha : Giving the girl to a man with
1. Sankhya Dar- Kapila Sankhya Sutra dowry.
shana Daiva Vivaha : Giving the girl to the priest himself
2. Yoga Darshana Patanjali Yoga Sutra in lieu of his fees.
Arsha Vivaha : Giving the girl to a man after
3. Nyaya Darsha- Akshapada Nayaya Sutra
accepting a bride-price.
na Gautama
Prajapatya Vivaha : Giving the girl to a man without
4. Vaishesika Dar- Uluka Vaishesika Sutra
demanding a bride-price.
shana Kanada
Gandharva Vivaha : Love marriage.
5. Miraansa/Pur- Jaimini Purva Mimansa Asura Vivaha : Marriage with a purchased girl.
va Mimansa Sutra
Rakshasa Vivaha : Marriage with the daughter
6. V e d a n t / U t - Badarayana Brahma Sutra/ of a defeated king or with a
tara-Mimansa Vedant Sutra
kidnapped girl.
Paishacha Vivaha : Marriage to a girl after seducing
Rigvedic Name Modern Region
or raping her.
Name
³³ Anuloma Vivah : marriage between a bridegroom
Sindhu Indus Punjab (Pakistan) &
from an upper caste and a bride from a lower caste;
J&K
Pratiloma Vivaha-the reverse of Anuloma Vivaha.
Vitasta Jhelum Punjab J&K ³³ 16 Samskaras
Asikani Chenab Punjab (Pakistan) & 1. Garbhadhana 2. Pumsavana
J&K 3. Simantonnayan 4. Jatakarma
Vipas Beas Punjab 5. Namakaran 6. Nishkramana
Parushni Ravi Punjab 7. Annaprashana 8. Chudakarma
9. Karnachhedana 10. Vidvarmbha
Sutudri Sutlej Punjab
11. Upanavana 12. Vedarambha
Saraswati Sarsuti Rajasthan 13. Samavaratana 14. Vivaha
Drishadvati Ghaggar Rajasthan 15. Vanprastha 16. Antyesti.

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INDIAN HISTORY
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

SOME MORE FACTS ABOUT HINDUISM

Six Systems of Philosophy

Philosophy Founder      Other Scholars
Sankhya Kapila Ishwar Krishna, Vachaspati
Nyaya Akshapada Gautma Vatsayayan, Udyanacharya, Jayantbhatt
Yoga Patanjali Myas
Vaisheshika Uluka Kanada Keshav raishra, Vishvanath
Mimansa Jamini Sabrasvamin, Kumaril Bhatt
Vedanta Badrayana Shankaracharya, Vachaspati, Ramanuj, Madhvacharya etc.

Famous Religions, Founders, Holy Books & Places of Worship

Place of
Religion Founder Holy Books
Worship
Hinduism No single Founder. Ramayana, Vedas, Puranas and Geeta Temple
Sikh Guru Nanak Dev Guru Grantha Sahib Gurdwara
Christianity Jesus Christ Bible Church
Islam Prophet Mohammed Koran (Quran) Mosque
Parsi Zoroaster Zend Avesta Fire Temple
Jainism Adinath Rishabh Dev Jain Granth Jain Temple
Buddhism Gautama Buddha Tripitaka Buddha Stupa
Jew Moosa Jorah Synagogue
OTHER HETERODOX IDEAS SAIVISM
³³ The origin of Saivism can be traced back to the pre-vedic
1. Makhali Putta Gosal : Popularised Ajivika Sect.
times.
™™ Ajivikas believed in niyativad. ³³ By the early centuries of the Christian era it was a
™™ Goshala’s follower centred around Sravasti. popular sect all over India.
³³ Siva was the principle deity of this sect.
2. Charvak : Believed in complete materialism.
³³ Siva was worshipped in the form of Linga.
3. Purana Kassapa : Preached the doctrine of Akriya or ³³ Kushan king Weem Wema Kadphises was an ardent
non-action. devotee of Siva.
4. Ajit Kesakamblin (Ucchedvad) : Preached that ³³ Prakrit text Gathasaptasati has references to Siva
worship.
everything ended with death and there is no further
³³ Tamil Sangam work refers to Siva as the greatest of
life after death. all gods (mamudu mudalvan).
5. Pakudha Kachchayna (Asasvatavad) : There are ³³ Siva’s consort Parvati was adored as Sakti.
seven elements and the body is ultimately dissolved ³³ In Satavahana kindom Parvati was worshipped as
in these seven elements. Gauri.
³³ Skanda was regarded as the son of Siva.
Other Religious-ideas and their founders ³³ In Tamil country Skanda was worshipped in the
Religious ideas/sect Founder Murugan form.
³³ Ganesa was the younger brother of Skanda.
1. Pasupatas Lakulisa/Nakulisa ³³ Ganesa was also known as Vinayak.
2. Lingayats Basava ³³ The most popular Saiva sect was Pasupata sect.
3. Pratyabhijna Vasugupta ³³ The Kapalika and Kalamukha sect developed much
later.
4. Spanda-sastra Kallata and Samnanda
5. Siva-Siddhanata Srikanth-Sivacharya
VARIOUS SECTS OF SAIVISM
6. Advait Shankaracharya A. PASUPATAS/NAKULISAPASUPATAS
7. Vishistadvait Ramanujacharya ³³ It was founded by Lakulisa/Nakulisa/Lakulin/
Lakutin.
8. Brahm Sampradaya Madhvacharya
³³ They besmear the body with ashes.
9. Sanak Sampradaya Nimbakacharya ³³ It was dualistic in character.

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³³ Pasu, the individual soul-exists with Pati, the supreme II. Spanda-Sastra
INDIAN HISTORY

soul. ³³ It’s founders are Kallata and Samnanda, the two

³³ Dakhanata (end of misery) is attained through yoga disciples of Vasugupta.
and Vidhi. ³³ The term spanda means a change from the state of
³³ They observe atimargika religious practices. absolute unity to the plurality of the world.
³³ The basic works are Pasupata sutras and ³³ Kallata wrote Spanda-Sarvasa.
Sarvadarsansmgraha. ³³ Somananda wrote Siva-dristi.
B. KALAMUKHAS/KAPALIKAS ³³ It was a moderate form of Saivism.
³³ It was extreme form of Saivism. VAISHNAVISM
³³ They eat food in skull, eat ashes, carry pots of wine.
³³ The principal deity of this sect was Vishnu.
³³ They worship Bhairava as the great God with his wife
Chandika. ³³ The cult of Vishnu in the early period was known by
³³ The perform human sacrifices. the name Bhagavatism.
³³ They practice yoga in order to acquire miraculous ³³ Bhagavatism owed its origin to the Upanishadas.
powers. ³³ Bhagavatism arose around the Mathura region.
³³ They observe unconventional and horrifying practices ³³ Vasudeva was the central figure in the Bhagavata cult.
including sexual rites. ³³ Around second century B.C. Vishnu and Narayan were
³³ It was an off shoots of Pasupata sect. united and identified as one deity.
³³ It flourished during the Gupta and post Gupta period. ³³ Heliodorus erected a pillar with Garuda, at Besnagar
(Vidisa) near Bhopal in honour of Vasudeva.
C. MATTAMAYURAS
³³ Lakshmi is Vishnu’s consort.
³³ It was moderate form of Saivism. ³³ Vasudeva-Krishna was the disciple of Ghora-Agnirasa.
³³ It developed in central India. ³³ Megasthenese refers to Krishna as Herakles of
D. VIRASAIVAS/LINGAYATAS Souraseni tribe.
³³ Ten awataras of Vishnu – (i) Matsya (fish), (ii) Kurma
³³ It was founded by Basava, the Prime Minister, of (tortoise), (iii) Varaha (boar), (iv) Narasimha (man-lion),
Bijjala, the Kalachuri King. (v) Vamana (dwarf), (vi) Parasurama (Rama with axe), (vii)
³³ It was anti-Brahmin in nature. Rama, (viii) Krishna, (ix) Budha, (x) Kalkin (yet to born).
³³ They believe in love and self Surrender. ³³ It was patronised by Guptas, Chalukyas, Hoyasalas,
³³ They worship Linga and Nandi bull. Satvahanas.
³³ They encouraged widow remarriage. ³³ Acharyas are the great leader philosophers of
³³ Their philoshophy is known as Shakti Visistadvaita Vaishnavism who defended and popularised the
soul as separable union with Para-Siva through Shakti. religion. Some of the prominent acharyas are:
³³ The Para Siva is the supreme reality and Shakti is the Ramanuja, Chaitanya, Madhava, Nimbarka, Nathmuni,
power which resides in him. Yamunacharya.
³³ The ultimate goal of the soul is to unit with Para-Siva,
³³ The earliest reference to Krishan is found in
this state is known as Ling Samarasya which means
Chhandogya Upanishad.
unity between Linga (Siva) and Anga (soul).
³³ They observed Diksha ceremony in the place of ³³ The reference to Vasudeva is found in Panini’s
Upanayana in which even girls wear Linga. Ashtyadhyayi and Patanjali’s Mahabhashya.
³³ They do not worship Siva in temples. ³³ Narayana, the cosmic God finds mention in the
³³ It was popular in Karnataka region. Satpatha Brahamana.
³³ Pancharatra, a Vaishnavite school, gave the doctrine of
E. KASHMIR SAIVISM Vyuha (emancipation) according to which Sankarasana
I. Pratyabhijna (Balram), Pradumana (Krishna’s), Anirudha (Krishna’s
³³ Its origin is traced to Siva-Sutras revealed to grand son) emerged out of Vasudeva.
Vasugupta. ³³ It was developed and popularised in south by twelve
³³ It’s founder is vasugupta (800-900 AD). saints known as Alvars.
³³ It is also known as Trika/Triad because it had three ³³ Nammalvar and Tirumalsalvar were the greatest of
chief religious books. twelve Alvars.
³³ It regards the individual soul and the world identical
with Siva. TANTRISM
³³ Pratyabhijna means realisation of the soul’s identity ³³ The core of Tantrism means essentially orgiasticrites.
with Siva. ³³ The rites involve the use of five makaras :
³³ The ultimate reality is Siva. ³³ (i) matsya (fish) (ii) mansa (meat) (iii) madya (liquor)
³³ Siva is known as anultara which means the reality (iv) maithuna (sex) (v) mudra (physical gestures).
beyond which there is nothing.
³³ In Tantrism high status was given to female deity.
³³ Salvation lies in recognition that the soul is one with
Siva. ³³ Tantrism emerged as a religious factor in the sixth
³³ It was a moderate form of Saivism. century A.D. and became a strong force by the ninth
³³ It believed in spiritual deve-lopment. century.
³³ Some of greatest exponents were Utpalachara, ³³ The Tantric priest act as a priest, physician, astrologer
³³ Abhinavgupta and his disciple Kshemraja. and shraman.

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³³ Tantrism penetrated Buddhism, Jainism and ISLAM

INDIAN HISTORY
Brahmana theology. ³³ Hazrat Muhammad Saheb founded the islamic
³³ The Yapaniya sect of the Jainas was the foremost in religion. He was born to Amina (mother) and Abdullah
propagating Tantric mode of worship in Karnataka. (father) at Mecca in AD 570.
SHAKTI DHARMA ³³ He was married to Khajida (a widow) at the age of 25
yrs. His daugher, Fatima, was married to Ali Hussain.
³³ It refers to the worship of female deity. It is first
³³ Hazrat Muhammad attained supreme knowledge or
mentioned in the Mahabharata.
enlightment in AD 610 in the Hira Cave near Mecca.
³³ The Tantric Devi hymn in the 10th mandala of Rig Veda
His teachings are compiled in the Holy Quran.
is devoted to the worship of Goddesses.
³³ 24th September AD 622, the day Hazrat Muhammad
CHRISTIANITY started his journey from Mecca to Medina mark the
³³ This religion was founded by Jesus Christ. He was beginning of Hijri Era.
born to Mother Marry and Joseph in Bethlehem ³³ He died on 8th June, AD 632 and was buried at
near Jerusalem. His birth day (25th December) is Medina.
celebrated as the holy festival, Christmas. ³³ After his death Islam divided into Shia and Sunni cult.
³³ His first two disciple, Andrews and Peter, were hanged
His successors were known as Khalifa. The Turkish
in AD 33 by the Roman Governor Portius. ruler, Mushtafa Kamal Pasha, Kalifah ended the
designation of Caliphate 1924 A.D.
³³ Bible is the holy book of Christians and the sign of
³³ The birthday of Muhammad Saheb is celebrated as
‘cross’ is their holy symbol.
Eid-mild-un-Nabi.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUNNI AND SHIA SECTS

A Schism emerged after the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632. A.D. He died without appointing a succesor
to lead the Muslim community, and disputes arose over who should shepherd the new and rapidly growing faith.
Some belived that a new leader should be chosen by consensus; others thought that only the prophets descendants
should become caliph. The title passed to a trusted aide, Abu Bakr, though some thought it should have gone to
Ali, the prophet’s cousin and son-in-law. Ali eventually did become caliph after Abu Bakr’s two successors were
assassinated.
After Ali also was assassinated, with a poisonlaced sword at the mosque in kufa, in what is now Iraq his son Hasan
and then Hussein and many of his relatives were massacred in karbala, Iraq in 680 A.D.
His martyrdom became a central tenet to those who believed that Ali should have suceeded the prophet. The followers
became known as shias, a contraction of the phrase Shiat Ali, or followers of Ali. The Sunnis, however, regard the
first three caliphs before Ali as rightly guided and themselves as the true adherents to the Sunnah or the Prophet’s
tradition. Sunni rulers embarked on sweeping conquests that extended the caliphate into North Africa and Europe.
Beliefs of Sunni and Shia Sects :
The Sunni and Shia sects encompass a wide spectrum of doctrine, opinion and schools of thought. The branches
are in agreement on many aspects of Islam, but there are considerable disagreements within each both branches
include worshippers who run the gamut from secular to fundamentalist.
Shias consider Ali and the leaders who came after him as Imams. They most believe in a line of 12 Imams, the last
of whom, a boy is believed to have vanished in the ninth century in Iraq after his father was murdered. Shias known
as Twelvers anticipate his return as the Mahdi or Messiah. Sunnis emphasise God’s power in the material world,
sometimes including the public and political realm, while the Shias value martyrdom and sacrifice.

ZOROASTRIANISM (PARSI) ³³ Jewish traditional or oral law. The interpretation of

³³ Parsi religion was founded by Prophet Zoroaster
the laws of the Torah, is called halakhah.
(Zarathustra). His teachings compiled in the holybook, ³³ Spiritual leaders are called Rabbis.
³³ Jews worship in Syangagues.
Zend Avesta. His followers believed in one God, Ahur.
³³ They fallow Hebrew Calender.
JUDAISM ³³ Jews have been living in India for 2000 years over
since they first landed on West Coast of India
³³ Judaism is one of the oldest religion of the world,
evalined in Egypt about 3500 years ago. ³³ Indian jews fall into the five categories –
³³ Judaism was founded by Moses, although jews trace (1) Cochin jews (2) Bene Israel (3) Baghdadi jews
their history back to Abraham. (4) Bene Ephraim (5) Bene Menashe
³³ Jews believe in the unity and oneness of universal creator. ³³ Jews have three principle seets :
³³ In exchange for all the good that God has done for (1) Orthodox (2) Conservative (3) Reformist
the jewish people, jewish people keep God’s law‘s and ³³ Gujarat is third state in India to grant religious
try to bring heliness into every aspect of their lives. minerity stauts to jews after West Bengal and
³³ Judaism has a rich history of religious text, but the Maharashtra.
central and most important religious document is ³³ The Synagogue Judah Hyam Hall is the only place of
the Torah. worship in Delhi for Jews.

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BUDDHISM Mara Kiing of spirit who troubled

INDIAN HISTORY

³³ Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha. Buddha during meditation

³³ Buddha was born on the Vaisakh Purnima day in
Chunda The person who offered pork
563 B.C.
to Buddha
³³ He belonged to the Sakya clan of Kshatriyas.
³³ His father was Suddhodana, the ruler of Kapilvastu. Sravasti Buddha preached most of his
³³ He was born in Lumbini in Kapilvastu. sermons here
³³ His mother was Mahamaya of the Kosala dynasty. THREE RATNAS
³³ Buddha got Nirvana at the age of 35 years.
³³ Buddha got Nirvana at Uruvela on the bank of river • Buddha   • Dhamma   • Sangha
Niranjana. Code of Conduct :
³³ Buddha gave his first Sermon at Sarnath. (1) Do not covet the property of others
³³ Buddha’s first sermon is called as “Dharma (2) Do not commit violence
Chakraparivartana” (3) Do not speak a lie
³³ Buddha died in 483 B.C. at Kushinagar. (4) Do not indulge in corrupt practices
³³ Kushinagar has been identified with village Kasia in BUDDHIST COUNCILS
Deoria district of U.P.
³³ Buddha’s last words were “All composite things, strive No. Year Chairman Description
diligently”.
³³ Buddha was brought up by his stepmother Gautami. 1. 483 BC Mahakassapa, At Septaparni cave near
³³ After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and Patron: Rajagriha to compile
an ascetic, Buddha decided to become a wanderer. Ajatshatru the Sutta Pitaka and
³³ Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana, Sariputra and Ananda were Vinaya Pitaks.
five disciples of Buddha.
2. 383 BC Sabakami Divided schism into
Five Great Events of Buddha’s Life and their symbols
Patron- Sthaviravadins and
³³ Birth : Lotus and Bull
Kalashoka Mahasanghikas
³³ Great Renunciation : Horse
Held at Vaishali
³³ Nirvana : Sign of feet
³³ First Sermon : Dharmachakra or wheel 3. 255 BC Presidentship Held in Patliputra
³³ Parinirvana or Death : Stupa of Moggaliputta during region of
Tissa Ashoka 236 years after
Four Noble Truths
³³ The world is full of sorrows. the death of Buddha
³³ Desire is root cause of sorrow. and compilation of
Abhidhamma Pitaka.
³³ If desire is conquered, all sorrows can be removed.
³³ Desire can be removed by following the eight-fold path. 4. First Vashumitra Division of Buddhists
Eight Fold Path Century Patron into Mahayanists and
(1) Right understanding (2) Right speech AD. Kanishka Hinayanists.
(3) Right livelihood (4) Right mindfulness SECTS OF BUDDHISM
(5) Right thought (6) Right action ³³ Hinayana :
(7) Right effort and (8) Right concentration
(a) Its followers believed in the original teachings of
IMPORTANT FACTS RELATED WITH BUDDHA Buddha.
(b) They sought individual salvation through self-
Tathagata, Sakyamuni Titles of Buddha
discipline and meditation.
Sakya Clan to which Buddha belong (c) They did not believe in idol-worship.
(d) Hinayana, like Jainism, is a religion without God,
Gautama Gotra of Buddha
Karma taking the place of God
Suddhodana Buddha’s Father (e) Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all
Mahamaya Buddha’s Mother (f) the oldest school of Hinayana Buddhism is the
Sthaviravada (Thervada in Pali) or the ‘Doctrine
Prajapati Gautami Foster Mother of the Elders’.
Yasodhara Buddha’s Wife (g) Its Sanskrit counterpart, which is more
philosophical is known as Sarvastivada or the
Rahul Buddha’s Son doctrine which maintains the existence of all
Kanthaka Buddha’s Horse things, physical as well as mental.
(h) Gradually, from Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika
Channa Buddha’s Charioteer
branched off another school called Sautantrika,
Alara Kalam Buddha’s Teacher which was more critical in outlook.
³³ Mahayana :
Sujata Girl who offered rice and milk
(a) Its followers believed in the heavenliness of
Niranjana River on the bank of which Buddha and sought the salvation of all through
Buddha attained Nirvana the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisatvas.

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 Indian History

(b) Believes in idolworship. ³³ The Khuddaka Nikaya consists of large number of

INDIAN HISTORY
(c) Believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of miscellanceous works.
misery but a positive state of bliss. ³³ The Jatakas are a part of Khuddaka Nikaya of Sutta
(d) Mahayana had two chief philosophical schools : the Pitaka.
Madhyamika and the Yogachara. ³³ The Sutta Pitaka consists chiefly of :
(e) The former took a line midway between the (a) discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different
uncompromising realism of Hinayanism and occasions.
the idealism of Hinayanism and the idealism of (b) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda,
Yogachara. Moggalana and other are also included in it.
(f) The Yogachara school founded by Maitreyanatha (c) It lays down the principles of Buddhism.
completely rejected the realism of Hinayana and ³³ The Abhidhamma Pitaka is written in the form of
maintained absolute idealism. questions and Answers.
³³ Vajrayana
³³ It consists of seven books of which Kathavattu is most
(a) Its followers believed that salvation could be the important.
best attained by acquiring the magical power, ³³ Kathavattu is attributed to Moggaliputta Tissa.
which they called Vajra. ³³ The Abhidhamma Pitaka :
(b) The chief divinties of this new sect were the Taras.
(a) Contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s
(c) It became popular in Eastern India, particularly
tecahings.
Bengal and Bihar.
(b) It investigates mind and matter, to help the
BUDDHIST LITERATURE understanding of things as they truly are.
³³ The Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred
BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
to as Tripitaka i.e. Three fold Basket.
³³ Tripitaka includes Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and ³³ Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three
Abhidhamma Pitaka. forms, viz.
³³ The Vinayapitaka comprires of suttavibhanga, (a) Stupa (relics of the Buddha or some prominent
Khandakas and Parivarpatha. Buddhist monks are preserved)
³³ The Vinay Pitaka : (b) Chaitya (prayer hall)
(a) Mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the (c) Vihara (residence)
Buddha promulgated.
(b) It describes in detail the gradual development of the BODHISATTVAS
Sangha. ³³ Vajrapani (holds thunderbolt),
(c) An account of the life and teaching of the Buddha is
³³ Avlokitesvara/Padmapani (lotus beacer)
also given.
³³ Manjushri (holds books describing 10 paramitas)
³³ The Sutta Pitaka is divided into five Nikayas.
³³ Kshitigrha (guardian of purgatories)
³³ The five Nikayas are Digh Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya,
Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya and Khuddaka ³³ Maitreya (the future Buddha)
Nikaya. ³³ Amitabha/Amitayusha (Buddha of heaven)

   Buddhist
S. No. Location   Founder
  Imoversotoes
1. Nalanda Badagoan, Bihar Kumargupta-I
2. Vikramshila Bhagalpur, Bihar Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
3. Somapuri North Bengal Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
4. Jagadal Bengal Ramapala (Pala ruler)
5. Odantpuri Bihar Sharit, Bihar Gopala (Pala ruler)
6. Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarka (Maitrak Rule)

EIGHT HOLY PLACE (ASHTAMAHASTHANAS) JAINISM

(1) Lumbini, (2) Bodh Gaya, (3) Kusinagar, (4) ³³ Jainism was founded by Rishabhdev.
Sravasti, (5) Sankasya, (6) Rajgriha, (7) Vaishali, (8) ³³ Mahavira was born in 540 B.C.
Sarnath.
³³ Mahavira’s Birth place was Kundagram in Vaishali
SECTS OF BUDDHISM : AREA ³³ He belonged to the Jantriak Kshatriya clan.
Hinayana : India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Bangladesh, ³³ His father’s name was Siddhartha and mother’s name
Malaysia, Nepal, Singapore was Trishala, who was a sister of the Lichchavi prince
Mahayana : India, China, Nepal, Singapore, Japan, Chetak of Vaishali.
Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam ³³ Mahavira was married to Yashoda.
Vajrayana : India, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan.

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³³ He left home at the age of 30 and wandered for 12 JAINA LITERATURE

INDIAN HISTORY

years.
³³ Most of the literature is written in Prakrit.
³³ He is regarded as the 24th Tirthankara.
³³ The jaina Literature includes,
³³ Rishabha was the 1st Tirthankara.
(1) The 12 Angas
³³ Parsavanath was the 23rd Tirthankara.
³³ Mahavira’s first disciple was Jamali. (2) The 12 Upangas
³³ He attained Kaivalya on the bank of river Rijupalika (3) The 10 Prakirna
near Jrimbhikgrama. (4) The 6 Chhedsutras
(5) The 4 Mulasutras
Facts about Jainism
JAINA COUNCILS
Mahavira, Arhat Titles of Vardhamana,
³³ First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu
Vardhamana Original name of Mahavira
in the beginning of the third century BC and resulted
Kundagram Mahavira’s birth place
in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14
Trisala Mahavira’s Mother
Purvas.
Yashoda Mahavira’s Wife
Jamali Mahavira’s Son in Law. ³³ Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 6th (513
Jnatrika Clan to which Mahavira belonged. AD) century AD under the leadership of Devaradhi
Rijupalika River on the bank of which Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation of
Mahavira got Kaivalya. 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
Sal tree The tree under which Mahavira got
Kaivalya. 24 TIRTHANKARAS AND THEIR SYMBOL
Pava Place where Mahavira died. Name Symbol
1. Rishabha Bull
³³ The names of two Jaina Tirthankaras, Rishabha and
Aristanemi, are found in the Rigveda. 2. Ajitnath Elephant
³³ The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagvata Purana describe 3. Sambharnath Horse
Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana. 4. Abhiaandam Swamy Monkey
³³ In the course of wandering Mahavira met Mokhliputta 5. Sumathinath Curlew
(the founder of Ajivika sect). 6. Padamprabhu Red Lotus
³³ Ashoka’s grandson Samparati accept Jainism. 7. Suparaswanath Swastik
³³ In First century A.D. Mathura became the Centre of
8. Chandraji Prabhu Moon
Jaina art and culture.
9. Suvidhinath Crocodile
³³ The spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to
Chandragupta Maurya. 10. Shitalnath Srivatsa
³³ Many Jaina followers went to south under the 11. Shregansnath Rhinoceros
leadership of Bhadrabahu. 12. Vasupujya Buffalo
³³ These southern followers later formed the Digambra 13. Vimalnath Boar
sect (lives nude). 14. Ananthanth Falcon
³³ Those who remained at Magadha, under the 15. Dharamnath Vajra
leadership of Sthalabahu, formed Shvetambar sect
(wears white garments). 16. Shantinath Deer
17. Kuntunath He-Goat
Explanation of formation of Digambaras and 18. Arnath Fish
Shvetambaras : After the death of Mahavira during 19. Mallinath Water Pot
the reign of king Chandragupta Maurya a severe fam-
20. Muniswasth Tortoise
ine led to the migration of some jains under Bhadra-
21. Naminath Blue Lotus
bahu to the Deccan. Sthulabhadra remained in North
and allowed wearing white garments Bhadrabahu 22. Arishtanemi (Neminath) Conch Shell
maintained nudity leading to division as Digambaras 23. Parswanath Serpent
(sky clad or naked) and shwetambars (white clad). 24. Mahavir Lion
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
FIVE MAIN TEACHINGS ³³ Both opposed Brahmanical domination and caste
³³ Non-injury (ahimsa) system but uphold the essence of Vedas, Preached
³³ Non-lying Truth, non violence, celibacy and detachment from
³³ Non-Stealing (asateya) material comforts, believed in karma and rebirth and
³³ Non-Possession (aparigraha) were liberal towards women.
³³ Observe continence (Brahamcharya). It was added ³³ Aacharangsutra about rules and regulation for Jain
by Mahavira. Bhikshus.

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INDIAN HISTORY
Differences between Buddhism and Jainism
Buddhism Jainism
• Followers Monks Lay man
• Salvation Moderate one Extreme one
• Spread Died in India but spread Confined to India and survived
to foreign lands
• Ahimsa Liberal Policy Over-emphasis
• Soul Did not believe in soul Belived in soul

RISE OF MAHAJANAPADAS
³³ The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya gives the list of sixteen Mahajanapadas at the time of Buddha.
³³ These Mahajanapadas extended from the North western Pakistan to east Bihar and from Himalayas to the river
Godavari.

Mahajanapada Capital Area

Anga Champa Bhagalpur, Munger (Bihar)
Magadha Rajgriha Patna, Gaya (Bihar)
Kasi Varanasi Near Varanasi
Kosal Saketa, Sravasti Eastern Uttar Pradesh
Vajji (Ganasangha) Vaishali Muzaffarpur (Bihar)
Malla Kusinara/Pava Gorakhpur (U.P.)
Chedi Suktimati Bundelkhand (U.P.)
Vatsa Kaushambi Allahabad (U.P.)
Kuru Indraprastha Meerut Delhi region
Panchal Ahicchatra, Kampilya Western U.P.
Sursena Mathura Mathura (U.P.)
Gandhar Taxila Peshawar (Pakistan)
Kamboja Rajpura Near Gandhar
Asmak Paithan Godhavari area (M.H.)
Avanti Ujjain, Mahishmati Malwa region
Matsya Viratnagar Near Jaipur

³³ Kashi was famous for its cotton textiles and market RISE OF MAGADHA
for horses.
³³ Champa was noted for its trade and Commerce. Magadha Empire
³³ Vajji represented a confederacy of eight clans.
³³ The Buddha died in the vicinity of Kusinara.
³³ The Northern Panchalas had their capital at
Haryank Shisunaga Nanda
Ahicchatra.
Dynasty Dynasty Dynasty
³³ The Southern Panchalas had their Capital at
Kampilya.
HARYANK DYNASTY (544 BCE – 417 BCE)
³³ Viratnagar was used as the hiding place by Pandavas.
³³ The epic Mahabharata has provided information about
³³ Mathura was located at the junction of two famous trade
the early period of Magadha.
routes i.e. Uttrapatha and Dakshinapatha.
³³ Jarasandh and Brihdrath were the rulers during the
³³ The Kambojas were regarded as uncultured by the period of Mahabharata.
Brahamanical texts. ³³ Girivraja was the magadhan capital during the early
³³ The Buddha calls himself Kosalan in the Majjhima period.
Nikaya.
³³ Kashi had emerged as a cloth manufaturing centre by
BIMBISARA (544-492 B.C.)
the time of Buddha. ³³ Bimbisara established Haryank dynasty.
³³ Rajgir was the capital of the state.
³³ Bimbisara ascended the throne in 544 B.C.

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³³ In Jain literature he has been called as ‘Shrenika. ³³ Magadha lay at the centre of the middle Gangetic plain.
INDIAN HISTORY

³³ Bimbisara had three wives, Mahakosala, Chellana ³³ Magadha for the first time used elephants on a large
and Kshema. scale in wars.
³³ Mahakosala was the sister of Kosal ruler Prasenjit and ³³ Greek sources have mentioned that the Nandas
Chellana was Lichchhavi Princess. maintained 6000 elephants.
³³ Bimbisara defeated Anga and annexed it.
³³ Magadha society was unorthodox and was recently
³³ Bimbisara was contemporary of Buddha.
Aryanized.
³³ Bimbisara send his physician Jivak to treat Chand
Pradyot of Avanti ³³ Ambitious rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatshatru and
³³ Bimbisara was prisoned by his son Ajatshatru and Mahapadma nanda established Magadha as a
died in 493 B.C. powerful kingdom.

AJATSHATRU (492-460 B.C.) FOREIGN INVASION

³³ Ajatshatru sat on Magadha throne in 492 B.C. ³³ North-West India was ruled by smaller principalities
³³ Ajatshatru followed an expansionist policy. like Kambojas and Gandharas.
³³ After a long struggle he defeated Kasi and Vajji ³³ The Period of 6th century B.C. marked by political
confederacy. instability in North-West India.
³³ Ajatshatru took the services of his minister Vassakar ³³ In 516 B.C. the Iranian ruler Darius penetrated into
to divide the Vajji confederacy. North-West India.
³³ Ajatshatru got a large stupa constructed in Rajgriha. ³³ Darius annexed Punjab, west of Indus and Sindh.
³³ Gautama Buddha died during his reign; arranged the ³³ This area constituted the 20th kshatrapy (province)
first Buddhist council. of Iran.
³³ Ajatshatru constructed a fort around Rajgriha to ³³ The Indian Kshatrapy included Sindh, the North-West
protect it from Lichcchavi attack. frontier and part of Punjab.
³³ Ajatshatru was killed by his son Udayin in 461 B.C. ³³ The Indian Kshatrapy paid a tribute of 360 talents
³³ Udayin transferred the Capital to Patliputra. of Gold.
³³ Udayin was a follower of Jainism. ³³ Xerxes, the successor of Darius, employed Indians in
³³ The last Haryank ruler was Nagdasak. the long war against the Greeks.
SHISUNAGA DYNASTY (412-344 B.C.) ³³ The Iranian Scribes brought into India Kharoshti
³³ Nagdasak was killed by his minister Shisunaga. script.
³³ Shisunaga established Shisunaga dynasty in 412 B.C. ³³ Under the leadership of Alexander of Macedonia, the
³³ Shisunaga annexed Avanti to Magadha. Greeks destroyed the Iranian Empire.
³³ Shisunaga established his capital at Vaishali. ³³ Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass
³³ Kalashoka came to the throne in 344 B.C. in 326 B.C.
³³ Kalashoka again transferred the capital to Pataliputra. ³³ Ambhi was the king of Taxila.
³³ During the reign of Kalashoka second Buddhist ³³ Porus ruled between Jhelum and Ravi.
council was organized at Vaishali. ³³ Porus provided a strong resistance to Alexander.
³³ Nandivardhan was the last Shisunaga ruler. ³³ Alexander remained in India for 19 months (326-325
NANDA DYNASTY (344-323 B.C.) B.C.).
³³ Nanda Dynasty was established by Mahapadmananda. ³³ Alexander’s campaign opened up four distinct routes
³³ According to Puranas he was not a Kshatriya. by land and sea.
³³ Mahapadmananda was known as Ekarat and ³³ Alexandria and Boukephala were Greek settlements
Sarvakshatrantaka. which were established in the North West.
³³ Mahapadmananda conquered Kalinga. ³³ Alexander’s historian Nearchus has left valuable
³³ Last Nanda ruler was Dhanananda. geographical accounts.
³³ Dhanananda was the contemporary of Alexander. ³³ Battle of Hydaspes was fought between Porus and
³³ Alexander attacked India in the reign of Dhanananda Alexander.
(the last ruler) ³³ Alexander sent 20,000 oxen to Macedonia for use in
³³ The Nandas were fabulously rich and enormously Greece.
powerful. ³³ The Sati system and slave trade was prevalent in the
³³ Nanda Dynasty was destroyed by Chandragupta society.
Maurya and Chanakya. ³³ Alexander’s invasion paved the way for the expansion
³³ Nandas have been termed as first empire builders of Mauryan Empire in North West India.
of India.
EFFECTS OF ALEXANDER’S INVASION
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF MAGADHA ³³ It exposed India to Europe by opening up four distinct
³³ Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical lines of communication three by land and one by sea.
position. ³³ The Hindu and the Buddhist religious faiths and
³³ Iron deposits were situated close to Rajgir, the earliest philosophies had an impact of the Greek world of
capital of Magadha. philosophy following Alexander’s time.
³³ Rajgir and Pataliputra were situated at very strategic ³³ Due to cultural contacts, a cosmopolition school of
points. art came up in Gandhara.
³³ Pataliputra was surrounded by rivers from all sides ³³ It paved the way for the unification of North India
it was called as jaladurga (water-fort). under chandragupta by weakening small states.

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INDIAN HISTORY
THE MAURYAN EMPIRE (321 BC - 289 BC)
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322-295 B.C) ³³ The reverberation of the war drum (Bheri Ghosha)
³³ The Mauryan dynasty was founded by Chandragupta was to become the reverberation of the law (Dhamma
Maurya with the help of Chanakya or Kautilya. Ghosha).
³³ Brahamanical texts say he was born of Mura, a sudra ³³ His Hellenistic contemporaries were Antiochus II of
women in the court of the Nandas. Syria, Ptolemy II of Egypt, Antigonas of Macedonia,
³³ An earlier Buddhist tradition says he belonged to the Magas of Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus.
Moriya Kshatriya clan. ³³ He organised the third Buddhist council in the 18th
³³ In some texts he is referred to as Vrishala and year of his reign at Patliputra.
Kulahina.
³³ Ashoka banned animal sacrifice, regulated the slaughter
³³ He fought Seleucus in 305 B.C.
of animal for food.
³³ Seleucus surrendered a large territory including
Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia ³³ According to his Maski and Gurjara inscriptions he
(Gandhara) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan), in return for was known as Devanam Priya Priyadarshi.
500 elephants. ³³ He was converted to Buddhism by Nigrodh.
³³ According to Jaina tradition Chandragupta was ³³ Ashoka sent peace missionaries inside India as well
converted to Jainism. as abroad.
³³ Chandragupta Maurya passed his last days at
Sravanbelagola near Mysore. Where he died by NAMES & TITLES OF ASHOKA
starvation (Sallekhana/Santhara) ritual of Jains. Ashoka Personal name
³³ Seleucus sent an ambassador Megasthenes to the
Mauryan court. Piyadassi Official name
³³ Megasthenes wrote the text ‘Indica’ Ashoka Maski minor rock edict

BINDUSARA (298-272 B.C.) Ashok Vardhan Puranas.

³³ Bindusara succeeded Chandra-gupta Maurya. Ashoka Maurya Junagarh inscription
³³ In Jain literature he has been called as ‘Simhasen’.
Piyadassi Dipavamsa, Kandhar inscription
³³ Antiochus sent Deimachus as an ambassador to
Bindusara’s court. Piyadassi Raja Barabar hill cave inscription
³³ Ptolemy Philedelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as Piyadassi Raja Bhabru-Bairat minor rock edict
ambassador. Magadh
³³ He was known as Amitraghata. He was also known
Raja Ashoka Udegolum minor rock edict
as Amitrochates.
Dewanampiya
³³ He wrote to Antiochus I of Syria and asked for some
sweet, wine, dry figs and a sophist. Raja Ashoka Nittur minor rock edict
³³ He sent his son Ashoka to quell a rebellion in Taxila. Devanampriyas Gurjara minor rock edict
³³ He was a followers of Ajivika sect Ashoka Rajas
³³ The Syrian ambassador Deimachus was sent to his
court. EDICTS OF ASHOKA RELATED PLACES
ASHOKA (273-232 B.C.) LOCATION OF MAJOR ROCK EDICTS
³³ Ashoka (273-232 B.C.) succeeded Bindusara. (1) Kalshi (Dehradun) (2) Manshera (Hazara dist.
³³ He was holding viceroyalty of taxila and Ujjain during Pakistan) (3) Shahbazgarhi (Peshawar) (4) Girnar (Gujarat)
his fathers lifetime. (5) Sopara (Near Mumbai) (6) Dhauli (Odisha) (7) Jaugada
³³ After his fathers death he ascended the throne but (Odisha) (8) Maski (Andhra Pradesh) (9) Yerragudi
formal consecration was delayed for 4 years. (Andhra Pradesh)
³³ A Buddhist text says he usurped the throne after
killing his 99 brothers. Location of Minor Rock Edicts
³³ He fought Kalinga war in 260 B.C. in the 9th year of (1) Bairat (2) Rupnath (3) Sahsaram (4) Rupnath
his reign. (5) Brahmagiri (6) Gavimath (7) Jatinga Rameshwar
³³ Under Ashoka, the empire reached its zenith. And (8) Maski (9) Palkigundu (10) Rajula-Mandagiri
in the history, for the first time, the entire Indian (11) Suvarnagiri (12) Yerragudi (13) Gurjara (14) Ahraura
sub-continent came under a single umbrella (except
extreme Southern India). LOCATION OF PILLAR EDICTS
³³ In course of his second Dharmayatra tour (in 21st (1) Allahabad (2) Delhi-Topra
year of his reign), he visited Lumbini. (3) Delhi-Meerut (4) Nigalisagar
³³ In the 14th year of his reign he started the institution (5) Lauriya-Araraj (6) Lauriya-Nandangarh
of Dharma Mahamatras.
(7) Rampurva

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INFORMATION ABOUT ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS ³³ The language used in Ashokan edicts except Kandhar
INDIAN HISTORY

is Prakrit.
³³ 1st major rock edict declares prohibition of animal
³³ The inscription in fragmentary condition found at
sacrifice.
Lampak/Lamghan is in Aramaic.
³³ 2nd major rock edict mentions medical treatment of
³³ In all the edicts except the Maski edict Ashoka refers
human and animals. to himself by his title Devanampiya Piyadassi.
³³ 3rd major rock edict mentions Pradeshikas, Rajukas ³³ The Allahabad pillars (brought from Kausambi)
and Yukta. contains the inscription of Samudra Gupta and
³³ 4th major rock edict mentions Bheri Ghosha is Jehangir also.
replaced by Dhamma Ghosha. ³³ Major rock edicts are fourteen in number.
³³ 5th major rock edict mentions the appointment of ³³ Total number of pillar edicts is thirteen, they are
Dhamma Mahamattas. inscribed in ten pillars. Out of thirteen seven are major
pillar edicts, four are minor pillar edicts and two are
³³ 6th major rock edict mentions Mantri Parishad and commemorative pillar edicts.
officers like pulisani and Prativedikar.
³³ Of the four minor pillars edicts one is known as
³³ 7th major rock edict mentions religious toleration Queen’s edict and it is on Allahabad pillar.
amongst all sects. ³³ Schism edicts (one each) are found in Allahabad,
³³ 8th major rock edict mentions that he went to Sanchi and Sarnath Pillars.
Sambodhi in Bodh Gaya. ³³ The commemorative pillar edicts are Rumeindei and
³³ 9th major rock edict mentions the uselessness of Nigalisagar (both in Nepal).
various ceremonies. ³³ The longest among the major rock edict is 13th rock
³³ 10th major rock edict mentions that the king desires edict (in Odisha).
no more fame. ³³ 7th pillar edict is longest among all the edicts.
³³ 11th major rock edict explains the policy of Dhamma. ³³ The Allahabad pillar contains first six pillar edicts,
Queen’s edict, Kosam Schism edicts, Prasasti of
³³ 12th major rock edict appeals for toleration amongs
Samudragupta written by Harisena and some decrees
sects.
of Jehangir.
³³ 13th rock edict mentions Kalinga war.
³³ Kharosthi script was derived from Persian Aramaic.
³³ 14th major rock edict mentions the purpose of the ³³ He constructed Sanchi Stupa at Vidisha (M.P.)
rock edicts.
³³ There are 7 pillar edicts. 18 TIRTHAS MENTIONED IN ARTHASHASTRA
³³ In the 1st pillar edict, social code has been mentioned. 1. Mantrin : Chief Minister
³³ In the 2nd pillar edict eye donation has been 2. Purohita : Chief Priest
mentioned.
3. Senapati : Commander in Chief
³³ In the 3rd pillar edict soul and sin has been mentioned.
4. Yuvaraja : Crown prince (These four were the
³³ In the 4th pillar edict Rajukas have been mentioned.
highest functionaries among the
³³ In the 5th pillar edict animal killing is mentioned.
tirthas).
³³ The 6th pillar edict mentions the welfare of people.
5. Dauvarika : Chamberlain
³³ The 7th pillar edict mentions the Dhamma
Mahamattas. 6. Antarvesika : Chief of the harem.

FACTS ABOUT ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS 7. Prasastri : Inspector general of prisons

³³ Maski edict discovered in 1915 is the only edict which 8. Samaharta : Collector general
mentions the name Ashoka. 9. Sanidhata : Treasury Chief
³³ The Topra & Meerut pillars were brought to Delhi by
10. Pradeshtri : Divisional Commissioner
Feroz Shah Tughlaq.
³³ Ashokan edicts were deciphered by James Princep 11. Nayaka : City Constable
in 1837. 12. Paura : Governor of the City.
³³ The Kausambi pillar was brought to Calcutta by
13. Vyavaharika : Chief Judge
Jahangir.
³³ The Bairat inscription was brought to Allahabad by 14. Karmantika : Chief of the Mines
Cunningham. 15. Mantri : President of the Council.
³³ Two major rock edicts as Mansehra and Sahbazgarhi Parishadhyaksha
are in Kharoshti script.
³³ The Kandhar inscription is bilingual-Greek and 16. Dandapal : Police Chief
Aramaic. 17. Dvarapala : Chief of the Home Defence.
³³ Most of the Ashokan edicts are written in Brahmi
18. Antapala : Chief of the Frontier Defence.
script.

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IMPORTANT ADHYAKSHAS AND THEIR DUTIES ³³ He was succeeded by Agnimitra.

INDIAN HISTORY
1. Panyadhyaksha : Commerce ³³ A Sunga king, Agnimitra was the hero of kalidasa’s
Malavika-gnimitram.
2. Samsthadhyaksha : Markets, checking wrong
³³ Heliodorus came during the reign of Bhagbhadra
practices
³³ He was the ambassador of Greek king Antialkidas
3. Pautavadhyaksha : Weights and measure
of Taxila.
4. Navadhyaksha : State Boats
³³ The last Sunga king was Devabhuti.
5. Sulkadhyaksha : Tolls/Customs
³³ This period saw the revival of Bhagvatism.
6. Akaradhyaksha : Mines
7. Lohadhyaksha : Iron THE SATVAHANA DYNASTY
8. Savvarnika : Gold ³³ The Puranas speak only of Andhra rule and not of
9. Sitadhyaksha : Crown lands Satvahana rule.
10. Aksha pataladhyaksha : Accounts ³³ Simuka was the first Satvahana king.
11. Rathadhyaksha : Chariot ³³ They issued mostly coins of lead.
12. Hastyadhyaksha : Elephant force ³³ They were the successors of the Mauryans in the
13. Ayudhagaradhyaksha : Production and Deccan and the central India.
maintenance of ³³ Gautamiputra Satkarni (106-130 A.D.) called himself
armaments the only Brahamana.
14. Kosadhyaksha : Treasury ³³ His achievements are recorded in Nasik Inscription.
15. Kosthagaradhyaksha : Store house ³³ Nasik Inscription belongs to his mother Gautami
Balasri.
16. Kupyadhyaksha : Forest produce
³³ Vashisthaputra Pulmari (130-158 A.D.) set up his
17. Manadhyaksha : Measurement
capital at Paithan.
18. Mudradhyaksha : Passports
³³ He enlarged Amravati Stupa and decorated it with
19. Pattanadhyaksha : Ports marble.
20. Ganikadhyaksha : Courtesan ³³ He has been praised in Nanaghat Inscription.
21. Devatadhyaksha : Religious institutions
³³ Yajnasri Satkarni (165-194 A.D.) recovered Malwa
22. Lakshanadhyaksha : Mint from the Shaka rulers.
I. MPORTANT OFFICIALS : ³³ Ship is depicted on his coins.
Amatyas : The Secretaries ³³ Satvahanas were the first rulers to make land grants
Antapala : Governer of the Frontier to Brahamanas.
Akshapatala : Accountant General ³³ Prakrit text Gathasaptashati is attributed to
Durgapala : Governer of Fort Satvahana king Hala.
Dhamma : A New Post created by ³³ They had brisk trade with Romans.
Ashoka. ³³ Nasik and Nanaghat are important inscription of the
Gopa : Responsible for accounts Satvahana period.
Lipikaras : Scribes THE INDO-GREEKS
Kumaras : The Viceroys-in-change of a
³³ A series of invasions from central Asia began around
province
200 B.C.
Mahamatras : Functions of Propagating
³³ The first to cross the Hindukush were the Indo–
Dhamma and taking care
Greeks.
of the common folk for their
³³ Demetrius, the king of Bactria invaded India about
material well being.
190 B.C.
Pra deshikas : Modern District magistrate.
³³ The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander
Rajukas : later day Patwaris
(165-145 B.C.). His capital was Sakala or Sialkot.
Sthanika : The tax collector officers
³³ Menander was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena
THE VILLAGE LEVEL OFFICERS : or Nagarjuna.
Gramika : Head of Village ³³ The conversation between the two is recorded in a
Gram widdhas : Village elders. book named ‘Milindapanho’, or question of Milinda.
³³ Indo–Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.
POST-MAURYAN DYNASTIES ³³ They were the first rulers in India to issue coins
definitely attributed to the kings.
SUNGAS AND KANVAS ³³ They also introduced practice of military governorship.
³³ Pushyamitra laid the foundation of Sunga dynasty. The governors were called ‘Strategos’.
³³ Pushyamitra killed the last Mauryan ruler Brihdrath ³³ The Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a pillar in
in 185 B.C. honour of Vishnu at Vidisha.
³³ Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushyamitra Sunga. ³³ The term Horashastra used for astrology in Sanskrit
³³ Pushyamitra performed two Aswamedha sacrifices. is derived from the Greek term Horoscope.
³³ It was corroborated by Patanjali and Malavikagnimitram.

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THE SAKAS
THE GUPTAS (320-550 A.D.)
INDIAN HISTORY

³³ The Greeks were followed by the Sakas.

³³ Sri Gupta was the founder of Gupta rule.
³³ They are referred to as scythians.
³³ He was succeeded by Ghatotkacha.
³³ The Saka poured into India through the Bolan Pass.
³³ The real founder of the Gupta power was Chandragupta
³³ The earliest Indian textual reference to the Sakas are I (319-355 A.D.)
found in the Mahabhasya.
³³ He was the first independent king with the title of
³³ The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who Maharaja-dhiraja.
established Saka power in Gandhara. ³³ He started the Gupta era in 319-320 A.D.
³³ Maues was succeeded by Azes who successfully ³³ He married a Lichchavi Princess.
attacked the last of the Greek kings in Northern India, ³³ His empire included Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal.
Hippostratos. ³³ Samudragupta (355-380 A.D.) enlarged enormously
³³ The most famous of the Saka rulers was Rudradaman the Gupta kingdom.
(130-152 A.D.) ³³ His achievements are mentioned in the Prayag-
³³ His achievements are highlighted in his Junagarh Prasasti composed by Harisena.
Inscription. ³³ He captured and annexed the Aryavrata rulers.
³³ It is the first major inscription to be written in ³³ He defeated 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha.
Sanskrit. ³³ These rulers were first captured and then released
³³ It records the repair of Sudarshan lake undertook by by Samudragupta.
his officers. ³³ Harisena and Vasubandhu adorned his court.
³³ He was a great patron of art and adopted the title of
THE KUSHAN DYNASTY Kaviraja.
³³ They are referred to as Yuch-Chis or Tocharians. ³³ On some coins he is shown playing the Veena.
³³ They belonged to one of the five clans of the Yuch- ³³ Samudragupta had a disputed accession to the
Chis tribe. throne.
³³ They came from North Central Asia near China. Their ³³ Virasena was the commander of Samdragupta during
empire included a good part of central Asia a portion his southern campaign.
of Iran a portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan and almost ³³ Samudragupta performed the Aswamedha Yajna and
the whole of North India. struck gold coins of Yupa type.
³³ He granted permission to the Buddhist king of Ceylon
³³ Kujula Kadphises initiated copper imitation of Roman
Meghavarman to build a Monastery at Bodh Gaya.
coins.
³³ The historian V.A. Smith complemented Samudragupta
³³ Wima Kadphises issued a large number of gold coins. as the ‘Indian Nepoleon’.
³³ Kanishka (78-144 A.D.) started the Shaka era (78 ³³ Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but
A.D.) Chandragupta II killed him and married his queen
³³ His two capitals were Purushpura (Peshawar) and Dhruvadevi.
Mathura. ³³ He entered into matrimonial alliance with the Nagas
by marrying princess Kubernaga.
³³ He erected a monastery stupa at Peshawar.
³³ He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III and
³³ He was a great patron of art and literature. annexed his kingdom.
³³ At Toprak-Kala a huge Kushan palace has been ³³ He adopted the title of Vikramaditya. Mehrauli iron
unearthed. pillar inscription mentions his authority over North
³³ Charak was the court physician of Kanishka. western India and a portion of Bengal.
³³ He was a great patron of Buddhism. ³³ Virasena’s Udaigiri cave inscription refers to his
conquest of the whole world.
³³ Fourth Buddhist Council was held under his
³³ He made Ujjain his second capital.
patronage at Kundalvan.
³³ His court contained 9 gems including Kalidasa,
³³ Kanishka controlled the famous Silk route in central Amarsimha, Fa-hien, Acharya Dignaga etc.
Asia. ³³ Veerasena Saba was the court poet and minister
³³ The Gandhara School of art recieved royal patronage of Chandragupta II. Amarkhaddava was his army
of the Kushans. general.
³³ The Kanishka group of rulers used the title ³³ Fa-hien, the Chinese traveller came during the time
of Chandragupta II.
‘Shanaushahi’.
³³ He issued silver and copper coins.
³³ The Kushanas started erecting mortuary temples
³³ His predecessors had issued only gold coins.
called Devakulas.
³³ The gold coins were called ‘Dinara’.
³³ Kushanas divided their empire into strips. ³³ Chandragupta II was succeeded by Kumargupta I.
³³ Kanishka provided patronage to Ashvaghosha and ³³ His inscriptions are the Bilsad inscription, the
Nagarjuna.
Karandanda inscription, the Mandsor inscription, the

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 Indian History

Damodarpur copper plate inscription. ³³ Harsha was not successful in his first expedition

INDIAN HISTORY
³³ He founded the Nalanda University.
against Gauda.
³³ In his second expedition Harsha conquered Magadha and
³³ Towards the last year of his reign, the Gupta empire faced Sasanka’s empire.
foreign invasions. ³³ G a u d a w a s d i v i d e d b e t w e e n H a r s h a a n d
³³ Skandagupta had to fight the Pushyamitras and the Bhaskarvarman.
Hunas. ³³ The Aihole inscription mentions that Harsha met
defeat at the hands of Pulakesin II.
³³ He was successful in throwing the Hunas back.
³³ Harsha’s empire extended from the Punjab to northern
³³ The Junagarh inscription of his reign tells that his Orissa and from Himalayas to the banks of Narmada.
governor Parnadatta got the Sudarshan lake repaired. ³³ Harsha wrote three Sanskrit plays-Nagananda,
³³ He adopted the title of Vikramaditya. Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.
³³ Some of the successors of Skandagupta were ³³ Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita and Kadambri.
Buddhagupta, Vainyagupta Bhanugupta ³³ Harsha showed equal respect to all religious sects.
Narsimhagupta Baladitya, Kumargupta II and ³³ Harsha built rest houses, hospitals, and endowed
Vishmigupta. numerous Brahamanical, Buddhist and Jaina
Titles of the Gupta Kings establishments.
³³ The Kannauj assembly was held in the honour of
Srigupta Adiraja, Maharaja
Hiuen-Tsang.
Ghatotkach Maharaja
Chandragupta–I Maharajadhiraja ³³ Harsha used to celebrate religious festivals at the end
Samudragupta Sarva-raj-ochhchetta, kaviraja of every five years at Prayag.
Chandragupta–II Vikramaditya ³³ Harsha sent an emissary in 641 A.D. to the Chinese
Kumargupta Mahendraditya, Shakraditya emperor.
Skandagupta Vikramaditya, Karmaditya ³³ Harsha also received a Chinese emissary in return.
³³ Harsha died in 647 A.D.
Taxes Levied during the Gupta Dynasty
Bhag Kings share of produce Officials in Harshavardhana’s administration
Bhoga General tribute Singhnada Chief of Armed Forces
Hiranya Tax on special produce taken in cash
Amatya Revenue and Finance Minister
Bedakbhog Irrigation tax
Bhatta Police tax Uparika Provincial Head
Charasana Grazing tax Dandapashik Police Officer
Chat Security tax
Prataya Toll tax Vrihadeshwara Head of Cavalry
Halivakar Tax on Ploughing Baladhikrita The Commander
Upkilpta Sales tax
Skandagupta/Katuka Head of Elephant Brigade
Taradaya Navigation tax
Ayuktaka Ordinary officer
Gupta Temples Places Mahasandhivigrahaka Officer to decide on war and
peace
Vishnu temple Tigawa (Jabalpur)
Shiva temple Bhumara (Nagaud) SOUTH INDIAN DYNASTIES
Parvati temple Nachna Kuthara
Dasavtar temple Deogarh (Jhansi) THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI (543-757 A.D.)
Shiva temple Koh (Nagaud) ³³ The Vakatakas in the deccan were followed by the
Bhitargaon temple Bhitargaon Chalukyas of Badami.
Lakshman temple (birck made) Kanpur ³³ The Chalukyas established their base at Badami
Laxman temple Sirpur (Raipur) (Vatapi) in Bijapur district of Karnataka.
Mukund Darra temple Kota ³³ The Chalukyas claimed their descent either from
Dhammekh stupa Sarnath Manu or Moon.
Jarasandh’s sitting Rajgrih (Bihar) ³³ Pulakesin-I (543-66) : founder of the Chalukya
dynasty, established a small kingdom with Badami/
HARSHVARDHAN (606-647 A.D.) Vatapi in Bijapur District as its capital.
³³ Harshavardhan ascended the Pushyabhuti throne ³³ Kirtivarman-I-expanded the kingdom by wars against
in 606 A.D. the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Nalas of Bastar.
³³ Harshavardhan was also known as Siladitya. ³³ Pulakesin II was able to check Harsha’s design to
³³ Banabhatta and Hiuen Tsang have provided important conquer Deccan.
information about Harsha’s reign. ³³ Aihole inscription is a eulogy written by his court
³³ Poet Banabhatta wrote ‘Harsha-charita’. poet Ravikirti.

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³³ He sent an ambassador to Persian king Khusrau II in ³³ Raja built a Saiva, a temple of Rajarajeshwara at
INDIAN HISTORY

625 A.D. and also received one from him. Tanjore.

³³ The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang Visited his kingdom. ³³ Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola and
³³ Pallava ruler Narsimhavarman I invaded the Chalukya built a city called Gangaikondacholapuram.
kingdom, killed Pulakesin II and captured Badami. ³³ The Chola empire was divided into Mandalams
³³ Vishnuvardhan, son of Pulakesin II, founded the or provinces and these in turn were divided into
eastern branch of the Chalukyas with its capital at Valanadu and Nadu.
Vengi. ³³ Chola rulers marked their victories by erecting a
number of Shiva and Vishnu temples.
THE PALLAVAS (560-803)
³³ During the reign of Rajendra I a naval expedition was
³³ The Pallavas played an important role after the fall of
sent against the Sri Vijaya empire.
Satvahanas in 3rd century until the rise of the Cholas.
³³ The Bay of Bengal was converted into a ‘Chola lake’.
³³ The origin of Pallavas is a debatable issue.
³³ The Chola rulers fought constantly with the Chalukyas
³³ Pallava dynasty was founded by Simhavisnu in 560
of Kalyani.
A.D.
³³ Rajaraja I granted a village for the maintenance of
³³ Mahendravarman-I was defeated by Pulakesin-II.
Buddhist vihara at Nagapattam.
³³ Narasimhavarman was the greatest king. He defeated
³³ The king was the most important person in the Chola
Pulakesin II and captured Badami/Vatapi. So, took
administration.
the title of Vatapikonda.
³³ The Cholas maintained a large army consisting of
³³ Narsimhavarman also defeated Cholas, Cheras and
elephants, cavalry and infantry.
Pandyas, thus became supreme in South India.
³³ Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai to Vimaladitya
³³ Narsimhavarman was a great builder, having
(Eastern Chalukya of Vengi) and restored Vengi to
constructed Mamallapuram and the various buildings
here. During his reign Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi. him.
³³ Rajaraja-I sent his son Rajendra-I to capture Banarasi
³³ Narsimhavarman II constructed the shore temple of
and sack Manyakhet of Western Chalukyas.
Mamallapuram and the Kailasnath temple of Kanchi.
He sent emissaries to China to encourage maritime ³³ During the reign of Rajaraja Maldives was captured.
trade. ³³ Rajaraja conferred the title of ‘Mahadandanayaka’
upon Rajendra-I for his victory over Pandyas &
³³ The Chalukya Vikramadita-II attacked the Pallava
Keralas.
capital during the reign of Paramesvar Varman.
³³ Rajaraja-I started the system of land survey called
³³ Nandivarman-II was a worshipper of Vishnu. He built ‘kadamb’.
Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi.
³³ Adhirajendra was killed in a public revolt.
³³ The last Pallava ruler, Aparajita Pallava was defeated ³³ Kulotunga-I of Vengi united the kingdom of Eastern
by Aditya Chola. Chalukyas of Vengi and Chola kingdom. His other
³³ Kanchi, Pallavas capital was a great centre of Sanskrit name was Rajendra-II. He was given the title of
learning. Sangam Tavirtta (he who abolished tolls).
³³ Both Bharavi and Dandin, the authors of ³³ Rajendra II was crowned in the battle field of Koppam.
‘Kirtarjuniyam’ and ‘Dashkumarcharitam’ respectively He was given the title of Prakesari.
lived in the Pallava court. ³³ Vira Rajendra Rajakesari defeated Western Chalukyas
³³ The scientific works of Varahamihira and the poetry king Someswara-I Ahvamalla in the battle of Kudal
of Kalidasa were well known in the Pallava country. Sangman (Kurnool district). He foiled all efforts of
³³ Most of the kings were accomplished scholars and Vijayabahu of Sri Lanka to extend his authority and
Mahendravarman-I himself wrote the famous drive away the Cholas from Sri Lanka.
burlesque ‘Mattavilasa Prahasana.’ ³³ After the decline of Cholas, their place was taken
by the Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra and Pandyas of
THE KADAMBAS
Madurai.
³³ The Kadamba dynasty was founded by Mayur Sarman. ³³ The gopuram style was developed under the Cholas.
³³ The Kadambas ruled from Banvasi from 345 A.D. to ³³ The system of canals in south is a contribution of
365 A.D. the Cholas.
³³ Kakusthavarman (435-455 A.D.) was the most ³³ Rajendra-I built Shiva temple at
powerful ruler of the dynasty. Gangaikondacholapuram.
³³ Kakusthavarman established matrimonial relations ³³ The Cholas were famous for the bronze statue of
with the Gangas and the Guptas. Nataraja.
THE CHOLAS ³³ Kamban wrote Ramayana. Sivagasindamani was also
³³ The Cholas were the feudatories of the Pallavas. produced.
³³ The founder of Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya, who ³³ Temple architecture in south attained its climax under
was at first a feudatory of the Pallavas. He captured the Cholas.
Tanjore in 850 A.D. ³³ The style of architecture which came into vogue during
³³ The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985-1014
this period is called Dravida.
A.D.) and his son Rajendra I (1014-1044 A.D.). ³³ ‘Mandap’ was the pillared hall.

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³³ ‘Garbhgriha’ was the room of the chief-deity. (836–885 A.D.).

INDIAN HISTORY
³³ Ceremonial dances were performed by Devadasis. ³³ Bhoja is also called Mihir Bhoja. He defeated Devapala
and got Kannauj back.
Titles of the Chola Kings
³³ Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title
King Titles of Adivaraha.
Parantaka–I Maduraikonda IMPORTANT PRATIHARA RULERS
Rajaraj–I Rajkesari, Arumoli, Cholormand, Vatsaraja 773-793
Mumadichola Dev. Nagabhata I 793-833
Rajendra–I Gangaikondachola, Mudigundchola, Bhoja 836-885
Panditchola. Mahipala 908-942
Kulotunga–I Kataikondachola, Malaindu THE PALAS
Kondachola.
³³ The Pala empire was founded by Gopala in 750 A.D.
Administrative Units of Chola Dynasty ³³ Gopala was elected as the king by the notable men
of the area.
Mandalam Province
³³ Gopala was succeeded by his son Dharmapala in
Kottam Division 770 A.D.
Nadu District ³³ Palas established their rule in Bengal and Bihar.
³³ Dharmapala (770-810) was defeated by Dhruva
Kurtam Group of villages
(Rashtrakuta) and Nagabhatt II (Pratihara).
³³ During Dharmapala, two brothers Indra & Chakra
CHOLA KINGS
clashed for Kannauj.
1. Vijayalaya : 846-887 A.D. ³³ Dharmapala revived Nalanda University, which had
2. Aditya : 871-907 A.D. been famous all over the eastern world.
3. Parantaka-I : 907-955 A.D. ³³ He also founded the Vikramshila University.
4. Ganaraditya : 955-956 A.D.
5. Arinjaya : 956-957 A.D.
Important Pala Rulers
6. Parantaka-II : 957-973 A.D.
7. Uttamachola : 973-985 A.D. Gopala 750-770 A.D.
8. Rajaraja-I : 985-1014 A.D. Devapala 810-850 A.D.
9. Rajendra-I : 1014-1044 A.D.
Dharmapala 770-810 A.D.
10. Rajadhiraja : 1044-1054 A.D.
11. Rajendra II : 1054-1064 A.D. Vigrahapala 850-854 A.D.
12. Virarajendra : 1064-1069 A.D. THE RASHTRAKUTAS
13. Kulottunga-I : 1070-1118 A.D.
³³ Founded by Dantidurga in deccan.
14. Vikramachola : 1118-1135 A.D.
15. Kulottunga-II : 1135-1150 A.D. ³³ Their capital was at Manyakhet or Malkhed near
16. Rajaraja-II : 1150-1173 A.D. modern Sholapur (earlier at Ellora).
³³ Amoghvarsha rulled for 68 years.
TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (PALAS, PRATIHARAS AND
RASTRAKUTAS) ³³ Amoghvarsha wrote ‘Kaviraja-marga’, a book on
Poetics Kannada. It was the earliest Kannada book
³³ A number of powerful empires arose in Northern India
on poeties.
and the Deccan between 750 A.D.-1000 A.D.
³³ Amoghavarsha first transferred capital from Ellora to
³³ The Gurjara Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rastrakutas
emerged almost at the same time. Manyakhet or Malkhed.
³³ Indira III (915-927) defeated Mahipala (Pratihara) and
³³ These three powers fought for the supremacy over
Kannauj. sacked Kannauj in 915, Indra was the most powerful
ruler of his time.
THE PRATIHARAS ³³ Rashtrakutas imported horses from Arabia, West-Asia
³³ The Pratiharas emerged from Gurjaratra or South and central Asia.
West Rajasthan. ³³ In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, the directly administered
³³ They resisted Araburincrusions from Sindh into areas, were divided into Rashtras (provinces), Visaya
Rajasthan. and Bhukti.
³³ Pratihara dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta-I. ³³ The last ruler Karka was overthrown by Tailap, the
³³ Pratihara power revived under Nagabhatta-II. He founder of Chalukyas of Kalyani.
defeated Dharmapala near Monghyr (Mudgir). ³³ Dantidurga built the Dashavatara temple at Ellora.
³³ Pratiharas traced their descent from Lakshamana ³³ Krishna-I built the Kailasa or Shiva temple at Ellora
(the solar race). in the 9th century.
³³ Their capital was at Mahodaya (Kannauj). ³³ The great Apabhramsha poet Svayambhu and his son
³³ The real founder and the greatest king was Bhoja lived at the Rashtrakuta court.

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Important Rashtrakuta Rulers ³³ Lalitaditya Muktapida defeated Yasovarman of

INDIAN HISTORY

1. Dantidurga : 753-756 Kannauj.

2. Krishna-I : 756-773 ³³ Lalitaditya built the famous Sun temple at Martand.
3. Govinda-II : 773-780 ³³ Utpala dynasty was founded by Avantivarman.
4. Dhruva : 780-792 ³³ Queen Didda ruled from 980 A.D. to 1003 A.D.
5. Govinda-II : 792-814 ³³ Sangramraja founded the Lohara dynasty.
6. Amoghavarsha : 814-880 ³³ King Harsha belonged to Lohara dynasty.
7. Krishna-II : 880-915 ³³ Kalhana wrote ‘Rajatarangini’ in 12th century.
8. Indra-III : 915-927
THE CHANDELLAS
9. Amoghavarsha : 927-930
10. Govinda-IV : 930-935 ³³ The Chandelas ruled in Bundelkhand.
11. Amoghavarsha-II : 935-940 ³³ The dynasty was founded by Nanuka in the early
12. Krishna-III : 940-967 years of 9th century and his capital was Khajuraho.
13. Khottiga : 967-972 ³³ Dhanga was the first independent king of the Chandella
14. Karka : 972-973 dynasty and assumed the title Maharajadhiraja.
³³ He was succeeded by Ganda who in turn was
REGIONAL DYNASTIES succeeded by Vidyadhara.
³³ During Vidyadhara’s reign Mahmud of Ghazni invaded
THE PARMARAS Kalinjar in 1019 and again in 1022.
³³ The Parmaras ruled in the Malwa region. ³³ In 1165 Parmardideva was defeated by Prithviraja
³³ The Parmaras initially had their capital at Ujjain. Chauhan.
³³ The Parmaras later transferred their capital to Dhara. ³³ Qutub-ud-din Aibak defeated Parmadideva and
³³ Vakpati Munj was the founder of the Parmara dynasty. occupied greater part of Bundelkhand.
³³ Vakpati was a great patron of art and literature. ³³ Alauddin Khalji captured the whole of the kingdom.
³³ Padmagupta, Dhananjya, graced the court of Vakpati. ³³ Temples of Khajuraho were built by Chandellas.
³³ The greatest ruler of dynasty was Bhoja. ³³ The most prmoinent among the Khajuraho temples
³³ Bhoja built the city of Bhojapur. are the Kandariya Mahadeva, Devi Jagadamba,
³³ Bhoja founded a college, Bhojshala near Dhara. Parsvanatha, Lakshamana and the Viswanatha
temples.
THE GAHADAVALS
THE SENAS
³³ The Gahadaval dynasty was founded by Chandradeva.
³³ The Senas supplanted the Palas in Bengal.
³³ The capital of Gahadaval was Kannauj.
³³ The Senas called themselves ‘Brahma Kshatriya’.
³³ Govindchandra conquered east Malwa.
³³ Vijaysena ascended the throne in 1095 A.D. and
³³ Govind Chandra’s minister for peace and war,
enlarged the frontiers of senas.
Lakshmidhara wrote Krityakalpataru.
³³ Vijayapuri and Vikrampuri were two capitals of Senas.
³³ Jaychandra was defeated by Lakshman Sena of
³³ Vijayasena was succeed by his son Ballalsena.
Bengal.
³³ Ballalsena established the tradition of ‘Kulinism’.
³³ In the Battle of Chandawar (1194 A.D.) Muhammad
Ghori defeated Jaichandra. ³³ Ballalsena wrote ‘Adbhutsagar’ and ‘Dansagar’.
³³ Harischandra was the last ruler of Gahadaval dynasty.
³³ Ballalsena was succeeded by Lakshmansena.
³³ Bakhtiyar Khalji invaded Bengal during the reign of
THE CHAUHANS Lakshmansena.
³³ The Chahamana (Chauhan) dynasty emerged near ³³ Jayadeva, Dhoyi, Halayudha adorned Lakshmansena’s
Sakambhari (Ajmer). court.
³³ The Chauhans were the feudatories of Pratihara.
THE SANGAM AGE
³³ Simharaja declared independence in the middle of
10th century. ³³ The word Sangam is associated with the assembly of
³³ Ajayraja founded the city of Ajaymeru (Ajmer). Tamil Scholars and Poets flourished under the royal
patronage of the Pandyan Kings at Madurai.
³³ Prithviraja Chauhan ascended to the throne in 1177
A.D. ³³ Tolkapiyam belongs to second Sangam.
³³ Tokapiyam is a work on grammar.
³³ Prithviraja Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori in
the first battle of Tarain (1191 A.D.). ³³ The Sangam literature was compiled in circa A.D.
300-600.
³³ In the second battle of Tarain (1192 A.D.) Muhammad
³³ Thirukural of Kural by Tiruvalluvar is sometimes
Ghori defeated Prithviraja Chauhan.
called the ‘fifth Veda’ or ‘Bible of the Tamil land’.
KASHMIR ³³ Silpaddikaram literally ‘The jeweled Anklet’ by Ilango
³³ Three dynasties Karkota, Utpala and Lohar ruled Adigal is an epic, deals with the love stories of Kovalan
and Madhavi.
Kashmir during 800 A.D. to 1200 A.D.
³³ Manimekhalai is written by Sattalai Sattanar,
³³ Karkota dynasty was founded by Durlabh Vardhana.
considered the ‘Odysseus of Tamil poetry’.

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³³ Jivaga Chintamani, a third epic by the Jaina ³³ Earliest known Pandya king is Palyagasalai

INDIAN HISTORY
Tiruttakadevar. Mudukudumi.
³³ Roman king built a temple of Augustus at Muziris. ³³ Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over
³³ Murugan was the God par excellence of the Tamils, it for 50 years.
also known as Subramaniyam. ³³ Karikala defeated the joint forces of Cheras and
³³ Yavan Priya is a Sanskrit terms for pepper. Pandyas.
³³ Muslin, gems, pearls and spices were the important ³³ Captains of army were invested with the title Enadi.
export items to Rome. ³³ The ruling class in Sangam Age was called Arasar.
³³ The Sangam Age was marked by three political powers. ³³ The lowest class in society was of Kadaisiyar.
These were Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras. ³³ Purananuru contain the poems of Kapilar, Avvai and
³³ The Chola dominion was known as Tondaimandlam. Kovur-kilar.
³³ Karikala was the greatest Chola king. ³³ In Silppadikaram there is a reference to Ceylonese
³³ He constructed 160 km of embankment along the king Gajabahu.
Cauvery river. ³³ Bow was the royal emblem of Cheras.
³³ Uraiyur was the Chola capital. ³³ Tiger was the royal emblem of Cholas.
³³ Nedunjeral Adan is the first known Chera king. ³³ Carp/Fish was the royal emblem of Pandyas.
³³ He earned the title of Udiyanjeral. ³³ In the battle of Talaiyalanganam Nedunjelian defeated
³³ Senguttuvan was the greatest Chera king. Chera and Chola kings.
³³ He established the Pattini cult. ³³ Muziris was a great centre of cotton trade.
³³ The capital of Cheras was Vanji. ³³ Uraiyur was famous for pearls and muslins.
³³ Nedunjhelian was the most important Pandya king. ³³ Yavana ships used to arrive at Kaveripattinam.
³³ He ordered the execution of Kovalan the husband of ³³ Kadamai and Kavalmaram are tutelary tree.
Kannagi.
³³ ‘Yal’ was a stringed instrument like lute.
³³ The capital of Pandyas was Madurai.
³³ Puliyars were the craftsmen.
³³ Megasthenes has pointed out that Pandyas were rules
³³ Tamil work Jivak Chintamani highlights the
by a woman.
importance of Jaina philosophy.
³³ Korkai and Saliyur were important sea ports of
³³ Jivak Chintamani was written by Tiruttakkadevar.
Pandyas.
FIVE TINAIS
Area Occupation God
Forest land (Mullai) Lended cattle, sheep Mayon
Hill area (Kurinji) Hunting Seyon (Murugan)
Cultivable land (Marudam) Cultivators Vendan (Indra)
Coastal regions (Neidal) Fishing Varunan
Sandy region (Palai) Robbery Korravai.

Panchtinai (five
Inhabitants Occupation
Tamil regions/lands)
Kurinji (hilly backwoods or montane) Kurvar, Vetar Hunting, Gathering
Palai (Pastoral tract) Eyinar, Maravar Cattle lifting, Highway Robbery
Mullai (Pastoral land) Ayar, Idaiyar Shifting Agriculture, Animal husbandry
Marutam (Wetland) Ulavar, Vellalar Plough Agriculture
Neital (costal) Paratavar, Valayar Fishing, Salt extraction
Important Officials in Sangam Administration

Armaichchar Minister Vetar Food gatherers and Hunters

Purohitar Religious Affair Panar Wandering Balladmanger
Dutar Envoys Paratavar Fisherman
Orrar Spies Umnar Salt producer
Senapatiyar Cheif of Armed Forces Sangam Literature
³³ The word Sangam is associated with a college or assembly
Social groups in Sangam Dynasty of Tamil scholars and poets flourished under the royal
Ulavar Agriculturists patronage of the Pandyan kings.
Kuravar Shifting Agriculturists ³³ The whole Sangam age is called Golden or Augustan Age.
According to Tamil sources, the father of Tamil literature
Idaiyar Cattle holders
is ‘Agastya.’
Kallar Plunderer of cattle

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SANGAM AGE (AD First-Third Century)

INDIAN HISTORY

Kingdom Location Capital Emblem Famous Famous Rules Other Features

port
Chola North-East of Uraiyaur Tiger Puhar Elara was the earliest known Chola maintained
(Cholam- Pandyas between (famous Chola king. He conquered Sri an efficient Navy.
andalam) Penner and Vellar for Cotton Lanka and ruled over it for Their economy was
rivers trade) 50 years. based on trade in
and Puhar Karikala founded the capital cotton cloth. The
city Puhar/Kaveripatnam and Chola kingdom was
constructed embankment destroyed by the
along Cauveri river. attack of Pallavas
from the North.
Chera Part of Kerala Venji of Bow Muzris Udiyangera is one of the It has well-
and Tamil Nadu Karur Todi, earliest known Chera rulers. established trade
This title of Udiyangeral was with Romans and
Bandar
given to him because it is also set up two
said that he served both the regiments at Muzris
armies of Kurukshetra War, to protect their
Senguttuvan/ Red Chera, interests, They built
was the greatest Chera temple of Augustus
King. He invaded the north a Muzris.
and crossed Ganga. He is
remembered for building
a temple of “‘Kannagi” the
Goddes of chastity and
founded the famous Pattini
cult.
Pandya Southern most Mudurai Carp Korkai, Mudukudumi was the earlist This kingdom was
known Pandyan ruler. first mentioned by
Nedunjelian was the most Megasthenes, who
important king of Pandya. He says that their
accused Kovalon of theft. As kingdom was famous
a result, the city of Madurai for pearl and was a
was laid under a curse by ruled by a woman,
Kannagi (Kovalan’s wife). Also find mention in
the Ramayana and
Mahabharata.

Sangams Venue Chairman Surviving Text

Ist Ten-Madurai Agastya —
2nd Kapatapuran Alvai Agastya (founder) Tolakappiyan
Tolakappiyan (Tamil Grammar)
(later chairman)
3rd North Madurai Nakkirar Ettutogati Patinenki lakanak-
ku, pattu-Pattu

Important Sangam Works

Revenue Terminologies
³³ Tokapiyam by Tokapiyar (Tamil Grammar).
³³ Tirukunal or Kunal by Tiruvaluvar is sometimes called Karai Land tax
the ‘Fifth Veda’ or ‘Bible of the Tamil land’. It explains the
doctrine of dharma, artha, kama and moksha. Irai Tribute paid by feudatories and body col-
³³ Aggatiyam comprises grammar of letters and life, in three lected in war
parts written by saint Aggatiyar.
Iravu Extra demand or forced gift
Epics
³³ Silappadikarma the jewelled anklet: by Ilango Adigal is Ulgu Custom dutie
an epic, dealing with love story of Kovalan and Madhavi
also called ‘llliyad’ of Tamil Poetry. Variyar Tax collector
³³ Manimekalai is one of the two greatest epics and a sequel Variyan A well known unit of territory yielding tax
to Silappadikaram written by Satallai Sattannam.
³³ Jivaka Chintamiui (Sivaga Sindamani) a third epic by a ³³ The land was very fertile with proper irrigation facilities.
Jaina Tiruttakrdeva. It has elements of Jainism. The chief local God was Murugan, also called as
³³ Bharatman written by Perudevanar. Subramaniya.

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 Indian History

Kathasaritsagar : Somdeva

INDIAN HISTORY
ANCIENT INDIANS BOOKS & ITS AUTHOSR
Panchatantra : Vishnu Sharma
Books : Author
Hitopdesha : Narayan Pandit
Ashtadhyayi : Panini
Kamasutra : Vatsayan
Buddhacharita : Asvaghosha
Mattavilasa : Mahendra-
Charak Samhita : Charak
Prahasana
varman I
Devi Chandraguptam : Vishakadutta
Nitisara : Kamandaka
Gita Govind : Jayadeva
Dayabhaga : Jimutavahana
Harsha Charita : Banabhatta
Nighantu : Yaska
Kadambari : Banabhatta
Mitakshara : Vijneshvra
Kumar Sambhava : Kalidas
Brihat Kathamanjari : Kshemendra
Kumarpalcharita : Hemchandra
Mahaviracharita : Bhavabhuti
Mahabhashya : Patanjali
Mahavir Charita : Bhavabhuti FAMOUS SCHOLARS AND THEIR PATRONS
Malvikagnimitram : Kalidas Scholar   Patron
Meghduta : Kalidas Udayraja : Mahmud Begrha (Gujarat)
Mitakshara : Vijnaneshwara Hemchandra : Kumarpala

Mrichhkatikam : Sudraka (Chalukyas of Anhilwara)

Nagarjuna : Kanishka
Mudra Rakshasha : Vishakhdatta
Amar Singh : Chandragupta
Nagananda : Harshavardhana
Vikramaditya
Natya Shashtra : Bharata
Ravikirti : Pulkesin-II
Nitisara : Kamandaki
Vakpatiraj : Yashovarman of Kannauj
Priyadarshika : Harshavardhana
Bhav Bhuti : Yashovarman of Kannauj
Ramcharita : Sandhyakara Nandi
Harishena : Samudragupta
Ritu Samhara : Kalidas Rajshekhar : Mahendrapala and Mahipala
Sisupal Vadha : Magha Somadeva : Prithviraja III
Susruta Samhita : Susruta Chandarbardai : Prithviraja III
Swapna Vasavadatta : Bhasa Banabhatta : Harshavardhana
Tilakmanjari : Dhanpala Dandin : Narsinghavarman (Pallava)
Vikram Deva Charita : Bilhana Bharvi : Simhavishnu
Vikramourvasi : Kalidas (Pallava)
Manu Smriti : Manu Gunadhya : Hala (Satvahana)
Arthshastra : Kautilya Mahaviracharya : Amoghvarsha

Chhanda-Sutra : Pingala (Rashtrakuta)

Buddhacharita : Ashvaghosha Jinasen : Amoghvarsha

(Rashtrakuta)
Sariputra Prakarna : Ashvaghosha
Sakatyayan : Amoghvarsha
Saundaranand : Ashvaghosha
(Rashtrakuta)
Sisupalvadha : Magha
Jayadeva : Lakshman Sena (Bengal)
Ratnavali : Harshavardhana
Bilhan : Vikramaditya VI
Maltimadhav : Bhavabhuti
(Chalukya of
Uttararamcharita : Bhavabhuti
Kalyani)
Gaudvaho : Vakpati Raj
Vijnaneshwar : Vikramaditya VI
Daskumarcharita : Dandin
Lakshmidhar : Govind Chandra
Vashvadatta : Subandhu
Shri Harsha : Jaychand

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge
INDIAN HISTORY

MEDIEVAL INDIA
Map of Medieval India : ³³ Firdausi was the poet laureate at the court of Mahmud.
³³ A number of powerful empires arose in Northern ³³ Firdausi wrote ‘Shah Namah’.
India and the Deccan between 750 A.D.–1000 ³³ Mahmud claimed descent from Iranian legendary
A.D. i.e. Rajput Age. There are Gurjara Prathihars, king Afrasiyab.
Palas, Rastrakutas, Chauhan, Parmars, Chalukya, ³³ Mahmud is said to have made 17 raids into India.
Gahadawal Tomars etc. ³³ The initial raids were directed agaisnt the Hindustani
³³ Mahmud Ghazni invaded Kannauj in 1018 A.D. and rulers.
Somnath in 1025 A.D. ³³ In 1001 Jayapala, the Hindushahi, ruler was defeated.
³³ In 1194 A.D. Muhammad Ghori returned to India. The ³³ Jaypala’s son Anandpal succeeded him to the throne.
battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the foundations ³³ The Battle of Waihind(1008-1009) was fought between
of Turkish rule in India. Mahmud and Ananda.
³³ After the death of Muhammad Ghori, his slave ³³ After the battle, Punjab passed into the hands of
Qutubuddin Aibak laid the foundation of Slave Ghaznavis.
dynasty in 1206 A.D. ³³ The subsequent raids of Mahmud into India were
³³ The Khalji Dynasty was founded by Jalaludding Khalji. aimed at plundering the rich temples and cities.
³³ The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyasuddin ³³ Mahmud died at Ghazni in 1030 A.D.
Tughlaq.
MAHMUD GAZNI’S 17 ATTACKS
³³ The Vijayanagar Empire was founded by Harihar-I
and Bukka-I in 1336 A.D. 1. 1000-1001 (against Jaipal of Peshawar) Sindh
³³ The Bahamani Kingdom was founded by Zafar Khan 2. 1001 (against Anandpal of Peshawar)
in 1347. Sindh
³³ Babur was the founder of the Mughal empire of India. 3. 1002-1004 Multan
4. 1005-1006 Multan
5. 1007-1008 Nawasa Shah of Multan
6. 1008-1009 Anandpal of Hindushahi of Sind
7. 1009-1010 Narayanpur (Rajasthan)
8. 1010-1011 Daud of Multan
9. 1012-1013 Thaneswar (The Mecca of Hindus)
10. 1013-1014 Nandana (against Anandpal)
11. 10-15-1016 Kashmir valley (unsuccessful)
12. 1016-1018 Kannauj, Mathura
13. 1020-1021 Kalinjar
14. 1021-1022 Lahore
15. 1025-1026 Somnath
16. 1026-1027 Jats of Sind
17. 1027 Khokars of Punjab

THE TURKISH CONQUEST

³³ The Ghurid empire rose into prominence in North-
West Afghanistan.
³³ The Ghurids had started as vassals of Ghazni, but
had soon thrown off its yoke.
³³ The power of the Ghurids increased under Sultan
Alauddin who earned the title of ‘jahan-soz’ (World
burner).
MUSLIM INVASION ³³ In 1173, Shahabuddin Muhammad (Muhammad
Ghori) ascended the throne at Ghazni.
THE GHAZNAVIS
³³ By 1190, Muhammad Ghori had conquered Peshawar,
³³ Alpatgin established an independent kingdom with Lahore and Sialkot.
its capital at Ghazni. ³³ In India Chauhans had captured Delhi from the
³³ Mahmud ascended the throne (998-1030) at Ghazni. Tomars.

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 Indian History

³³ Conflict between Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj ³³ He got his daughter married to Iltutmish.

INDIAN HISTORY
Chauhan started with rival claims for Tabarhinda ³³ He laid the foundation of Qutab Minar in Delhi after
(Bhatinda) the name of the famous sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin
³³ The First Battle of Tarain was fought in 1191 A.D. Bakhtiar Kaki which was completed by Iltutmish.
³³ In this battle the Ghori forces were completely routed. ³³ He patronized ‘Hasan Nizami’ who wrote first official
Muhammad Ghori’s life was saved by a young Khalji history of Delhi sultanate “Taj-ul-Masi”.
horseman. ³³ He was succeeded by his inexperiened and incapable
³³ The Second battle of Tarain was fought in 1192 A.D. son Aram Shah who ruled at Lahore for about eight
³³ This battle is regarded as one of the turning points months before being defeated and deposed by his
in Indian History. son-in-law-Iltutmish.
³³ Prithviraj Chauhan was captured near Saraswati. ³³ The Turks only introduced polo in India.
³³ After Tarain Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni. ³³ Aibak constructed the first mosque in India named
³³ Sufi Saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti came with Quwwat-ul-Islam in Delhi and Adhai Din ka Jhopara
Muhammad Ghori from Afghanistan. in Ajmer, Rajasthan.
³³ He left the affairs in India in the hands of his trusted VICTORY OF AIBAK
slave Qutubuddin Aibak.
1194 – Ajmer
³³ In 1194 A.D. Muhammad Ghori returned to India.
1197 – Anhilvad, Badaun, Varanasi, Chandravar
³³ The battle of Chandawar (1194 A.D.) was fought
1202-03 – Bundelkhand, Kalinjar, Mahoba, Khajuraho.
between Muhammad Ghori and Jaichandra.
³³ Jaichandra was defeated in the battle of Chandawar. ILTUTMISH (1210–1236)
³³ The battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the ³³ At the time of Qutubuddin’s death, he was the
foundations of Turkish in India. governor of Badaun.
DELHI SULTANATE ³³ He made Delhi the capital of his empire.
³³ He was the real founder of Delhi Sultanate.
The Sultanate of Delhi had five ruling dynasties –
³³ He was the slave of Qutubuddin Aibak.
1. The Ilbari — 1206-1290 AD.
2. The Khalji — 1290-1320 AD. ³³ He first defeated rivals Particularly Tajuddin Yalduz
3. The Tughluq — 1320-1413 AD. and Nasiruddin Qubacha who were two surviving
4. The Saiyid — 1414 - 1451 AD. officers of Mohd. Ghori.
5. The Lodhis — 1451 - 1526 AD. ³³ He prevented changiz Khan’s attack by refusing to give
refuge to an enemy of Khan, Jalaludiin Manga Barani.
1. The Ilbari (The Slave Dynasty)
³³ He was skilled in diplomacy.
Qutbuddin AIbak (1206-1210) ³³ Due to his deplomatic skill, he prevented Mongol
(First Turk ruler of Delhi attack.
Founder of Turk kingdom in India Capital - Lahore)
³³ He formed ‘Turkan-i-Chahalgani or chalisa.
³³ Chalisa was a group of 40 powerful Turkish nobles
to suppress rebels.
Aramshah (1210-1211) Iltutmish (1210/11-1236)
(Real Founder of Delhi Sultanate ³³ He divided his empire into ‘Iqtas’. It is an assignment
Capital -Delhi) of land in lieu of salary, which he distributed to his
officers.
³³ He introduced the silver ‘Tanka’ and two copper ‘Jital’-
Razia Nasiruddin Balban Ruknuddin Muizuddin
(1236-40) Mohmood (1265-87) Firoz 1236 Bahram basi coins of the sultanate.
(1246-65) (1240-42) ³³ He introduced ‘Arabian coin’ first time.
³³ He transfered his capital to Delhi from Lahore.
Kaiqubad
(1286-90) Allauddin ³³ In 1229, he received a deed of investiture from the
Masood Shah
(1242-46)
Abassid caliph of Baghdad. It was a formal recognition
of his independent position as a sultan of the sultanate
QUTUBUDDIN AIBAK (1206-1210) of Delhi and as a member of the world fraternity of
³³ He was a Turk of the Aibak tribe. Islamic states.
³³ He was crowned at Lahore later the death of ³³ He completed the construction of Qutub Minar which
Muhammad Ghori. was started by Aibak.
³³ He did not make any fresh conquests and ruled from
Lahore.
RUKNUDDIN FIROZ
³³ He died in 1210 while playing chaugan (horse polo) ³³ After the death of Iltutmish, the Turkish nobles raised
³³ He was famous for his generosity and earned sobriquet his son Ruknuddin Firoz to the throne.
of Lak-Baksha (giver of Lakhs). ³³ But Razia took help of some powerful disgruntled
³³ He married Yaldauz’s daughter. nobles and won over the throne of Delhi and deposed
Firoz.
³³ He got his sister married to Qubacha.

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RAZIA : (1236-40) The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)

INDIAN HISTORY

³³ She was the first and last muslim woman ruler of

Delhi Sultanate.
³³ She appointed an Abysinian Slave, Jamaluddin Yakut
Jalaluddin Qutubuddin
as the ‘Amir-e-Akhur’ (Superintendent of horses) Alauddin Khalji
Firoj Shah Khalji Mubarak Shah
³³ Altunia, the governor of Sirhind revolted. She won over (1296-1316)
(1290-1296) (1316-1320)
Altunia and married him however both of them were
killed by bandits when they were enroute to Delhi to
defeat the revolt there. Khusrau Khan (1320)
MUIZUDDIN BAHRAMSHAH (1240-42) & MASUD JALAUDDIN KHALJI (1290-1296)
SHAH (1242-46) ³³ Khalji Dynasty was founded by Jalaluddin Khalji.
³³ The successors of Razia were Muzuddin Bahramshah ³³ He began to rule from Kilkhori.
and Alauddin Masud Shah ³³ He crushed the rebellion of Malik Chajju but later
³³ Both fell to prey to the power struggle between pardoned him.
powerful nobles. ³³ He rebelled the attack of Mongols under Abdullah.
³³ He was assassinated by his nephew Ali Gurshasp
NASIRUDDIN MAHMUD (1246-65)
(Aladuddin Khalji) near Kara who crowned himself
³³ In 1246, Nasiruddin Mahmud ascended the throne the sultan.
but the real power was in the hands of Balban. ³³ one of the most important events of Jalaluddin’s reign
³³ He awarded tittle ‘Ulugh Khan’ (Great Khan) to Balban. was the invasion of Devagiri the capital of the Yadav
³³ He married with Balban’s daughter. kingdom in the Deccan by Alauddin Khalji.
³³ Minhaj -us-Siraj dedicated his book, ‘Tabaqati-Nasiri’ ALAUDDIN KHALJI (1296-1316)
to him.
³³ Alauddin Khalji’s real name was Aligurshasp.
³³ He was a calligraphist.
³³ He was the governor of Kara.
BALBAN (1265-1287) ³³ Maximum number of Mongol attacks happend during
³³ He himself was a member of Chalisa. his reign. He fought and diminished the Mongol
menace.
³³ His objective was to restore the prestige of crown.
³³ He adopted the title of Sikandar-i-Saini.
³³ For this he started the Iranian Practise (method) of
³³ Amir Khusro was given the title of Tota-i-Hind.
‘Sajda’ and ‘Paibos’ to the Sultan.
³³ He created the first regular standing army of Delhi
³³ He destroyed the chahalganis power.
Sultanate. They were paid in cash.
³³ He introduced the persian Festival ‘Nauroz’ to impress
³³ Targhil were defeated near Siri, near Delhi.
nobles and people.
³³ He captured Gujrat in 1297 AD, which was ruled by
³³ He held darbar on Iranian model. Rai Karan. He sacked Dhilwara and Somnath and
³³ He called himself the ‘Nasiramir-ul-momim or caliph’s married Kamla Devi, The queen of Rai Karan.
right hand man. ³³ He also captured Malik Kafur and took him to the
³³ He was the first sultanate to propound the theory of royal court.
kingship. According to it king is the shadow of God. ³³ In 1300 AD, he captured Ranthambhor which was
³³ To Guard himself, he got every member of Iltutmish under Hammirdev.
family killed and gave a death blow to the turkish ³³ In 1303 AD, under Ratan Singh, Chittor was captured.
nobility (Chalisa). ³³ Khizra Khan was made Governor of Chittor which was
³³ He employed an efficient spy system. renamed Khizrabad.
³³ He followed a policy of ‘blood and Iron’. ³³ Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to capture South India.
³³ To control the onslaught of the Mongols, he founded ³³ Malik Kafur attacked Devgiri.
the ‘Diwan-I-Ariz’ or the military department. ³³ According to Amir Khusro, Malik Kafur reached as
³³ He strengthened forts of Bhatinda, Sunam and far as Rameshwaram.
Sumtra as parts of his Mongol policy. ³³ Malik Kafur was given the title of ‘Malik Naib’
³³ He defeated Tughril Khan’s rebellian in Bengal and ³³ Malik Kafur was Eunuch.
appointed his son Bugra/Bughra Khan as new
³³ Alauddin Khalji centralized his administration and
governor of Bengal.
introduced many reforms.
³³ He was a liberal patron of persian literature and
³³ Barid & Munhis were appointed to strengthned the
showed special favour to the Port, Amir Khusro.
spy system.
KAIQUBAD (1287-1290) ³³ Social gathering of nobles and matrimonial alliances
³³ After Balban’s death, Kaiqubad and Kaymurs became among them were prohibited. Wine and gambling
sultans. also prohibited.
³³ After 3 months Kaymurs the last Ilbari was killed and ³³ He was the first sultan to collect land revenue was
Jalaluddin ascended the throne. based on measurement and Biswa was the unit of
measurement.

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³³ He was also the first sultan to fix ‘land revenue in Malik, governor of Dipalpur.

INDIAN HISTORY
cash’. ³³ He was the first sultan to start irrigation works.
³³ Cultivators were brought under direct control of ³³ His son Jauna Khan conquered Warangal.
states and middleman were deprived of powers and ³³ He suppressed the revolt in Bengal. It was at the
privileges.
victorious welcome arranged by Jauna Khan.
³³ He appointed Diwan-i-Mustakharaj to collect arrears.
³³ He died due to collapse of Pavillion.
³³ ‘Ghari’ (house tax) and ‘Chari’ ‘Chari’ (Grazing tax)
³³ He built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and made it
levied.
capital of the empire.
³³ All patwari accounts were audited.
³³ Prices of goods were fixed on the principle of Bar MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ (1325-1351)
Award (productions cost). Wheat 7.5 Jitals per maund ³³ He is one of the most controversial figures in sultanate
barley 4, rice 5. history.
³³ Land revenue from Khalisa village was paid in cash. ³³ His real name was Jauna Khan.
³³ Malik Qabul looked after grain market. ³³ During his reign, Delhi Sultanate reached its
³³ Sarai Adl was near Badaun gate under Rais Parwana. maximum territorial extent.
³³ He was called the ‘wisest fool’ by historian Isami.
³³ Nayaks were grain merchants
³³ He fixed the land revenue at half the produce and
³³ Merchants had to register themselves. not on the basis of actual produce but on arbitrary
³³ Multanis is traded mainly in cloth. basis, this led to wide spread rebellion which was
³³ Dagh or branding of horse was introduced. accompanied by severe famine.
³³ Khams collected 4/5 th. ³³ He instituted agricultural reforms by setting up a
³³ He built Alai minar (incomplete) height twice of Qutub separate department of agriculture called Diwan-I-
Amir-Kohi.
Minar) Ali Darwaza, Siri Fort and the second capital
Mahal Hazar Satoon (palace of thousand Pillars) and ³³ He gave ‘sondhar’ and ‘Taqqavi’ loans to farmers.
Jamat Khana mosque. ³³ He died in ‘thatta’ where he had gone to quell one of
³³ Ali Darwaza was first sultanate building on scientific the many rebellians that took place during his reigns
method. Arc and dome were used. It is now entrance ³³ Bahamani and Vijayanagar kingodm were formed
of Qutub Minar complex. during his reign.
³³ He was succeeded by his nephew Firoz Tuglaq.
MUBARAK KHALJI (1316-1320)
³³ Ibn Batuta a famous traveller came to Delhi in the
³³ After the death of Alauddin, Mubarak Khalji acquired reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq in 1334 AD.
the throne. ³³ Ibn Batuta has recorded the contemporary Indian
³³ He declared himself the Khalifa and took the title “Al scene in his safarnamah called Rehla.
Wasiq Billah”.
FIROZ TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)
³³ He was killed and succeeded by Nasiruddin Khusrau
³³ Irrigation extended massively by digging canals and
Shah.
wells.
³³ He was the only Hindu convert to sit in the throne
³³ Gardens and orchard’s planted. Established 1200
of Delhi.
gardens around Delhi for grapes.
The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
³³ As well as 23 taxes were abolished. Only 4 taxes
sanctioned by shariat were levied.
(i) Kharaj (1/10th of produce).
Ghiyasudding Firoz Shah (ii) Zakat (Alms for poor Muslims).
Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq Tughlaq
Tughlaq (iii) Jaziya (poll tax on non- muslims).
(1320-1325) (1351-1388)
(1325-1351) (iv) Khams (1/5th of the spoils of war).
³³ Jaziya was separated from land tax, earlier it was
part of land tax.
Ghiyasudding Abu Baqr Nasiruddin Nasiruddin ³³ Jaziya was also imposed on Brahmins (earlier
Tughlaq-II (1389-90) Mohamad Shah Mahmud Shah
(1388-89 AD.) (1394-1412)
exempted) only women, children, disabled exempted.
(1390-94)
³³ Sharb (irrigation tax) 1/10th of produce was imposed.
³³ Free hospitals (Darul Shafa), marriage bureau and
Daulat Khan
employment bureau were set up.
(Lodi 1413-14)
³³ Officials were paid by iqta grants, very few were paid
GHIYASUDDIN TUGHLAQ (1320-1325) in cash.
³³ He ascended the throne after murdering Khusrau ³³ Soldiers and higher officials post became hereditary.
Shah. ³³ In 1353 led campaign against Haji Illyas of Bengal
³³ He ruled from 1320 to 1325 AD. but failed in siege of Ikadalamud fort.
³³ He belonged to the qarauna tribe. ³³ In 1358 second Bengal campaign against Sikandar
Shah Ilyas who accepted Firoz’s suzerainty.
³³ He was the first sultan to use term ‘Ghazi’ with his
name. ³³ Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar (Orissa) was attacked and
Jagannath temple of Puri was sacked.
³³ During Allauddin Khalji’s reign, he was crown as Kazi

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³³ In 1365 Nagarkot campaign was successful, 1300 MUBARAK SHAH (1421-1434)

INDIAN HISTORY

Sanskrit manuscripts from Jawalamukhi temple were ³³ After the death of Khizr Khan his son Mubarak Shah
collected and got translated into Persian as the Dalai- become the ruler of Delhi.
i-Firoz Shahi (by Azizudin Khan). ³³ He ruled Delhi for 13 years.
³³ He had 180,000 slave set up Diwan-i-Bandagan (for ³³ He fought constantly against the Rajputs, the Muslim
slaves). rulers of Malwa and Jaunpur and also the Mughals
³³ Founded towns of Jaunpur (old name Manaich) from Kabul.
named after Jauna Khan, Hisar Firoza, Fatehabad ³³ He fell a victim to the conspiracies by the nobles.
and Firozabad (Firoz Shah Kotla, the 5th city of Delhi). ³³ He was beheaded by them in February 1434 AD.
³³ Topara and Meerut pillars of Ashoka were brought MUHAMMAD SHAH (1434-1445)
to Delhi.
³³ Muhammad Shah came to throne as he was raised
³³ Diwan-i-Khairat, the chairty bureau formed. by Sarver-ul-Mulk.
³³ Introduced new coins Adha (1/2 Jital) and Bikh (1/4th ³³ He adopted the title of ‘Shah’ and issued the coin of
Jital). Shashgani was 6 jitals and Hastgani 8 jitals. his name.
³³ Firoz Shahi Madarsa was built at Firozabad.
ALAM SHAH (1445-1451)
³³ Banned unislamic practices e.g., prohibiting women
to pray at graves of sufi saints. ³³ He ruled Delhi for 6 years.
³³ He was incapable ruler.
³³ He erased palace paintings.
³³ He was the last ruler of Sayyid dynasty.
³³ He repaired the Qutubaminar which had been struck
³³ Sayyid dynasty’s 37 years remained troubled with
by lightening.
external invasions & internal chaos.
³³ The chief architect of Firoz was Ghazi Shahna. Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)
³³ He wrote Fautuhat-i-Firoz Shahi.
³³ He entertained great regard for the Caliph of Egypt
and styled himself as his deputy.
³³ He revived the jagir system which had been abolished Bahlol Lodhi Sikandar Lodhi Ibrahim Lodhi
by Alauddin. (1451-1489) (1489-1517) (1517-1526)
³³ After Firoz Shah Tughlaq, Muhammad Khan,
BAHLOL LODHI (1451-1489)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah-II, Abu Baqr, Nasiruddin
Muhammad, Humayun and finally Nasiruddin ³³ Lodhis were Afgans by race.
Mahmud ascended the throne. ³³ Bahlol Lodhi was the first founder of Afghan state.
³³ He deposed Shah Alam and laid the foundation of the
³³ Taimur invaded Delhi in 1398 A.D.
Lodhi dynasty.
³³ Nasiruddin Mahmud fled to Gujarat.
³³ He annexed the Sharqui Kingdom of Jaunpur in 1484.
³³ Nasiruddin Mahmud died in Kaithal.
³³ He was succeeded by Sikandar Shah Lodhi.
Sayyids Dynasty (1414-1451) ³³ He adopted the title of ‘Ghazi’.

SIKANDAR LODHI (1489-1517)

³³ His real name was Nizam Khan.
Khizr Khan Mubarak Shah Muhammad Shah Alam Shah ³³ He was the noblest of the three Lodhi rulers.
(1414-1421) (1421-1434) (1434-1445) (1445-1451) ³³ He introduced ‘Gazz-i-Sikandri’, new yard for land
measurment.
KHIZR KHAN (1414-1421)
³³ He conqured south Bihar and concluded a treaty
³³ He was the founder of sayyid Dynasty. of friendship with Alauddin Hussain Shah, ruler of
³³ He acquired throne at Delhi by replacing its defect Bengal.
ruler Daulat Khan. ³³ In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it his
capital.
³³ As a reward for his service Taimur gave him the
³³ He wrote verses in persian under pen name of
governership of Multan, Lahore and Depal.
‘Gulrukhi.’
³³ After departure of Taimur, he declared himself the ³³ In 1506, he repaired Qutub Minar.
viceroy of Taimur in North-western India.
IBRAHIM LODHI (1517-1526)
³³ Later he invaded Delhi and become its master.
³³ He was repressive ruler.
³³ He ruled Delhi independently for 7 years. ³³ He was defeated and killed by Babar in the 1st battle
³³ He was very popular among the people of Delhi due to of Panipat in 1526.
his welfare activities and good administration. ³³ He was the last ruler of Lodhi dynasty.

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IMPORTANT DEPARTMENTS AND OFFICIALS SULTANATE RULERS : AT A GLANCE

INDIAN HISTORY
UNDER DELHI SULTANATE Slave Dynasty
Officials Departments Qutb-ud-din Aibak : 1206-1210 AD
Wakil-i-Dar : Royal palace. Aram Shah : 1211 AD
Shamsuddin Iltutmish : 1211-1236 AD
Diwan-i-Istikak : Head of pension department.
Ruknuddin Feroz : 1236 AD
Sahna-i-Mandi : Head of grain market.
Razia Sultan : 1236-1240 AD
Mufti : Interpreter of shariat.
Muizuddin Behram : 1242 AD
Diwan-i-Mawalim : Head of administrative
Alauddin Masud : 1246 AD
tribunal.
Naseeruddin Mahmud : 1246-1266 AD
Sar-Jandar : Head of royal bodyguards.
Ghiyasuddin Balban : 1266-1286 AD
Sar-i-Jamadar : looked after royal garments.
Muizuddin Kaikubad : 1290 AD
Officials Departments
Kaimur : 1290 AD
Hajib : An officer under Barbak.
Khalji Dynasty
Diwan-I-khas : Head of royal correspondence
Jalaluddin Khalji : 1290-1296 AD
department.
Alauddin Khalji : 1296-1316 AD
Barbek/Amir-i-Hajib : royal ceremonies.
Amir-i-Koh : Head of agriculture Shihabuddin Omar : 1316 AD
department. Mubarak Khalji : 1316-1320 AD
Amir-i-Shikar : looked after royal hunting. Khusro Khan : 1320 AD
Tughlaq Dynasty
Barid-i-Mamalik : Head of intelligence
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq : 1320-1324 AD
department. Muhammad Tughlaq : 1324-1351 AD
Officials Departments Firoz Shah Tughlaq : 1351-1388 AD
Ariz : Military needs, recruitment, Mohammad Khan : 1388 AD
horses. Ghiyasuddin : 1388 AD
Tughlaq Shah II
Dabiri-Mamalik : Chief secretary.
Abu Baqr : 1389-1390 AD
Shiqdar : Head of Shiq. Naseeruddin : 1390-1394 AD
Qazi ul-Qazat : Chief justice. Muhammad
Humayun : 1394-1395 AD
Amir : Officer of Sipahsalar.
Naseeruddin Mahmud : 1345-1412 AD
Amirdad/Dadbau : Head of Diwan-i-majlis in Sayyid Dynasty
absence of sultan. Khizr Khan : 1414-1420 AD
Amiran-i-Tuman : Head of 10,000 soldiers. Mubarak Shah : 1421-1433 AD
Muhammad Shah : 1434-1443 AD
Amiran-i-Hazara : Officer of 1000 soldiers.
Alauddin Alam Shah : 1443-1451 AD
Amiran-i-Sada : Head of 100 soldiers. Lodhi Dynasty
Amir-i-Punjah : Head of 50 soldiers. Bahlol Lodhi : 1451-1489 AD
Officials Departments Sikander Lodhi : 1489-1517 AD
Ibrahim Lodhi : 1517-1526 AD
Amil : Land revenue collection in
VIJAY NAGAR EMPIRE
Paragana.
Qazi : Justice.
Karcun : Land record keeper.
Sangam Dynasty (1st) Saluva Tuluva Aravidu (Last)
Kotwal : Law & order. (1336-1485) (1485-1505) (1505-1570) (1570-1650)
Kharitdar : Dispatcher of orders.
VIJAY NAGAR EMPIRE (1336-1650 AD)
Dabir : Officer of royal correspondence.
³³ Vijay Nagar was founded by Harihar–I & Bukka–I in
Naib Barbak : Head of royal court.
1336.
Barid : espionage, Intelligence. ³³ They had earlier served under the kaktiya ruler of
Malik : Head of Sipalsalari & Amirs. warangal Pratprudra II.
Mutsarif : Head of royal Karkhana. ³³ Harihar nad Bukka were the son of Sangama.
Mushrif : Accountant general. ³³ They were brought to the center by Mohammad Bin
Tughlaq converted to Islam and were sent to south
Mustaufi : Auditor general. again to control rebellion, but on the instance of
Muhatasib : Public morals. Vidyaranya, they established Vijaynagar kingdom in
1336 AD.

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³³ Vidyaranya was the carer of them. ³³ Thirumala deposed Sadashiva Raya from throne.
INDIAN HISTORY

³³ Vijaynagar was located on the bank of Tungbhadra. ³³ Thirumala’s son Ranga II expanded the empire.
³³ There were four dynasties in Vijaynagar empire. ³³ Venkat II succeeded his father Thirumala in 1586.
³³ 1 – Sangam dynasty 2 – Saluva dynasty ³³ His head office was Chandragiri. He died in 1614 AD.
3 – Tuluva dynasty 4 – Aravidu dynasty ³³ He was the last great ruler of Vijaynagar.
³³ Rang III become ruler after Venkat II and after that
SANGAMA DYNASTY (1336–1485) Vijaynagar empire ended.
³³ Founder Harihar–I and Bukka-I.
Mix Facts
³³ Harihar was the first ruler.
³³ Vidyaranya was his Guru. ³³ Patrons of Krishnadev Raya Lakshmi Narayan wrote
a book ‘Sangeet Suryodaya’
³³ Bukka-I fought with the Bahmani Sultan Muhammad
³³ ‘Sangeet Sar’ was written by Sant Vidyaranya
Shah I and signed a treaty with him.
³³ ‘Madura Vijyam’ was written by the wife of Kumar
³³ Devraya I constructed a dam across the river Kampan, the son of Buka II on his success.
Tungbhadra to solve the problem of shortage of water. ³³ Tamil dictionary was written during Krishnadeva
³³ Italian travelers Nicolo Conti visited during his region. Raya.
³³ His court was adorned by the giften Telgu Poet ³³ Hazara Temple and Vitthal Swami Temple was made
Srinatha. by Krishnadeva Raya.
³³ Srinatha was the author of Haravilasam. ³³ Peddau was the patrons of Krishnadeva Raya.
³³ He had to face invasion by the Bahmani ruler Firoz ³³ Chamras and Lakkatra were the patrons of Devraya II
Shah and he had to surrender the fort of Bankapur. ³³ Devraya II & Mallikarjun were given the title of
³³ Devraya II was the greatest Sangam ruler. ‘Gajbetkar’.
³³ He was called Immadidevaraya and Proudha ³³ Tirumal made the ‘Lotus Temple’.
Devaraya. ³³ ‘Amukta Maldaya’ was written by Krishnadev Raya.
³³ The inscriptions call him as Gajabetekara (the elepant
³³ Telgu poet Srinatha come to the place of Devaraya I
hunter)
³³ In order to strengthen his army, he employed muslism RULERS OF THE VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE :
in his army and asked his soldiers and officers to learn
the archery from them.
AT A GLANCE
³³ In 1442 he sent a naval expeditor against Srilanka Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485)
and defeated them.
³³ He wrote two Sanskrit works – (i) Mahanatak 1. Harihara-I 1336-1356
Sudhanidhi (ii) Commentary on the Brahama sutras 2. Bukka-I 1356-1377
of Badanarayan. 3. Harihara-II 1377-1404
³³ Persian ambassador Abdul Razzaq visited his court. 4. Buka-II 1404-1406
5. Devaraya-I 1406-1422
³³ Sangam dynasty was replaced by saluva dynasty.
6. Vira Vijaya 1422
SULUVA DYNASTY (1485-1505) 7. Devaraya-II 1422-1446
³³ Saluva dynasty was lasted for two decades. 8. Mallikarjuna 1446-1465
³³ Saluva Narsingh was the founder of Saluva dynasty. 9. Virupaksha 1465-1485
³³ The saluvas were closely pinked to the Sangamas 10. Praudha Deva 1485
Viamarreage Aravidu Dynasty (1485-1505)
³³ Saluva Mangu served Kumara kampana in his
campaign against the sultan of madura and was 1. Saluva Narasimha 1485-90
awarded the title Saluva. 2. Timmaraya 1490-91
3. Immadi Narasimha 1491-1505
TULUVA DYNASTY (1505-1570)
Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570)
³³ Vir Narasimha : was the founder of the Tuluva
dynasty. 1. Narasa Nayak 1505
2. Vira Narasimha 1505-1509
SADASHIVA RAYA : 3. Krishnadevaraya 1509-1529
³³ The real power lay in the hands of his minister Rana 4. Achyutadeva 1529-1542
Raya. 5. Venkata-I 1542-1543
³³ The Deccani Sultans except Berar joined hands to 6. Sadasiva 1543-1570
defeat Vijayanagar in the famous battle of Talikota
Arividu Dynasty (1570-1652)
or Rakshsa Tangadi in 1556.
³³ The Vijaynagar government now shifted to Penukonda 1. Tirumala 1570-1572
and later to Chanregiri, which was made the capital 2. Sri Ranga 1572-1585
by venkat II of Aravidu dynasty. 3. Venkata-II 1585-1614
ARAVIDU DYNASTY (1570-1650) 4. Sri Ranga-II 1614
5. Ramadeva 1614-1630
³³ his dynasty was founded by Rama Raya’s brother,
6. Venkata-III 1630-1642
Thirumala.
7. Sri Ranga-III 1642-1652

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INDIAN HISTORY
TRAVELLERS DURING VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
FOREIGN
COUNTRY RULER TIME
TRAVELLERS
1. Nicoli Conti Italy Devraya I 1420 AD.
2. Abdur Razzak Persian Devraya II 1434 AD.
3. Fernoa Nuniz Portugal Mallikarjun 1450 AD.
4. Domingos Peas Portugal Krishnadev Raya 1515 AD.
5. Barbosa Portugal Krishnadev Raya 1516 AD.
6. Nikitin Russian Devraya I 1515 AD.

ASTHADIGGAS AND HIS BOOKS Bahmani was the induction of Hindus in the
Allasin – Swarochit Sambhava, administration on a large scale, particularly, Deccani
Brahmans in the revenue administration.
Peddana Manucharil
³³ Firoz Shah Bahmani encouraged the Pursuit of
Naudi Timman – Parijat haran
astronomy and built an observatory near Daulatabad.
Battimurti – Narasabhupaliyans
³³ Chaul and Dabhol were main ports of Bahmani
Dhurjati – Kalhasti Mahatmyas Kingdom.
Bhaddya Mallan – Rajshekhar Charitra ³³ Firoz Shah Bahmani married a daughter of Deva
Achutraju – Sakal Kath Sarsang- Raya-I of Vijayanagar.
Ramchandran raha
³³ In 1419 Firoz Shah Bahmani was defeated by
Jigli Suraktra – Raghav Pandveya Devaraya-I.
Tainali Ram – Panduran Mahatmya. ³³ Ahmad Shah-I is called a wali (saint) on account of his
ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT OF VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE. association with the famous Sufi Gesu Deraz.
³³ Ahmad Shah-I shifted Bahmani capital from Gulbarga
1. Mandal — State
to Bidar.
2. Kottam or Valnadu — District ³³ Mahmud Gawan was a great personality of Bahmani
3. Nadu — Tahsil kingdom. He was Vakil as well as the wazir of
4. Melagram — 50 Villages Muhammad Shah-III between 1463-1481. He was an
5. Kar — Village Iranian by birth and was at first a trader.
³³ Gawan was granted the title of chief of the merchants
THE BAHMANI KINGDOM (Malik-ul-Tajjar)
³³ The Bahmani kingdom was founded by Zafar Khan ³³ Mahmud Gawan conquered Konkan, Goa and
in 1347. Krishna-Godavari delta. He waged a series of battles
³³ Zafar Khan took in title of Alauddin Hasan Bahman agaisnt Mahmud Khalji over Berar.
Shah. ³³ Mahmud Gawan carried out many internal reforms.
³³ The capital of the Bahmani kingdom was at Gulbarga. He divided the kingdom into eight provinces or tarafs
³³ Gulbarga was renamed as Ahsa-nabad. headed by governors or tarafdars.
³³ The greatest Bahmani ruler was Tajuddin Firoz Shah. ³³ In every province, a trade of land (Khalisa) was set
apart for the expenses of the Sultan.
³³ Firoz Shah was a good calligrap-hist, poet and often
composed extempore verses. ³³ Mahmud Gawan was a great patron of arts. He built a
magnificent madarsa or college in the capital, Bidar.
³³ According to Farishta, Firoz Shah was well versed
not only in Persian, Arabic and Turkish but also in ³³ Bahmani ruler Humayun Shah was known as Zalim.
Telugu, Kannada and Marathi. ³³ Kalimullah was the last ruler of Bahmani dynasty.
³³ The most remarkable step taken by Firoz Shah ³³ The Bahmani kingdom was divided into five states.

BAHMANI SUCCESSOR STATES (DYNASTY)

State (Dynasty) Founder Capital Duration
1. Nizamshahis Malik Ahmad Bahri Ahmadnagar 1490-1633
2. Adilshahis Yusuf Adil Shah Bijapur 1490-1686
3. Imadshahis Fateullah Khan Imad-ul-mulk Berar 1490-1574
4. Qutubshahis Quli Qutubshah Golconda 1518-1687
5. Baridshahis Amir Ali Barid Bidar 1528-1619

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RULERS OF THE BAHMANI DYNASTY : Dinpanah : Humayun

INDIAN HISTORY

AT A GLANCE Daulatabad : Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq

Ala ud Din Hasan : 1347-1358 Allahabad : Akbar
Bahman Shah Siri : Alauddin Khilji
Muhammad-I : 1358-1375 Jaipur : Sawai Raja Jai Singh
Ala ud Din Mujahid : 1375-1378 Srinagar : Ashoka
Daud : 1378 Hoshangabad : Husang Shah
Muhammad-II : 1378-1397 Khizrabad : Khizr Khan
Shams ud Din : 1397 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MUGHAL RULE
Firoz : 1397-1422
Ahmad-I Vali : 1422-1436 The Mughal Empire
Ala ud Din Ahmad-II : 1436-1458 Zahiruddin Babar
Ala ud Din Humayun : 1458-1461
Zalim
Nizam : 1461-1463 Muhammad Kamran Askari
Hindal
Muhammad-III : 1463-1482 Humayun
Lashkari
Mahmud : 1482-1518
Ahmad-III : 1518-1521 Jalaludin Akbar Mirza Hakim
Ala-ud-Din : 1521-1522
Valiullah : 1522-1525
Kalimullah : 1525-1527 Nurudin Jahangir Murad Daniyal

TOWNS AND FOUNDERS

Towns    Founder
Khusaro Parvez Shahjahan Shaharyar
Pataliputra : Udayin
Jaunpur : Firoz Tughlaq
Jodhpur : Rao Jodha
Dara Shikoh Shuja Aurangzeb Murad
Hyderabad : Md. Quli Qutub Shah
Ahmedabad : Ahmad Shah (in place of old town BABUR (1526-1530)
Aswal)
³³ Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur was the founder of the
Mustafabad : Mahmud Begarah
Mughal empire in India.
Muhmmadabad : Mahmud Begarah
³³ Babur was the king of Farghana in Afghanistan.
Delhi/Dhilika : Anangpal Tomar
³³ Taking advantage of the political conditions prevailing
Firozabad : Firoz Shah Tughlaq
in India, Babur marched towards India.
Shah Jahanabad : Shahjahan
³³ Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in first Battle of Panipat
Fatehpur Sikri : Akbar
in 1526 A.D.
Mahabalipuram : Narsimhavarman-I
³³ Before the Battle of Panipat (1526 A.D.) Babur had
Bikaner : Rao Bika made four expeditions to India.
Fatehabad : Firoz Shah Tughlaq ³³ In has 1519 (first-Indian expedition) he used gun
Hisar : Firoz Shah Tughlaq powder for the first time in India to storm fort of Bhira.
Firozpur : Firoz Shah Tughlaq ³³ His second expedition in 1519, captured Peshawar.
Amritsar : Guru Ramdas ³³ Third expedition in 1520, occupied Bajaur, Bhira,
Gangaikonda- : Rajendra Chola-I Sialkot and Sayyadpur.
cholapuram ³³ 4th expedition in 1524-Daulat Khan Lodi (Governor
Ajmer : Ajayraj of Lahore) sent son Dilawar Khan and Alam Khan
Agra : Sikander Lodhi Lodi to join Babur.
Nauraspur : Ibrahim Adil Shah-II ³³ Rana Sanga sent a message to Kabul, inviting him.
Vijayanagar : Harihar-I ³³ 5th expedition in 1526 Battle of Panipat against
Calcutta : Job Charnauk Ibrahim Lodi, here used Rumi (ottoman) device and
Tughlaqabad : Ghiyasuddin Tulugama tactics.
Tughlaq ³³ In 1527 he defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar in battle
Jahanpanah : Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq of Khanwa on the bank of river Piliakhar.

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³³ In 1529 he defeated Ibrahim Lodi’s younger brother, ³³ Humayun defeated Sikandar Suri and occupied Delhi

INDIAN HISTORY
Mahmud Lodi in battle of Ghaghara. in 1555.
³³ His Indian empire extended from Himalayas in north ³³ Sher Shah established a highly centralised
to Gwalior in South and from Khyber pass in west to Government.
border of Bengal in east. ³³ He divided his empire into 47 Sarkars (districts) which
were divided into several pargana (sub-districts).
³³ Babur had the prestige of being a descendent of
Village was the lowest unit of administ ration. He
the two most famous warriors of Asia, Changez and
made the local village headmen (muqaddams) and
Taimur.
zamindars responsible for local crime.
³³ The ‘Charbaghs’ the symmetrically laid out gardens
³³ He built many sarais.
with flowing waters and fountains were introduced
in India by Babar. ³³ He built the grand trunk road that runs from Calcutta
to Peshwar.
HUMAYUN (1530-1540, 1555-1556 A.D.) ³³ He improved the land revenue system by adopting
Zabti-i-Har-Sal.
³³ Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun succeeded Babur.
³³ Sher Shah abolished all internal customs and duties.
³³ Humayun ruled from 1530 A.D. to 1540 A.D. and
again from 1555-1556 A.D. ³³ Sher Shah built three important roads, Agra-Jodhpur-
Chittor, Lahore-Multan, and Agra-Burhanpur.
³³ Humayun built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second
capital. ³³ Sher Shah built 1700 sarais which also worked as
dak chaukis.
³³ In 1532, defeated Afghans under Mahmud Lodhi at
Daurah. ³³ Sher Shah ascended the throne of Delhi at the ripe
age of 67.
³³ In 1530, attacked Kalinjar.
³³ Abbas Khan Sarwani was the historian of Sher Shah.
³³ In 1539, Afghan leader Sher Shah defeated him at
Chausa (Bihar) ³³ Sher Shah’s roads and sarais have been called “The
arteries of the Empire”.
³³ In 1540 Sher Shah again defeated him in battle of
Kannauj. ³³ Sher Shah also built a new city on the bank of the
Yamuna near Delhi.
³³ After battle of Kannauj (1540) Humayun fled, took
shelter for a few days at Amarkot (ruler Rana Virsala) ³³ The sole survivor of this is the Old Fort (Purana Qila)
in Delhi.
³³ In 1545, he went to Shah Tahmasp’s court in Persia
(Iran) who aided him in conquering Kandhar. ³³ Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son, Islam
Shah.
³³ In 1551 Askari was exiled to Mecca.
³³ In 1553 Kabul was occupied and Kamran was blinded AKBAR (1556-1605 A.D.)
and sent to Mecca.
³³ Akbar was born in Amarkot in the palace of Virasal
³³ Captured Lahore in 1555 from Sikandar Sur, in 1542 A.D.
Governor of Punjab, then Delhi and Agra.
³³ Akbar’s full name was Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar.
³³ Humayun died in 1556 A.D. of fall from his library
³³ He was crowned at Kalanaur at the age of 13 years.
Sher Mandal.
³³ Akbar defeated Hemu in the second battle of Panipat
³³ Humayun’s tomb is situated in Delhi.
in 1556 A.D.
³³ Humayun’s tomb was built by his widow Hamida
³³ Bairam Khan was his regent from 1556 to 1560.
Banu Begum.
Bairam Khan was a Shia.
³³ Mirza Inayatullah was the chief architect of Humayun’s
³³ Bairam Khan was assassinated by Mubarak Khan at
tomb.
Patan (Gujarat) on his way to Mecca.
³³ Humayun brought two painters from Iran, Mir Sayyid
³³ Bairam’s widow Salima Begum was married to Akbar
Ali and Abdus Samad. and her son (from Bairam, Abdur Rahim joined the
court of Akbar later became the Khan-i-Khana.
SHER SHAH (1540-1545 A.D.)
³³ His chief advisor was Mir Abdul Latif.
³³ Sher Shah’s childhood name was Farid.
³³ In 1562, abolished the system of making war captives
³³ Sher Shah was born to Hasan, the Jagirdar of as slave.
Sasaram. ³³ In 1563, abolished pilgrim tax.
³³ He received the title of Sher Shah from Bahar Khan ³³ In 1564, abolished Jaziya.
Lohani, the Afghan Governor of South Bihar. ³³ His tomb was at Sikandara, near Agra.
³³ Sher Shah gained Chunar by marrying the widow, ³³ Laid the foundation of Fatehpur Sikri as his capital.
Malika.
³³ Learnt the principles of Sulah-i-Kul from his teacher
³³ He defeated Humayun in the battle of Chausa. He Mir Abdul Latif.
adopted the title of Sher Shah and proclaimed himself ³³ In 1564, Garh Katanga was attacked. It was under
the emperor of Hindustan. the regency of Durgavati, the Chandella princess of
³³ He again defeated Humayun in the battle of Kannauj Mahoba on behalf of her minor son Vir Narayan. Her
or Bilgram. capital Chauragarh was stormed by Asaf Khan.
³³ Sher Shah’s last campaign was against Kalingar. He ³³ In 1668, Chittor under Rana Udai Singh of Mewar
succeeded but died from an explosion in 1545. was invaded. Here two Rajput warriors fought bravely
³³ He was succeeded by his son Islam Shah. against Akbar-Jaimal and Patta.

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³³ Akbar had the statues of Jaimal and Patta installed ³³ Expert exponent of music. He played Nakkara (drum).
INDIAN HISTORY

at Agra fort. ³³ His court musicians-Tansen, Baba Ramdas, Baz

³³ In 1569 campaign against Ranthambhor, Rao Surajan Bahadur etc.
Hara submitted and joined the imperial service. ³³ Famous painters in his court Khwaja Abdus Samad,
³³ In 1569-1570 campaign against Kalinjar, Ramchandra Daswant, Basawan etc.
offered submission to Majnun Khan. ³³ Akbar set up a department of painting headed by
³³ In 1576 Akbar defeated Rana Pratap of Chittor in the Khwaja Abdus Samad with title Shirin Kalam.
famous Battle of Haldigati. ³³ Got Mahabharata translated into Persian as
³³ In 1601 captured fortress of Asirgarh his last Razmnama.
conquest Khandesh (1601)
³³ Contemporary Hindu scholars Ramdas, Suradas,
³³ Got translated into Persians-Ramayana, Mahabharata, Tulsidas, Raskhan, Abdur Rahim Khan-Khanan and
Lilavati, Rajatarangini, Panchatantra, and Nal
Birbal (Raja Mahesh Das).
Damyanti, Atharvaveda.
³³ Famous Persian scholars-Abul-Fazaal, Faizi,
³³ Tried to ban sati system, and legalised widow
marriage. Increased marriagable age (girls 14 years, Budayuni, Abbas Khan Sarwani, Utbi, and Naziri.
boys 16 years) ³³ Akbar’s land revenue system was called Todar Mal
³³ European paintings was introduced in Mughal court Bandobast or Zabti system. Todar Mal was his
during Akbar’s reign. Revenue Minister.
³³ Akbar was fond of gardening. ³³ Organised army and started Mansabdari system in
³³ Akbar was himself architect of his tomb, completed 1575-1576.
by Jahangir. Akbar’s social & Religious work
³³ Set up Ibadat-khana at Sikri for religious discussion, 1. 1562 AD. End of Slave system
held on every Thursday evening from 1575. 2. 1562 AD. End of ‘Haramdal’
³³ Later Ibadat-khana was opened to Scholars of all 3. 1563 AD. End of Pilgrime tax
faiths. 4. 1564 AD. End of Jazia tax
³³ In 1579 Akabr read the Khutba (written by poet Faizi) 5. 1571 AD. Eastablish of Fateh Pur Sikri & made it his
in his own name like the Prophet and Caliphs. capital.
³³ In 1579 proclamation of the Mahzar, all imams signed 6. 1575 AD. Founded Ibadat Khanna
it where by he became Imam-i-Adil, the supreme
7. 1580 AD. ‘Dahsala System’
interpreter of Islamic law in all controversial matters,
it made him higher than a Mujtahid (interpreter of 8. 1582 AD. Din-i-Ilahi
Islamic Law) Nine Gems of Akbar
³³ In 1582 Tauhid-i-Ilahi (Divine monotheism) was 1. Mullah do Pyaja 2. Abul Fajal
initiated 80 years later it came to be called Din-i-Ilahi. 3. Todar Mal 4. Faizi
It was sufistic. 5. Birbal 6. Tansen
³³ After returning from Gujarat campaign, Akbar 7. Abdul Rahim-Khan-i- Khana 8. Man Singh
appointed officials called Karoris. 9. Bhagwan Das
³³ Akbar divided the empire into 12 Subas in 1580 AD.
³³ In 1585 Akbar moved to Lahore and remained there JAHANGIR (1605-1627 A.D.)
for 12 years. ³³ Jahangir was born at Lahore in 1569 A.D.
³³ Akbar nominated Salim as his successor who ³³ Jahangir’s full name was Nuruddin Muhammad
ascended the throne with the title of Jahangir. Jahangir.
³³ In 1605 Akbar died of dysentery. ³³ Jahangir was popularly known as Salim.
³³ Hakim Ali was his personal physician while Raja ³³ Jahangir banned slaughter of animals on Sunday
Salivahan was his court physician. and Thursday.
³³ Buried at Sikandara. ³³ He established Zanjir-i-Adal at Agra Fort for the
³³ Sheikh Farid Bukhari was his last Mir Bakshi. seekers of royal justice.
³³ Started giving loan from royal treasury, as Musadat. ³³ Jahangir also married Jodha Bai of Marwar, and a
³³ Loan to farmers was called takavi. Kachchwaha princes.
³³ Started worshipping light (Prakash Pujas) in court. ³³ His son Khusrau, who received patronage of Guru
Arjun Dev, revolted agaisnt Jahangir. The fifth Sikh
³³ With the help of Raja Todarmal (revenue minister)
Guru Arjun Dev was later sentenced to death for his
began land settlement and launched Ain-i-Dahsala
blessings to the rebel prince.
system.
³³ Khurram (Shahjahan) supported by his father-in-law,
³³ Issued round and square size silver coins called
Asaf Khan, also revolted against Jahangir but the two
Rupaya and Jalali.
soon reconciled.
³³ Adopted Persian as court language.
³³ His military general, Mahabat Khan revolted and
³³ Laid foundation of Fatehpur Sikri in 1572-1580. abducted him but Nurjahan saved him due to her
Main Buldings of Fatehpur Sikri. Buland Darwaza, diplomatic efforts.
Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas, palace of Sultana, Panch
³³ He was well read and wrote his memories Tuzuk-i-
Mahal etc.
Jahangiri in Persian.

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³³ Jahangir’s sons-Khusrau Parvez Khurram, Shahryar ³³ In 1630 Deccan famine, witnessed by Peter Mundi,

INDIAN HISTORY
and Jahandar. led to large scale relief measures by the state.
³³ Shahryar married to Ladli Begum. ³³ In 1631 Mumtaj Mahal died during child birth at
³³ James-I sent captain Hawkins and Sir Thoams Roe to Burhanpur. She was first buried at Burhanpur but
Jahangir’s court to get concession in trade for English. later transferred to Agra (Taj Mahal).
³³ Laid many gardens, like Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir. ³³ Shah Jahan’s six children from Mumtaj Begum-
³³ Jahangir built a mosque in Lahore, Itmaduddaula’s Jahanara Begum, Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Roshan
tomb in Agra (first building to have Peutra Deura), Ara Begum, Aurangzeb (born at Daulatabad) and
completed Akbar’s tomb in Sikandara. Murad Baksh.
³³ During Jahangir, Mughal painting was on climax. ³³ Shah Jahan introduced 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 method in
³³ Portrait painting and paintings of animals & birds Mansabadari system. According to this a mansabdar
started. Mansur was expert in this style. had to keep horsemen 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 of his sawar rank.
³³ He was himself expert painter and claimed to ³³ Built Taj Mahal in the sweet memory of Mumtaj Mahal
recognise painting at a particualr painter at a glance. in 1632-1654 of marbles (white).
³³ Introduced Du-Aspa and Sih-Aspa systems in ³³ Built Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in Agra Fort.
Mansabdari system. ³³ Built Jama Masjid and Red Fort of Delhi and laid
³³ Lover of music, painting and arts. foundation of Shahjahanabad (the 7th city of Delhi).
³³ Jahangir met Nur Jahan on Nauroz (new years day) These were made of red sandstone.
in Mina Bazar of Agra, married her in 1611. ³³ Jagannath Pandit was the poet of his court.
³³ In 1613 Nur Jahan was made Padshah Begum (the ³³ Shah Jahan was an expert musician and his voice
first lady). was very melodious.
³³ In 1616, Nur Jahan got title Nur Mahal. ³³ Appointed Amins whose main function was to assess
³³ Farmans had signature and coins were struck in her revenue.
name. ³³ Constructed Peacock throne (1628-1635).
³³ Itmad-ud Daula (father of Nur Jahan) was given ³³ Attacked Hooghly against portuguese and captured
mansabdari of 7000 Zats. it in 1632.
³³ Nur Jahan’s brother, Abul Hasan was appointed Mir-
³³ Foreign travellers who visit his court were Bernier
i-Saman (in charge of the royal household) with title
(France). Travernier (France) and Manucci (Italy).
of Asaf Khan later wazir with 6000 mansab.
³³ His period was the climax of Mughal architecture.
³³ Khusrau was blinded and in 1620 he was killed on
the orders of Khurram at Burhanpur. AURANGZEB (1658-1707 A.D.)
³³ John Hawkins resided at Agra for two years (1609-
1611). He was given the mansab of 400. ³³ Aurangzeb’s full name was Muihiuddin Muhammad
Aurangzeb.
³³ Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1618) was ambassador of
James-I. ³³ Aurangzeb was the third son of Mumtaz Mahal.
³³ Jahangir was buried at Shahadara near Lahore. ³³ Aurangzeb had to fight war of succession to gain the
³³ The famous Italian traveller Pietro Valle came during throne.
his reign. ³³ He took the title of ‘Alamgir’ in 1659.
³³ He was called as Zinda Pir, the living saint.
SHAHJAHAN (1628-1657 A.D.) ³³ In 1662, Mir Jumla, Aurangzeb’s ablest general led
³³ Shahjahan was born at Lahore in 1592 A.D. the expedition against Ahoms.
³³ Shahjahan’s childhood name was Khurram. ³³ He forbade inscription of Kalma on the coins.
³³ Shahjahan’s full name was Shihabuddin Muhammad ³³ He ended the celebration of Navroz festival.
Shah Jahan.
³³ Mutasib (regulator of moral conduct) were appointed.
³³ Shahjahan was born to Jagat Gosain, daughter of
³³ He ended Jharokha darshan, use of almanacs and
Mota Raja Udai Singh of Jodhpur.
weighing of the emperor.
³³ In 1612 Shahjahan married Arzumand Banu Begum
who became famous as Mumtaz Mahal. ³³ Aurangzeb compiled Fatwa-i-Alamgiri.
³³ Mahabat Khan was given 7000 Zat and Sawar and ³³ Jaziya was re-introduced.
title Khan-i-Khanan. ³³ Built Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in Red Fort of Delhi.
³³ In 1628 Pir Khan-i-Jahan Lodi governor of the Deccan ³³ No new temples were to be constructed. But old ones
rebelled and joined the Nizam Shahis but was defeated were not to be destroyed and they were allowed to
at Tal Sahonda. be repaired.
³³ In 1628-1629 Jujhar Singh Bundella of Orchha ³³ In 1669, the Vishwanath temple of Banaras and the
rebelled but later submitted. He again rebelled in 1635 Keshav Raj temple of Bir Singh Bundela at Mathura
by attacking Prem Narain of Chauragarh (Gondwana) were destroyed.
and was defeated by Aurangzeb. Devi Singh was ³³ The proportion of Hindus mansabdars was highest in
installed at Orchha. Aurangzeb’s reign.
³³ Champat Rai of Mahoba also rebelled. His son ³³ Aurangzeb ordered the arrest and execution of the
ninth Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur in AD 1675.
Chhatrasal rebelled during Aurangzeb’s reign.

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³³ Guru Govind Singh wrote letters to Aurangzeb, their

BOOKS DURING MUGHAL PERIOD
INDIAN HISTORY

collection is called Zafarnama.

³³ Guru Govind Singh died at Nanded, on the way to meet BOOKS AUTHORS LANGUAGES
Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb had died earlier. Tuzuk-e-Babri or Babar Turkish
³³ Shambhaji (son of Shivaji) was captured at Babarnama
Sanghameshwar (1689) and executed.
Humayun Namah Gulbdan Begam Persian
³³ Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687) were annexed.
(Sister of Humayu)
³³ His tomb is located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra.
³³ Expert Vina player. Iqbalnama Motahad Khan Persian
³³ Banned singing in court, but allowed Royal Band
Alamgirnama Mohammad Kajim Persian
(Naubat).
³³ Restarted Pilgrim tax. Akbarnama or Abul Fajal Persian
³³ Disallowed cultivation of Hemp (Bhang). Ain-e-Akbari
³³ In 1669, Jats under Gokla revolted.
Tarikh-e-Rashidi Mirza Haidar Persian
³³ In 1672, Satnamis, nick-named Mundiya Sadhus,
founded by Birbhan near Narnaul revolted. Daugulat
³³ In 1685, second Jat rebellion under Raja Ram and his Tarikh-e- Abas Khan Persian
successor Churaman. Shershahi
³³ In 1667, Yusufzai tribe of Afghans, under the
Raushanai movement led by Bhagu rebelled. Muntakhals -ul- Khafi Khan Persian
³³ In 1672, second Afghan rebellion by the Afridi tribe Lubab
led by Akmal Khan. Nuska-e-Dilkhush Bhimsen Persian
MUGHAL GARDENS
Tarikh-e-Alfi Maulana Ahmad Persian
Garden Place Built by
1. Hast Bahist Rambagh Agra Babur Dabistan-e- Mohsin Fani Persian
Mazahils
2. Shalimar Bagh Srinagar Jahangir
Shah Jahanama Inayat Khan Persian
3. Nishat Bagh Srinagar Asaf Khan
4. Shailimar Bagh Lahore Shah Jahan
Nuksha- Mohammad Saki Persian
5. Hayat Bagh Delhi Shah Jahan dilkhusha
6. Shalimar Bagh Delhi Shah Jahan Maz-ul-Bahrin Dara Shikoh Persian
7. Wazir Bagh Kashmir Dara Shikoh
8. Char Burji Bagh Near Zebunnisa TRANSLATED IN PERSIAN
Lahore Books Translators
Mahabarat – NakiKhan, Badau- ni, Abul Fajal Faizi.
MUGHAL RULERS : AT A GLANCE
Ramayan – Badauni
1. Zahiruddin Babur : 1526 -1530
Atharvaveda – Badauni Hazi Ibrahim (Sarhindi
2. Nasiruddin Humayun : 1530 -1540
completed)
3. Nasiruddin Humayun : 1555 -1556 Lilavati – Faizi
4. Jalaluddin Akbar : 1556 -1605 Rajtarangini – Shah Mohmmad Sahbadi
5. Nuruddin Jahangir : 1605 -1627 Pachas upnishad– Darashikoh
6. Shihabuddin Shajahan : 1628 -1657 Bhagwat Gita – Darashikoh
7. Aurangzeb Alamgir : 1658 -1707 Yog Vishishtha – Darashikoh
8. Bahadur Shah I : 1707-1712
HINDI BOOKS
9. Jahandar Sah : 1712 -1713
Books Authors
10. Farukhsiar : 1713 -1719 Ramcharitmanas – Tulsi Das
11. Rafiul Darjat : 1719 Vinaya Patrika – Tulsi Das
12. Mohammad Shah : 1719 -1748 Sur Sagar – Surdas
13. Ahmad Shah : 1748 -1754 Prem Vatika – Raskhan
14. Alamgir II : 1754 -1759 Sunder Sringar – Sunder Kaviray
Priya – Keshav Das
15. Shah Alam II : 1759 -1806
Alankar Manjari – Keshav Das
16. Akbar II : 1806 -1837
Ramchandrika – Keshav Das
17. Bahadur Shah II : 1837 -1857

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Moti Masjid (Lahore – Jahangir

INDIAN HISTORY
MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION
Taj Mahal (Agra) – Shahjahan
Moti Mahal (Agra) – Shahjahan
(POLITICAL SYSTEM)
Khaas Mahal (Agra) – Shahjahan
Department : Sheesh Mahal (Agra) – Shahjahan
Dewan – Finance Shalimar Garden (Lahore) – Shahjahan
Mirbakshi – Civil Services on Military line Musamman Burj — – Shahjahan
Khansama – Management of Royal farry Nahar-e- Faiz — – Shahjahan
Kaji – Judiciary department Moti Masjid (Delhi) – Aurangzeb
Sadra – Religious interest Bibi ka -Makbara (Aurangabad) – Aurangzeb
Badshahi Mosque (Lahore) – Aurangzeb
Daroga-a-dak
Mir Bahar – Admiral MUGHAL PAINTING
Painter Ruler
Mir Barr – Forest
Sayyid Ali – Humayun
Mir Tajak – Festival
Abusamand – Humayun
Mir Munshi – Head clerk Farukbeg – Humayun
State Administration Jamshed – Humayun
1. Subedar 2. Dewan Basavan Lal – Humayun
3. Bakshi 4. Kotwal Dasavan – Akbar
5. Vakia-e-Navis 6. Sadar and Kaji Aagha Raza – Akbar
Ustad Mansur – Akbar
District (Sarkar) Administration
Mohammad Murad – Akbar
1. Foujdar 2. Amalgujar
Madhan – Akbar
3. Bitiqchi 4. Khajandar
Tulsi – Akbar
Tahsil Administration Sanarkandi – Jahangir
1. Shikdar 2. Amil Faqrullah – Jahangir
3. Fotdar 4. Kanungo Mirhasim – Jahangir
5. Karkun Aroop – Jahangir
MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE Bichhittlar – Jahangir
Ustadmansur – Jahangir
Mosque at Kabulibagh – Babar
Mosque at Sanbhal (Rohelkhand) – Babar Abul Hasan – Jahangir
Mosque of Fatehabad – Humaun DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE
(Hisar, Haryana)
Dinpanah (Delhi) – Humaun (LATER MUGHALS)
Old Fort (Delhi) – Shershah LIST OF LATER MUGHALS
Quila-e-kuhna (Delhi) – Shershah
Shergarh (Delhi) – Shershah 1. Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712)
Qila at Rohtasgarh – North-West State ³³ He was known as Shah -i-Bekhabar
Tomb at Sasaram (Bihar) – Shershah ³³ He pursued Pacifist Policy that is why he called so.
Agrafort (Agra) – Akbar ³³ He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chatrasal
Jahangiri – Akbar ³³ He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas.
Akbari Palace – Akbar ³³ He released Shahu
Diwan-i-Aam (Fatehpur Sikri) – Akbar 2. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713)
Panch Mahal (Fatehpur Sikri) – Akbar ³³ Ascended the throne with the aid of Zulfikar Khan
Buland Darwaja (Fatehpur Sikri) – Akbar ³³ First pupet Mughal emperor.
Salim Chisti’s Tomb – Akbar ³³ He abolished Jazia.
(Fatehpur Sikri)
3. Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719)
Birbal Palace – Akbar
³³ He had succeeded to the throne with the help of Sayyid
(Fatehpur Sikri)
brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali.
Mariyam Mahal (Fatehpur Sikri) – Akbar
³³ In 1719 Sayyid brothers killed him with the help of
Haroon Minar – Akbar
Maratha Peshwa, Balaji Vishwanath.
Lahore Fort (Lahore) – Akbar
4. Mohammad Shah (1719-48)
Allahabad Fort (Allahabad) – Akbar
³³ He was the most pleasure loving ruler of loose morals
Itimade-ul-Daula Tomb (Agra) – Jahangir
and therefore, called Mohammad Shah ‘Rangila’.

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³³ Nadir Shah defeated him in the Battle of Karnal (1739) ³³ Chaitanya (1486-1533) was the most prominent
INDIAN HISTORY

and took away peacock throne and the kohinoor Vaishnav saint of Bengal.
diomand. ³³ Chaitanya popularized Krishna Bhakti.
5. Ahmad Shah (1748-54) ³³ Chaitanya was looked upon as living Krishna.
³³ During Ahmad Shah’s reign, Ahmad Shah Abdali ³³ Jnaneswar (1275-1296) was the pioneer Bhakti Saint
invaded India twice in 1749 and 1752 when he of Maharashtra.
marched up to Delhi. ³³ Jnaneswar wrote Jnaneswari.
6. Alamgir II (1754-59) ³³ Jnaneswari is a commentary on Bhagavad Gita.
³³ After the dethronement of Ahmad Shah, Azizuddin a ³³ Jnaneswar was the author of many hymns called
grandson of Jahandar Shah was placed on the throne Abhangas.
as Alamgir II. ³³ Namdeva (1270-1350) was a tailor by caste.
7. Shah Alam II (1759-1806) ³³ Namdeva travelled to North India and Punjab.
³³ Battle of Buxar (1764) held during his reign. ³³ Namdev’s Bhakti Songs have been included in the
8. Akbar II (1806-37) Adi Granth.
³³ Gave the title of Raja to Ram Mohan Roy. ³³ Namdeva is considered to be a part of the Varkari
9. Bahadur Shah II (1837 - 57) tradition.
³³ In Assam, Sankaradeva (1449-1568) introduced
³³ During the revolt of 1857, he was proclaimed the
emperor by the rebels. bhakti.
³³ Sankaradeva’s sect is called Mahapurushiya dharma.
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS ³³ Dadu (1544-1603) was inspired by Kabir’s doctrine.
OF MEDIEVAL INDIA ³³ Tukaram’s teachings are in the form of Abhangas or
³³ The Bhakti Movement began in South India in the dohas.
7th Century. ³³ Tukaram founded the Varkari Sect.
³³ The Alvars (Vaishnavites) and Naynars (Shaivites) ³³ Ramdasa wrote Dasabodha.
popularised the Bhakti cult in South India. ³³ Ramdasa was the Guru of Shivaji.
³³ There were 12 Alvar Vaishnavite and 63 Naynar ³³ The Lingayat Sect was founded by Basava.
Saivite Saints.
³³ The biography of Chaitanya is ‘Chaitanya charitamrita’.
³³ The Saivite Saint Appar, is said to have converted the
pallava king, Mahendravarman, to Saivism. ³³ The biography of Chaitanya was written by Krishnadas
³³ Sambandar and Manikkavasagar were other great Kaviraj.
Bhakti Saints. ³³ The disciples of Kabir later formed the Kabirpanthi
³³ The writings of these saints were collected in the sect.
Tirumurai. ³³ Jagjivan Das founded the Satnami sect.
³³ The Tirumurai has been called as the Tamil Veda. ³³ Tulsidas wrote Ramcharitmanas, Vinaypatrika,
³³ Periya Puranam was composed by Shekkilar in the
Kavitavali.
reign of the Chola king Kulottunga I.
³³ Surdas wrote Sur Surawali, Sahitya Ratna, Sursagar.
³³ Ramananda was the first great Bhakti saint of North
India. ³³ Mirabai was a Rajput Princes of Merta.
³³ Raidas, Kabir, Dhanna, Pipa were his disciples. ³³ Mirabai married to Bhojraja, son of Rana Sanga.
³³ Kabir (1440-1518) belonged to a family of weavers. ³³ Mirabai was famous for her devotion to Krishna.
³³ Kabir spent greater part of his life in Banaras. ³³ Mirabai advocated image-worship and observance of
³³ Kabir’s verses were included in Adi Granth. special fasts.
³³ Raidas was a tanner. ³³ Mirabai wrote Several poems like Padavali;
³³ Dhanna was a Jat peasant from Rajasthan. ³³ Ramanuja advocated the philsophy of
³³ Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born at Nankana Sahib.
Vishistadvaitavada.
³³ Kabir and Nanak were Nirguna Bhakti saints.
³³ Madhvacharya founded the Dvaita philosophy.
³³ Vallabhacharya was a Telugu Brahmana.
³³ Vallabhacharya was the founder of Pushti marga ³³ Nimbarka propounded the Dvaitadvaita philosophy.
(way of grace) ³³ Nimbarka founded the Sanak Sampradaya.

SOME SECTS DURING BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Sects Founders Philosophies Periods
Smriti Shankarancharya Advaitavad AD 9 Century
th

Shrisect Ramanuja Vishishtadvaita Ad 12th Century

Sanak Nimbark Dvaitavadvaita AD 12th Century
Brahma Madhva Acharya Daitavad AD 13th Century
Rudra Vishnu Swami/Vallabhacharya Shuddhadvaita AD 15th Century

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SUFI MOVEMENT ³³ He was succeeded by Nasiruddin Chiraag-i-Delhi, who

INDIAN HISTORY
³³ Sufism is the mystical movement in Islam. had trouble with Mohammad Bin Tughlaq.
³³ Al Hujuiri was the earliest Sufi saint to have settled ³³ After the death of Baba Farid, the Chishti order was
in India. divided into Nezamia and Sabiria orders.
³³ Al Hujuiri wrote ‘Kashful Mahjub’. ³³ Shaikh Burhanuddin settled at Daulatabad.
³³ The Chishti and Suhrawardi orders were the most ³³ Shaikh Husamuddin and Shah Barkatullah were
prominent. prominent Sufis in Gujarat.
³³ The Chishti order was founded by Muinuddin Chishti. ³³ Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi was a mystic of the
³³ He arrived around 1192 A.D. and established his Sabiria order.
centre at Ajmer. ³³ Shaikh Musa had joined Akbar’s Service.
³³ Muinuddin Chisti’s disciple was Hamiduddin Nagauri. ³³ Akbar was greatly devoted to Salim Chishti of
³³ Qutubminar is named after the Chishti saint Fatehpur.
Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. ³³ Shattari order was founded by Abdul Shattar.
³³ His disciple was Farid Ganj-i-Shakar. ³³ Tansen was the disciple of Mohammad Ghaus.
³³ He built his Jamaat Khana in Ajodhan (Punjab). ³³ Qadariya order was started by Niatamullah Qadari.
³³ The Sufis adopted the local language of the region in ³³ Dara belonged to the Qadariya order.
which they lived. Sufi Sect
³³ The Suhrawardi order in India was founded by Sufi Sect Founders
Bahauddin Zakaria of Multan.
³³ The Suharwardi sufis established themselves mainly Chisti Khwaza Moinud-din
in North-West India. Shurawardi Shiabuddin Shurawardi
³³ Iltutmish appointed Shaikh Bahauddin Zakaria the Kadari Sheikh Abdul Kadir Jalani
Shaikh-ul Islam. Satari Shah Abdul Satari
³³ Shaikh Ruknuddin of Suhrawardi order was also Firdoshi Badruddin
venerated by Sultans of Delhi. Naqshabandi Khwaza Baqi Billah.
³³ The Chishti mystics believed in the spiritual value
³³ Naqshabandi order was introduced in India by Baqi
of Music.
Billah.
³³ Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki died in a state of
³³ Shah Waliullah (1702-1762) was a saint of
ecstasy under the spell of Music.
Naqshabandi order.
³³ Khwaja Fariduddin Masud was known as Baba Farid.
³³ Shah Waliullah tried to reconcile the two doctrines of
³³ Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya was the Chief disciple of Wahadat-ul Wujud and Wahadat-ul-Shuhud.
Baba Farid.
³³ Khwaja Mir Dard was the famous Urdu Poet.
³³ Nizamuddin Auliya had problem with Mubarak Khalji
³³ Mullah daud Wrote Chhanda in Hindavi.
and Ghayasuddin Tughlaq.
³³ Shaikh Nasiruddin was known as Chiragh-i-Delhi.

LITERARY DEVELOPMENTS DURING THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

Books Authors Books Authors
Navasahasankacharitam : Padamgupta Ain-i-Akbari : Abul Fazal
Kathasaritsagar : Somadeva Humaun Namah : Gulbadan Begum
Brihat Kathamanjari : Kshemendra Panduranga Mahatmya : Tanali Ramalinga
Prabodha Chandrodaya : Krishna Mishra Jambavati Kalyanam : Krishna devaraya
Adipurana : Jinasena Jnaneswari : Jnandeva
Ganitasara Samgraha : Mahaviracharya Hir-Ranjha : Warish Shah
Amaghvritti : Saktayana Shanti Purana : Ponna
Harvilasam : Srinath Akbar Namah : Abul Fazl
Bhaktimala : Nabhadasa Hasnat-ul-Arifin : Dara Shikoh
Tahiqiq-I-Hind : Al-Beruni Sakinat-ul-Auliya : Dara Shikoh
Taj-ul-masir : Hasan Nizami Tabuqat-i-Akbari : Nizamuddin Ahmed
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri : Minhajud-din Siraj Tarikh-i-Shershahi : Abbas khan Sherwani
Khazain-ul-Futuh : Amir Khusaru Chandayan : Mulla Daud
Tughlaqnama : Amir Khusrau Mintakhab-ul-Tawarikh : Abdul Qadir Badyuni
Ghurrat-al-kamal (on music) : Amir Khusrau Tabaqat-i-Akbari : Nizammuddin Ahmad
Tarikh-i-Firozshahi : Barni Maasir-i-Jahangiri : Kamgar Khan
Tarikh-i-Firozshahi : Sams-i-siraz Afif Iqbalnama-i-Jahangiri : Mutamid Khan
Fatuhat-i-Firozshahi : Firoz shah Tughlaq Shahjahanama : Inayat Khan
Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahai : Sarhindi Muntakhab-ul-Lubab : Khafi Khan
Kitab-ul-Rehla : Ibn Battutah Alamgirnama : Mirza Muhammad
Sur Sarawali : Surdas Qazim
Sahitya Ratn : Surdas Masir-i-Alamgiri : Iswar Das Nagar
Amuktamalyada : Krishna devaraya Khulsat-ut-Tawarikh : Sujan Rai
Manucharitam : Allasani Peddana Akbarshahi Sringardarpan : Padma Shankar
Maduravijayam : Gangadevi Ras-Gangadhar : Jagganath Pandit

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FOREIGN TRAVELLERS DURING THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

INDIAN HISTORY

Period A.D. Traveller During the reign of

1288 -1292 Marco Polo (Italy) Pandayas
1333 -1342 Ibn Batuta (Morocco) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
1420 -1422 Nicolo Conti (Italy) Devaraya I (Vijaynagar)
1421 -1431 Cheng-Hi Jalauddin (Bengal)
1442 -1443 Abdur Razak (Persia) Devaraya II (Vijayanagar)
1470 -1474 Nikitin (Russia) Muhammad III
1503 -1508 Varthalema Dias Deccan
1516 -1518 Edwardo Barbosa Krishnadevaraya
1520 -1522 Domingo Paes Krishnadevaraya
1535 -1537 Fernao Nuniz Achyut Devaraya
1578 -ii1582 Anthony Monserrate Akbar
1585 -1591 Ralph Fitch Akbar
16th Century Caesar Fredrick Vijaynagar
16th Century John Lisconten Vijaynagar
16th Century Lama Taranath East India
1608-1613 Captain Hawkins Jahangir
1608-1612 William Fitch Jahangir
1608-1617 John-Jourdian Jahangir
1608-1615 Nicholas Downton Jahangir
1612-1616 Nicholas Withington Jahangir
1612-1617 Thomas Coryet Jahangir
1615-1619 Sir Thomas Roe Jahangir
1616-1619 Edward Terry Jahangir
1615-1625 Paul Cannin (British) Jahangir
1620-1627 Fransisco Pelasert Jahangir
1622-1633 Pietra dellavale Jahangir
1626-1633 John Lait Shah Jahan
1627-1681 John Fryer Shah Jahan
1630-1634 Peter Mundy Shah Jahan
1641-1687 Tavernier Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb
1656-1687 Manucci Aurangzeb
1658-1668 Bernier Aurangzeb
1666 to 1668 Jean de Thevenot Aurangzeb
1695 to 1699 Gemelli Careri Bijapur

THE MARATHAS
³³ Shivaji was born in the fort of Shivneri in Poona in 1627.
³³ Shivaji belonged to Bhonsle clan.
³³ Shivaji’s father Shahji Bhonsle was in the service of Ahmadnagar.
³³ Dadaji Kondadeo and Guru Ramdas had great influence on the life of Shivaji.
³³ Guru Ramdas wrote ‘Dasabodh’.
³³ Shahji gave Shivaji the jagir of Poona.
³³ Shivaji first captured Torna in 1646 A.D.
³³ Shivaji began his real career of conquest in 1656 when he conquered Javli from the Maratha Chief Chandra Rao More.
³³ The conquest of Javli made him the master of the Mavala area. Mavali foot soldiers became a strong part of his army.
³³ He murdered Afzal Khan of Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur with baghnakh (tiger claw) in 1659.
³³ In 1663, Shivaji injured Shaista Khan, the Mughal Governor.
³³ In 1664 Shivaji sacked Surat for the first time.

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³³ The treaty of Purandhar was signed on June 24,

INDIAN HISTORY
1665 A.D. MODERN INDIA
³³ Shivaji surrendered 23 out of the 35 forts to Mughals. DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
³³ Shivaji’s son Sambhaji was awarded a Mansab of
5000. ³³ After the death of Aurangzeb, Muaazam emerged
³³ Shivaji visited Agra in 1666, victorious in the war of succession.
³³ On August 29, 1666, Shivaji escaped from Agra. ³³ Muaazam ascended the throne with the name of
³³ In October 1670 Shivaji sacked Surat a second time. Bahadur Shah-I in 1707 at the age of 67.
³³ Shivaji was coronated at Raigarh in 1674. ³³ During Bahadur Shah’s reign Jaziya was abolished.
³³ Shivaji assumed the title of Chhatrapati Haindava ³³ Bahadur Shah gave a high Mansab to Guru Govind
Dharmod-harak. Singh.
³³ Shivaji died in 1680 at the age of 53. ³³ Bahadur Shah released the Maratha Prince Sahu.
³³ Shivaji was succeeded by Sambhaji (1680-89) ³³ Jahandar Shah came to the throne in 1712 A.D.
³³ Shivaji introduced various administrative and revenue ³³ He was dominated by his mistress Lal Kunwar. She
reforms. imitated the style of Nur Jahan.
³³ Shivaji’s council of Ministers was called Ashtapradhan ³³ Administration was virtually in the hands of Zulfiqar
³³ Provinces which were divided into prants which were Khan.
further subdivided into parganas or tarafs. ³³ Jahandar Shah was the first later Mughal ruler to get
³³ Shivaji maintained a regular standing army. the throne with the help of nobles.
³³ The cavalry was divided into two classes : the Bargis ³³ The policies of Aurangzeb were reversed.
and Silahdars. ³³ Jai Singh of Amber was given the title of Mirza Raja
³³ Bargis were supplied with horses and arms by the Sawai and appointed Governor of Malwa.
state. ³³ Ajit Singh of Marwar was awarded the title of Maharaja
³³ Silahdars had to keep their own equipment. and appointed governor of Gujarat.
³³ Chauth was 1/4 of the land revenue paid to the ³³ Sahu was granted Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of
Marathas to that land would not be sullied to the Deccan.
Maratha raids. ³³ Farrukh Siyar came to the throne in 1713 A.D. with
³³ Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10%, which the help of Sayyid Brothers.
Shivaji demanded on the basis of being the hereditary ³³ Sayyid brothers were known as King makers.
Sardeshmukh. ³³ Sayyid brothers dominated mughal court and empire
³³ Shivaji discouraged revenue farming system. from 1713 to 1719, the elder brother Abdullah Khan
³³ Kathi was measuring in rods. was Wazir and younger, Hussain Ali Khan was Mir
³³ Annaji Datto introduced various reforms in revenue Bakshi.
in 1679.
³³ Sikh leader Banda Bahadur was executed by
³³ Chauth and Sardeshmukhi both were land tax
Farrukhsiyar.
³³ collected from Mughal territory.
³³ Sayyid brothers belonged to Hindustani group of
ASHTAPRADHANA Mughal nobility.
1. Peshwa General Administration; ³³ In 1719, the Sayyid brothers deposed Farrukh Siyar and
like Prime Minister. killed him.
2. Sar-i-Naubat Senapati ³³ After Farrukh Siyar, Sayyid brothers placed Rafi-ud-
darajat on the throne but he died soon
3. Mazumdar Accountant ³³ Muhammad Shah came to the throne in 1719 A.D.
4. Waqia-i-navis Intelligence, posts and ³³ Muhammad Shah was known as “Rangila”.
household affairs. ³³ Nadir Shah, the Napoleon of Iran invaded India and
5. Surnavis or Chitnis Correspondence inflicted a crushing defeat on Mughal army at Karnal
6. Dabir/Sumant Foreign affairs and master on Feb 13, 1739.
of ceremonies. ³³ Nadir Shah captured Delhi and Muhammad Shah was
imprisoned. He plundered Delhi.
7. Nyayadhis Justice
³³ Nadir Shah’s total plunder has been estimated at Rs.
8. Panditrao religious affairs. 70 crores. He also carried away the famous Koh-i-Noor
diamond and the jewel studded Peacock Throne of
MARATHA PESHWAS (1714-1818 A.D.) Shah Jahan.
1714-1720 : Balaji Vishwanath ³³ Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded the kingdom for the first
1720-1740 : Baji Rao I time during Muhammad Shah’s reign in 1748.
1740-1761 : Balaji Baji Rao ³³ Various provinces became independent like Bengal,
1761-1772 : Madhava Rao Ballal Hyderabad, Awadh, Carnatic etc.
1772-1773 : Narayan Rao ³³ The Jats under Badan Singh established themselves
1773-1774 : Raghunath Rao in the districts of Agra and Mathura and founded the
1774-1796 : Madhava Rao Narayan Jat state of Bharatpur.
1796-1818 : Baji Rao II ³³ Sayyid brothers were murdered in 1720 A.D.
³³ Ahmad Shah came to the throne in 1748 A.D.

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³³ Safdar Jang, the Nawab of Awadh became the wazir ³³ Francisco de Almeida created fortresses at Kilwa,
INDIAN HISTORY

of the Empire. Anjadiva, Mannaur and Cochin.

³³ His wazir (after Safdar Jang), Imad-ul-Mulk blinded ³³ Portuguese lost Hoogli in 1631 during the reign of
him and placed Alamgir-II on the throne. Shahjahan.
³³ Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India thrice during his ³³ In 1661, the Portuguese king gave Bombay to Charles-
reign. II of England for marrying his sister.
³³ Alamgir-II came to the throne in 1754 A.D. ³³ The Marathas captured Salsatte and Bassien in 1739.
³³ Battle of Plassey (1757) was fought during the reign of ³³ In March 1602, the Dutch east India company was
Alamgir II. formed.
³³ Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded fourth time in his reign
³³ The name of the company was ‘Uereenigde Oost
in 1755.
Indische Companie’. (also known as Dutch United
³³ The Marathas were invited by his wazir to save guard
East India Company)
the empire against Abdali.
³³ It was the first multinational company to issue stocks.
³³ In 1759 he was murdered by his wazir, Imad-ul-mulk.
³³ Real name of Shah Alam II was Ali Gauhar. ³³ Till 1690 Pulicat was their main centre in India,
thereafter Nagapattam replaced it.
³³ Along with Mir Qasim and Shuja-ud-daulah he was
defeated by English at the battle of Buxar in 1764. ³³ Their final collapse with their defeat by the English
³³ He lived for several years at Allahabad as a pensioner in the battle of Badera in 1759.
of the East India Company. ³³ Loss of their settlements one by one to the East India
³³ He regained the throne of Delhi with the help of company of Britain.
Maratha sardar Mahadji Scindhia in 1772. ³³ They were expelled from their last possession in India
³³ British under Lord Lake captured Delhi and Agra in by the British in 1795.
1803. ³³ The English east India Company was formed by
³³ He was killed by Ghulam Qadir in 1806. a group of merchants known as “The Merchant
³³ English concluded treaty of Allahabad (1765) Adventurers’ in 1599”.
³³ Bahdur Shah Zafar was the last Mughal Emperor. ³³ Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir court in 1609
and was given a mansab of 400.
COMING OF EUROPEANS
³³ Sir Thomas Roe was an ambassador of James-I to
³³ Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut in 1498 A.D. Jahangir’s court.
³³ Vasco Da Gama returned to Portugal in 1499 with ³³ In 1661 AD the Portuguese gave Bombay as a part of
cargo worth 60 times of his expenses. dowry to their princess, on her marriage with charles-
³³ Arrival of Pedro Alvarez Cabral in 1500 A.D. II of Britain.
³³ Second trip of Vasco da Gama to India in 1502. ³³ In 1668, Bombay was transferred to East-India
³³ Portuguese set up trading stations at Calicut, Cochin, company by James II for 10 Rs. per year.
and Cannore in 1502. ³³ In 1687, Bombay became seal of the western
³³ Cartaz system (passes given to ships) was introduced Presidency, it replaced Surat.
by Portugese. ³³ In 1661 Shah Jahan’s Nishan granted free trade in
³³ Cochin was the early capital of Portuguese in India. Bengal for Rs. 3000 P.a.
Later Goa replaced it. ³³ East-India Company was regulated by Court of
³³ In 1503 Alfanso de Albuquerque arrived in India as Directors.
commander of a squadron. ³³ Queen Elizabeth was the largest share holder of East
³³ Vasco da Gama bombarded Calicut on the Zamorin’s India Company.
refusal to expel Muslim traders. ³³ Charter of 1632 empowered the company to control
³³ In 1503, Raja of Cochin let Vasco build first fort. and punish its employees in India.
³³ De Almeida was the first Portuguese governor (1505- ³³ Bombay was fortified by Charles Boon in 1720.
1509) in India. ³³ Company’s mint was located in Bombay.
³³ Albuquerque was appointed second governor of ³³ Free Merchants were called interlopers by the EIC.
Portuguese in India in 1509.
³³ Charles Eyre was the first President (Governor) of
³³ Albuquerque captured Goa in 1510 from Bijapur. Fort William.
³³ Albuquerque encouraged his country men to marry ³³ General Aungier was the first governor of Bombay
Indian womens. He persecuted the Muslims.
(1669-1677).
³³ At the time of Albuquerque’s death in 1515 Portuguese
³³ Masulipatnam (1611) was first English settlement
was the strongest naval power in India.
on East-coast.
³³ Nino da Cunha (Governor 1529-38) transferred his
capital from Cochin to Goa in 1530. ³³ The immediate aim of the company was the acquisition
of spices and peppers.
³³ In 1530 Nino da Cunha acquired Diu and Bassein
from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. ³³ In 1717 Farrukh Siyar confirmed the privileges
³³ Martin Alfanso de Souza (Governor 1542-45) arrived in (farman) of 1691 and extended them to Gujarat and
India with the famous Jesuit saint Francisco Xavier. Deccan also.

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³³ The Danes formed an East India Company in 1616.

INDIAN HISTORY
ENTRY OF EUROPEAN POWERS
³³ Serampore was their headquarter in India. Portuguese → Dutch → English → Danes → French
³³ They sold their settlements to British in 1845.
Company Year of Estd.
³³ Establishment of the first French factory at Surat by
Francois Caron in 1668. Estado da India (Portuguese Company) 1498
³³ Establishments of a factory at Masulipatnam by British East India Company 1600
Marcara in 1669.
Verrenigde Oost Indische Companie 1602
³³ In 1673, acquisition of village of Valikondapuram
(Dutch)
(Pondicherry) and Bellanger de Lespinay by Francois
³³ Martin from Muslim governor, Sher Khan Lodi. Danish East India Company 1616
³³ Francois Martin was the first governor of Pondicherry. Compagnie des Indes Orientales 1664
³³ In 1690 they got Chandernagar in Bengal from Mughal (French)
governor, Shaista Khan.
³³ Arrival of Dupleix, French Governor in India in ESTABLISHMENT OF BRITISH RULES
1742 and the beginning of the Anglo-French conflict ³³ The Carnatic Wars, Battle of Plassey and Buxar,
(Carnatic wars), resulting in defeat of French power Anglo-Maratha wars, Anglo-Mysore wars established
in India. British Supremacy.
³³ French were finally defeated in the battle of Wandiwash
(1760) by English and they lost almost all Indian THE CARNATIC WARS
settlements (by the treaty of Paris in 1763) to English. ³³ These were the Anglo-French conflicts.
³³ These wars continued for 20 years from 1744 to
Establishment of First European Factories in India. 1763 A.D.
Portuguese 1502 A.D. (Cochin-Kerala) ³³ First War (1744-1748) : French captured Madras
Dutch 1605 A.D. ³³ French defeated Nawab of Hyderabad at St. Thome.
(Masulipatnam- A.P.) ³³ Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle, (1748) ended the War of
English 1611 A.D. Austrian Succession.
(Masulipatnam-A.P) ³³ Second War (1749-1754): Dupleix aligned with
Danish 1620 A.D. (Tranqu-ebar, Tanjore-T.N.) Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib
French 1668 A.D. (Surat, Gujarat) (Carnatic).
³³ After initial reverses, Robert Clive emerged victorius.
IMPORTANT SETTLEMENTS OF EUROPE- ³³ Godeheau signed the treaty of Pondicherry in 1755
with the English.
ANS IN INDIA ³³ Third War (1758-1763) : French, Count de Lally
captured ‘Fort St. David’.
European Settlements
³³ French were defeated at Wandiwash (1760) under
Countries General Eyre Coote.
1. Portuguese : Calicut (1500), Cochin (1501), ³³ Pondicherry was returened to French by the Treaty
of Paris.
Portuguese Cannore (1503), Quilon (1503),
settlements Cheliyam (1531), Rahole (1535), CONQUEST OF BENGAL
on west Krengannore (1536), Mangalore ³³ Nawab Sirajuddaulah was against the misuse of
coast (1568), Hanawer (1568), Diu (1509), Dastaks.
Goa (1510), Surat (1599), Daman ³³ Nawab Sirajuddaulah seige the English factory at
(1599) and Bhavanagar Meliyapur Qasim Bazaar.
(San Thome), Chittagong, Hoogli ³³ On 20th June, 1756 Fort William (Calcutta) was
and Bandel. caputred.
³³ The Nawab placed Calcutta under the charge of Manik
2. Dutch: Masulipatnam (1605 by Vande chand.
Dutch Hagen), Pettappoli (Nizampatnam), ³³ The Black Hole Episode took place at Calcutta.
factories Devanampettam/Tegnapattam ³³ Calcutta recovered by Clive in early 1757.
³³ Nawab was forced to sign the Treaty of Alinagar in
(Called st. David under English),
February 1757.
Pulicut (1610, fort Geldiria), Surat ³³ Battle of Plassey was fought on 23rd June, 1757.
(1616 by Van Broecke) ³³ The English East India Company’s forces under Robert
Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah.
3. English Masulipatnam (1611), Surat (1613), ³³ Mir jaffar, Manikchand, Aminchand, Jagat Seth
Madras (1639), In 1633, Hariharpur betrayed Nawab.
(Odisha), Balasore, Pipli (1661) ³³ Mir Jaffar was proclaimed Nawab of Bengal.
Hoogli (1651), Patna, Qasim Bazar, ³³ The company recieved the Zamindari of 24 Parganas.
Rajmahal. ³³ Company gained a huge amount of wealth from Bengal
treasury.
4. Danes Tranquebar (1620), Serampore ³³ The company recieved free trading rights in Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa.
5. French Surat (1668), Masulipatnam (1669), ³³ Mir Jaffar was replaced by Mir Qasim in 1760 A.D.
Pondicherry, Chandernagar. ³³ Mir Qasim-Shifted his capital from Murshidabad to
Munger.

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³³ Mir Qasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapore and ANGLO-SIKH WARS

INDIAN HISTORY

Chittagong. ³³ Period of political instability prevailed after Ranjit

³³ Mir Qasim checked the misuse of the Farman of 1717. Singh.
³³ War with the company began in 1763. ³³ The First War was fought in 1845-1846.
³³ Mir Qasim fled to Awadh and formed a confederacy. ³³ The Sikhs were defeated in four battles.
³³ Shujauddaulah and Shah Alam were part of the ³³ Battle of Sabraon is also known as ‘Battle of guns.’
confederation. ³³ Treaty of Lahore (1846) ended the War.
³³ Battle of Buxar was fought on 22nd October, 1764. ³³ The Second War was fought in 1848-1849.
³³ Mir Qasim was defeated by Major Munro. ³³ The Sikhs were defeated.
³³ The Battle of Buxar placed Awadh under the company. ³³ Lord Dalhousie annexed Punjab in 1849.
³³ Mir Jaffar was again placed on throne.
³³ After the death of Mir Jaffar Nizam-ud-daulah was placed 1857 REVOLT
on the throne. ³³ On 29th March, 1857 the sepoys at Barrackpore
³³ Nizam-ud-daulah signed the Treaty of Allahabad in refused to use the greased cartridge.
1765 with Mughal emperor Shah Alam II. ³³ Mangal Pandey attacked and fired on the Adjutant.
³³ The company got the Diwani of Bihar, Bengal and ³³ The 34 Native Infantry was disbanded.
Orissa. ³³ 85 sepoys of 3rd cavalry were court-martialled on their
³³ The Diwani was granted by Mughal Emperor. refusal to use the greased cartridge.
³³ General Hewitt was the commanding officer at Meerut.
³³ Clive introduced the Dual system of government.
³³ Delhi was seized by the rebels on 12th May 1857.
³³ Warren Hestings ended the Dual system in 1772.
³³ Lt. Willoughby was the officer in charge of magazine
ANGLO MYSORE WARS at Delhi.
³³ First War (1766-1769) : Haider Ali defeated the ³³ The British officer of Delhi, Col. Ripley was killed.
British army. ³³ The British army entered Delhi on 14 sept. 1857, after
5 days of battle.
³³ The Treaty of Madras Signed.
³³ Sadruddin led the revolt in Mewat.
³³ Second War (1780-1784) : Warren Hastings attacked
³³ Rao Tularam led the revolt in Rewari (Haryana).
French port Mahe, which was in Haider Ali’s territory.
³³ Devi Singh led the revolt in Mathura.
³³ Haider Ali led a joint front with Nizam and Marathas ³³ Kadam Singh was an important leader in Meerut.
and captured Arcot. ³³ Rango Bapuji Gupte led the revolt in Maharashtra.
³³ In 1781, Haider Ali was defeated at Porto Novo by ³³ Copy of the manifesto of Nana Saheb was pasted in
Eyre Coot. Pune college.
³³ Treaty of Mangalore (1784) was signed by Tipu Sultan. ³³ Chinta Bhupati revolted in Golkonda region.
³³ Third War (1789-1792) : Marathas and Nizam aided ³³ Deepuji Rana revolted in Goa.
the British, Cornwallis captured Bangalore. By Treaty ³³ Nana Saheb issued a manifesto for Deccan on 18
April, 1858.
of Srirangapatnam, Tipu ceded half of his territories.
³³ Major Changes were introduced through the
³³ Fourth War (1799) : Tipu enlisted himself as a proclamation of Queen Vitoria (1858).
member of the Jacobin Club, also planted a tree of
liberty at Srirangapatnam. Lord Wellesley attacked THE SPREAD OF MUTINY AND CIVIL
and Tipu died. REBELLION (1857-1858)
Arthur Wellesley who was the brother of the Governor- ³³ 2nd February, 1857 : Mutiny of the 19th Native
General, also participated in this war. Infantry at Behrampur.
ANGLO-MARATHA WARS ³³ 29th March, 1857 : Mangal Pandey killed his British
³³ First Anglo Maratha War was fought from 1775-1782 commander and was hanged at Barrackpore.
A.D. ³³ 10 May, 1857 : Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut and march
³³ The Britishers signed Treaty of Surat with Raghunath to Delhi.
Rao (1775). ³³ 11-30 May, 1857 : Outbreaks in Delhi, Ferozepur,
³³ The Treaty of Purandhar was made in 1775. Bombay, Aligarh, Etawah, Bulandshahar, Nasirabad,
³³ The Treaty of Salbai (1782) gave 20 years of peace. Bareilly, Moradabad, Shahjehanpur and other
³³ The Second Maratha war was fought from 1803-1806 stations in U.P.
A.D. ³³ The Mughal emperor proclaimed as the Emperor of
³³ The Primary cause was the Treaty of Bassein (1802). India.
³³ The Scindia and the Bhonsle were defeated. ³³ June 1857 : Mutinies at Gwalior, Bharatpur, Jhansi,
³³ The Third Anglo Maratha War was fought in 1817- Allahabad, Faizabad, Sultanpur, Lucknow etc.
1818. ³³ July 1857 : Mutinies at Indore, Mhow, Sagar and
³³ Lord Hasting’s moves against Pindaris transgressed certain Places in the Punjab like Jhelum Sialkot etc.
the authority of the Marathas. ³³ August 1857 : Civil rebellion spreads throughout
³³ The Maratha confederacy was completely destroyed. Sagar and Nerbudda districts.
³³ Peshwa Baji Rao-II was dethroned and pensioned off ³³ September 1857 : The English recapture Delhi.
at Bithur near Kanpur. ³³ October 1857 : Revolt spreads to Kota State.

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³³ November 1857 : The rebels defeat General Windham outside Kanpur.

INDIAN HISTORY
³³ December 1857 : Sir Colin Campbell wins the battle of Kanpur. Tantya Tope escapes.
³³ March 1858 : Lucknow recaptured by the English.
³³ April 1858 : Jhansi falls to the English. Fresh rising in Bihar led by Kunwar Singh.
³³ May 1858 : The English recapture Bareilly, Jagdishpur and Kalpi
³³ July-December 1858 : English authority re-established in India.
1857 REVOLTS : AT A GLANCE
Centre Leaders Time Officer Who Date of Suppression
Period Suppressed the Revolt
Delhi Bahadur Shah, Bakht Khan 11 May, 57 Nicholson and Hudson 20 Sep., 57
Kanpur Nana Saheb, Tatia Tope 5 June, 57 Colin Campbell Dec., 57
Luckow Hazrat Mahal, Birjis Qadir 4 June, 57 Colin Campbell 31 Mar., 58
Jhansi, Gawalior Rani Laxmibai, Tatia Tope 4 June, 57 Gen. Hugh Rose 17 June, 1858
Jagdishpur Kunwar Singh, Amar Singh 12 June, 57 Major William Taylor December, 1858
Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah June 1857 — 1858
Allahabad Liakat Ali June 1857 Col. Neill 1858

Bareilly Khan Bahadur June 1857 Campbell 1858

VIEW OVER THE REOVLT 1857 ³³ It was introduced in provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa
³³ R.C. Majumdar : Neither first nor National nor War and Varanasi.
of Independence ³³ Zamindars were made the owner of the lands and
³³ V.D. Savarkar : First war of Indian Independence given them rights to collect the rent from the peasants.
³³ Sir John Seeley : Wholly unpatriotic and selfish ³³ The realized 1/11 of the share belong to Zamindar and
sepoy Mutiny 10/11 of the share belongs to East India Company.
³³ Joutram and W Taylor : Hindu-Muslim Conspiracy Ryotwari System
³³ John Lawrence : He was a single leader of ability
³³ This land revenue system was introduced by Thomas
arisen among the rebels.
Munro in 1820.
³³ Hugh Rose : Here lay the woman (Laxmi Bai), who ³³ Major areas of introduction include Madras, Bombay,
was the only man among the rebels. Parts of Assam and Coorgh provinces of British India.
³³ T.R. Holmes : Conflict between civilisation and ³³ In Ryotwari System the ownership rights were handed
Barbarism. over to the peasants.
CAUSES OF FAILURE ³³ British Government collected taxes directly from the
peasants.
³³ The revolt remained confined to small part of North ³³ The revenue rates of Ryotwari System were 50% where
India. the lands were dry and 60% in irrigated land.
³³ lack of resources as compared to those of the British.
Mahalwari System
³³ The rebel leaders lacked political leadership, military
experience and strategic knowledge and limited social
³³ This land revenue system was introduced in 1833
base during the period of William Bentick.
³³ Sikh, Marathas, Rajputs and some other sections of
³³ It was introduced in central Province, North-West
society supported British Authorities. Frontier, Agra, Punjab, Gangetic Valley, etc of British
India.
LAND REVENUE SYSTEM DURING BRITISH RULE
³³ In this system, the land was divided into Mahals.
Zamindari System (Permanent Settlement) ³³ Each Mahal comprises one or more villages. Owenship
rights were vested with the peasants.
³³ This land revenue system was introduced by Lord
³³ The Villages committee was held responsible for
Cornwallis in 1773
collection of the taxes.
BOOKS AND WRITERS ASSOCIATED WITH 1857 REVOLTS
Authors Books
S. N. Sen 1857
P. C. Joshi Rebellion, 1857
H. P. Chattopadhyaya Sepoy Mutiny 1857
R.C. Majumdar Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857
Maulana Azad Eighteen Fifty Seven
V.D. Savarkar First War of Indian Independence
S. B. Chaudhari Civil Rebellion in the Indian Mutinies, Theories of Indian Mutiny.
A. T. Embree 1857 in India
Karl Mark The first Indian war of Independence 1857-59

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MAJOR TRIBAL MOVEMENTS : AT A GLANCE

INDIAN HISTORY

Tribal Movement Area Year Leader

Chuars W. Bengal 1768-1832 —
Bhils Khandesh 1818-1848 Sevaram
Ho Chota Nagpur 1820-32 —
Kolis Sahyadri Hills 1824-48 —
Khasis Khasi Hills 1829-32 Tirut Singh and Barmanik
Singh Phos Assam 1830-39 —
Kols Chota Nagpur 1831-32 Budho Bhagat
Koyas Andhra Pradesh 1840-1924 Alluri Sitaram Raju
Kachnagas Chacher (Assam) 1882 Sambhudan
Ahom Assam 1828-33 Gomdhan Kunvar

FOUNDATION OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

³³ The architect of Indian National congress was Allan under the presidency of William Digby.
Octavion Hume a retired English ICS officer, who ³³ Tilak proclaimed vigourously a Swaraj is my birth
founded this in December 1885 along with seventy right, I shall have it in the Lucknow Session of INC,
one other political workers. 1916.
³³ The first meeting of the INC was organised by ³³ The first lady president of INC was Annie Besant
A.O. Hume at Gokaldas Tejpal Sanskrit College on (1917, Calcutta Session).
December 28th, 1885 in Bombay. ³³ Sir Sayed Ahmed Said that, “Congress Movement
was neither inspired by the people, nor devised or
³³ A.O. Hume was the general secretary of the INC in planned by them."
1885.
³³ Lord Curzen said that, ”The Congress is Faltering to
³³ The first session of the Indian National Congress was its fall and one of my great ambitious while in India
attended by 72 delegates. is to assist it to a peaceful dermise.
³³ The first president of the congress was an Indian ³³ Mahatma Gandhi presided INC only once in Belgaum
Christian W.C. Banerjee, the second was a Parsi session, 1924.
Dadabhai Naoroji, the third, a Muslim, Tyabji and the ³³ Sarojini Naidu was the first Indian Women President
forth and fifth were two Englishman, George youle and of INC in Kanpur session, 1925.
wedderburn respectively. The Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi Movement
³³ The first congress was attended by representatives of
³³ At the close of the 19th century the province of Bengal
all communities.
comprising besides Bengal proper, Bihar, Orissa
³³ Hume’s main purpose in encouraging the foundation and Chhotanagpur, was the largest and the most
of the congress was to provide a ‘safety valve to the populated province in British India.
growing discontent among the educated Indians. ³³ In 1904 the viceroy and the Governer General Lord
Aims and Objectives of Congress: Curzon announced the scheme of the partition of
Bengal into two separate provinces on the ground of
³³ The eradication of all possible race, creed, caste administrative consideration namely lightening the
and development and consolidation of sentiments of burden of Bengal, but the real motive was to curb
national unity. the growth of national feeling in Politically advanced
³³ Recording of the opinions of educated classes on Bengal by driving a wedge between the Bengali
pressing problems. speaking Hindus and Muslims and destroying the
³³ Pressing social questions of the day. solidarity of the people of Bengal by dividing them
Facts relating to INC into two blocks.
³³ The partition was declared in Shimla on 9 July, 1905.
³³ Lord Duffering was the viceroy of India during the
foundation of Indian National congress (INC). ³³ The partition of Bengal finally took place on 16th
October, 1905.
³³ ’Jana-Gana Mana’ was first sung during Calcutta
Session of the INC on 27 December, 1911. ³³ The people of Bengal organised protest meeting and
observed the day of mourning. The whole political life
³³ The first session of INC was planned to organised in
of Bengal under went a change.
Pune but due to plague it was organised in Bombay
(now Mumbai). ³³ Gandhiji wrote that the real awakening in India took
place only after the partition of Bengal.
³³ J.B. Kripalani was the president of INC at the time
of Independence. ³³ The anti partition movement culminated into the
³³ Abul Kalam Azad was the president of INC for Six Swadeshi movement and spread to other parts of
Consecutive years from 1940-45 during the Quit India.
India Movement. ³³ The aggressive nationalists forced Dada Bhai Naoroji
³³ On 27 December, 1936 congress sessions was held to speak of ‘Swaraj’ in the session of Calcutta in 1906.
in village first time in Faizpur. ³³ The partition of Bengal made by Lord Curzon in 1905
³³ ’British Committee of India’ was established in London lasted unitl king George V abrogated Curzon’s Act at
in July, 1889 with the purpose to gain support for INC the Royal Durbar in Delhi in 1911.

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Swadeshi Movement The Surat split (1907)

INDIAN HISTORY
³³ This movement involved programmes like the ³³ This session was took place in Surat on the bank of
boycott of government’s service, court, schools, and river Tapti under the presidentship of Ras Bihari Ghosh.
colleges and of foreign goods, promotion of swadeshi ³³ This was the 23rd session.
goods, promotion of national education through the ³³ During the Surat split, Lord Minto was the viceroy
establishing of national schools and colleges. of India.
³³ In Bengal labours also joined the movement. ³³ The INC split into two groups – the extremists and
³³ The government adopted several tough measures. It the moderates.
passed several acts to crush the movement. ³³ Extremists were led by Lal, Bal and Pal while the
³³ Indian National Congress took the swadeshi call first moderates by G.K. Gokhale.
at Banaras session of 1905 presided over by G.K. ³³ Controversy rose over the elected President Ras Bihari
Ghokhle. Ghosh, as extremists did not accept this. Extremists
wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be chosen.
³³ Lal, Bal, Pal and Arbindo Ghosh played the important
³³ The moderates were succeeded to make Ras Bihari
role.
Ghosh as president of INC Surat session. Due to this
³³ October 16, 1905 the day of partition formally came congress split into two parts.
into force was observed as the day of mourning
throughout Bengal. Foundation of Muslim League (1906)
³³ People fasted, bathed in the Ganga and walked ³³ Muslim League setup in 1906 under the leadership
barefoot in processions singing Vande Mataram. of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab
³³ R.N. Tagore invoked the people to celebrate the Mohsin-ul-mulk.
partition as a ‘Rakhi Day’. ³³ Vakar-ul-mulk was the first president of Muslim League.
³³ A deputation of about 35 muslims, representing
Revolutionary leader with swadeshi movement different parts of the country and led by Aga Khan met
1. B.G. Tilak Mumbai & Pune lord Minto on 10 October, 1906 in Shimla.
³³ Muslim League put before him two points –
2. Ajit Singh Punjab
1. At all elections, whether for legislative councils or
3. Lala Lajpat Ray Uttar Pradesh for local bodies muslims must be seperately repre-
4. Sayyid Haider Raza Delhi sented and their representatives seperately elected
by partly Muslims electors.
5. Chidambaram Pillai Madras 2. The extent of the muslim community’s representa-
³³ Ashwani Kumar Datta setup a ‘Swadesh Bandhava tion must be commensurate not merely with thier
Committee’ to flash the message of this movement. numerical strength but with their political impor-
³³ R.N. Tagore set ‘Bengal National College’ for National tance and the value of the contribution which they
education. Aurbindo Ghosh was the Principal of this make to the defence of the Empire.
college. The objective of muslim league :
³³ During Swadeshi Movement R.N. Tagore wrote a song (i) To promote among Indian Muslim feeling of loyalty
named ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ later this song became towards the British Government.
the national song of Bangladesh. (ii) To protect the political and other rights of Indian
Muslims and to place their needs and aspirations
Act passed by Government to suppress the Movement before the Government in temperate language.
1. Sedition meeting Act, 1907. (iii) The fomation of the muslim league was a great
success of British Government and his policy of
2. Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908. ‘Divide & Rule’
3. Indian Newspaper Act, 1908. Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)
4. Explosive substances Act, 1908. ³³ After Curzon, Lord Minto became the viceroy of India.
5. Indian press Act, 1910. ³³ It envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims.
³³ Lord Minto came to be known as the Father of
Leaders & their journals Communal Electorate.
³³ Aimed at dividing the rationalist ranks and at rallying
Journal Leader
the moderate and the muslims to the governments side.
Yugantar Barindra Ghosh ³³ One Indian (for the first time) was to be appointed to
Sanjivini K. K. Mitra the viceroy’s executive council.
Bharat Mata Ajit Singh ³³ Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join
the viceroy’s Executive Council. He was appointed as
Sandhya B. Upadhyaya
the Law member.
New India Anne B esent
Komagata Maru ship Incident (1914)
Calcutta Session of Congress
³³ Canada Government was unhappy with the increasing
³³ Calcutta session of congress was held in 1906 this
number of India settlers in Canada.
session was presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji.
³³ It harassed the immigrants and planned to shift all
³³ In this session Naoroji first time used the terms –
of them to Island which was known for its unhealthy
‘Swaraj’. climate.

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³³ In order to arrest the inflow of Indians, the Canadians Institute in Bengal which was founded by
INDIAN HISTORY

Government passed an immigration Act which P. Mitra, Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendra Nath
permitted only those Indians to land in Canada who Dutta in 24 March, 1903.
were direct passengers from Calcutta. ³³ Another Anushilan committee was founded by Pulin
³³ Unfortunately no passenger ship in those days sailed Biharidas in Dhaka in Bangladesh.
directly for Canada from only India bound ship either ³³ Many newspapers advocated revolutionary activity
from Hongkong or Shangai. like Sandhya by Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya, Vande
³³ Baba Gurdit Singh, a man of affluent means and Matram by Arbindo Ghosh, Yugantar by Bhupendra
a contractor of repute came to rescue of Indians Dutta.
stranded in Hongkong in 1910. ³³ In 1907, Avanish Chandra Bhattacharya wrote a
³³ He hired a Japanese ship Komagatamaru. The ship book-present strategy (Vartman Ranniti). This book
reached Calcutta and accommodated nearly 500 advocated to youths to take military education.
passengers. ³³ In 1908, Praffula Chaki and Khudiram Bose attempted
to murder Muzaffapur Judge kingsford.
³³ It reached the port of vancouver on 22 May, 1914.
These people did not come under the restrainsts of ³³ Praffula Chaki committed suicide and Khudiram Bose
the Canadian Act. was arrested and hanged on May 11, 1908.
³³ Canadian Government did not allow the ship to enter ³³ Aurobindo Ghosh, Varindra Ghosh, Ullas Dutta,
Hemchandra Das etc were involved in this case.
Vancouver hence the passenger did not get down.
³³ Aurobindo Ghosh was released due to lack of evidence
³³ After two months stay in Canadian after, Komagata
after that he published an English paper ‘Karmyogini’.
maru started returning on 23rd July.
³³ He became saint in course of time and set Ashram
³³ When ship reached Budge-Budge, angry passengers
in Puducherry.
fought with police many were wounded and died.
³³ Lord Hardinge decided to shift the capital of country
The second stage of National Movement
from Calcutta to Delhi. When he triumphantly
³³ The main centres of revolutionary movement were
three – entered the historic city of Delhi Chandani Chowk
a huge ceremonial procession was taken out. As
1. Maharashtra 2. Bengal 3. Punjab
the procession passed through the crowded ‘bazar
Maharashtra of Chandni Chowk suddenly a bomb exploded as if
³³ The revolutionary movement was started from to crack the sheel of viceroy’s. The bomb missed the
Maharashtra in 1897. target.
³³ Tilak’s attempt to propagate militancy among the ³³ The bomb had been thrown by a great patriot Ras
youth through the Shivaji and Ganapati Festivals. Bihari Bose. He slipped away quietly.
³³ Tilak published journals –Kesari & Maratha. ³³ Under fictitious name he went away to Japan with
³³ By the inspiration of Tilak ‘Acharya Bandhav R.N. Tagore and raised INA.
Committee’ was established in Maharashtra. ³³ Later he handed it over to the leadership of Netaji
³³ Chapekar Brothers – Damodar Hari Chapekar & Subhash Chandra Bose.
Balkrishna Hari Chapekar established ‘Vyayama ³³ This incident is known as Delhi conspiracy case. In
Mandal’ in Pune in 1896-97. this case Amirchandra, Avadh Bihari and Bal Mukund
³³ Chapekar brothers were associated with revolutionary hanged on in Delhi and Basant Kumar in Ambala.
institute – ‘Hindu Dharma Sangh’.
Punjab
³³ In 22 June, 1897 Chapekar Brothers shot dead plague
commissioners Rand and Amerst in Pune. ³³ In Punjab, the revolutionary activists were Lala Lajpat
³³ Chapekar brothers hanged on 18 April, 1898. Rai, Ajit Singh, Aga Haider Syed Haider Raza, Bhai
³³ In 1899 V.D. Savarkar and his brother Ganesh Parmananda, Lalchand Falak and Sufi Amba Prasad.
organised a secret society named – ‘Mitra Mela’. Ghadar Party (1913)
³³ They were co-accused in Nasik and Gwalior conspiracy
cases. ³³ The Ghadar Party, which began as an association to
protect and defend the rights of Indian settlers in the
³³ In 1904 Mitramela and Abhinava Bharat were merged.
United States and Canada, later grew into a movement
³³ In 1909 District Magistrate Jackson of Nasik was to liberate the country from alien yoke.
assassinated by Anant Lakshman Kanhare.
³³ In 1907 Ramnath Puri established Hindustan
³³ Shyamji Krishna Varma setup Indian Home Rule
Society and India House and brought out journal Assosiation in San Fransisco and edited ‘sarkular-i-
named ‘The sociologist’ in London in 1905. Ajadi in urdu.
³³ Madan Lal Dhingra murdered Curzon Wyllie in 1909. ³³ Taraknath Das brought out free Hindustan in 1908
³³ Madam Bhikaji Cama operated from Paris and Geneva from Vancouver, Canada.
and brought out journal ‘Bande Matram’. The Lucknow Pact (1916)
Bengal ³³ The Lucknow session was important not only in that
³³ In Bengal the revolutionary movements was organised it brought the moderates and the Extremists together,
by Bhadralok society. it also led to an entente between the congress and the
³³ ‘Anushilan committee’ was the first revolutionary Muslim League.

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³³ On 2nd october, 1911 the partition of Bengal was ³³ Annie Besant was called upon to furnish security for

INDIAN HISTORY
annulled. her press and papers.
³³ The Muslims community in India was further ³³ ‘The commonweal’ and ‘The New India’, and altogether
disappointed by the hostile attitude of the British she deposited and forfeited a sum of Rs. 20,000 on
Government towards the sultan of Turkey during the 14 June, 1917.
Tripoli and Balkan wars in 1911, 1912 & 1913. ³³ The Government of Madras issued order of internment
³³ They looked upon the Sultan as the Calipha of Islam against Besant and her two associates. G.S. Arundale
and did not like that he should has been humbled by and B.P. Wadia.
Italy and the Balkan powers through the connivance ³³ Subramaniam Iyer returned his ‘knighthood’ due to
of England. the detention of Annie Besant and her two associates.
³³ Later in September, 1917 She was released. She was
³³ The Participation of Turkey in the Great war on the
the first women president of congress.
side of Germany convinced the Indian Muslim that
British was not the real friend of Islam. Montague Declaration (1917)
³³ The first step towards national solidarity and ³³ A British policy was announced which aim at
common action was taken by Jinnah and some of increasing association of Indian in every branch
his associates. They invited the league to hold its of the administration for progressive realization of
annual session at Bombay in December 1915 where responsible Government in India as an integral part
the congress was holding its own session. of the ‘British empire’ this came to be the August
³³ The congress and the league decided to cooperate in Declaration or Montague Declaration.
formulating a common scheme of post-war reforms ³³ Moderates called it ‘the Magna Carta of India’.
and in pressing its adoption by the British authorities. ³³ Tilak called it ‘Morning Without the Sun’.
³³ This session was presided over Ambika Charan The Montague -Chelmsford reforms (1919)
Majumdar.
(The Indian council Act 1919)
³³ The architect of congress-league were Jinnah & Tilak.
³³ This act was come into force in 1921.
³³ The cooperation of Muslims League was welcomed by
INC at karachi Session in 1913 under the Leadership The main provisions of this Act —
³³ The Imperial Legislative Council was abolished and
of Nawab Sayyid Mohammad Bahadur.
in its place a bicameral legislature, composed of
Home Rule Movement the legislative Assembly and Council of state, was
³³ After Tilak’s return, having served sentence of six established.
years in Mandalay. ³³ The Indian executive comprised of the Governer
³³ He tried securing the need to involve himself and other -General and his Executive council. The former
extremists into Indian National Congress. was the head of the Executive and distributed the
portfolioes among the executive councillors.
³³ A committee of its members were formed for Home
Rule. ³³ The most important provision of the Act was the
introduction of “Dyarchy”, a sort of double government
³³ On the recommendation of this committee Tilak setup
in the province. The provincial subjects were divided
Home Rule in Belgaon in 28 April, 1916.
into ‘Reserved’ and ‘Transferred’ subjects.
³³ Tilak’s League had six branches and restricted to
³³ It separated, for the first time, provincial budgets from
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central provinces and
the central budget.
Berar.
³³ Important departments such as Finance, Police,
³³ Josef Baptista became the president and N.C. Kelkar
General Administration etc were ‘Reserved’ and
secretary.
were to be dealt with by the Governor and his
³³ A similar organisation was setup in Madras in Executive Council. less important department called,
September 1916 by Annie Besant. ‘Transferred’ subject were to be dealt with by Minister
³³ She was a great leader of India and was deeply chosen from the elected members of the provincial
interested in the educational religious and social uplift legislature.
of the Indian people. ³³ It extended the principle of communal representation
³³ Annie Besant’s League had 200 branches and covered by providing separate electorates for Sikhs, Indian
the rest of the country, that was not included in Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans.
Tilak’s League. ³³ Part V of the act made provision for a statutory
³³ The British authorities became seriously concerned commission to be setup, at the expiration of ten years
about the Home Rule Movement in India. after the passing of the act for the purpose of inquiring
³³ British Government decided to curb the Home Rule into the working of the system of Government.
leagues.
The Third phase of National Movement
³³ Circulars were issued prohibiting school and college
boys from participating in the Home Rule Movement. (Ghandhi Era -1919-1947)
³³ In July 1916, Tilak was prosecuted, allegedly, for ³³ The third phase of the national movement is called
delivering seditious speeches and was ordered to the ‘Ghandhi-Era’.
furnish a personal bond of Rs. 20,000 with two ³³ Gandhiji returned from south Africa to India on 9 Jan,
sureties of Rs 10,000 each. 1915 and joined the national movement.

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³³ Here Gandhiji met with Gokhale, The thought of ³³ During March and April 1919, the country witnessed
INDIAN HISTORY

Gokhale influenced Gandhiji much and he accepted a remarkable political awakening in India.
him his political Guru. ³³ This Act was criticized as ‘Black Act.’
³³ Initialy Gandhiji worked for British government ³³ This act was called ‘Bina Apeel Bina Daleel Bina Vakil’.
but soon he disappointed with the policy of British Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (13 April, 1919)
Government. ³³ A meeting was called in to oppose the detention of Dr
Champaran Satyagrah (1917) Satyapal & Kitchlew.
³³ Gandhiji tried the efficacy of his weapon in India first ³³ In the forenoon of the April -the Baisakhi day’ along
in Champaran. with troops of the 45th British Regiment marched
³³ Champaran was a district of the Tirhut division of through the main streets, proclamation that if more
the Bihar province. than 4 person gathered at one place would be shot.
³³ The tenants of this district were bound by contract ³³ The people who gathered there were absolutely
to plant trees in three out of twenty parts of his land unarmed.
with Indigo for his land lord who, by and large , were ³³ As soon as the proceedings commenced, Dyer ordered
Englishman. the troops to fire. ‘till the ammunition exhausted.”
³³ This system was known as ‘tinkathia system’. ³³ With one hour, about 380 person were killed and
³³ But when Indigo became unremunerative, the 2000 were wounded.
European planters imposed higher taxes to compensate ³³ The Lt. Governor of the Punjab, applauded his action
their loses in the international trade at that time. and the British business community in India hailed
³³ Gandhiji was requested by Rajkumar Shukla to look him as a valiant hero’ and presented him a purse of
into the problems of the Indigo planters. 26 thousand pounds and a ‘Sword of honour’.
³³ Gandhiji was successful in abolishing the tinkathia ³³ Due to this massacre, R. N. Tagore returned
systems and refund was made to the cultivators in ‘Knighthood’ and Shankaran Nair resigned from the
wages. executive council of viceroy. Gandhi also returned his
Movement of Ahmedabad Mill workers (1918) Kaisar-i-Hind, title bestowed upon him by the British
³³ In Ahmedabad the disputes was between the mill government for his contribution in the Boer war.
owners and workers over the ‘plague bonus’ which the ³³ Government setup enquiry commission under the
owner wanted to withdraw once the epidemic was over. chairmanship of Hunter hence known as ‘Hunter
³³ Gandhiji requested the mill owners to pay wages but commission’.
they refused to do so. ³³ On March 13, 1940 Sardar Udham Singh killed O’Dyer
³³ Gandhiji advised the workers to go on strike and when he was addressing a meeting in caxton hall,
explained them what it meant. Gandhiji advised the London. Udham Singh took the revenge of Jallianwala
workers to go on strike and he undertook hunger massacre by killing O’Dyer.
strike after which the mill owners press into accepting Khilafat Movement (1920)
the tribunal award of 35% increase in wages. ³³ In the first world war, Turkey, which had joined
³³ This was the second victory of Gandhiji’s fight for the Axis powers was defeated by the Allied powers.
justice. When the war ended the victorious Allied powers
Khera Satyagrah (1918) took a very stern attitude towards Turkey and finally
³³ Hardly was the Ahmedabad mill strike over, that his dismembered the once mighty Turkish ottoman
attention was drawn to the deplorable plight of the empire.
Peasants of Khera district, in Bombay province. ³³ The sultan of Turkey who was also the Khalif was
³³ The peasants of Khera district were in extreme distress deposed.
due to a failure of crops and the government ignored ³³ On May 14, 1920 the term of the treaty of serves that
their appeals for the remission of land revenue. were proposed to be offered to the sultan of Turkey,
³³ The peasants of Khera were already hard pressed were published. These convinced the Indian Muslims
because of Plague, high prices and draught. that the sultan was going to be deprived of all his
³³ Due to Gandhiji’s effort, the government bound and territories in Europe and in Asia and that the Holy
a compromise was made between them. places of Islam were going to pass into non-muslim
³³ Indulal Yagnik and Sardar Patel took leading role in
hands.
movement with Gandhiji. ³³ Much resentment was expressed by the Indian
Muslims against the deposition of the Sultan of Turkey
Rowlatt Act (1919)
and dismemberment of his empire.
³³ The 1919 sedition committee headed by justice
³³ A deputation of the prominent Indian Muslim leaders
Rowlatt led to the Rowlatt Act. where by war time
led by Dr. M.A. Ansari demanded to (Unable to judge)
restrictions of civil rights were to be made permanent
Lord Chelmsford, and urged that the empire of the
by—
sultan must be preserved intact and sovereigty of the
(a) System of Special court sultan as ‘Calipha’ not be disturbed.
(b) Detention without trial for maximum 2 years. ³³ These demands which were also supported by the
(c) Greater police power. INC. and included as one of the main demands for
³³ This act authorized the government to imprison any launching of the Non-Cooperation Movement led to
person without trial and conviction of the court of law. the launching of Khilafat Movement.
³³ It was first countrywide agitation by Gandhiji and ³³ An all India Khilafat Conference under the
marked the foundation of non-cooperation movement. chairmanship of Gandhiji met in Delhi and resolved

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to withdraw all cooperation with the Government until embarrassed the government by opposing its

INDIAN HISTORY
the Khilafat demands were redeemed. measures.
³³ An all India Khilafat committee was also setup to ³³ In the elections of 1923 the Das-Nehru group under
organise mass support for Muslims cause. the banner of the Swaraj Party emerged the single
³³ On 17 october, 1919, ‘Khilafat day’ was celebrated. largest party in the central Assembly, Bombay and
³³ Gandhiji suggested khilafat committee to start non Bengal Councils.
cooperation movement. Committee accepted the ³³ The swarajists pursued an obstructionist strategy to
suggestion. defeat all proposals for legislative enactments.
The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-21) ³³ The two sections were reunited in 1930 after the
³³ It was the first mass - based on political movement Lahore session.
under Gandhiji. The Simon Commission (1927-28)
³³ Gandhiji launched this movement on 1 August, 1920.
³³ In 1927, the British decided to appoint a commission
³³ It was based on three demands– to recommend further constitutional reforms.
(i) The Khilafat issue. ³³ This commission was under the chairmanship of
(ii) Justice for Jallianwala Bagh Massacre Simon.
(iii) Issue of self Rule.
³³ During the time of Simon commission Lord Irwin was
³³ A special session of the congress was convened at
Calcutta in September, 1920, to approve of the non- the viceroy of India.
cooperation scheme. ³³ All the members of this commission were the british
³³ The Tilak Swaraj Fund was started to finance the that’s why congress opposed this and called it white
non-cooperation movement. commission.
³³ In July 1921, the Ali brothers gave a call to the ³³ On 3rd February, 1928 Simon and his colleagues
Muslims to resign from the Army. landed in Bombay and were greeted with hatrals and
³³ The movement envisaged – black-flag demonstrations.
(i) Boycott of school, college, law courts. ³³ The commission’s arrival in India led to a powerful
(ii) Surrender of titles honorary offices. protest movement in which nationalist enthusiasm
(iii) Resignation from nominated offices and posts in and unity reached new heights
the local bodies. ³³ In protest Lala Lajpat Rai Succumbed to injuries on
(iv) Refusal to attend government offices. Oct 30, 1929.
(v) Refusal of general public to offer themselves for
Nehru Report (1928)
military and offer government jobs.
(vi) Boycott of foreign goods. ³³ After boycotting the Simon commission, all
³³ C. R. Das and Moti Lal Nehru gave up their legal political parties constituted a committee under
practices. the chairmanship of motilal Nehru to evolve and
³³ Subhash Chandra Bose resigns from the civil services. determine the principles of a constitution of India.
³³ During this movement the Prince of Wales visited India ³³ It remained memorable as the first major Indians
and were greeted with strikes and demonstrations. effort to draft a constitutional framework for India
Chauri-Chaura Incident (1922) complete with lists of central and provincial subjects
³³ The congress session at Allahabad in December 1921 and fundamental rights.
decided to launch a Civil Disobedience Movement. ³³ It demanded responsible government both in the
³³ Gandhiji was appointed its leader. centre and in the province, but it advocated Dominion
³³ But before it could be launched, a mob of the people Status and not complete independence.
clashed with police at Chauri-Chaura in Gorakhpur ³³ The report recommended equal rights for women,
district of Uttar Pradesh on 5 February, 1922. freedom to form unions and dissociation of the state
³³ The mob burnt 22 policemen. Gandhiji shocked with from religion.
this incident. ³³ The committee comprised Tej Bahadur Sapru, Ali
³³ This incident compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Imam M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Sohaib Qureshi, G.R.
non-cooperation movement on February 12, 1922. Pradhan and Subhash Chandra Bose.
³³ After the suspension of the movement in order to The Lahore Session of the Congress (1929)
isolate Mahatma Gandhi from the masses, the British
³³ On December, 1929, INC declared ‘Purna Swaraj’ at
authorities put him under arrest on March 13, 1922.
Lahore session under the chairmanship of J.L. Nehru.
³³ Gandhi took upon himself the responsibility for this
³³ Decision taken at Lahore Session —
incident.
³³ The judge sentenced him to six years imprisonment. (i) Round table conference to be boycotted.
(ii) Purna Swaraj was the main aims of congress.
Swaraj Party (1923)
(iii) Launch programme of civil disobedience including
³³ Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar demanded
non payment of taxes.
that the nationalists should end the boycott of the
(iv) All members of legislatures asked to resign their
legislative council, enter them and expose them but the
seats.
No Changers like Rajendra Prasad and Rajgopalachari
ordered follow to the Gandhi’s Programme of boycott ³³ On December 31, 1929, the newly adopted tricolour
of legislatures. flag was unfurled and January 26, 1930 was fixed as
the first independence day which was to be celebrated
³³ The Pro-changers formed the Swaraj Party
On Jan 1, 1923, contested the elections and every year.

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Civil Disobedience Movement ³³ Gandhiji was the only congressmember to participate

INDIAN HISTORY

³³ Civil Disobedience Movement began with Dandi March in this conference.

by Gandhi on 12 March, 1930. The breaking of salt ³³ Gandhiji demanded control over defence and foreign
laws on 6 April, 1930 formally inaugurated the Civil affairs.
Disobedience Movement. ³³ Hindu Mahasabha demanded federal responsibility,
³³ Salt law was violated in many parts of the country. which was opposed by muslim league and the
³³ In this movement foreign liquor and cloth shops were princess.
picketed. ³³ Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for Dalits,
³³ Lawyers gave up practice public boycotted law courts which was opposed by Gandhiji.
by refraining from litigation. ³³ The government refused to concede the basic
³³ Government Servents resigned from their posts. nationalist demand of freedom on the basis of
³³ People refused to pay tax. immediate grant of dominion status.
³³ The movement reached the extreme North-Western Communal Award and Poona Pact (1932)
frontier province under the leadership of Khan Abdul ³³ On August the 1932 Mac Donald announced the
Ghaffar Khan. proposal on minority representation, known as the
³³ Surya Sen’s Chittagong Revolt Group carried out a raid ‘Communal Award’ which recommended —
on two armouries and declared the establishement of (i) To double the existing seats in provincial legisla-
a provisional government. tures.
³³ In Sholapur (Maharashtra) Textile workers went on a (ii) To retain the system of separate electorate for the
strike, burnt liquor shop, railway stations, Municipal minorities.
building, law courts and declared the establishment (iii) To grant weightage to muslims in provinces where
of paralled government. they were in minority.
³³ In Bihar chowkidari tax were refused. ³³ The Communal Award declared the depressed classes
also be minorities and entitled them to separate
³³ Forest law breached in central region of the country.
electorates.
³³ In Manipur Rani Gaidinliu raised the banner of revolt
³³ It reserved 3% seats for women in all provincial
against foreign rule.
legislatures.
First Round Table conference (1930)
³³ To allocate seats to labour, landlords, and traders
³³ It was the first conference arranged between the and industrialists.
British and Indians as equals.
³³ Gandhiji was in Yervada jail at that time. He started
³³ It was held on Nov. 12, 1930 in London to discuss fast upto death against it.
Simon Commission.
Poona Pact (Sep 25, 1932)
³³ Congress and most business leaders kept themselves
³³ Gandhi started fast from the jail due to given the right
away from this conference.
of separate electorates to the Depressed class.
³³ Participants —
³³ He regarded the Depressed classes as an integral part
(i) Muslim league – Represented by Mohammad Ali, of Hindu society.
Agha Khan, Fazlul Haq and Jinnah.
³³ In an anxiety to save his life, the Poona Pact with the
(ii) Hindu Mahasabha — Represented by Moonje and following main terms was concluded between Gandhiji
Jaykar and Ambedkar.
(iii) Liberals – Represented by Sapru, Chintamani and
Srinivas Shashtri. (i) 148 seats were to be allotted to the depressed
classes in the Provincial legislatures as against 71
(iv) Princes – Represented by Akbar Hydar and Mirza
Ismail, the Diwans of Hyderabad and Mysore promised by the communal Award and 18% of the
respectively. total in central legislature.
(v) Dalits – Represented by B.R. Ambedkar. (ii) Ambedkar to accepted the principle of joint elector-
(vi) Sikh – Sardar Purna Singh ate.
(vii) Business – Homi Modi ³³ Leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya, M.C. Rajah and
Gandhi -Irwin Pact (1931) B.R. Ambedkar became active to settle issue.
³³ Tej Bahadur Sapru, M.R. Jayakar and Srinivas ³³ Harijan upliftment now become the principal concerns
Shashtri initiated efforts to break the ice between of Gandhiji.
Gandhiji and the Governments. ³³ An All-India anti untouchability league was started in
³³ The two signed a pact on March 5, 1931. September, 1932 and a weekly ‘Harijan’.
³³ Gandhiji agreed to suspend Disobedience movement ³³ He decided to begin a 21 day fast for the Purification
and agreed to join the 2nd round table conference. of himself and his associates for the Harijan Cause.
³³ The government on its part released the political Third Round table conference (November 1932)
prisoners and conceded the right to make salt ³³ The third round table conference met in London in
for consumption for villages along the coast and November 1932 congress boycotted it.
withdrawal of emergency ordinances. ³³ It was attended by a much smaller number of
2nd Round Table conference (1931) representative than before.
³³ Ramsay Macdonald was the Prime Minister of Britain. ³³ The outcome of the Round Table conference and
He chaired– subsequent discussions was the Government of India
³³ 2nd round table conference. Bill which became an act in 1935.
³³ At that time, Wellington was the Viceroy of India.

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The Government of India Act, 1935 the day of the resignation of the congress ministries

INDIAN HISTORY
³³ This Act was the last of the constitutional means were in the provinces.
prepared by the British parliament for India. August Declaration (August 8, 1940)
1. The most conspicuous features of the constitution ³³ With the outbreak of world war II in September 1939
was the concept of an all India Federation. It was and India’s automatic involvement in it without
to consist of the British Indian provinces and the consultation, the Indian National Congress demanded
Native states. For the British India provinces it was a clearcut definition of the British Government’s war
compulsory to join the proposed federation. But for and peace aims as aplicable to India.
the Indian states it was voluntary. It was unnatural ³³ Lord Linlithgow put forward a proposal that included—
to think that the autocratic princes of the native (i) Dominion status in the unspecified future.
states would join the Fedration of the democratically (ii) A post war body to enact the constitution.
conscious Indian provinces they, therefore did’t join (iii) Expansion of governor -General’s council with rep-
and they hoped for All India Federation was never resentation of the Indians.
formed. A good portion of the act thus remained set (iv) Establishing a war advisory council.
contradictory. (v) Made consent of minorities necessary for adoption
2. The real significance of the Act of 1935 lay in the of future constitution. (indirectly veto power given
changes it brought in the provincial sphere. The to Muslim League).
Dyarchy in the province as introduced by the Act The Demand for Pakistan (1940)
1919, was abolished and the provincial powers ³³ In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the frontier province,
were transferred into the hands of elected Indian Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir be made the Muslim
Ministers. The real merit of Provincial autonomy state within the federation.
lay in the powers vested in the elected Ministers, ³³ Choudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in
but in practice this autonomy was set contradicting 1933.
because the governor was vested with so much au- ³³ ‘The demand for Pakistan’ proposal was prepared by
thority that the powers of the responsible ministers Khaliquzzaman.
appeared unreal. ³³ Muslim league first passed the proposal of separate
3. The members of the provincial legislative Assemblies Pakistan in its Lahore session in 1940.
were to be directly elected by the people, but the Individual Satyagraha (October 1940)
election to the central as well as provincial Legisla- ³³ The rejection of the congress demands once again
tures was to be on the special electorates. exasperated the congress as well as Gandhiji.
4. In both Houses of the Federal Legislature has native ³³ On 13th October the congress working committee
states were given their quota of representation, but met in Wardha where Gandhiji unfolded his plan of
the members from the states were not to be elected. individual civil disobedience.
They were to be nominated by the rulers. ³³ England was facing the most critical hour of her life.
5. It provided for the establishment of a Federal court, ³³ By starting a mass movement Gandhiji did not like
which was set up in 1937. to embarrass the Government. So, he dicided to offer
6. Subject of administration divided in three sections individual Satyagrah simply with a view to register his
federal, provincial and concurrent. mild protest against the uncompromising attitude of
The second world war and Resignation of congress the Government.
ministries ³³ Gandhiji selected his disciple Vinoba Bhave to
³³ The second world war broke out on September 1, 1939 inaugurate the movements. He stood delivering anti-
when Nazi Germany invaded Poland. war speeches and was arrested for four days.
³³ Britain and France came to the aid of Poland and ³³ J.L. Nehru was arrested next.
declared war against Germany. ³³ The Satyagrahis in their speeches appealed to the
³³ Soon afterwards the Government of India declared people not to extend war help to the Government.
India to be at war with Germany without consulting ³³ By May 1941, nearly 14000 satyagrahis courted
the congress or the elected members of the central arrest.
legislature.
Cripps’ Proposals (March, 1942)
³³ But congress declared that is could not associate
³³ After the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese the British
herself in war unless the British Government
decided to send the cripps mission to India for
publicly stated that India would be granted political
constitutional proposals, which included.
independence at the end of war. The congress also
demanded immediate transfer of maximum of control (i) Dominion status to be granted after the war.
over country’s administration to Indians. (ii) Setting up a constitutional making for India after
the war whose members would be elected by the
³³ Pt. J.L. Nehru said “ It was absurd to drag slave India
provincial assemblies and nominated by the rulers
for defending the freedom of other countries.’
in case of the princely states.
Resignation of the congress Ministries-
(iii) Defence of India would remain in British hands
³³ Lord Linlithgow declared India to be at war without and the governor general’s powers would remain
the prior assent of the central legislature. intact.
³³ The congress ministries gave the resignation. (iv) Gandhiji stated cripps proposal as “post-dated
³³ The muslim league celebrated the ‘Deliverance Day’ on cheque on a crashing bank”.

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Quit India Movement (1942) INA Trials

INDIAN HISTORY

³³ Quit India resolution was passed on August 8, 1942 ³³ INA trials were held at Red Fort, Delhi.
at Gowalia Tank, Bombay. ³³ P. K. Sehgal, Shah Nawaj and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon
³³ Gandhiji told the British to quit ‘Leave Indian in God’s were put on trial at the Red Fort.
hand’. His massage was ‘Do or Die.’ ³³ The congress took up their defence.
³³ The arrests provoked indignation among the masses ³³ Bhula bai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru, J.L. Nehru, K.N.
and, there being no programme of action. The
Katju and Arun Asaf Ali appeared for the defence.
movement became spontaneous and violent. Violence
spread throughout the country several government ³³ Muslim league also joined the countrywide protest.
offices were destroyed telegraph wires were cut and ³³ Wavell used veto power and set them free.
communication paralyzed. ³³ November 12, 1945 was celebrated as the INA Day.
³³ It was the only all India movement, which was Wavell Plan (4 June, 1945)
leaderless. In many areas, the government lost all ³³ This plan was given by Viceroy Wavell.
control and the people established swaraj.
³³ The plan was that with the exception of the governor-
³³ The participation was on many levels. School and
general and the commander-in-chief, all members of
college students remained in the forefront, women
the executive council were to be Indians.
activiely participated and workers went on strike.
³³ Caste Hindus and Muslims were given equal
³³ Ram Manohar Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali, Achyut
Patwardhan and Jayaprakash Narayan emerged as representation in assembly.
leader. ³³ Simla conference was convened in this regard but was
³³ Usha Mehta started underground Radio. rejected by Jinnah.
³³ The movement did not envoke much response from ³³ Governor had veto power.
the merchant community. They had profited heavily ³³ Foreign matters were given to Indians, but not tribals
during the war. and border related areas.
The parallel Governments Shimla Conference (25 June, 1945)
³³ Parallel governments were established.
³³ This was proposed by wavell.
I. Satara — under Nana Patil, It was the first parallel
Revolt of the Royal Army (1946)
government.
II. Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar Midhapur, West Bengal ³³ 18 February, 1946, Bombay Ratings of HMIS Talwar
— under Satish Samant. struck work due to flagrant racial discrimination
III. Balia — under Chittu Pandey, the longest term unpalatable food and abuse by superior officers. After
parallel government. the arrest of B. C. Dutt who has scrawled ‘quit India’
IV. Katak — under Lakshman Nayak. on the ship mutinied.
The Indian National Army ³³ In Bombay, the Mutineers hoisted the tricolour
³³ After releasing from jail Bose was kept in his home together with a portrait of S.C. Bose and shouted ‘Jai
in Calcutta. From there they escaped secretly 14 Hind’ in the barracks.
Jan, 1941 and finally reached Berlin via Kabul, and ³³ Their demands included release of all political
Moscow on March 28, 1941.
prisoners, including those belonging to the Indian
³³ Bose was well received by Ribben trop, the foreign
National Army.
minister of Germany, that he would broadcast anti-
British propaganda from Berlin and raise free Indian ³³ Seeing the strict attitude of British government
units from Indian prisoners of war in Germany. Aallabhai Patel and Jinnah persuaded the ratings to
³³ The Idea of the Indian National Army to liberate India surrender.
was originally conceived by Rasbihari Bose, who fled ³³ After the government’s assurance they surrendered.
to Japan in 1915 and had become a Japanese citizen, Cabinet Mission (1946)
with the help of Mohan Singh, an Indian officer of the
³³ Cabinet Mission reached Delhi on 24 March, 1946.
British India Army in Malaya.
³³ Three members were there in the Mission –
³³ Later Rasbihari Bose handed over the chairmanship
of INA to S.C. Bose. (i) Pethick Lawrence
³³ Rani Lakshmi Bai Regimenl was established by (ii) Stafford Cripps
Lakshmi Swaminathan. (iii) A.V. Alexander
³³ The INA headquarters were formed in Rangoon & ³³ On May 16, 1946 the mission put forward its proposal.
Singapore. ³³ Rejection of the demand for a full fledged Pakistan.
³³ INA had three fighting brigade – Gandhi brigade, ³³ Provincial legislatures would elect a constituent
Nehru brigade & Azad brigade. Rani Jhansi brigade Assembly. The members were divided into three
was an exclusive women force. sections.
³³ S.C. Bose gave a call from Jubilee place of Rangoon. ³³ All these sections would have the authority to draw up.
“You give me blood and I will give you freedom”.
Provincial constitutions and even group constitutions.
³³ INA won Andaman and Nicobar Island on December
Section - A : Non muslim majority provinces.
1943, and named them ‘Shahid’ and ‘Swaraj’
respectively. Section - B : Muslim Majority provinces in the north
³³ Abid Husain escaped Gandhi Brigade from the British
-west.
Army. He was given a title‘Sardar-A-Jung’ by S.C. Bose Section - C : Muslim majority provinces in north-east.
for his daring work.

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³³ Communal questions in central legislatures were to ³³ Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either

INDIAN HISTORY
be decided by a single majority in both communities. in Pakistan or India or remain independent.
³³ Provinces were to have full autonomy and residual ³³ August 15, 1947 was the date to hand over power to
powers. India and Pakistan.
³³ Princely states were no longer to be under paramountcy Indian Independence Act (1947)
of British Government. ³³ On 18 July the British Parliament passed ‘Independence
³³ Both congress and Muslim league accepted it. of India Act, 1947.
³³ The elections of the constituent assembly were held in ³³ This act was implemented on August 15, 1947.
July 1946. The congress got 209 of the total 273 seats. ³³ Sovereignty of British parliament was abolished.
³³ Based on Cabinet mission Plan, an interim government ³³ Dominions of India and Pakistan were created.
consisting of congress nominees was formed on 2 ³³ Abolished the office of Viceroy and provided, a
September, 1946 J.L. Nehru was the vicepresident governor general for each dominion.
and the Governer general remained as its president.
³³ At the time of independence there were 562 small and
³³ Muslim league did not joined it initially but finally big princely states in India.
wavell succeeded in having five members of the league
³³ By 15 August, 1947 all except Kashmir, Hyderabad
join the government on 26 October, 1946.
and Junagarh had Signed the instrument of Accession
³³ Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections with India.
because the muslim league was in danger of being
³³ Goa, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli
totally eclipsed in the constituent Assembly.
were under control of portuguese and pondicherry
³³ Therefore muslim league withdraw its acceptance of under french domination.
the cabinet mission plan on 29 July, 1946.
³³ Cabinet mission returned on 29 June, 1946. Flow-Chart of Popular Movement during
³³ It pass a ‘Direct action’ resolution. freedom struggle
³³ Jinnah celebrated ‘Pakistan Day’ on May 27, 1947. Movement Year
Lord Attlee’s Declaration (1947) Swadeshi Movement 1905
³³ British Goverment decided to quit Inda by a fix date Home Rule Movement 1916
(30 June, 1948) Champaran Satyagrah 1917
³³ Mr. Attlee made an announcement in the House of Khera Satyagrah 1918
commons on February 20, 1947. Movement of Ahmedabad Millworkers 1919
Mountbatten Plan (3 June, 1947) Non Co-operation 1920
³³ Lord Mountbatten was sworn in as Governor General Movement
on 24, March, 1947.
Protest of Simon 1928
³³ On June 3, 1947, he put forward his plan which had
Commission
taken the steps for the solution of India’s political
problem. Dandi March 1930
Civil Disobedience 1930
Outlines are —
³³ India to be divided into India and Pakistan. Movement
³³ Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a Individual Satyagrah 1940
referendum in NWFP and sylhet district of Asam Quit India Movement 1942
would be held. The INA Agitation 1945
³³ There would be a separate constitutional Assembly India become 1947
for Pakistan to frame its constitution. Independent Nation

Tribal Movement Area Year Leader

Khonds Odisha 1846-1914 Chattre Bisayi
Santhals Rajmahal hills 1855-56 Siddhu and Kanhu
Naikadas Gujarat 1858-68 Rup Singh and Jogia Bhagat
Mundas Chota Nagpur 1899-1900 Birsa Munda
Konda Dora Visakhapatnam 1900 Korra Mallaya
Bhils South Rajasthan 1913 Govind Guru
Oraons Chota Nagpur 1914-1915 Jatra Bhagat
Rampa Andhra Pradesh 1916 Alluri Sitaram Raju
Kukis Manipur 1917-19 Jadonang and Rani Gaidiniliu
Chenchus Nallamalla Hills 1921-22 Motilal Tejawat
Kherwar Jharkhand — Bhagirath

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SOME SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS AND ORGANISATIONS

INDIAN HISTORY

Movement/
Organisation Year Place Founder Objectives

Brahmo Samaj 1828 Calcutta Raja Ram Mohan Roy Propagated monotheism, opposed incarnation,
(earlier Atmiya Sabha) sacrifrices, existence of priests, idolatry,
superstition and sati practices, Sought for
reforms in Hindu society.
Young Bengal Movement (1826-1831) Calcutta Henry Louis Opposed the vices in society, believed in truth,
Vivian Derozio freedom and reason.
Dharma Sabha 1830 Calcutta Radha Kanta Opssposed to liberal and radical reforms,
including Sati.
Namdhari/Kuka 1841-1871 N.W.F. Bhai Balak Singh and A politico-religious movement of the Sikhs.
Movement Province and Baba Ram Singh
Bhaini
(Ludhiana)
Rahanumai Mazdayasan 1851 Bombay S.S. Bangali, Founded for the restoration of Zoroastrian reli-
Sabha Dadabhai Naoroji gion to its pristine glory and social regeneration of
Naoroji Furdonji, J.B. the Parsi community through modern education
Nacha, etc. and emancipation of women.
Radha Swami Satsang 1861 Agra Tulsi Ram also known Belief in one Supreme Being, religious unity, em-
as Shiv Dayal Saheb phasis on simplicity of social life and social service.
Prarthana Samaj 1867 Bombay Atmaram Pandurang Worship and reform of society through emphasis
M.G. Ranade on monotheism, uplift of women and abolition of
caste discrimination.
Indian Reform 1870 Calcutta Keshab Chandra Sen To create public opinion against child marriages
Association and for legalising the Brahmo form of civil mar-
riage. To promote the intellectual and social status
of Indian women.
Arya Samaj 1875 Bombay Swami Dayanand Asserted Hindu faith over other religions,
Saraswati (originally with in a revivalist framework, denounced
founder Mool Shan- Supermacy, idolatry, superstition.
kar)
The Theosophical 1875 New York Madam H.P. Drew inspiration from Upanishads, Philosophy
Society (In India Blavatsky, of the Vedanta, etc to aim at religious revival and
Adyar, Col. H.S. Olcott (In social reform.
Madras) India -Annie Besant)
Deccan Education 1884 Pune M.G. Ranade, To contribute to the cause of education and
Society V. G. Chib- culture in Western India. The Society founded
donkar, G. G. the Ferguson College, Pune in 1885.
Agarkar, etc.
Seva Sadan 1885 Bombay Behramji M. Campaign against child marriages and enforced
Malabari widowhood and care for socially exploited women.

Indian National Social 1887 Bombay M.G. Ranade and To focus attention on matters relating to social
Conference Raghunath Rao reforms.

Deva Samaj 1887 Lahore Shiva Narain Religious ideas closer to Brahmo Samaj.
Agnihotri Impressed upon its followers to follow social
code of conduct and ethics, such as not to accept
bribe, indulge in gambling, consume intoxicants
and non-vegetarian food.
Madras Hindu 1892 Madras Viresalingam Pantalu A social purity movement concerned with the
Association plight of widow and to combat the Devadasi
System.

Ramakrishna Mission 1897 Bengal Vivekananda Sought to revive Hinduism based on ancient
India’s religious texts and concepts (eg. Veda-nta,
etc); against caste restric tions, oppression, super
stition in Hindu ism, aimed to uplift women and
overhaul the education system.
Bharat Dharma 1902 Varanasi Pandit Madan Mohan Orginisation of the orthodox Hindus, pupularly
Mahamandala Malaviya and Pandit known are Sanatand har-mis to counter the
DinDayal Sharma teaching of the Arya Samaj, movement.

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The Servants of India 1905 Bombay Gopal Krishna To work for social reforms and to train “national
Society Gokhale missionaries for the service of India”.

Poona Seva Sadan 1909 Pune G.K. Devadhar and Establish institutions for the economic uplift and
Ramabai Ranade useful employment of women.
(wife
of M.G. Ranade)
Nishkam Karma Math 1910 Pune Dhondo Keshav Educational progress of women, improving widows
Karve condition. Founded womens university

Social Service League 1911 Bombay Narayan Malhar Improving the contion of the common masses,
Joshi opened schools and libraries.

The Indian 1717 Madras Annie Besant Upliftment of Indian women, annual
Women’s conferences
Association (All India Women’s Conferences) were held

MUSLIM SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS AND ORGANISATIONS

Movement/
Year Place Founder Objectives
Organisation
Faraizi or Faraidi 1804 Faridpur, Haji Shariatullah To rid the Muslim society of non Islamic social
Movement Bengal and dadu Miya customs, rituals and practices. Anti-
landlord and anti-British movement.
Taayuuni Movement 1839 Dacca Karamati Ali Opposed to the Faraizi movement and
Jaunpur supported the British rule.
Dar-ul-ulum (A school 1867 Deoband Muhammad Qasim To improve the spiritual and moral conditions
of Islamic Nanautavi and Rashid of Indian Muslims.
Theology at Deoband, Ahmad Gangohi Indian Muslims. This movement supported
Sharanpur, U.P.) the INC and was opposed to the pro-British
Aligarh movement.
Aligarh Movement 1875 Aligarh Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Liberalisation of Indian Islam and
modernisation of Indian Muslims through
religious
reinterpretation, social reform and
modern education.
Ahmadiya Movement 1889-1890 Qadiani Faridkot Ahmad of] Mirza Ghulam be lieved in the universal
(Punjab) Qadiyan religion of all humanity, opposed to Islamic
orthodoxy and spread of western liberal
education among Indian Muslims.
Nadwatul Ulama 1894-1895 Lucknow Maulana Shibli To reform the traditional Islamic system of
Numani education, to strengthen Hindu- Muslim unity
and to arouse nationalism among Indian
Muslims.

LOWER CASTE MOVEMENTS AND ORGANISATIONS

Movement/
Year Place Founder Objectives
Organisation
Satya Shodhak Samaj 1873 Maharashtra Jyotiba Phule Opposed to untouchability, Priestly Brahmindomina-
tion, belief in social equality and uplift of the lower
castes by educating them.
Aravippuram Movement 1888 Aravippuram, Shri Narayan Guru Opposed to religious disabilities against lower
Kerala (1856-1928) castes, believed in social equality, attacked Brahmin
domination and worked for the uplift of lower castes
by educating them. Demanded free entry of the people
of lower castes to the temples.
Shri Narayan Dharma 1902-1903 Kerala Shri Narayan In 1920, T.K. Madhavan launched the temple entry
Paripalana Yogam or Guru, Dr. Palpu movement.
S.N.D.P. Movement and Kumaran Asan
The Depressed Class 1906 Bombay V.R. Shinde Launched by the Prarthana Samaj as an Independent
Mission Society association to organise education facilities for lower
castes.

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Bahujan Samaj 1910 Satara, Mukund Rao Patil Opposed to the exploitation of the lower castes by
INDIAN HISTORY

Maharashtra the upper caste Brahmins, landlords, merchants and

moneylenders.
Justice (Party) 1915-1916 Madras, C.N. Mudaliyar A movement of the intermediate castes. Opposed to
Movement Tamil Nadu T.M. Nair and P. Brahmin predominance in education, service and
Tyagaraja Chetti politics.
Depressed Classes Wel- 1924 Bombay Dr. B. R. Ambedkar To propagate the gospel of social equality among
fare Institute (Bahiskirt caste Hindus and untouchables. Demanded
Hitkarini Sabha constitutional safeguards for the depressed classes.
Self-Respect Movement 1925 Madras E. V. Ramaswami Anti-Brahmin and Hindu orthhodoxy radical
(Tamilnadu) Naicker ‘Periyar’ movement, which advocated wedding without priests,
forcible temple entry, total defiance of Hindu social
laws and also theism at times.
Harijan Sevak Sangh 1932 Pune Mahatma Gandhi An all-India organisation for the removal of
untouchability and all social discriminations and
other lower castes. To provide medical, educational
and technical facilities to untouchables.

POPULAR MOVEMENTS
Movement Period Leader’s Place Causes
Faqir Uprising 1776-1777 Majnum Shah, Devi Bengal
Chaudhrani
Sanyasi Uprising 1770-1773- — Bengal The immediate cause was the restrictions imposed
1800 upon pilgrims visiting holy places.
Pagal Panthis 1825-35 Tipu Shah, North-East Resentment of peasants against oppression of
Karam Shah Zamindars
WahabiMovement 1820-1870 Syyaid Ahmed of North West, To revive and restore Muslim power in India by
Rae Bareli Central India overthrowing the Sikhs and the British
Kuka Revolt 1860-1870 Jawahar Mal, Ram Punjab In about 1840, its aim was to purify the sikh
Singh religion, after the conquest of Pujab by the British.
The revival of Sikh sovereignty become
their chief programme.
Ramosi Uprising 1822-1825 Chittur Singh Satara In protest against heavy assessment of land rev-
enue and very harsh methods of its collection.
In 1825-1826 again rose in rebellion on account
of acute famines and scarcity in Pune.
Gadkari Uprising 1844 — Kolhapur Against arbitrary methods of land revenue collec-
tion and then dismissal from service.
Sawantwadi 1844 Phond Sawant, Anna Appointment of a British administrator. To drive
Revolt Sahib away the British. The revolt later transformed into
a popular movement.
Revolt of 1808- Velu Thampi Travancore Against the British attempts to remove the De-
Velu Thampi 1809 wan-ship and the heavy burden imposed on the
state through the subsid iary Alliance system.
Kittur Chennamma 1824-1829 Chennamma Kittur When the British refused to recogniseheir to the
Uprising (Karna-taka) Gaddi of Kittur and took over the administration.
Visakhapatnam 1827-1830 — Visakhapatnam Due to attachment of properties of Zamindars and
Revolts other harsh measures for non-payment of revenue.

PEASANT MOVEMENTS
Movement Place Year Leaders
Titu Mir’s Movement Bengal (1782-) 1831) Mir Nithar Ali/Titu Mir
Indigo Revolt Bengal 1859 Bishnu and Digambar Biswas
Pabna Bengal 1873 Ishwar Roy, Sabu Pal, Khoodi Mollah
Deccan Riots Maharashtra 1875 Vasudev Balwant Phadke
Ramosi Movement Maharashtra 1879 Vasudev Balwant Phadke
Bijolia Rajasthan 1913 Sitaram Das, Vijay Pathak Singh
Champaran Bihar 1917 Gandhiji

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Kheda Gujarat 1918 Vallabh Bhai Patel and Gandhiji
Awadh Kisan Sabha Uttar Pradesh 1920 Baba Ramchandra
Eka Movement Awadh 1921 Madari Pasi
Moplah Kerala 1921 Sayyad Ali and Saiyed Fazl
Bardoli/Borsad Gujarat 1928 Vallabh Bhai Patel
Forest Satyagrah South India 1931 N.V. Rama Naidu, N. G. Ranga
Tebhaga Bengal 1946
Telangana Andhra 1946

POLITICAL AND NATIONALIST ORGANISATIONS OF MODERN INDIA

Year Organisation Founder Place
1838 Landholders Society Dwarikanath Tagore Calcutta
1839 British India Society Willian Adams London
1843 British India Society — Calcutta
1851 British India Association Devendranath Tagore Calcutta
1852 Madras Native Association — Madras
1852 Bombay Association Jagannath Shankar Bombay
1862 London India committee C. P. Mudaliar London
1866 East India Association Dadabhai Nauroji London
1867 National India Association Mary Carpenter London
1872 Indian Society Anand Mohan Bose London
1876 Indian National Association Anand Mohan Bose, S.N. Banerjee Calcutta
1883 Indian National Society Shishir Chandra Bose Calcutta
1884 Indian National Conference S. N. Banerjee Calcutta
1885 Bombay Presidency Association F. S. Mehta and K. T. Telang Bombay
1888 United India Patriotic Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Aligarh
1905 Servants of India Society G. K. Gokhale Bombay
1906 Muslim League Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah and Dhaka
Mohsin-ul-Mulk
1915 Hindu Mahasabha Madan Mohan Malviya Uttar Pradesh
1916 Home rule league B. G. Tilak and Annie Besant Pune and Adyar
1918 U. P. Kisan Sabha M. M. Malviya, Gauri Shankar and Lucknow
Indra Narayan
1920 Communist Party of India M. N. Roy Tashkent
1920 Indian Trade Union Congress N. M. Joshi (founder) Lala Lajpat Rai Lucknow
(President)
1923 Swaraj Party Moti Lal Nehru & C. R. Das Delhi
1924 All India Communist Party Satyabhakta Kanpur
1925 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangha K. B. Hedgewar Nagpur
1926 Naujawan Sabha Bhagat Singh, Yashpal Lahore
1927 All Women Conference Lady Sadashiva lyer Madras
1928 Hindustan Socialist Bhagat Singh, Delhi
Republican Association B-Vohra, B.K. Singh
1928 Labour Swaraj Party Qazi Nazrul Islam —
1929 Khudai Khidmatgar Abdul Gaffar Khan Peshawar
1934 Congress Socialist Party Acharya Narendra Dev and Jaiprakash —
Narayan
1936 Progressive Writers Group Munshi Prem Chand Lucknow
1936 All India Kisan Sabha Sahjananda and N.G. Ranga Lucknow
1939 Forward Block Subhash Chandra Bose Calcutta
1939 India Party Bolshevik N. D. Majumdar Calcutta
1940 Radical Democratic Party M. N. Roy Calcutta
1941 Indian Bolshevik Lenin Party Ajit Rai and Indrasen Calcutta
1942 Revolutionary Socialist Party Satyendra Nath Tagore Calcutta

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INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS - FACTS TO REMEM- Year Place President

INDIAN HISTORY

BER
³³ Founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume 1908 Madras Ras Bihari Ghosh
³³ First President– W.C. Banerjee. 1909 Lahore Madan Mohan Malviya
³³ Women Presidents - Annie Besant (1917), Sarojini
Naidu (1925) and Nellie Sengupta (1933). 1910 Allahabad Sri William Wedderburn
³³ Thrice Presidents (Maximum times) - Dadabhai 1911 Calcutta Bishan Narayan Dhar
Nauroji (1886, 1893, 1906), J.L. Nehru (1929, 1936,
1937). 1912 Bankipur R. N. Mudhukar
³³ Complete Independence was demand for the first 1913 Karachi Nawab S. Muhammad
time-(1929), Lahore.
³³ For the first time National song was sung in the
1914 Madras Bhupendra Nath Basu
Calcutta session (1896) of INC. i.e. Vande Mataram. 1915 Bombay S. P. Sinha
³³ For the first time National Anthem (Jana-Gana-Mana)
was sung in Calcutta session (1911) of INC. 1916 Lucknow Ambika Charan Majumdar
³³ Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was the youngest president 1917 Calcutta Annie Besant
of INC.
1918 Delhi Madan Mohan Malviya
³³ During Guwahati session of INC (1926), wearing of
Khadi was made compulsory for its workers. 1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru
³³ In Madras session of INC (1927), proposals for 1920 Calcutta Lala Lajpat Rai (suspended)
independence and to boycott Simon Commission were
passed. Gandhi did not participate. Nagpur C. Vijayraghava Chariar
³³ During its 1932 and 1933 session Government had
(Annual)
declared it an illegal organisation. 1921 Ahmedabad C. R. Das (in prision) Hakim
³³ During Faizpur session (1937) congress decided to Ajaml Khan (acting)
take part in election of 1937.
³³ Only session of congress held in a village Faizpur 1922 Gaya C. R. Das
(1937). 1923 Delhi Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
³³ In Ramgarh session (1940), decision on Individual (suspended)
Satyagraha were taken.
Kakinada Mohammad Ali (Annual)
ANNUAL SESSIONS OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL
1924 Belgaum Mahatma Gandhi
CONGRESS
Year Place President 1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu
1885 Bombay W. C. Banerjee 1926 Gauhati S. Srinivas lyengar
1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Nauroji 1927 Madras M. A. Ansari
1887 Madras Badruddin Tayyabji
1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru
1888 Allahabad George Yule
1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru
1889 Bombay William Wedderburn
1890 Calcutta F. S. Mehta 1930 — No session due to CDM
1891 Nagpur P. Anand Charlu (Civil disobedient movement)
1892 Allahabad W. C. Banerjee 1931 Karachi Vallabbhai Patel
1893 Lahore Dadabhai Nauroji 1932 Delhi Amrit Ranchoddas Seth
1894 Madras Mr. Alfred Webb (session banned)
1895 Poona S. N. Banerjee 1933 Calcutta Mrs. Nelline Sengupta (session
1896 Calcutta M. A. Sayani banned)
1897 Amravati M.C. Sankaran 1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad
1898 Madras A. M. Bose
1936 Lucknow Jawaharlal Nehru
1899 Lucknow Ramesh C. Dutt.
1900 Lahore H. G. Chandavarkar 1937 Faizpur Jawaharlal Nehru
1901 Calcutta Dinshaw E. Wacha 1938 Haripura Subhash Chandra Bose
1902 Ahmadabad S. N. Banerjee 1939 Tripuri Subhash Chandra Bose (later
1903 Madras Lal Mohan Ghosh Rajendra Prasad)
1904 Bombay Henry Cotton 1940 Ramgarh Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
1905 Varanasi Gopal Krishna Gokhale
1946 Meerut Acharya J. B. Kriplani
1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Nauroji
1907 Surat Ras Bihari Ghosh 1948 Jaipur Pattabhi Sitarammayya

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IMPORTANT CONGRESS SESSION
Year Place Importance
1885 Bombay At Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College Bombay 72 delegates
1886 Calcutta 436 delegates
1887 Madras Tayyabji became first Muslim President
1888 Allahabad George Yule became first English President
1889 Bombay Congress represented all areas of British India
1890 Calcutta Decision taken to organise a session of Congress in London
1895 Poona Demand for a representative body only for educated class
1898 Madras Social reform was set as the main goal
1905 Benaras Expressed resentment against the partition of Bengal.
1906 Calcutta Word Swaraj was first used from congress platform.
1907 Surat Congress split
1908 Madras Constitution for the Congress
1916 Lucknow Congress merger, Pact with Muslim League, Gandhi attended
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant became first women President
1920 Nagpur Gandhian programme was adopted. Change in Congress Constituion
1921 Ahmedabad Hasrat Mohani demanded for complete independence.
1922 Gaya Formation of Swaraj Party
1924 Belgaun Only session presided over by Gandhiji
1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu became first Indian women President
1927 Madras Nehru and S C Bose moved resolution for independence and it was passed for the
1st time
1928 Calcutta First All India Youth Congress
1929 Lahore Poorna Swaraj Resolution and pledge for Independence day on 26 January 1930
1931 Karachi Resolution for Fundamental Rights and National Economic Policy Passed
1934 Bombay Formation of Congress Socialist Party
1936 Lucknow Support for socialism through democracy
1937 Faizpur Demand for Constituent Assembly
1938 Haripura Poorna Swaraj was to cover also princely states
1939 Tripuri S C Bose resigned due to differenece with Gandhi

SECRET REVOLUTIONARY SOCIETIES

Society/Organisation Year Founder Features
Anushilan Samiti Dacca 1902 Pulin Das Earliest Secret
Society in Bengal
Mitra Mela (Maharashtra) 1902 V. D. Savarkar Earliest Secret Society in

Abhinav Bharat (Maharashtra) 1904 Ganesh Savarkar Ganesh was the elder brother of
V. D. Savarkar
Anushilan Samiti (Calcutta) 1907 Barindra Kumar Ghosh —
& P. Mitra
Hindustan Republican 1924 Sachindra Sanyal & It was an all India level organ-
Association (HRA) J. Chatterjee isation

FAMOUS CASES
Case Date Accused
Nasik conspiracy 1909-1910 Vinayak Savarkar
Alipore Case 1908 Aurobindo Ghosh

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Hawrah Case 1910 Jatin Mukherjee

INDIAN HISTORY

Dacca Case 1910 Pulin Das

Delhi Case 1915 Amir Chand, Awadh Bihari and Bal Mukund
Lahore Case 1929-1930 Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev
Banaras Case 1915-1916 Sachindranath Sanyal
Kakori Case 1925 Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqullah Khan

REVOLUTIONARY ORGANISATION OUTSIDE INDIA

Association/
Year Founder Country
Organisation
1904 India House Shyamaji Krishna Verma London (England)
1906 Abhinav Bharat V. D. Savarkar London (England)
1907 India Independence Leauge Taraknath Das America
1913 Gadar Party Lala Hardayal San Fransisco (America)
1915 India Independence Raja Mahendra Kabul (Afghanistan)
League and Government Pratap
1942 India Independence League. Ras Bihari Bose Tokyo (Japan)
1942 Indian National Army (INA) Ras Bihari Bose (In 1943 Tokyo (Japan)
reorganized by Netaji in Singapore)

GOVERNOR GENERAL AND VICEROYS

Governor-General of Bengal
Name Period Important Events
Warren Hastings (1773-1785) • Governor-General in 1773 throught the Regulating Act.
• Abolished Dual system of administration.
• Wrote introduction to the first English translation of the Gita by Charles
Wilkins.
• Founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784.
• Rohilla War (1774)
• 1st Anglo-Maratha War (1776-1782)
• 2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784).
• Pitt’s India Act, 1784
Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) • Separated the revenue administration from the administration of justice.
• Created post of district judge.
• Introduced Permanent Settlement in Bengal.
• Cornwallis is called the father of civil service in India.
• Fought 3rd Anglo-Mysore War.
Sir John Shore (1793-1798) • Introduced the 1st Charter Act.
• Planned the permanent settlement and later succeeded Cornwallis as
Governor General.
• Battle of Kharda between Niazm and the Marathas (1795).
Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) • Started Subsidiary Alliance system to achieve British paramountcy in India.
First alliance with Nizam of Hyderabad.
• Madras Presidency was formed during his tenure.
• 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799)–defeat and the death of Tipu Sultan.
• 2nd Anglo-Maratha War, (1803-1805) defeat of the Scindhia, the Bhonsale
and the Holkar.
• Treaty of Bassein (1802).

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George Marlow (1805-1807) • Subsidiary alliance with Holkar by Treaty of Rajpurghat.
• Vellore Mutiny.
• Second Anglo-Maratha War ended.
Lord Minto-I (1807-1813) • Concluded Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809).
• Charter Act of 1813 was passed.
Lord Hastings (1813-1823) • Anglo–Nepalese War (1813-1823), strife with Pindaris (1817-1818)
• 3rd Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818). Hastings forced humiliating treaties
on Peshwa and the Sindhia.
• Introduced the Ryotwari settlement in Madras by Thomas Munro, the
Governor.
Lord Amherst (1823-1828) • 1st Burmese War (1824-26).
• Acquisition of territories in Malay Peninsula.
• Capture of Bharatpur (1826).
Governor General of I ndia
L o r d W i l l i a m (1828-1834) • Most liberal and enlightened Governor General of India.
Bentick • Regarded as the Father of Modern Western Education in India. Introduction
of English as the official language.
• Abolished sati and other cruel rites (1829).
• Suppressed Thuggee (1830), Curbed by Colonel Sleeman.
• Annexed Mysore (1831), Coorg (1834), Central Cachar (1834) on the plea of
misgovernment. Concluded a treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh.
S i r C h a r l e s (1834-1836) • He is known as the Liberator of Press.
Metcalfe • Passed the Press law
Lord Auckland (1836-1842) • First Afghan war (1836-1842)
• Treaty with Sikhs and Amirs of Sindh.
Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844) • Brought an end to Afghan War.
• Annexation of Sindh (1843).
• War with Gwalior (1843).
Lord Hardinge-I (1844-1848) • First Sikh War (1845-1846)
• Treaty of Lahore (1846)
• Prohibition of female Infanticide
• Gave preference to English educated in employment.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) • Widow Remarriage Act (1856).
• “Wood’s Educational Despatch” of 1854 and opening of Anglo-Vernacular
schools and government colleges.
• Introduced Doctrine of Lapse. Captured Satara (1848), Jaitpur and
Sambhalpur (1849) Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and
Nagpur (1854).
• Fought the Anglo-Sikh War and annexed the whole of the Punjab.
• 2nd Burmese War (1852) and annexation of Lower Burma or Pegu.
• Annexation of Berar in 1853.
• Annexation of Awadh in 1856.
• Started the first railway line in 1853 (connecting Bombay with Thana).
• Telegraph and postal reforms.
• Establishment of separate public works department in every province.
Lord Canning (1856-1858) • Revolt of 1857
• He was the last Governor-General of East India Company.
• Establishment of three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857.

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Viceroys of India
INDIAN HISTORY

Lord Canning (1858-1862) • Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.

• The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was passed, which proved to be a landmark
in the constitutional history of India.
• The Indian Penal Code of Criminal Procedure (1859) was passed.
• The Indian High Court Act (1861) was enacted.
• Income Tax was introduced for the first time in 1858.
• ‘White Mutiny’ by European troops in 1859.
Lord Elgin-I (1862-1863) • Suppressed Wahabi Movement.
Sir John Lawrence (1864-1868) • High courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865.
• Expanded canal works and railways.
• Bhutan War (1865).
• Advocated State-managed railways.
• Created the Indian Forests Department and reorganized the native judical
service.
Lord Mayo (1869-1872) • He established the Rajkot College at Kathiawar and Mayo College at Ajmer
for the Indian princes.
• He organised the Statistical Survey of India.
• He established the Department of Agriculture and Commerce.
• He was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a convict in the Andamans
in 1872.
Lord Northbrook (1872-1876) • Kuka rebellion in Punjab (1872)
• Famine in Bihar (1874)
• Visit of Prince of Wales in 1875.
• Resigned over Afghanistan Question.
Lord Lytton (1876-1880) • Most unpopular Viceroy.
• Pursued free trade and abolished duties on 29 British manufactured goods
which accelerated drain of India.
• Arranged the Grand Darbar in Delhi (in 1877) when the country was suffering
from a severe famine.
• Passed the Royal Title Act (1876) and Queen Victoria was declared as the
Kaiser-a-Hind.
• Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms.
• Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).
• The second Afghan War (1878-80)
Lord Rippon (1880-1884) • Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, 1882.
• The first Factory Act, 1881 to improve labour condition.
• Resolution on Local Self Government in 1882.
• Resolution on Land Revenue Policy
• Appointed Hunter commission (for education reform) in 1882.
• The Illbert Bill controversy erupted during his time.
Lord Dufferin (1884-1888) • Third Burmese War
• Annexation of Burma (1885)
• Congress founded in 1885
• Bengal Tenancy Act (1885)

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Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894) • The Factory Act of 1891.
• Categorisation of Civil Services into imperial, provincial and subordinate.
• Indian Council Act of 1892 (Introduced elections which was indirect).
• Appointment of the Durand Commission to define the Durand line between
then India and Afghanistan.
Lord Elgin-II (1894-1899) • The Santhal uprising of 1899.
• Convention delimiting the frontier between China and India was ratified.
• Great famine of 1896-1897.
• Lyall Commission appointed after famine.
• Assassination of two British officials by the Chapekar brothers in 1897.
Lord Curzon (1899-1905) • Appointed a Police Commission in 1902 under Andrew Frazer.
• Set up the Universities Commission and accordingly the Indian Universities
Act of 1904 was passed.
• Set up the Department of Commerce and Industry.
• Calcutta Corporation Act (1899).
• Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act (in 1899) and put India
on a gold standard.
• Partition of Bengal took place in 1905
• Introduced Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904)
Lord Minto-II (1905-1910) • Swadeshi Movement.
• Foundation of the Muslim League, 1906.
• Surat session and split in the Congress (1907).
• Newspapers Act, 1908.
• Morely-Minto Reforms, 1909.
Lord Hardinge-II (1910-1916) • Annulment of the partition of Bengal.
• Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi.
• Durbar in Delhi and Coronation of George-V and Queen.
• Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha by Madan Mohan Malviya, 1915.
Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921) • Lucknow Pact in 1916 between Congress and Muslim League.
• Arrival of Gandhi (1915) and Champaran Satyagraha in 1917.
• Formation of Home Rule Leagues by Annie Besant and Tilak (1956)
• Montague’s August Declaration (1917).
• Saddler Commission of Education in 1917.
• Kheda Satyagraha and Satyagraha at Ahmedabad in 1918.
• Government of India Act (1919).
• Constitutional Refrom of 1919.
• Repressive Rowlatt Act (1919).
• Massacre at Jalianwala Bagh (1919).
• Khilafat Movement.
• Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Appointment of S.P. Sinha as governor of Bihar (the first Indian to become
a governor).

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Lord Reading (1921-1926) • Repeal of Press Act (1910) and Rowlatt Act of 1919.
INDIAN HISTORY

• Chauri-Chaura incident.
• Voilent Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921)
• CPI founded in 1921.
• Decision to hold simultaneous examinations for the ICS both in Delhi and
London, with effect from 1923.
• RSS founded in 1925.
• Kakori robbery in 1925.
Lord Irwin (1926-1931) • Simon Commission announced in 1927.
• Butler Commission in 1927.
• All India Youth Congress, 1928
• Nehru Report, 1928.
• Murder of Saunders by Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Chandrashekhar Azad
(1928)
• Bomb blast in Assembly Hall of Delhi (1929) by Bhagat Singh and
Batukeshwar Dutt.
• Lahore session of the Congress and Poorna Swaraj declaration.
• Civil Disobedience Movement 1930.
• Dandi March (March 12th, 1930).
• 1st Round Table Conference, 1930.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact, March 5, 1931.
• Civil Disobedience Movement.
Lord Willingdon (1931-1936) • Second Round Table Conference in September 1931.
• Announcement of Communal Award (1932).
• ‘Fast unto death’ by Gandhi in Yerwada prison, broken after the Poona Pact
(1932)
• Third Round Table Conference, 1932.
• Foundation of Congress Socialist Party, 1934.
• Government of India Act, 1935.
• Burma separated from India, 1935.
• All India Kisan Sabha 1936.
Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944) • 1st General Election (1936-1937).
• Congress ministries in 1937 and resignation of Congress ministries in 1939.
• Outbreak of second World War (1939).
• Forward Block founded in 1939.
• Deliverance day by Muslim League
• August offer, 1940, Lahore Resolution, 1940.
• Cripps Mission, 1942.
• Quit India Movement, 1942.
Lord Wavell (1944-1947) • CR Formula 1944.
• Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference in 1945.
• End of 2nd World War in 1945.
• INA Trials and the Naval mutiny in 1946.
• Cabinet Mission, 1946 and acceptance of its proposals by Congress.
• Observance of ‘Direct Action Day’ (August 16, 1946) by Muslim League.
• Formation of Interim Government by the congress (September 1946)

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INDIAN HISTORY
Lord (1947-1948) • Announced the 3 June, 1947 Plan.
Mountbatten
• Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of Commons.
• Appointment of Two boundary commissions under Sir Cryil Radcliffe.
• Last British Viceroy of British India.
• First Governor-General of Free India.
C. Rajagopalachari (1948-1950) • Only Indian Governor General

• Last Governor-General of free India.

MAJOR COMMITTIES/COMMISSION
Committies/Commission Year Viceroy Associated With
Charles Wood Despatch 1854 Lord Dalhousie Education
Hunter Commission 1882 Lord Ripon Education
Raleigh Commission 1902 Lord Curzon Education
Sadler Commission 1917 Lord Chelmsford Education
Hartog Commission 1929 Lord Irwin Education
Sargent Plan 1944 Lord Wavell Education
Campbell Commission 1866 Sir John Lawrence Famine
Stratchy Commission 1880 Lord Lytton Famine
Lyall Commission 1896 Lord Elgin-II Famine
MacDonnel Commission 1900 Lord Curzon Famine
Mansfield Commission 1886 Lord Dufferin Currecny
Fowler Commission 1898 Lord Elgin-II Currency
Babington Smith Commission 1919 Lord Chelmsford Currency
Hilton Young Commission 1939 Lord linlithgow Currency
Skeen Commission 1925 Lord Reading Army
Garren Commission 1932 Lord Willingdon Army
Chatfield Commission 1939 Lord Linlithgow Army
Hunter Committee 1919 Lord Chelmsford Punjab Disturbances
Fraser Commission 1902 Lord Curzon Agriculture
Butler Commission 1927 Lord Irwin Indian States
Whitley Commission 1929 Lord Irwin Labour
Sapru Commission 1935 Lord Linlithgow Unemployment
Floud Commission 1940 Lord Linlithgow Tenancy in Bengal

SOCIAL REFORM ACT PASSED BY BRITISH GOVERNMENT

Act Year Governor-General Purpose
Prevention of child (1798-1805) Wellesley Prevention of Child Assassination.
Assassination Act
Sati Pratha Prevention Act 1829 Lord W. Bentinck Prevention of Sati Pratha
Slavery Prevention Act 1843 Lord Ellenborough Prevention of Slavery
Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856 Lord Dalhousie Widow Marriage
Native Marriage Act 1872 North Brook Intercaste Marriage
Age of Consent Act 1891 Lans Down for the Girls age of Marriage 12 years. For
Marriage minimum age of girls 14 years
and boys 18 years.
Sharda Act 1930 Lord Irwin

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IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES OF FREEDOM STRUGGLE

INDIAN HISTORY

Name Birth Death Famous For

Aruna Asaf Ali 1888 1953 Member of Congress working Committee, Member of
Executive Council (1946-47), Ist Indian Ambassador to USA (1947-48).
Acharya Narendra Dev 1889 1956 Founder Member of the Congress Socialist Party, Vice
Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University.
Acharaya Vinoba Bhave 1895 1982 Participated in the Dandi March, Salt Satyagraha,
Individual Satyagraha, Bhoodan Movement.
Abdul Gaffar Khan 1890 1988 Called as Frontier Gandhi, founded Khudai Khidmatgar, Participated in
Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience and Quit India Movements.
Ashfaqullah Khan 1900 1927 A revolutionary associated with the Hindustan Republican Association,
Participated in Kakori hold up, sentenced to death.
A.O. Hume 1829 1922 British Civil Servant known as the founder of Congress.
Abul Kalam Azad 1888 1958 Congress President from 1940 to 1946, published papers like Al-Hilal, Al-Balagh,
Al-Nadawah.
Annie Besant 1847 1933 Came to India in 1839 assocaited with Theosophical Soceity, founded Central
Hindu College (1898), founded Home Rule League (1915).
Ajit Singh – 1947 Founded the Bharat Mata Society, worked with Ghadar Party, uncle of
Bhagat Singh
Anand Mohan Bose 1847 1906 Founded National Conference (1883), President of Madras Session of INC
(1898).
Achyut S. Patwardhan 1905 1971 Founder member of the Congress Socialist Party (1934), participated in Quit
India Movement.
Alluri Sitaram Raju 1897 1924 Leading figure of the Rampa tribal uprising (1923-24) in Andhra Pradesh
B.R. Ambedkar 1891 1956 Foudned the Depressed Class Institute (1924), launched various movements,
Chairman of the Drafting Committee.
Bankim Chandra 1838 1894 Bengali poet and novelist wrote Durgeshnandini composed the song Bande
Chatterjee Matram.
Barindra Kumar Ghosh 1880 1959 Started Bengali weekly, the ‘Yugantar’ organised Maniktala Party for
revolutionary activities.
Chittaranjan Das 1870 1925 Founder of the Swaraj Party, presided over the AITUC session at Lahore (1923)
and Ahmedabad (1924).
Badruddin Taiyyabji 1844 1906 Associated with Bombay Presidency Association and Indian National Congress,
Presided over Madras Session, (1887).
Bal Gangadhar Tilak 1857 1920 Known as Lokamanaya started two newspapers ‘Maratha’ and ‘Kesari’ an
extremists leader of the congress.
Bipin Chandra Pal 1858 1932 Known as the father of revolutionary thought in India, Member of Congress,
one of the famous trio–Lal, Bal, Pal.
Bhulabhai Desai 1877 1946 Prominent lawyer, Congress leader, famous for INA trial.
Bhagat Singh 1907 1931 A revolutionary leader, founded ‘Naujawan Bharat Sabha’ killed Saunders,
sentenced to death in Lahore conspiracy case.
C. Rajgopalachari 1878 1972 Chief Minister of Madras (1937-39), first and last Indian Governor–General.

Chandra Shekhar Azad 1906 1931 Associated with Hindustan Socialist Republican Army, shot himself dead at
Alfred Park, Allahabad.
C.F. Andrews 1871 1940 Actively participated in Trade Union Activities, joined Viakom Satyagraha
(1925).
Dadabhai Nauroji 1825 1917 ‘Grand Old Man of India’ founded ‘the London India Society,’ gave the ‘Drain
theory.’
Kamala Nehru 1899 1936 Married to J.L. Nehru in 1916, participated in various movements, led the Civil
Disobedience movement.
D.K. Karve 1858 1962 Was a social reformer supported widow remarriage, started Widow Homes.
Dinabandhu Mitra 1830 1873 Author of ‘Neel Darpan’ showing exploitation of Indigo cultivators

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INDIAN HISTORY
Name Birth Death Famous For
Dayanand Saraswati 1824 1899 Founded ‘Arya Samaj’ wrote ‘Satyarth Prakash’, was in favour of widow
remarriage and opposed untouchability.
E.V. Ramaswamy 1879 1973 Lower caste leader, launched Self Respect Movement (1925), President of
Naicker the Justice Party.
Govind Ballabh Pant 1889 1961 Freedom fighter, demonstration against the Simon Commission (1927), Chief
Minister of U.P. (1946).
Gopal Krishna Gokhale 1866 1915 Founded ‘Servants of India Society’ (1905), Moderate leaders of Congress.
Ishwar Chandra 1820 1891 Well known social reformer, supported valiantly widow remarriage, founded
Vidyasagar various schools for girls.
Jamnalal Bajaj 1889 1942 Treasurer of Congress (1920-42), founder of ‘Gandhi Seva Sangh’.
Yogesh Chandra 1895 1969 One of the founders of the ‘Hindustan Socialist Republican Association,’
Chatterji arrested in Kakori conspiracy case, associated with ‘Anushilan Samiti.’
Jatindra Nath Das 1904 1929 Great revolutionary, died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast.
Jadonang 1905 1931 Naga tribal freedom fighter from Manipur, was sentenced to death and hanged
in 1931.
Jatindranath Mukherjee 1879 1915 Member of revolutionary societies like ‘Jugantar,’ ‘Anushilan Samiti’ and
‘Ghadar Party,’ popularly known as Bagha Jatin.
Jawaharlal Nehru 1889 1964 Freedom fighter, Prime Minister from 1947 to 1964 author of the ‘Discovery of
India,’ ‘Glimpses of World History.’
K.T. Telang 1850 1893 Co-founder of the ‘Bombay Presidency Association,’ President of ‘National
Social Conference,’ One of the founders of congress.
Kasturba Gandhi 1869 1944 Wife of Mahatma Gandhi, died on Feb. 24, 1944 in prison.
Khudiram Bose 1889 1908 Young revolutionary arrested in Muzaffarpur conspiracy case and senten-cted
to death.
Madan Mohan Malviya 1861 1946 INC President (1909), was a founder member of the Hindu Mahasabha,
founded the Banaras Hindu University in 1916 and remained its V.C. from
1919 to 1938.
Motilal Nehru 1861 1931 Father of J.L. Nehru, eminent lawyer, founder leader of the ‘Swarajist Party.’
Maulana Muhammad 1878 1931 Associated with the “Khilafat Movement,” INC President in Kakinada Session
Ali (1923), well–known journalist.
M.A. Ansari 1880 1936 Muslim League leader, founded Jamia Millia Islamia, organised the All India
Medical mission to Turkey in 1912-13.
Mahadev Desai 1892 1942 Mahatma Gandhi’s Secretary for 25 years, edited “The Independent” and
“Navjivan” died on 15 August 1942.
Khurshedji Rustamji 1831 1909 Parsian businessman, supported social reforms on Parsis, father-in-law of Madam
Cama Bhikaji Cama
Kalpana Datta 1913 1978 Women revolutionary of Bengal, sentenced to transportation of life in the
Chittagong Armory RaidCase.
Lala Lajpat Rai 1865 1928 Known as “Punjab Kesari,” brutally lathi charged in anti Simon Commission
procession in Lahore, died after 18 days.
Lala Hardayal 1884 1939 Founder of the Ghadar Party in USA, started a paper “The Vandematram” and
a journal “Ghadar”, was a professor at the Berkeley University,
Madan Lal Dhingra 1887 1909 Associated with the Indian Home Rule society, Abhinav Bharat Society and
the India House, shot dead curzon wyllie.
Madam Bhikaji Cama 1861 1936 Famous women revolutionary In 1907 attended the socialist congress at
stuttgart and unfurled the Indian National Flag.
Mahatma Gandhi 1869 1948 ‘Father of the Nation’, leading figure in the Indian National Movement.
Manindra Nath Bannerji — 1934 A revolutionary, involved in the Kakori conspiracy case, died after 66 days
of hunger strike.
Muhammad Iqbal 1873 1938 Famous Urdu poet, wrote the famous Nationalist Song “Sare Jahan Se Accha
Hindustan Hamara.”
Mohammad Ali Jinnah 1875 1948 Leader of Muslim League, formulated 14 points in 1929, formulated two
nations theory, known as Qaid-e-Azam.

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Name Birth Death Famous For

INDIAN HISTORY

N.M. Joshi 1875 1955 Founded the All India Trade Union Congress in 1921, called as father
of the Trade Union Movement in India.
Meera Behn 1892 1982 Real name was Madeleine Slade, disciple and associate of Mahatma
Gandhi
M.G.Ranade 1842 1901 Founded the Deccan Educational Society, a founder of the Indian
National Congress.
M.N. Roy 1887 1954 Communist leader, arrested in Kanpur Conspiracy Case, formed
Indian Federation of Labour, founder of Communist Party of
India.
Ferozshah Mehta 1845 1915 Founder of the Bombay Presidency Association and INC, was a mod-
erate leader.
Pattabhi Sitaramiah 1880 1959 Congress leader in 1939, he lost the Congress presidential election
to Subhash Bose.
P. Anand Charlu 1843 1908 One of the founders of Congress, President of INC (1891), associated
with Madras Mahajan Sabha.
Ram Prasad Bismil 1897 1927 A revolutionary, member of Hindustan Socialist Republican Army, par-
ticipated in Kakori Train Dacoity.
Rajendra Prasad 1884 1963 Congress leader from Bihar, became the first President of India.
Ram Manohar Lohiya 1910 1968 Foudner member of Congress Socialist Party, edited the Journal
“The Congress Socialist” after independence founded the Socialist Party.
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur 1889 1964 Belonged to the ruling family of Kapurthala, a follower of Gandhi,
served as indepedent India’s first Health Minister.
Rani Lakshmi Bai 1835 1858 Second wife of the ruler of Jhansi, defended Jhansi from Britishers,
captured Gwalior, died fighting heroically.
Rasbihari Bose 1886 1945 Revolutionary leader, associated with Yugantar and Ghadar Party,
founded ‘India Independence League’ and ‘Indain National Army.’
Ras Bihari Ghose 1845 1921 A leading moderate leader of Congress, Presided over Surat Session of
Congress (1907).

Rabindra Nath Tagore 1861 1941 Multifaced personality, won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913.
Surendranath Banerjee 1848 1925 One of the founders of INC, successfully completed for Indian Civil
Service in 1896, eminent journalist and educationist.
Sohan Singh Bhakna 1870 1968 Founded (Hind Association) in 1913, published Ghadar Newspaper,
associated with ‘Kamagatamaru’ ship incident.
Subhash Chandra Bose 1897 1945 Successfully competed in civil services exam, presided over the Haripura
session of the Congress (1938), founded Forward Block.
S. Subramaniam Iyer 1842 1924 President of the All–India Home Rule League, one of the founders of
the Congress.
Sarojini Naidu 1879 1949 First Indian women President of Congress (1925), Governor of U.P.
(1947-48), eminent poetess.
S. Rajguru 1908 1931 Trialed in the Lahore conspiracy case and sentenced to death along with
Bhagat Singh and Sukhdev.
Tej Bahadur Sapru 1875 1949 Moderate leader of Congress, jurist from Allahabad, elected to the
membership of privy Council.
Vallabhbhai Patel 1875 1950 Launched Bardoli Satyagraha, deputy Prime Minister after independence,
called as ‘Iron Man of India.’
Vithalbhai Patel 1873 1933 Lawyer by profession, represented INC at the London conference (1919).
V.D. Savarkar 1883 1966 A great revolutionary founded Mitra Mela, he called the 1857 Revolt
as the First war of Independence.
Wyomesh Chandra 1844 1905 First congress president at Bombay in 1885, financed the British
Bannerjee committee of the congress in London and its journal India.
Vasudeo Balwant 1845 1883 A great revolutionary, organised a secret society, organised militant
Phadke tribes like Kolis and Ramoshis.

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INDIAN HISTORY
Sachidnra Nath Sanyal 1895 1945 A great revolutionary, associated with the activity of Ghadar Party,
founder of Hindustan Republican Association, arrested in Kakori
Conspiracy Case.
Swami Sahajanand 1889 1950 Farmer leader from Bihar, participated in Gandhian movements,
founded Bihar Kisan Sabha in 1929.
Surya Sen 1894 1934 Revolutionary leader from Bengal, founded the Chittagong Republican
Army, captured in 1933 and sentenced to death.
Swami Sraddhanand 1856 1926 A great Arya Samajist educationist started a weekly (Satya
DharmaPracharak) murdered in1926.
T.K. Madhvan 1886 1930 Launched the Temple Entry Movement, Vaikom Satyagraha, editor of
Deshabhimani.
Udham Singh 1899 1940 A great revolutionary leader from Punjab, murdered Michael O’Dwyer was
sentenced to death.
Zakir Husain 1897 1969 Formulated Wardha scheme of education, served as vice-chancellor of
Jamia Millia (1926-53), Governor of Bihar (1953-62), and Vice President
of India (1962-67), elected as President of India in 1967, died in office.

FAMOUS SLOGANS DURING FREEDOM STRUGGLE

Slogans Leader  “Do ro Die”  Mahatma Gandhi

 “Delhi Chalo”  Subhash Chandra Bose  “Aaram Haram Hai”  Jawaharlal Nehru
 “Jai Hind”  Subhash Chandra Bose  “Inklab Zindabad”  Bhagat Singh
 “Tum Mujhe Khun Do  Subhash Chandra Bose  “Back to the Vedas”  Dayanand Saraswati
Mai Tumhe Azadi Dun-
ga”  “Swaraj is my birth  Bal Gangadhar Tilak
right and
 “Bharat Chodo”  Mahatma Gandhi
I shall have it”

NEWSPAPERS OF BRITISH INDIA

Newspapers Year Founder/Editor
Bengal Gazette (India’s first newspaper) 1780 James Augustus Hickey
Samachar Darshan (Bangla) (oldest in Indian language) 1818 Kaire, Marshman
Calcutta Journal — James Silk Buckingham
Sambad Kaumudi (Bangla) 1821 Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Bombay Samachar (Gujarati) 1822 Fardoorejee Majban
Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Farsi) 1822 Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Udant Martand 1826 Jugul Kishore (first news paper of Hindi)
Sambad Prabhakar 1830 Ishwar Chandra Gupta
Jam-e-Jamshed 1831 P.M. Motiwala
Bombay Times (English) 1838 Bennet Colloman & Co.
Hindu Patriot 1853 Harishchandra Mukherjee
Som Prakash 1858 Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Rast Goftar 1861 Dada Bhai Nauroji
Pioneer (English) 1865 Allahabad, now from Lucknow and] Delhi (Changed)
Amrit Bazar Patrika (Bangla-Calcutta) 1868 S.K. Ghosh, Motilal Ghosh, Tusarkanti Ghosh
Madras Mail 1868 First evening news paper
Statesman 1875 Robert Knight, Sunanda Dutta Roy
The Tribune (Chandigarh, Punjab) 1877 Sir Dayal Singh Mazithia
Hindu (English-Madras) 1878 Vir Raghvachari, G.S. Iyer. N Subba Rao Pantulu.
Paridashak 1880 Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh
Kesari (Marathi) 1881 Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Maratha (English) 1881 Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Sudharak (Marathi) 1888 Gopal Ganesh Agarkar

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Bande Matram 1906 Bipin Chandra Pal, Arvind Ghosh

INDIAN HISTORY

Al–Hilal 1912 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

Bombay Chronicle 1913 Feroz Shah Mehta
Madras Standard 1914 Annie Besant
Common Weal 1914 Annie Besant
New India 1914 Annie Besant
Dawn (Now from Pakistan) — Md. Ali Jinnah
Star — Paper of Muslim League
Searchlight 1918 Sachidanand Sinha
Punjab Kesari — Lala Jagat Narayan, Lala Hardayal
Sahsik — Sardar Ajit Singh, Sufi Amba Prasad
Independent 1919 Motilal Nehru
Young India 1919 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
Socialist 1922 S.A. Dnage
Hindustan Times 1922 K.M. Pannikar (Swarajya Party)
Free Press Journal 1930 S. Sadanand
Harijan 1933 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

TITLES GIVEN TO THE NATIONAL FREEDOM FIGHTER

Title To the Leader Given by
Mahatma M.K. Gandhi Rabindranath Tagore
Father of the Nation M.K. Gandhi Subhash Chandra Bose
Lokahitwadi Gopal Hari Deshmukh People
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Women of Bardoli
Raja Ram Mohan Roy Akbar II
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Indian Soldiers of the Azad Hind Fauj
Deshnayak Subhash Chandra Bose Ravindranath Tagore
Vivekanand Swami Vivekanand Maharaja Khetadi
Kayade Azam Mohammed Ali Jinnah Mahatma Gandhi
Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak People
Important Books and Their Authors During Freedom Struggle
Books Authors The Buddha and His Dhamma : B.R. Ambedkar
Thought Forms : Annie Besant Annihilation of Caste : B.R. Ambedkar
The Ancient Wisdom : Annie Besant Who were the shudras ? : B.R. Ambedkar
Words of Freedom : Ideas of : Aruna Asaf Ali The Untouchables : B.R. Ambedkar
a Nation India Divided : Dr. Rajendra Prasad
The Resurgence of Indian : Aruna Asaf Ali Satyagraha in Champaran : Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Women
Little Chicken in a hurry : Dr. Zakir Hussain
Why I am an Atheist : Bhagat Singh
The Bravest Goat In the World : Dr. Zakir Hussain
On the Path of Liberation : Bhagat Singh
Agrarian Structure in : Dr. Zakir Hussain
Anandamath : Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay British India
Durgeshnandini : Bankim Chandra Neel Darpan : Dinabandhu Mitra
Chattopadhyay Discovery of India : Jawaharlal Nehru
Kapalkundala : Bankim Chandra Glimpses of World History : Jawaharlal Nehru
Chattopadhyay Soviet Asia : Jawaharlal Nehru
Devi Chaudhurani : Bankim Chandra A Bunch of old Letters : Jawaharlal Nehru
Chattopadhyay The Unity of India : Jawaharlal Nehru
Krishna Charitra : Bankim Chandra
India and the World : Jawaharlal Nehru
Chattopadhyay
Why Socialism : Jayaprakash Narayan
Hinduism Doctrine and Way : C. Rajagopalachari
Towards Total Revolution : Jayaprakash Narayan
of Life
Gulamgiri (Slavery) : Jyotiba Phule
The Story of Ramayan : C. Rajagopalachari
Our Educational Problem : Lala Hardayal
Poverty and unbritish rule : Dadabhai Naoroji
India Wins Freedom : Abul Kalam Azad
in India

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Tarjuman Al-Quran : Abul Kalam Azad Gitanjali : Rabindranath Tagore

INDIAN HISTORY
Sallies of Mind : Abul Kalam Azad Letters from Russia : Rabindranath Tagore
The Dawn of Hope : Abul Kalam Azad Gana Devta : Tarashankar Ban
The immanence of God : Madan Mohan dopadhyaya
Malviya Philosophy of the Bomb : Bhagwaticharan
India Unrest : Valentine Chirol Vohra
Indian Musalmans : William W. Gandhi Verses Lenin : S.A. Dange
Hunter India Today : R.P. Dutt
The Indian struggle : Subhas Chandra Bose
Thakurmar Jholi : D.M. Majumdar
Problems of the East : Lord Curzon
Prachya Aur Pashchatya : Swami Vivekanand
Letters to Emilie Schenkl : Subhas Chandra Bose
Azad Hind : Subhas Chandra Bose Karma Yoga : Swami Vivekanand
Beacon Across Asia : Subhas Chandra Bose Nibandhmala : Vishnu K. Chiplunkar
The Indian War of : V.D. Savarkar Gau Karunanidhi : Swami Dayanand
Independence Satyarth Prakash : Swami Dayanand
Hindutva : V.D. Savarkar Pather Dabi : Saratchandra
Maijhini Charitra : V.D. Savarkar Chattopadhyay
The Arctic Home in the Vedas : Bal Gangadhar Tilak History of Hindu Chemistry : R.C. Ray
Srimadh Bhagvad : Bal Gangadhar Tilak Peasantry of Bengal : R.C. Dutt
Gita Rahasya New Lamps for the Old : Aurobindo Ghosh
Orion (Antiquity of the Vedas) : Bal Gangadhar Tilak The Life Divine : Aurobindo Ghosh
Vedic Chronology and : Bal Gangadhar Tilak Vande Matram : Aurobindo Ghosh
Vedanta Jyotisha Bhawani Mandir : Aurobindo Ghosh
Unhappy India : Lala Lajpat Rai Rise of the Maratha Power : M.G. Ranade
Englands debt to India : Lala Lajpat Rai Essays on Indian Economics : M.G. Ranade
Young India : An interpreta- : Lala Lajpat Rai Indian in Transition : M.N. Roy
tion and a history of the The Economic History of : R.C. Dutt
nationalist movement from British India
within
The Causes of the : Sir Syyed Ahmed
Arya Samaj : Lala Lajpat Rai
Indian Revolt Khan
The Political Future of India : Lala Lajpat Rai
Monuments of Delhi : Sir Syyed Ahmed
Hind Swaraj : Mahatma Gandhi
Khan
The story of My Experiments : Mahatma Gandhi
Pather Panchali : Bibhutibhushan
with truth
Benerji
Gora : Rabindranath Tagore
A Gift to Monotheism : Raja Rammohan Roy
Ghare Baiyre : Rabindranath Tagore
A Nation In Making : Surendranath
(Home and World) Banerjee

INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

³³ December 12 : Financial agreement between India and
1947
Pakistan was announced in Indian Parliament by Sardar
14-15 August 1947 : Appointment of Lord Mountbatten Patel.
as Governor of Dominion of India. 1948
³³ August 15 : Formation of the first Cabinet of
Independent India. It had following members: ³³ January 1 : India communicated to the United
³³ August 15 : India wins freedom. Jawaharlal Nehru is Nations the possibility of sending troops against
sworn–in as first Prime Minister. Pakistan.
³³ August 23 : Vallabhbhai Patel is appointed Deputy ³³ January 13 : Mahatma Gandhi went on fast in New
Prime Minister. Delhi. It was his last fast.
³³ August 29 : Pakistan tribesmen invade India under ³³ January 20 : Security–Council divided to set up a
the banner of Azad Kashmir Forces. three–member UN Commission for investigation and
³³ October 25 : Maharaj Hari Singh of Kashmir appeals mediation in the Kashmir dispute (January 20).
for help to India. ³³ January 30 : Mahatma Gandhi was shot dead by
³³ October 27 : Kashmir Maharaja signs the Instrument Nathuram Vinayak Godse at 5.10 P.M. while he has
of Accession to India. going for his daily evening prayer meeting in the Birla
³³ November 17 : G.V. Mavalankar elected Speaker House, New Delhi.
of Indian Sovereign Dominion Parliament (On ³³ June 21 : C. Rajagapalachari becomes the first and
November 17). only Indian Governor–General of India.

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³³ July 7 : Damodar Valley Corporation, India’s first

1952
INDIAN HISTORY

public corporation, formed.

³³ September 13 : Indian troops annex Hyderabad to ³³ Sindri fertilizer factory in Bihar (now in Jharkhand)
Indian territory. was inaugurated by Nehru. It is the largest of its kind
³³ November 9 : Junagarh State annexed to India. in Asia and one of the largest in the world.
³³ Indian National Congress party secures absolute
1949 majority in the first Lok Sabha in General Elections.
³³ January 15 : Lt. Gen. K.M. Cariappa becomes the first ³³ Dr. Rajendra Prasad was re-elected President of India
Indian C-in-C. after the first Presidential election held under the
Indian Constitution.
³³ February 1 : Press Trust of India set up.
³³ May 12 : The first Session of India’s new Parliament
³³ March 2 : Death of Sarojini Naidu. opened in New Delhi.
³³ March 30 : Rajasthan State comes into being. ³³ May 15 : G.V. Mavalankar was elected first Speaker of
³³ May 19 : India decides to remain within the Lok Sabha.
Commonwealth of Nations. ³³ Lt. Gen. Rajendra Sinha nominated to succeed
³³ August 19 : Bhubaneswar is declared capital of General K.M. Cariappa as Commander-in-Chief of
Orissa. Indian Army.
³³ September 9 : Hindi is declared National Language ³³ The first Indo-Soviet trade agreement signed.
of India. ³³ Potti Sriramula, who fasted for 58 days for the creation
³³ September 17 : Dravida Munnetra Kazhakam formed of Andhra Pradesh, died.
by C.N. Annadurai in Tamil Nadu.
³³ November 26 : Constitution of India adopted by the 1953
Constituent Assembly. ³³ January 29 : Sangeet Natak Akademi formed.
³³ October 6 : Nehru laid the foundation stone of the ³³ February 2 : Constitution of All India Khadi and
National Defence Academy at Khadakavasla. The NDA Village Industries Board.
was opened on January 16, 1955. ³³ May 29 : Conquest of Mount Everest by Tenzing
³³ The Banking Regulation Act, 1949 was passed. It Norgay and Edmund Hillary.
governs the regulation of all banks in India. ³³ August 1 : Indian Airlines and Air India Corporation
³³ November 30 : Government of India issued a formed.
communique, on India’s decision to establish ³³ October 1 : Andhra Pradesh becomes a separate
diplomatic relations with the new Government of State.
China. ³³ October 14 : Death Duty is effective.

1950
1954
³³ January 1 : India was elected a member of the UN
³³ January 1 : The Prime Minister laid the foundation
Security–Council for a period of 2 years.
stone of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.
³³ January 24 : Rajendra Prasad was elected the first ³³ April 29 : Sino-India agreement on Tibet was signed.
President of India. The Colombo Conference of Asian Prime Ministers
³³ January 26 : Constitution of India came into force and held.
India proclaimed as Sovereign Democratic Republic. ³³ Government of India constituted a National Film
³³ January 26 : Dr. Rajendra Prasad took the oath as Board and decided to establish a Film Production
the first President of Indian Republic. Bureau and a Film Institute.
³³ January 28 : Supreme Court of India inaugurated. ³³ Mr. Chou En-lai, the Chinese Prime Minister arrived
³³ October 7 : Missionaries of Charity founded by Mother in New Delhi, for talks with Nehru.
Teresa. ³³ India and China outlined Five Principles (Panchsheel)
³³ December 5 : Death of Sri Aurobindo. for the regulation of relations between the nations.
³³ December 15 : Death of Vallabhbhai Patel, the Deputy ³³ Inauguration of Bhakhara Nangal Canals by Nehru.
PM, Planning Commission set up. India accepted the Chairmanship of the three
supervisory commissions for Vietnam, Laos and
1951 Cambodia.
³³ February 1 : Enumeration work of the first Census ³³ Separate department of Atomic Energy under the
of Independent India begins. direct charge of the P.M. was created.
³³ March 4 : The first Asian Games in New Delhi. ³³ The P.M. announced a National Health Scheme for
³³ July 9 : The first Five–Year Plan published by the entire country.
Planning Commission. ³³ October 19 : J.L. Nehru went to China.
³³ August 18 : The first Indian Institute of Technology 1955
opened in Kharagpur.
³³ December 5 : Abanindranth Tagore, famous Indian ³³ January 16 : official opening of the National Defence
painter and sculptor passed away in Calcutta. Academy at Khadakvasla.
³³ December 16 : Salar Jung Museum opened at ³³ June 1 : Untouchability (offence) Act comes into force.
Hyderabad by Nehru. ³³ July 1 : Imperial Bank of India is nationalised and
renamed State Bank of India.

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³³ July 15 : Bharat Ratna was conferred upon J.L.

INDIAN HISTORY
1960
Nehru.
³³ August 31 : the States Reorganisation Bill got Pres- ³³ May 1 : The States of Maharashtra and Gujarat are
idential assent. formed from former Bombay State.
³³ October 2 : Inauguration of Integral Coach Factory at ³³ September 8 : Death of Feroz Gandhi, M.P. and
Perambur. husband of Indira Gandhi.
³³ November 18 : Soviet leaders Bulgarin and ³³ November 26 : Kanpur-Lucknow STD introduced,
Khrushchev visited India. the first in India.
³³ December 19 : Indus Water Treaty with Pakistan
1956 signed in Karachi.

³³ February 19 : Acharya Narendra Dev died. 1961

³³ April 29 : Government approved the draft of Second ³³ January 21 : British Queen Elizabeth II arrived.
Five–Year Plan. ³³ March 7 : G. B. Pant died.
³³ June 18 : Hindu Succession Act passed. ³³ March 4 : INS Vikrant Commissioned.
³³ August 4 : Apsara, India’s first nuclear research ³³ April 26 : Maharaja Hari Singh died.
reactor, is commissioned. ³³ December 18 : Goa, Daman, Diu and Nagar Haveli
³³ September 1 : Life Insurance Corporation inaugurated. liberated from Portuguese.
³³ September 1 : Oil and Natural Gas Commission
1962
established.
³³ November 1 : Reorganisation of Indian States on ³³ May 13 : Dr. S. Radhakrishnan became the President.
linguistic basis; Madhya Pradesh created. Delhi is ³³ September 8 : Chinese incursion into Indian
made a Union Territory. So are Andaman and Nicobar Territory.
Islands; and Lakshadweep. Kerala State is formed ³³ 26 October : a State of Emergency declared.
merging Travancore, Cochin and Malabar. ³³ November 21 : China declared unilateral cease-fire.
³³ November 28 : Chinese PM Chou En-lai comes to
1963
India.
³³ December 6 : Death of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. ³³ February 28 : Dr. Rajendra Prasad passed away.
³³ March 11 : Chittaranjan locomotive works
1957 commissioned at Varanasi.
³³ January 20 : ‘Apsara’ inaugurated. ³³ December 1 : Nagaland came into existence.
³³ February 24 : Second General Election began. 1964
³³ March 22 : National Calendar adopted.
³³ 27 May : Jawaharlal Nehru passed away in Delhi.
³³ April 1 : Naya Paisa, introduced.
³³ 27 May 27 : Gulzarilal Nanda sworn–in as interim
³³ April 5 : The first Communist Ministry installed in Prime Minister.
Kerala-the first in Asia. ³³ June 9 : Lal Bahadur Shastri sworn–in as Prime
³³ August 10 : National Book Trust set up. Minister.
³³ November 14 : Nehru’s birthday is made Childrens Day
(Bal Divas). 1965
³³ April 20 : Indo-Pak conflict : Fighting in the Rann of
1958
Kutch between troops.
³³ February 22 : Death of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. ³³ May 20 : Conquest of Everest by the first Indian team
headed by Commander M.S. Kohli; Nawang Gombu
³³ September 17 : Mihir Sen becomes the first Indian at the summit second time.
to cross the English Channel.
³³ September 1 : Pak army invades Chhamb and Dewa
³³ October 1 : India signed the Brussels Convention of region.
the International Union for the Protection of Literary ³³ September 23 : Cease-fire signed between India and
and Artistic works, known as the Berne Convention. Pakistan.
³³ October 1 : Metric system (decimal) of weights ³³ December 2 : Established Border Security Force.
introduced.
1966
1959
³³ January 10 : India and Pakistan signed Tashkent
³³ March 17 : Dalai Lama, fleeing Tibet, reaches India. Agreement.
³³ June 4 : Formation of Swatantra Party by C. ³³ January 11 : Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri
Rajagopalachari. dies at Tashkent.
³³ September 15 : New Delhi has a Television Centre ³³ January 23 : Indira Gandhi becomes Prime Minister.
as a UNESCO-aided programme. ³³ June 6 : Nuclear Scientist Homi Bhabha died in an
³³ September 29 : Arati Saha swims the English air crash.
Channel. ³³ November 17 : Rita Faria became Miss World.
³³ December 12 : US President Dwight D. Eisenhower ³³ November 1 : Punjab divided into Punjab and
visits India. Haryana. ppp

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 2 WORLD HISTORY

Ancient Civilizations of The world : ³³ Why did the Maya, a remarkably sophisticated
³³ It is the first of civilization to have ever emerged on civilization made up of more than 19 million people,
the face of planet earth ever since the evolution of suddenly collapse sometime during the 8th or 9th
humans. centuries ?
³³ The origin of Mesopotamia dates back so far behind ³³ Although the Mayan people never entirely disoppeared
in the history that there is no known evidence of any their descendants still live across Central America.
other civilized society before them. The timetine of Ancient Chinese Civilization
ancient Mesopotamia is usually kept around 3300
BC 750 BC Mesopotamia is generally Credited with Ancient China also known as Han China has one of
being the first place where civilized societies truly the most diverse history.
began to take shape. ³³ The yellow river civilization is said to be the cradle of
³³ It was around 8000 BC that people find the concept entire chinese civilization as this is where the earliest
of agriculture, and slowly started to domesticated dynasties were based. It was around the 2700 BC that
animals for both the purpose of food as well as to the legendary Yellow Emperor began its rule, a point
assist in agriculture. in time that later led to the birth of many dynasties
that went on to rule the mainland China.
³³ They prospered in the regions of modern day Iraq-then
known as Babylonia, sumer and Assyria highlands. ³³ Then on there came a number of dynasties that held
control over China in different periods of time until
Ancient Egyptian Civilization the end of Qing dynasty in 1912 AD with the Xinhai
³³ The ancient Egypt is one of the oldest and culturally revolution and thus ended more than four millennia
richest civilizations in this list. old history of ancient Chinese civilization that
³³ The ancient Egyptians are known for their prodigious fascinates historians and commoners alike to this day.
culture, the ever standing pyramids and the sphinx, Ancient Greek Civilization
the pharaohs and the once a majestic civilization that
³³ The ancient Greeks may not have been one of the
resided by the bank of the river Nile.
oldest civilizations, but they are doubtlessly one of
³³ The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the the most influential civilization to have ever existed
political verification of Upper and Lower Egypt under in the world.
the first Pharaoh. But this could not have been
³³ Even though the rise of ancient Greece came from the
possible had there not been early settlers around the
Cyclodic and Minoan civilization (2700 BC – 1500 BC),
Nile valley in the early 3500 BC.
there are evidences of burials found in the Franchthi
³³ The ancient Egypt gave us the ever standing pyramids, cave in Argolid, Greece that dates back around 7250 BC.
the mummies that preserve the ancient Pharaohs to
³³ The history of this civilization is scattered over such
this day, the first of the solar calendars, Hieroglyphics
a huge period of time that historians had to divide it
and many more.
over different periods, the most popular of them the
³³ The ancient Egypt reached at its pinnacle towards the Archaic, classical and Hellenistic period.
New Kingdom, where pharaohs like Ramsee the Great
³³ These periods also saw a number of ancient Greeks
ruled with such authority that another contemporary
come into limelight- many of them changed our ways
civilization of the Nubians also came under Egyption
of world forever, many of them are still talking about
rule.
to this day.
Mayan Civilization ³³ The Greeks created the ancient olympics, the concept
³³ The ancient Mayan civilization flourished in Central of democracy and a senate.
America from about 2600 BC and had been much ³³ They created the base for modern geometry biology,
talked about in recent times because of the timeline physics and whatnot. Pythagoras, Archimedes,
in the calender they had created. Socrates.
³³ Once the civilization was established, it went on to ³³ Euclid, plato, Aristotle, Alexander the great the
prosper and become one of the most sophisticated history books are full of such names whose inventions
civilization with a booming population of about 19 theories, beliefs and heroics have had a significant
million at its peak. influence in the subsequent civilizations that came.
³³ By 700 BC, the Mayans had already devised their own The Persian Civilization
way of writting which they used to create their own
solar calenders carved in the stones. ³³ There was a time when ancient Persian civilization
was in fact the most powerful empires in the world.
³³ According to them, the world was created on August
11, 3114 BC which is the date their calender counts ³³ Though only in power for a little over 200 years, the
from. And the supposed end was on December 21, Persians conquered lands that covered over 2 millions
2012. square miles.

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³³ From the southern portion of Egypt to parts of Greece ³³ Back then, the people preferred the name Mexico

WORLD HISTORY
and then east to parts of India, the Persian Empire than to the Aztecs.
was known for its military strength and wise rulers. ³³ The rise of the Aztecs was within a century of the fall
³³ Before 550 BC used to be divided in factions among a of another influential civilization in Mexico and central
number of leaders. But then came king Cyrus-II who America the Mayans.
later on came to be known as Cyrus the great, came
³³ The city of Tenochtitlan was the military power, which
into power and unified the entire Persian kingdom.
spearheaded the conquest of new territory. But the
³³ Then he went on to conquer the ancient Babylon. In
Aztec emperor didn’t rule every city, state directly.
fact, his conquest was so rapid that by the end of
533 BC, he had already invaded India, for in the east ³³ Local governments would remain in place, but was
and even when Cyrus passed away, his bloodline forced to pay varying amounts of tribute to the Triple
continued the ruthless expansion and even duelled in Alliance.
now legendary battle with the brave spartans. ³³ In the early 1500’s, the Aztec civilization was indeed
The Roman Civilization at the height of its power.
³³ A defeat in this decisive battle eventually led to the
³³ Early Rome was governed by kings, but after only
fall of once famous Aztec empire.
seven of them had ruled, the Romans took power over
their own city and ruled themselves. The lncas Civilization
³³ They then insted had a council known as the ‘senate’ ³³ The lncas was the largest Empire in South America
which ruled over them. From this point on the speaks in the Pre-columbian era.
of the ‘Roman Republic’. ³³ This civilization flourished in the areas of present day
³³ Rome also saw the rise and fall of some of the greatest Ecuador, Peru and Chile and had its administrative,
emperors in human civilization, like Julius Caesar, military and political centre located at cusco which
Trajan and Augustus. lies in modern day peru.
³³ But eventually, the empire of Rome became so vast ³³ The lncas had their societies pretty well established,
that it simply was not possible to bring it within a and the empire was in a rapid bloom since its
single rule. beginning.
³³ The Roman empire in the end was overrun by millions ³³ The lncas were devout followers of the Sun God lnti.
of barbarians from the north and east of Europe. They had a king who was referred to as “Sapa Inca”
The Aztecs Civilization meaning the child of the sun.
³³ The first lnca emperor pachacuti transformed it from
³³ The Aztecs come in the scenario pretty much around
a modest village to a great city laid out in the shape
the time when the lncas were oppearing as the
of a puma.
powerful contenders in South America.
³³ He went to expand the tradition of ancestor worship.
³³ Around the 1200’s and early 1300’s, the people in
present day Mexico used to live in three big rival ³³ This significantly led to a sudden rise in power of
cities–Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan. the Incas.
³³ Around 1325, these rivals created an alliance and ³³ The Incas went on to build fortresses and sites like
thus the new state was brought under the rule of the Machu picchu and the city of Cusco that still stand
valley of Mexico. to this day.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF THE WORLD

Name Period Area Occupations Writing Religion
Mesopotamian 3300-750 BC Sumer, Babylonia, Dairy farming, textile metal Cuneiform Polytheistic
Assyric Highlands working potter’s wheel,
sexagesimal system
Ancient India 3000-500 BC South Asia Potter’s wheel, Agriculture, Pictographic Hinduism
(Indus) Doms, city planning,
Mathematics, temple
builders, Astronomy,
medicine.
Egyption 3000-30 BC North Eastern Africa Egyptian Pyramids, Hieroghyphic Polytheistic
along River Nile Mummification, Decimal
system, Solar calendar
Mayan 2000-1200 Mexico, Central Agriculture, Astronomy, Hieroglyhic Polytheistic
AD (BC) America Chemistry Cotton, drama,
dyeing, mathematics
Chinese 2100 BC— China Silk, Pottery, Chinaware, Chinese Polytheistic
1 AD Metals, 800 B.C., Great
Wall, Paper

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Persian 730 BC Greater Persia Agriculture, Architecture, Cuneiform, Zoroastrianism

WORLD HISTORY

landscaping, postal service Pahlavi

Greek 2700 BC Greece Agriculture, winemaking, Greek Polytheistic
(Peloponnese, archi, poetry, drama,
Epirus, Central philosophy, history
Greece, Western mathematics, political
Greece, Macedon) science, astronomy,
later Alexandria physics, chem., medicine
Roman 600 BC – Italy Agriculture, Roman Latin Polytheistic
400 AD Calendar, Concrete
Aztec 1324 AD – Mexico Agriculture, Smelting, Pictographic Polytheistic
1519 AD metalworking
Inca 1300 AD – Ecuador, Peru, Textile looms, agriculture, — Polytheistic
1532 AD Chile Inca architecture

WORLD HISTORY : CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS

1106 Henry IV died succeeded by Henry V
B.C
1135 King Henry I of England died
200,000 Homo sapiens originated in Africa. 1167 Oxford University founded
50,000 Emergence of Modern humans in Asia. 1174 Leaning Tower of Pisa built
7500 First evidence of agriculture and domestication 1197 Henry VI died, succeeded by Otto IV
of sheep and goats 1212 Fredercik II elected German King
7000 Walled settlements at Jericho 1223 Mongols invaded Russia
3000 Building of the Great Pyramid 1230 Pact of San Germano between the Emperor and
776 First Olympiad in Greece the Pope
753 Foundation of Rome 1256 Hundred Years War between Venice and Genoa
490 Greeks defeated the Persians at the Battle of 1265 English Parliament is set up.
Marathon 1272 Henry III of England died, succeeded by Edward
360 The period of Aristotle and Plato 1280 Roger Bacon invents gunpowder
332 Egypt conquered by Alexander 1287 Mongols invaded Burma
323 Alexander dies at Babylon 1294 Death of Kublai Khan
214 Work on the Great Wall of China begins 1324 Marco Polo, Venetian traveller died
55 Julius Ceasar attacks Great Britain 1338 The Hundred years war broke out
A.D 1340 Queen’s College, Oxford founded
1348 English faces Black Death Plague
29 Crucifixion of Jesus Christ 1377 Edward III dies, succeeded by Richard II
37 Tiberius died and Caligula succeeded him 1405 Timur died
78 Book published by Pliny the elder 1421 Beijing became capital of China
105 China made paper 1453 Turks captured Constantinople; Renaissance in
200 Afghanistan invaded by Huns Europe
330 Byzantium renamed constantinople 1492 Discovery of America by Columbus
375 Invasion of Europe by Huns 1498 Sea-route to India discovered by Vasco-de-Gama
452 Founding of Venica 1499 Amerigo Vespucci charted a part of the South
500 Huns established control over N W India American Coast
570 Prophet Mohammad born at Mecca 1500 Pedro Cabral discovers Brazil
572 War between Byzantine Empire and Persia 1521 Turks captured Belgrade, Spain conquered Mexico
616 Khmer Empire founded in SE Asia 1533 Ivon IV became Czar of Russia
618 Beginning of Tang dynasty in China 1534 Final rift between England and Rome; Jesuit order
622 Flight of Mohammad from Mecca to Medina founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556). Martine
641 Arabs conquered Egypt Luthur completes translation of the Bible.
711 Moors invade spain 1535 English clergy adjure authority of the Pope.
712 Muslim conquered Sindh Sir Thomas More, who refuses the oath of the
771 Charlemagne conquered saxony King’s supermacy, tried fort reason and executed
809 Death of Haroun-al Rashid (canonised 1935). Lima founded.
846 Arabs attacked Rome 1536 Michelangelo paints “Last Judgement” on altar
1015 Arabs conquered sardinia wall of Sistine Chapel; Queen Anne executed.
1027 Conard II crowned as Holy Roman Emperor Union of England and Wales.
1042 Constantine IX became Byzantine Emperor 1537 The Pilgrimage of Grace and similar risings are
1060 Henry–I of France died put down; Robert Aske is sentenced to death for
1096 Start of the first crusade treason and executed.

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1538 Mercator used the name America for the first time. 1743 French defeated by English.

WORLD HISTORY
Spain conquered Bolivia. 1744 France declares war on England; second Silesian
1539 Spain annexed Cuba; First Christmas tree, at War begins.
Strasbourg Cathedral. 1746 Alliance between Russia and Austria against
Prussia.
1542 First Portuguese navigators reached Japan.
1747 Nadir Shah murdered; Afghanistan united. Ahmed
1555 Peace of Ausburg Shah becomes King of Afghanistan.
1558 Elizabeth I became Queen of England 1766 England revoked Stamp Act.
1580 Spain conquer Portugal 1776 Declaration of American Independence.
1582 Pope Gregory XIII puts in use the Gregorian 1787 American Constitution drafted.
Calendar. 1789 French Revolution
1593 C. Marlowe murdered 1798 Battle of River Nile.
1801 Peace Treaty of Luneville between France and
1594 Galileo’s Golden Rule Austria.
1595 Mercator’s atlas published (post); Warsaw became 1805 Battle of Trafalagar and Nelson’s death.
capital of Poland. Franco-Spanish war begins. 1815 Battle of Waterloo; Napolean exiled to St. Helena.
1596 Shakespeare: The Merchant of Venice. Tomatoes 1821 Death of Napolean.
introduced in England. 1837 Queen Victoria’s accession to the throne of
1600 The East India Company established. England.
1603 Death of Elizabeth I. 1842 Treaty of Nanking ends Opium War between
1618 Thirty year’s war begin. Britain and China and confirms accession of
1625 Charles I succeeded as King of England. Hong Kong to Great Britain.
1641 Cotton Goods begins to be manufactured in 1850 Cavour appointed Prime Minister of Sardinia.
Manchester. 1852 Napolean III becomes King of France.
1642 English Civil War begins; Income and property tax 1878 Congress of Berlin.
introduced in England. Montreal founded; Newton 1894 Japan declared war on China.
born. 1899 The Boer war begins.
1643 English Civil War; Italian physicist Evangelista 1902 The Boer war ends.
Torricelli (1608-1647) invents the barometer; 1904 Russia-Japan war.
Parcel post established in France. 1905 Japan defeated Russia; Discovery of the theory of
1644 Ming dynasty in China ends, Manchu dynasty Relativity by Einstein.
(Qing dynasty) in Power (1644–1912).
1911 Chinese Revolution.
1646 English Civil War ends with surrender of Oxford
1912 Republic of China established.
to roundheads; English occupy Bahamas.
1914 Beginning of World War I.
1647 First newspaper advertisement appears.
1917 Russian Revolution.
1648 Peace of West Phalia ends Thirty Year’s War.
1918 End of World War I.
1649 In Great Britain, English becomes language of
all legal documents in place of Latin. Charles I 1919 Treaty of Versailles signed.
executed. 1920 Formation of the League of Nations.
1653 Cromwell dissolved Parliament and becomes Lord 1933 Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany.
Protector. 1936 Beginning of the Spanish Civil War.
1659 Treaty of Pyrenes between Francis of Spain 1939 World War II begins.
1660 Monarchy restored in England. 1941 Russia invaded by Hitler, Pearl Harbour invaded
1665 The Great Plague of England. by Japan.
1668 Glorious Revolution in England. 1943 Mussolini dismissed; Allies invaded Italy;
1687 I s s a c N e w t o n e x p o u n d s t h e P r i n c i p l e o f Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt hold Teheran
Gravitation. conference.
1694 Founding of the Bank of England. 1944 D-Day landings in Nromandy June 6; first
1696 New coinage in England. flying bomb dropped on London. Ho Chi Minh is
Vietnam President.
1698 Tax on beard in Russia.
1945 Establishment of UNO; End of World War II;
1699 Peter the Great declares that New Year in Russia
will begin on Jan. 1 instead of Sept. 1. Sultanate Hiroshima and Nagasaki experience the first
of Oman setup. dropping of the Atom Bomb; Death of President
1700 Death of Charles II of Spain. Roosevelt.
1715 Coronation of Louis XV. 1946 Civil War in China.
1725 Death of Peter the Great. 1948 Burma and Ceylon get independence.
1727 George II becomes King of England. 1949 Indonesia get independence; The Communists
1740 George Anson (1697-1762) sets out on voyage capture power in China.
around the world. Maria Theresa is queen of 1952 General Eisenhower elected as the American
Austria. President.
1741 Czar Ivan VI deposed and imprisoned; Elizabeth, 1954 Military Aid Pact betweern China and Pakistan;
daughter of Peter the Great becomes Czarina Chou-En Lai visits India.
(-1762). 1955 Austria gets independence; Bandung Conference.
1742 First Silesian War ends; Swiss astronomer 1956 Suez Canal nationalised by President Nasser,
Anders Celsius (1701-1744) invents centigrade Egypt attacked by the forces of Britain; France
thermometer. and Israel.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

1957 First artificial satellite launched by Russia. force Cambodia Government to Surrender.
WORLD HISTORY

1958 Egypt and Syria united and renamed United Arab 1976 Chou-En Lai, P.M. of China, died; Seychelles gets
Republic (UAR). independence; Viking I lands on Mars; Mao Tse-
1959 Chinese captured Tibet; Dalai Lama flees to India; Tung died; Jimmy Carter elected President of USA.
Sputnik launched by Russia. 1979 Margaret Thatcher becomes first woman P.M. of
1960 Explosion of an atom bomb device by France; Britain.
Election of John F. Kennedy as President of USA. 1980 Free Zimbabwe is born. Marshall Tito of Yugoslavia
1961 Yuri Gagarin of USSR becomes the first passes away.
spaceman. 1981 President Zia ur Rahman of Bangladesh is
1963 Partial Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty signed; Malaysia shot dead; President Anwar Sadat of Egypt is
established; John F. Kennedy assassinated. assassinated; AIDs is officially recognised for the
1965 Death of Sir Winston Churchill; Singapore becomes first time in USA.
the sovereign independent nation; outbreak of 1983 Benigno Aquino of Philipinnes assassinated;
Indo-Pak war. President Reagan announces the “Star Wars”
1966 Tashkent Pact; A Russian aircraft lands on moon. programme.
1967 Chinese explode hydrogen bomb; Arab-Israel War; 1984 Indian PM Indira Gandhi assassinated; succeeded
Suez Canal closed. by son Rajiv Gandhi; Bhopal gas tragedy.
1968 Martin Luther King Murdered. 1985 Death of Soviet premier Chernenko, Mikhail
1969 Dr. Ho-Chi-Minh passes away. Gorbachev succeeds him; Salvage experts locate
1971 Outbreak of Indo-Pak war; Birth of Bangaldesh; the wreck of the ship Titanic.
Surrender of 93,000 Pakistani troops; Khruschev 1986 Swedish PM Olaf Palme is assassinated; Chernobyl
died; Z.A. Bhutto new President of Pakistan. nuclear disaster; Mikhail Gorbachev institutes his
1972 Sheikh Mujibar Rahman freed from Pakistani Jail policy of Glasnost.
and assumed the office of P.M. Bangaldesh; Nixon 1987 In Czechoslovakia far-reaching political and
of USA visited China; King Mahendra of Nepal died; economic reforms; World-wide stock exchange
USA and the USSR sign Strategic Arms Limitations crash; Glass fiber cable is laid across the Atlantic
Treaty. Ocean.
1973 Outbreak of fourth Arab Israeli war; Fourth non- 1988 Pakistan : Premier Gen. Zia killed in a plane crash,
aligned summit in Algiers. succeeded by the first woman leader of a Muslim
country, Benazir Bhutto.
1975 Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, President of Bangladesh
1991 Soviet Union Disintegrated
assassinated; King Faisal of Saudi Arabia,
1992 Yugoslavia expelled from U.N.O.
assassinated; Suez Canal reopened; Red Cross

SOME TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO WORLD HISTORY

Renaissance ³³ Man, questioning the usefulness of Renaissance as a

³³ The Renaissance is a period in Europe, from the 14th term and as a historical delineation.
to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge
Reform Movement
between the middle ages and modern history.
³³ A reform movement is the kind of social movement
³³ It started as a cultural movement in italy in the Late that aims to make gradual change, or change in
Medieval period and later spread to the rest Europe, certain aspects of society, rather than rapid or
marking the beginning of the early modern age. fundamental changes.
³³ The intellectual basis of the Renaissance was its ³³ A reform movement is distinguished from more radical
own invented version of humanism derived from the social movements such as revolutionary movements.
rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as ³³ Reformists ideas are often grounded in liberalism,
that of Protagoras, who said that “Man is the measure although they may be rooted in socialist or religious
of all things”. concepts.
³³ This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, ³³ Reform movement in United States (1840-1930),
politics, science and literature.The Renaissance first Great Britain and United Kingdom (1700-1900),
began in. ottom Empire (1840-1870), Republic of Turkey (1920-
³³ Florence, in the 14th century. Various theories 1930) etc. are the prominent examples of Reform
have been proposed to account for its origins and movements.
characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors
including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence Mercantilism
at the time– its political structure, the patronage of ³³ The economic doctrine prevailing from the 16th to
its dominant family, the Medici, and the migration of the 18th centuries is commonly called mercantilism.
Greek scholors and texts to italy following the fall of
³³ This period, the Age of Discovery was associated with
constant-inople to the ottoman Turks.
the geographic exploration of the foreign lands by
³³ The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography
merchant traders, especially from England and the
and in line with general scepticism of discrete
low countries.
periodizations, there has been much debote among
historians reacting to the 19th -century glavification of ³³ Mercantilism was a system of trade for profit, although
the “Renaissance Men” and individual culture heroes commodities were still largely produced by non-
as “Renaissance.” capitalist methods.

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Crusades ³³ Their success in Italy and Germany had the most

WORLD HISTORY
³³ The crusades were a series of religious wars serious consequences.
sanctioned by the Latin Church between the 11th ³³ The term ‘fascism’ is of Italian origin it was first used
and 16th centuries, especially the compaigns in the for the movement which started in Italy under the
Eastern Mediterranean with the aim of capturing leadership of Benito Mussolini.
Jerusalem from Islamic rule. ³³ Mussolini had organised armed gangs against
³³ Crusades were also fought for many other reasons socialists and communists in 1919.
such as to recapture Christian territory or defend ³³ The victory of Fascism Italy not only led to the
Christions in non-Christain lands, resolve conflict destruction of democracy and the suppression of
among rival Roman Catholic groups, gain political socialist movements it also led to the preparation for war.
or territorial advantage, or to combat paganism and
heresy. Nazism in Germany
³³ The term crusade itself is modern, and has in more ³³ It is the form of fascism developed in Germany, that
recent times been extended to include religiously incorporates scientific racism and antisemitism.
motivated Christian military campaigns in the Late ³³ It is the ideology and practice associated with the
Middle Ages. 20th century German Nazi party and Nazi states, as
³³ The first crusade arose after a call to arms in a 1095 well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to
sermon by Pope Urban-II. Urban urged military theories of rocial hierarchy and social Darwinism,
support for the Byzontine Empire and its Emperor, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded
Alexios I, who needed reinforcements for his conflict as an Aryan master race.
with westward migrating Turks in Anatolio. ³³ It aimed to overcome social division and create a
³³ Although one of Urban’s stated aims was to guarantee homogeneous society unified on the basis of “rocial
pilgrims access to the holy sites in the Holy Land that purity”.
were under Muslim contral, scholars disagree whether ³³ Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of class struggle,
this was the primary motivation for Urban or for the opposed cosmopolitan internationalism, and sought
majority of those who heeded his call. to convince all parts of a new German society to
³³ Urban’s wider strategy may have been to unite the subordinate their personal interests to the “common
Eastern and Western branches of Christendom, which good” and to accept the priority of political interests
had been divided since their split in the East-West in economic organisation.
Schism of 1054, and establish himself as head of the Feudalism
unified Church.
³³ Feudalism was a combination of legal and military
³³ Similarly, some of the hundreds of thousands of customs in medieval Europe that flourished between
people who became crusoders by taking public vow the 9th and 15th centuries.
and receiving plenary indulgences from the church
³³ Broadly defined it was a way of structuring society
were peasants hoping for Apotheasis at Jerusalem, around relationship derived from the holding of land
or forgiveness from God for all their sins.
in exchange for service or labour.
³³ Others, historians argue, participated to satisfy
³³ Feudal society includes not only the obligations of
fuedal obligations, gain glory and honour, or find
the warrior nobility but those of all three estates of
opportunities for economic and political gain.
the realm : the hobility, the clergy, and those living
³³ Regardless of the motivation, the response to Urban’s
by their labour, most directly the peasantry bound
preaching by people of many different classes across
by manorialism.
Western Europe established the precedent for later
crusades. Socialism
³³ The crusades had profound import on Western ³³ Socialism is a range of economic and social systems
Civilization, they reopened the Mediterranean to characterised by social ownership and democratic
commerce and travel, consolidated the collective control of the means of production, as well as the
identity of the Latin Church under papal leadership, political ideologies, theories, and movements that aim
and were a wellspring for accounts of heroism, chivalry at their establishment.
and piety.
³³ The socialist political movement includes a diverse
³³ These tales consequently galvanised medieval array of political philosophies that originated amid
romance, philosophy and literature. the revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 1700s
³³ The crusades also reinforced the connection between and of a general concern for the social problems that
Western Christendom, feudalism and militarism. were associated with capitalism.
Fascism in Italy : ³³ Core dichotomies associated with these concerns
³³ A number of political movements which arose in include reformism versus revolutionary socialism and
Europe after the first World War are generally given state socialism versus libertarian socialism.
the name ‘fascist’. Industrial Revolution
³³ The common features of these movements were their ³³ The desire to produce more goods at low cost to make
hostility to democracy and socialism, and the aim of higher profits led to the industrial Revolution and
establishing dictatorships. further growth of capitalism.
³³ They succeeded, in many countries of Europe such ³³ The industrial Revolution began in England in about
as Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Germany, Spain. 1750.

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³³ It was then machines began to take over some of the was one thing, achieving independence was much
WORLD HISTORY

work of men and animals in the production of goods more difficult for the colonists.
and commodities. ³³ There were over 20 major battles during the revolution,
³³ That is why we often say that the industrial Revolution spanning a period of 6 years.
was the beginning of a ‘machine age’.
³³ Initially the British held the advantage with more
³³ Of course, there were many machines in use before troops and a superior trained army.
1750. The plough, air-pump, printing press and
spinning wheel are only a few of the many examples ³³ The continental Army eventually grew in size, and
that could be listed. For hundreds of years each through considerable training, became a powerful
civilization had been trying to perfect old technical fighting force.
skills and develop a new ones. But after 1750, new ³³ With the help of France, General George Washington
inventions came faster, and they were of a kind that and his continental Army defeated British General
brought morn rapid changes in more people’s lives. Cornwallis at the Battle of Yorktown on October 19,
³³ The industrial Revolution changed men’s way of living 1781.
and thinking all over the world. ³³ This led to the Treaty of Paris, officially ending the
Capitalism revolution on September 3, 1783.
³³ It is an economic system based on private ownership The French Revolution (1789-1799) :
of means of production and their operation for profit.
Feudalism and Unfair Taxation – No one factor was
³³ Characteristics central to capitalism include private
property. directly responsible for the French Revolution. Years of
feudal oppression and fiscal mismanagment contributed
³³ Capital occumulation, wage labour, voluntary
exchange a price system and competitive markets. to a French society that was ripe for revolt. Nothing a
downward economic spriral in the late 1700’s.
³³ In a capitalist market economy, decision making
and investment is determined by the owners of the ³³ King Louis XVI brought in a number of financial
foctors of production in financial and capital markets, advisor to review the weakned French treasury. Each
and prices and the distribution of goods are mainly advisor reached the same conclusion– that France
determined by competition in the market. needed a radical change in the way it taxed the public-
and each advisor was in turn, kicked out.
The American Revolution (1775-1783) : ³³ Finally the king realized that this taxation problem
³³ Following the French-Indian War (1754-1763) the really did need to be addressed, so he oppointed a new
British decided the colonies should pay more of the controller general of finance, Charles de colonne, in
costs associated with them being a British colony,
1783. Colonne suggested that, among other things,
such as military protection.
France begin taxing the previously exempt nobility.
³³ Britian imposed a series of taxes that proved to be
The nobility refused, even after colonne pleaded
very unpopular.
with then during the Assembly of Notables in 1787.
³³ The American Revolution started with the 13 colonies
Financial rain thus seemed imminent.
protesting against these taxes and other laws the
colonists considered intolerable acts. The Eastes General – In a final act of desperation,
³³ The British were concerned to colonist protests might Louis XVI decided in 1789 to convene the Estate-General,
turn into revolt. an ancient assembly consisting of three different estates
³³ They sent troops to Lexington and concord to capture that each represented a portion of the French population.
leaders of the revolt and a store of weapons. ³³ It the Estate General could agree on a tax solution, it
³³ Paul Revere’s Midnight Ride the rebellion’s leaders would be implemented. However, since two of the three
samuel Adams and John Hancock escaped, and the estates-the clergy and the nobility– were tax- exempt,
colonial militia were assembled and waiting for the the attainment of any such solution was unlikely.
British troops. ³³ Moreover, the outdated rules of order for the Estate-
³³ This led to the Battle of Lexington and concord, and General gove each estate a single vote, despite the
the siege of Boston. fact that the Third Estate – constisting of the general
³³ Initially the fight was over rights as a British French public was many times larger than either of
colony. Eventually the revolt evolved into a fight for
the first two.
independence with the goal of colonies to become a
³³ Feuds quickly broke out over this disparity and would
separate and independent united states of America. At
the first continental congress the colonists is issued prove to be irreconciable. Realizing that its numbers
a request that Britian revoke the contentious taxes gave it an automatic advantage, the third Estate
and laws. Britain refused, which fuelled the cries declared itself the sovereign National Assembly.
for independence. Second Continental congress was ³³ Within days of the announcement, many members of
held, and on July 4, 1776 the colonies formally made the other two estates had switched allegiances over
their Declaration of Independence. A constitutional to this revolutionary new assembly.
convention was held to define the government through The Bastille and the Great Fear – Shortly after the
the Articles of Confederation of the newly formed
United States of America. National Assembly formed, its member took the Tennis
³³ The battles of the American Revolution–It started in Court Qath, swearing that they would not relent in their
Lexington on April 19, 1775. Declaring independence efforts until a new constitution had been agreed upon.

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³³ The National Assembly’s revolutionary spirit galvanized during which he had more than 15,000 people

WORLD HISTORY
France, manifesting in a number of different ways. executed at the guillotine. When the French army
In pairs, citizens stormed the city’s largest prison, successfully removed.
the Bastille, in pursuit of arms. In the countryside, ³³ Foreign invaders and the economy finally stabilized,
peasants and farmers revolted against their fuedal however, Robespierre no longer had any justification
contracts by attacking the manors and estates of for his extreme actions, and he himself was arrested
in July 1794 and executed.
their landlords.
The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory – The
³³ Dubbed the “Great Fear” these rural attacks continued
era following the outstanding of Robespierre was known as
until the early August issuing of the August Decrees, the Thermidorian Reaction, and a period of governmental
which freed those peasants from their oppressive restructuring began, leading to the new constitution
contracts. of 1795 and a significantly more conservative National
³³ Shortly thereafter, the assembly released the convention.
Declaration of the Rights of man and of the citizen, ³³ To control executive res responsibilities and
which established a proper judicial code and the oppointments a group known as the Directory was
autonomy of the French people. formed.
Rifts in the Assembly – Though the National ³³ Though it had no lagislative abilities, the Directory’s
abouse of power soon came to rival that of any of the
Assembly did succeed in drafting a constitution, the
tyrannous revolutionaries France had faced.
relative peace of the moment was short-lived.
Napoleon – Meanwhile, the committee of public
³³ A rift slowly grew between the radical and moderate safety’s war effort was realizing unimaginable success.
assembly members, while the common laborers and ³³ French armies, especially those led by young general
workers began to feel overlooked. When Louis XVI was Napoleon Bonaparte, were making progress in nearly
caught in a foiled escape plot, the assembly become every direction.
especially divided. ³³ Napoleon’s forces drove through italy and reached as
³³ The moderate Girondians took a stance infavor of far as Egypt before facing a deflating defeat. In the
retaining the constitutional monarchy, while the face of this rout, and having received word of political
radical Jacobins wanted the king completely out of upheavals in France, Napoleon returned to Paris.
the picture outsider of France, some neighbouring ³³ He arrived in time to lead a coup against the Directory
countries feared that France’s revolutionary spirit in 1799, eventually stepping up and naming himself
would spread beyond French land. ‘first consul’ effectively, the leader of France. With
Napoleon at the helm, the revolution ended, and
³³ In response, they issued the Declaration of Pillnitz France entered a fifteen-year period of military rule.
which insited that the French return Louis XVI to
the throne. The Russian Revolution (1917-1918) :
³³ French leader interpreted the declaration as hostile, ³³ The Russian Revolution of 1917 centres around two
primary events the February Revolution and October
so the Girondin-led assembly declared war on Austria
Revolution.
and Prussia.
The February Revolution – The February Revolution,
The Reign of Terror – The first acts of the newly which removed Tsar Nicholas-II from the power, developed
named National convention were the abolition of the spontaneously out of a series of increasingly violent
monarchy and the declaration of France as a republic. demonstrations and riots on the streets of petrograd (St.
³³ In January 1793, the convention tried and executed Petersburg). during a time when the Tsar was away from
Louis XVI on the grounds of the treason. the capital visiting troops on the World War-I front.
³³ Despite the creation of the committee of public safety, ³³ Though the February Revolution was a popular
uprising it did not necessarily express the wishes of
the war with Austria and Prussia went poorly for
the majority of the Russian population, as the event
France, and foreign forces pressed on into French
was primarly limited to the city of petrograd.
territory. ³³ However most of those who took power after the
³³ Enraged citizens overth rew the Girondin-led National February Revolution, in the provisional government
Convention, and the Jacobins, led by Maximilien (the temporary government that replaced the tsar) and
Robespierre took control. in the petrograd Soviet can influential local council
³³ Backed by the newly approved constitution of 1793, representing workers and soldiers in petrograd),
Robespierre and the committee of Public Safety began generally favored rule that was at least pantially
democratic.
conscripting French soldiers and implementing laws
The October Revolution – The October Revolution
to stabilize the economy. (also called the Bolshevik Revolution) overturned the
³³ For time, it seemed that France’s fortunes might be interim provisional government and established the Soviet
changing. But Robespierre, growing increasingly Union.
paranoid about counterrevolutionary influences,
³³ The October Revolution was a much more deliberate
embarked upon a reign of Terror in late 1793-1794,
event, orchestrated by a small group of people.

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³³ The Bolsheviks, who led this coup, prepared their The United States Entrance and Russia’s Exit
WORLD HISTORY

coup in only six months. – Depite the stalemate on both fronts in Europe, two
³³ They were generally viewed as an extremist group important developments in the war occurred in 1917.
and had very little popular support when they began ³³ In early April, the United States, angered by attacks
serious efforts in April 1917. upon its ship in the Atlantic declared war on Germany.
³³ By October, the Bolsheviks popular base was much ³³ Then in November, the Bolshevik Revolution prompted
larger, though still a minority within the country as a Russia to pull out of the war.
whole, they had built up a majority of support within
Petrograd and other urban centres. The End of the War and Armistice – Although both
sides launched renewed affensives in 1918 in an all-or-
³³ After October, the Bolsheviks realized that they could
maintain power in an election-based system without nothing effort to win the war, both efforts failed.
sharing power with other parties and compromising ³³ The fighting between exhausted demoralized troops
their principles. continued to plod along until the Germans lost a
³³ As a result, they formally abandoned the democratic number of individual battles and very gradually began
process in January 1918 and declared themselves the to fall back.
respressentatives of a dictatorship of the proletariat. ³³ A deadly outbreak of influenza, meanwhile took
³³ In response the Russian Civil War broke out in the heavy tolls on soldiers of both sides, Eventually,
summer of that year and would last well into 1920. the governments of both Germany and Austria-
Hungary began to lose control as both countries
World War-I (1914-1919) :
experienced multiple mutinies from within their
The Start of the war – World War-I began on July
military structures.
28, 1914 when Austria- Hungary declared war on serbia.
³³ This seemingly small conflict between two countries ³³ The war ended in the late fall of 1918, after the
spread rapidly. Soon Germany, Russia, Great Britain member countries of the central powers signed
and France were all drawn into the war, largely armistice agreements one by one. Germany was the
because they were involved in treaties that obligated lost, signing its armistice on November 11, 1918.
them to defend certain other nations. ³³ As a result of these agreements, Austria-Hungary was
³³ Western and Eastern fronts quickly opened along the broken up into several smaller countries.
borders of Germany and Austria-Hungary. ³³ Germany under the treaty of versailles, was severely
The Western and Eastern Fronts – The first month punished with hefty economic reparations, territorial
of combat consisted of bold attacks and rapid troop losses, and strict limits on its rights to develop
movements on both fronts. militarily.
³³ In the west. Germany attacked first Belgium and
then France. World War-II (1939-1945)
³³ In the east, Russia attacked both Germany and German Aggression – The war in Europe began in
Austria-Hungary. September 1939, when Germany, under chancellor Adolf
³³ In the south, Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia. Hitler, invoded Poland. Britain and France responded by
Following the Battle of the Marne (Sept. 5-9, 1914), declaring war on Germany but took little action over the
the western front become entrenched in central France following months.
and remained that way for the rest of the war. ³³ In 1940, Germany launched its next initiative by
³³ The fronts in the east also gradually locked into place. attacking Denmark and Norway, followed shortly
The Ottomon Empire – 1914, the ottoman Empire thereafter by attacks on Belgium, the Netherlands,
was brought into the fray as well, after Germany tricked and France. All of these nations were conquered
Russia into thinking that Turkey had attacked it. As a
rapidly.
result, much of 1915 was dominated by Allied actions
against the Ottomans in the Mediterranean. Battle of Britain – Later in the summer of 1940.
³³ First, Britain and France launched a failed attack on Germany launched a further attack on Britain, this time
the Dardanelles. exclusively from the air.
³³ This campaign was followed by the British invasion ³³ The Battle of Britain was Germany’s first military
of Gallipoli Peninsula. failure as the German air force, the Luftwafte, was
³³ Britain also launched a separate compaign against never able to overcome Britains Royal Air Force.
the Turks in Mesopotamia. Greece and North Africa – As Hitler plotted his next
³³ Although the British had some successes in steps. Italy, an ally of Germany, expanded the war even
Mesopotamia, the Gallipoli compaign and the attacks further by invoding Greece and North Africa.
on the Dardanelles resulted in British defeats. ³³ The Greek campaign was a failure, and Germany was
Trench Warfare – The middle part of the war, 1916 forced to come to Italy’s assistance in early 1941.
and 1917, was dominated by continued trench warfare
The USSR : Later in 1941, Germany began its most
in both the east and the west soldier fought from dug-in
positions, striking at each other with machine guns, heavy ambitious action yet, by involding the Soviet Union.
artillery and chemical weapons. ³³ Although the Germans initially made swift progress
³³ Though soldiers died by the millions in brutal and advanced deep into the Russian heartland, the
conditions, neither side had any substantive success invassion of the USSR would prove to be the downfall
or gained any advantage. of Germany’s war effort.

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³³ The country was just two big and although Russian’s ³³ This process continued through the summer of

WORLD HISTORY
initial resistance was weak, the nation’s strength 1945 until finally, in early August, the United States
and determination, combined with its brutal winters dropped two automic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima
would eventually be more than the German army could and Nagasaki. Stumed by the unexpected devastation,
overcome. Japan surrendered a few days later.
³³ In 1943, after the battles of stalingrad and kursk,
Germany was forced into a full scale retreat. The Cold War (1947-1991)
³³ During the course of 1944, the Germans were slowly The tense relationship between the United states (and
but steadily forced completely out of Soviet territory, allies), and the Soviet Union (USSR and its allies) between
after which the Russians pursued them across eastern the end of world war-II and the demise of Soviet Union.
Europe and into Germany itself in 1945. ³³ The start of the Cold War in 1947 was due to a belief
The Normandy Invasion – In June 1944, British and that all governments would become either communist
America forces launched the D-Day invasion, landing in or capitalist.
German-occupied France via the coast of Normandy. Soon ³³ The Western allies feared that the Soviet Union would
the German army was forced into retreat from that side use force to expand its influence in Europe, and was
as well. especially concerned that Soviet agents had obtained
³³ Thus by early 1945, Allied forces were closing in on information on making the Atom Bomb after the war.
Germany from both east and west. ³³ Most of the countries on one side were allied in NATO
³³ The Soviets were the first to reach the German capital whose most powerful country was the United States.
of Berlin, and Germany surrendered in May 1945, ³³ Most of the countries on the other side were allied in
shortly after the suicide of Adolf Hitler. the Warsaw Pact whose most powerful country was
Pearl Harbor – The war in pacific began on December the Soviet Union.
7, 1941 when war planes from Japan’s launched a surprise ³³ In this the Western-Capitalist bloc includes Western
attack on the U.S. Navy base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Europe, the Americas, Israel, Japan, South Korea,
³³ By this time, Japan had already been at war with Thialand, Iran, Pakistan, Malaysia, Philippines,
China for several years and had seized the Chinese South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, and the
territory of Manchuria. Eastern Socialist block includes Eastern Europe.
³³ After the Pearl Harbor attack, Japan began a massive Soviet Union, Angola, Ethiopia, Cuba, North Korea,
campaign of expansion throughout the southeast China and Vietnam.
Asia-Pacific region. ³³ After WW-II, Germany was left in rains. The Victorious
The U.S. Entrance and Battle of Midway – Although Allies that occupied it split it into four parts one
the Pearl Harbor attack provoked a declaration of war by part was given to the United Kingdom, one part to
the United States on Japan the very next day, it would France, one part to United States, and eastern port
be several months before U.S. forces would get seriously was occupied by the USSR.
involved militarily. ³³ The city of Berlin was partitioned among the four
³³ In late spring of 1942, the United States and Japan parties even though it was in the part occupied by
engaged in a series of noval battles, climaxing in the the USSR.
Battle of Midway on June 3-6, 1942, in which Japan ³³ The Western parts of Berlin were called West Berlin,
suffered a caterstrophic defeat. inside the German Democratic Republic. The Berlin
The Approach to Japan –Fighting continued wall built in 1961 divided the two parts of Berlin was
throughout the pacific in 1944 and early 1945, including part of iron curtain that divided Europe.
major battles at Leyte, lwo Jima and Okinawa. ³³ After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and without
³³ By the late spring of 1945, most of Japan’s conquest communist rule holding together the countries that
had been liberated, and Allied forces were closing on comprised the Soviet Union, the USSR broke into
the Japanese home islands. smaller countries like Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania
³³ As they neared Japan proper, the Allies began heavy and Georgia. The nations of Eastern Europe returned
bombing campaigns against major Japanese cities, to capitalism, and the period of Cold War was over.
including Tokyo. ³³ The Soviet Union ended in December 1991.

WORLD HISTORY : IMPORTANT FACTS

³³ 3400 B.C. – 2700 B.C. constitutes the Age of Pyramids. ³³ Sargon of Akkad unified the whole of Mesopotamia.
³³ Pyramids of Egypt were constructed by the Pharaohs ³³ The Han dynasty of China started conducting Civil
of Egypt. Services Examinations.
³³ The great Pharaoh Akhnaton ruled from 1375 B.C. ³³ Mandarins were the civil servants in Chinese Empire.
– 1358 B.C. ³³ Confucius was born in the state of Lu.
³³ Cleopetra was the most beautiful queen of the Ancient ³³ Confucius dies in 479 B.C.
World. ³³ Tqaism was founded on the basis of the writings of
³³ Mesopotamian civilization flourished in the Tigris – Lao Tze (604 B.C – 517 B.C.).
Euphrates Valley.

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³³ Mencius (372 B.C - 289 B.C.) was a great chinese ³³ Slogan “No taxation without representation” originated
WORLD HISTORY

philosopher. during American revolution.

³³ Indian Buddhist monks Kashyapa Matanga and ³³ The Americans fought for their Independence under
Dharamarakshita helped in the spread of Buddhism the command of George Washington.
in China. ³³ The Constitution of America came into force on June
³³ Shi-Huang-Ti constructed the Great wall of China. 21, 1788.
³³ The Aegean Empire flourished between 2500-1400 ³³ George Washington was elected the first President
B.C. of America.
³³ The Aegean civilization on the Island of crete was ³³ The period of 18th century is called as the “Age of
destroyed by a Volcano. Enlightenment”.
³³ Homer wrote epic-poems Iliad and Odyssey. ³³ Montesquieu (1689-1755) was a French Philosopher.
³³ Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes were Greek city ³³ ‘The Spirit of Laws’ is the most famous book of
States. Montesquieu.
³³ In Greece Zeus was the Sky God and Apollo, the ³³ Voltaire’s ideas had great impact on the French
Sun-God. Revolution.
³³ Olympic games were organized in Ancient Greece once ³³ Rousseau wrote the famous book ‘Social Contract’.
in four years. ³³ Rousseau wrote in ‘Social Contract’ that “Man is born
³³ The Renaissance in Europe was an intellectual free but he is everywhere in chains”.
movement in 14th century. ³³ The slogans of equality, liberty and fraternity during
³³ Petrarch wrote ‘Sonnets to Laura’. the French Revolution were inspired by Rousseau’s
³³ Mechiavelli (1469-1527) wrote ‘The Prince’. ideas.
³³ Medici family of Florence patronised various artists. ³³ Saint Simon wrote the famous book “The New
³³ ‘Monalisa’ and ‘The last supper’ are the creations of Christianity” (1825).
Leonardo Da Vinci. ³³ The ‘Communist Manifesto’ was published in 1848
³³ ‘The Last Judgement’ is the most famous work of and was written by Karl Marx.
Michel Angelo. ³³ The first volume of ‘Das Capital’ was published in
³³ Sir Thomas More wrote ‘Utopia’. 1867.
³³ The Reformation was a movement aimed towards ³³ “First International” was formed in 1864.
reforming the Roman Catholic Church. ³³ “Second International” was formed in 1889.
³³ The Reformation Movement in Germany was led by ³³ Karl Heinrich Marx was born in 1818 in Germany.
Martin Luther. ³³ Karl Marx died in 1883 in London.
³³ Zwingli and Calvin led the movement in Switzerland. ³³ The French Revolution begin with the siege of Bastille
³³ The earliest Nation state to emerge in Europe was on July 14, 1789.
England. ³³ Louis XVI was the ruler at the time of French
³³ The Elizabethan age is regarded as the ‘Golden Age’ Revolution.
in the history of England. ³³ Louis XVI was executed in 1793.
³³ Elizabeth I ruled from 1558-1603 A.D. ³³ The period of September 1792 – July 1794 is known
³³ After Elizabeth’s death England came to be ruled by as the reign of trerror.
Stuart rulers. ³³ In 1795 the exective power was vested with the
³³ James I (1605-1625) was the first Stuart ruler. Directory.
³³ King Henry IV founded the House of Bourbons. ³³ Napolean Bonaparte was born at Ajaccio on the island
³³ Bourbon dynasty continued till the French Revolution of corsica in 1769.
(1789 A.D.). ³³ Napolean defeated the Egyptians in the battle of
³³ Louis XIV declared “I am the State”. Pyramids.
³³ Spain was liberated from the Moors in 1492. ³³ Napolean ruled France from 1799 to 1815.
³³ During the first half of the 16th century, Spain was ³³ Napolean faced crushing defeat in the battle of Leipzig.
ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. ³³ Napolean was banished to the island of Elba.
³³ Phillip II married the English Queen, Mary. ³³ The battle of Waterloo (1815) finally ended the career
³³ In 1664, the English renamed New Amsterdam as of Napolean.
New York. ³³ Napolean went into exile in the island of St. Helena.
³³ Seven Year’s war continued from 1756-63. ³³ Napolean died in 1821.
³³ The incident called ‘Boston Tea Party’ occurred on ³³ The task of Italian unification was carried at by
December 16, 1773. Mazzini Cavour and Garibaldi.
³³ Thomas Paine wrote the pamphlet ‘Common Sense’. ³³ Garibaldi is known as “the sword of Italian unification”.
³³ Thomas Jefferson wrote ‘The Declaration of American ³³ Zollverein was the custom union formed by Prussia.
Independence.’ ³³ Otto Von Bismarck was the architect of Germany’s
³³ The Declaration of Independence was issued on 4th unification.
July 1776. ³³ Bismarck followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’.
³³ In 1783, the British signed the Treaty of Paris, by ³³ Czar Nicholas II (1894-1917) was the ruler during the
which she recognized the independence of the 13 Russian Revolution (1917).
colonies.

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³³ Rasputin was the notorious Minister of Czar Nicholas. ³³ Second World war was began in September, 1939.

WORLD HISTORY
³³ The Czar was forced to abdicate in March 1917. ³³ German forces attackd Poland on September 1, 1939.
³³ The Social Democratic Party was formed in 1898. ³³ Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3rd
³³ In 1903 the Social Democratic Party bifurcated into September, 1939.
Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. ³³ The Pearl Harbour was attacked on December 7, 1941,
³³ The events of 12 March 1917 has been called the on August 6, 1945 U.S. dropped the first atom bomb
February Revolution. on Hiroshima.
³³ On August 9, 1945, U.S. dropped the second atom
³³ A provisional government was set up under Alexander
bomb on Nagasaki.
Kerensky.
³³ The Japanese forces surrendered on September 2,
³³ Nikolai Lenin (1870-1924) was the leader of the 1945.
Bolsheviks.
³³ Yalta conference was organised from 4 to 11 February,
³³ Lenin promised to people “Peace, Land and Bread”. 1945.
³³ The overthrowing of Provisional Government on ³³ Dumbarton Oaks conference (1944) was organised
November 7, 1917, is known as October Revolution. to discuss the formation of the United Nations
³³ New Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced in 1921. Organisations.
³³ Lenin died in 1924. ³³ The United Nations charter become effective on 24
³³ Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) assumed charge as the October 1945.
leader of Russia. ³³ May Fourth Movement started on 4 May, 1919 in
³³ The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand China.
and his wife in Sarjevo on 28 June 1914 provided ³³ In 1921 the communist party of China was formed.
the immediate cause for the outbreak of World War I. ³³ In 1868 the rule of Shogun ended in Japan and Meiji
³³ In 1882 Triple Alliance was formed by Germany, came in to power.
Austria-Hungary and Italy. ³³ Cold war developed between USA and USSR after the
³³ On 1 August 1914 Germany declared war on Russia second World War.
and on 3 August on France. ³³ In 1949 Germany was divided into Eastern and
³³ France, Russia and their allies came to be known as Western Germany.
Allied Powers. ³³ The North Atlantic Traty Organisation (NATO) was
³³ Germany, Austria and their allies came to be known formed on April 4, 1949.
as the Central Powers. ³³ In 1955, the communist countries formed the Warsaw
³³ Woodrow Wilson presented the Fourteen Points. Pact.
³³ The Paris Peace conference was organised in January, ³³ Germany was reunited on 3 October, 1990.
1919. ³³ The Korean War broke out in 1950.
³³ The Treaty of Versailles was signed with Germany on ³³ In 1954, the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation
28 June, 1919. (SEATO) was set up.
³³ The Paris Peace Conference led to the creation of the ³³ In January 1959, there was a revolution in Cuba
league of Nations. under Fidel Castro.
³³ The League Headquarters were located in Geneva ³³ In 1961, East Germany built a wall between East and West
(Switzerland). Berlin.
³³ The USA and Soviet Union remained outside the ³³ U.S. started its ‘Star-Wars programme’ in 1980s.
League of Nations.
³³ On 26 December, 1991 the Soviet Union broke up
³³ Mussolini was popularly known as Duce.
into 15 Independent Republics.
³³ The Economic Depression in Europe continued from
³³ In 1960, 17 African countries became Independent.
1929 to 1933.
³³ The system of racial segregation called apartheid was
³³ The Nazis were popularly known as the Brownshirts.
practised in South Africa.
³³ On 30 January, 1933 Hitler was appoined as the
Chacellor of Germany. ³³ The African National Congress (ANC) led the movement
against apartheid.
³³ Hitler was an Austrian by birth.
³³ Nelson Mandela was released from Jail in 1990 after
³³ Hitler’s organisation came to be known as the National
Socialist Party. about 26 years.
³³ Hitler wrote the book Mein Kampf (My battle) in Prison. ³³ The Arab League was set up in 1945.
³³ In 1934 Hitler became the President as well as the ³³ ASEAN was set up in 1967.
Chancellor. ³³ SAARC was set up in 1985.
ppp

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 3 ART & CULTURE : INDIA

DANCE

Classical Dances
Classical Daces States Exponents Related Styles

Odishi Odisha Kelucharan Mahaptara, Pankaj Charan Mahars Devadasi, Gotipua,

Originated in 2nd century B.C., Das, Hare Krishna Behera, Sonal Tribhanga Mangalacharan
based on the Natya Shastra, Mansingh, Kabita Dwivedi, Kiran Sehgal, Pallavi, Tarijhuma, Moksha,
Originated in temple during King Madhvi Mudgal, Sharon Lewon, Myrta Majura
Khaarvela reign, woven around Barvil, Indarani Rahman, Priyambada
Tribhanga pose Mohanty.

Bharata Natyam Tamil Nadu Rukmini Devi Arundale (of Kalakhestra Sadir, Devadasi, Padanallur,
Popular in of India. It follows Fame) T Balasaraswathi, Yamini Krishna Tanjore Alarippu, Jatiswaran,
principle of Natyashastra. It is a Murthy, Padma Subramaniyam, Mrinalini Shabdam, Varnanritya, Thillana
solo dance by women. Sarabhai, Vaijayantimala Bali, Leela
Samson.

Kuchipudi Andhra Pradesh T Balasarswathi, Esther Sherman, Indrani Bhagavatalu, Bhagavata

It is a variation of of Rahman, Swapna Sundari, Sobha Naidu, Themes, Manduka, Shabdam
Bharatnatyam. It originated Raja Reddy, Radha Reddy, Vempati Balagopala Tavrang, Tala Chitra
in a place called Kuchelapur. Chinna Satyam, Satyanarayanan Sharma, Nritya
Performed by man attired like Sudha Sekhara, Rajaram Rao, G Sarala.
women.

Kathakali Kerala Mukunda Raja (of Kalmandalam fame), Open air stage, facial make up,
(Ballet of East) Originated in Koppan Nair, Shanta Rao, Kanak Rele, Thiranottam
Courts of Kings in which a story Geeta Ganguly, V Kunju Kurupu,
is related to the dance. Gopinathan Krishnan, VN Menon.

Mohiniattam Kerala Vitho Narayan Menon, Kalyani Amma It has elements of both
In the 19th century the King Shanta Rao, Roshan Vajifdar, Bharati Kathakali & Bharatnattyam
of Travancore Swatitirunal Shivaji, Kanak Rele.
enouraged this dance.

Manipuri Manipur Jhaveri Sisters, Charu Mathur, Sadhona Kamba Thoibi Pung drum,
Bose, Bipin Singh, Rita Devi, Savita Mehta, Choloms like Pung Cholom,
Tandor Devi. Kartal Cholom, Dhol Cholom,
Rasleela, Tandava, gorgeous
costumes.

Kathak U.P. Birju Maharaj, Kalka-Binda Rasleela, Nautch, four

Flourished in North Indian Gharana,Kumdini Lakhia, Damayanti Gharanas, Salami, Vandana,
princely states Jaipur, Lucknow Joshi,Rani Karna, Saswati Sen, Roshan Aamad, Gatnikaas, Padhant,
and Banaras. It is a dance based Kumari, Gopi Krishna, Sitara Devi, Karmalya, Ballets.
on story from epic about Radha Sambhu Maharaj, Ananda Shankar,
and Krishna Shovna Narayan, Bhandana Mangal,
Kulgrani Bhatt, Gitanjali Lal.

Sattriya Assam Moniram Dutta Muktiyar Barbayan, Bapuram Devotional aspect of dance and
This dance form was introduced Bayan Attai, Pradip Chaliha, Manik narrates mythological stories of
by the Vaishnava saint Barbayan, Jogen Dutta Bayan, Anita Vishnu, Borgeet, dance posture
Shankardeva in 15th century Sarma, Sarodi Saikia along with footwork, hand
A.D. The art form derives its gesture and footwork, Gayan-
name from the Vaishnava Bhayanar and Kharmanar Nach,
Monasteries known as Sattras. Sutradhari, Rajaghoria, Chali,
The Dance Form was an Jhumura, Krishna Nritya.
amalgamation of Ojapali and
Devdasi dance.

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 Art & Culture : India

ART & CULTURE INDIA

FOLK, TRIBAL AND REGIONAL DANCES

Jammu & Kashmir : Kerala :

³³ Rauf : by women during harvest, ³³ Kudiyattam, Kaliyattam, Kaiko- ttikali, Ottam Tullal,
³³ Hikat : expression of joy and love by boys and girls, Sari, Tappatrikkali, Padayani
Damali : by men in temple, Uttarakhand
³³ Lhapas & Manipas : Ladakh, ³³ Jhumelia, Chaunfla, Harkia Baul, Chholiya
³³ Dandi Nacha : bomboostic dance, Lakhsadweep :
³³ Dumhal, Bhacha Nagma, Chhakri, Kud, Phumania ³³ Lava, Bhavada
: by Wattal Tribe Tripura :
Punjab : ³³ Hajagiri
³³ Giddha : by women at harvest, Nagaland :
³³ Bhangra : by both men & women ³³ Bamboo dance, Kabui
Rajasthan :
PUPPET DANCES
³³ Chakri serpent, Gangore, Ginad, Gopika Leela,
Kalibelia, Jhulan, Jhumar, Khayal, Susini. Kathaputli : Rajasthan
Haryana : Sakhi Kundhei : Odisha
³³ Daph, Dhamal, Gugga, Gagor, Jhumar, Koria, Loor,
Pudda Nach : Assam
Phag. Malasutri Bahuly : Maharashtra
Himachal Pradesh : Bommalattam : Tamil Nadu
³³ Bhavi, Chharba, Dangi, Jadda, Jhainta, Kinnaur,
Tolpavakootu : Kerala
Mahasu, Thoda, Thali. Kundeinachhha : Odisha
Gujarat : Pava Kathakali : Kerala
³³ Bhavi, Garba, Dandiya Rass, Tripani, Gomph,
Kathikundhei : Odisha
Zeriyun, Gheriya Raas. Gombeyatta : Karnataka
Uttar Pradesh : Yampuri : Bihar
³³ Rass leela, Dadra, Kajari, Jhora, Nautanki, Chappeli.
Putul Nacch : West Bengal
Ravanchhaya : Odisha
Bihar/Jharkhand :
³³ Jatra, Natua, Jijhiya, Barlanga Dance, Karma, MARTIAL DANCES
Kathaputli, Bakho, Jat-Jatin, Paika, Biraha, Gatka : Punjab
Samachakya.
Paika : Odisha
Madhya Pradesh :
Thag Ta : Manipur
³³ Dagla, Jawara, Ghera.
Kalaripayattu : Kerala
Odisha :
Choliya : Uttarakhand
³³ Dandanatta, Chhau, Yatra, Ghumara, Bharat Leela,
Dalkhai, Chaitri Ghorha, Jadur. Pang Lhabosol : Sikkim Kolkali
Maharashtra : Parichakali : Kerla & Lakshdweep
³³ Katha, Tamasha, Lavani, Gafa, Karku, Mauni, DRAMA
Dahikala, Lezim.
Modern Drama In India
Bengal :
³³ Geratin Lebedev - began drama (1795)
³³ Kathi Dance, Baul dance, Chhau, Brita
³³ Krishnaji Prabhakar Khadilkar - Kichaka Vadha
Assam :
³³ Aga Harsha Kashmir - Urdu Theatere (Shakespeare
³³ Canoe Dance, Tabal Chongbi (Holi), Rakhal Leela,
of India)
Bihu, Khela, Gopala, Jata Jatin
³³ Bhartendu Harish Chandra - Bharat Durdasa
Manipur :
³³ Mohan Rakesh-Ashadha Ka Ek Din, Adhe Adhure,
³³ Ras Dances, Khamba Thoibi, Pung, Cholan
Lahraon Ka Rajhansa
Andhra Pradesh :
³³ Dharmaveer Bharati- Andha Yuga
³³ Ghanta Mardala, Banjara, Burrakatha
³³ Vijay Tendulkar-Ghasiram Kotwale
Karnataka :
³³ Habib Tanvir - Mitti Ki Gadis, Charandas Chor
³³ Huttari, Suggi, Yakshagana, Dholu Kunitha, Bhootha
Aradhane ³³ Girish Kannad - Yajati, Tughlaq, Hayavadan
Tamil Nadu : ³³ Babban Khan - Adrak Ke Panje
³³ Kolattam, Kavadiattam, Karagam, Kummi ³³ Sanjana Kapoor - Prithvi Theatre.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

Folk Theatres
ART & CULTURE : INDIA

Theatre State Importance

Mudiyettu Kerala performed as a ritual in Kali temples
Krishnattam Tamil Nadu depiction of life of Lord Krishna
Kudiyattam Kerala elaborate presentation of Sanskrit dramas
Theyyam Kerala a form of ancestor worship
Ankianat Assam an one act play about religious themes
Bhavai Rajasthan rituals to propitiate the mother Goddess
Saang Haryana legend, dancing & singing interwoven with comic scenes
Jashin Jammu & Kashmir honouring Gods & have end with comedy. Actors mingle with people
Keryala Himachal Pradesh about questions of life & death
Khyal Rajasthan cultural & social education through singing & musical instruments
Tamasha Maharashtra a singing & dancing party about political & social themes
Therukkoothu Tamil Nadu a street theatre of dance & music
Yatra Odisha about social & religious themes
Zaratra (Zatuas) Goa annual celebration of a particular deity of a particular temples
Nautanki Uttar Pradesh a music theatre
Macha Madhya stage shows on the day of Holi
Pradesh about mythological stories
Rasleela Uttar Pradesh about life of Lord Krishna
³³ Folk theatres of Ancient and Medieval India have been described in the uparupakas by Sanskrit dramaturgists.
³³ It was Tulsidas who first started the tradition of performing plays narrating the story of Lord Rama at Kasi.
MODERN THEATRE
³³ The year 1801 marked the begining of Modern Indian ³³ Bahuroopi is a Sambhu Mitra's drama group which
theatre, when Prassanna Kumar Thakur established is popular in Bengal.
Hindi Rang Mancha at Calcutta. ³³ The popular play Sita Swayamvar was directed by
³³ Girish Chandra Ghosh is related with Brocial dramas. Vishnu Das Bhave.
³³ D.L.Roy is related with historical plays. ³³ Popular plays Giddha, Kamala and Shakkaram Binder
³³ The drama ‘Navanna’ is written by Bijon Bhattacharya are written by Vijay Tendulkar.
and directed by Sambhu Mitra.
MUSIC
³³ Earliest text was Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra ³³ Dhamur Veena the bow shaped harp is considered
³³ Science of Music : Gandharva Veda the oldest insturment.
³³ Sama veda contains : The method of recital of music ³³ Tamil and Dravidian music derived inspiration from
³³ Brihaddesi by Matanga defines & classified the Ragas Thevaram and Silpadikaram.
³³ Baiju Babra is father of Hindustani Music. ³³ The Golden age of the Carnatic music was the period
³³ Haridas Swami, Guru of Tansen, modified ancient style of Venkatamakhin.
of Dhrupad. ³³ Carnatic music reached its zenith when Shyama
³³ Wazid Ali Shah is considered as the innovator of the Shatri, Muthuswami Dikshithar, Thyagaraja, and
Thumari form. Swathi Tirunal elevated the standard with their
³³ The Nawab of Rampur devised a system of notation exuberant compositions.
and classification of Ragas under 'Thats'. ³³ Kirtis a new component of Carnatic music was created
³³ Mustak Hussain Khan, Haffeez Ahmad Khan and by Thallappakkam Annammacharya between 1425
Ustad Fida Hussain Khan popularised Hindustani and 1530 A.D.
vocal music in the west. ³³ Purandaradasa (1460-1564) encouraged kirtis.
³³ The origin of Khayal is attributed to Amir Khusro. ³³ The 17th century saw the glory of ‘Padmas’ songs
³³ Qawwali is an innovation of Amir Khusro. composed by the great musician kshetrangna.
³³ Mirza Galib is regarded as the father of Ghazals. ³³ New forms that came in existence in 18th century
³³ Dhun is free from formal ragas desciplines composed are -Pada varnas, Tana Varnas, Swarajati, Jatiswara,
on the basis of folk music. Ragwhalika, Tillanas, Javalis etc.
³³ Gat is a well–defined composition and it is preceded ³³ Subbarama Dikshitar (1859-1906) produced the
by the Alap. “Sangeetha Sampradaya Pradarshani” which consisted
of his collection of Rag Lakshmas, Gamakas, Songs,
Varnas,Ragamalikas etc.

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 Art & Culture : India

³³ In the 19th and 20th century musician like Veenai GHARANAS

ART & CULTURE INDIA

Dhanammal, Maha Vaidyanatha Iyer, and Ariyakudi
Ramanuja Iyengar contributed to the Carnatic Music. These are musical dialects based on individual tem-
peraments, vocal capacity and musical aptitude.
³³ Nadopasakas of the 20th century, with their excellent
renderings and compositions enlarged the dimensions Name Place Founder
of music further. Gwalior Gharana Gwalior Nanthan Khan
HINDUSTANI MUSIC Agra Gharana Agra Haji Sujan Khan
³³ This music type developed in Northern India. Rangeela Gharana Agra Faiyyaz Khan
³³ The Hindustani branch of music focuses more on the Jaipur Atroli Jaipur Alladiya Khan
musical structure and the possibilities of improvisation
in it. Kirana Gharana Avadh Abdul Wahid Khan
³³ The Hindustani branch adopted a scale of Shudha Swara
Singer Gharanas Singer Gharanas
Saptaka or the ‘Octave of Natural notes’.
³³ There are ten main style of singing in Hindustani Bhimsen Joshi Kirana Pandit Jasraj Mewati
music like the Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Kishori Amolkar Jaipur Gangubhai Kirana
Chaturang, Ragasagar, Tarana, Sargam and Thumri.
Hangal
³³ It has six primary ragas i.e. Bhairava, Kaushika,
Hindola, Dipak, Sri raga, & Megh. Mallikarjun Gwalior Sharafat Agra
Mansur Agra Hussein Khan
Six Ragas Ghulam Ali
Ragas Timing Moods
Bhairava Dawn awe & fear CARNATIC MUSIC
³³ This music type developed in Southern Part of India
Kaushika Night joy which includes Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh
Hindola Night laughter and Tamil Nadu.
³³ The music is Kriti based and focuses more on the
Dipak Afternoon love
Saahitya or lyric quality of the musical piece.
Megh Morning calm ³³ The Kriti is a highly evolved musical song set to a
Sriraga Evening peace certain taga and fixed tala or rhythmic cycle.

Carnatic Music
Types Meaning
Ragam-Tanam Pallavi Eleborate rhythmic and melodic variation in unmeasured sense.
Kritti-Kirtnai Most popular. It refers to devotional music laced with poetic beauty.
Varnam Performed at the beginning of a concert. It is a completely composed piece, designed to
show the characteristic phrases.
Padam Slower tempoed love songs referring to the human yearning for the adored God head.
Javalis Faster tempoed love songs with direct description of human love.
Tillana Meaningful phrases are interspersed with a variety of meaningless syllables.

Difference between Hindustani Music and Carnatic Music

Points of Difference Hindustani Music Carnatic Music
Influence Arab, Persian and Afghan Indigenous
Freedom scope for artists to improvise No freedom to improvise
Sub style several subtypes related with ‘Gharanas’ Only one particular prescribed style of singing.
Ragas 6 major ragas 72 ragas
Time Adheres to time Doesn’t adhere to any time
Need for Instrument Equally important as vocals More emphasis on vocal music
Instruments Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar and Veena, Mrindangum and
Santoor. Mandolin
Association to parts North India South India
of India
Folk Music ³³ Wonawan : It is the folk music from Kashmir, sung
³³ Each state of India has its own form of music that during wedding ceremonies and is considerered very
is the basis of their cultural affirmation, the folk auspicious.
tradition is the music of the people and has no hard ³³ Pandwani : It is the folk music of Chhattisgarh, which
and fast rules.

OLE - 119
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

is based on grand epic Mahabharata. Well known

Musical Instruments & Persons
ART & CULTURE : INDIA

artists Tijanbai related with this music.

³³ Alha : This is the folk music of Madhya Pradesh and l Flute Hari Prasad Chaurasia, Rajendra
Bundel Khanda (U.P.), it is a heroic ballad song with Prasad, Subhash Kamat, Narayan
intricate words. Ghosh, T. Mahalingam
³³ Ovi : This is music of Maharashtra & Goa, sung by
women. l Tabla Ala Rakha Khan, Zakir Hussein,
³³ Pai song : It is folk music of Madhya Pradesh sung Latif Khan, Sheikh Dawood,
during festivals. Swapna Choudhari
³³ Maand : It is folk music of Rajasthan. The songs
l Violin L Subramanyam, T. N. Krishnan,
are usually about the bards singing the glory of the
Rajput Rulers. N. Rajan, B. Sunderrajan
³³ Powada : It is folk music of Maharashtra. They are l Veena S. Balachander, Doraiswamy
usually ballads sung for the heros of the post like Iyenger, Kalyan Krishna
Shivaji.
³³ Khongjom Parva : It is an important folk music from l Sitar Pt. Ravishankar, Nishat Khan,
the state of Manipur. Shamim Ahmed Khan
³³ Sohar : It is folk song of Bihar, sung during childbirth.
l Shehnai Bismillah Khan
³³ Bhagawati : It is folk song of Karnataka & Maharashtra.
l Sarangi Ramvatar Shastri, Sabri Khan,
FAMOUS PERSONALITIES
Ram Narain
³³ Rabinadranath Tagore : Composed unique songs
under the title of Rabindra Sangeet. l Santoor Shiv Kumar Sharma, Nandu Mule,
³³ Kazi Nazrul Islam : The famous patriotic poet of Viraswami Pillai
Bengal.
l Harmonium Purushottam Walawalker, Appa
³³ Subramaniam Bharati : Famous patriotic poet of
Jalgaonkar
Tamil literature.
³³ Amir Khusrau : At the court of Alauddin Khilji. He l Pakhaj Pagal Das, Chatrapati Singh
invented Sitar, Khayal & Qawwali. He invented Rekht,
the precursor of Urdu language. l Mridangam Mani Ayyar, U. Shivaraman
³³ Sadarang School : A school of Hindustani Music l Sarod Debashish Bhattacharya, Zarin
founded by Nyamat Khan. Took Khayal singing to Daroowala, Brij Narayan, Amjad
its peak.
Ali Khan Bangash
³³ Adarang School : A school of Hindustani Music
founded by Firoz Khan. It was known for its exquisite
beauty & philosophical content in Khayal singing. PAINTINGS
³³ Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande: Founded Morris College Prehistroic Paintings
of Music at Lucknow. His pen name was Chatura. His
³³ Bhimbetka, Jogimara, Adamgarh, Mirzapur, Kupagallu
works are Hindustani Sangeet Padhati, Abhinava Raga
Manjari, A short Historical Survey of Music of Upper ³³ Rock Painting
India, Lakhya Sangeeta etc. ³³ Depiction of hunting & animal scenes, also have some
³³ Vishnu Digambar Paluskar : A great musician, he social scenes.
founded Gandharva Mahavidyalaya & Prayag Samiti. ³³ This period mainly sees the use of red colour.
His Ram-dhun music, i.e. Raghupati Raghaba was
sung during the Dandi March. Cave Painting
³³ Tansen : Adorned the court of Akbar. He authored ³³ Ajanta-Ellora (Maharashtra), Bagh (M.P.), Sittanavasal
Sangeeta Sara & Ragmala. He established Senia (T.N.)
Gharana. ³³ The walls of the caves have both murals and fresco
³³ Parandaradasa : Father of the Karnataka (Carnatic) paintings i.e. painted on wet plaster. They use tempera
music. He was the first to standardized teaching style, i.e. use of pigments.
methods of music in India. He wrote Maya Malavagaula.
³³ Buddhist & Hindu religious & mythology were themes.
³³ Muthuswami Dikhsitar : A well–known exponent
Important among them are Dieing Princes, Mother &
of Karnataka music. He composed various ragas
Child (all at Ajanta)
of Karnataka music. He invented techniques with
certain complex use of varying tempo. He innovated ³³ At Sittanavasal, the theme is Jaina religion
Violin in India. Pala School
³³ Thyagaraj : He was one of Trinity of Karnataka music-
two others being Shyama Shastri & Swati Tirunal. His ³³ In Bengal
famous work is Bhakti Vijayam. ³³ IIIustrations on palm leaf and paper manuscripts and
³³ Vidyaratna : He put Karnataka music on scientific on the wooden covers.
lines. He wrote Sangitasastra.
³³ Inspired by Vajrayana School of Buddhism.

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 Art & Culture : India

Lepakshi School ³³ Subjects of painting are Gita Govinda, Bhagwata

ART & CULTURE INDIA

³³ In Vijayanagar Purana, Satsai of Biharilal and Nal Damyanti.
³³ On temple ceilings Hyderabadi Style
³³ Characterised by earth stones and absence of blue ³³ Consists of Bijapuri and Golconda court paintings.
colour. ³³ Inspired by Mughal School
Mewar School ³³ Potrays royal taste in fruits, scented flowers and pets.

³³ In Mewar of Rajasthan Tanjore Style

³³ Known as Ragamala paintings. Mainly on life of ³³ Famous for its Glass painting
Krishna & his frolic with gopis. ³³ Themes related to Vishnu, Shiva & Krishana
Marwar School ³³ Paintings made on Jackwood pasted with unbleached
cloth.
³³ In Jodhpur and Nagaur
³³ Influenced by Mughal School
Mysore Paintings
³³ Bold expression with broad fish eyes & highly stylized ³³ Paintings developed in Southern Karnataka.
trees. ³³ Major themes are the depiction of Hindu gods and
goddesses.
Kishangarh School
³³ In this paintings ‘gesso paste’ is used which is a
³³ A type of Rajasthani painting mixture of Zinc oxide and Arabic gum.
³³ Lyrical beauty in its content Madhubani Style
³³ Love scences of Radha and Krishna.
³³ Developed in Mithila region of Bihar.
Bundi School ³³ Common themes are religious motifs of the Hindus,
³³ In Kotah and Bundi regions including Krishna, Rama, Durga, Lakshmi and Shiva.
³³ About court scenes, nobles & lovers ³³ Flowers, trees, animals, symbols, etc are used to fill
any gaps in the paintings.
Apabhramsa School ³³ Traditionally, these were painted on walls using rice
³³ This School of painting originated either in Mewar of paste and vegetable colours on a base of cow dung
Rajasthan. It is debated. and mud.
³³ The charateristics of this school are : Pattachitra
³³ Bulging eyes (fish–shaped) ³³ It is a traditional painting of Odisha.
• Pointed • nose • Double Chin • Predominant Chests ³³ Painted on cloth.
• Distorted hands and stiff figure • Use of bright and ³³ The themes of these paintings are Jagannath and
gold colours • Animals and birds represented like Vaishnava cult, sometimes from Shakti and Shaiva
toys • Lack of natural scenes • Decorated margins cults.
Mughal School ³³ Raghurajpur on Odisha is known for this art form.
³³ Pattachitra on palm leaf is known as talapattachitra.
³³ Although painting is treated as against Islam, it
spread and developed under the Mughals and a new Patua Style
combination of Indo-Persian style developed under ³³ This art developed in Bengal.
them. These paintings also had Buddhist and Central
³³ Traditionally these were painted on cloth and told
Asian and Mongoloid influences.
religious stories.
³³ The characterestics of this school are :
³³ These paintings are done on pats or scrolls.
• Use of brilliant colours • Variety of themes
• Ornamentation • Realism • Accuracy in line drawing Pithoro Style
• Details and intricacies • Perspective ³³ Gujarat tribal paintings
Pahari Painting Kalighat Painting
³³ In hill areas of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Main ³³ Developed in Kolkata is 19th century.
theme is love. ³³ Water colours were used.
³³ Basohli - famous for primitive vigour and fierce ³³ The paintings depicted religious note, especially Hindu
vitality, bold lines and brilliant hot colours. Gods and Goddesses.
³³ Guler - lyrical and cool depiction of women in the
absence of their lovers Kalamkari Paintings
³³ Kangra - fine and melodious - lines with female figures ³³ Developed in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
depicting delicate graces of feminism. ³³ Kalam made of sharp pointed bamboo, the base is
³³ Developed in kangra, Kullu, Chamba and Mandi cotton fabric while the colours used are vegetable
region of Himachal Pradesh. dyes.

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³³ The paintings depicts hindu mythology also chartwheel, lotus flower, animals and interlacing patterns of flowers and leaves.
ART & CULTURE : INDIA

Paitkar Paintings
³³ Developed in Jharkhand as scroll painting.
³³ These paintings are linked to the social and religious customs including giving alms and holding yajnas.
Tanjore Glass Paintings
³³ Its origin can be traced to the downfall of the Vijayanagar when a group of artist migrated to Mysore and Tanjore.
It consists of pictures of child Krishna and other favourite divinities. It uses vivid colours on glass.

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

Important Caves
Caves Place/State Importance
Barabara & Nagarjuni Gaya/Bihar donated to Ajivika sects
Elephanta Mumbai Brahmanical temples flanked by elephant statues
Kanheri Konkan Buddhist Chaitya
Jogeswari Salsette/ Maharashtra Mahayan Architecture
Montpezir Maharashtra Portuguese settlement ruins
Karle Maharashtra Hinayana Chaitya
Bhaja Maharashtra 18 Buddhist caves built for nuns
Bedsa Maharashtra Chaitya supported by Elephant carved pillars
Ellora Aurangabad Rashtrakuta & Chalukya temples
Ajanta Aurangabad Fresco Paintings
Aihole & Badami Karnataka Consists of 70 temples of Nagar style of different religions
Nasik Maharashtra 23 Buddhist caves
Junagarh Gujarat Buddhist caves
Bagh Madhya Pradesh (Malwa) frescos & stone Sculpture
Undavalli Andhra Pradesh Granite Vishnu Statue
Udayagiri & Khandagiri Odisha Built by Kharavela for Jaina monks

Important Monument/Structure
Monument/ Ruler Location Monument/ Ruler Location
Structure Structure
Quwat-ul-Islam Qutubuddin Aibak Delhi Lal Darwaza Hussain Shah Sharqi Jaunpur
Adhai Din ka Qutubuddin Aibak Ajmer Mosque
Jhonpra Atala Devi Masjid Ibrahim Shah Sharqi Jaunpur
Qutub Minar Qutubbudin Aibak, Delhi
Iltutmish Jami Masjid Ahmedshah Gujarat
Tomb of Iltutmish Iltutmish Delhi
Sultan Garhi Iltutmish Delhi Tomb of Ahmed- Muhammad Shah Gujarat
shah
Balban’s Tomb Balban Delhi
Alai Darwaja Alauddin Khalji Delhi Nagina Mosque Mahmud Begarah Gujarat
Siri Alauddin Khalji Delhi
Hauz Khas Alauddin Khalji Delhi Jami Masjid Husang Shah Malwa
Mahal Hazaar Alauddin Khalji Delhi
Hindola Mahal Husang Shah Malwa
Sitoon
Jamait Khana Alauddin Khalji Delhi Jahaz Mahal Mahmud-I Malwa
Mosque
Tughlaqabad Fort Ghiyasuddin Delhi Tomb of Husang Mahmud-I Malwa
Tughlaq Shah Palaces of
Tomb of Khan-i-Jahan Jauna Shah Delhi Baaz Bahadur
Maqbul
and Rupamati Nasiruddin Shah Malwa
Tomb of Sikander Ibrahim Lodhi Delhi
Lodhi
Adina Mosque Sikandar Shah Bengal
Jhanjhr Mosque Ibrahim Shah Sharqi Jaunpur

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 Art & Culture : India

ART & CULTURE INDIA

Monument/ Ruler Location Tomb of Sher Shah Sher Shah Sasaram
Structure Suri (Bihar)
Bara Sona Masjid Nusrat Shah Bengal Qila-i-khuna Sher Shah Delhi
Mosque
Qadam Rasool Nusrat Shah Bengal Purana Qila Sher shah Delhi
Masjid
Char Minar Quli Qutubshah Deccan Humayun’s Tomb Hamida Begum Delhi

Jami Masjid Alauddin Bahman Shah Deccan Agra fort Akbar Agra
(Gulbarga)
Gole Gumbad Muhammad Adil Shah Deccan Jahangiri Mahal Akbar Agra
Lahore fort Akbar Lahore
Kabulibagh Mosque Babur Panipat
Jam-i-Masjid Ruhelkhand Sambhal Rabia ud Dawan’s Aurangzeb Aurang-
Tomb abad
Fatehabad Mosque Humayun Punjab Badshahi Mosque Aurangzeb Lahore

Dinpanah city Humayun Delhi Moti Masjid Aurangzeb Delhi

IMPORTANT SCULPTURES
Sculupture Features Place
Caves Ancient most, Influenced by religious
practices.
Pillar Adornes Ashokan Edicts Rampurva, Sarnatha
Stupa Buddhist religious architecture Sanchi, Amaravati, Barhut, Nagarjunakonda
Carved Railings Adornes Stupas Amaravati
Gandhara Art First statue of Buddha-a mixture of India Peshawar region & Afghanistan
& Greek method
Mathura Richly decorated deities of Mathura
School all religion
Hindu Art Hindu temples of Nagara & Sikhara Styles Vidisa, Deogarh, Tigawa, Eran, Aihole,
Rajgriha
Pala School Fine Hindu & Buddhist Statues Nalanda, Bodh Gaya
Hoyasala Art Mature plan & general arrangement Mysore, Talakad, Halebid
Odisha School Development of Shikharas Bhubaneswar, Puri, Konark.
Chandela School Erotic sculpture Khajuraho
Vijaya Nagar School Decorated pillared halls Hampi
Nayak School Rajasthan Temple complex High platforms & Madurai Mt. Abu
School miniature towers
Chalukyan School Mixture of Nagar & Dravida styles, Chittor Aihole, Pattdakal
(Vesara)
Pallava School Monolithic temples Mahabalipuram
Chola School (Dravid) Gopurams or Gates Tanjore
Indo-Islamic Arch, domes, vaultes, gardens, marble use Delhi, Agra, Jaunpur, Bengal, Hyderabad.
pietradura

FAIRS AND FESTIVALS OF INDIA

³³ HINDU FESTIVALS : Maha Kumbh Mela (held Janmashtami, Pitrapaksh, Navaratri, Dussehra,
4 times in 12 years at Haridwar, Ujjain, Nasik Diwali (or Deepawali), Kartiki Purnima, Deva
and Prayag i.e. Allahabad). Vasanta Panchami, Prabodhani Ekadeshi.
Shivaratri, Holi, Rama Navami, Vaisakhi, Ganga ³³ Muslim Festivals : Muharram, Shab-i-Barat, Ramzan
(or Ramadan), Id-ul-Fitr, Id-ul-Zuha (or Azha or
Dussehra, Deva Shayani Ekadeshi, Naga Panchami,
Bakra-Id), Barawafat (or Id-i-Milad), Giarahvin Sharif,
Raksha Bandhan, Ganesh Chaturthi, Krishna Urs.

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³³ Christian Festivals : Christmas, Good Friday, Easter ³³ Puducherry : Mascarade, Masi Magam Festival.
ART & CULTURE : INDIA

³³ Sikh Festivals : Baisakhi, Guruparb, Jaistha, Lohri ³³ Sikkim : Soga Dawa, Phang, Lhabsol, Losoong.
³³ Buddhist Festivals : Buddha Jayanti ³³ Tripura : Karchi Puja, Khatarua, Ker Puja,
³³ Jain Festivals : Mahavira Jayanti, Paryushan, Tripureshvari Temple Festival.
Ashtanika, Arathyatra
³³ Uttarakhand : Bhitauli, Chhipla Jaat.
³³ Parsi Festivals : Jamshed-i-Navroz, Khordad Sal,
Pateti. ³³ Uttar Pradesh : Brahmotsav, Ram Navami, Bharat
³³ Secular Festivals : Republic Day, Indipendence Day,
Milap, Sravana Festival, Ban Yatra, Dussehra, Kans
Gandhi Jayanti, Children Day. Ka Mela.

REGIONAL FESTIVALS TEMPLES OF INDIA

Temples Places
³³ Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu : Pongal, Tyagaraja
Festival, Brahmotsavam, Teppem, Tamil and Telugu Dharmaraya Ratha Mahabalipuram
New Year Day, Madurai River Festival, Kaveri River Kailasa Vimana Ellora
Festival, Festival at Velanganni, Karthika Festival, Vaikunthaperumal Temple Kanchipuram
Vaikuntha Ekadeshi, St. Thomas’ Day, Fire-Walking Valisvara Temple Tiruvalisvaram
Festival.
Vijayalaya Cholesvaram Nartamali
³³ Arunachal Pradesh : Solung-Adi, Mopin-Adi, Murung,
Chamundaraya Basti Sravana Belagola
Buddha Mahotsava.
Panchakuta Basti Kambadahalli
³³ Assam : Bhageli Bihu, Bohag Bihu (or Rangali Bihu),
Bhoja Mandisvara Temple Nandi
Kati Bihu (or Rangati Bihu).
Malegitti Shivalaya Badami
³³ Bengal : Gangasagar Mela, Ramakrishna Utsav, Dol
Brihadesvara Vimana Thanjavur
Purnima, Jalpesh Mela, Naba Barsha.
Airavatesvara Vimana Darasuram
³³ Bihar : Chhath, Sarhul, Ramnavami
Nataraja Temple Chidambaram
³³ Chhattisgarh : Bhoramdeo, Pola, Teeja Festival.
Kasi Visvesara Temple Lakkundi
³³ Goa : Zatra at Cansaulim, Feast of St. Francis Xavier,
Arunachala Temple Tiruvannamali
Carnival.
Vitthala Temple Hampi
³³ Gujarat : Navratri, Modhera, Dhuleti.
Jalakanthesvara Vellore
³³ Himachal Pradesh : Lohri, Gochi, Phulaich, Minjar
Ranganatha Temple Srirangam
Mela, Jwalamukhi Fair
Vatapatrasyi Temple Srivilliputur
³³ Karnataka : Makara Sankranti, Ugadi, Karago, Feast
Subrahmanya Temple Tanjore
of St. Philomena, Dasahra, Urs of Hazrat Khwaja
Aghoresvara Temple Ikkeri
Bande Nawaz Chisti, Headannointing ceremony (At
Sravanbelagola) Visa Brahma Temple Alampur
Vadakkunatnan Temple Trichur
³³ Jammu and Kashmir : Nav Warih, Sont,Vaisakhi,
Jeth Ashtami, Mela Hemis Gompa, Har Navami, Pandava Ratha (Rockcut Chariot) Mahabalipuram
Pilgrimage to Amarnath Cave (Chhari Festival), Urs Shore Temple (Shiva) Mahabalipuram
Shah Hamadan, Kichri Amavasya. Meenakshi Temple Madurai
³³ Jharkhand : Sohrai, Sarhul. Manjunath Temple Mangalore
³³ Kerala : Thye Pongal, Vishu, Poorum, Onam. Rameshvaram Temple Rameshvaram
³³ Maharashtra : Gudi Padva, Dev Divali, Navratri, Halebid Temple Halebid
Ganpati Festival. Gupta Temple Sanchi
³³ Manipur : Yaosang, Kang, Ningol Chakouba, Parvati Temple Nachna
Chumpha. Bhitargaon Temple Bitargaon
³³ Odisha : Car Festival (at Puri) Bada Osha, Nuakhai. Mahabodhi Temple Bodh Gaya
³³ Mizoram : Minikut, Pawl Kut. Lakshmana Temple Sripur
³³ Nagaland : Nazu, Yemshe, Tuluni Festival. Vishva-Brahma Temple Alampur

³³ Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh : Gangaur, Teej, Badoli Temple Badoli

Pushkar Fair, Ghaila, Urs at Ajmer Sharif. Ambikamata Temple Jagata
³³ Punjab : Chappar mela. Vimala Vasahi Mount Abu

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 Art & Culture : India

ART & CULTURE INDIA

Temple No. III Roda Lakshmana Temple Khajuraho
Ranakadevi Temple Wadhwaran Lingaraja Temple Bhubaneshwar
Sun Temple Konark Udayeshwara Temple Udaipur
Sas Bahu Temple Gwalior Parashurameshwara Temple Bhubaneshwar
Kashi Vishvanatha Temple Varanasi Vaital Deu Bhubaneshwar
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple Khajuraho Muktemhwara Temple Bhubaneshwar
Jagannath Temple Puri Keshva Temple Somanathapur

CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS

³³ Lalit Kala Akademi (National Academy of Fine ³³ At present there are 3,606 centrally protected
Arts) : It was established at New Delhi in 1954 to monuments of national importance which include 25
promote and propagate understanding of Indian Art monuments in the list of world heritage.
(i.e., painting, sculpture, architecture and applied ³³ National Archives of India (NAI) : It was established
arts) both within and outside the country. on March 11, 1891 in Kolkata and known as Imperial
The Akademi has regional centres called Rashtriya Record Department till Independence. It is the official
Lalit Kala Kendras at Lucknow, Kolkata, Chennai and custodian of all non-current records of permanent
Bhubaneshwar. value of the Government of India and its predecessor
³³ Sangeet Natak Akademi (National Academy of bodies.
Music, Dance & Drama) : It was established in 1953 to ³³ Asiatic Society : It was established in 1784 at Kolkata
promote the performing Indian arts (i.e., dance, drama by Sir William Jones, an eminent Indologist with the
and music) in collaboration with states and voluntary objective of inquiring into history, antiquities, arts,
organisations. science and literature of Asia.
³³ National School of Drama (NSD) : It was established ³³ Anthropological Survey of India : It was established
in 1959 by the Sangeet Natak Akademi as a premier in December, 1945 at Kolkata for the advancement
theatre institution. In 1975, it was registered as of scientific research in Anthropology and allied
an autonomous institution, fully financed by the disciplines. It collects authentic empirical data
Department of Culture. The Diploma of NSD is covering the entire range of human variation and
recognised by the Association of Indian Universities culture.
as equivalent to M.A. Degree. ³³ Zonal Cultural Centres : They have been setup for
³³ Sahitya Akademi : It was established in March 1954 projecting, preserving and sustaining cultural kinship
with the following objectives : (i) To develop Indian that transcends territorial limits.
literature. There are seven such centres in the country :
(ii) To set high literacy standards. 1. North-Zone Cultural Centre, Patiala
(iii) To foster and coordinate literacy activities in all 2. East-Zone Cultural Centre, Kolkata (Shantiniketan)
the Indian languages. 3. South-Zone Cultrual Centre, Thanjavur
(iv) To promote through them the cultural unity of the 4. West-Zone Cultural Centre, Udaipur
country. 5. North-Central Zone Cultural Centre, Allahabad
³³ Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) : It was 6. North-East Zone Cultural Centre, Dimapur
established in 1861 with the following objectives : (i) 7. South-Central Zone Cultural Centre, Nagpur
To conserve and preserve archaeological monuments ³³ Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts : It was
and sites located in different parts of the country and established in 1985 at New Delhi as a resource
maintain sites and remains. centre and database. It is visualised as a centre
(ii) To undertake explorations and excavations, epi- encompassing the study and experience of all the
graphic research, study of architecture and scien-
arts. ppp
tific studies and investigations.

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 4 INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

The democratic political system of our country is was based on the issues raised during the freedom
based on the values and principles enshrined in the struggle and on the vision of towering leaders like
constitution. Jawahar Lal Nehru, Sardar Patel and Dr. B. R.
³³ After the long dark night of foreign domination, India Ambedkar.
entered into a new era on 15th August, 1947. ³³ The constitution outlined the goals to be achieved i.e.,
³³ The constitution which was formed for the free India of a welfare state and also provided the means and
methods to accomplish those goals.

EVOLUTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

³³ A constitution is a document of people’s faith and THE CHARTER ACT, 1833
aspirations possessing a special legal sanctity. ³³ Governor-General of Bengal to be Governor-General
³³ It is the fundamental law of the country and all other of India.
laws and customs of the country in order to be valid ³³ William Bentick was the first Governor-General of
must conform to it. India.
³³ A constitution sets out the framework and the
³³ Government of Madras and Bombay deprived of
Principal function of various organs of the Government legislative powers.
as well as relations between the Government and its
³³ Law member added to the council of Governor-
citizens. Various stages which lead to the development
General.
of Indian constitution are :
³³ It ended the activities of the East India Company
THE REGULATING ACT, 1773 as a Commercial body, which became a purely
³³ This act provided for the centralisation of administration administrative body.
of company’s territories in India. THE CHARTER ACT, 1853
³³ Governor of Bengal became Governor-General of ³³ The Act for the first time created a separate legislative
Bengal. machinery consisting of 12 members legislative
³³ The first such Governor-General was Lord warren council which came to be known as the Indian
Hastings. (central) legislative council.
³³ Supreme Court to be set up at Calcutta (1774).
³³ It introduced an open competition system of selection
³³ It made the governors of Bombay and Madras
and recruitment of civil servants.
Presidencies Subordinate to the governor general of
Bengal. ³³ Law member was made a full member of the Executive
Council of the Governor-General.
THE PITT’S INDIA ACT, 1784
³³ The company’s territories in India were for the first THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1858
time called the ‘British Prossessions in India’. ³³ It created a new office of Secretary of state for India.
³³ Strength of Governor-General in council reduced to 3. ³³ The Secretary of state was assisted by a 15-member
³³ It distinguished between the commercial and political council.
functions of the company. It established a system of
³³ Governor-General was to be called as the Viceroy.
double government.
³³ British Government was given the supreme control ³³ A highly centralised administrative structure created.
over company’s affair and its administration in India. ³³ It ended the system of double government by
THE CHARTER ACT, 1793 abolishing the Board of Control and Court of Directors.
³³ The act known as the Act for the Good Government
³³ This Act gave the power to the Governor-General to
override his council. of India, abolished the East India Company, and
³³ This act authorised the company to carry on trade transferred the powers of government, territories and
with India for next 20 years. revenues to the British Crown.
³³ Separation of revenue and Judiciary functions and THE INDIAN COUNCIL ACT, 1861
this led to disappearing of the Maal Adalats.
³³ It made a beginning of representative institutions
THE CHARTER ACT, 1813
by associating Indians with the law making process.
³³ The Act provided rules and procedures for the use of ³³ It initiated the process of decentralisation by restoring
Indian revenue. the legislative powers to the Bombay and Madras
³³ Power of based of control were further enlarged. presidencies.
³³ This out provide the one lakh rupees for the revival. ³³ It also gave a recognition to the ‘Portfolio System’,
Promotion and encouragement of education every
intoduced by Lord Canning in 1859.
year.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

³³ It Empowered the viceroy to issue ordinances, without ³³ It separated, for the first time provincial budgets from

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

the Concurrence of the legislative council, during an the Central budget.
emergency.
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935
THE INDIAN COUNCIL ACT, 1892
³³ Dyarchy introduced at the centre.
³³ Introduction of indirect elections for the non-official
members of the Imperial and Provincial Legislative ³³ Provincial dyarchy replaced by provincial autonomy
Councils. in provinces.
³³ The councils at both levels were to have the power of ³³ Provision for the establishment of an All India
discussing the Budget but not of voting. Federation consisting of the British Provinces and
Princely States as units.
THE MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS (THE INDIAN COUN-
³³ Establishment of a Federal Court.
CIL ACT, 1909)
³³ Provision of indirect elections to the legislative ³³ Three fold division of powers–Federal, Provincial and
councils introduced. Concurrent Lists.
³³ Additional members in Central Legislative increased ³³ It provided for the establishment of a Reserve Bank of
to 60. India to control the currency and credit of the country.
³³ The membership of the Legislative Councils of the INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT, 1947
different provinces enlarged.
³³ The British P.M. was Clement Atlee and then Viceroy
³³ The members were given the right of discussion and of India Lord Mountbatten, who had put forth the
asking supplementary questions. partition plan. Also became the first Governor General
³³ It introduced a system of communal representation for of free India.
muslims by accepting concept of “Separate electorate”. ³³ The executive council provided by the 1919 act
Thus Lord Minto came to be known as the “Father of continued to advice the Governor General till1947.
Communal Electorate”. ³³ It abolished the office of Viceroy. Also it abolished the
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919 (MON- office of secretary of state for India.
TAGUE-CHELMSFORD REFORMS) ³³ It declares India as an Independent and sovereign
³³ Dyarchy system introduced in the provinces. state.
³³ The Provincial subjects of administration were to be ³³ Established responsible Governments at both the
divided into ‘Transferred’ and ‘Reserved’ Subjects. centre and the province.
³³ Indian legislature became ‘bicameral’. ³³ Designated the Governor General of India and the
Provincial governors as the constitutional heads.
³³ Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Indian
Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans. ³³ It assigned dual functions to the constituent assembly
and declared this dominion legislature as a sovereign
³³ It provided for the establishment of a Public Service
body.
Commission.

INTERIM GOVERNMENT (3 SEPTEMBER, 1946)

Sl. No. Members Party Portfolios Held
1. Jawaharlal Nehru INC External Affairs and
Common-wealth Relations.
2. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel INC Home, Information & Broad casting
3. Dr. Rajendra Prasad INC Food and Agriculture
4. Dr. John Mathai INC Industries and Supplies
5. Sardar Baldev Singh INC Defenc
6. Asaf Ali INC Railways and Transport
7. Jagjivan Ram INC Laboure
8. C.H. Bhabha INC Works, Mines and Power
9. C. Rajagopalachari INC Education and Arts
INTERIM GOVERNMENT (15 OCTOBER, 1946)
10. I.I. Chundrigar AIML Commerce
11. Ghaznafar Ali Khan AIML Health
12. Liaquat Ali Khan AIML Finance
13. Abdur Rab Nishtar AIML Communication (Posts and Air)
14. Joginder Nath Mandal AIML Law
Note : The members of the interim government were members of the Viceroy’s Executive council. But Jawahar Lal
Nehru was designated as the vice-President of the council.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

FIRST CABINET OF FREE INDIA (1947) 5. Dr. John Mathai Railways and Transport
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

Sl. 6. R.K. Shanmugham Finance

Members Portfolios Held Chetty
No.
7. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Law
1. Jawaharlal Nehru Prime Minister,
External Affairs 8. Jagjivan Ram Labour
and Commonwealth 9. Sardar Baldev Singh Defence
Relations, Scientific 10. Rajkumari Amrit Kaur Health
Research. 11. C.H. Bhabha Commerce
2. Sardar Vallabhbhai Home, Information and 12. Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Communication
Patel Broadcasting, States 13. Dr. Shyam Prasad Industries and
3. Dr. Rajendra Prasad Food and Agriculture Mukherji Supplies
4. Maulana Abul Kalam Education 14. V.N. Gadgil Works, Mines and
Azad Power.

IMPORTANT FACTS

Sl.
Important Committees Chairman
No.
1. Union Powers Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
2. Union Constitution Jawaharlal Nehru
Committee
3. Provincial Constitution Sardar Patel
Committee
4. Drafting Committee — Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
— N. Gopalaswamy
Ayyangar
— Alladi Krishnaswamy
³³ The Constitution of India was formally enacted on 26 Ayyar
November, 1949. — Dr. K.M. Munshi
³³ The Constitution of India came into force on 26 — Syed M. Sadullah
January, 1950. — B.L. Mittar/N Mad
hava Rau
³³ There were 395 Articles and 8 Schedules in the
Constitution when it was finally passed. (Replaced)
³³ At present the Constitution consists of about 465 — D.P. Khaitan/ T.T.
articles (divided into 25 parts) and 12 Schedules. Krishn-amachari
(Re placed)
³³ The constitution of India was framed and adopted by
the Constituent Assembly of India. 5. Advisory Committee on
³³ As per the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946, the Fundamental Rights, — Sardar Patel
Constituent Assembly was set up in November 1946. Minorities and Tribal and
³³ The members were elected indirectly by the Provincial Excluded Areas.
Assemblies in the ratio of one member per one million This committee had the
population. following sub-committees : — J.B. Kripalani
³³ There were a total of 389 members in the Constituent (a) Fundamental Right
Assembly of which 296 were elected by the members of Sub-Committee — H.C. Mukherjee
the Provincial Assemblies and the rest were nominated (b) Minorities Sub-Committee — Gopinath Bardoloi
by the Princely States. (c) Sub-Committee on North-East issues
³³ The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was 6. Rules of Procedure — Dr. Rajendra Prasad
held on 9th December, 1946 with Sachidanand Sinha Committee
as the interim President. 7. States Committee — Jawaharlal Nehru
³³ Later Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President 8. Steering Committee — Dr. Rajendra Prasad
of the Constituent Assembly on 11th December, 1946.
³³ The historic “Objective Resolution” was moved in the 9. Ad-Hoc Committee on the — Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Constituent Assembly by Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru on National Flag
13th December, 1946 which ultimately became the 10. Special Credential — Alladi Krishnaswamy
Preamble of our Constitution. Committee to Examine the Iyer
³³ The Constituent Assembly formed 13 important Draft Constitution
committees for framing the Constitution. ³³ The Constituent Assembly worked in three phases.
³³ A drafting committee of 7 members was set up on
29th August, 1947 under the Chairmanship of Dr. (i) Ist Phase : As Constituent Assembly under
B. R. Ambedkar. the limitations of Cabinet Mission Plan-9th
December, 1946 to 14th August, 1947.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

(ii) 2nd Phase : As Constituent Assembly, a ³³ The design of the National Flag was adopted by the

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

sovereign body + Provisional Parliament – 15th Constituent Assembly on July 22, 1947.
August, 1947 to 26th November, 1949. ³³ The National Anthem was adopted by the Constituent
(iii) 3rd Phase : As a Provisional Parliament–27th Assembly on January 24, 1950.
November, 1949 to March, 1952. ³³ The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was
³³ The Constituent Assembly took 2 years 11 months boycotted by the Muslim League.
and 18 days to frame the Constitution. ³³ Shri B. N. Rau was appointed as the legal Advisor of
the Constituent Assembly.

PREAMBLE
³³ I d e a of Preamble ³³ Liberty : The term
borrowed from ‘liberty’ means the absence
Constitution of USA. of restraints on the
³³ The objectives specified activities of individuals,
in the Preamble contain and at the same time,
the basic structure of our providing opportunities
Constitution. for the development of all
³³ It is non-justiciable, that individuals personalities.
is, its provisions are not ³³ Equality : The term
enforceable in courts ‘equality’ means the absence
of law. of special privileges to any
³³ The Supreme court in section of the society, and
Kesawa-nanda Bharti the provision of adequate
case (1973) held that opportunities for all
the preamble can be individuals without any
amended, subject to discrimination.
the condition that no ³³ F r a t e r n i t y :
amendment is done to Fraternity means a sense of
the basic structure. brotherhood. The preamble
³³ It is a preface or declares that fraternity has
introduction to the to assure two things-the
Constitution. dignity of the individual and
³³ The Supreme Court the unity and integrity of the
expressed the view that nation.
the “Preamble is the key ³³ The constitution not
to its makers” mind. only guarntees a person’s
³³ The Preamble is neither freedom of religion but also
a Source of power to ensures freedom for one who
legislature nor a has no religion.
prohibition upon the ³³ Republic : Republic
powers of legislature. means no room for
³³ The world ‘Socialist,’ hereditary ruler.
‘Secular’ and Integrity’ ³³ The head of the state
of the nation were added is always elected directly or
by the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976. indirectly for a fixed period, e.g. USA.
THE INTERPRETATION OF WORDS IN PREAMBLE ³³ The term ‘republic’ in our preamble indicates that
³³ Sovereign : The word sovereign means that the state India has an elected head called the president.
has power to legislate on any subject in confirmity ³³ Justice : There are three types of justice-social,
with constitutional limitations. political and economical.
³³ Socialist : Socialist aims to end poverty, ignorance, ³³ Social justice enables the courts to uphold legislation—
disease and inequality of opportunity. This socialist (i) to remove economic inequalities.
concept ought to be implemented in the true spirit of (ii) to provide a decent standard of living to the working
the constitution. people.
³³ Secularism : The constitution of India stands for (iii) to protect the interests of the weaker sections of the
a secular state. The state has no official religion. society.
Secularism pervades its Provisions which give full
³³ Political justice implies that all citizens should have
opportunity to all persons to profess, practice and
equal political rights, equal access to all political
propagate religion of their choice.
offices and equal voice in the government.
³³ Democratic : The Indian Constitution provides for
representative parliamentary democracy under which ³³ Economic justice denotes the non-discrimination
the executive is responsible to the legislature for all between people on the basis of economic factors.
its policies and actions, rule of law, independence of ³³ It involves the elimination of glaring inequalities in
judiciary, and absence of discrimination on certain wealth, income and property.
grounds are the manifestations of the democratic ³³ A combination of social justice and economic justice
character of the Indian polity. denotes “distributive justice”.

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SOURCE OF THE CONSTITUTION Houses of the Parliament, Language of the preamble.

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

³³ Government of India Act, 1935 : Federal Scheme, ³³ Soviet (USSR) Constitution : Fundamental Duties
office of the Governor, power of Federal Judiciary, and ideal of justice, Five year Plan.
Public Service Commission, Emergency provisions. ³³ German/Weimar Constitution : Emergency
³³ USA Constitution : Fundamental Rights, written provisions and their effect on the Funda-mental
constitution, Supreme Court, Independence of Ju- Rights.
diciary and Judicial Reviews, President as the Exec- ³³ Japan Constitution : Procedure established by
utive Head. The Vice-President, Impeachment of the the law.
President, Removal of Supreme Court and High Court ³³ Canadian Constitution: Appointment of state
Judges, Preamble. Governor by the centre, Advisory jurisdiction of the
³³ British Constitution : Parliamentary system, Rule Supreme Court, Federation with a strong centre,
of law, legislative procedure, Prime Minister, Cabinet vesting of residuary powers in the centre.
System, Single Citizenship, Prerogative writs, Bicam- ³³ South African Constitution: Procedure of
eral Parliament, Nominal head-President, provision of Amendment of the constitution, Election of the
speaker in the Lok Sabha. Members of Rajya Sabha.
³³ Australian Constitution : The concurrent ³³ Irish Constitution : Directive principles of state
list, centre-state Relationship, Freedom of trade, policy, Nominations of Members of Rajya sabha,
commerce and intercourse, Joint sitting of the two method of Election of President.

(PART–I) THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY (ARTICLE 1 to 4)

³³ According to Article 1- India, that is Bharat, shall be (iv) alter the boundaries of any state;
a union of states. (v) alter the name of any state.
³³ The states and the territories thereof shall be as
specified in the first schedule. New States and Union Territories Created After 1956 :
³³ The territory of India shall comprise — Sl. New State Establishment
(i) The territories of the states. No.
(ii) The union territories specified in the First schedule 1. Gujarat, Maharashtra 1960
and. 2. Dadara and Nagar Haveli 1961
(iii) Such other territories as may be acquired. 3. Daman and Diu 1987
³³ Section 3(2) of the territorial waters, continental shelf, 4. Puducherry 1963
exclusive Economic Zone and other Maritime Zones 5. Nagaland 1963
Act, 1976 now provides, that the limit of the territorial
6. Haryana/UT-Chandigarh 1966
water is the line at which every point is at a distance
of 12 nautical miles from the nearest point of the 7. Himachal Pradesh 1971
appropriate base line. 8. Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya 1972
³³ Another notification of the government dated 15 9. Sikkim 1975
January, 1977 has extended the exclusive economic 10. Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh 1987
zone of India up to a distance of 200 nautical miles and Goa
into the sea from the shore base line. This has been 11. Chattisgarh, Uttarakhand and 2000
done under the Territorial waters, continental shelf, Jharkhand
exclusive economic zone and other maritime zones 12. Telangana 2014
act, 1976 passed as the constitution 40th amendment
13. UT – Jammu and Kashmir 2019
act 1976.
UT – Ladakh
³³ Parliament may by law admit into the union, or
establish new states on such terms and conditions
Sl. Change of Names of State Year
as it thinks fit.
No.
³³ Formation of new states and alteration of areas,
1. United Provinces to Uttar Pradesh 1950
boundaries or names of existing states.
2. Madras to Tamil Nadu 1969
³³ Parliament may by law Article 3) —
(i) form a new state by separation of territory from 3. Mysore to Karnataka 1973
any state or by uniting two or more states or 4. Union Territory of Delhi to National Capital 1992
parts of states or by uniting any territory to a Territory of Delhi
part of any state 5. Uttaranchal to Uttarakhand 2006
(ii) increase the area of any state; 6. Pondichery to Puducherry 1966
(iii) diminish the area of any state; 7. Orrisa to Odisha 2011

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(PART–II) CITIZENSHIP (ARTICLE 5 to 11)

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

³³ Every person who has domicile in the territory of ³³ Person who migrated to India from Pakistan on or after
India and 19th July, 1948 but got themselves, duly registered
(i) who was born in the territory of India; or as citizens with a competent officer appointed for
(ii) either of whose parents was born in the territory that purpose.
of India, or ³³ When an Indian citizen voluntarily (consciously,
(iii) who has been ordinarily resident in the territory knowingly and without duress, undue influence
of India for not less than five year shall be a or compulsion) acquires the citizenship of another
citizen of India. country, his Indian citizenship automatically
³³ Under the Indian constitution there is only one terminates.
domicile. ³³ The parliament has enacted the citizenship Act, 1955
³³ There is no separate domicile for the state. which has been amended in 1986, 1992, 2003 and
³³ Persons who migrated to Pakistan after March 1, 1947 2005.
but returned to India under a permit for resettlement.
³³ The Act provides for the acquisition of Indian
³³ Any person who or either of whose parents or any of
whose grand parents was born in India. citizenship after the commencement of the constitution
³³ Person who migrated to India from Pakistan before in five ways, i.e., Birth, Descent, Registration,
19th July, 1948 and since then have been ordinarily Nationalisation and Incorporation of territory.
residing in India.

LOSS OF INDIAN CITIZENSHIP UNDER THE ACT

³³ The citizenship Act, 1955 also laydown the three ³³ Citizenship Amendment Act, 1992 : According to
modes by which an Indian citizen whether a citizen at this Act, the child who is born outside India and
the commencement of the constitution or subsequent if his mother belongs to India can have the Indian
to it , may lose his citizenship— citizenship.
(i) Renunciation (ii) Termination ³³ Before this act, any child born outside India could
(iii) Deprivation acquire citizenship only if his father was a citizen of
India.

(PART–III) FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS (ARTICLE 12 to 35)

³³ The fundamental Rights are meant for promoting the President has the power to suspend the enforcement
ideal of political democracy. of fundamental rights. But only in case of national
³³ These are fundamental in the sense, that they are the emergency.
most essential rights for the all-round development ³³ The fundamental rights are of two categories —
(material, intellectual, moral and spiritual) of the (i) Rights which are provided to the citizens of India.
individuals. (ii) for all other person including foreigners.
³³ It is also named so because they are guaranteed and ³³ The rights granted under Articles 15, 16,19, 29 and
protected by the fundamental law of the land i.e. 30 are available to citizens only while all other rights
constitution. are available to all persons.
³³ There are six fundamental rights excluding right to
³³ When there is a Proclamation of emergency under
basic education.
Article 352 on grounds of war or external aggression,
³³ The fundamental rights are the freedoms guaranteed
the operation of Article 19 remains suspended.
but these freedoms are not absolute, but are
justiciable. Justiciable means judicially enforceable. ³³ The President can suspend operation of other rights
³³ The fundamental rights are different from the legal rights. (excluding art 20 and 21) also by a separate order
(issued under Article 359) during the Prevalence of
³³ The legal rights are protected and enforced by
ordinary law. On the contrary the fundamental right national emergency.
is protected and guaranteed by the constitution. ³³ Initially there were seven fundamental rights in our
³³ Article 21A is the right to education, was inserted in consitution but the 44th amendment Act 1978 deleted
the year 2002 by the 86th constitutional amendment right to property.
Act. ³³ There are six categories of Fundamental Rights :
³³ Generally right to education is falls under the right 1. Right to Equality
to freedom. 2. Right to Freedom
³³ The state may deny some of the fundamental rights 3. Right against Exploitation
to a class of people as armed forces, paramilitary
personnel police etc., in the interest of administrative 4. Right to Freedom of Religion
efficiency or National integrity. 5. Cultural and Educational Rights
³³ Except the rights mentioned in articles 20 and 21, 6. Right to Constitutional Remedies.

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1. Right to Equality (Articles 14-18) ³³ Whenever a person is arrested, he should be informed

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

(i)
Article 14 : Provides for equality before law or as soon as may be, of the grounds for his arrest and
equal protection of law to all persons within the should be allowed to consult and to be defended by a
legal practitioner of his choice and produced before
territory of India.
the nearest magistrate within a period of 24 hours of
(ii)
Article 15 : Prohibits 'the state' from such an arrest.
discriminating against any citizen on grounds 3. Right against Exploitation (Article 23-24)
only of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. (i)
Article 23 : Prohibition of trafficking in human
(iii)
Article 16 : Provides for equality of opportunity beings and forced labour.
to all citizens in matters of public employment. (ii) Article 24 : No child below the age of 14 can be

(iv)
Article 17 : Provides for abolition of employed.
untouchability. 4. Right to freedom of Religion (Article 25-28)
(v)
Article 18 : Provides for abolition of titles. (i)
Article 25 : Freedom of conscience and the right
to freely profess, practice and propagate religion.
2. Right to Freedom (Articles 19-22)
(ii) Article 26 : Freedom to manage religious affairs.

(i)
Article 19 : It guarantees the citizens of India (iii) Article 27 : Prohibits taxes on religious grounds.

the following six fundamental freedoms — (iv) Article 28 : Freedom as to attendance at reli-

(a) Freedom of speech and expression gious ceremonies in certain educational institu-
(b) Freedom of Assembly tions.
(c) Freedom of Association 5. Cultural and Educational Rights (29-30)
(d) Freedom of movements (i) Article 29 : Protection of interests of minorities.

(e) Freedom of residence and settlement (ii) Article 30 : Right of minorities to establish and

administer educational institutions.
(f) Freedom of profession, occupation, trade or
business. (iii) Article 31 : Omitted by the 44th Amendment Act

(ii) Article 20 : Protection in respect of conviction 1978.
for offences. 6. Right to constitutional Remedies.
(iii) Article 21 : Protection of life and personal Article 32 : The right to move to the supreme court
liberty. in case of violation of fundamental rights.
(iv) Article 22 : Protection against arrest and ³³ It has been called the cornerstone of the entire edifice
setup by the constitution.
detention in certain cases.

WRITS –TYPES AND SCOPE

The supreme court under Art 32 and the High courts Prohibition : Literally, it means ‘to forbid’. It is issued
under Art 226 can issue the writs of habeas corpus, man- by a higher court to a lower court or tribunal to prevent
damus, prohibition, certiorari and quo-warranto. the latter from exceeding its jurisdiction or usurping
Habeas corpus : It is a latin term which literally a jurisdiction that it does not possess. Thus unlike
means “to have the body of ”. It is an order issued by the mandamus that directs activity, the prohibition directs
court to a person who has detained another person, to inactivity.
produce the body of the latter before it. The court then Certiorari : In the literal sense, it means ‘to be
examines the cause and legality of detention. It would set certified’ or ‘to be informed’. It is issued by a higher court
the detained person free, if the detention is found to be to a lower court or tribunal either to transfer a case
illegal. Thus, this writ is a bulwark of individual liberty pending with the latter to itself or to squash the order of
against arbitrary detention. The writ of habeas corpus the latter in a case.
can be issued against both public authorities as well as It is issued on the grounds of excess of jurisdiction or
private individuals. lack of jurisdiction or error of law.
Mandamus : It literally means ‘we command’. It is Thus, unlike prohibition, which is only preventive,
a command issued by the court to a public official ask- certiorari is both preventive as well as curative.
ing him to perform his official duties that he has failed
QUO-Warranto : In the literal sense, it means ‘by what
or refused to perform. It can also be issued against any
authority or warrant’. It is issued by the court to enquire
public body, a corporation, an inferior court, a tribunal
into the legality of claim of a person to a public office.
or government for the same purpose.
Hence, it prevents illegal usurpation of public office by a
The writ of mandamus cannot be issued. person. The writ can be issued only in case of a substantial
(a) against a private individual or body. public office of a permanent character created by a statue
(b) to enforce departmental instruction that does not or by the constitution. It cannot be issued in cases of
possess statutory force. ministerial office or private office. It can be sought by any
interested person and not necessarily by the aggrieved
(c) when duty is discretionary and not mandatory
person.III) FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS (ARTICLE 12 to
(d) to enforce a contractual obligation. 35)

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(PART–IV) FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

³³ Write directive principles of state policy before 3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and
fundamental duties. integrity of India.
³³ The Fundamental Duties are contained in Article 51 4. To defend the country and render national service
A of Part IV A of the Constitution.
when called upon to do so.
³³ The Fundamental Duties were inserted into the
Constitution of India by the 42nd Amendment Act, 5. To promote harmony and the spirit of common broth-
1976. erhood amongst all the people of India transcending
³³ These Duties were added on the recommendation of religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diver-
Swaran Singh committee. sities and to renounce practices derogatory to the
³³ The Fundamental Duties in the Indian Constitution dignity of women.
are inspired by the constitution of Russia (former 6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of our com-
USSR). posite cultures.
³³ These duties are incorporated with the purpose of
7. To protect and improve natural environment in-
making the citizens patriotic and promoting harmony
in the country. cluding forest, lake rivers and wildlife and to have
³³ The constitution does not impose penalty for the compassion for living creature.
violation of the duties. It is left to the Legislatures. 8. To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the
³³ Japan was the only democratic country in the world spirit of inquiry and reform.
which provides for a set of Fundamental Duties in 9. To safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
its constitution.
10. To strive for excellence in all spheres of individual
ELEVEN FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES and collective activity.
1. To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals 11. To provide opportunities for education to his child
and institutions, the National Flag and the National or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six
Anthem. and fourteen years.
2. To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired This duty was added by the 86th Consititutional
our national struggle for freedom. Amendment Act, 2002.

(PART –IV) DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY (ARTICLE 36 to 50)

³³ The constitution of India aims to establish not only aim at providing social and economic justice and set the
political democracy but also socioeconomic justice to path towards welfare state. The articles which contains
the people to establish a welfare state. socialist principles are :
³³ Directive Principles of state policy are in the form of ³³ Article 38 : To promote the welfare of the people by
instructions to the governments at the centre as well securing a social order permeated by justice-social,
as states. economic and political and to minimise inequalities.
³³ Though these principles are non justiciable, they are in income, status, facilities and opportunities.
fundamental in the governance of the country. ³³ Article 39 : To secure
³³ The idea of the Directive Principles of State Policy has (a) the right to adequate means of livelihood for all
been taken from the Irish Republic. citizens.
³³ The Directive Principles of State policy were (b) the equitable distribution of meterial resources of
incorporated in our constitution in order to provide the community for the common good.
economic justice and to avoid concentration of wealth (c) prevention of concentration of wealth and means
in the hands of few people. of production.
³³ They are unique blend of socialistic, liberal, democratic (d) equal pay for equal work for men and women.
and Gandhian Principles. (e) preservation of the health and strength of workers
³³ They describe as the ‘conscience of the constitution’. and children against forcible abuse, and
³³ In the “State of Tamil Nadu etc. Vs L.Abu Kavur Bai” (f) opportunities for healthy development of children.
case in 1984, the Supreme court held that although ³³ Article 39(A) : To promote equal justice and to provide
directive principles of State Policy are not enforceable, free legal aid to the poor.
yet the court should not avoid them. ³³ Article 41 : To secure the right to work, to education
Classification of DPSPs : and to public assistance in cases of unemployment,
1. Socialist Principles old age, sickness and disablement.
2. Gandhian principles ³³ Article 42 : To make provision for just and humane
conditions for work and maternity relief.
3. Liberal Principles
³³ Article 43 : To secure a living wage, a decent standard
Socialist Principles :
of life and social and cultural opportunities for all
These principles reflect the ideology of socialism. They workers.
lay down the framework of a democratic socialist state,

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³³ Article 43 A : To take steps to secure the participation ³³ Article 39 : To secure opportunities for healthy de-
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

of workers in the management of industries. velopment of children.

³³ Article 47 : To raise the level of nutrition and the ³³ Article 39A : To promote equal justice and to provide
standard of living of people and to improve public free legal aid to the poor.
health. ³³ Article 43A : To take steps to secure the participation
Gandhian Principles : of workers in the management of industries.
These principles are based on Gandhian ideology. They ³³ Article 48A : To protect and improve the environment
represent the programme of reconstruction enunciated by and to safeguard forests and wildlife.
Gandhi during the national movement. In order to fulfill
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLE ADDED BY 44th AMENDMENT
the dreams of Gandhi, some of his ideals were included ACT, 1978
as Directive Principles. These are.
³³ Article 38 : The state to minimise inequalities in
³³ Article 40 : To organise village panchayats and endow
income, status, facilities and opportunities.
them with necessary powers and authority to enable
them to function as units of self-government. DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLE ADDED BY 86th AMENDMENT
³³ Article 43 : To promote cottage industries on an ACT, 2002
It changed the subject matter of Art 45 and made
individual or co-operation basis in rural areas.
elementary education a fundamental right under Art 21A.
³³ Article 43 B : To promote voluntary formation, The amended directive required the state to provide early
autonomous functioning, democratic control and childhood care and education for all children until they
professional management of co-operative societies. complete the age of six years.
³³ Article 46 : To promote the educational and economic DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES ADDED BY 97th AMENDMENT
interests of SC & ST and other weaker sections of the ACT, 2011
society and to protect them from social injustice and
³³ Article 43 B : It requires the state to promote
exploitation. voluntary formation, autonomous functioning,
³³ Article 47 : To prohibit the consumption of democratic control and professional management of
intoxicating drinks and drugs which are injurious co-operative societies.
to health.
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OUTSIDE PART IV OF THE
³³ Article 48 : To prohibit the slaughter of cows, calves CONSTITUTION
and other milch and draught cattle and to improve ³³ Article 335 : The claims of the members of the
their breeds. SCs and the STs shall be taken into consideration,
Liberal Principles : consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of
These principles represent the ideology of liberalism. administration, in the making of appointments to
These are— services and posts in connection with the affairs of
the union or a state.
³³ Article 44 : The state will try to secure for the citizens
a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India. ³³ Article 350 : Language to be used in representations
for redress of grievances.
³³ Article 45 : The state shall endeavour to provide early
³³ Article 350 A : It shall be endeavour of every state
childhood care and education for all children until
and every local authority within the state to provide
they complete the age of six years. adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-
³³ Article 48 : To organise agriculture and animal hus- tongue at the primary stage of education to children
bandry on modern and scientific lines. belonging to linguistic minority groups.
³³ Article 48 A : To protect and improve the environment ³³ Article 350 B : Special officer for linguistic minorities.
and to safeguard forests and wildlife. ³³ Article 351 : It shall be the duty of the union to
³³ Article 49 : To protect monuments, places and objects promote the spread of the Hindi Language and
of artistic or historic interest which are declared to be to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of
of national importance. expression for all the elements of the composite
³³ Article 50 : The state shall separate the judiciary culture of India.
from the executive in the public services of the state.
³³ Article 51 : To promote international peace and Difference Between DPSPs and Fundamental Rights
security. DPSP FR
— Maintain just and honourable relations between
1. They are not Justicia- 1. Fundamental Rights are
nations.
ble by the court Justiciable by the court
— To foster respect for international law and treaty
2. They are positive in 2. They are negative in na-
obligations.
nature. ture.
— To encourage settlement of international disputes
3. They are for state use 3. Used by the citizen.
by arbitration.
4. They establish social 4. They establish political
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES ADDED BY 42nd AMENDMENT economic democracy democracy.
ACT, 1976 5. They have only moral 5. They have legal power.
The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 added four new power.
Directive principles to the original list.

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(PART–V) UNION EXECUTIVE

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

* THE PRESIDENT (ARTICLE 52 to 73) ³³ In order to declared elected to the office of President,
³³ There shall be a President of India (Article 52). a candidate must secure a fixed quota of votes.
³³ The executive power of the union shall be vested in the ³³ The value of vote of each member of Legislative
President and shall be exercised by him either directly Assembly of a State is determined by the formule as
or through officers subordinate to him in accordance given below :
with this constitution (Article 53). Total population of the state

1000
³³ The President is the first citizen of India. Number of elected members of state legislative Assembly
³³ Every elected member of either House of Parliament
QUALIFICATION
shall have such number of votes as may be obtained
³³ Must be a citizen of India. by.
³³ Completed 35 years of age. Value of the vote of an MP =
³³ Qualified for election as a member of the house of the Total value of votes of all MLAs of all states
people (Lok Sabha). Total number of elected members of parliament
³³ Must not hold any office of profit under the government
³³ Supreme Court inquires all dispute regarding
of India or the government of any state or any local
President's election.
authority or any other public authority.
Exceptions : Term of office of President
1. President and Vice President ³³ The President shall hold office for a term of five years
2. Governor of any state. from the date on which he enters upon his office.
3. Minister of Union or State is not deemed to hold any (i) the president may, by writing under his hand
office of profit and hence qualified as a presidential addressed to the Vice-President, resign his office;
candidate. (ii) The President may, for violation of the constitution
Conditions of President's Office be removed from office by impeachment in the
manner provided in article 61;
³³ Shall not be a member of either House of Parliament
or of a House of the Legislature of any State, and if a (iii) The President shall, notwithstanding the
expiration of his term, continue to hold office
member of either house of Parliament or of a House
until his successor enters upon his office.
of the Legislature of any state be elected as President,
he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in that Re-Election
House on the date on which he enters upon his office ³³ Eligible for re-election.
as president. Procedure for Impeachment
³³ The President shall not hold any other office of profit.
³³ Nature of impeachment is Quasi-Judicial.
³³ The President shall be entitled without payment of
³³ Can be impeached only on the ground of violation of
rent to the use of his official residance.
constitution.
³³ Shall be also entitled to such emoluments, allowance
³³ The charge shall be preferred by either House of
and privileges as may be determined by Parliament Parliament.
by law.
³³ The proposal to prefer such charge is contained in
³³ The emoluments and allowances of the President shall a resolution which has been moved after at least 14
not be diminished during his term of office. day's notice in writing signed by not less than 1/4th
Election of President : of the total number of members of the House has been
passed by a majority of not less than two thirds of the
³³ The President shall be elected by the members of an total membership of the house.
electoral college consisting of — ³³ When a charge has been so preferred by either House
(i) the elected members of both House of Parliament, of Parliament, the other House shall investigate the
and charge or cause the charge to be investigated and
(ii) the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies the President shall have the right to appear and to be
of the States represented at such investigation.
Note : State includes the National Capital Territory of ³³ If the impeachment resolution is passed by a majority
Delhi and the Union Territory of Puducherry and the of two-thirds of the total membership of both the
Union Territory of Jammu & Kashmir. houses, then the president stands removed from his
³³ The total voting strength of the Parliament is equal office from the data on which the bill is so passed.
to the total voting strength of all state assemblies Vacancy
together.
³³ Office of the President falls vacant due to the following
³³ The president’s election is held in accordance with
reasons—
the system of proportional representation by means
of the single transferable vote and the voting is by (i) Completing 5 years terms;
secret ballot. (ii) Due to resignation;
(iii) Due to impeachment;
³³ This system ensures that the successful candidate is
(iv) Due to death;
returned by the absolute majority of votes.
(v) Due to illegal election.

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POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

1. Executive Power : ³³ No demand for a grant can be made except on his

³³ All executive action of the union must be taken in the recommendation.
name of the President. (Article 77) ³³ He appoints Finance commission after each 5 years
³³ He appoints the followings : that recommends distribution of taxes between union
1. Prime Minister and states.
2. Ministers ³³ The President shall in respect of every financial year
3. Chief Justice and Judges of Supreme Court and cause to be laid before both the Houses of parliament
High Courts, a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditure
4. Chairman and Members of UPSC. of the Government of India for that year.
5. Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG). 4. Judicial Powers :
6. Attorney General of India (AGI) ³³ The President shall have the power to grant pardons
7. Chief Election commissioner and other members of reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment or
election commission. to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any
8. Governors person convicted of any offence.
9. Members of finance commission ³³ The President is the only authority for pardoning a
10. Ambassadors sentence of death (Article 72)
³³ He directly administers the union Territories through
5. Diplomatic Powers :
the Lt. Governor, Commissioner or Administrator.
³³ Represents country in international forum.
³³ He can appoint a commission to investigate into the
conditions of SCs, STs and OBCs. ³³ He sends ambassadors and receives diplomats.
³³ He can appoint an inter-state council to promote ³³ All international treaties and agreements are
centre-state relation and for cooperation amongst concluded on his behalf however they are subject to
different states. ratification by Parliament.
2. Legislative Powers : 6. Military Powers :
³³ He can summon and prorogue the session of the two ³³ He is the supreme commander of the defence forces
houses. of India.
³³ He can dissolve Lok Sabha (Article 85). ³³ He appoints chief of Army, Navy and Air Force.
³³ He can address both the houses jointly or separately. ³³ Declare war and concludes peace, subject to the
³³ He addresses the first session after general elections approval of the Parliament.
and at the commencement of the first session of each 7. Emergency Powers :
year. 1. National emergency (Art 352)
³³ He can send messages to both the houses. 2. President’s rule (Art 356 & 365)
³³ Nominate 12 member to Rajya Sabha and 2 members 3. Financial emergencies (Art 360)
of Anglo-Indian community in Lok Sabha if they have
VICE-PRESIDENT
not receive adequate representation.
³³ According to the Article 63, there shall be a Vice-
³³ Certain bills can be introduced in Parliament only on
the recommendation of the President. President.
³³ Presidential assent is essential before a bill becomes ³³ Vice-President is ranked 2nd after President.
an Act. ³³ He is the ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha.
³³ He can enact laws through ordinance when the ³³ He is not a member of Rajya Sabha hence he has no
Parliament is in recess. These ordinance must be right to vote. But he can exercise a vote in the case
passed by Parliament with the 6 weeks of reassembly. of tie or equality of votes.
³³ Lays the report of the comptroller and Auditor ³³ He entitled the salary and allowances payable to the
General, the finance commission and others before chairman of Rajya Sabha not for the post of Vice
the Parliment. President.
³³ When a bill is sent to the President after it has been Election of Vice-President
passed by the Parliament, he can :
³³ Vice-President is elected by the members of an
(i) give his assent to the bill or electoral college consisting of the members of both
(ii) withhold his assent to the bill or House of Parliament.
(iii) Return the bill (if it is not a money bill ³³ Election is held in accordance with system of
or constitutional amendment bill) for proportional representation by means of the single
reconsideration of the Parliament, although only transferable vote and voting is by secret ballot.
once. ³³ Thus this electoral college is different from the
³³ Decides on the questions as to the disqualifications electoral college for the election of the President in
of the MPs, in consultation with the Election
the following two respects :
Commission.
1. It consists of both elected and nominated members
3. Financial Powers :
of the Parliament (in the case of president, only
³³ All money bills can originate in Parliament only on
elected members).
recommendation of President.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

2. It does not include the members of the state ³³ He is allowed to take up private practice provided, the

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

legislative assemblies (in the case of President, other party is not the state.
the elected members of the state legislative ³³ He is not a member of the either House of the
assemblies are included). Parliament.
Eligibility ³³ He has the right to attend and speak in the
³³ He should be a citizen of India. Parliamentary deleberations and meetings of both
³³ He has completed 35 years of age. the Houses.
³³ He should be qualified for election as a member of ³³ He has no right to vote in Parliament.
council of states. ³³ He is not paid salary but a remuneration to be
³³ A person holding any office of profit under the determined by the president.
government shall not be eligible for election as the ³³ He is assisted by two solicitiors-General and four
Vice-President. additional solicitors- General.
³³ The election to the vacancy of the office of the Vice- ³³ Appear before the Supreme Court and various High
President is completed before the expiry of his term. Courts in cases involving the Government of India.
³³ There is no mandatory provision, like in case of the
SOLICITOR GENERAL OF INDIA
President, to hold the election within the six months.
³³ All the doubts and disputes arising out of or in ³³ In addition to the Attorney General, there are other
connection with the election of the Vice-President law officers of the Government of India.
shall be decided by the Supreme Court. ³³ They are the Solicitor General of India and additional
³³ When the President is unable to discharge his Solicitor General of India. They assist Attorney
functions owing to absence, illness or any other case, General in the fulfilment of his official responsibility.
the Vice President shall discharge his functions until ³³ It should be noted here that only the office of Attorney
the date on which the President resumes his duties. General is created by the Constitution not the solicitor
³³ When the Vice-President acts as the President, he General.
shall exercise all the powers of the President and shall COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR GENERAL (C.A.G.)
receive the salary and emolument of the President. (ARTICLE 148 to 151)
ATTORNEY GENERAL OF INDIA ³³ He is appointed by the president having long
³³ Article 76 States that the President shall appoint a administrative experiance and knowledge of accounts.
person who is qualified to be appointed as a judge of ³³ He holds office for a full term of 6 years or upto 65
the Supreme Court to be the Attorney General of India. years of his age whichever is earlier.
³³ He is the first legal officer of the Government of India. ³³ He can resign from the office by addressing the
³³ He holds office during the pleasure of the President. resignation letter to the President.
³³ He can also resign by addressing the resignation letter ³³ The President can remove the CAG on the same
to President. ground and the same manner as the judge of Supreme
³³ It is a convention that after the change of the Court.
Government, the Attorney General of India resigns and ³³ The President can remove him on the basis of
the new Government appoints one of its own choice. resolution passed to that effect by both the Houses
³³ He gives legal advice to the Government of India. of Parliament with a special majority.
³³ He performs any legal duties assigned by the President ³³ His salary and allowances are determined by the
of India. Parliament.
³³ He discharges any functions conferred on him by the ³³ He is paid a salary equivalent to that of a judge of the
constitution or the President. Supreme Court.
³³ He has right of audience in all courts in the territory ³³ On retirement, he shall be eligible for an annual
of India. pension.
³³ He is prohibited to take appointment as a Director ³³ After retirement, he is disqualified for appointment
in any country. either under the union or the state government.
Qualification of Attorney General of India ³³ He is the guardian of the Public Purse.
(i) Citizen of India ³³ He is an officer of the Parliament and he is called ‘Ears
(ii) Judge of High Court or High Courts in succession and Eyes’ of the Public Accounts Committee.
for minimum 5 years of service. ³³ CAG audits all the transacitons related to the
(iii) Advocate of High Court or High Courts in succession Consolidated Fund, Contigency Fund and Public
for atleast 10 years or Account Fund of Union and State Governments.
(iv) In opinion of the President is a distinguished jurist. ³³ He audits balance sheet, profit and loss accounts of
³³ He shall neither advice nor hold a brief against the the union and state governments.
Government of India in cases in which he is called ³³ Any authority, any person or any account can be
upon to advice the government of India. audit by him on request of the President or Governor.
³³ He cannot defend accused persons for criminal ³³ He submits the accounts of the Union to the President
prosecutions without the permission of the who place it before the Parliament (Article 151)
Government of India. ³³ He has no control over the issue of money from the
³³ He represents the union before the courts. consolidatd fund of India or of any state.

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(PART –V) PARLIAMANET (ARTICLE 79 to 122)

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

Parliament is the supreme legislative body of India. Powers of the Lok Sabha :
³³ According to Article 79, the Parliament consists of ³³ The money bills and the financial bill can be introduced
1. The President only in the Lok sabha and not in the Rajya Sabha.
2. House of the people (Lok Sabha) ³³ In case of money bill, the Rajya Sabha has only the
3. Council of states (Rajya Sabha) right to make recommendations and the Lok Sabha
³³ Though the President is not a member of either House may or may not accept this.
of Parliament. He is an integral part of it. ³³ A money bill must be passed by the Rajya Sabha
House of the People (Lok Sabha) within a period of 2 weeks or 14 days otherwise the
³³ In the constitution, the strength of the Lok Sabha was bill shall be deemed to be passed automatically by
provisioned to be not more than 552. the house.
³³ Thus the Lok Sabha enjoys exclusive legislative
From the state = 530
jurisdiction over the passage of the money bills.
From the UTs = 20 ³³ The council of ministers are responsible to the Lok
Total seats = 550 Sabha.
³³ Confidence and no confidence motions are introduced
³³ But at present there are 540 seats (530 + 13). in the Lok Sabha only.
³³ 2 additional numbers of the Anglo-Indian Community ³³ Under Article 352, the Lok Sabha in a special sitting
were also nominated by the President of India on the can disapprove the continuance of the National
advice of Government of India, which was abolished Emergency Proclaimed by the President.
in January 2020 by the 104th Constitutional ³³ The leader of the Lok Sabha is the Prime Minister.
Amendment act, 2019, the Lok Sabha has seating Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha :
capacity of 550. ³³ The speaker is the Chief Presiding officer of the Lok
³³ The 84th amendment Act 2001, extended freeze Sabha.
on Lok Sabha and assembly seats till 2026 by the ³³ The two officers are elected from amongst the members
Vajpayee government. of Lok Sabha after a new Lok Sabha is constituted.
Tenure of the Lok Sabha ³³ In absence of speaker, deputy speaker performs the
³³ The normal tenure of the Lok Sabha is 5 years. duties of speaker.
³³ It may be dissolved earlier by the President. ³³ The speaker continues in the office even after the
³³ The life of the Lok Sabha can be extended by the dissolution of the Lok Sabha till a newly elected Lok
Parliament beyond the five year term during the period Sabha meets.
of National Emergency Proclaimed under Art 352. ³³ He does not vote in first instance.
³³ But this extension is not more than one year at a time. ³³ He exercises his casting vote only to remove a
³³ However, such extension shall remain in force for deadlock.
not more than six months after the emergency has ³³ The speaker and Deputy speaker don't subscribe to
been revoked. any separate oaths.
Qualification for the membership of Lok Sabha : ³³ The speaker and deputy speaker are entitled to salary
³³ Be a citizen of India. and allowances fixed by Parliament and charged on
³³ Be not less than 25 years of age. consolidated fund of India.
³³ Be a registered voter in any of the Parliamentary ³³ Speaker can vacate his office earlier, if he resigns
constituancy in India. by writing to the Deputy speaker. Similary Deputy
³³ Must not hold any office of profit. speaker can resign office by writing to the speaker.
Disqualification of the MPs : ³³ The speaker presides over the meetings of the house and
³³ If he holds any office of profit. his rulings on the proceedings of the house are final.
³³ If a competent court declares him to be of unsound Powers of the Speaker :
mind.
³³ Whether a bill is a money bill or not, is certified only
³³ If he is an undischarged insolvent.
by the speaker and his decision is final and binding.
³³ If his citizenship is found forged.
³³ He is the ex-officio chairman of India’s Parliamentary
³³ If he voluntarily acquires the citizenship of any foreign
country. group.
³³ If he is so disqualified under any law by the Parliament. ³³ He presides over conference of presiding officers.
³³ If he is so disqualified under the tenth schedule. ³³ He himself chairs Business Advisory Committee,
Seat of MP becames vacant under these situations : General Purpose Committee and the Rules Committee.
³³ If he resigns from the House by writing a letter to the ³³ The committee of the Parliament function essentially
speaker or the chairman. under the speaker and their chairpersons are also
³³ Absent for 60 days without permission. appointed or nominated by him.
³³ Expelled from the house under disciplinary action. ³³ Principal spokesperson of the Lok Sabha.
³³ If he over rules the ‘Whip’. ³³ His decisions are final in all matters of the House.
³³ Elected to the office of President or vice President or ³³ Maintain order and decorum in the house for the
Governor of the state. smooth functioning.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

³³ He can call for the secret sitting of the house on the ³³ He can be removed from the office only if he is removed

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

request of the leader of the house. from the office of the Vice-President.
³³ He presides over a joint sitting of the two Houses of ³³ He may be removed from his office by a resolution
Parliament. of the Rajya Sabha passed by a absolute majority of
³³ He decides the question of disqualification of members all the then members of the council, which is to be
of Lok Sabha, arising on the ground of defection under approved by the Lok Sabha by a simple majority. Such
the provisions of the Tenth schedule. a resolution can only be moved by giving at least 14
The Rajya Sabha or the Council of States : day's prior notice to the chairman.
³³ The Rajya Sabha is to consist of not more than 250 Deputy Chairman
members (238 +12). ³³ He is elected by the Rajya Sabha from amongst its
³³ The members to be nominated by the President members.
are persons having special knowledge or practical
³³ In the absence of the chairman, Deputy chairman
experience in respect of literature, science, art and
social service. Presides over the functions and proceedings of the
house.
³³ Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and is not subject
to dissolution. ³³ He shall vacate his office if he ceases to be a member
³³ One-third of the members retire every two years and of the Rajya Sabha .
are replaced by newly elected members. ³³ He may resign his office by writing to the chairman.
³³ Each member is elected for a term of 6 years. ³³ He may also be removed from the office by a resolution
Qualification of the Rajya Sabha .
³³ The person must be a citizen of India.
THE BUDGET
³³ The must not be below the age of 30 years.
³³ The budget is contained in Articles 112 to 117.
³³ He should not hold any office of profit.
Powers of Rajya Sabha ³³ According to Article 112 the President shall in respect
of every financial year cause to be laid before both
³³ The powers of Rajya Sabha are in Articles 67, 249
the House of Parliament a statement of the estimated
and 312.
receipts and expenditure of the Government of India
³³ According to Article 67 a resolution seeking the
for that year, in this part referred to as the ‘annual
removal of the Vice-President can originate only in the
financial statement’.
Rajya Sabha. After passing the resolution by Rajya
Sabha, it goes for approval of the Lok Sabha, but ³³ It is a statement of the estimated receipts and
no resolution for the purpose of this clause shall be expenditures both revenue and capital of that financial
moved unless at least 14 days notice has been given year.
of the intention to move the resolution. ³³ The expenditure of government is classified as
³³ If Rajya Sabha has declared by resolution supported by 'charged' and made from the consolidated fund of
not less than two-thirds of the members present and India.
voting that it is necessary or expedient in the national ³³ The General Budget is usually presented in the Lok
interest so to do Parliament may by law provide for the Sabha by Finance Minister on the last working day
creation of one or more all India services (including an of February.
all India Judicial Service) common to the union and ³³ The General Budget is presented with the Budget
the states and subject to the other provisions of the speech by the Finance Minister.
chapter regulate the recruitment and the conditions
³³ The Budget speech has two parts.
of service of persons appointed to any such service.
³³ At the end of the Budget speech in Lok Sabha, the
³³ The service known at the commencement of this con-
Budget is laid in Rajya Sabha.
stitution as the Indian Administrative Service and the
Indian Police Service shall be deemed to be services ³³ Rajya Sabha can only discuss the budget.
created by Parliament under this article (Art-312). In ³³ After the general discussion the house is adjourned
addition to this another All India Service, i.e. Indian for a period of a month.
Forest Service was created in 1966. ³³ During this time the 24 standing committees carry
³³ A resolution seeking legislation on any subject of the out detailed scrutiny of the budget.
state list can only originate in the Rajya Sabha, if it ³³ Voting on demands for grants takes place in Lok
thinks that such resolution is necessary or expedient Sabha.
in the national interest (art-249). ³³ The time allotted for the discussion is decided by the
Officer’s of the Rajya Sabha : business advisory committee headed by the speaker.
1.Chairman ³³ After the completion of voting on demands for grants
³³ The vice President of India is the ex-officio chairman appropriation bill introduced.
of the Rajya Sabha. ³³ Finance Bill includes taxation Proposals and
³³ Unlike the speaker the chairman is not a member of introduced with the General Budget has to be passed
House i.e. Rajya Sabha. within 25 days of its introduction.
³³ He Presides over the Proceedings of the Rajya Sabha ³³ No amendments can be moved in appropriation bill
as long as he does not act as the President of India to vary the amount or alter the destination which is
during a vacancy in the office of the President. unlike the finance bill.

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INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

FUNDS OF INDIA

Consolidated fund of India (Article 266-a) ‘economics’ in the public expenditure. Hence, it
³³ It is the fund into which all receipts and revenues of has been described as a ‘Continuous economy
the government flows. committee’.
3. Committee on Public Undertakings : This
³³ All expenditure from it, is authorised by appropriation
committee was created in 1964 on the recomendation
bill.
of the Krishna Menon Committee. Originally it had
Public Account of India (Artical 266-b) 15 members however in 1974. Its membership was
³³ In this account public money is put in and governments raised to 22 [15 are from the Lok Sabha & 7 from the
acts only as banker. Rajya Sabha].
³³ It is operated by executive action. ³³ The functions of the committee are to examine the
reports and accounts of public undertakings. Also to
Contigency Fund of India (Artical 267)
examine the reports of the Comptroller and Auditor
³³ It is kept at disposal of President to meet unforeseen General on Public Undertakings.
expenditure.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
³³ It is opened by secretary, ministry of Finance on behalf
of the President. ³³ Article 74 provides that there shall be council of
Parliamentary Committees ministers with Prime Minister as its head to aid and
³³ Parliamentary committees are of two kinds –
advice the President, who shall in exercise of his
functions, act in accordance with such advice.
Standing Committes and Ad Hoc Committees.
The former are permanent (constituted every year ³³ The advice given to President by the council of
or periodically) and work on a continuous basis, ministers can't be inquired into by any court of law.
while the latter are temporary and cease to exist on ³³ Article 75 has provisions relating to qualifications,
completion of the task assigned to them. appointment, oath, tenure, responsibilities and
Important standing Committees salaries and emoluments of the ministers.
1. Public Account Committee : This committee was ³³ The Prime minister shall be appointed by the President
setup first in 1921 under the provisions of the and the other ministers shall be appointed by the
Government of India Act of 1919 and has since been President on the advice of PM.
in existence. At present, it consist of 22 members (15 ³³ The President shall administer the oath and secrecy
from the Lok Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha). of the office to the ministers.
The chairman of the committee is appointed from ³³ The minister shall hold office during the pleasure of
amongst its member by speaker. the President.
³³ The function of the committee is to examine the ³³ The minister who is not a member of either house, he
annual audit reports of the comptroller and Auditor can't remain minister after 6 months, if he doesnot
General of India. become the member of it.
2. Estimate Committee : The origin of this committee ³³ Salaries and allowances of the minister are determined
can be traced to the standing financial committee by Parliament.
set up in 1921. Originally, it has 25 members but ³³ Article 75 entails the principles of collective and
in 1956 its membership was raised to 30. All 30 individual responsibilities of ministers.
members are from Lok Sabha only. The chairman of ³³ All ministers are together responsible for their acts
the committee is appointed from amongst its member to Lok Sabha.
by speaker. ³³ If Lok Sabha passes a vote of no confidence motion
The function of the committee is to examine the against council of ministers, all of them had to resign.
estimates included in the budget and suggest

THE STRUCTURE OF COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

³³ The council of ministers consist of three categories ³³ Ministers of state paid the same salary as the cabinet
of ministers— ministers.
1. Ministers of cabinet rank ³³ The Prime minister can give charge to the state
2. State ministers minister if it needs or if he desires so.
3. Deputy ministers ³³ Deputy ministers don't hold the separate charge.
³³ Ministers of Cabinet are real policy maker. They attend ³³ Deputy ministers can't attend the cabinet meetings.
the meeting of cabinet. ³³ They are paid lesser salary than the cabinet ministers
³³ The word ‘Cabinet Ministers’ has been incorporated rank.
into the constitution through the 44th amendment PRIME MINISTER
Act 1978.
³³ Prime minister is the leader of the lower House of the
³³ State Ministers can either hold independent charges Parliament.
or attached to cabinet ministers.
³³ He is the real executive authority.
³³ State ministers assist to cabinet ministers.
³³ He is appointed by the President.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

³³ He is the chairman of Niti Ayog, National Integration ³³ By Article 161, the Governor can grant pardons,

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

Council and Inter State Council. reprieves, remissions of punishment to persons
convicted under state laws.
POWERS OF PRIME MINISTER
³³ The Governor has no power to pardon a sentence of
³³ He presides over the meetings of the council of death or remit sentence by court martial.
ministers. ³³ Article 162 defines the extent of executive powers of
³³ He can call the meeting of cabinet any time. a state.
³³ He allocates portfolios. ³³ Article 166 stipulates that all executive actions of the
³³ He can ask a minister to resign. state are to be taken in the name of the Governor.
³³ All major appointments of the state are made by the
³³ He can get any minister dismissed by President.
Governor.
³³ He assist the President in appointment of all high
³³ The Governor can recommend President’s rule in
officials. the state.
³³ He summons and decides the agenda of the cabinet ³³ During President’s rule, he acts as President’s
meetings. representative and assumes wide powers.
³³ He has right to call any file from any ministry . ³³ He can dismiss a Legislative Assembly if he is
³³ He advises the President with regard to the summoning convinced it has lost majority support.
and proroguing of the sessions of the Parliament. ³³ He can dissolve the Legislative Assembly.
³³ He has right to intervene in any debate in the ³³ He can reserve certain bills for the consideration of
Parliament. the President.
³³ He can give answer in both the house of Parliament. ³³ He can submit a report to the President in the wake
³³ He can participate in debates of Parliament. of Constitutional machinery failure in the state.
³³ He plays a significant role in shaping the Foreign ³³ Article 163 says that the courts can not call in
Policy. question the matters in which the Governor chooses
to use his discretionary any powers.
THE STATE EXECUTIVE ³³ He can also nominate one member of the Anglo-Indian
³³ Articles 153 to 167 deal with the state executive. community to the Legislative Assembly.
³³ Unlike Vice President at centre, there is no provisions ³³ In states having legislative councils, he has the
for office of Vice-Governer in the state. power to nominate One-sixth members from amongst
distinguished persons in art, literature, science and
Governor
social services (Article 171).
³³ According to Article 153 the constitution provides for
³³ Article 200 states that the Governor’s assent is
an office of the Governer in the states.
necessary for bills passed by the state legislature to
³³ 7th amendement Act, 1956 facilitated the appointment become laws.
of the same person in two or more states. ³³ Article 213 empowers the Governor to issue ordinance.
³³ A governor is the chief executive head of a state.
³³ He is the nominal executive head. FINANCIAL POWERS OF THE GOVERNOR
³³ Governor acts as an agent of the central goverment. ³³ According to Article 203, no demand for grant can be
³³ The office of the governor has a dual role. made except on the recommendation of the Governor.
³³ The Constitution lays down the following two ³³ The Governor administers the contingency fund of
qualifications for the appointment of a person as a the state and can advance money out of it to meet
Governor (Article 157). unforeseen expenses.
(i) He should be a citizen of India.
DISCRETIONARY POWERS OF THE GOVERNOR
(ii) He should have completed the age of 35 years.
³³ The constitution lays down the following conditions ³³ Reservation of a bill for the consideration of the
for the Governor’s office (Article 158). President.
(i) He should not be a member of either House of ³³ Recommendation for the imposition of the President
the Parliament or of the House of the State Leg- rule in the State.
islature. ³³ While exercising his functions as the administrator
(ii) He should not hold any other office of profit. of an adjoining Union Territory (in case of additional
(iii) His emoluments, allowances and privileges shall charge).
be determined by the Parliament of India. ³³ Appointment of the Chief Minister when no party has
(iv) When the same person is appointed as the Gov- clear cut majority in the State-Legislature.
ernor of two or more States, the emoluments ³³ Seeking information from the Chief Minister with
and allowances payable to him shall be allocated regard to the administrative and legislative matters
among the States in such proportion as deter- of the State.
mined by the President of India. ³³ Dismissal of the Council of Ministers when it can not
(v) His emoluments and allowances should not be prove the confidence of the State Legislative Assembly.
diminished during his term of office. ³³ Dissolution of the State Legislative Assembly if the
³³ The Governor appoints judges of courts below the Council of Ministers has lost its majority.
High Court. ³³ Determining the amount payable by the State of
³³ While appointing High Court judges, President Assam to the autonomous Tribal District Council as
consults the Governor. royalty accruing from licenses for mine exploration.

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³³ The Governor has certain special responsibilities to and the Legislative Council. And all the other states
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

discharge according to the directions issued by the having unicameral legislatues i.e., there exists only
President. In this regard, the Governor though has the State Legislative Assembly.
to consult the Council of Ministers, acts finally in his
individual judgement and discretion. The Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad)
³³ As per the Constitution, the number of members of
SARKARIA COMMISSION REPORT ON THE OFFICE the Legislative Council is not should exceed one-third
OF GOVERNOR of the total strength of the State legislative Assembly.
³³ The State must be consulted before the appointment However, its strength should not be less than 40
of a person to the office of the Governor. either.
³³ The Governor should not belong to the same State. ³³ The members of the Legislative Council are derived
³³ He should be an eminent figure in any walk of life. from various sections and streams of the society.
³³ He should be a detached figure and not too intimately (a) Not less than one-third to be elected by the
connected with the local politics of the states. Panchayats, Municipalities, District Boards,
³³ He should not have been actively involved in politics etc.
in recent past. (b) Not less than one-third to be elected by the
³³ He should not be a politician of the ruling party at the Legislative Assembly` of the state from amongst
Centre, if the State to which he appointed is ruled by persons who are not members of the assembly.
some other party (parties). (c) Not less than one-twelfth to be elected by the
³³ Persons of the minority groups should continue to be graduates of three years standing residing in
given a chance. the State.
³³ System of sending fortnightly report to the President (d) Not less than one-twelfth to be elected by the
by the Governor must continue. persons having teaching experience of three
³³ The power of the the Governor to refer any Bill to the years in educational institutions.
Centre for the President’s assent must continue. (e) The remainder one-sixth to be nominated by
ARTICLES RELATED WITH GOVERNOR the Governor from among the distinguished
persons of the society in the field of literature,
Article-153 Provision for the office of the Governor.
science, arts, co-operative movement and social
Article–154 Executive powers of Governor. services.
Article-155 Appointment of the Governor. ³³ Just like the Upper House at the Centre, the Legislative
Council in a State is never dissolved. The members
Article-156 Terms of the office.
are elected for a term of 6 years and One-third of its
Article-157 Qualifications for the appointment of members retire every two years.
the Governor. ³³ The council elects a chairman and vice chairman
Article-158 Conditions for the Governor’s office. among its member.
Article-159 Oath of the office to the Governor. Creation and Abolition
Article-161 Judicial powers of the Governor. ³³ The Parliament under Article 169, is empowered to
Article-164 Appointment of Ministers by the create or abolish the Legislative Council in a state.
Governor. ³³ If the Legislative Assembly passes a resolution for
Article-165 Appointment of the Advocate-General. abolishing or creation of the Legislative Council
by a majority of the total membership of the
Article-166 All executive actions of state are assembly and by a majority of not less than
formally taken in his name. 2/3rd of the members present and voting, the
Article-168 Governor is an integral part of the state Parliament may approve the resolution by a simple
legislature. majority.
Article-174 Right of summoning, proroguing and ³³ A resolution passed by the Legislative Assembly for
dissolving. the creation or abolition of its council is not binding
Article-200 Reservation of Bill for President’s on the parliament.
consideration. ³³ The Parliament may or may not approve such
Article-202 Laying of state budget before the resolution
legislature. Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha)
Article–213 Power to promulgate Ordinances. ³³ It is also known as lower house, just like the Lok
Article-233 Appointment and posting of District Sabha.
Judges by the Governor. ³³ Consists of not more than 500 members and not less
THE STATE LEGISLATURE than 60 members.
³³ The strength varies according to the population of the
³³ The Legislature of every State consists of Governor
state concerned.
and one or two Houses.
³³ However, in case of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and
³³ The Legislatures of Bihar, Maharashtra, Telangana, Goa, the minimum number is fixed at 30 and in case
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh are
of Mizoram and Nagaland, it is 40 and 46 respectively.
bicameral i.e., having both the Legislative Assembly

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

³³ Further, some member of the legislative assemblies Council of Ministers in states

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

in Sikkim and Nagaland are also elected indirectly. ³³ In a Parliamentary form of government, the council of
³³ It has a term of 5 years but can be dissolved by the ministers headed by the Chief Minister is the executive
Governor earlier. authority.
³³ Its term can be extended by one year during national ³³ The states under the Indian constitution are organised
emergency. on the pattern as that of the centre.
³³ The Governor may nominate one member from the ³³ The Council of Ministers in the state is a replica of
Anglo-Indian community to this House, if he thinks the council of Ministers at the centre.
that the community is not adequately represented. ³³ They resemble in formation, function and role in the
³³ The sessions of the state legislature and its officers administration.
as well as their functions are almost similar to those ³³ The constitution provides a broad and general view of
at the union level. the principles of Parliamentary system of Government
CHIEF MINISTER in Article 163 and Article 164.
³³ Chief Minister is the real executive head of the state ³³ Council of ministers are there to aid and advise the
governments. Governor of the state in various matters.
³³ His position at the state level is analogous to the
THE ADVOCATE GENERAL
position of the Prime Minister at the centre.
³³ He is appointed by the governor. ³³ The Advocate General is the first law officer of a state.
³³ Other ministers are appointed by the governor on the ³³ His office and functions are comparable to that of the
advice of Chief Minister. Attorney General of India.
³³ The Governor appoints the leader of the party enjoying ³³ His remunerations are also determined by the
the majority in the Assembly as the Chief Minister. Governor.
³³ He must be qualified to be a judge of supreme court
³³ A person who in not a member of state legislature can
in order to be to the office of the Advocate General.
be appointed, but he has to get himself elected within
6 months otherwise he is removed. ³³ He has the right to attend and speak in the proceedings
of either Houses of the State legislature without any
³³ The governor administers the oath of office and secrecy
right to vote.
to the ministers.
³³ The salaries and allowances of the ministers shall be ³³ He has the right of audience in any court in the state.
determined by the state legislature.
Power of Chief Minister ³³ On 5th August, 2019, the president of India
³³ He advices the Governor. Promulgated the Constitution (Application to
³³ He can ask for the resignation of any minister. Jammu and Kashmir) order, 2019. The order
³³ His own resignation brings down fall of the whole
effectively abrogates the special status accorded to
council of ministers. Jammu and Kashmir under the provisions of Article
³³ Presides over the meetings of the council of Ministers 370. Whereby provisions of the Constitution which
and influences its decisions. were applicable to other states were not applicable
³³ He advises the governor with regards to the appointment to Jammu and Kashmir.
of important officials like Advocate General. The ³³ A s e p e r a t e A c t t h e J a m m u a n d K a s h m i r
chairman and members of the state public service Reorganisation Act 2019 was passed from
commission, the state election commissions etc. parliament to bifurcate the state into two separate
³³ He announces Governments policies on the floor of union territories of Jammu and Kashmir (with
the House. legislaure), and Ladakh (without legislature).

JUDICIARY IN INDIA
The Supreme Court ³³ The senior most judge of the supreme court is
³³ The supreme court of India replaced the federal court appointed as the chief justice of India.
which was setup under the Government of India Act, ³³ Judges of the supreme court are appointed by the
1935. president after the recommendaion of a collegium
³³ It came into existence on January 28, 1950. consisting of chief justice of India and the four senior
³³ It stands at the apex of the judicial systems of India. most judges supreme court of India. Collegium
³³ The constitution consists provisions related to the recommendation is binding on the president.
union Judiciary in Articles 124 to Art. 147 in Part V Qualification
of the constitution. ³³ Must be a citizen of India.
³³ It consists of one chief justice and 33 other judges. ³³ Has been for atleast ten years as an advocate of a High
³³ The power to increase or decrease the number of Court or of two or more such courts in succession or
judges in the supreme court rests with the Parliament.

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³³ Is, in the opinion of the president, a distinguished that the case involves a substantial question of law
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

jurist. as to the interpretation of the constitution.

³³ Has been a judge of high court at least 5 years. 2. Civil – In civil cases, an appeal lies to the Supreme
Court if a High Court certifies that the value of the
Term
subject matter of the dispute as fit for appeal to the
³³ The Chief Justice & other Judges hold office till 65 supreme court.
years of age. 3. Criminal– In the criminal cases, an appeal lies to
Salary the supreme court if the High Court :
³³ Chief Justice gets 2.8 lakh per month, other judges (i) has withdrawn for trial before itself any case from
get 2.50 thousands per month. any subordinate and has in such trial convicted
³³ Besides the salary, they are entitled to a rent free the accused and sentenced him to death.
accomodation and other allowances. (ii) Certifies that the case is fit for appeal to the
³³ During financial emergency salary and other supreme court.
allowances can be reduced. Advisory Jurisdiction (Article 143)
³³ If the president seeks the advice of Supreme Court.
Removal of Judges :
It is duty bound to give its opinion.
³³ A motion seeking the removal of the judge can be ³³ The Supreme Court’s decision is not bound to the
preferred before either house of the parliament. president.
³³ If it is to be introduced in the Lok Sabha, it should Revisory Jurisdiction
be signed by not less than 100 members of the Lok
³³ The Supreme court under article 137 is empowered
Shaba.
to revive any judgement or order made by it with a
³³ If it is to be introduced in Rajya Sabha, it should be
view to removing any mistake or error that might have
signed by not less than 50 members.
crept in the judgement or order.
³³ The resolution should be supported by a majority
³³ It is a “court of record” as its decisions are of evidential
of total membership of both the houses & by 2/3rd
value & can be used as precedent in any court.
majority of the members present and voting.
³³ The Supreme Court also enjoys the power of judicial
³³ The motion can be moved only after a prior notice of
review as it can ensure that the laws passed by
14 days given to the judge. legislature and order issued by the executive do not
³³ The judge in question has the right to defend himself contravene any provision of the constitutions.
or through his counsel before the judicial committee. ³³ The supreme court decides disputes regarding the
³³ The parliament may or may not act upon the report election of the president and the vice president.
of the judicial committee. ³³ The supreme court recommends the removal of
Jurisdiction members of UPSC to the president.
³³ Original Jurisdiction (Article 131) : The supreme High Court
court settles all disputes between centre-state and ³³ According to Article 214 there shall be a High Court
State -State etc. for each state.
³³ There are certain provisions in the constitution which ³³ The High courts stand at the head of the judiciary
are excluded from the original jurisdiction of the in a state.
supreme court, certain disputes, the determination ³³ Article 215 says that every high court shall be a “Court
of which is vested in other tribunals. of Record”.
(i) Disputes specified in the provisions to Article 363 ³³ Kolkata High Court is the oldest High Court of India.
(11) Appointment of Judges
(ii) Complaints as to interference with inter-state ³³ According to Article 216, every High Court consists of
water supplies, referred to the statutory tribunal a Chief Justice and such other judges as appointed
mentioned in Article 262. by the president from time to time.
(iii) Matters referred by the finance commission (Art. ³³ Our constitution does not fix the number of judges
280). for a High Court.
(iv) Adjustment of certain expenses between the unions Eligibility
and the state (Art 290) (i) He must be a citizen of India.
Writ Jurisdiction (ii) He must have held a judicial office in the territory
³³ Every individual has the right to move the supreme of India for at least 10 years.
court directly by appropriate proceedings for the (iii) Must have been an advocate of a High Court or two
enforcement of his fundamental rights. or more such Courts in succession for atleast 10
³³ Article 32 imposes duty on the supreme court to years.
enforce the Fundamental rights. (iv) He has worked as a judge of a state high court for
Appellate Jurisdiction (Article 132) at least 5 years.
³³ It is three fold (v) He should be distinguished jurist in the opinion of
1. Constitutional — In constitutional matters an appeal the President of India.
lies to the supreme court if the High court certifies Oath : By Governer.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

Age of Retirement /tenure: 62 years. ³³ The chairman and members of the commission can

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

Removal : The judge of the High Courts can be be removed only by the president (and not by the
removed from the service in the very same way as governor).
that of the Supreme Court. The Centre-State Relation
Salaries & Allowances ³³ Articles 245 -255, part-XI of the constitution contains
³³ Determined by the Parliament. provisions relating to the legislature relations between
³³ Monthly Pension equal to 50% of his last drawn salary. centre and states.
³³ Charged on the consolidated fund of state and are not ³³ Centre-state relations can be studied under three
subject to vote in the state legislature. categories.
Transfer of a Judge The legislative relations
³³ According to Article 222, The President may after ³³ Our parliament can make laws for the whole or any
consultation with the chief justice of India transfer a part of the country.
Judge from one High Court to any other High Court. ³³ The legislature of a state may make laws for the whole
³³ Consultation with the chief Justice of India (act). or any part of the state.
³³ The opinion provided by the CJI is binding on the ³³ No law made by parliament shall be deemed to be
president. invalid on the ground that it would have extra-
Jurisdiction of the High Court territorial operation.
Original Jurisdiction ³³ There are three lists under 7th schedule -
³³ The High Court of presidency towns (Bombay, The Union list -100 subjects (earlier - 97)
Calcutta & Madras) have both original and appellate The state list -61 subjects (earlier 66)
jurisdiction. The concurrent list -52 subjects (earlier -47)
³³ Only in matters of admiralty. Probate matrinominal ³³ The union list consists of subjects with national
and contempt of court. They have original jurisdication. importance.
Appellate Jurisdiction ³³ Both centre & state can make laws on concurrent list
³³ As courts of appeal all High Courts enter to in appeal but in case of any conflict between state & centre, the
in civil and criminal cases from their subordinate central law will prevail.
courts as well as on their own. ³³ Article 248 vests the residuary Powers in the
Writ Jurisdiction parliament.
³³ According to Article 226, the High Courts are given ³³ Parliament has exclusive power to make any law
powers of issuing writs not only for the enforcement of with respect to any matter not enumerated in the
the fundamental Rights, but also for other purposes. concurrent list or the state list.
³³ The High Courts may issue writs, orders and ³³ According to Article 249, if the Rajya Sabha passes
directions under Article 226. a resolution, supported by 2/3rd of the members
³³ The jurisdiction to issue writs under this article is present & voting, that it is necessary or expedient in
larger in the case of High Courts than the jurisdiction the national interest that the Parliament should make
of the supreme court. laws with respect to any matter enumerated in the
state list specified in the resolution.
Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
³³ According to Article 250, while the National Emergency
³³ The Union Public Service Commission is the central
is in operation the Parliament shall have power to
recruiting agency in India. It is an independent
make laws for the whole or any part of the territory
constitutional body in the sense that it has been
of India with respect to all matters in the state list.
directly created by the constitution.
³³ According to Article 252, if the legislatures of two or
³³ Article 315 to 323 in Part XIV of the Constitution
more states passes a resolution to the effect that it
contain elaborate provisions regarding the composition,
is desireable to have a law passed by the parliament
appointment and removal of members along with the
on any matter in the state list, it shall be lawful for
independence, power and functions of the UPSC.
the parliament to make laws regulating that matter.
³³ The chairman and members of the Commission hold
A law so enacted applies only to those states which
office for a term of six years or until they attain the have passed the resolutions.
age of 65 years, whichever earlier.
³³ According to Article 253, that empowers the
³³ They can also be removed before the expiry of their
parliament to make any law for the whole or any part
term by the president. of the territory of India for implementing the treaties
State Public Service Commission and international agreements and conventions even
³³ Parallel to the UPSC at the centre, there is a state if the subject covered by such treaties and agreement
public service Commission in state under same set fall within the state list.
of Articles (i.e., Article 315 to 323). ³³ According to Article 356, the Parliament is empowered
³³ A SPSC consist of a chairman and other members to make laws with respect to all the matters in the
appointed by the governor of the state. state list when the Parliament declares that the state
³³ The chairman and members of the commission hold Governments can’t be carried on in accordance with
office for a term of six years or until they attain the the provisions of the constitution and the parliament
age of 62 years. assumes all the legislative functions of the states.

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Centre’s control over the state legislation ³³ Under Article 270, taxes levied & collected by the
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

³³ Any legislation passed by the state legislature for the union and distributed between the union and the
acquisition of private property for public purposes states.
will not become a law unless it has the assent of the ³³ Centre has powers to grant loans and provide Grant-
Parliament (Art. 31A). in-aids to the states specially for promoting the welfare
³³ According to Article 200 the Governor is empowered of SCs & STs.
to reserve a Bill for the president’s consideration. Finance Commission
³³ Under this Article the Governor has been directed to ³³ Article 280 of the constitution of India provides for a
reserve any Bill affecting the dignity any functioning Finance Commission as a quasi-judicial body.
of the High Court for the President’s consideration. ³³ It constituted by the president of India every fifth year
³³ According to Article 304 (b), the state legislature or at such earlier time as he considers necessary.
is authorised to pass Bill regarding the imposition ³³ Finance Commission consists of a chairman and four
of reasonable restrictions on the freedom of trade, other members to be appointed by the president.
commerce and intercourse within the state in public ³³ Function of the commission is to make recomendations
interest. Any such Bill requires the president’s prior to the president of India on following matters.
approval for its introduction in the House.
1. The distribution of the net proceeds of taxes to
Administrative Relations be shared between the centre and the states and
³³ dministrative relations are given under Article 256 the allocation between the states of the respective
to 263, Part XI. shares of such proceeds.
³³ The executive powers of the state should be so 2. The principles that should govern the grants-in-aid
exercised as to ensure compliance with the laws of to the states by Centre.
the union Parliament (Art 256). 3. The measures needed to augment the consolidated
³³ Powers of the state do not impede or prejudice fund of a state to supplement the resources of the
executive power of the union (Art. 257) panchayats and the municipalities in the state on
³³ Under Article 258(2), the Parliament is given power the basis of the recommendations made by the state
to use the state machinery to enforce the union laws. finance commission.
³³ State governments can suspend officials of All India 4. Any other matter referred to it by the president in
Services in case of untoward happenings. the interests of sound finance.
³³ State Government can’t take any disciplinary action Inter-state Council
against the officials of All India Services. ³³ According to Article 263, If at any time it appears
³³ The centre can deploy military and paramilitary to the President that the Public interests would be
forces in a state even against the wishes of the state served by the establishment of a council charged
Government. with the duty of—
³³ Under Article 262, the Parliament has power to (a) Inquiring into and advising upon disputes which
adjudicate in case of disputes related to inter-state may have arisen during investigating and discuss-
rivers. ing subjects in which some or all of the states or
³³ Under Article 263, the president has power to the union and one or more of the states, have a
constitute a council to resolve the disputes or to common interest, or
discuss the matters of common interests between the (b) making recommendations upon any such subject
states or between the state and union. and, in particular, recommendations for the better
³³ The president has constituted three such councils so coordination of policy and action with respect to
far. these are — that subject.
1. Central council of health
It shall be lawful for the president by order to es-
2. Central council of Local self Government tablish such council, and to define the nature of the
3. Transport development council. duties to be performed by it and its organisation
Financial Relations and procedure.
³³ Articles 264 to 293 in part IX are concerned with ³³ The duty of any such council is to inquire into and
financial relations. advice upon the relevant matters and not one of
³³ The constitution makes a distinction between the adjudicating.
legislative powers to levy a tax and the financial power ³³ The Sarkaria Commission recommended (1983-87)
to appropriate the proceeds of the tax. that in order to differentiate the inter-state council
³³ The residuary powers regarding taxes belongs to the from other bodies setup under the Article 263.
parliament
³³ It must be called the inter-Governmental Council.
³³ The state has little power regarding taxes.
Zonal Councils
³³ The state depends on centre for financial resources. ³³ Zonal councils are statutory bodies (not constitutional).
³³ The chief sources of finance is grants-in-aid from ³³ These councils are established under the Act of
the centre. parliament.
³³ Under article 269, taxes levied & collected by the ³³ These councils play a very significant role.
union Governments but assigned to the states.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

³³ There are five zonal councils setup under the part National Commission for STs

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

III of the state reorganisation, Act 1956. These are ³³ Like the National Commission for schedules castes,
following. the National Commission for schedule Tribes (STs) is
also a constitutional body in the sense that it is di-
1. Northern Zonal Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, rectly established by Article 338-A of the constitution.
Council Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, ³³ A separate National Commission for STs by bifurcating
Rajasthan, NCT of Delhi & the existing combined National Commission for SCs
Chandigarh. and STs was done by passing the 89th Constitutional
Its head office is in New Delhi. Amendment Act of 2003.
2. The Central Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, ³³ The commission consists of chairperson, a vice-
Zonal Council Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh. chariperson and three other members to be appointed
Its headquarter is in Allahabad. by the president.
³³ The commission investigates all matters relating to the
3. The Eastern Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West constitutional safeguards for the STs and to report to
Zonal Council Bengal, Sikkim the president on their working.
Its headquarter is in Kolkata. ³³ Special officer for Linguistic Minorities mentioned in
4. The Western Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Article 350 -B of constitution.
Zonal Council Daman and Diu, Dadra & Nagar ³³ This office works for constitutional safeguards for
Haveli. linguistic minorities and report to the president on
Its headquarter is in Mumbai. their working.
5. The Southern Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC)
Zonal Council Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, ³³ The 102nd Constitution Amendment Act, 2018
Puduchery. provides Constitutional Status to the NCBC.
Its headquarter is in Chennai ³³ It has the authority to examine Complaints and
North-Eastern council welfare measures regarding socially and educationally
³³ States — Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, backward classes.
Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh. ³³ Previously NCBC was a Statutory Body under the
Its functions are same like the zonal councils. It was set Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
up under the legislation called North Eastern Council ³³ The 102nd Constitution amendment Act inserted new
Act, 1972. The chairman of zonal council is Union Articles 338 B and 342A.
Home Minister, Minister of State, mininsry of DONER ³³ Article 338 B provides authority to NCBC to examine
would serve as Vice-chairman of zonal council. complaints and welfare measures regarding socially
³³ On the recommendations of Sarkaria Commission, and educationally backward classes.
under the leadership of V.P. Sing Janata Dal ³³ Article 342A empowers President to specify socially
Government established a inter-state council in 1990. and educationally backward classes in various states
Following are the members in it— and union territories. He can do this in Consultation
with Governor of Concerned State. However, law en-
(i) Chairman – Prime Minister
acted by Parliament will be required if list of backward
(ii) Chief Ministers of all states classes is to be amended.
(iii) Chief Ministers of Delhi & Puducherry
(iv) Six Union Cabinet Ministers including the Home Emergency Provisions
Minister ³³ The President is empowered to promulgate three kinds
³³ The council should hold at least three meetings in of emergencies—
a year. 1. On the ground of threat to the security of India by a
³³ The council has a permanent committee. It was
war or an external aggression or an Armed rebellion
(Article 352).
established in 1996. the committee has the following
members — 2. On the ground of failure of the constitutional ma-
chinery in a state (Art. 356).
(i) Chairman – Home Minister 3. Financial Emergency (Art. 360)
(ii) Five Cabinet Ministers
National Emergency (Article 352)
(iii) Nine Chief Ministers
³³ If the president is satisfied that a grave emergency
³³ The council has a secretariat to help it. It was called exists where by the security of India or of any part of
the inter-state council secretariat. It is established the territory thereof is threatened, whether by a war
in 1991. or an external aggression or an armed rebellion, he
National Commission for SCs may proclaim a state of emergency for the whole of
India or a part thereof.
³³ The National Commission for Scheduled Castes is
³³ A proclamation of emergency can be made by the
a constitutional body in the sense that it is directly
president even before the actual occurance of war or
established by Article 338 of the constitution. external aggression or armed rebellion if he is satisfied
³³ The commission consists of chairperson, a vice that there is an imminent danger.
chairperson and three other members to be appointed ³³ Such a proclaimation of emergency can be varied or
by the president. revoked by the president subsequently.
³³ The commission investigate all matters relating to the ³³ The president can issue a proclamation of emergency
constitutional safeguards for the SCs and to report to only when the decision of the union cabinet is
the President on their working. conveyed to him only in written.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ This proclamation is subject to judicial review and its Financial Emergency (Article 360)
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

constitutionality can be questioned in a court of law ³³ The president can proclaim financial emergency if he
on the grounds of malafide. is satisfied that the financial stability or the credit of
³³ The proclamation of emergency must be approved by India or any part there of is threatened.
the parliament within the period of one month. If it is ³³ Such a proclamation must be approved by the
approved it will continue for six months. parliament within two months.
³³ It can be extended for an indefinite period with an ³³ During financial emergency, the president can issue
approval by the parliament for every six months. directions for the reduction of salaries and allowances
³³ It has been proclaimed three times so far—1962, of all or any class of persons serving under the state.
1971 and 1975. ³³ Once approved it remains in force till revoked by the
³³ President can suspend the operation of Fundamental president.
Rights during this type of emergency (Except Art. 20 ³³ No Emergency under Article 360 has been issued
& 21) so far.
³³ Article 19 can only be suspended in case of external
emergency and not in the case of internal emergency. Panchayati Raj : Panchayati Raj is a subject of state list.
³³ State Government have right to establish and election
Effects of the proclamation of Emergency of it.
³³ During emergency the president is empowered to issue
³³ Part IX of the constitution relates to it.
directions to the states as to the manner in which
their executive power is to be exercised. ³³ It received constitutional status through the 73rd
constitutional Amendment Act of 1992.
³³ During emergency, the parliament can enact laws
even on the subjects enumerated under the state list. ³³ At the central level, the ministry of Rural Development
looks after the matters relating to the Panchayati Raj.
³³ Distribution of the power is suspended.
³³ Committees related to Panchayati Raj.
³³ Parliament can extend the life of the Lok Sabha
beyond the five year term for a period not exceeding Balwant Rai Mehta Committee
one year at a time. ³³ The Government of India appointed a committee in
³³ The life of the state legislative Assemblies can also 1957.
be extended, by law, by the parliament in a similar ³³ This committee was set up to examine the work of
manner. community Development Programme (1952), and
³³ The citizens can’t move the courts for this. National Extension Service (1953).
³³ The other fundamental Rights may be suspended. ³³ The committee submitted its report in 1958.
³³ Article 20 & 21 can’t be suspended.
Recommendations
State Emergency (Article 356) ³³ This committee recommends three level of governance
³³ If the president, on receipt of report from the Governer viz zila parishad, Panchayat Samiti (Block) and Gram
of state or otherwise is satisfied that a situation has Panchayat (village).
arisen in which the government of the state can’t be ³³ District collector should be a chairperson of Zila
carried on in accordance with the provisions of this Parishad.
constitution, he may issue a proclamation. ³³ The members of Zila Parishad and Panchayat samiti
(a) assume to himself all or any of the functions of the should be elected indirectly while the members of
Government of the state and all or any of the powers Gram Panchayat should be elected directly.
vested in or exercisable by the governor. ³³ These recommendation were accepted by NDC in
(b) declare that the powers of the legislature of the Jan 1958.
state shall be exercisable by or under the authority
³³ Rajasthan was the first state to establish the
of parliament.
institution of Panchayati Raj.
(c) make such incidental and consequential provisions
as appear to the president to be necessary or desir- ³³ The scheme was inaugurated by the then PM. Jawahar
able for giving effect to the objects of the proclama- Lal Nehru. On october 2, 1959 in Nagaur District in
tion, including provisions for suspending in whole Rajasthan.
or in part of the operation of any provisions of this ³³ Rajasthan adopted a three tier system.
constitution relating to any body or authority in the ³³ Tamilnadu accepted a two tier system and West
state. Bengal a four tier system.
³³ The parliament can confer on the president the power
Ashok Mehta Committee
to make laws for the state.
³³ The Janata Government appointed a committee in
³³ If the Lok Sabha is not in session, the president may
1977 on Panchayati Raj institutions under the chair-
authorise expenditure from the consolidated fund of
manship of Ashok Mehta.
the state, pending sanction of such expenditure by
the parliament. Recommendations
³³ The proclamation of the president’s rule should be ³³ This committee recommends a two tier Panchayati raj
approved by the parliament within two months. system — Zila Parishad & Mandal Panchayat.
³³ If approved, it remains in force for six months from the ³³ Nyaya Panchayat should be kept as separate body.
date of proclamation of the state emergency. ³³ Seats for SCs and STs should be reserved on the basis
³³ It can be extended for a maximum period of three years of their population.
with the approval of the parliament every six months.
³³ These recommendations could not be implemented.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

G.V. K. Rao Committee ³³ It is entitled ‘The Municipalities’ and consist of

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

³³ This committee was appointed by the planning provisions from Article 243-P to 243 -ZG.
commission in 1985. ³³ This act has added 12th schedule to the constitution.
Recommendations ³³ This schedule contains eighteen functional items of
municipalities.
³³ Zila Parishad should be of pivotal role in the scheme
for democratic decentralisation. ³³ The act gave constitutional status to the municipalities.
³³ Create the post of district development commissioner. ³³ The act aims at revitalising and strengthening the
urban governments so that they function effectively
³³ He should act as the chief executive officer of Zila
as units of local government.
parishad.
³³ Reservation for SCs, STs & women Co-operative Societies
³³ Recommendations could not be accepted. ³³ The 97th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2011 gave
a Constitutional status and protection to co-operative
L.M. Singhvi Committee societies.
³³ Appointed by the Rajiv Gandhi Government in 1986. ³³ In this context, it made the following three changes
³³ Chairman L.M. Singhvi in the constitution :
73rd Amendment Act of 1992 (a) It made the right to form co-operative societies a
³³ The Act gives a constitutional status to the Panchayati fundamental right.
Raj institutions. (b) It included a new Directive Principle of state policy
³³ The Act has added new part IX and 11th schedule to on promotion of co-operative societies.
the constitution. (c) it added a new Part IX-B in the Constitution which
³³ It is entitled as “The Panchayats” and consists of is entitled “The co-operative societies”.
provisions from Articles 243 to 243 (O).
(PART-XV) Election Commission (Article 324 to 329)
³³ It consists 29 functional items of the Panchayats and
³³ The Election Commission is a permanent and an
deals with Article 243 (G).
independent body.
³³ The compulsory provisions of the Act are to be
³³ It is established by the constitution of India.
included in the state laws creating the new panchayati
Raj System. ³³ The elections to the Panchayats and the Municipal-
ities in the states are conducted by state election
³³ The voluntary provision may be included at the
commission.
discretion of the state.
³³ The election commission consists of one chief election
Chief Characteristics commissioner and two other election commissioners.
³³ This Panchayati Raj system is for only those states ³³ The powers of election commissioners have been made
having population of more than 20 lakhs. equal to those of the chief election commissioner.
³³ The tenure of every Panchayat should be 5 years.
Functions :
³³ The election of the new Panchayat should be held
³³ The election commission works under the overall
before the expiry of its tenure or within 6 months of
supervisions of the chief election commissioner.
its dissolution.
³³ It conducts and supervises elections.
³³ Every Panchayat should have a chairperson.
³³ It fixes the election programme dates, the number
³³ The total number of the seats in every panchayat
of polling booths and the declaration of the results.
should be filled by direct election.
³³ It advises the president or the governor on all electoral
³³ Seat should be reserved for SCs & STs.
matters.
³³ 1/3rd of the seats should be reserved for women.
³³ It prepares guidelines for a code of conduct for
³³ Panchayat can levy collect and appropriate taxes candidates, political parties and voters.
duties tolls and fees as its suits better.
³³ It fixes the limit of election expenses and examines
³³ State also provide grants-in-aid to Panchayat. the accounts of the electoral expenditures.
³³ All elections of Panchayats are conducted, supervised, ³³ It decides the election symbols for the political parties.
directed and controlled by the state election
³³ It settles the election disputes and petitions referred
commission.
to it by the president or the governor.
³³ The state election commissioner is appointed by the
³³ The term of the chief election commissioner is for 6
Governor.
years or 65 years of age whichever is earlier.
³³ He can be removed on the same manner as the judge
³³ He can be removed from the office in the same manner
of the High Court.
as the judges of the supreme court.
Urban Local Government ³³ He is not eligible for reappointment.
³³ The system of urban local government was constitu- ³³ The constitution has not debarred the retiring election
tionalised through the 74th constitutional Amend- commissioners from any further appointment by the
ment Act of 1992. government.
³³ This Act has added a new Part IX-A to the Constitution ³³ His salaries and allowances are met from the
of India. consolidated fund of India.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Its establishment was recommended by the Santha-

NON CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

nam Committee on prevention of corruption (1962-64)

National Human Rights Commission originally the CVC was neither a constitutional body
³³ The National Human Rights Commission is a statutory nor a statutory body. Recently, in September 2003,
body. the Parliament enacted a law conferring statutary
status on the CVC.
³³ It was established in 1993 by a legislation enacted
by the parliament. Namely the protection of Human ³³ The CVC is a multi-member body consisting of a
Rights Act, 1993. Central Vigilance Commissioner and not more than
two vigilance commissioner.
³³ The Commission is a multi-member body consisting
of a chairman and other four members. ³³ They are appointed by the president.
³³ The chairman should be a retired chief justice of India, ³³ They hold office for a term of four years or until they
and members should be serving or retired judges of attain the age of sixty five years, which ever is earlier.
the supreme court, a serving or retired chief justice CENTRAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION (CBI)
of a high court and two persons having knowledge or ³³ The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) was set up
practical experience with respect to human rights. in 1963 by a resolution of Ministry of Home Affairs.
³³ The chairman and members hold office for a term ³³ Later, it was transfered to the Ministry of Personnel
of five years or until they attain the age of 70 years. and now it enjoys the status of an attached office.
³³ The commission is the watchdog of human rights in ³³ The establishment of the CBI was recommended by the
the country, that is the rights relating to life, liberty, Santhanam Committee on Prevention of Corruption
equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed (1962-64).
by constitution or embodied in the international ³³ CBI is not a statutory body. It derives its power from
covenants and enforceable by courts in India. the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, 1946.
Central Information Commission LOKPAL AND LOKAYUKTAS
³³ The central information commission was established LOKPALS
by central government in 2005. ³³ The first Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC)
³³ It was constituted through an official Gazette of India (1966-1970) recommended the setting up
notification under the provisions of the Right to of two special authorities designated as Lokpal and
Information Act (2005). Lokayukta for the redressal of citizens grievances.
³³ The Central Information Commission is a high pow- ³³ The Lokpal would deal with complaints against
ered independent body which inter alia looks into the ministers and secretaries at central and state levels.
complaints made to it and decide the appeals. ³³ According to the ARC, the Lokpal would be appointed
by the president after consultation with the chief
³³ It entertains complaints and appeals pertaining
justice of India, the speaker of Lok Sabha and the
to offices, financial institutions, public sector
chairman of Rajya Sabha.
undertaking to offices, financial institutions, public
³³ Ist time Lokpal bill was introduced in Parliament in
sector undertaking etc.
May 1968, by the Congress Government headed by
³³ The commission consist of a Chief Information Indira Gandhi. The Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013
Commissioner and not more than ten Information seeks to provide for the establishment of Lokpal
Commissioners. for the union and Lokayukta for states to inquire
³³ They appointed by the president for a term of 5 years into allegations of corruption against certain public
or until they attain the age 65 years, whichever is functionaries and for related matters.
earlier. LOKAYUKTAS
RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT (RTI) ³³ According to ARC Report (1966-70) the Lokaukta
³³ It is a statutory (and not a constitutional) Act. (one at the centre and in every state) would deal with
³³ It was passed in 2005 to set out the practical regime the complaints against other specified higher official
of Right to Information for citizens to secure access which is not included in Lokpal.
to information under the control of public authorities, ³³ Lokayukta was established first in Maharashtra in
in order to promote transparency and accountability 1971. Although Odisha had passed the Act in this
in the working of every public authority. regard in 1970, it came into force only in 1983.
³³ It also provides for the constitution of a central In- ESTABLISHMENT OF LOKAYUKTA IN STATES
formation commission and states Information Com- ³³ Odisha (1974), Maharashtra (1971), Rajasthan
missions and for matters connected therewith or (1973), Bihar (1974), Uttar Pradesh (1975), Madhya
incidental thereto. RTI Act, 2005 extends to the whole Pradesh (1981), Himachal Pradesh (1983), Karnataka
of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir. (1985), Gujarat (1986), Punjab (1995), Kerala (1999),
CENTRAL VIGILANCE COMMISSION Jharkhand (2001), Chattisgarh (2002), Haryana
³³ The central vigilance commission (CVC) is the main (2002), Uttarakhand (2002), Goa (2011)
agency for preventing corruption in the central GLOSSARY OF CONSTITUTIONAL TERMS
government. ³³ Ad hoc committees : These committees are appointed
³³ It was established in 1964 by an executive resolution for a specific purpose and they cease to exist when
of the central government. they finish the task assigned to them and submit
a report. The principal Ad hoc committees are the

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select and joint committees on Bills. Examples of Ad Token Cut : This cut motion aims that the amount of

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

hoc committees the demand be reduced by Rs 100 in order to venti-
(1) Committees on the Draft Five Year Plans (2) Rail- late a specific grievance, which is within the sphere of
way convention committee. responsibility of the Government of India.
³³ Adjournment Motion : It is introduced in the The Cut Motions provide the members maximum
parliament to draw attention of the House to a definite opportunity to examine every part of the budget and
matter of urgent public importance, and needs the criticize the Government.
support of 50 members to be admitted. As it interrupts ³³ Confidence Motion : The rules of parliamentary
the normal business of the House, it is regarded as procedure in India does not provide for a confidence
an extraordinary device. motion. It has come in vogue with the emergence of
It involves an element of censure against the govern- coalition politics under this, the government itself
ment and hence Rajya Sabha is not permitted to make brings the motion seeking the confidence of the house.
use of this device. ³³ Deadlock : When the Houses of parliament finally
³³ Adjournment of House : A session of Parliament disagree over the passage of a Bill, where they enjoy
Consists of many meetings. Each meeting of a day equal legislature jurisdiction. It is called a dead lock
consists of two sittings, that is, a morning sitting from between the houses of parliament.
11 am to 1 pm and post-lunch sitting from 2 pm to 6 ³³ Discrimination : It is a difference in treatment of two
pm. An adjournment suspends the work in a sitting for or more persons or subject.
a specified time, which may be hours, days or weeks. ³³ Dissolution : Under Article 85, the president dissolves
³³ Cabinet : It is the highest decision-making authority the House of the people as per the procedure fixed by
in our political-administrative system and chief the constitution. The dissolution ends the very life of
policy for mulating body of the central government. It the existing House and fresh election is essential to
includes the cabinet ministers only. Thus it is a part form new house.
of the council of ministers. ³³ Double jeopardy : It is an objection of an accused
³³ Censure Motion : A censure means an expression of person to repeated trial for the same alleged offence.
strong disapproval or harsh criticism. It can be stern ³³ Electoral college : It is an intermediary body chosen
rebuke by a legislature, generally opposition against by elect. to choose the representatives in an indirect
the policies of Government or an individual minister. election.
However, it can also be passed to criticise, condemn ³³ Electoral Roll : It is known as voter list in common-
some act. A censure motion can be moved in lower parlance, is the basic document on which the whole
house of the parliament or in a state assembly in india. electoral process is founded.
³³ Chief Whip : A whip is a official in a political party ³³ Equality : It is a state of being equal in political,
whose primary purpose is to ensure discipline in economic and social rights.
a legislature. Whips are the party’s ‘enforcers’ who
³³ Expulsion : It is the unseating of members for
ensure that the party members participate according
offences committed against the house or for grave
to the official party policy. A whip’s role is also to
misdemeanours.
ensure that the elected representatives of their party
³³ Floor Crossing : It refers to the defection of a mem-
are in attendance when important votes are taken.
ber of parliament from the party, if he was elected to
³³ Coalition Government : It means alliances of several
another political party.
political parties. This situation arises, if no party on its
³³ Fundamental Duties : These are certain obligations
own can achieve majority in the parliament. To have
strong coalitions, it is necessary that political parties on the part of citizen which he or she follows towards
must moderate their ideologies and programme. the state so that the individual may not overlook
his duties to the community while exercising the
³³ Contempt of Court : It refers to actions which either
fundamental rights.
defy a court’s authority, cast disrespect on a court, or
³³ Hung Parliament : It is parliament wherein no party
impede the ability of the court to perform its function,
punishable by fine or imprisonment or both. has won a working majority.
³³ Impeachment : A person found guilty may be
³³ Cut Motion : It is a power given to the members of
the Lok Sabha to oppose a demand in the financial removed from his office.
bill discussed by the government. If a cut motion is ³³ Judicial Review : It is the power of the higher court
adopted by the House and the government does not to review statutes or administrative act and determine
have the numbers, it is obliged to resign cut motion their constitutionality.
is of three kinds : ³³ Legislature : It is the body of persons in a state
Policy Cut : This type of cut motion aims that the authorised to make alter and repeal law. It may consist
amount of the demand be reduced to Re 1. It represents of one or two houses with similiar or different powers.
the complete disapproval of policy underlying the de- ³³ Maiden Speech : It is one’s speech delivered for first
mand. time especially in parliament.
Economy Cut : This type of cut motion aims that the ³³ Money Bill : It is a Bill which contains provisions
amount of demand be reduced to certain other amount dealing with the imposition, repeal, remission, alter-
and it represent that the demand for grants should be ation or regulation of taxes etc.
altered. ³³ Migration : It means coming to India with the
intention of residing here permanently.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Oath : It is ritualistic declaration, based on an appeal It is fixed under the rules of the House or standing
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

to God or some revered person or object that one will orders.

speak the truth, keep a promise, remain faithful etc. ³³ Quorum : It is a minimums number required to be
³³ Ordinance : Ordinances are temporary laws that present at an assembly before it can validly proceed
are promulgated by the president of India on the to transact business.
recommendation of the union cabinet. They can only For example - the presence of 1/10 members is
be issued when parliament is not in session. They required to hold the meetings of parliament. In the
enable the government to take immediate legislative absence of quorum, the meeting is adjourned and no
action. business is conducted.
³³ Ordinances cease to operate either if parliament does ³³ Vote on account : It is an estimate of an advance
not approve of them within six weeks of reassembly or payment to enable Government Departments to carry
if disapproving resolutions are passed by both Houses. on their work from beginning of financial year till the
³³ Petition : It is a solemn earnest application or request passing of Appropriation Act.
to a superior or to a person or group in authority. ³³ Zero hour : One hour immediately after the question
³³ Privilege : It is an exceptional right or advantage. hour, is called the zero hour because it begins at
³³ Question Hour : It is the time fixed for asking and zero hour i.e. 12’o clock. Those question of public
answering oral questions in a sitting in a legislature. importance are asked which can’t wait for 10 days
advance notice.

AMENDMENTS OF THE CONSTITUTION

Article 368 in Part XX of the Constitution deals with majority, that is a majority (i.e. more than 50 per cent)
the powers of the Parliament to amend the constituion of the total membership of the house and a majority of
and its procedure. two-thirds of the members of the house present and
1. An amendment of the constitution can be initiated voting.
only by the introduction of a bill for the purpose in 4. In the case of deadlock between the two houses over
either House of Parliament and not in the state legis- the bill, there is no provision of joint sitting in this
lature. regard.
2. The bill can be introduced either by a minister or by a 5. The president must give his assent to the bill. He can
private member and does not require prior permission neither with hold his assent to the bill nor return the
of the president. bill for reconsideration of the parliament.
3. The bill must be passed in each house by a special 6. After the president’s assent the bill becomes an Act.

IMPORTANT AMENDMENTS OF THE CONSTITUTION

1. The Constitution (First Amendment) Act, cases where the operation of regulatory or prohibitory laws
1950–(Enforced since 18 June, 1951) This amendment of the State results in “deprivation of property”. Article
provided for several new grounds of restrictions to the 31A of the Constitution was also amended to extend its
right to freedom of speech and expression and the right scope to cover categories of essential welfare legislation
to practise any profession or to carry on any trade or like abolition of zamindaris, proper planning of urban
business as contained in Article 19 of the Constitution. and rural areas and for effecting a full control over the
These restrictions related to public order, friendly relations mineral and oil resources of the country, etc. Six Acts were
with foreign States or incitement to an offence in relation also included in the Ninth Schedule. Article 305 was also
to the right to freedom of speech, and to the prescribing amended to save certain laws providing State Monopolies.
of professional or technical qualifications or the carrying 5. The Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1955–
on by the State, etc., of any trade, business, industry or (Enforced Since 24 December, 1955) This amendment
service in relation to the right to carry on any trade or made a change in Article 3 so as to empower President to
business. The amendment also inserted two new Articles, specify a time for state legislatures to convey their views
31A and 31B and the Ninth Schedule to give protection on the proposed Central laws affecting areas, boundaries,
from challenge to land reform laws. etc., of the their states.
2. The Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 6. The Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act,
1952–(Enforced Since 1 May, 1953) By this amendment, 1956–(Enforced Since 11 September, 1956) This
the scale or representation for election to the Lok Sabha amendment made some changes in Articles 269 and 286
was readjusted. relating to taxes on sale and purchase of goods in the
3. The Constitution (Third Amendment) Act, 1954– course of inter-state trade and commerce. A new entry 92
(Enforced Since 22 February, 1955) This amendment A was added to the Union List of the Seventh Schedule to
substituted entry 33 of List III (Concurrent List) of the the Constitution.
Seventh Schedule to make it correspond to Article 369. 7. The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act,
4. The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1956–(Enforced Since 1 November, 1956) Through this
1955–(Enforced Since 27 April, 1955) Article 31 amendment the implementation of State Reorganisation
(2) of the Constitution was amended to re-state more Act, was made possible. Therefore, the then existing
precisely the State’s power of compulsory acquisition and categorisation of State into Part A, Part B and Part C
requisitioning of private property and distinguish it from was henceforth ceased. Part C states were redesignated

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as Union Territories. The seats in the Rajya Sabha and 17. The Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment)

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

in the Union and State Legislatures were reallocated. It Act, 1964–(Enforced Since 20 June, 1964) Article
also effected changes with regard to the appointment 31A was further amended to prohibit the acquisition of
of additional and acting judges, High Courts and their land under personal cultivation unless the market value
jurisdictions etc. of the land is paid as compensation and the definition
8. The Constitution (Eight Amendment) Act, of “estate” as contained in that Article had also been
1960–(Enforced Since 5 January, 1960) Article 344 enlarged with retrospective effect. The Ninth Schedule
amended to extend the period of reservation of SC/STs in had also been amended to include 44 more Acticles.
Parliament for a period of ten years. 18. The Constitution (Eighteenth Amendment)
9. The Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Act, Act, 1966–(Enforced Since 27 August, 1966) Article 3
1960–(Enforced Since 28 December, 1960) To give was amended by this Act to specify that the expression
effect to the transfer of Berubari Union territories to “State” will include a union territory also and to make it
Pakistan. clear that the power to form a new state under this Article
includes a power to form a new state or union territory
10. The Constitution (Tenth Amendment) Act, by uniting a part of a state or a union territory to another
1961–(Enforced Since 11 August, 1961) This Act state or union territory.
amended Article 240 and the First Schedule in order
19. The Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment)
to include areas of Dadra and Nagar Haveli as a Union
Act, 1966–(Enforced Since 11 December, 1966) Article
Territory and to provide for its administration under the
324 was amended to effect a consequential change as a
regulation making powers of President.
result of the decision to abolish Election Tribunals and to
11. The Constitution (Eleventh Amendment) hear election petitions by High Courts.
Act, 1961–(Enforced Since 19 December, 1961) The 20. The Constitution (Twentieth Amendment)
purpose of this amendment was to amend Articles 66 Act, 1966–(Enforced Since 22 December, 1966) This
and 71 of the Constitution to provide that the election of amendment was necessitated by the decision of the
President or Vice President could not be challenged on Supreme Court in Chandramohan vs. State of Uttar
the ground of any vacancy in the appropriate electoral Pradesh in which certain appointments of District
college. Judges in State of Uttar Pradesh were declared void by
12. The Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) Supreme Court. A new Article 233A was added and the
Act, 1961–(Enforced Since 20 December, 1961) This appointments made by Governor were validated.
amendment sought to include Goa, Daman and Diu as a 21. The Constitution (Twenty-first Amendment)
Union Territory and to amend Article 240 for the purpose. Act, 1967–(Enforced Since 10 April, 1967) By this
13. The Constitution (Thirteenth Amendment) amendment, Sindhi Language was included in the Eighth
Act, 1962–(Enforced Since 1 December, 1962) By Schedule.
this amendment, a new Article 371A was added to make 22. The Constitution (Twenty-second
special provisions with respect to state of Nagaland in A m en d m en t) A ct, 1969– (E n fo rced Si n c e 2 5
pursuance of an agreement between Government of India September, 1969) This act was enacted to facilitate the
and Naga People’s Convention. formation of a new autonomous state of Meghalaya within
14. The Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment) state of Assam.
Act, 1962–(Enforced Since 28 December, 1962) By 23. The Constitution (Twenty-third Amendment)
this Act, Pondicherry was included in the First Schedule Act, 1969–(Enforced Since 23 January, 1970) Article
as a Union Territory, and this Act has also enabled the 334 was amended so as to extend the safeguards in
creation of Legislature by Parliamentary law for Himachal respect of reservation of seats in Parliament and State
Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Goa, Daman and Diu and Legislatures for Schedule Castes and Scheduled Tribes as
Pondicherry. well as for Anglo-Indians for a further period of ten years.
15. The Constitutional (Fifteenth Amendment) 24. The Constitution (Twenty-fourth Amendment)
Act, 1963–(Enforced Since 5 October, 1963) It raised Act, 1971–(Enforced Since 5 November, 1971) This
the age of retirement of a High Court Judge from 60 to amendment was passed in the context of a situation
62, extended the jurisdiction of a High Court to issue that emerged with the verdict in Golaknath’s case by
Supreme Court. Accordingly, this act amended Article 13
writs under Art. 226 to a Government or authority
and Article 368 to remove all doubts regarding the power
situated outside its territorial jurisdiction where the
of Parliament to amend the Constitution including the
cause of action arises within such jurisdiction, modifying
Fundamental Rights.
the procedure imposed by Art. 311 upon the pleasure of
the President. 25. The Constitution (Twenty-fifth Amendment)
Act, 1971–(Enforced Since 20 April, 1971) This
16. The Constitution (Sixteenth Amendment) amendment further amended Article 31 in the wake of
Act, 1963–(Enforced Since 5 October, 1963) This effect the Bank Nationalisation case. The word ‘amount’ was
changes in Art. 19 to enable the Parliament to make substituted in place of ‘compensation’ in the light of
laws providing reasonable restrictions on the freedom the judicial interpretation of the word ‘compensation’
of expression in the larger interests of sovereignty and meaning ‘adequate compensation’.
integrity of India. It also brought amendment in the form
26. The Constitution (Twenty-sixth Amendment)
of oath contained in the Third Schedule and emphasised Act, 1971–(Enforced Since 28 December, 1971) By this
on upholding the sovereignty and integrity of India. amendment, the privy and privileges of the former rulers

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

of Indian states were abolished. This amendment was 36. The Constitution (Thirty-sixth Amendment)
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

passed as a result of Supreme Court decision in Madhav Act, 1975–(Enforced Since 26 April, 1975) This was
Rao’s case. enacted to make Sikkim a full-fledged State of Indian
27. The Constitution (Twenty-seventh Union and to include it in the First Schedule to the
Am end m ent ) Act, 19 71 – (Enf orced Si n ce 30 Constitution and to allot to Sikkim one seat each in the
December, 1971) This amendment was passed to provide Council of States and in the House of the People. Article
for certain matters necessitated by the reorganisation of 2A and the Tenth Schedule inserted by the Constitution
north-eastern states. A new Article 239B was inserted (Thirty-fifth Amendment) Act were omitted and Articles 80
which enabled the promulgation of Ordinances by and 81 were suitably amended.
Administrators of certain union territories. 37. The Constitution (Thirty-seventh Amendment)
Act, 1975–(Enforced Since 3 May, 1975) By this Act,
28. The Constitution (Twenty-eighth Amendment)
Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh was provided with
Act, 1972–(Enforced Since 29 August, 1972) The
a Legislative Assembly. Article 240 of the Constitution
amendment was enacted to abolish the special privileges
was also amended to provide that as in the case of other
of the members of Indian Civil Services in matters of union territories with Legislatures, the power of President
leave, pension and rights as regard to disciplinary to make regulations for the Union Territory of Arunachal
matters. Pradesh may be exercised only when the assembly is either
29. The Constitution (Twenty-ninth Amendment) dissolved or its functions remain suspended.
Act, 1972–(Enforced Since 9 June, 1972) The Ninth 38. The Constitution (Thirty-eight Amendment)
Schedule to the Constitution was amended to include Act, 1975)– (Enforced Since 1 August, 1975) This Act
there in two Kerala Acts on land reforms. amended Articles 123, 213 and 352 of the Constitution
30. The Constitution (Thirtieth Amendment) Act, to provide that the satisfaction of President or Governor
1972–(Enforced Since 9 June, 1972) It curtailed the contained in these Articles would be called in question in
appeals to the Supreme Court and provided that only any court of law.
such appeals can be brought which involve a substantial 39. The Constitution (Thirty-ninth Amendment)
question of law. This valuational aspect of Rs. 20,000 Act, 1975–(Enforced Since 10 August, 1975) By
for appeals in civil cases to the Supreme Court were this Act, disputes relating to the election of President,
abolished. Vice-President, Prime Minister and Speaker are to be
determined by such authority as may be determined by
31. The Constitution (Thirty-First Amendment)
Parliamentary Law. Certain Central enactments were also
Act, 1972–(Enforced Since 17 October, 1973) By this
included in the Ninth Schedule by this Act.
amendment, the seats of the Lok Sabha was increased
40. The Constitution (Fortieth Amendment) Act,
from 525 to 545, but it reduced the representation of
1976–(Enforced Since 27 May, 1976) This act provided
Union Territories from 25 to 20.
for vesting in the Union of all mines, minerals and other
32. The Constitution (Thirty-second Amendment) things of value lying in the ocean within the territorial
Act, 1973– (Enforced Since 1 July, 1974) This Act waters or the continental shelf or the exclusive economic
provided the necessary constitutional authority for zone of India. It further provided that all other resources
giving effect to the provision of equal opportunities to of the exclusive economic zone of India shall also vest in
different areas of the State of Andhra Pradesh and for the Union. This act also provided that the limits of the
the Constitution of an Administrative Tribunal with territorial waters, the continental shelf, the exclusive
jurisdiction to deal with grievances relating to public economic zone and the maritime zones of India shall be
services. It also empowered Parliament to legislate for the as specified from time to time by or under any law made
establishment of a Central University in the State. by Parliament. Also some more Acts were added to the
33. The Constitution (Thirty-third Amendment) Ninth Schedule.
Act, 1974–(Enforced Since 19 May, 1974) By this 41. The Constitution (Forty-first Amendment) Act,
amendment, Articles 101 and 190 were amended in order 1976–(Enforced Since 7 September, 1976) By this Act,
to streamline the procedure for resignation of Members of Article 316 was amended to raise the retirement age of
Parliament and State Legislatures. Members of State Public Service Commissions and Joint
Public Service Commissions from 60 to 62 years.
34. The Constitution (Thirty-fourth Amendment)
42. The Constitution (Forty-second Amendment)
Act, 1974–(Enforced Since 7 September, 1974) By
Act, 1976–(Enforced Since 3 January, 1 February,
this Act, twenty more land tenure and land reforms laws
1 April, 1977) This act made a number of important
enacted by various State Legislatures were included in the
amendments in the Constitution. These amendments were
Ninth Schedule. mainly for purpose of giving effect to the recommendations
35. The Constitution (Thirty-fifth Amendment) of Swaran Singh Committee. It is popularly known as the
Act, 1974–(Enforced Since 1 March, 1975) By this mini constitution of India.
Act a new Article 2A was added there by conferring on The main provisions of this amendment were :
Sikkim the status of an associate State of Indian Union. ³³ ‘SOCIALIST’, ‘SECULAR’, and ‘INTEGRITY’ added to
Consequent amendments were made to Articles 80 and the Preamble.
81. A new schedule, i.e., Tenth Schedule, was added laying
³³ Fundamental Duties were added in Part IVA and made
down terms and conditions of association of Sikkim with a new Article 51A.
the Union.

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³³ ‘Directive Principles were given precedence over election to state assembly concerned in which case

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

Fundamental Rights and any law made to this effect by it may be extended upto three years, by successive
the Parliament was kept beyond the scope of judicial resolutions for continuance being passed by both
review by the Courts. Thus, it made the power of Houses of Parliament.
Parliament supremecy insofar as amendment of the ³³ It authorised the President to refer back the advice to
Constitution was concerned. the Council of Ministers for reconsideration, but made
³³ It authorised the Supreme Court to transfer certain it binding for the President to act on the reconsidered
cases from one High Court to another and redefined advice.
the writ jurisdiction of the High Courts. ³³ The power of the Courts to decide disputes regarding
³³ It provided Administrative Tribunals for speedy election of Prime Minister and Speaker was restored.
justice. ³³ Constitutional protection on publication of proceedings
³³ Empowered the Centre to deploy armed forces in any of Parliament and State legislatures was provided.
State to deal with the grave law and order situation. ³³ The right to life and personal liberty and the liberty
³³ Authorised the President to make Proclamation of of the press were restored.
Emergency for any part of the country as well. ³³ The dispute relating to the qualification of the
³³ By this amendment it was made obligatory for the members of the Parliament and the state legislature
President to act on the advice of the Council of shall be decided by the President and the Governers
Ministers. respectively.
³³ Tenure of the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies ³³ The term of the Lok Sabha and the Legislative
was increased by one year. Assemblies of the States reduced to 5 years.
43. The Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) 45. The Constitution (Forty-fifth Amendment)
Act, 1977–(Enforced Since 13 April, 1978) The 43rd Act, 1980–(Enforced Since 25 January, 1980) This was
Amendment omitted many articles inserted by 42nd passed to extend reservation of seats in Parliament and
Amendment. It restored the writ jurisdiction of the State Assemblies for SC/STs for a further period of ten
Supreme Court and the High Courts, which had been years.
deprived by the 42nd Amendment. 46. The Constitution (Forty-Sixth Amendment)
³³ Provisions for the protection of environment, forests Act, 1982–(Enforced Since 2 February, 1983) Art 269
and wildlife. was amended so that the tax levied on the consignment
³³ Provisions for the protection of children and the youth of goods in the course of inter-state or commerce shall be
against exploitation. assigned to the State. A new entry 92A was also inserted in
³³ No quorum shall be required for conducting the the Union List to enable the levy of tax on the consignment
meeting of the house of the people and the Legislature of goods where such consignment taken palce in the
Assemblies of the State. course of inter-state trade or commerce.
³³ The central government was given the power to send 47. The Constitution (Forty–seventh Amendment)
central forces in any state or part of state to control Act, 1984–(Enforced Since 26 August, 1984) This
the law and order in that state and the control of such amendment is intended to provide for the inclusion of
forces shall rest with the central government. certain land Reforms Acts in the Ninth Schedule to the
Constitution with a view to obviating the scope of litigation
44. The Constitution (Forty-Fourth Amendment)
hampering the implementation process of those Acts.
Act, 1978–(Enforced Since 20 June, 1 August & 6
September, 1979) This amendment was brought by the 48. The Constitution (Forty-eighth Amendment)
Janata Party Government which repealed some of the Act, 1984–(Enforced Since 1 April, 1985) The
changes effected by 42nd Amendment, omitted a few and Proclamation issued by President under Article 356 of the
provided alterations, the most important of them are as Constitution with respect to the State of Punjab cannot
follows : be continued in force for more than one year unless the
special conditions mentioned in clause (5) of the said
³³ Right to property was taken away from the list of
Article are satisfied. As it is felt that the continued force of
Fundamental Rights and placed in a new Article 300A
the said Proclamation is necessary, therefore, the present
as mere legal right.
amendment had been effected so as to make the conditions
³³ Constitutionality of the Proclamation of Emergency mentioned in clause (5) of Article 356 inapplicable in the
by the President can be question in a court on the instant case.
ground of malafide. (42nd Amendment had made it
49. The Constitution (Forty-ninth Amendment)
immune from judicial review).
Act, 1984–(Enforced Since 11 September, 1984) Tripura
³³ It brought the revocation of a Proclamation under Government recommended that the provisions of the Sixth
Parliamentary control. Schedule to the Constitution may be made applicable to
³³ Under National Emergency the words ‘internal tribal areas of that State. The amendment involved in this
disturbance’ have been substituted by the words Act is intended to give a constitutional security to the
‘armed rebellion’. autonmous District Council functioning in the State.
³³ It limited the duration of Proclamation made 50. The Constitution (Fiftieth Amendment) Act,
under Art. 356 to a period of one year unless a 1984– (Enforced Since 11 September, 1984) By Article
Proclamation under Art. 352 is in operation and 33 of the constitution, Parliament is empowered to enact
Election Commission certifies the impossibility to hold laws determining to what extent any of the rights conferred

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

by Part III of the constitution shall, in their application 55. The Constitution Fifty-fifth Amendment) Act,
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

to the members of the armed forces or the forces charged 1986– (Enforced Since 20 February, 1987) The forma-
with the maintenance of public order, be restricted or tion of Arunachal Pradesh took place with special powers
abrogated so as to ensure proper discharge of their duties given to the Governor. It also provided for a 30-members
and maintenance of discipline among them. State Assembly.
It was proposed to amend Article 33 to as to bring 56. The Constitution (Fifty-sixth Amendment) Act,
within its ambit : 1987–(Enforced Since 30 May, 1987) Goa was made a
(i) the members of the Force charged with the full fledged State with a provision for a State Assembly
protection of property belonging to or in the charge or but Daman and Diu stayed as Union Territory.
possession of the state; or 57. The Constitution (Fifty-seventh Amendment)
(ii) persons employed in any bureau or other Act, 1987–(Enforced Since 21 September, 1987)
organisation established by the state for purposes of It provided reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes of
intelligence or counter-intelligence; or Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh,
in the Lok Sabha and in the State Assemblies of Nagaland
(iii) persons employed in or in connection with the and Meghalaya.
telecommunication systems set up for the purposes of any
58. The Constitution (Fifty-eight Amendment)
Force, Bureau or Organisation.
Act, 1987–(Enforced Since 9 December, 1987) By this
Experience has revealed that the need for ensuring amendment an authoritative text of the Constitution in
proper discharge of their duties and maintenance of Hindi was provided to the people of India by the President.
discipline among them is of paramount importance in the
59. The Constitution (Fifty-ninth Amendment) Act,
national interest. 1988–(Enforced Since 30 March, 1988) It amended Art.
51. The Constitution (Fifty-first Amendment) 365(5) of the constitution to provide that the declaration
Act, 1984–(Enforced Since 16 June, 1986) Article 330 of emergency may remain in operation up to 3 years and
has been amended by this Act for providing reservation also authorised the Government to proclaim emergency in
of seats for Scheduled Tribes in Meghalaya, Nagaland, Punjab on grounds of ‘internal disturbance’. The amend-
Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram in Parliament and Article ment made in Art. 352 thus provided that the emergency
332 has been amended to provide similar reservation in with respect to Punjab shall operate only in that State.
the Legislative Assemblies of Nagaland and Meghalaya to 60. The Constitution (Sixtieth Amendment) Act,
meet the aspirations of local tribal population. 1988–(Enforced Since 20 December, 1988) To increase
52. The Constitution (Fifty-second Amendment) the ceiling of Taxes on professions, trades, callings and
Act, 1985–(Enforced Since 1 March, 1985) It amends employment from Rs. 250 per annum to Rs. 2500 per
the Constitution to provide that a Member of Parliament annum.
or a State Legislature who defects or is expelled from the 61. The Constitution (Sixty-first Amendment) Act,
party which set him up as a candidate in the election or if 1989–(Enforced Since 28 March, 1989) It provided for
an independent member of the House joins a political party the reduction of voting age from 21 to 18 years by bringing
after expiry of six months from the date on which he takes an amendment to Art. 326.
seat in the House shall be disqualified to remain a member 62. The Constitution (Sixty-second Amendment)
of the House. The Act also makes suitable provisions with Act, 1989–(Enforced Since 20 December, 1989) It had
respect to splits in and merger of political parties. increased the period of reservation of seats provided to
53. The Constitution (Fifty-third Amendment) Act, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes for another
1986–(Enforced Since 20 February, 1987) It elevated 10 years i.e. upto the year of 2000 A.D. The reservation
the Union Territory of Mizoram to the status of a State. for Anglo-Indians through nomination in case of their in-
adequate representation, was also extended for the same
54. The Constitution (Fifty-fourth Amendment)
period.
Act, 1986– (Enforced Since 1 April, 1986) This Act
increases the salaries of Supreme Court and High Court 63. The Constitution (Sixty-third Amendment) Act,
judges as follows: 1990–(Enforced Since 6 January, 1990) The Constitu-
tion (Fifty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1988 was enacted in
Chief Justice of India Rs. 10,000 per month March 1988 making certain changes in regard to making
(at Present 2,80,000) a Proclamation of Emergency in Punjab and to the dura-
Judges of Supreme Court Rs. 9,000 per month tion of President’s rule in State. On reconsideration, the
(at Present Rs. 2,50,000) Government decided that the special powers in regard to
the Proclamation of Emergency in Punjab as envisaged in
Chief Justice of High Court Rs. 9,000 per month the said amendment is no longer required. Accordingly the
(at Present Rs. 2,50,000) provision to clause (5) of Article 356 and Article 359A of
Judges of High Courts Rs. 8,000 per month the Constitution have been omitted.
(at Present 2,25,000) 64. The Constitution (Sixty-fourth Amendment)
Act, 1990–(Enforced Since 16 April, 1990) This Act
This Act amended Part ‘D’ of the Second Schedule to
amends clauses (4) and (5) of Article 356 of the Con-
the Constitution to give effect to the above increase in the
stitution with a view to facilitate the extension of the
salaries of judges and to make an enabling provision in
proclamation issued under clause (1) of Article 356 of the
Articles 125 and 221 to provide for changes in the salaries
Constitution on 11 May 1987 upto a total period of three
of judges in future by Parliament by law.
years and six months in relation to the State of Punjab.

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65. The Constitution (Sixty-fifth Amendment) 75. The Constitution (Seventy-Fifth Amendment)

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

Act, 1990–(Enforced Since 12 March, 1992) A National Act, 1994–(Enforced Since 15 May, 1994) Setting up of
Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes state-level Rent Tribunals and to exclude the jurisdiction
with wide powers was provided to take care for the cause of all courts, except that of Supreme Court.
of SCs/STs. The composition of the Commission included 76. The Constitution (Seventy-sixth Amendment)
a chairperson, a vice-chairperson and five other members Act, 1994–(Enforced Since 31 August, 1994) It provided
to be appointed by the President. for the inclusion of Tamil Nadu Reservation List (i.e. to
66. The Constitution (Sixty-sixth Amendment) act, provide for 69 per cent reservation for educational insti-
1990–(Enforced Since 7 June, 1990) This amendment tutions and government jobs in the State) in the Ninth
provided for the inclusion of new land reform Acts passed Schedule to make it immune to judicial review.
by the State into the Ninth Schedule. 77. The Constitution (Seventy-seventh) Amend-
67. The Constitution (Sixty-seventh Amendment) ment Act, 1995–(Enforced Since 17 June, 1995) By this
Act, 1990–(Enforced Since 4 October, 1990) The three amendment a new clause 4A was added to Art 16 which
year period in the case of proclamation issued on 11 May, authorised the State to make provisions for Scheduled
1987 with respect to the State of Punjab was extended Castes and Scheduled Tribes with regard to promotions
to three years and six months by the Constitution (Six- in Government jobs.
ty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1990. This Act further amends 78. The Constitution (Seventy-eighth Amend-
clause (4) of Article 356 so as to further extend the period ment) Act, 1995–(Enforced Since 30 August, 1995)
upto a total period of four years. This amendment has amended the Ninth schedule of the
68. The Constitution (Sixty-eighth Amendment) Constitution and inserted 27 Land Reform Act of various
States in the Ninth Schedule.
Act, 1991–(Enforced Since 12 March, 1991) The three
year period in the case of proclamation issued on 17 May 79. The Constitution (Seventy-ninth Amendment)
1987 with respect to the State of Punjab was earlier ex- Act, 1999–(Enforced Since 25 January, 2000) By this
tended to four years by the Constitution (sixty-seventh Act the Government has extended the reservations of seats
Amendment) Act, 1990. This Act further amends clause for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes as well
(4) of Article 356 so as to further extend the period upto a as for the Anglo-Indians in the House of the People and
in the Legislative Assemblies of the States for another ten
total period of five years.
years.
69. The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment)
80. The Constitution (Eightieth Amendment)
Act, 1991–(Enforced Since 1 February, 1992) Articles
Act, 1999–(Enforced Since 9 June, 2000) Based on the
239-AA and 239 AB were inserted in the Constitution to
10th finance Commission recommendation. Under the
provide a National Capital Territory designation to Union
new scheme of devolution of revenue between Union and
Territory of Delhi with a Legislative Assembly and Council States, 26 per cent out of gross proceeds of Union taxes
of Ministers. and duties is to be assigned to the states in lieu of their
70. The Constitution (Seventieth Amendment) Act, existing shares in the income-tax, excise duties, special
1991–(Enforced Since 21 December, 1991) It brought excise duties and grants in lieu of tax on railway passenger
alteration in Article 54 to provide for the inclusion of mem- fares.
ber of Legislative Assemblies of Union Territories of Delhi 81. The Constitution (Eighty-first Amendment)
and Pondicherry in the electoral college for the election of Act, 2000–(Enforced Since 9 June, 2000) The unfilled
the President. vacancies of a year which reserved for the SCs and the
71. The Constitution (Seventy-first Amendment) STs for being filled up in that year in accordance with any
Act, 1992–(Enforced Since 31 August, 1992) It includ- provision for reservations made under Article 16 of the
ed Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali languages in the VIII Constitution, shall be considered as a separate class of
Schedule, making the total languages included in it to 18. vacancies to be filled up in any succeeding year or years.
72. The Constitution (Seventy-second Amendment) 82. The Constitution (Eighty-second Amendment)
Act, 1992–(Enforced Since 5 December, 1992) To imple- Act, 2000–(Enforced Since 8 September, 2000) The
ment the Memorandum signed with the Tripura National members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Volunteers in 1988. Tribes for relaxation in qualifying marks in any examina-
tion or lowering the standards of evaluation for reservation
73. The Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment)
in matters of promotion to any class or classes of services
Act, 1993–(Enforced Since 24 April, 1993) With this
or posts in connection with affairs of the Union or of a
amendment, the institution of Panchayati Raj received
State.
constitutional guarantee, status and legitimacy in the di-
rection of power to the people at grass-root level. A separate 83. The Constitution (Eighty-third Amendment)
Scheduled XI was added to deal with it. It also inserted Part Act, 2000–(Enforced Since 8 September, 2000) The Act
amended Article 243M of the Constitution to provide that
IX, containing Arts. 243, 243 A to 243 O.
no reservation in Panchayats need be made in favour of the
74. The Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Scheduled Castes in Arunachal Pradesh wholly inhabited
Act, 1993–(Enforced Since 1 June, 1993) This amend- by tribal population.
ment provided constitutional sanctity to Nagarpalika or
84. The Constitution (Eighty-fourth Amendment)
Municipalities by inserting Part IX-A, containing Arts.
Act, 2001–(Enforced Since 21 February, 2002) The
243P to 243ZG and a separate Schedule XII which deals Act amended Provisions to article 82 and 170 (3) of the
with the items concerning Municipalities. Constitution to readjust and rationalise the territorial

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

constituencies in the states, without altering the number 97. The Constitution (Ninety-Seventh Amendment)
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

of seats allotted to each state in House of people and Leg- Act, 2011–(Enforced Since 12 January, 2012) Provided
islative Assemblies of the states, including the Scheduled for the co-operative Societies in part IXB of the constitu-
Castes and Scheduled Tribes Constituencies. tion of India. It also amended Article 19(1) (c) and inserted
85. The Constitution (Eighty-fifth Amendment) Article 43B.
Act 2001–(Enforced Since 4 January, 2001) To provide 98. The Constitution (Ninety-Eighth Amendment)
consequential seniority in the case of promotion by virtue Act, 2012–(Enforced Since 1 January, 2013) Inserted
of rule of reservation for the Government servants belong- Article 371J in the constitution. The objective was to em-
ing to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. power the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop
86. The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, Hyderabad-Karnataka region.
2002–(Enforced Since 12 December, 2002) Compulsory 99. The Constitution (Ninety-Ninth Amendment)
and free education is the fundamental right for all the chil- Act, 2014–(Enforced Since 13 April, 2015 & 16 Octo-
dren of 6 to 14 years age. The Act deals with insertion of a ber, 2015) Inserted new articles 124 A, 124 B and 124 C
new Article 21A after Article 21. after article 124 of the constitution. The Act also provided
87. The Constitution (Eighty-seventh Amendment) for the composition and the functions of the proposed Na-
Act, 2003–(Enforced Since 22 June, 2003) The 2001 tional Judicial Appointment Commission. It was declared
Census are the basis for delimitation of constituencies of unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 2015.
the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly. 100. The Constitution (Hundredth Amendment)
88. The Constitution (Eighty-eighth Amendment) Act, 2015–(Enforced Since 31 July, 2015) Amended the
Act, 2003–(Enforced Since 15 January, 2004) Service first schedule of the constitution, for the purpose of giving
tax levied by union and collected and appropriated by the effect to the acquiring of territories by India and transfer
union and the states. of territories to Bangladesh through retaining of adverse
89. The Constitution (Eighty-ninth Amendment) possession and exchange of enclaves, in pursuance of the
Act, 2003–(Enforced Since 28 September, 2003) It Agreement between India and Bangladesh concerning the
provides for constitution of a national commission for the demarcation of the land boundary, signed on 16th May
Scheduled Tribes. (Earlier, there was a combined national 1974 and its protocol signed on 6th September, 2011.
commission for both SC/STs).
101. The Constitution (Hundredth one Amend-
90. The Constitution (Ninetieth Amendment) Act,
ment) Act, 2017: In 1 July, 2017 addition of articles 246A,
2003–(Enforced Since 28 September, 2003) It provides
269A, 279A and deletion of articles 268A. Amendment
that the representation of the Scheduled Tribes and
of articles 248, 249, 250, 268, 269, 270, 271, 286, 366,
Non-scheduled Tribe in the constituencies included in the
368, sixth schedule and seventh schedule. Introduced the
Bodoland Territorial Areas District (BTAD) as existing prior
Goods and Services Tax.
to the constitution of BTAD shall be maintained for the
purpose of elections to Legislative Assembly of the state 102. The Constitution (Hundredth Two Amend-
of Assam. ment) Act, 2018: In 11 August, 2018, introduced the
91. The Constitution (Ninety-first Amendment) constitutional status to national commission for Backward
Act, 2003–(Enforced Since 1 January, 2004) Amend- classes.
ed the anti-defection laws and provided for Amendent 103. The Constitution (Hundredth three Amend-
of Article 75. The total number of ministries, including ment) Act, 2019: In 12 January, 2019, introduced the
the Prime minister, in the Council of Ministers shall not maximum of 10% Reservaion for Economically weaker
exceed fifteen per cent of the total number of members of section. (EWSs) of citizens of classes other than the max-
the House of the people imum of classes mentioned in clauses (4) and (5) of Arti-
92. The Constitution (Ninety-second Amendment) cle 15, i.e. classes other than socially and educationally
Act, 2003–(Enforced Since 7 January, 2005) Inclusion of backward classes of citizens or the scheduled castes and
Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali in the Eighth Schedule the scheduled Tribes. Inserted clause (6) under Article 15
to the Constitution with this, the total number of consti- as well as inserted clause (6) under Article 16.
tutionally recognised languages increased to 22. 104. The Constitution (Hundredth Four Amend-
93. The Constitution (Ninety-third Amendment) ment Act, 2019: In 25 January, 2000 introduced to
Act, 2006–(Enforced Since 20 January, 2006) To enable extend the reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the
provision of reservation for other backward classes (O.B.C.) Lok Sabha and states assemblies from severnty years to
in government as well as private educational institutions. Eighty years and removed reserved seats for Anglo–Indian
94. The Constitution (Ninety-fourth Amendment) community in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
Act, 2006–(Enforced Since 12 June, 2006) Excluded 105. The Constitution (Hundredth Five Amend-
Bihar from the provision to clause (1) of Article 164 of the ment Act, 2019 – The citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019
constitution which provides that there shall be a minister was passed by the Parliament of India on 11 December,
incharge of tribal welfare. 2019. It amended the citizenship Act of 1955 by providing
95. The Constitution (Ninety-Fifth Amendment) a path to Indian citizenship for Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist,
Act, 2010–(Enforced Since 25 January, 2010) Extended Jain, Parsi and Christian religious minorities fleeing per
reservation for the SC/ST for further period of ten years, secution from Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan.
that is upto 25 January, 2020. Muslims were not given such eligibility. The act was the
96. The Constitution (Ninety-Sixth Amendment) first time religion had been overlty used as a criterian for
Act, 2011–(Enforced Since 23 September, 2011) Sub- citizenship under Indian Law.
stituted “Odia” for “Oriya”.

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CONSTITUTION OF INDIA : AT A GLANCE

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

PART–I : THE UNIONS AND ITS TERRITORY Cultural And Educational Rights
Articles 29. Protection of interests of minorities.
1. Name and territory of the Union. 30. Right of minorities to establish and administer
2. Admission or establishment of new States. educational institutions.
2A. (Repealed) 31. Compulsory acquisition of property (Repealed).
3. Formation of new States and alteration of areas, Saving of Certain Laws
boundaries or names of existing States. 31A. Saving of laws providing for acquisition of estates,
4. Laws made under Articles 2 and 3 to provide for the etc.
amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedules 31B. Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.
and supplement, incidental and consequential
31C. Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive
matters.
principles.
PART–II : CITIZENSHIP 31D. Saving of laws in respect of anti-national activities
5. Citizenship at the commencement of the (Repealed).
Constitution. Right to Constitutional Remedies
6. Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have 32. Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by
migrated to India from Pakistan. this Part.
7. Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan. 32A. Constitutional validity of States Laws not to be
8. Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian considered in proceedings under Articles 32
origin residing outside India. (Repealed).
9. Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign
33. Power of Parliament to modify the rights conferred
state not to be citizens.
by this part in their application etc.
10. Continuance of the rights of citizenship.
34. Restriction on rights conferred by this Part while
11. Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by
martial law is in force in any area.
law.
35. Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this
PART–III : FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS (GENERAL) Part.
12. Definition
PART-IV : DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE
13. Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the
POLICY
fundamental rights.
Right to Equality 36. Definition
14. Equality before law. 37. Application of the principles contained in this Part.
15. Prohibition of discrimination only on grounds of 38. State to secure a social order for the promotion of
religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. welfare of the people.
39. Certain principles of policy to be followed by the
16. Equality of opportunity in matters of public
State.
employment.
39A. Equal justice and free legal aid.
17. Abolition of Untouchability
40. Organisation of village Panchayats.
18. Abolition to titles 41. Right to work, to education and to public assistance
Right to Freedom in certain cases.
19. Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of 42. Provision for just and humane conditions of work
speech, etc. and maternity relief.
20. Protection in respect of conviction for offences. 43. Living wage, etc. for workers.
21. Protection of life and personal liberty. 43A. Participation of workers in management of
21A. Right to elementary education. industries.
22. Protection against arrest and detention in certain 43B. Promotion of co-operative societies.
cases. 44. Uniform civil code for the citizens.
Right Against Exploitation 45. Provision for early childhood care and education
23. Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced to children below the age of six years.
labour. 46. Promotion of educational and economic interests
24. Prohibition of employment of children in factories, of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other
etc. weaker sections.
47. Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and
Rights to Freedom of Religion
the standard of living and to improve public health.
25. Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice
48. Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry
and propagation of religion.
48A. Protection and improvement of environment and
26. Freedom to manage religious affairs. safeguarding of forests and wild life.
27. Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of 49. Protection of monuments and places and objects
any particular religion. of national importance.
28. Freedoms to attendance at religious instruction 50. Separation of judiciary from executive.
or religious worship in certain educational 51. Promotion of international peace and security.
institutions.

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PART–IV A : 86. Rights of President to address and send messages

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES to Houses.

51A. Fundamental duties. 87. Special address by the President.
PART–V : 88. Rights of Ministers and Attorney-General as
Chapter I–The Executives respects Houses.
The President and Vice-President Officers of Parliament
52. The President of India. 89. The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the
53. Executive power of the Union. Council of States.
90. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the
54. Election of President.
office of Deputy Chairman.
55. Manner of election of President. 91. Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person
56. Term of office of President. to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as,
57. Eligibility for re-election. Chairman.
58. Qualifications for election as President. 92. The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to
59. Conditions of President’s office. preside while a resolution for his removal from
office is under consideration.
60. Oath or affirmation by the President.
93. The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of
61. Procedure for impeachment of the President. the People.
62. Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the office 94. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the
of President and the term of office of person elected offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
to fill casual vacancy. 95. Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to
63. The Vice-President of India. perform the duties of the office of, or to act as,
64. The Vice-President to be ex-officio Chairman of the Speaker.
Council of States. 96. The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside
65. The Vice-President to act as President or to while a resolution for his removal from office is
discharge his functions during casual vacancies under consideration.
in the office, or during the absence of President. 97. Salaries and allowances of the Chairman and
66. Election of Vice-President. Deputy Chairman and the Speaker and Deputy
Speaker.
67. Term of office of Vice-President.
98. Secretariat of Parliament.
68. Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the office
Conduct of Business
of Vice-President and the term of office of person
elected to fill casual vacancy. 99. Oath or affirmation by members.
69. Oath or affirmation by the Vice-President. 100. Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act
notwithstanding vacancies and quorum.
70. Discharge of President’s functions in other
Disqualification of Members
contingencies.
101. Vacation of seats.
71. Matters relating to, or connected with, the election
of a President or Vice-President. 102. Disqualifications of membership.
103. Decision on questions as to disqualifications of
72. Power of President to grant pardons, etc., and to
members.
suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain
cases. 104. Penalty for sitting and voting before making
oath or affirmation under Article 99 or when not
73. Extent of executive power of the Union.
qualified or when disqualified.
Council of Ministers Powers, Privileges and Immunities of Parliament and
74. Council of Ministers to aid and advice President. its members
75. Other provisions as to Ministers. 105. Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of
The Attorney-General for India Parliament and of the members and committees
76. Attorney-General for India. thereof.
Conduct of Government Business 106. Salaries and allowances of members.
77. Conduct of business of the Government of India. Legislative Procedure
78. Duties of Prime Minister as respects the furnishing 107. Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills.
of information to the President, etc. 108. Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases.
Chapter-II-Parliament (General) 109. Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.
79. Constitution of Parliament.
110. Definition of “Money Bill”.
80. Composition of the Council of States.
111. Assent to Bills.
81. Composition of the House of the People.
Procedure in Financial Matters
82. Readjustment after each census.
112. Annual financial statement (Budget).
83. Duration of Houses of Parliament.
113. Procedure in Parliament with respect to estimates.
84. Qualification for membership of Parliament.
114. Appropriation Bills.
85. Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and dissolution.

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115. Supplementary, additional or excess grants. CHAPTER V-COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR-GENERAL

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

116. Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional OF INDIA
grants. 148. Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.
117. Special provisions as to Financial Bills. 149. Duties and powers of the Comptroller and
Procedure Generally Auditor-General.
118. Rules of procedure. 150. Form of accounts of the Union and of the States.
119. Regulation by law of procedure in Parliament in 151. Audit reports
relation to financial business. PART–VI : THE STATES
120. Languages to be used in Parliament. Chapter I-General
121. Restriction on discussion in Parliament. 152. Definition
122. Courts not to inquire into proceedings of Chapter II-The Executive
Parliament. The Governor
Chapter III–Legislative Powers of the President 153. Governors of States.
123. Power of President to promulgate Ordinances 154. Executive power of State.
during recess of Parliament. 155. Appointment of Governor.
Chapter IV–The Union Judiciary 156. Term of office of Governor.
124. Establishment and constitution of Supreme 157. Qualifications for appointment as Governor.
Court. 158. Conditions of Governor’s office.
125. Salaries, etc., of Judges of Supreme Court. 159. Oath or affirmation by the Governor.
126. Appointment of acting Chief Justice of Supreme 160. Discharge of the functions of the Governor in
Court. certain contingencies.
127. Appoint of ad hoc Judges. 161. Power of Governor to grant pardons, etc. and to
128. Attendance of retired Judges at sitting of the suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain
Supreme Court. cases.
129. Supreme Court to be a court of record. 162. Extent of executive power of State.
130. Seat of Supreme Court. Council of Ministers
131. Original jurisdication of the Supreme court. 163. Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor
131A. (Repealed) 164. Other provisions as to Ministers
132. Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in The Advocate General for the State
appeals from High Courts in certain cases. 165. Advocate-General for the State
133. Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals Conduct of Government Business
from High Courts in regard to civil matters.
166. Conduct of business of the Government of a State
134. Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in regard
167. Duties of Chief Minister as respects the furnishing
to criminal matters.
of information to Governor, etc.
134A. Certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court.
CHAPTER III-THE STATE LEGISLATURE (GENERAL)
135. Jurisdiction and powers of the Federal Court
under existing law to be exercisable by the 168. Constitution of Legislature in States
Supreme Court. 169. Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in
136. Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court. States
137. Review of judgements or orders by the Supreme 170. Composition of the Legislative Assemblies
Court. 171. Composition of the Legislative Councils
138. Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme 172. Duration of State Legislatures
Court. 173. Qualification for membership of the State
139. Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers to Legislatures
issue certain writs 174. Sessions for the State Legislature, prorogation
139A. Transfer to certain cases. and dissolution
140. Ancillary powers of Supreme Court. 175. Right of Governor to address and send messages
141. Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on to the House or Houses
all courts. 176. Special address by the Governor
142. Enforcement of decrees and orders of Supreme 177. Rights of Ministers and Advocate-General as
Court and orders as to discovery, etc. respects the Houses
143. Power of President to consult Supreme Court. Offices of the State Legislature
143. Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the 178. The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative
Supreme Court Assembly
144A. (Repealed) 179. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from,
145. Rules of Court, etc. the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker
146. Officers and servants and the expenses of the 180. Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to
Supreme Court. perform the duties of the office of, or to act as,
147. Interpretation Speaker

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181. The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside CHAPTER IV-LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF THE
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

while a resolution for his removal from office is GOVERNOR

under consideration. 213. Power of Governor to promulgate Ordinances
182. The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the during recess of Legislature.
Legislative Council CHAPTER V-THE HIGH COURTS IN THE STATES
183. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, 214. High Courts of States.
the offices of Chairman and Deputy Chairman 215. High Courts to be courts of record.
184. Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person 216. Constitution of High Courts.
to perform the duties of the office, or act as,
217. Appointment and conditions of the office of a
Chairman
Judge of a High Court.
185. The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to
218. Application and conditions of the office of a Judge
preside while a resolution for his removal from
of a High Court.
office is under consideration.
219. Oath or affirmation by judges of High Courts.
186. Salaries and allowances of the Speaker and
220. Restriction on practice after being a permanent
Deputy Speaker and the Chairman and Deputy
judge.
Chairman
221. Salaries, etc., of Judges.
187. Secretariat of State Legislature
222. Transfer of a Judge from one High Court to
Conduct of Business another.
188. Oath or affirmation by members. 223. Appointment of acting Chief Justice.
189. Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act 224. Appointment of additional and acting judges.
notwithstanding vacancies and quorum. 224A. Appointment of retired judges at sitting of high
Disqualification of Members courts.
190. Vacation of seats. 225. Jurisdiction of existing High Courts.
191. Disqualifications of membership. 226. Power of High Court to issues certain writs.
192. Decision on questions as to disqualifications of 226A. (Repealed)
members. 227. Power of superintendence over all courts by the
193. Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath High Court.
or affirmation under Article 188 or when not 228. Transfer of certain cases to High Court.
qualified or when disqualified. 228A. (Omitted)
Powers, Privileges and Immunities of State Legislatures 229. Officers and servants and the expenses of High
and Their Members Courts.
194. Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of 230. Extension of jurisdiction of High Courts to Union
Legislatures and of the members and committees territories.
thereof. 231. Establishment of a common High Court for two
195. Salaries and allowances of members. or more States.
Legislative Procedure
196. Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills. Chapter VI-Subordinate Courts
197. Restriction on powers of Legislative Council as to 233. Appointment of district judges.
bills other than Money Bills. 233A. Validation of appointments of and judgments etc,
delivered by, certain district judges.
198. Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.
234. Recruitment of persons other than district judges
199. Definition of “Money Bills”. to the judicial service.
200. Assent to Bills. 235. Control over subordinate courts.
201. Bill reserved for consideration. 236. Interpretation
Procedure in Financial Matters 237. Application of the provisions of the Chapter to
202. Annual financial statement. certain class or classes of magistrates.
203. Procedure in Legislature with respect to estimates. PART VII : THE STATES IN PART B OF THE FIRST
204. Appropriation Bills. SCHEDULE
205. Supplementary, additional or excess grants. 238. (Repealed)
206. Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional PART VIII : THE UNION TERRITORIES
grants. 239. Administration of Union Territories.
207. Special provisions as to financial Bills. 239A. Creation of local Legislatures or Council of
Procedure Generally Ministers or both for certain Union territories.
208. Rules of procedure. 239B. Power of administrator to promulgate Ordinances
209. Regulation by law of procedure in Legislature of during recess of Legislature.
the State in relation to financial business. 239AA.Special provision with respect to Delhi.
210. Language to be used in the Legislature. 239AB. Provision in case of failure of constitutional
211. Restriction on discussion in the Legislature. machinery.
212. Courts not to inquire into proceedings of the 240. Power of President to make regulations for certain
Legislature. Union Territories.

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241. High Courts for Union Territories. Co-Ordination Between States

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

242. (Repealed) 263. Provisions with respect to an inter-State Council.
PART IX : THE PANCHAYATS PART XII : FINANCE, PROPERTY, CONTRACTS AND
Art 243-243 0. SUITS
PART IX A : THE MUNICIPALITIES Chapter I-Finance (General)
Article 243 P - 243 ZG 264. Interpretation
PART IX B : CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES 265. Taxes not to be imposed save without authority
Article 243ZH -243ZT. of law.
PART X : THE SCHEDULED AND TRIBAL AREAS 266. Consolidated Funds and public accounts of India
and of the States.
244. Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal
Areas 267. Contingency Fund.
Distribution of Revenues Between The Union and
244A. Formation of an autonomous State comprising
certain tribal areas in Assam and creation of The States
local Legislature or Council of Ministers or both 268. Duties levied by the Union but collected and
therefor. appropriated by the States.
PART–XI : RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNION AND 268 A. Service tax levied by Union but collected and
THE STATES appropriated by the Union and the states.
Chapter I-Legislative Relations 269. Taxes levied and collected by the Union but
Distribution of Legislative Powers assigned to the States
245. Extent of laws made by Parliament and by the 270. Taxes levied and collected by the Union and
Legislatures of States. distributed between the Union and the States.
246. Subject-matter of laws made by Parliament and 271. Surcharge on certain duties and taxes for
by the Legislatures of States. purposes of the Union.
247. P o w e r o f P a r l i a m e n t t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e 272. Taxes which are levied and collected by the Union
establishment of certain additional courts. and may be distributed between the Union and
248. Residuary powers of legislation. the States.
249. Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a 273. Grants in lieu of exports duty on jute and jute
matter in the State List in the national interest. products.
250. Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to 274. Prior recommendation of President required
any matter in the State List if a Proclamation of to Bills affecting taxation in which States are
Emergency is in operation. interested.
251. Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament 275. Grants from the Union to certain States.
under Articles 249 and 250 and laws made by 276. Taxes on professions, trades, callings and
the Legislatures of States. employments.
252. Power of Parliament to legislate for two or more 277. Savings
states by consent and adoption of such legislation 278. (Repealed)
by any other State.
279. Calculation of “net proceeds”, etc.
253. Legislation for giving effect to international
280. Finance Commission.
agreements.
281. Recommendations of the Finance Commission.
254. Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament
and laws made by the Legislatures of States. Miscellaneous Financial Provisions
255. Requirements as to recommendations and 282. Expenditure defrayable by the Union or a State
previous sanctions to be regarded as matters of out of its revenues.
procedure only. 283. Custody, etc., of Consolidated Funds, Contingency
Chapter II-Administrative Relations (General) Funds and money credited to the public accounts.
256. Obligation of States and the Union. 284. Custody of suitors deposits and other moneys
257. Control of the Union over States in certain cases. received by public servants and courts.
257A. Assistance to States by deployment of armed 285. Exemption of property of the Union from State
forces or other forces of the Union (Repealed). taxation.
258. Power of the Union to confer powers, etc., on 286. Restrictions as to imposition of tax on the sale or
States in certain cases. purchase of goods.
258A. Power of the States to entrust functions to the 287. Exemption from taxes on electricity.
Union. 288. Exemption from taxation by States in respect of
259. (Repealed) water or electricity in certain cases.
260. Jurisdiction of the Union in relation to territories 289. Exemption of property and income of a State from
outside India. Union taxation.
261. Public acts, records and judicial proceedings. 290. Adjustment in respect of certain expenses and
Disputes Relating to Waters pensions.
262. Adjudication of disputes relating to water of inter- 290A. Annual payment to certain Devaswom Funds.
State rivers or river valleys. 291. (Repealed)
Chapter II-Borrowing
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292. Borrowing by the Government of India. 320. Functions of Public Service Commissions.
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

293. Borrowing by States. 321. Power to extend functions of Public Service

Commissions.
Chapter III-Property, Contracts, Rights, Liabilities 322. Expenses of Public Service Commissions.
Obligation and Suits 323. Reports of Public Service Commissions.
294. Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities PART–XIV A : TRIBUNALS
and obligations in certain cases. 323A. Administrative tribunals
295. Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities 323B. Tribunals for other matters
and obligations in other cases. PART–XV : ELECTIONS
296. Property accruing by escheat or lapse or as bona 324. Superintendence, direction and control of
vacantia. elections to be vested in an Election Commission.
297. Things of value within territorial waters of 325. No person to be ineligible for inclusion in, or to
continental shelf and resources of the exclusive claim to be included in a special electoral roll on
economic zone to vest in the Union. grounds of religion, race, caste or sex.
298. Power to carry on trade, etc. 326. Elections to the House of the People and to the
299. Contracts Legislative Assemblies for States to be on the
300. Suits and Proceedings. basis of adult suffrage
327. Power of Parliament to make provision with
Chapter IV-Right to Property respect to elections to Legislatures.
300A. Person not to be deprived of Property save by 328. Power of Legislature of a State to make provision
authority of law. with respect to elections to such Legislatures.
PART XIII : TRADE, COMMERCE, AND 329. Bar to interference by courts in electoral matter.
INTERCOURSE WITHIN THE TERRITORY OF INDIA 329A. Special provisions as to elections to Parliament
301. Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse. in the case of Prime Minister and Speaker
302. Power of Parliament to impose restrictions on (Repealed).
trade, commerce and intercourse. PART–XVI : SPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO
303. Restrictions on legislative powers of the Union and CERTAIN CLASSES
of the States with regard to trade and commerce. 330. Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and
304. Restrictions on trade, commerce and intercourse Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People.
among States. 331. Representation of the Anglo-Indian community
305. Saving of existing laws and providing for States in the House of the People.
monopolies. 332. Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and
306. (Repealed) Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies
307. Appointment of authority for carrying out the of the States.
purposes of articles 301 to 304. 333. Representation of the Anglo-Indian community
PART XIV : SERVICES UNDER THE UNION AND THE in the Legislative Assemblies of the States.
STATES 334. Reservation of seats and special representation
Chapter I-Services to cease after fifty years.
308. Interpretation 335. Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
309. Recruitment and conditions of service of persons to services and posts.
serving the Union or a State. 336. Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in
310. Tenure of office of persons serving the Union or certain services.
a State. 337. Special provision with respect to educational
311. Dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian community.
persons employed in civil capacities under the 338. Special officer for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Union or a State. Tribes, etc.
312. All-India Services. 338A. National Commission for scheduled tribes.
312A. Power of Parliament to vary or revoke conditions 339. Control of the Union over the administration of
of service of officers of certain services. Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled
313. Transitional provisions. Tribes.
314. (Repealed) 340. Appointment of a Commission to investigate the
Chapter II-Public Service Commission conditions of backward classes.
315. Public Service Commission for the Union and for 341. Scheduled Castes.
the States. 342. Scheduled Tribes.
316. Appointment and term of office of members. PART–XVII : OFFICIAL LANGUAGE
317. Removal and suspensions of a member of a Public Chapter I-Language of the Union
Service Commission 343. Official language of the Union.
318. Power to make regulations as to conditions of 344. Commission and Committee of Parliament of
service of members and staff of the Commission. Official language.
319. Prohibition as to the holding of offices by members Chapter II-Regional Languages
of Commission on ceasing to be such members.

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345. Official languages or languages of a State. PART–XXI : TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

346. Official language for communication between one SPECIAL PROVISIONS
State and another or between a State and the 369. Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with
Union. respect to certain matters in the State List as if
347. Special provision relating to language spoken by they were matters in the Concurrent List
a section of the population of a State. 370. Temporary provisions with respect to the State of
Chapter III-Language of the Supreme Court, High Jammu and Kashmir. Which was administred by
Courts, Etc. India as a state from 1954 to 31 October, 2019.
348. Language to be used in the Supreme Court and The reorganisation took place on 31 October,
in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills, etc. 2019, enacting the division the state of Jammu
349. Special procedure for enactment of certain laws and Kashmir into two Union territories to be
relating to language. called Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir
Chapter IV-Special Directives and Union Territory of Ladakh.
350. Language to be used in representations for redress 371. Special provisions with respect to the State of
of grievances. Maharashtra and Gujarat
350A. Facilities for instructions in mother-tongue at 371A. Special provision with respect to the State of
primary stage. Nagaland
350B. Special officer for linguistic minorties. 371B. Special provision with respect to the State of
351. Directive for development of the Hindi language. Assam
PART XVIII : EMERGENCY PROVISIONS 371C. Special provision with respect to the State of
352. Proclamation of Emergency. Manipur
353. Effect of proclamation of Emergency. 371D. Special provision with respect to the State of
354. Application of provisions relating to distributions Andhra Pradesh
of revenue while a Proclamation of Emergency is 371E. Establishment of Central University in Andhra
in operation. Pradesh
355. Duty of the Union to protect States against 371F. Special provisions with respect to the State of
external aggression and internal disturbance. Sikkim
356. Provisions on case of failure of constitutional 371G. Special provisions with respect to the State of
machinery in States. Mizoram
357. Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation 371H. Special provision with respect to the State of
issued under article 356. Arunachal Pradesh
358. Suspension of provisions of article 19 during 371I. Special provision with respect to the State of Goa
emergencies. 371J. Special provision with respect to the state of
359. Suspension of the enforcement of the rights Karnataka.
conferred by Part III during emergencies. 372. Continuance in force of existing laws and their
359A. Application of this Part to the State of Punjab adaptation
(Repealed). 372A. Power of the President to adapt laws
360. Provisions as to financial emergency. 373. Powers of President to make order in respect of
PART–XIX : MISCELLANEOUS persons under preventive detention in certain
361. Protection of President and Governors and cases
Rajpram-ukhs. 374. Provisions as to judges of the Federal Court and
proceedings pending in the Federal Court or
361A. Protection of publication of proceedings of
Parliament and State Legislatures. before His Majesty in Council
375. Court, authorities and officers to continue
361B. Disqualification for appointment on remunerative
to function subject to the provisions of the
political post.
Constitution
362. (Repealed)
376. Provisions to Judges of High Courts
363. Bar to interference by courts in disputes arising
377. Provisions as to Comptroller and Auditor-General
out of certain treaties, agreements, etc.
of India
363A. Recognition granted to Rulers of Indian States to
378. Provisions as to Public Service Commissions
create and privy purses to be abolished.
378A. Special provisions as to duration of Andhra
364. Special provisions as to major ports and Pradesh Legislative Assembly
aerodromes.
379-391. (Repealed)
365. Effect of failure to comply with, or to give effect
392. Power of the President to remove difficulties
to, directions given by the Union.
PART–XXII : SHORT TITLE, COMMENCEMENT,
366. Definitions
AUTHORITATIVE TEXT IN HINDI AND REPEALS
367. Interpretation
393. Short title
PART–XX : AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION
394. Commencement
368. Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution
394A. Authoritative Text in the Hindi language
and procedure therefore.
395. Repeals

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SCHEDULES OF THE CONSTITUTION 3. Cantonment areas and local self-government in such

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

First Schedule areas

I. The States 4. Naval, military and air force works
II. The Union territories 5. Arms, firearms, ammunition, and explosives
Second Schedule 6. Atomic energy and mineral resources necessary for
its production
Part A. Provision as to the President and the Governors
of States 7. Defence industries
8. Central Bureau of Intelligence and investigation
Part B. (Repealed)
9. Preventive detention for reasons connected with
Part C. Provisions as to the Speaker and the Deputy
defence, foreign affairs, or the security of India
Speaker of the House of the People and the Chairman
and the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States and 10. Foreign affairs
the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative 11. Diplomatic, consular and trade representation
Assembly and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman 12. United Nations Organisation
of the Legislative Council of a State. 13. International conferences, associations and other
Part D. Provisions as to the Judges of the Supreme bodies
Court and of the High Courts. 14. Treaties, agreements and conventions with foreign
Part E. Provisions as to the Comptroller and Auditor- countries
General of India 15. War and peace
Third Schedule 16. Foreign jurisdiction
Forms of Oaths or Affirmations 17. Citizenship, naturalisation and aliens
Fourth Schedule 18. Extradition
Allocation of seats in the Council of States 19. Passports and visas
Fifth Schedule 20. Pilgrimages to places outside India
Provisions as to the Administration and Control of 21. Piracies and crimes committed on the high seas or in
Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes. the air and offences against the law of nations.
Part A. General 22. Railway
Part B. Administration and control of Scheduled Areas 23. National highways
and Scheduled Tribes 24. Shipping and navigation on national waterways
Part C. Scheduled Areas 25. Maritime shipping and navigtation
Part D. Amendment of the Schedule 26. Lighthouses for the safety of shipping and aircraft.
Sixth Schedule 27. Major ports
Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in 28. Port quarantine, seaman and marine hospitals
the State of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. 29. Airways : aircraft and air navigation; provision of
Seventh Schedule aerodromes
Division of powers between the Union and the states 30. Carriage of passengers and goods by railway, sea, air
in terms of lists. or national waterways
List I. Union List 31. Posts and telegraph; telephones, wireless,
broadcasting and other like forms of communication
List II. State List
32. Property of the Union
List III. Concurrent List
33. (Omitted)
Eighth Schedule
34. Courts of wards for the estates of rulers of Indian
Languages recognized by the Constitution. Originally,
states
it had 14 languages but presently there are 22 languages.
35. Public debt of the Union
Ninth Schedule
36. Currency, coinage and legal tender; foreign exchange
Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.
37. Foreign loans
Tenth Schedule
38. Reserve Bank of India
Provisions as to disqualification on ground of
39. Post office savings bank
defection.
40. Lotteries organised by the Union or state
Eleventh Schedule 41. Trade and commerce with foreign countries
Powers, authority, responsibilities of Panchayats. 42. Inter-state trade and commerce
43. Trading corporations, including banking, insurance
Twelfth Schedule
and financial corporations but not including co-
Powers, authority, responsibilities of Municipalities. opeative societies
Subjects of Union, State and Concurrent Lists 44. Corporations, whether trading or not, with objects
not confined to one state
Union List (List-I)
45. Banking
1. Defence of India.
46. Bills of exchange, cheques, promissory notes and
2. Naval, military and air forces; any other armed forces other like instruments
of the Union
47. Insurance
2A. Deployment of any armed force of the Union in any
48. Stock exchange and futures markets
state in aid of the civil power

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49. Patents, inventions and designs; copyright; trade- 79. Extension of the jurisdiction of a high court to any

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

marks and merchandise marks union territory
50. Establishment of standards of weight and measure 80. Extension of the powers and jurisdiction of members
51. Establishment of standards of quality for goods to be of a police force belonging to any state to any area
exported out of India or transported from one state outside that state
to another. 81. Inter-state migration; inter-state quarantine
52. Industries, the control of which by the Union is in the 82. Taxes on income other than agricultural income
public interest 83. Duties of customs including export duties
53. Oil fields and mineral oil resources; petroleum and 84. Duties of excise on tobacco and other goods except
petroleum products; other liquids and substances alcoholic liquors for human consumption and opium,
which are inflammable Indian hamp and other narcotic drugs and narcotics,
54. Regulation of mines and mineral development in the but including medicinal and toilet preparation
public interest containing alcohol
55. Regulation of labour and safety in mines and oil 85. Corporation tax
fields 86. Taxes on the capital value of the assets (exclusive
56. Regulation and development of inter-state rivers and of agricultural land) of individuals and companies;
river valleys taxes on the capital of companies
57. Fishing and fisheries beyond territorial waters 87. Estate duty in respect of property other than
58. Manufacture, supply and distribution of salt by agricultural land
Union and other agencies 88. Duties in respect of succession to property other than
59. Cultivation and manufacture of opium and its export agricultural land
60. Sanctioning of cinematograph films for exhibition 89. Terminal taxes on goods or passengers, carried by
61. Industrial disputes concerning Union employees railway, sea or air; taxes on railway fares and freights
62. National Library, the Indian Museum, the Imperial 90. Taxes other than stamp duties on transactions in
War Museum, the Victoria Memorial and the Indian stock exchanges and futures markets
War Memorial, and any other like institution of 91. Rates of stamp duty in respect of bills of exchange,
national importance cheques, promissory notes, bills of lading, letters
63. Benaras Hindu Unversity, the Aligarh Muslim of credit, policies of insurance, transfer of shares,
University and the Delhi University; any other debentures, proxies and receipts
institution of national importance 92. Taxes on the sale or purchase of newspapers and on
64. Scientific or technical education institutions of advertisements published therein
national importance 92A. Taxes on the sale or purchase of goods other than
65. Union agencies and institutions for training, research newspapers, where such sale or purchase of goods
or detection of crime other than newspapers, where such sale or purchase
66. Standards in institutions for higher education or takes place in the course of inter-state trade or
research and scientific and technical institutions commerce
67. Ancient and historical monuments and records, 92B. Taxes on the consignment of goods in the course of
and archaeological sites and remains of national inter-state trade or commerce
importance 92C. Taxes on services
68. The Survey of India, the Geological, Botanical, 93 Offence against laws with respect to any of the
Zoological and Anthropological Surveys of India; matters in this list
Meteorological organisations 94. Inquiries, surveys and statistics for the purpose of
69. Census any of the matters in this list
70. Union Public Services; All-India Services; Union 95. Jursidiction and powers of all courts (except the
Public service Commission Supreme Court) with respect to any of the maters in
71. Union pensions this list; admirality jurisdiction
72. Elections to Parliament, the legislatures of states 96. Fees in respect of any of the matters in this list, but
and the offices of President and Vice-President; the not including fees taken in any court
Election Commission 97. Any other matter not enumerated in List II or List III
73. Salaries and allowances of members and presideing including any tax not mentioned in either of those
officers of Parliament lists
74. Powers, privileges and immunities of each House of STATE LIST (LIST-II)
Parliament and of the members and the committees
1. Public order
of each House
2. Police
75. Emoluments and service conditions of the president,
3. Officers and servants of the high court
governors, the ministers for the Union and the
Comptroller and Auditor General 4. Prisons, reformatories, borstal institutions and other
76. Audit of the accounts of the Union and of the states such institutions
77. Organisation, jurisdiction and powers of the Supreme 5. Local government
Court 6. Public health and sanitation
78. Organisation, jurisdiction and powers of the Supreme 7. Pilgrimages, other than pilgrimages to place outside
Court India

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8. Intoxicating liquors 51. Duties of excise on alcoholic liquors for human

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

9. Relief of the disabled and unemployable consumption; opium, Indian hemp and other
10. Burials and burial grounds narcotic drugs and narcotics, but not including
11. (Omitted) medicinal and toilet preparations containing alcohol
12. Libraries, museums and other similar institutions; 52. Taxes on the entry of goods into a local areas
ancient and historical monuments and records other 53. Taxes on the consumption or sale of electricity
than those of national importance 54. Taxes on the sale or purchase of goods other than
13. Communications, that is, roads, bridges, ferries and newspapers
other means of communication not specified in List I 55. Taxes on advertisements other than advertisements
14. Agriculture, including agricultural education and published in the newspapers and advertisements
research broadcast by radio or television
15. Preservation of stock and prevention of animal 56. Taxes on goods and passengers carried by road or on
diseases inland waterways
16. Pounds and the prevention of cattle trespass 57. Taxes on vehicles
17. Water, that is, water supplies, irrigation and canals, 58. Taxes on animals and boats
drainange and embankments, water storage and 59. Tolls
water power 60. T ax es o n p ro fessio ns, trad es, callin g s a n d
18. Land, that is, right in or over land, land tenures and employments
the collection of rents 61. Capitation taxes
19. (Omitted) 62. T a x e s o n l u x u r i e s , i n c l u d i n g t a x e s o n
20. (Omitted) entertainments, amusements, betting and gambling
21. Fisheries 63. Rates of stamp duty in respect of documents other
22. Courts of wards than those specified in List I
23. Regulation of mines and mineral development 64. Offence against laws with respect to any of the
24. Industries matters in this list
25. Gas and gas-works 65. Jurisdiction and powers of all courts, except the
26. Trade and commerce within the state Supreme Court, with respect to any of the maters in
27. Production, supply and distribution of goods this list.
28. Markets and fairs 66. Fees in respect of any matters in this list, but not
29. (Omitted) including fees taken in any court.
30. Money-lending and money-lenders; relief of
agricultural indebtedness CONCURRENT LIST (LIST-III)
31. Inns and inn-keepers 1. Criminal Law, including all matters +included in the
32. Corporation, other than those specified in List Indian Penal Code.
I, and universities; unincorporated trading, 2. Criminal procedure, including all matters included
literacy, scientific, religious and other societies and in the Code of Criminal Procedure.
associations; co-operative societies 3. Preventive detention for reasons connected with
33. Theaters and dramatic performances; cinemas; the security of a state, the maintenance of public
sports entertainments and amusements. order, or the maintenance of supplies and services
34. Betting and gambling essential to the community.
35. Works, lands and buildings of the state 4. Removal from one state to another state of prisoners
and accused persons.
36. (Omitted)
5. Marriage and divorce; infants and minors; adoption;
37. Elections to the legislature of the state
wills, intestacy and succession; joint family and
38. Salaries and allowances of members and presiding
partition.
officers of the legislature of the state
6. Transfer of property other than agricultural land;
39. Powers, privileges and immunities of the legislature
registration of deeds and documents.
of the state and of the members and the committees
7. Contracts
thereof
8. Actionable wrongs
40. Salaries and allowances of ministers for the state
9. Bankruptey and insolvency
41. States public services; State Public Service
Commission 10. Trust and Trustees
42. State pensions 11. Administrators-general and official trustees
43. Public debt of the state 11A. Administration of justice, constitution and
organisation of all courts, except the Supreme Court
44. Treasure trove
and the high courts.
45. Land revenue, including maintenance of land records
12. Evidence and oaths; recognition of laws, public acts
46. Taxes on agricultural income
and records, and judicial proceedings.
47. Duties in respect of succession to agricultural land
13. Civil procedure, including all matters included in
48. Estate duty in respect of agricultural land the Code of Civil Procedure.
49. Taxes on lands and buildings 14. Contempt of court, but not including contempt of
50. Taxes on mineral rights the Supreme Court.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

15. Vagrancy; nomadic and migratory tribes. 33. Trade and commerce in, and the production, supply

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

16. Lunacy and mental deficiency. and distribution of, foodstuffs, including edible
17. Prevention of cruelty to animals oilseeds and oils; cattle fodder; raw cotton, and
17A. Forests cotton seeds; and raw jute.
17B. Protection of wild animals and birds 33A. Weights and measures except establishment of
18. Adulteration of foodstuffs and other goods. standards.
19. Drugs and poisons. 34. Price control
20. Economic and social planning. 35. Mechanically propelled vehicles including the
20A. Population control and family planning. principles on which taxes on such vehicles are to be
21. Commercial and industrial monopolies, combines levied.
and trusts. 36. Factories
22. Trade unions; industrial and labour disputes. 37. Boilers
23. Social security and social insurance; employment 38. Electricity
and unemployment. 39. Newspapers, books and printing presses
24. Welfare of labour including conditions of work, 40. Archaeological sites and remains other than those
provident funds, employers’ liability, workmen’s of national importance.
compensation, invalidity and old age pensions and 41. Evacuee property (including agricultural land)
maternity benefits. 42. Acquisition and requisitioning of property.
25. Education, including technical education, medical 43. Recovery in a state of claims in respect of taxes and
education and universities. other public demands.
26. Legal, medical and other professions. 44. Stamp duties other than duties or fees collected by
27. Relief and rehabilitation of persons. means of judicial stamps, but not including rates of
28. Charitable institutions, religious endowments and stamp duty.
religious institutions. 45. Inquiries and statisties for the purposes of any of
29. Infectious or contagious deseases or pests affeeting the matters specified in List II or List III.
men, animals or plants. 46. Jurisdiction and powers of all courts, except the
30. Vital statistics including registration of births and Supreme Court, with respect to any of the matters
deaths. in this list.
31. Ports other than major ports. 47. Fees in respect of any of the matters in this list, but
32. Shipping and navigation on inland waterways. not including fees taken in any court.

States and Union Territories (Capital, Area, Language)

States/Union Area in
Capital Language
Territories (Sq. Km.)
Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad New (Amaravati) 1,60,205 Telugu
(Seemandhra)
Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar 83,743 Nyishi, Dafla, Miji, Wancho etc.
Assam Dispur 78,438 Assamese
Bihar Patna 94,163 Hindi, Maithili
Chhattisgarh Raipur 1,35,192 Hindi
Goa Panji 3,702 Marathi and Konkani
Gujarat Gandhinagar 1,96,024 Gujarati
Haryana Chandigarh 44,212 Hindi
Himachal Pradesh Shimla 55,673 Hindi and Pahari
Ladakh Leh 49,146 Tibetan, Ladakhi, Hindi
Jharkhand Ranchi 79,716 Hindi, Santhali
Karnataka Bangalore 1,91,791 Kannada
Kerala Thiruvananthapuram 38,852 Malayalam
Madhya Pradesh Bhopal 3,08,252 Hindi
Maharashtra Mumbai 3,07,713 Marathi
Manipur Imphal 22,327 Manipuri
Meghalaya Shillong 22,429 Khasi, Garo and English
Mizoram Aizawl 21,081 Mizo and English
Nagaland Kohima 16,579 Sema, English

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Odisha Bhubaneswar 1,55,707 Oriya

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

Punjab Chandigarh 50,362 Punjabi

Rajasthan Jaipur 3,42,239 Hindi and Rajasthani
Sikkim Gangtok 7,096 Bhutia, Nepali, Lepcha and Limbu
Tamil Nadu Chennai 1,30,058 Tamil
Telangana Hyderabad 1,14,840 Telugu, Urdu
Tripura Agartala 10,486 Bengali, Kakboark, Manipuri
Uttar Pradesh Lucknow 2,40,928 Hindi and Urdu
Uttarakhand Dehradun 55,483 Hindi
West Bengal Kolkata 88,752 Bengali
Andaman & Port Blair 8,249 Bengali, Hindi, Nicobarese, Tamil,
Nicobar Island Telugu, and Malayalam
Chandigarh Chandigarh 114 Hindi, Punjabi
Dadara and Nagar Silvassa 491 Gujarati and Hindi
Haveli
Daman and Diu Daman 111 Gujarati
Delhi Delhi 1483 Hindi, Punjabi and
Urdu
Lakshadweep Kavaratti 30 Malayalam
Puducherry Puducherry 490 Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam,
English and French
Jammu & Kashmir Srinagar (Summer) 42,241 Kashmiri, Urdu, Dogri, Hindi, En-
Jammu (Winter) glish`
Ladakh Leh 59,146 Hindi, English, Ladakhi and Purgi
* Ladakh was established as a Union Territory of India on 31 October, 2019
*Jammu & Kashmir was established as a Union Territory of India on 31 October, 2019
* It was created through the merger of the former Union Territories of Dadar and Nagar haveli and Daman and Diu
on 26 January, 2020

POLITICAL PARTIES
These are voluntary associations or organised group RECOGNISED NATIONAL PARTIES
of individuals who share the same political views and who AND THEIR SYMBOLS
try to gain politcal power through constitutional means
and who desire to work for promoting national interest. Sl. Name of the Party Symbol
Condition for Recognition as National Party – No. (Abbrevivation) Reserved
1. If it secures six percent of valid votes polled in any
four or more states at a general election to the 1. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) Elephant*
Lok Sabha or to the legislative assembly; and in
addition, it wins four seats in the Lok Sabha from 2. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Lotus
any state or states; or
2. If it wins two percent of seats in the Lok Sabha at 3. Communist Party of India (CPI) Ears of Corn and
a general election; and these candidates are elected Sickle
from three states. or
4. Communist Party of India Hammer, Sickle
3. If it is recognised as a state party in four states.
(Marxist) CPI (M) and Star
Condition for Recognition as a State Party –
1. If it secures six percent of the valid votes polled
in the state at a general election to the legislative 5. Indian National Congress (INC) Hand
assembly of the state concerned; and, in addition, it
wins 2 seats in the assembly of the state concerned, 6. National Congress Party (NCP) Clock
or
2. If it secures six percent of the valid votes polled in 7. All India Trinamool Congress Jora Ghas Phul
the state at a general election to the Lok Sabha from (AITC)
the state concerned; and in addition, it wins 1 seat
in the Lok Sabha from the state concerned; or 8. National People’s Party Book
3. If it wins three percent of seats in the legislative
* In all Sates/ U.T.s. except in Assam, where its
assembly at a general election to the legislative
candidates will have to choose a symbol out of the list
assembly of the state concerned or 3 seats in the
of free symbols specified by the Election Commission.
assembly whichever is more.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

RECOGNISED STATE PARTIES AND THEIR SYMBOLS (2013)

Sl. Name of the State/ Name of the State Party Symbol

Union Territory (Abbreviations) Reserved
1. Andhra Pradesh 1. Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) Car

2. Telugu Desam (TDP) Bicycle

3. Yuvajana Sramika Rythu Congress Party (YSRCP) Fan

2. Arunachal Pradesh 1. All India Trinamool Congress (AITC) Flowers and Grass

2. People’s Party of Arunachal (PPA) Maize

3. Assam 1. All India United Democratic Front (AIUDF) Lock and Key

2. Asom Gana Parishad (AGP) Elephant

3. Bodoland People’s Front (BPF) Nangol

4. Bihar 1. Janata Dal (United) (JDU) Arrow

2. Lok Janshakti Party (LJP) Bungalow

3. Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) Hurricane Lamp

4. Communist Party of India (Marxist-Lennist Liberation) Flag Logo of CPI (ML)L

(CPIML)L

5. Chhattisgarh 1. Janta Congress Chhattisgarh (JCC) Farmar Ploughing

6. Delhi 1. Aam Admi Party (AAP) Broom

7. Goa 1. Maharashtrawadi Gomantak (MAG) Lion

2. Goa Forward Party (GFP) Coconut

8. Haryana 1. Haryana Janhit Congress Janhit Congress (HJC (BL)) Tractor

2. Indian National Lok Dal (INLD) Spectacles

3. Jannayak Janta Party Key

9. Jammu & Kashmir 1. Jammu & Kashmir National Conference (JKNC) Plough

2. Jammu & Kashmir peoples Democratic Party Pen and Ink

3. Jammu & Kashmir National Panthers Party (JKNPP) Bicycle

10. Jharkhand 1. All Jharkhand Students Union (AJSU) Banana

2. Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) Bow and Arrow

3. Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (JVM(P)) Comb

4. Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) Hurricane Lamp

11. Karnataka 1. Janata Dal (Secular ) JD(S) A Lady Farmer carrying

Pady on her head

12. Kerala 1. Janata Dal (Secular) JD(S) A Lady Farmer carrying

Pady on her head

2. Kerala Congress (M) (KEC(M)) Two Leaves

3. Indian Union Muslim League (IUML) Ladder

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INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

13. Maharashtra 1. Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) Railway Engine

2. Shiv Sena (SHS) Bow and Arrow

14. Manipur 1. All India Trinamool Congress (AITC) Flower and Grass

2. Manipur State Congress Party Cultivator cutting Crop

3. Naga People’s Frong (NPF) Cock

4. People’s Democratic Alliance Crown

15. Meghalaya 1. United Democratic Party (UDP) Drum

2. Hill State People’s Democratic Party Lion

16. Mizoram 1. Mizo National Front (ZNP) Star

2. Mizoram People’s Conference (MPC) Electric Bulb

3. Zoram Nationalist Party (ZNP) Sun (without rays)

4. Zoram People’s Movement (ZPM) —

17. Nagaland 1. Naga People’s Front (NPF) Cock

2. Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party (NDPP) Globe

18. Odisha 1. Biju Janta Dal (BJD) Conch

19. Puducherry 1. All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam Two Leaves

(ADMK) Or (AIADMK)

2. All India N.R. Congress (AINRC) Jug

3. Dravida Munetra Kazhagam (DMK) Rising Sun

4. Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK) Mango

20. Punjab 1. Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) Scales

2. Aam Aadmi Party Broom

21. Rajasthan 1. Rastriya Lok Tantrik Party (RLP) Water Bottle

22. Sikkim 1. Sikkim Democratic Front (SDF) Umbrella

2. Sikkim Krantikari Morcha (SKM) Table Lamp

23. Tamilnadu 1. Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK) Mango

2. Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) Rising Sun

3. All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) Two Leaves

24. Telangana 1. Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) Car

2. All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen (AIMIM) Kite

25. Uttar Pradesh 1.Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD) Hand Pump

2. Samajwadi Party (SP) Bicyle

26. West Bengal 1. Revolutionary Socialist Party (RSP) Spade and Stoker

2. All India Forward Bloc (AIFB) Lion

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

FORMATION OF POLITICAL PARTIES 32. All India United Democratic Front 2004
(CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER) (AIUDF)

S. Name of the Party Year of 33. Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) 2006
No. (Abbreviation) Formation
34. Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam 2006
1. Indian National Congress (INC) 1885 (DMDK)

2. Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) 1920 35. Indigenous People’s Front of Tripura 2009
(IPFT)
3. Communist Party of India (CPI) 1925
36. All India N.R. Congress (AINRC) 2011
4. Jammu & Kashmir National 1939
Conference (JKNC) 37. Yuvajana Sramika Rythu Congress 2011
Party (YSRCP)
5. All India Forward Bloc (AIFB) 1939
38. Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) 2012
6. Revolutionary Socialist Party (RSP) 1940
39. People’sDemocratic Alliance (PDA) 2012
7. Indian Union Muslim League (IUML) 1948
40. Sikkim Krantikari Morcha (SKM) 2013
8. Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) 1949
41. Goa Forward Party (GFP) 2016
9. Mizo National Front (MNF) 1961
42. Janta Congress Chhattisgarh (JCC) 2016
10. Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party 1963
(MAG) 43. People’s Democratic Front (PDF) 2017

11. Communist Party of India (Marxist) 1964 44. Zoram People’s Movement (ZPM) 2017
(CPM)
45. Rashtriya Loktantrik Party (RLP) 2018
12. Shiv Sena (SHS) 1966
46. Nationalist Democratic Progressive 2018
13. Mizoram People’s Conference (MPC) 1972 Party (NDPP)

14. Jharkhan Mukti Morcha (JMM) 1972 47. Jannayak Janta Party (JJP) 2018

15. All India Anna Dravida Munnetra 1972

TABLE OF PRECEDENCE
Kazhagam (AIADMK)
1. President
16. Kerala Congress (M) (KEC (M) 1979
2. Vice President
17. Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP) 1980 3. Prime Minister
18. Telugu Desam Party (TDP) 1982 4. Governor of States within their respective states
5. Former Presidents
19. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) 1984 5a. Deputy Prime Minister
20. Asom Gana Parishad (AGP) 1985 6. Chief Justice of India, Speaker of Lok Sabha
7. Cabinet Ministers of the Union; Chief Ministers of
21. People’s Party of Arunachal (PPA) 1987 States within their respective states; Former Prime
22. Samajwadi Party (SP) 1992 Minister; Leaders of opposition in Rajya Sabha and
Lok Sabha.
23. Sikkim Democratic Front (SDF) 1993 7a. Holders of Bharat Ratna decoration.
24. Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD) 1996 8. Ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary and
High Commissioners of Commonwealth countries
25. All India Trinamool Congress (AITC) 1998 accredited to India. Chief Ministers of states outside
26. Indian National Lok Dal (INLD) 1999 their respective states; Governors of states outside
their respective states.
27. Janta Dal (Secular) JD(S) 1999 9. Judges of the Supreme Court
28. Janata Dal (United) JD(U) 1999 9a. Chief Election Commissioner; Comptroller and
Auditor-General of India.
29. Lok Janashakti Party 2000
10. Dy. Chairman, Rajya Sabha; Dy. Chief Ministers of
30. Telangana Rashtra Samithi 2001 states; Dy. Speaker Lok Sabha; Ministers of State of
the union and any other minister in the ministry of
31. Naga People’s Front (NPF) 2002 defence for defence matters.

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11. Attorney-General of India; Cabinet Secretary; Lt. Secretaries to the governments of India (including
INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

Governors within their respective Union Territories. officers holding this office exofficio)
12. Chiefs of Staff holding the rank of full General or Secretary, Minorities Commission
equivalent rank Secretary, SCs/STs Commission
13. Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary Secretary, to the President
accredited to India.
Secretary, to the Primminister
14. Chairman and Speaker of state legislatures within
Secretary, Lok Sabha/Rajya Sabha.
their respective states; Chief Justice of high courts
within their respective jurisdiction. Solicitor General

15. Cabinet Ministers in states within their respective Vice chairman, CAT
states; CMs of UTs within their respective UTs; 24. Officers of the rank of lieutenant General or
Deputy Ministers of the Union. equivalent rank.
16. Officiating chiefs of staff holding their rank of Lt. 25. Additional secretaries to the Government of India.
General or equivalent rank. Additional Solicitor General
17. Chairman, CAT; Chairman, Minorities Commission;
Advocate General of States
Chairman, SC and ST Commission; Chairman,
Chairmans, Tariff Commission
UPSC; Chief Justices of high courts outside their
respective jurisdictions; Charge ‘d’ affairs and Acting High Commissioners a
pied and ad interim
18. Cabinet ministers in states outside their respective
states; Chairman and Speakers of state legislatures Chief ministers of UTs and Chief Executive
outside their respective states; Chairman MRTP Councillor, Delhi. (Outside their respective Union
Commissions; Dy. Chairman and Dy. Speakers of Territories)
state legislatures within their respective states; Chief secretaries of State Government outside their
19. Chief Commissioners of UTs to having councils of respective states.
ministers, within their respective UTs; Dy. Ministers Deputy Comptroller and Auditor General.
in states within their respective states; Dy. Speakers
Deputy Speaker of Legislative Assemblies in Union
of legislative assemblies in UTs, within their
Territories and Deputy Chairman.
respective UTs
Delhi Metropolitan Council, outside their respective
20. Dy. Chairman and Dy. Speakers of state legislatures
UTs.
outside their respective states; Ministers of State in
states outside their respective states; Puisne judges Director, CBI.
of high courts outside their respective jurisdictions Director General, BSF.
21. MPs Director General, CRPF.
22. Deputy Ministers in state outside their respective Director, IB
state. Lieutenant Governars (outside their respective UTs)
23. Army commandar/Vice chief of the Army Staff or Members, CAT
equivalent in other services.
Members, UPSC
Chief secretaries to state governments within their
Minister of UTs and Executive Councillors Delhi
respective state.
outside their respective UTs,
Commissioner for linguistic minorities.
Principal Staff Officers of the Armed Forces of the
Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
rank of major General or equivalent rank.
Tribes.
Speakers of Legislative Assemblies in UTs and
Members, Minorities Commission
chairman of Delhi, Metropolitan Council, outside
Members, National Commission for Scheduled
their respecitve UTs.
Tribes.
26. Joint Secretaries to the Government of India and
Officials of the rank of full General or equivalent
officers of equivalent rank officers of the rank of
rank.
Major General or equivalent rank.

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

IMPORTANT OFFICES OF INDIA

Minimum Maximum Salary

Office
(Age) (Age) (Monthly)

The President 35 years – Rs. 5,00,000

The Vice President 35 years – Rs. 4,00,000

(Chairman of Rajya Sabha)

The Prime Minister 25 years – Rs. 2,80,000

Lok Sabha Speaker 25 years – Rs. 1,25,000

Lok Sabha Deputy Speaker 25 years –

Chief Justice of India – 65 years Rs. 2,80,000

Other Judges of the – 65 years Rs. 2,50,000

Supreme Court – – Rs. 2,50,000

Chief Election Commissioner of India

Members of Lok Sabha 25 years – Rs. 2,00,083.3

Members of Rajya Sabha 30 years – Rs. 2,00,083.3

Cabinate Secretary of India – – Rs. 2,50,000

Attorney General – – Rs. 2,50,000

(As decided by
the Parliament)

Comptroller and – 65 years Rs. 2,50,000

Auditor General (As decided by
the Parliament)

Chairman U.P.S.C. – 65 years Rs. 2,50,000

Members, U.P.S.C. – 65 years Rs. 2,25,000

Governor 35 years – Rs. 3,50,000

Lieutenats Governor of U.T. – – Rs. 3,25,000

Chief Minister 25 years –

Members of Legislative 25 years – –

Assembly

Members of Legislative 30 years – –

Council

Advocate General – 62 years (As decided by the

Governor)

Members of State Public – 62 years

Service Commission

Chief Justice of High Court – 62 years Rs. 2,50,000

Other Judges of High Court – 62 years Rs. 2,25,000

Chief of Staff (Army Air, Naval) – – Rs. 2,50,000

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CONSTITUTIONAL OFFICES OF INDIA

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

Office Election Oath Resignation

The President Electoral College-the elected Chief Justice of the Vice-President
members of both the Houses of Supreme Court
Parliament and elected members
of Legislative Assemblies
Vice-President Electoral college-All members of President President
the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha

Prime Minister President appoints leader of the President President

majority party
Lok Sabha speaker Elected by the members of Lok President Deputy speaker of Lok Sabha
Sabha
Deputy Speaker of Elected by the members of Lok President Speaker of Lok Sabha
Lok Sabha Sabha

Chief Election President President President

Commissioner
Attorney General President President President
Comptroller and President President or (any person President
Auditor General appointed by the Presi-
(CAG) dent) President
Solicitor-General President President President
NITI Ayog Prime-Minister – Prime-Minister
Chairman,
Planning President Chief Justice President
Commission (High Court)
Governor, RBI President President
Governor
Chief-Minister Governor (appoints leader of the Governor President
majority Party)
Chief Justice President (after Consulting Governor President
(High Court) the Chief Justice of Supr- eme
Court and the Governor of the
Concerned state
Other Judges President (after consulting the Governor President
of High Court Governor, and Chief Justice of
High Court
Advocate- Governor Governor Governor
General
Accountant- Governor Governor Governor
General
Chairman, Governor Governor Governor
State Public
Service
Commission
Members, State Governor Governor Governor
Public Service
Commission

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 Indian Polity and Constitution

HIGH COURTS OF INDIA

INDIAN POLITY AND CONSTITUTION

Name Year Territorial establishment Seat
Jurisdiction
Allahabad 1866 U.P. Allahabad, (Bench at Lucknow)
Andhra Pradesh 1954 Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad
Bombay
Bombay 1862 Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Bombay (Benches at Nagpur,
Haveli and Daman and Diu Panaji and Aurangabad

Calcutta 1862 West Bengal Kolkata (Circuit Bench at

Port Blair)
Chhattisgarh 2000 Chhattisgarh Bilaspur

Delhi 1966 Delhi Delhi

Guwahati 1948 Assam, Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram and Guwahati (Bench Kohima, and
Arunachal Pradesh circuit Aizawl, Itanagar
Gujarat 1960 Gujarat Ahmedabad

Himachal Pradesh 1948 Himachal Pradesh Shimla

J&K 1957 J & K, Ladakh Srinagar and Jammu

Jharkhand 2000 Jharkhand Ranchi
Karnataka 1884 Karnataka Bangalore

Kerala 1956 Kerala and Lakshadweep Ernakulam

Madhya Pradesh 1956 Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur (Benches at
Gawalior and Indore)
Madras 1862 Tamil Nadu Chennai and Pondicherry

Manipur 2013 Manipur Imphal

Meghalaya 2013 Meghalaya Shillong
Odisha 1948 Odisha Cuttack
Patna 1916 Bihar Patna
Punjab & Haryana 1966 Punjab and Haryana Chandigarh Chandigarh
Rajasthan 1949 Rajasthan Jodhpur (Bench at Jaipur)
Sikkim 1975 Sikkim Gangtok
Tripura 2013 Tripura Agartala
Telangana 2019 Telangana Hyderabad
Uttarakhand 2000 Uttarakhand Nainital

State Year State Year

Assam 1969 Sikkim 1975-1976
Nagaland 1969 Mizoram 1986-1987
Himachal Pradesh 1971 Arunachal Pradesh 1986-1987
Meghalaya 1972 Uttarakhand 2001
Manipur 1972 Telangana 2019
Tripura 1972 ppp

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 5 GEOGRAPHY
MEANING OF GEOGRAPHY GALAXY
³³ A galaxy is a vast collection of billion of stars, dust and
The word Geography is a co bination of two Greek
hydrogen gas, isolated in space from similar system.
words, ‘geo’ (= earth) and ‘graphy’ (= writing about).
³³ The two most important galaxies in the Universe
Thus, in simple language Geography can be defined as are Milky Way Galaxy and Andromeda Galaxy.
a study of the earth. However, this elementary definition Andramada is closest to Milky way galaxy which is
fails to provide a clear picture of the nature and scope of 2.2 million light years away from it.
Geography. Geography as a subject not only deals with ³³ Our own Sun and its family of planets belong to the
the features and patterns of the surface of the earth, it Milky Way Galaxy.
also tries to scientifically explain the inter-relationship ³³ Three basic shapes of galaxies are :
between Man and nature. The scope of the subject matter (i) Spiral Galaxy, (ii) Elliptical Galaxy, (iii) Regular
of Geography is gradually widening and its methods Galaxy
and techniques are developing both in precision and ³³ Milky Way galaxy is spiral type of galaxy.
sophistication. ³³ Indian name of Milky Way galaxy is ‘Akash Ganga’.
Broadly, Geography has two distinct sub-fields- ³³ Some of the brightest galaxies are elliptical galaxies.
physical and human. The physical or natural features
are the creations of Nature and these are independent of CONSTELLATIONS
human actions. These include mountains, rivers, flora ³³ The stars which appear in the form of closed
and fauna. groups and form recognizable shapes are known as
The human or man-made features are those created constellations.
by human actions and which are essential for their survival ³³ The Indian name for constellation is ‘Nakshatras’.
and development. These are also known as cultural About 80 constellations are known.
features. STARS
THEORIES RELATED TO ORIGIN OF THE EARTH ³³ Stars are the heavenly bodies like the Sun that are
extremely hot and have light of their own.
Hypothesis Propounder
³³ Stars are made up of vast clouds of hydrogen gas,
Nebular Hypothesis — Laplace helium and dust.
Tidal Hypothesis — James Jeans ³³ The star which lies immediately above the earth’s
North Pole and around which all other stars seem to
Supernova Hypothesis — F. Hoyle revolve is called Pole Star.
Gaseous Hypothesis — Immanuel Kant Life of Stars : Stars pass through a definite
evolutionary sequence. The first step in the formation of
Planetesimal Hypothesis — Chamberlin a star from gases is the Protostar.
Binary Star Hypothesis — H.N. Russell (a) A Protostar : It is formed by the gravitational
contraction of gases present in the Galaxy. A
UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM Protostar is a highly condensed cloud of gases
mainly hydrogen and helium.
UNIVERSE (b) Red Giants : The continued Nuclear fusion upset
³³ The vast surrounding space is called Universe. It the overall equilibrium of the star and to readjust
incorporates everything that exists, the stars, planets, it star’s outer region expands while the core
shrinks. Due to the large expansion of the outer
satellite as well as our earth and all the objects on it.
shell, the star becomes very big, and its colour
³³ Light year and Parsec are the units of measuring changes to red.
distances in the Universe. (c) Novae and Supernovae : A giant star phase may
³³ One Light year is the distance travelled by light in end in a Novae/Supernovae stage. These are
stars whose brightness increase suddenly by ten
one year.
to twenty magnitudes or more due to a partial or
1 Light Year = 9.46 × 1012 kilometers. outright explosion in the star. When brightness
³³ The nearest star to the earth ‘Alpha Centuari’ is about increases to 20 magnitudes or more, it is called a
Supernovae.
4.3 light years away from the earth.
(d) White dwarfs : A Novae/Supernovae explosion in
³³ Parsec is an astronomical unit of distance which is a small star like our Sun (stars lighter than 1.2
equal to 3.26 light years. 1 Parsec = 3.26 light years. solar mass) may leave behind a very dense core of
³³ The science dealing with the nature and origin of the that state. A star of this size cools and contracts
Universe is known as Cosmology. to become a White Dwarf.

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(e) Neutron star : A supernovae explosion in a star

GEOGRAPHY
bigger than the Sun but not more than twice as THE SOLAR SYSTEM
big, may leave behind an extremely dense, residual ³³ The solar system consists of the Sun, the eight planets
core of that star, reaching a density of 1014 grams/ and their satellites and various other smaller heavenly
cm3, known as Neutron Star. bodies such as asteroids, comets and meteors.
(f) Pulsar : A spinning neutron star emits radio waves
and is called a Pulsar. THE SUN
(g) Black Holes : A black hole is an object with ³³ The sun is a star. It is the star around which the earth
such a strong gravitational field that even light and other planets revolve.
cannot escape from its surface. Black holes are ³³ It is the nearest star to the earth. It is at a distance
formed from neutron stars after the Supernoval of 150×106 kilometres from the earth.
explosions of big stars.
³³ Light travelling at a speed of 300,000 km. per second,
Novae/ takes about 8 minutes to reach us from the Sun.
Protostar Red Giants
Supernovae ³³ The next nearest star to earth is “Alpha Centuari”.
White dwarf ³³ The Sun is mainly composed of hydrogen. The
glowing surface of the Sun which we see is called
Black Holes Pulsar Neutron Star ‘Photosphere’.
³³ Above the photospheres is the red cloud
Fig : Life of the Star
‘Chromosphere’. Beyond the chromospheres is the
BIG BANG THEORY ‘Corona’, which is visible during eclipses.
³³ The temperature of the photospheres is about 6000°C,
³³ The Big Bang Theory formed in 1972, according to
that of the chromosphere about 32400°C, and that of
this theory every thing in the universe emerged from
the corona about 2,700,000°C.
a point known as singularity, 15 billion years ago.
³³ This theory explains the origin of universe and every ³³ The core of the Sun has a temperature about 15
thing in it including ourselves on the premise that the million degrees C.
universe contained many million of galaxies each one ³³ The dark lines in the corona are called ‘Fraunhofer
having thousand of millions of stars and each star lines’. The emission of hydrogen in all directions is
having numerous planets around them. called ‘Prominences’.
³³ The galaxies moved apart from one another as the ³³ Sometimes they roll out of the atmosphere to be seen
empty space between them expanded. as ‘Solar flares’.
³³ In the beginning the universe was much smaller as ³³ The outward stream of protons flowing out from the
there was less space between the galaxies.
corona are called ‘Solar winds’, which is made up of
³³ All the matter in the universe was created in one
plasma.
instant a fixed moment in time.
³³ “As universe expanded for 15 billion years, the hot ³³ The earth’s Magnetosphere or Van Allen belts, as they
radiation in the original fireball also expanded with were earlier called, acts as a shield and deflects the
it, and cooled as a result”. Solar winds.
³³ ‘Sun spots’ are dark patches notched on the surface
GOLDILOCKS ZONE
of the Sun. They appear dark because they are cooler
³³ It is an area of space in which a planet is just the i.e. they have a temperature of about 1500°C.
right distance from its home star so that its surface
is neither too hot nor too cold. The conditions in the THE MOON
Goldilocks zone are just right so that liquid water ³³ The Moon’s diameter is one-fourth of Earth diameter.
remains on the surface of the planet without freezing ³³ Circumference : 11000 km. approximately.
or evaporating out into space. Terrestrial planet are ³³ Gravitational Pull is 1/6th of the Earth.
more likely to lie in the Goldilocks zone. It is also called ³³ Its orbit around the earth in elliptical orbit.
as habitable zone or life Zone.
³³ Distance between the Earth and the Moon is 3,82500
SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF INTERIORS km. approx. (According to NASA)
³³ The distance varies because it revolves around the
Direct sources Indirect Sources
Earth is an elliptical orbit.
• The surface rocks or • Meteors as they are ³³ At Perigee the point at which the moon is closest to
rocks we get from mining made up of same the Earth, the distance is approximately 3,60000 km.
• Molten material (magma) materials as, or ³³ At Apogee the point at which the moon is farthest to
from volcanic eruptions similar to our planet. the earth, the distance is approximately 4,05,000 km.
• Observations from • Other important (According to NASA).
scientific projects such sources include: ³³ The Moon is 1/4th size of the Earth.
as : “Deep ocean Drilling 1. Gravitation ³³ The Moon take 27 day, 7 hrs, 43 min. and 11.47 sec.
Project” and “Integrated 2. Magnetic field to complete one revolution around the Earth.
Ocean Drilling Project”. 3. Seismic activity ³³ The Moon in the only satellite of the Earth.

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³³ The Moon rotates on its axis in exactly the same time ³³ When observed at points in space other than from the
GEOGRAPHY

as that of its revolution. That's why we see only one Earth’s surface, the Sun can be eclipsed by bodies
part of the moon. other than the Moon.
³³ We can see only 59% of its surface. ³³ Two examples are when the crew of Apollo 12 observed
³³ There is no atmosphere on the moon. the Earth to eclipse the Sun in 1969 and when the
³³ The moon has no light of its own. It reflects sun light. Cassini probe observed Saturn to eclipse the Sun in
³³ The reflected light by the moon reaches on the Earth 2006.
in 1.3 seconds.
³³ It has a low albedo. The geometry of a Solar eclipse :
³³ It reflects only 7% and the rest is absorbed by the Umbra Penumbra
moon. Solar Eclipse
³³ Neil Armstrong and Aldrin reached the moon on 21, July Sun
1969. Through Apollo × 1.
³³ Landing spot is called ‘sea of tranquility’. Earth
Moon
³³ The black spot on the moon is called 'sea of tranquility.'
Lunar Eclipse
THE EARTH
³³ Lunar eclipses occur when the Moon passes through
³³ It is our planet. the Earth’s shadow.
³³ As per order in distance from the sun. It is at third
³³ Since this occurs only when the Moon is on the far
position.
side of the Earth from the Sun, lunar eclipses only
³³ It is at 5th position according to size.
occur when there is a full moon.
³³ It takes 365 days and 6 hrs. for one revolution around
the sun. ³³ There are three types of lunar eclipses :
³³ It is similiar to venus in shape and size. • Penumbral, when the Moon crosses only the Earth’s
³³ It is the only planet where life exists. penumbra;
³³ It is also called ‘Blue Planet’. • Partial, when the Moon crosses partially into the
³³ It is the densest of all Planet. Earth’s umbra;
³³ Perihelion is the nearest position of the Earth to the • Total, when the Moon crosses entirely into the
Sun. Earth’s umbra.
³³ The Earth reaches its perihelion on January 3 every
year at a distance of about 147 million km. The geometry of a Lunar eclipse :
Penumbra
³³ Aphelion is the farthest position of the Earth from Umbra
Lunar Eclipse
the Sun.
³³ The Earth reaches its aphelion on july 4, when the Sun
earth is at a distance of 152 million km.
Earth Moon
³³ It is also called ‘Green Planet’ because of ecology.
³³ Venus is the nearest planet to the Earth.
TIDES
³³ The Earth revolves around the sun at a speed of 29.8
km/second. ³³ Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the
combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by
ECLIPSE the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth.
³³ An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when ³³ Two almost equal high tides and two low tides each
an astronomical object is temporarily obscured, either day, is called a semi-diurnal tide.
by passing into the shadow of another body or by ³³ Only one high and one low tide each day, called a
having another body pass between it and the viewer. diurnal tide.
SOLAR ECLIPSE ³³ Two uneven tides a day, or sometimes one high and
one low each day; this is called a mixed tide.
³³ As observed from the Earth, a solar eclipse occurs
³³ The time and amplitude of the tides at a location are
when the Moon passes in front of the Sun. influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon,
³³ The type of solar eclipse event depends on the distance by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean, by the
of the Moon from the Earth during the event. amphidromic systems of the oceans, and by the shape
³³ A total solar eclipse occurs when the Earth intersects of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry.
the umbra portion of the Moon’s shadow. ³³ Tide changes proceed via the following stages :
• Sea level rises over several hours, covering the
³³ When the umbra does not reach the surface of the
intertidal zone; flood tide.
Earth, the Sun is only partially occulted, resulting in • The water rises to its highest level, reaching high
an annular eclipse. tide.
³³ Partial solar eclipses occur when the viewer is inside • Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the
the penumbra. intertidal zone; ebb tide.

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• The water stops falling, reaching low tide, a tides PLANETS

GEOGRAPHY
produce oscillating currents known as tidal ³³ Planets are solid heavenly bodies which revolve
streams. around the Sun in closed elliptical paths.
³³ The moment that the tidal current ceases is called ³³ A Planet is made up of rock and metal.
slack water or slack tide. The tide then reverses ³³ The Planets move around the Sun from west to east
direction and is said to be turning. except venus and uranus which moves from east to
The Types of Tides : Springs and Neaps west.
³³ There are eight major Planets including earth.
³³ The semi-diurnal range (the difference in height
between high and low waters over about half a day) The Eight Planets (Grahas)
varies in a two-week cycle. (1) Mercury (Budha)
³³ Approximately twice a month, around new moon and (2) Venus (Shukra)
full moon when the Sun, Moon and Earth form a line (3) Earth (Prithvi)
the tidal force due to the sun reinforces that due to
(4) Mars (Mangal)
the Moon.
(5) Jupiter (Brihaspati)
³³ The tide’s range is then at its maximum : this is called
(6) Saturn (Shani)
the spring tide, or just springs.
(7) Uranus (Indra)
³³ When the Moon is at first quarter or third quarter,
the sun and Moon are separated by 90° when viewed (8) Neptune (Varun)
from the Earth, and the solar tidal force partially P luto (Yama) is not a planet now, Pluto is
cancels the Moon’s. considered as Dwarf planet : Pluto was discovered by
³³ At these points in the lunar cycle, the tide’s range is Clyde Tombaugh in 1930.
at its minimum: this is called the neap tide, or neaps. The redefinition of planet by the International
Astronomical Union (IAU) on August 24, 2006 states that,
The geometry of Sun, Earth and Moon : in the Solar System, a planet is a celestial body that
³³ orbits around the Sun.
³³ has sufficient mass so that it assumes a hydrostatic
equlibrium (nearly round) shape.
³³ has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
³³ A non-satellite body fulfilling the first two rule is
classified as a Dwarf planet. So, Pluto is considered
as Dwarf planet.
³³ A non-satellite body fulfilling the first rule is termed
as Small Solar System Body (SSSB).
³³ According to the definition, there are currently eight
planets and five Dwarf planets known in the Solar
System. The 5 Dwarf planets are Pluto, Ceres, Eris,
Makemake and Haumea.
³³ Pluto has been given the number 134340.
The geometry of a Spring Tide :
Asteroids : Asteroids are very small planets of rock
and metal which revolve around the Sun mainly between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
Comets : A comet is a collection of gas and dust
which appears as a bright ball of light in the sky with a
long glowing tail.
Meteors : Meteors are the heavenly bodies from the
sky which are seen as a bright streak of light in the sky.
The meteors are also called as shooting stars.
Meteorite : A meteor which does not burn completely
on entering the earth’s atmosphere and lands on earth
surface is known as Meteorite.
³³ Increasing order of planet of distance from the sun.
Mercury → Venus → Earth → Mars → Jupiter →
Saturn → Uranus → Neptune
³³ Decreasing order of diameter of planet.
Jupiter → Saturn → Uranus → Neptune → Earth →
Venus → Mars → Mercury

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FACTS OF REMEBER
GEOGRAPHY

Uranus 27 Cordelia, Ophelia, Bianca, Cressi-

³³ Saturn has maximum number of satellites. da, Desdemona, Juliet, Portia, Rosa-
³³ Pluto has the most electric orbit. lind, Balinda, Puck, Miranda, Ariel,
³³ Jupiter is the fastest rotating planet. Umbriel, Titania, Oberon etc.
³³ Venus is the slowest rotating planet. Neptune 14 Naiad, Thalassa, Despoina,
³³ Venus has the same period of rotation as revolution. Galatea, Larissa, Porteus, Triton,
³³ The length of the day is nearly same on the planet Nereid etc.
Mars as that of the Earth.
Pluto 5 Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, Hydra
³³ Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the Jovian
(dwarf
planets.
³³ The angle of inclination of Mars is nearly same as planet)
that of Earth. Haumea 2 —
³³ Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the outer Make- 1 —
planets. make
³³ Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are the inner Eris 1 —
planets.
³³ Venus rotates from East to West. Salacia 1 —
³³ Uranus rotates from east to west. Quaoar 1 —
³³ Mercury is the fastest revolving planet. Gong- 1 —
³³ Pluto is the slowest revolving dwarf planet. gong
³³ Planet revolves around the Sun in Anti-clockwise
Sedna 0 —
direction.
³³ Mercury is the nearest planet to Sun. Ceres 0 —
³³ Venus is the nearest planet of Earth. Orcus 1 —
³³ Neptune was farthest from Sun during 1979-99.
³³ Now Pluto (dwarf planet) is the farthest from the Sun International Date Line (IDL)
after 1999 for the next 228 years. ³³ The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line
³³ Venus is the hottest planet, its atmosphere contains on the surface of the Earth, that runs from the north
97% CO2. to the south pole and demarcates one calendar day
³³ Jupiter is the heaviest planet. from the next.
³³ Pluto is the coldest and smallest dwarf planet.
³³ Jupiter is the biggest planet. ³³ It passes through the middle of the Pacific Ocean,
³³ Earth is the densest planet. roughly following the 180° longitude but it deviates
³³ Venus is the brightest planet. at Aleutian Islands, Fiji, Samoa and Gilbert Islands.
³³ Earth is the blue planet.
³³ The International Date line is on the opposite side of
³³ Mars is the Red planet.
³³ Venus is the Morning and Evening Star. the Earth Prime Meridian.
³³ Venus is also called the Earth’s twin. ³³ The Prime Meridian helps to define Universal Time
³³ Saturn and Uranus is known as the planets with and is the meridian from which all other time zones
rings. are calculated.
³³ Mercury has the shortest year.
³³ Mercury has the maximum diurnal range of ³³ A traveler crossing the International Date Line
temperature. eastbound (i.e., from Japan to USA) subtracts one
³³ Pluto is the Biplanet i.e. dwarf planet. day, or 24 hours, so that the calendar date to the west
PLANETS AND THEIR SATELLITES of the line is repeated after the following midnight.
No. of ³³ Crossing the IDL westbound results in 24 hours being
Planet Natural Satellites added, advancing the calendar date by one day.
Moons
Mercury 0 —
Venus 0 —
Earth 1 Earth’s moon
Mars 2 Phobos, Deimos
Jupiter 79 Adrastea, Metis, Amalthea, Thebe, Io,
Europa, Ganymede, Callisto, Leda,
Himalia, Lysithea, Elara, Ananke,
Carme, Pasiphae, Sinope etc.
Saturn 82 Atlas, Prometheus, Pandora,
Janus, Epimetheus, Mimas,
Euceladus, Tethys, Calypso, Dione,
Helene, Rhea, Titan, Hiperion,
Iapetus, Phoebe etc.

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Prime Meridian :

GEOGRAPHY
EARTH’S MOVEMENTS
³³ It is the mean solar time at the Royal ob in Greenwich
London. (i) Rotation : Earth rotates on its own axis that is
³³ GMT is formally used as the international civil tilted at an angle of 23½° to the vertical.
time standard now superseded in that function by ³³ It spins from west to east once in every 23 hours, 56
coordinated universal time. minutes and 4.9 seconds.
³³ The modern form of mean solar time at 0° longitude. ³³ The linear velocity of rotation varies, achieving a
³³ Prime meridian passes through these countries : maximum of 1690 km/hr at the equator, reducing
1. U.K 2. Spain 3. France gradually to zero at the poles.
4. Algeria 5. Burkino Faso 6. Ghana Effects of Earth’s Rotation
7. Togo 8. Mali
³³ We have day and night.
9. Antarctica (South Pole) ³³ A difference of 1 hour between two meridians which
Tropic of Cancer are 15° apart.
³³ It is an imaginary line in Northern hemisphere. ³³ Deflection of ocean currents and winds.
1 ³³ Rise and fall of tides every day.
³³ It can be drawn at 23 ° north to the equator. (ii) Revolution : Earth revolves round the Sun once
2
in every 365¼ days.
³³ Tropic of cancer passes through these countries :
³³ Earth revolves on an elliptical orbit at a speed of
1. USA 2. Mexico 3. Bahamas 106,560 km/hr. As it is not possible to show a quarter
4. Mali 5. Mauritania 6. Niger of a day in the calendar, a normal year is taken to be
7. Algeria 8. Chad 9. Libya 365 days, and an extra day is added every four years
10. Saudi Arabia 11. Egypt 12. UAE in a leap year.
13. India 14. Bangladesh 15. Myanmar Effects of Revolution
16. China 17. Oman
³³ Change of seasons.
Tropic of Capricorn ³³ Variation in the lengths of day and night at different
³³ It is an imaginary line in southern hemisphere. times of the year.
1 ³³ Shifting of wind belts.
³³ It can be drawn at 23 ° South to the equator. ³³ Determination of latitudes.
2
³³ It passes through these countries — TILT OF EARTH’S AXIS
1. Chile 2. Argentina 3. Paraguay
³³ The axis of Earth is inclined to the plane of ecliptic
4. Brazil 5. Namibia 6. Botswana at an angle of 66½°.
7. South Africa 8. Medagascar 9. Mozambique ³³ It gives rise to different seasons and varying lengths
10. Australia of day and night.
Equator ³³ The Sun is vertically overhead at the equator on two
days each year i.e. on March 21st and September
³³ It passes through these countries — 23rd.
1. Ecuador 2. Colombia 3. Brazil ³³ These days are called equinoxes meaning ‘equal
4. Gabon 5. Congo 6. Zaire nights’.
7. Somalia 8. Uganda 9. Kenya ³³ After the March equinox, the Sun appears to move
10. Indonesia 11. Kiribati 12. Maldives northwards and is vertically at the Tropic of Cancer
13. Sao Tome and Principe on June 21st. This is known as the Summer Solstice.
³³ A r c t i c C i r c l e : I t i s a n i m a g i n a r y l i n e i n ³³ During summer solstice, the Northern hemisphere will
1 have its longest day and the shortest night.
Northern hemisphere. It can be drawn at 66 °
2 ³³ By December 22nd, the Sun is overhead at the Tropic
N to the equator. It passes through Northern of Capricorn.
America, Greenland, North Asia, the Scandinavian ³³ This is the Winter Solstice.
Penisula and the Arctic ocean. Norway, Sweeden, ³³ In the Winter Solstice the Southern hemisphere will
Finland, Russia, the United States (Alaska), Canada, have its longest day and shortest the night.
Denmark (Greenland) and Iceland are the 8 countries
containing land in Arctic Circle. LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES
³³ Antartic Circle : It is an imaginary line in ³³ Latitude : Latitude is the angular distance of a point
1 on the earth’s surface, measured in degrees from the
Southern hemisphere. It can be drawn at 66 °
2 centre of the earth. Imaginary lines joining the places
S of the equator. The Antarctic circle passes of same latitude are called parallels of latitude since
they are parallel to a line, the Equator, which lies
through the parts claimed by Argentina/Chile, midway between the poles. These parallels of latitude
Australia, and France. are actually circles on the globe, becoming smaller
poleward.

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³³ Some important parallels are : ³³ The interior of Earth is divided into 5 important layers.
GEOGRAPHY

(i) 0° latitude : Equator Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper
(ii) 23½°N : Tropic of Cancer mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core.
(iii) 23½°S : Tropic of Capricorn ³³ The geologic component layers of Earth are at the
following depths below the surface :
(iv) 66½°N : Arctic Circle
(v) 66½°S : Antarctic Circle Depth
³³ The parallel of 60° is half of the Equator in length and Kilometres Miles Layer
75° is ¼th of the Equator. 0–60 0–37 Lithosphere (locally
³³ Longitude : Longitude is the angular distance varies between 5 and
measured in degrees along the equator east or west 200 km)
of the Prime Meridian. 0–35 0–22 Crust (locally varies
³³ On the globe the lines of longitude are drawn as a between 5 and 70 km)
series of semi-circles that extend from the North Pole
35–60 22–37 Uppermost part of
to the South Pole through the Equator.
mantle
³³ They are also called meridians. The Prime Meridian
(0°) is that meridian which passes through the 35–2,890 21–1,790 Mantle
Greenwich, near London and from which all other 100–200 62–125 Asthenosphere
meridians radiate eastwards and westwards up to 35–660 22–410 Upper mesosphere
180°. (upper mantle)
³³ 1° of latitude or longitude represents 111 km approx.
660–2,890 410–1,790 Lower mesosphere
³³ This distance is true for the longitudes along the
(lower mantle)
equator only since the distance between the longitudes
gradually decreases towards the poles to 0 km. 2,890–5,450 1,790–3,160 Outer core

COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH 5,150–6,360 3,160–3,954 lnner core

S. No. Element Volume (%)

1. Iron 35.0
2. Oxygen 30.0
3. Silicon 15.0
4. Magnesium 13.0
5. Nickel 2.4
6. Sulfur 1.9

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Core
³³ It’s also called NiFe (NI–Nickel and Fe-Ferrus).
³³ The inner most layer of the Earth is called the core.
³³ It is also known as metallic core.
³³ The core is divided into two parts, a solid inner core
with a radius of~1,220 km and a liquid outer core
extending beyond it to a radius of ~ 3,400 km.
³³ The solid inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge
Lehmann and is generally believed to be composed
primarily of iron and some nickel.
³³ The core is thus believed to largely be composed of
³³ The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light
by mechanical properties such as rheology, or elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead
chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or
lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in
outer core, and the inner core. the crust.

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³³ The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core and or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a

GEOGRAPHY
is believed to be composed of iron mixed with nickel change in rock composition from rocks containing
and trace amounts of lighter elements. plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no
feldspars (below).
Mantle
³³ Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical
³³ It’s also called SiMa (Si-Silica and Ma–Magnesium) discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and
³³ Earth’s mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed
making it the thickest layer of Earth. from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been
³³ The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as
in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. ophi-olite sequences.
³³ The high temperatures within the mantle cause the ³³ Many rocks now making up Earth’s crust formed
silicate material to be sufficiently ductile that it can less than 100 million (1×108) years ago; however, the
flow on very long timescales. oldest known mineral grains are 4.4 billion (4.4 × 109)
³³ Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface
years old, indicating that Earth had a solid crust for
through the motions of tectonic plates. at least that long.
³³ The melting point and viscosity of a substance COMPOSITION OF EARTH CRUST
depends on the pressure it is under.
S. No. Element By weight (%)
Crust
1. Oxygen 46.60%
³³ It’s also called SiAl (Si-Silica and Al–Aluminium)
³³ The crust ranges from 5-70 km in depth and is the 2. Silicon 27.7%
outermost layer. 3. Aluminium 8.1%
³³ The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie
the ocean basins (5-10 km) and are composed of 4. Iron 5.0%
dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, 5. Calcium 3.6%
like basalt.
6. Sodium 2.8%
³³ The thicker crust is continental crust, which is less
dense and composed of (felsic) sodium potassium 7. Potassium 2.5%
aluminium silicate rocks, like granite.
8. Magnesium 2.09%
³³ The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories
-Sial (Silicate + Aluminium) and Sima (Silicate + 9. Others 1.41%
Magnesium).
³³ It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the MAJOR DISCONTINUITY
Conrad discontinuity (a second order discontinuity). Moho Discontinuity : Between Crust and Mantle
³³ The uppermost mantle together with the crust Conrad Discontinuity : Between outer and Inner Crust
constitutes the lithosphere.
Weichert-Gutenberg Between Mantle and Core
³³ The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically
different events. Discontinuity :
Repetti Discontinuity : Outer and Inner Mantle
³³ First, there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity,
which is known as the Mohorovicic discontinuity Transition Discontinuity : Outer and Inner Core.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

Eons Era Period Epoch Age/Years Before Life/Major Events
Present
Quaternary Helocene 0-10,000 Modern Man
Pleistocene 10,000-2 Million Homo Sapiens

Tertiary Pliocene 2-5 Million Early human Ancestor

Cainozoic Miocene 5-24 Million Ape: Flowering Plants and Trees
(From 65 Oligocene 24-37 Million Anthropoid Ape. Rabbits and
million years Eocene 37-58 Million Hare Small Mammals :
to the Present times) Palaeocene 57-65 Million Rats – Mice

Mesozoic Cretaceous 65-144 Million Extinction of Dinosaurs

65-245
Million Jurassic 114-208 Million Age of Dinosaurs
Mammals Triassic 208-245 Million Frogs and turtles

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GEOGRAPHY

Permian 245-286 Million Reptile dominate- replace

Carboniferous amphibians
Palaeozoic 286-360 Million First Reptiles :
245-570 Devonian Vertebrates : Coal beds
Million Silurian 360-408 Million Amphibians
408-438 Million First trace of life on land: Plants
First Fish
Ordovician 438-505 Million
No terrestrial life :
Cambrian 505-570 Million
Marine Invertebrate
Proterozoic 570-2,500 Million Soft-bodied arthropods
2,500-3,800 Million Blue green Algage :
Archean Unicellular bacteria
Pre-Cambrian 3,800-4,800 Million Oceans and Continents form-
Hadean 570 Million-4,800 Ocean and Atmosphere are rich
in Carbon dioxide
Million
Origin 5,000- 5,000 Million Origin of the sun
of Stars 13,700
Supernova Million 12,000 Million Origin of the universe
Big Bang 13,700 Million

ROCKS AND SOILS

ROCKS ³³ These rocks are more prone to mechanical weathering
³³ Rocks are made up of individual substances, which due to their granular structure.
are called minerals found mostly in a solid state. ³³ These rocks are non-fossiliferous.
³³ Each mineral usually contains two or more simple On the basis of mode of occurrence, Igneous rocks
substances called elements of which the whole earth are classified into two major groups :
is made. (i) Intrusive Igneous Rocks : When the rising magma
³³ Out of about 2000 minerals, only twelve are common is cooled and solidified below the surface of the earth, they
all over the earth. These twelve minerals are called are known as Intrusive Igneous Rocks. These are further
the rock-formers. sub-divided into :
³³ As many as 87 per cent of the minerals in earth’s (a) Plutonic Igneous Rocks : They result from the
crust are silicates.
cooling of magma very deep inside the earth. Due to very
³³ The metal compounds of rocks is known as ‘ores’. slow cooling at that great depth, large grains are developed,
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS e.g.-Granite
(b) Hypabyssal Igneous Rocks : They are formed when
On the basis of the mode of formation, rocks are
magma cools and solidify just beneath the earth surface.
usually classified into three major types :
They take different shapes and forms depending upon the
(1) Igneous Rocks hollow places in which they solidify.
³³ Igneous rocks are found mostly in the Earth. (ii) Extrusive Igneous Rocks: These igneous rocks
³³ Two-third of the earth's crust is made of these rocks. are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten
³³ These rocks are called the basic rocks. lava on the earth’s surface. Basalt is the most important
³³ These rocks are ancestors of all other rocks and make
example of extrusive igneous rocks, others being Gabbro
up 85 per cent or more of the earth’s crust. and Obridian. These are generally fine grained or glassy
because of quick rate of cooling of lava. The extrusive
³³ Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling, solidification
igneous rocks are divided into two sub-groups :
and crystallization of molten earth materials, known
as magma and lava. (a) Explosive Type : Volcanic materials of violent
volcanic eruptions include ‘bombs’ (big fragments of rocks),
³³ Igneous rocks are also called as Primary rocks or
lapilli (pea-sized fragments) and volcanic dusts and ashes.
parent rocks because these were originated first
during the formation of crust through the process of (b) Quiet Type : In this, lava appear on the surface
cooling of the earth surface. through cracks and fissures and their continous flow form
extensive lava plateaus, e.g., Deccan Plateau, Columbia
³³ The igneous rocks are made of silicates (SiO2) and
Plateau.
often combine with other oxides of aluminum,
potassium, sodium, calcium, iron, magnesium etc. (2) Sedimentary Rocks
some of the important igneous rocks are granites, ³³ Sedimentary rocks are constituted of sediments, a
rhyolite, pegmatite, syetite, diorite, andestite gabbro,
material from wind or running water that settle down.
basalt, dolerite and peridotite.
³³ About 75% of the surface area of the globe is covered
³³ Igneous rocks are generally hard and water percolates
by the sedimentary rocks while rest 25% area is
through them with great difficulty along the joints.
occupied by the igneous and metamorphic rocks.
³³ Since water does not percolate easily, these rocks are
³³ Though sedimentary rocks cover largest area of
less affected by chemical weathering.
the earth’s surface, they constitute only 5% of the

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composition of the crust while 95% of the crust is ³³ Uranium is found in metamorphic rocks.

GEOGRAPHY
composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks. ³³ Example of metamorphic rocks formed from different
³³ The fossils are found in the layers of sedimentary rocks—
rocks. A fossil refers to any part of the once living Metamorphic rock
Made from
things preserved in the rock. It may be entire body,
Marble — limestone, chalk,
a singe bone or a set of foot-prints. It tells up about dolomite
the life in past and they help us to date environment.
Quartzite — Sandstone
Fossils also show what kind of animals lived in the
Slate — Shale
past.
Graphite and Diamond — Bituminus coal
³³ The layers of sedimentary rocks hold all reserve of
Gneiss — Granite
coal, oil and natural gas.
³³ The mechanically formed sedimentary rock contain MOUNTAINS
pieces of other rocks.
MOUNTAINS
³³ Agents like running water, wind and moving ice break
³³ An uplifted portion of the earth’s surface is called a
them into smaller pieces and deposits them at new
mountain.
sites where they form new sedimentary rocks.
³³ On the basis of their origin or mode of formation, the
³³ Organically formed sedimentary rocks consists of
mountains are classified as structural, residual or
the remains of animals and plants. Limestone, chalk
dissected and volcanic.
and corals are the most common of this type of
sedimentary rocks. STRUCTURAL MOUNTAINS
³³ Chemically formed rocks are formed by the direct ³³ Such systems are hundreds of kilometers wide and
precipitation of mineral matter from solution. Rock- thousands of kilometer long.
salt is an example of such rocks. Gypsum is also ³³ Many of them lie near or parallel to continental
formed in a similar manner. coastlines.
³³ ‘Sandstone’ is a common sedimentary rock, is formed ³³ Both the fold and the block mountains are included
mainly of quartz particles cemented together by silica, in this type.
lime or iron oxide. ³³ Fold Mountains : These mountains have originated
³³ ‘Shale’ is most abundant of all sedimentary rocks. due to compressional tectonic forces and have been
³³ It is compacted silt and clay. Kaolin and clay minerals thrown up to form fold mountains e.g. Himalayas,
are abundant in it. Andes, Alps etc.
³³ Rock gypsum is a white to reddish in colour. Gypsum ³³ On the basis of age the fold mountains can be grouped
and rock salt are formed by the evaporation of sea into.
water and salt lakes. (i) New or Young Fold Mountains : Example : The
³³ ‘Chalk’ is a calcareous rock made up of microscopic Alps, the Himalayas, the Circum-Pacific Oceanic
skeletal elements from a varieties of limes secreting Mountains, etc.
organism. ³³ The main features of these mountains are the complex
³³ It is composed of almost pure calcium carbonate. folding of the rocks, faulting, volcanic activities, the
³³ Most of the sedimentary rocks are permeable and erosion & weathering caused by running water, ice,
porous but a few of them are also non-porous such winds, etc.
as clay. (ii) Old Fold Mountains : Example : The Caledonion
(3) Metamorphic Rocks and Hercynian mountains of Central Europe, the
³³ In Greek language the word metamorphic means Pennines, the Highland of Scotland, etc.
‘change of form’. ³³ These mountains were folded in very ancient times,
³³ When the original character of the rocks i.e. their then subjected to denudation and uplift; many faults
colour, texture and mineral composition is partly or were formed and the layers of the rock were wrapped.
wholly changed, it gives rise to metamorphic rocks, ³³ Many mountains exist as relics due to erosion.
under favourable conditions of heat and pressure. ³³ Block Mountains : These mountains are formed when
³³ The formation of metamorphic rock refers that in great blocks of the earth’s crust may be raised or
course of time shale may get changed to slate and lowered during the late stages of mountain–building.
schist, limestones to marble, sandstone to quartzite ³³ When the earth’s crust cracks due to tension or
and granite to gneiss. compression, faulting takes place.
³³ The metamorphic rocks may be classified into two ³³ A section of the landform may subside or rise above
categories : the surrounding level giving rise to Block Mountains
(i) The Foliated and or Horst or Rift valley or Graben.
(ii) Non-Foliated. ³³ The Block Mountains have a steep slope towards the
³³ The foliated rock is characterised by parallel rift valley but the slope on the other side is long and
arrangement of slaty minerals such as mica. gentle.
³³ In the non-foliated metamorphic rocks, the minerals ³³ An old fold mountain may also be left as block
grains are equi-dimensional e.g. quartzite and marble. mountains due to continuous denudation.

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³³ The Vosges in France, Black Forest (Rhine valley) Peak of California, the Vesuvius of Italy, the Fujiyama
GEOGRAPHY

in Germany and Salt Range in Pakistan are cited as in Japan, the Aconcagua in Argentina, Kilimanjaro
typical examples of block mountains. in Africa, Mt. Mayon in Philippines, Mt. Merapi in
VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS Sumatra etc.
³³ These mountains are formed by the accumulation of Residual or Dissected Mountains
volcanic material. ³³ They owe their present form due to erosion by different
³³ The slope of the mountains becomes steep and the agencies.
height increases due to the development of the cones ³³ They have been worn down from previously existing
of various types like Cinder cones, Composite cones, elevated regions.
Acidic lava cones, Basic lava cones, etc. ³³ This type of Mountains includes, Vindhyachal ranges,
³³ Well-known examples of this type are Popocatepetle Aravallis, Satpura, Eastern and Western Ghats,
of Mexico, Mount Raineer of Washington, Lessen Nilgiris, Parasnath, Girnar, Rajmahal.

Fold Mountains Block Mountains Volcanic Mountains Residnal Mountains

Himalayas Vosges-France Mauna Loa-USA Vindhyachal
Alps Vindhya-India Hawaii Island (USA) Aravalli
Fujiyama-Japan
Rockies Satpura-India Popa-Myanmar Satpura
Andes Harge-Germany Rainier-USA Mahadev
Ural Salt Range-Pakistan Kilimanjaro-Tanzania Western Ghat
Appalachians — — Eastern Ghat
Tian Shan — — Parasnath
Atlas — — —
Guiana Plateau — Venezuela and Guyana
MAJOR MOUNTAIN RANGES IN THE WORLD
Mongolian Plateau — Mongolia and China
Range Location Length Meghalaya Plateau — India
(km.)
Peninsula Deccan Plateau — India Plateau
Andes South America 7,200 km
The Soil Profile
Rockies North America 4,800 km. ³³ The soil profile consists of the weathered material
Great Dividing Australia 3,500 km. derived from the rock. But the bedrock itself does not
Range form a part of it.
Himalayas India, Nepal 2,400 km. ³³ A soil profile generally has three main horizons in
it-true soil at the top, subsoil and the bedrock apart
Atlas North-West 1,930 km. from it.
Africa ³³ Each horizon is quite distinct from the others by its
Western Ghats Western India 1,610 km. own physical and chemical composition and organic
contents producing the long process of soil formation.
Caucasus Europe 1,200 km. ³³ Each soil type has physical properties like its colour,
Alaska U.S.A. 1,130 km. texture and the structure.
³³ They largely depend upon the nature of the bedrock
Alps Europe 1000 km.
from which they are derived.
MAIN PLATEAUS OF THE WORLD ³³ There are five soil forming factors-bedrock, local
climate, plant and animal organisms, elevation and
Arabian Plateau — South-West Asia the relief.
Deccan Plateau — South India
Iran Plateau — Iran Soil Classification
Brazil Plateau — Brazil ³³ The two main zonal groups of soil are the Pedalfers
Mexico Plateau — Mexico and the Pedocals.
Colombia Plateau — USA ³³ These are further subdivided into twelve major soil
Alaska Plateau — USA types all over the Globe.
Bolivia Plateau — Bolivia ³³ Pedalfers are found in humid climates extending
from high-latitude coniferous forests, mid-latitude
Great Basin Plateau — USA
deciduous forest lands to low-latitude tropical forests
Colorado Plateau — USA
and grasslands.
Ozark Plateau — USA ³³ Pedocals group of soils are found in the arid, semi-arid

Pamir Plateau — China and the sub-humid zones in the world.

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³³ Pedalfers are rich in aluminium and iron. ³³ The region around the Pacific Ocean is prone to

GEOGRAPHY
³³ Pedocals are rich in calcium and mineral salts. earthquakes.
³³ The black earths or chernozomes are one of the richest ³³ In India, Himalayan region and Ganga-Brahmaputra
soils of this group. valley are prone to earthquakes.
³³ Although earthquakes can't be predicated, the impact
Other Important Classification of Soil can certainly be minimised if we are prepared before
Inceptisols: Soil with weakly developed horizons, having hand.
minerals capable of further alteration by ³³ Around 21% of earthquakes occur in the mid-world
weathering processes. mountain belt extending parallel to the equator.
Andisols : Soils with weakly developed horizons,
having a high proportion of glassy volcanic
Types of earthquake waves :
parent material produced by erupting Earthquake waves have been classified in the following
volcanoes. way :
Entisols : Soils lacking horizons, usually because (a) Body waves (b) surface waves
their parent material has accumulated only (a) Body Waves : These travel through the solid body of
recently. the Earth and these are somewhat like sound waves.
Oxisols : Very old highly weathered soils of low (b) Surface Waves : These travel along the ground surface
lattitudes, with a subsurface horizon of
or just below it. These are similar to waves on water
accumulation of mineral oxides and very
surface. Surface waves are slower than the body
low base status.
waves.
Ultisols : Soils of equatorial, tropical and subtropical
latitudinal, zones, with a subsurface Body Waves have been classified into two types :
horizon of clay accumulation and low base (1) Primary Waves : These waves travel through solid,
status. liquid and gases. These are compressional or pus-pull
Vertisols : This soil contains high clay content. waves and move the material forward and backward
Vertisols develop deep, wide cracks when in the same direction.
dry and the soil blocks formed by cracking (2) Secondary Waves : These are slower than P waves and
move with respect to each other. can travel only through solid. They move the material
Alfisols : Soils of humid and subhumid climates with perpendicular to the direction of their travel.
subsurface horizon of clay accumulation Surface waves have also been classified into two types:
and high base status.
(1) Rayleigh Waves (R-waves) : These waves are slower
Spodosols : Soils of cold, moist climates, with a well
than L-waves and they behave like water-waves and
developed B horizon of illuviation and low
base status. that they move forward while the individual particles
of material move in an elliptical path within a vertical
Mollisols : Soils of semiarid and subhumid mild
midlatitude grasslands, with a dark, plane oriented in the direction of wave movement.
humus rich epipedon and very high base (2) Love Waves (L-waves) : The motion of L-wave is similar
status. to S- wave but the individual particles of the material
Aridisols : Soils of dry climates, low in organic matter, only move back and forth in a horizontal plane
and often having subsurface horizons of perpendicular to the direction of wave travel. Love
accumulation of carbonate minerals or wave is most damaging to building foundations. Love
soluble salts. waves, named after Augustus Edward Hough Love,
Histosols : Soils with a thick upper layer very rich in are horizontally polarized surface waves. Augustus
organic matter. Edward Hough Love predicted the existence of Love
EARTHQUAKES waves mathematically in 1911. They form a distinct
class, different from other types seismic waves, such
³³ When the Lithosphere plates move, the surface of the
as P-waves and S-waves (both body waves) or Reyleigh
Earth vibrates.
waves. Love waves travel with a lower velocity than
³³ The vibrations are travell all round the Earth, these
P- or, S- waves, but faster than Royleigh waves.
vibrations are called earthquakes.
³³ The point of origin of earthquake is called ‘Focus’. Effects of Earthquake
³³ The point on the Earth’s surface vertically above the ³³ Ground shaking
focus is called ‘Epicentre’. ³³ Differential ground settlements
³³ The waves are recorded by seismograph. ³³ Mud slides
³³ The magnitude of waves is measured on Richter’s ³³ Soil liquefaction
scale. ³³ Ground Lunching
³³ The number on this scale ranges from 0 to 9. Each ³³ Avalanches
increase of one unit on the Richter scale represents ³³ Fires
a tenfold increase in earthquake strength. ³³ Tsunami
³³ No earthquake has been measured above 9 on scale.

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GEOGRAPHY

IMPORTANT ACTIVE VOLCANOES OF THE WORLD

Height
Name Location Country
(in metres)
Ojos del Salado Andes 6885 Argentina, Chile
Guallatiri Andes 6060 Chile
Cotapaxi Andes 5897 Ecuador
Tupungatito Andes 5640 Chile
Lascor Andes 5641 Chile
Popocatepeti Altiplano de Maxico 5451 Maxico
Nevado del Ruiz Andes 5400 Colombia
Sangay Andes 5230 Ecuador
Klyuchevskaya Sredinnyy 4850 CIS
Soplea Khrebet
Purace Andes 4590 Colombia
Wrangell Wrangell mts. 4270 Alaska
Jajumulco Guatemala 4220 Guatemala
Mauna Loa Hawaii 4170 U.S.A.
Tacana Sierra Medre 4078 Guatemala
Mt. Cameroon Monarch 4070 Cameroon
Fuego Serra Madre 3836 Guatemala
Erebus Ross Island 3795 Antarctica
Rindjani Lombok 3726 Indonesia
Pico de Teide Tenerife Canary Island 3718 Spain
Someru Java 3670 Indonesia
Nyiragongo Viruga 3470 Zaire
Karyakskaya Kamchat ka Peninsula 3456 CIS
Irazu Cordilera 3452 Costa Central
Slamat Java 3428 Indonesia
Mount Spurr Alaska Range 3474 USA
Mont Etna Sicily 3308 Italy
Agung Bali 3142 Indonesia
Kilauea Hawai 1247 USA
Stromboli Islands 924 Mediterranean
Surtesey Off SE Iceland 1963 –
Ana Krakatoa Island 155 Indonesia

Volcanoes Types of volcanoes :

³³ A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust. There are three types of volcanoes
³³ Crust allows magma to reach the Earth’s surface. Shield volcanoes :
³³ The magma that reaches the Earth’s surface is called ³³ The shield volcanoes are the largest of all the
lava. volcanoes on the Earth.
³³ These volcanoes are mostly made up of Basalt.
³³ Sometimes magma rises slowly to the surface and
³³ They become explosive if water gets into the vent.
spread over a vast area. ³³ These are formed by quiet eruption of lava with low
³³ Some plateaus and plains have been formed in this silica content.
way. Composite Volcanoes
³³ The top of cone is usually marked by a funnel shaped ³³ These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of
depression, which is called crator. cooler and more viscous lava than basalt.
³³ These are made of lava and ash.

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³³ On the basis of frequency of eruption, volcanoes are total atmospheric moisture in the atmosphere is found

GEOGRAPHY
classified into active, dormant and extinct volcanoes. above 10 km.
³³ Active Volcanoes : The volcanoes which continues to ³³ Dust particle include all the solid particles present in
erupt periodically are called active volcanoes. the air excepting the gases and water vapour.
³³ Dormant Volcanoes : The volcanoes which are devoid ³³ They absorb a part of the incoming short-wave solar
of any activities for a long time but in which there is a energy.
possibility of eruption are called dormant volcanoes.
³³ A certain percentage of solar radiation energy is
³³ Extinct volcanoes : The volcanoes in which the
reflected back by these solid particles.
eruption has completely stopped and is not likely to
occur are called extinct volcanoes. COMPOSITION

Active Volcanoes Dormant Extinct Gas Volume

Volcanoes Volcanoes (in %)
Mount Etna-Sicily Fujiyama-Japan Kohsultan-Iran Nitrogen (N2) 78.084
island Vesuvius-Italy Popa-Myanmar
Stromboli-Lepari Krakatao- Indo- Chimborajo- Ec- Oxygen (O2) 20.947
island nesia uadzor
Argon (Ar) 00.934
Cotapaxi-Ecuador Aconcagua-
Mauna loa-Hawaii Argentina Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.0314
island
Neon 00.0018
Ojos de Salado-
Argentina Helium 00.0005
- Chile boundary
Methane 00.0002
ATMOSPHERE Krypton 00.0001
³³ The atmosphere is an insulating blanket protecting Hydrogen (H2) 00.00005
the Earth.
³³ It softens the intense light and heat of the Sun. STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
³³ It’s Ozone layer absorb most of the harmful ultraviolet
Temperature
rays from the Sun. more than
1000°C
COMPOSITION Exosphere
500 km. 500 km.
³³ The atmosphere is composed of various gases and Thermosphere Temperature
water vapour, and in its uppermost reaches, it is Ionosphere increases
charged with subatomic particles. Reflects with height
³³ Of the many constituents, carbon dioxide, dust radio
particles, water vapour and Ozone are of great wave
importance for the earth’s climatic conditions. Mesopause
80 km. 80 km.
³³ Nitrogen serves mainly as a dilutent and its main (–100°C) Meteors (–100°C)
function is to regulate combustion by diluting oxygen. Temperature
Mesosphere decreases
³³ Carbondioxide, just 0.03 per cent of the dry air, even with height
though it has great climatic significance. This gas Stratopause
emits about half of the absorbed heat back to the 50 km. 50 km.
(0°C) (–0°C)
earth and hence a very important function in the heat o Meteors Temperature
energy budget. z increase
o Stratosphere with height
³³ Ozone, less than 0.0005 per cent by volume, is not n
e rest
uniformly distributed in the atmosphere. Mount Eve 16 km.
³³ It’s greatest concentration is found between the he re (–80°C)
8 km. T roposp Temperature
altitude of 20 and 25 km. It absorbs the ultraviolet (–45°C) p o p a use
T ro decreases
solar radiation.
Earth with height
³³ Water vapour content in the air may vary from 0.02
per cent by volume in the cold dry climate to nearly Structure of the Atmosphere
4 percent in humid tropics.
³³ It absorbs not only the long wave terrestrial ³³ The atmosphere has a layered structure.
radiation, but also a part of incoming solar radiation, ³³ This is because of density stratification as a result
thus regulating the energy transfer through the of this lighter gases move up and denser one settles
atmosphere. down.
³³ About 90 per cent of water vapour lies below 6 km ³³ The atmosphere can broadly be divided into 5 layers,
of the atmosphere. Only less than 1 per cent of the these are :

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(1) Troposphere Atmospheric Pressure

GEOGRAPHY

³³ The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. ³³ Atmospheric Pressure is the weight of the column of
³³ It extends roughly to a height of 8 km. near the Poles air at any given place and time.
and about 18 km. at the equator. ³³ It is measured by means of an instrument called a
³³ Temperature decreases with height, roughly at the Barometer.
rate of 1°C for 165 meters of ascent. This is known ³³ It is measured as a force per unit area. The units
as normal lapse rate. used by meteorologists for this purpose are called
³³ This layer contains dust particles and over 90 per cent Millibars (mb).
of the earth’s water vapour. ³³ The distribution of atmospheric pressure is shown on
³³ All vital atmospheric processes leading to various a map by Isobars.
climate and weather conditions take place in this layer. ³³ An Isobar is an imaginary line drawn through places
having equal atmospheric pressure reduced to sea
(2) Stratosphere
level.
³³ It lies beyond the Troposphere. The zone separating
the two layers is known as the tropopause. WIND
³³ The stratosphere extends upto a height of 50 km. ³³ Horizontal movement of the air is called as wind. Due
³³ In the lower part of this layer (upto 20 km) temperature to horizontal difference in air pressure, air flows from
remains constant. Afterwards it gradually increases areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
upto a height of 50 km because of the presence of ³³ The vertical or nearly vertical movement of air is
Ozone layer. referred to as air current.
³³ Clouds are almost absent and there is very little dust ³³ Winds and air currents together comprise a system
or water-vapour. of circulation in the atmosphere.
(3) Mesosphere
Descending Air North Pole
³³ It extends upto a height of 80 km. Polar High
³³ Temperature decreases with height again and reaches Polar Easterlies
upto –100°C at the height of 80 km. Ascending Air Temperate Low 60° N
³³ Bulk of the meteors are destroyed in this region. South-Westerlies
(variable)
³³ It is also called ‘Chemosphere’. Descending Air Sub-Tropical High (Horse Latitudes) 30° N
³³ In upper part of the Mesosphere (60-80 km) oxygen North-East
Trade Winds
exists in its atomic form. Equatorial Low (Doldrums) 0°
Ascending Air
South-East
(4) Thermosphere L

Trade Winds
Descending Air Sub-Tropical High (Horse Latitudes) 30°S
³³ It is located between 80 to 400 kms.
North-Westerlies
³³ In its lower part, there is an electrically charged layer (variable)
Temperate Low
called the Ionosphere. Ascending Air 60° S

³³ Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected Polar Easterlies
Polar High
back to the earth by this layer.
Descending Air
South Pole
³³ Temperature again starts increasing with height
because of radiation from the Sun. Fig : The distribution of world pressure belts and
³³ The aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes planetary winds.
occur in the upper part of thermosphere and lower
part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the TYPES OF WIND
thermosphere. (1) Planetary winds : These winds blow throughout the
³³ Thermosphere is a region of the atmosphere that is year from one latitude to the other in response to the
ionized by solar radiation. latitudinal differences in air pressure, for example,
³³ During daytime hours, it stretches from 50 to 1000 the trade winds and the westerly winds.
km and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere and ³³ Trade Winds : The winds which blow from the sub-
part of the exosphere. tropical high pressure towards the equatorial region
³³ Ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during of low pressure regularly throughout the year in many
the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the areas especially the oceans and the hot deserts from
thermosphere and lower exosphere.
north-east in the northern hemisphere. It brings little
³³ The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the
rain except on the line of convergence of the two trade
magnetosphere.
wind systems.
(5) Exosphere
³³ Westerlies : The Westerly winds are those which blow
³³ It is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending
with great frequency from the Horse Latitudes towards
beyond the Thermosphere above a height of 400 kms.
the polar region throughout the year with varying
³³ Here the atmospheric gases are very thin.
intensity and cause rain near the polar regions.
³³ This part is extremely rarefied and gradually merges
Westerlies are stronger in the Southern Hemisphere
with the outer space.
because of the vast expanse of ocean water. Owing
³³ Here the temperature may reach to astonishing high
to their ferocious nature, they are also described as
value of more than 5000°C.

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“Roaring Forties”. “Furious Fifties” and “Shrieking ³³ Sirrocco : It is a warm, dry and dusty wind which

GEOGRAPHY
Sixties” which were dreaded terms for navigation. blows in northerly direction from Sahara desert and
³³ Doldrums : Also known as inter-tropical convergence after crossing Mediterranean Sea reaches Italy, Spain
Zone (ITCZ). It is the equatorial belt of low atmospheric etc. Similar winds are known as ‘Khamsin in Egypt,
pressure where the north-east and south east Trade ‘Gibli’ in Libya, ‘Chilli’ in Tunisia.
winds converge, it is a region of calmness. The
calmness periodically broken by storms, accompanied CYCLONE
by heavy rains. ³³ A cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion
³³ Horse Latitude : They are the sub-tropical belts of rotating in the same direction as the Earth.
high atmospheric pressure over the oceans (near 30° ³³ This is usually characterised by inward spiraling
latitude) between the regions of Trade winds and winds that rotate anticlockwise in the Northern
Westerlies. They are regions of calm, light variable Hemisphere and clockwise in Southern Hemisphere
winds and dry air. They are also known as calm of of the Earth.
Cancer and calms of Capricorn. ³³ A cyclone is a low pressure area.
Coriolis Force : The phenomena of deflection of all ³³ A cyclone's center is the area of lowest atmospheric
winds to the right, anti-clockwise in the northern hemi- pressure in the region.
sphere, while they deflects to the left, clockwise in the ³³ An extratropical cyclone is a synoptic scale low
Southern hemisphere with respect to the rotating Earth pressure weather system that does not have tropical
is called Coriolis Force. The Coriolis force is zero at the characteristics, being connected with fronts and
equator and maximum at the poles as it depends on horizontal gradient in tempera-ture and dew point.
the sine of latitude. With the increasing wind velocity, ³³ A sub-tropical cyclone is a weather system that has
coriolis force also increases. Since, this phenomenon some characteristics of a tropical cyclone and some
was firstly proved by a French Scientist Ferrel, it is characteristics of extratropical cyclone.
called Ferrel’s Law. ³³ They can form between equator and tropics.
³³ A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by
(2) Periodic winds : The Winds changing their direction
a low pressure centre and numerous of them produce
periodically with change in season are called periodic
flooding due to heavy rain and strong wind.
winds. Monsoons are the best examples of large scale
modification of the planetary wind system. ³³ A topical cyclone feeds on heat released when moist
³³ Monsoon : The word monsoon has been derived from air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapour
the Arabic word “Mausim” which means season. The contained in the moist air.
monsoon winds thus refers to the wind systems that ³³ An Anticyclone is a weather phenomenon as a large
have a pronounced seasonal reversal of direction. scale circulation of winds around a central region of
³³ The monsoon winds blow over India, Pakistan, high atmosphe-ric pressure.
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Arabian Sea, Bay ³³ Clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and anti
of Bengal, South-Eastern Asia, Northern Australia, clockwise in Southern Hemisphere.
China and Japan.
(3) Local Winds : Local winds develop as a result of local WEATHER FRONT
differences in temperature and pressure. They affect ³³ A weather front is a boundary separating two masses
small areas and are restricted to the lowest levels of of air of different densities and is the principal cause
the troposphere. of meteorological phenomenon.
³³ Loo : A very hot and dry wind (hot wave) in the North ³³ The air masses separated by a front usually differ in
Western India and Pakistan which blows from the temperature and humidity.
west in afternoon of May and June and may cause
³³ Cold fronts may feature now bonds of thunders forms
sunstroke.
and severe weather and may on occasion be preceded
³³ Mistral : The cold wind which originates over the
by squall lines or drylines.
snow-covered mountains of Alps and blows towards
the Mediterranean Sea. ³³ Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform
³³ Chinook and Foehn : Warm and dry local winds preciptiation and fog.
blowing on the leeward sides of the mountains are ³³ The weather clears quickly after a front's passage.
called Chinook in the USA and Foehn in Switzerland. ³³ Some fronts produce no precipi-tation and little
³³ Tornado : An extremely violent whirl-wind, covering cloudiness, although there is invariability in a wind
a small area, sometimes wind velocity exceeds 300 shift.
km per hour. It occurs frequently in the Mississippi ³³ Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from
basin of the U.S.A. and Sahara.
the west to east while warm fronts move poleward.
³³ Harmattan : The warm and dry winds blowing from
³³ Types of Front : There are four types of Fronts —
north-east and east to west in the eastern parts of
Sahara Desert are called “Harmattan”. Similar winds 1. Cold Fronts 2. Warm Fronts
are called ‘brickfielder’ in Australia, ‘blackroller’ in 3. Occluded Fronts 4. Stationary Fronts
USA, ‘Shamal’ in Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf and 1. Cold Fronts : A cold front is located at the leading
‘Norwester’ in New Zealand. edge of the temperature drop off which in an isotherm
analysis shows up as the leading edge of the isotherm

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gradient and it normally lies within a sharp surface ³³ The ideal conditions for dew formation are : a clear
GEOGRAPHY

trough. sky, little or no wind, high relative humidity and cold

³³ Cold fronts often bring heavy thunder forms rain and long nights.
and hail. ³³ When condensation takes place at a dew point
³³ Cold fronts can produce sharper changes in weather which is at or below freezing point, excess moisture
and move up to twice as quickly as warm fronts since is deposited in the form of minute ice crystals. It is
cold air is denser than warm air. called as white frost.
2. Warm Fronts : Warm fronts are the leading edge of ³³ Fog is defined as a cloud with its base at or very near
a homogeneous warm air mass, which is located on the ground. Fogs are of different kinds depending
the equatorward edge of the gradient in isotherms. upon the nature of the cooling process.
³³ These fronts lie within broader trough of low pressure ³³ Mist is also a kind of fog in which the visibility is more
than cold fronts. than one km but less then 2 km.
³³ A warm front moves slowly than the cold front which ³³ Cloud is a mass of minute droplets of water or tiny
usually follows because cold air is denser and lander crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the
to remove from the earth's surface. water-vapour in free air at considerable elevations.
³³ Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform ³³ Generally there are ten major types of clouds which
are grouped under three main categories arranged
and rain form gradually increases as the front
according to their height.
approaches.
³³ Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage. THREE MAIN CATEGORIES OF CLOUDS
3. Occluded Front : The overtaking of a warm front 1. Cirrus clouds - Forms around 12 km altitude.
by a cold front in an atmospheric depression. Which 2. Altostratus clouds – forms around 6 km altitude.
ultimately lifts the warm sector off the surface of the 3. Stratocumulus clouds – forms at low altitude
Earth, is called an Occluded front. This front shows around 2.1 km.
the characteristics of both cold and warm front.
4. Stationary Front : This front is formed when two Precipitation
contrasting air masses converge in such a way that ³³ Condensation of water vapour in the air in the form of
they become parallel to each other and there is no water droplets and ice and their falling on the ground
ascent of air. is called precipitation.
³³ The precipitation in the form of drops of water is
HUMIDITY called rainfall.
³³ Humidity is the general term which describes the ³³ When the temperature is less than O°C precipitation
invisible amount of water vapour present in the air. takes place in the form of fine flakes of snow and is
³³ Absolute Humidity is the weight of actual amount called snow-fall.
of water vapour present in a unit volume of air. It is ³³ Sleet is frozen raindrops and re-frozen snow water.
expressed as grams per cubic meter of air. ³³ Precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets is
³³ Specific Humidity is the weight of water vapour known as hail.
per unit weight of air. It is expressed as grams per ³³ On the basis of its origin precipitation may be
kilogram of air. classified into three main types :
³³ Relative Humidity is the ratio of the air’s actual water (i) Convectional Precipitation: It is caused when
vapour content to its water vapour capacity at a given moist winds are drawn into the convection currents of a
temperature. It is expressed in percentage. hot region. It generally occurs in equatorial region. The
³³ Dew point is the temperature at which saturation thundery rain of a summer afternoon is a typical example.
occurs. (ii) Orographic Precipitation : It is caused by the
surface relief of the land, mainly, by the presence of
EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION mountain range. There is heavy rain on the wind-ward
³³ Evaporation is the process by which water is side.
transformed from liquid to gaseous form. (iii) Cyclonic Precipitation : It is associated with the
³³ It takes approximately 600 calories of energy to passage of a cyclone or depression.
convert one gram of water to water vapour. Forest in the World
³³ One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
³³ According to a recent global assessment, forests cover
temperature of one gram of water to 1°C.
31% of the total land area of the World.
³³ Condensation is the process of change of state from
³³ The average land area per capita is 0.6 hectare.
gaseous to liquid or solid state.
³³ The total forest areas in 2016 was around 4 billion
³³ Dew, white frost, fog, mist and clouds are various
hectares.
forms of condensation.
³³ When the moisture is deposited in the form of water Major Forest types
droplets on cooler surface of solid objects such as (1) Tropical Hardwood Forests: These are found in
stones, grass backs and plant leaves, it is known as the regions of high temperature and high rainfall. Forests
dew. are divided into two types.

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(a) Equatorial Forest : These forests extend between ³³ Coniferous trees are tall, straight with narrow, needle

GEOGRAPHY
5° North and 5° South of the equator. They are found in like leaves. Most of these are evergreen but some trees
Zaire basin of Africa, the Amazon basin of South America like larch are deciduous.
and with some modifications in Malaysia and Indonesia. ³³ These forests are commercially valuable as one species
³³ The equatorial forests in the Amazon basin are also of tree is found over extensive areas.
known as Selvas. ³³ Pine, Cedar, Spruce, Fir, Red wood and Walsum are
some of the important trees of these forests.
³³ These forests are very dense due to high temperature
and rainfall throughout the year. DRAINAGE
³³ They present a layered structure. Numerous creepers ³³ The Drainage refers to a body of flowing water, ranging
like liana climb the trees. Due to high humidity in scale from a rill to river.
throughout the year epiphytes growing on trees could ³³ The evolution of drainage system in a particular region
be seen commonly. is determined by the nature of the original surface and
the Geological structures.
³³ These are evergreen forests.
³³ There are broadly two categories of drainage – Sequent
³³ Most of the trees in these forests have hard wood.
Drainage System and Insequent Drainage System.
³³ Mohogany, Rosewood, Ebony etc. are the hard wood
trees. (1) Sequent Drainage System
(b) Monsoon Forests : (a) Consequent Stream : In the region of flooded
structure, stream formed in the synclinical troughs is
³³ These forest are found in central and north-east India,
called synclinical consequent stream. Consequent stream
Myanmar, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and
follows the direction of the slope. Most of the stream
northeast Australia. draining the coastal plains of India are of this type.
³³ Monsoon forests are not very dense. Sal, teak and (b) Subsequent Stream : When the master consequent
Sisam are important trees of the region. stream is joined by its tribuatary at right angles it is
called subsequent stream. For example the river “Asan”,
³³ Besides, in the areas of high rainfall bamboos, rubber,
a tributary of Yamuna and river “Son” a tributary of the
cinchona, mahogany etc. are found. Ganga are the subsequent streams.
(2) Temperate Deciduous Hardwood Forests (c) Obsequent Stream : It is the stream which flows
³³ Temperate regions of moderate temperature and following the direction of the slope opposite to master
rainfall like central and western Europe, northeastern consequent stream. For example : the Mahabharat Range
of lesser Himalayas, Ganga, Yamuna etc.
USA, Southern Russia, Central America, eastern
(d) Resequent Stream : Such stream follows the
Asia. Korea, Japan, China etc. have the hardwood direction of master consequent stream that meets the
deciduous forests. subsequent stream at right angles.
³³ Trees of these forests shed their leaves at the onset (2) Insequent Drainage System
of the winter and remain without leaves throughout The streams which do not follow the regional slopes
the winter. and drain across the geological structure are called
insequent or inconsequent streams.
³³ They are found between 30° to 50° North and South
(a) Antecedent Drainage : The stream which
of the equator. originated before the upliftment of the surface on which
³³ Wood of these trees are lighter and easier to work they flow. For example, Indus, Sutlej and Brahmaputra are
on. Important trees of this forests are Oak, Birch, antecedent rivers as they originated before the upliftment
Chestnut, Maple, Walnut and Elm. of Himalayan Range and hence create deep Gorge, along
the Mountain Range.
(3) Temperate Coniferous Softwood Forests or Taiga
(b) Superimposed Drainage : It is formed when
³³ Except for a few hill-slopes, most of the coniferous the nature and characteristics of the valley and flow
forests are confined to the northern latitudes. direction of a consequent stream develop on the upper
³³ These are located between 50° N and 70° N latitude. geological formulation and structure are superimposed
on the lower geological formation of the entirely different
³³ In the southern hemisphere, the extent of these forests
characteristics. For example, river Subarnarekha is
is limited. superimposed on Dalma hills on the west of Chandil in
³³ They are found in an extensive belt in the northern the Chhotanagpur plateau region of Jharkhand.
hemisphere running through Canada, Norway,
HYDROSPHERE
Sweden, Finland, Latavia, Lithuania, Estonia and
³³ Hydrosphere is the water surface which includes the
Central and Eastern Siberia.
oceans, lakes and rivers.
³³ In Siberia they are known as Taiga forests. They are
³³ Of this 97.3% is in the oceans and inland seas. The
found on the mountain slopes, between altitudes of rest 2.7% is found as glaciers and ice caps, fresh water
1500 and 2000 meters. lakes, rivers and underground water.

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OCEAN RELIEF
GEOGRAPHY

WATER ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Land Water Level
Volume Percentage Ridge
Reservoir
(Million Km3) of the Total
Oceans 1,370 97.25% Continental Ocean
Shelf Continental
Ice Caps and Glaciers 29 2.05% Slope
Ground Water 9.5 0.68% Continental
Rise Abyssal plain
Lakes 0.125 0.01%
Trench
Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005%
Atmosphere 0.013 0.001%
Fig : Relief of ocean Basin
Streams and Rivers 0.0017 0.0001%
³³ Continental Shelf : It is the seaward extension of the
Biosphere 0.0006 0.0004% continent from the shoreline to the continental edge.
³³ The continental shelves provide the richest fishing
OCEANS AND SEAS
ground in the world e.g. the Grand Banks off
³³ The oceans comprise more than 70.1% of the earth’s Newfound land, the North sea and the Sunda shelf.
surface.
³³ The shelves are also potential mining sites for
³³ They exert a great influence upon the global and minerals.
regional climates.
³³ A significant proportion of the world production of
³³ They help to modify the distribution of temperature petroleum and natural gas comes from them.
along the coastal areas.
³³ The average width of shelves is about 70 km and the
³³ They help to sustain the hydrological cycle. mean slope is less 1°.
³³ Oceans are the repositiories of a large number of
useful metallic and non-metallic minerals such as Continental slope
petroleum, gas, common salt, gold, diamond etc. ³³ It lies at the edge of the continental shelf, generally
³³ The sea, as a biological environment is, the easiest up to the depth of 2000 fathoms (3660 mt.) from the
available and an inexhaustible source of food and mean sea level.
other products of value to man.
³³ It has a steep slope with the angle of slope varying
³³ Of all the marine resources, fish is the most abundant
from 2° to 5°.
and important.
³³ It covers about 8.5% of the total oceanic area and
COMPOSITION OF SEA WATER individually about 12.4% of the Atlantic Ocean, 7.1%
Salt Percentage of the Pacific ocean and 6.5% of the Indian ocean.
³³ The continental blocks are supposed to end at the site
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) – 77.8%
of continental slope.
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) – 10.9 % ³³ The continental slope along the many coasts of the
Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4) – 4.7% world is furrowed by deep canyons like trenches
Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) – 3.6% terminating as fan-shaped deposits at the base.
³³ There are five types of continental slopes-(a) fairly
Potossium Sulphate (K2SO4) – 2.5% steep with elongated hills and basins, (b) gentle slope
with elongated hills and basins, (c) faulted slope,
DISSOLVED ELEMENTS IN SEA/OCEAN WATER (d) slope with terraces & (e) slopes with seamounts.
Elements/Salt gm of salt/ Kg water Continental Rise
Chlorine 18.97 ³³ The place where the continental slopes end, the gentle
sloping continental rise begins.
Sodium 10.47
³³ The average slope is between 0.5° and 1° & its general
Sulphate 2.65 relief is low.
Magnesium 1.28 ³³ With increasing depth the Continental Rise becomes
virtually flat and it merges with abyssal plain.
Calcium 0.41
Abyssal Plains
Potassium 0.38
³³ Beyond the Continental Rise it is found at the depth
Bicarbonate 0.14
of 3000 to 6000 mt.
Bromine 0.06 ³³ They cover about 40% of the total ocean floor and
Borate 0.02 generally are bounded by hills on the seaward side.
³³ They are almost flat with a gradient less than 1:100.

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³³ They are covered by sediments both of terrigenous ³³ Coral Reefs : In tropical seas many kinds of coral

GEOGRAPHY
and shallow water origins. The irregular topography animals and marine organisms such as coral polyps,
of the abyssal plain are burried forming relatively flat calcareous algae, shell-forming creatures and lime-
areas due to large supply of sediments. secreting plants live in large colonies.
³³ Though they are very tiny creatures, their ability to
Submarine Ridges secrete calcium carbonate within their tiny cells has
³³ These are the mountain ranges in the ocean. given rise to peculiar type of marine land form.
³³ A large number of submarine ridges are placed
³³ They exist in numerous species of many forms, colours
and shapes Under favourable conditions, they grow in
centrally in the oceans.
great profusion just below the water level.
³³ At some places their summits may rise above the sea ³³ Taking coral animals as a whole, the polyps are most
level forming islands. abundant and also the most important.
Abyssal Hills ³³ Each polyp resides in tiny cup of coral and helps to
form coral reefs.
³³ A deep sea floor also contains numerous isolated
³³ When they die, their lime skeletons are cemented into
abyssal hills, sea-mounts and guyots.
coralline limestone.
³³ A submarine mountain peak rising more than 1000
³³ There are also non-reef building species such as the
mt. above ocean floor are known as “seamount”. ‘precious corals’ of the pacific oecan and the ‘red coral’
³³ Flat topped seamounts are known as “Guyots”. of the Mediterranean which may survive in the colder
³³ All the above features are volcanic in origin. and even the deeper waters.
³³ As a rule they thrive well only in the warmer tropical
Submarine Trenches or Deeps
seas.
³³ A long narrow and steep sided depression on the ³³ Coral Bleaching : The loss of algae from the corals
ocean floor is called trench. These are the deepest resulting into the white colour which indicates the
part of the ocean. death of corals is considered as coral Bleaching.
³³ They are usually 5500 mt. in depth and lie along the ³³ The coral bleaching during 1997 -98, has been
fringes of the deep sea plains and usually run parallel recorded as the most catastrophic event.
to the bordering fold mountains or the island chains. ³³ Global warming has been reported as the major factor
³³ They are believed to have resulted from faulting or of coral bleaching.
down folds of the earth crust and so tectonic in origin. ³³ Large scale coral bleaching accounts for 70% death of
³³ They are most common in the Pacific ocean like the corals of the coasts of Maldives, Andamans and
“Mariana Trench”, off the Guam Island Chain which Lakshadweep Islands in Indian ocean and Kenya.
is deepest (11022 mt.) in the world.
SALINITY
Submarine Canyons ³³ Salinity is expressed as the number of grams of
³³ These are the deep gorges on the ocean floor and are dissolved salts in 1000 grams of sea water.
restricted to the continental shelves, slopes and rises. ³³ The average salinity of oceans is about 35 per
³³ Some canyons begin at the edge of the continental thousand or 35%O.
shelf and extend down the continental slope. For ³³ The amount of salinity determines the composition
example-“Oceanographer Canyon” near New-England. and movements of the sea water and the distribution
³³ Some canyons have dendritic appearance like off the of various marine lives.
east coast of Southern California. ³³ Salinity varies both horizontally and vertically.
³³ Some begins at the river mouth and extends over the ³³ The average salinity of N-Hemisphere is 34%o while
continental shelf as “Zaire”, Mississipi” and “Indus” for S-Hemisphere it is 35%0.
canyons. ³³ The greatest proportion of salt is found in two areas
which lie about the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic
Bank, Shoal and Reef of Capricorn. From these regions the salinity decrease
³³ These are the marine features which are formed both towards equator and the poles.
through the processes of erosion, deposition and ³³ In general there is low salinity in equatorial zone, high
biological activity. in tropical belt, low in temperate zone and minimum
³³ Banks are almost flat topped elevation located in the in sub-polar zone.
continental margin.
³³ The depth of water is relatively small but adequate for Worlds Highest Saline bodies
navigation and are sites of rich fishing e.g. “Dogger Lake/Sea Salinity (%O)
Bank” (North Sea), “Grand Bank” (off Newfoundland).
³³ Shoales are detached elevation with shallow depth. Van Lake (Turkey) 330
³³ They are dangerous for navigation as they are only Dead Sea 238
18-20 mt. below the sea level. Great Salt lake Utah (USA) 220
³³ Reefs are the mound or rocky elevation like ridges
made of organic deposits. Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan) India 205
³³ ‘Great Barrier Reef’ (off Queensland, Australia) is the Red Sea 40
largest reef in the world.

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OCEAN MOVEMENTS
GEOGRAPHY

MAJOR TRENCHES
³³ Ocean currents are swift moving, large masses of Name Location
surface water that move in a fairly defined direction. Mariana Trench Pacific Ocean
³³ Ocean currents are of two types-the warm currents Kurile Trench Pacific Ocean
and the cold currents. Java Trench Indian Ocean
³³ In the Northern Hemisphere, the current move to their Kermadec Trench Pacific Ocean
right and in Southern Hemisphre to their left. Japanese Trench Pacific Ocean
Aleutian Trench Pacific Ocean
³³ In Northern Indian Ocean the currents change their
Tonga Trench Pacific Ocean
direction in response to the reversal of the monsoon
Mindanao Trench Pacific Ocean
winds.
Peru-Chile Trench Pacific Ocean
³³ The periodic phenomenon of alternate rise and fall in Puerto Rico Trench Atllantic Ocean
the sea levels is known as Tide. Nares Trench Atlantic Ocean
³³ Tides are produced due to gravitational interaction of
Earth, Moon and Sun. STRAITS OF THE WORLD
³³ Moon exerts the strongest influence on tides because Bab-al- Mandeb — Red sea of Arabian Sea
of its closeness to Earth. Bering — Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea
Bosphorus — Black Sea and Marmara Sea
³³ On the full moon and the new moon tides are the
Dover — North sea and Atlantic Ocean
highest (Spring Tides).
Florida — Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic
³³ On the Ist and 3rd quarters, tides are lower than the
Ocean
usual (Neap tides).
Gibralter — Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic
³³ Waves are oscillatory movements in water mainly Ocean
produced by winds. Malacca — Java Sea and Bay of Bengal
³³ Tsunamis Palk — Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean
IMPACT OF CURRENTS Magellan — South Pacific Sea and South
³³ Warm and Cold currents maintain the temperature Atlantic Ocean
of the place as per its temperature. Sunda — Java sea and Indian Ocean
³³ Because of warm current, ports are open in Polar Yucatan — Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean
region. Sea.
³³ Winds that are in contact with the warm current are Hudson — Canada and Bafin Island
full of humidity and thus rainfall occurs in coastal Denmark — Greenland and Iceland
areas. Bass — Tasmania and Australia
³³ Due to cold current, deserts develop. Luzon — Philippines and Taiwan
³³ A dense fog is created where two different currents Mozambique — Mozambique and Madagascar
meet. Cook — North Island and Southern Alps
³³ Warm current melts the iceberg. of Newzeland
Bonifacio — Ajaccio and Sardinia (Italy)
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION English Channel — Bay of Biscay and North Sea
Zones of Jurisdiction Makassar — Borneo and Celebes
Malacca — Singapore and Sumatra
(i) Territorial waters : over which a state has full Molucca — Minhassa and Halmahera Islands
sovereignty. They are recogni-sed as extending
for 12 nautical miles from the coastline. REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY
(ii) Contiguous Zone or pursuit zone : extends for TRANSPORTATION IN THE WORLD
further 12 nautical miles in which the coastal
state can take action against those who break Highways
the law within the true territorial waters. ³³ Pan American highways : It is extended from Alaska
of North America to Southern Parts of Chile of South
(iii) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) : extends for America.
200 nautical miles, starting from the same base ³³ Trans-Canadian highways : It joins the Eastern
line as the territorial waters. Within the EEZ, the corner of Canada with the western borders of Canada.
coastal state has the right to exploit all economic This highway goes from Saint John to Vancouver via
resources. Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa, Sudbury, Thunder Bay,
Winnipeg and Calgary.
(iv) High Seas lie beyond all these zones, and are free ³³ Alaska highways : This highways joins Admont Town
to navigation by vessels of all nations. with Alaska.

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Inter continental highways ³³ This railways starts from Chairs in the North and

GEOGRAPHY
³³ Trans-Siberian highways : Russian Federation has reaches Can- berra in the south.
constructed the Trans-Siberian highways which joins ³³ This railway route passes through Sydney Broken
the Eastern Parts of the country with Western Parts hills, Port Augusta and Kalgoorli centres.
of the country. Cape to Cairo Railway : This railway track join Cape
³³ Indian Sher Shah Suri Marg : This highway was Town of South Africa to Cairo the capital of Egypt.
joining Kolkata with Peshawar earlier, but now it goes ³³ This railway track is about 14,400 km. long.
up to Amritsar, after the partition of country. This road ³³ The whole railway track is divided into three parts —
in India is known as ‘Grand Trunk Road’ (G.T. Road).
1. Cape Town to Alabo
Railways 2. Makbar to Wadi Haffa
³³ Railways are the greatest contribution to the humanity 3. Swan to Cairo
of modern times. Union Pacific Railway : This is a well known railway
³³ The railways came into existence in 1785 as small route of USA.
route in Europe and United States of America. ³³ This route joins San Francisco and New York.
³³ In India the first railway line was laid in 1853 from Waterways :
Mumbai to Thane by Lord Dalhousie during the Waterways are divided into two types —
British time. 1. Inland Waterways
2. Oceanic Waterways.
Pattern of Railways Network 1. Inland Waterways : There are following Inland
1. Intensive Railways : When many railways tracks waterways.
are constructed in an area, that type of railways are Rhine River : Rhine river is the major waterways of
called intensive railways. Europe.
³³ This type of railway was first constructed in 1825 from ³³ This river is known as the 'Life Line'of European trade.
Stockton to Darlington in England. ³³ This is the world's busiest river.
2. Trans-Continental Railways: This type of railways ³³ Mainly coal is transported from ‘Ruhr Valley’ through
joins the distant places of thin population. Trans- the Rhine river.
Siberian railways, Trans-Caspian railways, Canadian-
³³ Due to coal transportation, this river is also called
Pacific railways, Chile-Argentina railways are the
‘coal river’.
examples of such railways.
³³ This river falls into the North Sea.
3. Intragressive Railways : Intragressive railways start
from the centre of the continent and goes up to the Denube River : This is the longest river of the
coastal areas. European continent.
³³ Such railways are found in hot deserts and cold ³³ This river flows through eight countries of Europe.
regions. St. Lawrence River : This is the famous river of
Canada.
Major Railways of the World ³³ This river joins North America with Atlantic Ocean.
³³ Trans-Siberian Railways : Trans-Siberian railways ³³ This river is approximately 1400 km.
are the longest and the most important railway line Mississippi River : This is the major river of USA.
of the world. ³³ It has many branches.
³³ Its length is approximately 9232 km.
³³ Total length is about 3200 km.
³³ This railway is extended from Leningrad, Moscow to
Volga River : Volga river is mainly Russian river.
Vladivostok.
³³ This river contributes about 80% to the total trade
³³ This railway joins Western Part of Russian Federation of the country.
with the Eastern Part of Russian Federa-tion. ³³ This river falls into Caspian sea.
³³ The Construction of Trans-Siberian railways was Nile River : This river is called the ‘life line of Egypt’.
started in 1891 and was completed in 1905 for traffic. ³³ This river flows in the continent of Africa.
³³ Canadian-Pacific Railways : The Canadian-Pacific ³³ The mouth of this river lies in Mediterranean sea.
railways start from Halifax and St. John on Atlantic 2. Oceanic water ways :
Ocean and reaches Vancouver located on the coasts North Atlantic Oceanic routes : These routes are
of Pacific Ocean via Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa, Fort much more important than any other waterways.
William and Winnipeg. ³³ This waterways joins the region of western Europe
³³ Its length is 5600 km. with the region of North America.
³³ It is called the backbone of Canada. ³³ Glasgow, Manchester, South Haiyxton, London,
Chile-Argentina Railways : This railway route joins Rotterdam, Breman, Bordio, Lisbon, Quebec,
Valparaiso Port of Chile with Buenos Aires of Argentina. Montreal, New York, Havana are the important Ports
of the world on this oceanic route.
³³ This railway line is only 1600 km. long.
³³ The maximum goods are transported through these
³³ It was opened for transportation in 1910.
waterways.
Trans-Australian Railway : Trans-Australian railways South Atlantic Oceanic routes: This routes join North
move along the eastern coasts of Australia in a North- America and Europe with South America.
South direction in Australia.

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³³ Goods are transported through this route from North

GEOGRAPHY

America to South America and Europe. MAJOR INDUSTRIAL CITIES

North Pacific Oceanic routes : These water ways join
USA
East Asia and North America with each other.
Boston — Shipbuilding
³³ This water way is very long.
Pittsburgh — ‘Iron and steel’, Rust bowl
South Pacific Oceanic routes : This route joins
of USA
Australia, New Zealand, North America and Western
Buffalo — Chemicals, metal goods and
Europe with each other. flour mills
Routes of Indian Ocean : Indian oceanic waterways Akron — Synthetic rubber
are used by the countries which fall in the vicinity of Ciatel — Aeroplane
Indian Ocean.
Kansas — Seal packing meat
³³ Countries of Indian Ocean exports jute, tea, mineral
Chicago — Seal packing meat
ores etc.
Baltimore — Shipbuilding
Routes of Mediterranean Sea : This water way joins Plymouth — Shipbuilding
Asia and Australia continents with North Atlantic Los Angeles — Aeroplane, film
Oceanic routes. Detroit — Automobiles
³³ Through this waterways the raw material of Eastern Birmingham — Cotton textiles, chemical and
countries are being transported to western countries. metal work
Cape of Good Hope Sea route : Cape of Good Hope New Orleans — Metal work
Sea route joins Eastern Asia and Europe to Southern
CANADA
parts of Africa.
Hamilton — Iron and steel, cars, porcelain
Canals Toronto — Automobiles, chemicals,
Suez Canal : This is the world’s biggest canal textiles
constructed in the Senai peninsula of Egypt. Windsor — Automobiles and tyre
³³ This is the most important waterway. making industries
³³ This canal is constructed by cutting the Isthmus of Sarnia — oil refineries
Suez.
³³ This canal joins Red sea with Mediterranean sea.
SOUTH AMERICA
³³ The Northern bank of Suez canal is known as ‘Port Buenos Aires — Meat packing, flour milling
Said’ of Mediterranean sea and Southern bank of Red Brasilia — Steel mills, chemicals
sea is known as Port Suez. Montevideo — Packing industry
³³ The distance between Port Said and Port Suez is 193 Rio-de Janeiro — Shipbuilding, aircraft
km. engineering, Cotton,coffee
³³ Due to construction of this canal, the distance Sao Paulo — Coffee industry
between Europe and Asia has decreased.
UNITED KINGDOM
Soo Canal : This canal joins the Lake Superior and
Huron lakes of USA. THE MIDLAND
³³ There is a Saint Mary waterfall between both the

Birmingham — Steel industry
lakes.

Conventry — Automobile industry
Welland Canal : This canal joins the lake Erie and
Derby — Textile and engineering
Ontario.

Leicestershire — Coal field
³³ There is a famous Niagra water fall between both the

Nottingham — Hosiery, cigarettes, tobacco,
lakes.
pharmaceuticals
³³ Its lengths is 43 km.
Eric Canal : This canal joins Erie lake and Michigan NORTH EAST ENGLAND
lake. Its length is 584 km.
Bellingham — Chemicals
Panama Canal : This canal is between Pacific ocean
Darlington — Locomotives
and Carribean ocean. Gateshead — Engineering
³³ Gatun lake is situated near this canal. Middlesbrough — Iron and steel
³³ This canal is constructed in Panama, a country of
New Castle — Shipbuilding
central America.
South Shield — Port industry
³³ This canal joins Atlantic Ocean with Pacific Ocean.
THE LANCASHIRE REGION
³³ The length of Panama is about 80 km.
Kiel Canal : This canal falls in Germany. Manchester — Major textile centres
³³ This canal joins Baltic sea with North sea.
Port sunlight — Soap factory
St. Helens — Glass industry
³³ This canal is about 98 km in length.
Bolton and Bury — Spinning

Blackburn — Weaving

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YORKSHIRE, DERBYSHIRE AND NOTTINGHAMSHIRE

Osaka — Textiles

GEOGRAPHY

Bradford — Worsted textile
Yokohama — Shipbuilding

Huddersfield — Woolen textile Nagasaki — Shipbuilding

Leeds — Garments industries CHINA

Sheffield — Cutlery

Manchuria — Heavy industry
CENTRAL SCOTLAND
Shanghai — Cotton textile mills

Dumbartion — Engineering Wuchang — Iron and steel industry

Glasgow — Iron and steel industry
Hayang — Iron and steel industry

Port Glasgow — Ship building
Hankou — Iron and steel industry
Great London — Industrial region, Cement and
Sichuan — Automobiles, machine tools
oil refineries.
Changchung — Automobiles, machine tools
South wales — Coal mining
Wuhan — Cotton, shipbuilding, steel
industry
BELGIUM

Antwerp — Diamond cutting AUSTRALIA

Liege — Iron and steel industry
Adelaide — Agriculture industries

Mons — Textiles
Melbourne — Chemicals, shipbuilding,

Namur — Agriculture engineering aircraft engineering
New Castle — Iron and steel, locomotive,
FRANCE
aircraft, chemicals

Clermont-Ferrand — Michelin tyres
Port Kembla — Iron and steel, locomotive,

Greater Paris — Wide range of goods aircraft, chemicals

Lorraine — Iron and steel production
Limoges — Pottery CHILE

Lyons — Silk textiles
Valparaiso — Oil refineries, wine industries

Marseilles — Oil refineries
Santiago — Wine industries
GERMANY SOUTH AFRICA

Essen — Iron and steel centre
Johannesburg — Gold mining

Dortmund — Iron and steel centre
Kimberley — Diamond mining

Krefeld — Textiles

Ruhr-westaphila — Industrial region UKRAIN
Wappertal — Textiles
Kharkov — Machinery, engineering

Frankurt — Railway engineering
Kiev — Engineering

Hamburg — Shipbuilding
Krevagrog — Iron and steel, ship building

Hannover — Metal and chemical industries

Jena — Photographic equipment NETHERLAND

Dresden — China clay Rotterdam — Marine engineering,

Munich — Shipbuilding shipbuilding

Leipzig — Optical instrument Amsterdam — Diamond polish
ITALY
IMPORTANT CITIES ON RIVER BANKS
Milan — Textiles

Turin — Automobiles, aircraft industries City River City River

RUSSIA London Thames Bangkok Menam

Gorki — Heavy engineering steel mills New York Hudson Belgrade Danube

Tula — Steel industries
Budapest Danube Bonn Rhine

Moscow — Textiles, machines, chemicals

Ivanovo — Cotton industries Delhi Yamuna Cairo Nile
Leningrad — Shipbuilding Rome Tiber Lahore Ravi

Vladivostok — Shipbuilding

Chelyabinsk — Steel industries, machine tools Baghdad Tigris Linz Danube

JAPAN Washington Potomac Calcutta Hooghly

Tokyo — Electrical engineering Alexandria Nile Moscow Moskava

Kawasaki — Glass work, cement, marine Montreal Ottawa Karachi Indus
engineering

Kobe — Shipbuilding Paris Seine Quebec St. Lawrence

Kyoto — Porcelaine toys and Shanghai Chang Jiang Tokyo Sumida
Handicrafts work

Nagoya — Textiles Vienna Danube Yangoon Irrawady

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GEOGRAPHY

The Continents

Area Percentage of Population

Name
(sq.km.) Earth’s area estimates (million)

Asia 43,820,000 29.5 4,436,224,000

Africa 3,03,70,000 20.4 1,216,130,000

N. America 24,490,000 16.3 579,024,000

S. America 17,840,000 11.8 422,535,000

Antarctica 13,720,000 9.6 4,490

Europe 10,180,000 7.1 738,849,000

Australia 9,008,500 5.3 39,901,000

Continent Mean Highest Lowest Elevation

Elevation (m.) Elevation (m.) (m.)
Asia 923 Mt Everest (8850) Dead Sea (-396)
Africa 585 Mt Kilimanjaro (5951) Lake Assal (-151)
N. America 615 Mt. Denali (6252) Death Valley (-87)
S. America 554 Mt Aconcagua (7026) Valdes Peninsula (-40)
Antarctic 1846 Vinson Massif (5189) Bentley Subglacial Trench (-2538)
Europe 302 Mt. El’brus (5687) Caspian Sea (-28)
Australia 308 Mt. Kosciuszko (2251) Lake Eyre (-16)
Note : Mt. Denali is changed name of Mt. Mckinely since 16.09.2015

RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD

River Source Destination Country

Amur Lake Khanka Sea of Okhotsk China, Mongolia, Russia

Brahmaputra Tibet Bay of Bengal China, India, Bangla-desh
Chang Jiang Kunlun Shan East China Sea China
Ganga Himalayas Bay of Bengal India, Bangladesh
Huang Ho Kunlun MT. Gulf of Bohai China
Indus Mt. Kailash Arabian Sea India, China, Pakistan
Irrawaddy Mali River Andaman Sea Myanmar
Lena Lake Baikal Laptev Sea Russia
Mekong Lasagongma South China Sea China, Thialand, Laos, Vietnam,
Cambodia, Myanmar
Irtysh Altai Mountain Ob River China, Russia
Salween Tibet Andaman Sea China, Myanmar, Thailand
Tarim Tibet Lop Nur China
Tigris Turkey Shatt-at-Arab Iraq, Turkey, Syria.
Ural Ural Mountain Caspian Sea Russia, Kazakhstan

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GEOGRAPHY
Volga Valdai Hills Caspian Sea Russia
Yenisey Stanovoy Range Arctic Ocean Russia, Mongolia
Danube Black Forest Mountain Black Sea Germany, Austria, Hungary, Slovakia,
Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Maldova
Dnieper Valdai Hills Black Sea Belarus, Russia, Ukraine
Rhine Black Forest Mountains North Sea Switzerland, France, Germany, Netherlands
Zaire Lake Mweru Atlantic Ocean Dem. Rep. Congo, Gabon
Zambezi Mwinilunga Indian Ocean Dem. Rep. Congo, Malawi, Zambia, Angola,
Mozambique
Niger Guinea High lands Gulf of Guinea Nigeria, Mali, Niger, Guinea, Benin
Nile Lake Victoria Mediterranean Sea Dem. Rep. Congo, Egypt, Tanzania, Uganda,
Sudan, South Sudan
Amazon Andes Mountains Atlantic Ocean Equador, Peru, Brazil
Mississippi Lake Itaska Gulf of Mexico Canada, USA
Mackenzie Great slave lake Beaufort sea Canada
Madeira Mamore River Amazon River Brazil, Bolivia
Orinoco Parima Mountain Atlantic Ocean Colombia, Venezuela
Parana Parnaiba River Rio Rio dela Plata Brazil
Grande
Purus Ucayali Amazon River Peru, Brazil
Paraguay Mato Grasso Parana River Paraguay, Brazil, Argentia, Bolivia
Sao Francisco Canastra Mts. Atlantic Ocean Brazil
Yukon Atlin Lake Bering Sea Canada, USA
Murray Australian Alps Southern Ocean Australia

IMPORTANT ISOPLETHS AFRICA–FACT FILE

Type Line (representing) ³³ The African continent is separated from Europe by
Connects points of Equal the Mediterranean Sea and from Asia by the Red Sea.
Isobath equal depth ³³ Suez Canal is a 160 km long man-made canal which
Isobar equal atmospheric pressure cuts through the isthmus between Egypt and Sinai
Isobathytherm depth of water with equal Peninsula.
temperature
Isocheim equal mean winter temperature ³³ Harmattan is a hot, dry, dust laden wind blowing from
Isodose equal intensity of radiation the Sahara to the Guinea coast.
Isohel equal amounts of sunshine ³³ One of the striking features of Africa is its Great Rift
Isohyet equal precipitation Valley.
Isoplat equal acidity in precipitation
Isostere equal atmospheric density ³³ The northwest African countries of Morocco, Algeria
Isothere equal mean summer temperature and Tunisia are together called the Maghreb.
Isodrosotherm equal dew point ³³ Lake Victoria is the largest lake in Africa and the
Isogonal equal magnetic declination source of White Nile.
Isohaline equal salinity
Isohume equal humidity ³³ Lake Tana in Ethiopia is the source of Blue Nile.
Isoneph equal amaunt of cloud cover ³³ Liberia is a leading producer of coffee and rubber.
Isophene biological events occurs at the same ³³ Lake Chad is the region of inland drainage.
time.
Isotach equal wind speed. ³³ Madagascar is actually a huge block of Africa that
Isotherm equal temperature separated from the mainland about 80 million years
Isogloss Separating linguistic features. ago.

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GEOGRAPHY

FACTS TO REMEMBER–AFRICA
³³ Land of Gold and Diamonds South Africa
³³ New capitals of Nigeria & Tanzania Abuja, Dodoma
³³ Clove Bowl of the World Zanzibar & Pemba
³³ Lake Nasser is on River Nile
³³ River boundary between S Africa and Botswana River Limpopo
³³ Akosombo dam is on River Volta
³³ Largest waterfall in the world Victoria Falls
³³ Victoria falls are on River Zambezi
³³ Two countries of Africa that were never colonized Ethiopia, Liberia
³³ Kimberley is famous for Diamond
³³ Witwatersrand is famous for Gold
³³ African country with the best quality magnetite ore Liberia
³³ Pastoral tribe of Kenya Masai
³³ River Orange is a boundary between S Africa & Namibia
³³ A new country carved out of Ethiopia during 1992 Eritrea
³³ Lourenco Marques was renamed as Maputo
³³ South African farmer of Dutch descent Boer
³³ Countries bordering Lake Victoria Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda
³³ Gate of Tears Bab-el-Mandeb
³³ A highly nutritious crop of Ethiopian highlands Teff
³³ Most tropical of all continents Africa
³³ Place of origin of Coffee Ethiopia
³³ A flightless bird of Kalahari desert Ostrich
³³ Eastern most terminus of Tanzara railway which begins Dar-es-Salam
from Katanga mineral belt
³³ Country facing the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb Djibouti
³³ Country with maximum Hydroelectric Zaire (Dem. Rep. of
power (HEP) potential in Africa Congo)
³³ Gold, Ivory, Slave and Grain coasts, arranged west to east Grain, Ivory, Gold, Slave coast
³³ The religion followed by many tribes in Africa which is Animism
based on love and respect of nature
³³ The Victoria Fall was discovered by David Livingston
³³ The policy of segregating people on the basis of their race Apartheid
or their colour of skin
³³ The famous Cobora Bassa Dam is on the river Zambezi
³³ The famous Kainji Dam is on the river Niger
³³ The river forming the boundary between Zambezi
Zambia and Zimbabwe
³³ Seat of legislature of S Africa Cape Town
³³ Natural region with the greatest biodiversity Rain Forests
³³ Judicial capital of South Africa Bloemfontein
³³ The temperate grassland of S Africa High Veld
³³ Countries which form the Horn of Africa Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti, Eruteria
³³ Nubian desert lies in Egypt
³³ The only river that crosses the equator twice River Zaire
³³ Aborigines of upper Nile River Zaire
³³ Administrative capital of S Africa Pretoria
³³ Land of Oil Palm Nigeria
³³ The only river to cross the Tropic of Capricorn twice Limpopo
³³ The hot dry wind blowing in the South Eastern part of South Africa Berg
³³ The famous Copper Mines of Zaire Lubumbashi

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³³ The famous Copper and Cobalt Mines of Zaire-Zambia Katanga

GEOGRAPHY
³³ The Ngana, tropical disease of cattle in Africa is carried by Tsetse fly
³³ The Coal Mines of Zimbabwe Wankee
³³ The tribes who are the forests dwellers of the Congo basin Pygmies
³³ The Sirocco winds in Libya is known as Gibli
³³ The leading producer of mineral oils in Africa is Nigeria
³³ The largest producer of Sisal in Africa is Tanzania
³³ The Desert in the North East of Sudan Nubian Desert
³³ The South African town where Mahatma Gandhi, Pietermaritzburg
on being thrown out of the train, waved to fight racism
³³ The Kalahari desert is situated between the rivers Orange and Zambezi
³³ The country having highest death rate and least life expectancy in world Sierra Leone
³³ A hot local wind blowing from Sahara to Mediterranean Sirocco
³³ The oldest surviving African language Swahili
³³ Most of Kalahari lies in Botswana
³³ Farmers of Egypt are also called Fellahin
³³ Three points where Africa almost ends Gibraltar, Suez and Bab-el-Mandeb
³³ Southernmost tip of Africa Cape of Agulhas
³³ The highest peak in Africa Mt. Kilimanjaro
³³ City of the confluence of Blue and White Nile Kahrtoum
³³ The hottest place in the world Al-Azizhiya, Libya
³³ The three Maghreb Republics Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia
³³ Source of Blue Nile and White Nile L Tana, L Victoria
³³ The Little and the Great Bitter lakes are along Suez Canal
³³ A large geographically disadvantaged State Zaire
³³ The lowest point in Africa Lake Assal, Djibouti
³³ The nomadic herders of Sahara Tuaregs
³³ The main entrepot of Africa Zanzibar
³³ A large lake in East Africa not lying in the Great Rift valley Lake Victoria

FACTS TO REMEMBER-NORTH AMERICA

³³Chicago is located on Lake Michigan
³³Niagra Falls lie between Lakes Erie and Ontario
³³The canal joining lakes Superior and Huron Soo Canal
³³The canal joining lakes Erie and ontario Welland canal
³³The ‘Big Apple’ describes the city of New York
³³North America’s largest urban agglomeration New York
³³The rocket launching centre of USA Cape Kennedy, Florida
³³Busiest airport of the US J. F. Kennedy Airport, New York
³³The driest and the hottest place in USA Death Valley
³³The most recent federal territory of Canada Nunavut
³³The number of provinces and federal territories in Canada 10 & 3 respectively
³³The largest province of Canada Quebec
³³Canada is the largest producer of Paper and pulp
³³Highest tidal range is experienced in Bay of Fundy
³³The ‘Detroit of Canada’ Windsor
³³The ‘Birmingham of Canada’ Hamilton
³³The Sudbury mines in Canada are famous for Lead, Zinc & Silver
³³The Strait separating N. America from Greenland Davis Strait
³³The Canadian Pacific Railway runs between St. John’s in New Brunswick
and Vancouver
³³The most famous Aircraft manufacturing Centre of the USA Seattle
³³Death valley is situated along the river Colorado
³³Fort Worth and Dallas are called “Twin Cities” are situated Trinity
at the bank of river

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³³Washington DC is located on the bank of river Potomac

GEOGRAPHY

³³The two provinces of Canada from where 75% of mineral oil comes Alberta and Saskatchewan
³³The Latitude dividing USA and Canada 49° N
³³The head office of the software giant Microsoft is in Seattle
³³The Canadian National Railway connects Halifax to Prince Rupert in British
Columbia
³³Mediterranean type of climate is found in California
³³The confluence of Mississippi and Missouri St. Louis
³³The busiest inland waterway of North America St. Lawrence
³³The 49th and 50th States of USA are Alaska and Hawaii
³³The ‘Old Faithful’ Geyser is in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming
³³Longest river of USA Mississippi-Missouri
³³Highest peak in N. America Mt. Mckinley (Denali)
Note : The U.S. Government changed the name of Mt. Mckinely on 16.09.
2015. Now its International official name is Denali.
³³Highest peak in conterminus USA Mt. Whitney
³³The river forming a boundary between USA and Mexico Rio Grande
³³Hollywood is in the State of California
³³The first President of the US George Washington
³³Great Lakes arranged from West to East Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie
and Ontario
³³The lowest point in the USA is The Death Valley (86 m below sea level)
³³The city of Golden Gate San Francisco
³³Mackenzie, the longest river of Canada drains into Beaufort Sea
³³The State of USA which is the leading producer of cotton Texas
³³The type of delta formed by the river Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico Bird foot type
³³The area of inland drainage in the N. America The Great Basin area
³³Biggest naval and fishing port on the Pacific coast Victoria
³³The State of USA in which the famous Yellow stone National Park is situated Wyoming
³³The capital of Hawaii and known as “the cross roads of Pacific” Honolulu
³³The famous Hoover dams is on river Colorado
³³The country that leads in production of fine paper from grasses USA
³³The leading producer of Newsprint and Pulp in the world Canada
³³The Strait of Florida separates USA and Cuba
³³The Magnetic North Pole located on Prince of Wales Island (70°N 100°W)
³³The largest consumer and importer of mineral oil in the world USA
³³Canada’s smallest and most densely populated province Prince Edward Island
³³The last province to Join Canada in 1949 Newfoundland
³³The most famous Industrial Centre of USA having specialisation
in automobile tyres Akron
³³An intensely cold and strong wind accompanied by falling Blizzard
snow bund in northern N. America
³³Iron and steel capital of the world Pittsburgh
³³The shape of the famous corn belt of USA is Rectangular
³³The first Census in the USA was held in 1790

FACTS TO REMEMBER–SOUTH AMERICA

³³ Largest tributary of Amazon Madeira
³³ Highest peak of South America Mt. Aconcagua
³³ Argentinian ranches are called Estancias
³³ Largest city of South America Sao Paulo

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³³ Lightest wood that is found only in South America Balsa

GEOGRAPHY
³³ Highest navigable lake in the world L. Titicaca
³³ Only country through which both equator and one Brazil
of the tropics pass
³³ South American countries which coasts Colombia, Chile
along both Pacific and Atlantic oceans
³³ Copper capital of the world Chuquicamata
³³ Official language of Brazil Portuguese
³³ Brazil shares its boundary with all Chile and Ecuador
South American countries except
³³ Buffer states between Argentina & Brazil Paraguay, Uruguay and Bolivia
³³ Coffee soils of Brazil Terra Roxa
³³ The highest active volcano in the world Mt. Ojas del Salado
³³ The flightless bird of South America Emu
³³ People of mixed European and American Gauchos
Indian ancestry who work on cattle farms
³³ Coffee plantations of Brazil are called Fazendas
³³ Land-locked countries of South America Bolivia, Paraguay
³³ Countries in descending order of population I. Brazil II. Colombia III. Argentina IV. Peru
³³ Trans-Andean railway connects Buenos Aires and Valparaiso
³³ Tropical grasslands of South America Llanos and Campos
³³ Bolivia is named after Simon Bolivar
³³ Hot winds blowing down the Andes in Argentina Zonda
³³ Temperate Grasslands of Argentina Pampas
³³ A violent cold wind in Argentina and Uruguay Pampero
³³ Angel falls, the highest in the world is on Orinoco river, Venezuela
³³ Lake Maracaibo, famous for crude oil is in Venezuela
³³ Kourou, the French satellite launching station is in French Guyana
³³ Caliche (Sodium Nitrate) is found in Atacama Desert
³³ South American countries bordering Caribbean Sea Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French
Guyana and Brazil
³³ South American country which is a member of OPEC Venezuela
³³ Outport of Sao Paulo Santos
³³ Trees that yield quinine Cinchona
³³ Coffee pot of the world Brazil
³³ Legal capital of Bolivia Sucre
³³ Administrative capital of Bolivia La Paz
³³ Southern most inhabited city in the world Punta Arenas, Chile
³³ World’s largest exploitable reserves of copper Chile
³³ Most mineral rich State of Brazil Minas Gerais
³³ Strait between South America and Antarctica Drake Passage
³³ Driest place on earth Iqique, Atacama

FACTS TO REMEMBER–AUSTRALIA
³³ The international airlines of Australia Qantas Airways
³³ The southern most capital city of the world Wellington
³³ Largest lake of Australia Eyre
³³ The pride of Australia, Don Bradman, hails from the city of Brisbane
³³ The Strait between North & South Island of New Zealand Cook Strait
³³ The biggest city of New Zealand Auckland

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³³ The first European to discover New Zealand Abel Tasman

GEOGRAPHY

³³ The most populous urban centre in New Zealand Auckland

³³ The highest peak of New Zealand Mt. Cook
³³ The chief farming region in New Zealand Canterbury Plains
³³ The largest territory of New Zealand South Island
³³ The highest uplifted coral island in the world Niue
³³ The largest State of Australia Western Australia
³³ The Trans-Continental Stuart Highway of Australia connects Northern Territory and South Australia
³³ Australasia stands for Australia and New Zealand
³³ The city of Australia known for lead-zinc and silver mines Sydney
³³ Capital and chief harbour of Queens land Brisbane
³³ Centre of lignite and sub-bituminous coal mining in Australia Ipswich
³³ The tree of Australia which yields golden flowers in summer Wattle
³³ Beside Kangaroo, the other two famous marsupial of Australia Koala & Wallby
³³ The wild dog of Australia Dingo
³³ The largest producer of Bauxite in the world Australia
³³ The labourers working in the sheep stations of Australia Jackaroos
are known as
³³ The Australian province which has maximum number of sheep New South Wales
³³ The Australian province having highest number of cattle Queensland
³³ Two important varieties of Eucalyptus found in Australia Jarrah and Karri
³³ The country which generates 7% of its energy from New Zealand
geo-thermal springs
³³ The most famous geysers of Maori town Pohutu Geyser
³³ The Australian cities in decreasing order of population Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane
³³ The Australian Trans-Continental Railway connects Sydney to Perth
³³ The major roads in Australia are called Commonwealth Highways
³³ A self-governing overseas territory of New Zealand Niue
³³ The first coutnry to enfranchise women New Zealand
³³ The largest city of Australia Sydney
³³ The New Zealander who was the 1st to scale Mt. Everest Edmund Hillary
³³ Plains of New Zealand famous for the dairy industry Taranaki
³³ Region of inland drainage in Australia Lake Eyre
³³ Natural fountains in Australia Great Artesian Wells
³³ Highest mountain peak in Australia Mt. Kosciusko
³³ Strait between Australia and Tasmania Bass Strait
³³ Great Barrier reef lies off the coast of Queensland
³³ The longest tributary of Murray-Darling Marambidgee
³³ Kalgoorlie is famous for Gold Mining
³³ An animal bird with 4 legs that lays eggs Platypus
³³ National animal of Australia Kangaroo
³³ Most industralised State of Australia Victoria
³³ Mt. Tom Price is famous for Iron
³³ Lead-Zinc-Silver are mined at Mt. Isa and Broken Hills
³³ Weipa in Cape York Peninsula is famous for Bauxite
³³ Australian Temperate Grasslands Downs
³³ Strait between Australia and New Guinea Torres Strait
³³ City of Canberra was designed by Water Burley Griffin
³³ Outport of Perth Freemantle
³³ Aborigines of Australia Bindibus

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³³ Canberra is located on river Molonglo

GEOGRAPHY
³³ Dry interiors of Australia Australian Outback
³³ The most populated Australian states New South Wales
³³ Two federal territories of Australia Northern Territory; Australian Capital Territoty
³³ Capital of Tasmania Hobart
³³ Sheep rearing farms in Australia are called Stations
³³ Gippsland is famous for Petroleum
³³ The aborigines of New Zealand of Polynesian descent Maoris

FACTS TO REMEMBER – ASIA

³³The lowest point of the world Dead Sea (400 m. below sea level)
³³The saltiest lake in the world Lake Van (Turkey)
³³The salt lake in China which is the site of numerous nuclear testing Lake Lop Nor
³³The river which forms the boundary between Thailand and Cambodia Mekong
³³The region which is known as the “Cross roads of culture” S.E. Asia
³³The river which forms the boundary between Russia and China Amur
³³World’s longest artificial waterway from Beijing to Nanjing Ground Canal
³³The mountain which divides China into North and South China Quinling mountain
³³The channel which separates Andaman Nicobar Islands from Sumatra Great channel
³³The land of white elephant Thailand
³³The largest Buddhist Temple Borobudor (Java)
³³The two States of Malaysia located in the northern Borneo Sarawak and Sabah
³³The Singapore of future Pening
³³The land of golden Pagoda Myanmar
³³The countries forming the golden triangle, the region known Laos, Myanmar and Thailand
for opium cultivation
³³The city which is the world’s largest supplier of cinchona for Quinine Banlung
³³The Balkan of East S.E. Asia
³³The official language of Indonesia Bhasa Indonesia
³³The home of green revolution Philippines
³³The largest Peninsula of the world Arabian Peninsula
³³The two countries of Asia which are also partly in Europe Turkey and Russia
³³The key to Black Sea Strait of Bosporus
³³The Paris of East Beirut
³³The Island of Pearl Bahrain
³³The land of five Seas Australia
³³Countries having control over the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb Yemen and Djibouti
³³Countries having control over the strait of Hormuz Oman and Iran
³³The largest Salty desert of the world situated in the Northern Iran Dasht-i-Kavir
³³The countries forming Golden crescent, the region of illict Pakistan, Afghanistan & Iran
opium cultivation
³³Most famous of shore oil well of Burnei Ampa
³³The island country of the Persian gulf Bahrain
³³The cultural capital of Iran Shiraz
³³The Land of Seven Hills Jordan
³³The Land of Rivers and Distributaries Bangladesh
³³The country of Canals Pakistan

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³³World’s largest non-capital city Shanghai

GEOGRAPHY

³³The steel capital of China Anshan

³³The Detroit of Japan Nagoya
³³The longest river of Asia Chang Jiang
³³The life line of Myanmar Irrawaddy
³³The island which is known as the Rice Bowl of Philippines Luzon
³³“The land of thunder dragon” Bhutan
³³The largest dam of Pakistan which is located on the Jhelum river Mangla Dam
³³The longest river of Sri Lanka Mahaweli Ganga
³³The only active volcano of philippines Mount Mayan
³³The three cities of Pakistan known for growing fruits Chaman city, Quetta and Kalat
³³The twin ancient towns of Pakistan belongs to Indus Valley Civilisation Harappa & Mohenjodaro
have been excavated
³³The only hydroelectric project of Bhutan with the help of India Chukha Project
³³The coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere Verkhoyansk (Russia)
³³The Strait that separates Hokkaido and Honshu islands of Japan Tsugaru strait
³³The Manchester of Japan Osaka
³³The tough and fearless people, Kirghiez are also known as Tartar
³³The famous variety of orange found in Israel Jaffa
³³The discontiguous city of Russia Kaliningrad
³³The contribution of Japan in the total fishing haul of the world 15%
³³The island on which the cities of Tokyo and Yokohama are located Honshu
³³The biggest trading partner of Japan USA
³³The tropical cyclone hiting the southern coast of Japan frequently Typhoons
³³The two important oil fields of Japan Nigata, Akita
³³The southern island groups of Japan Kerma Island
³³The roof of the Korean Peninsula Korma Highlands
³³The deepest fresh water lake of the world Lake Baikal
³³The Sick Man of Europe Turkey (Asia Minor)
³³The Switzerland of Middle East Lebanon

FACTS TO REMEMBER – EUROPE

³³ The biggest and the richest coal producing area of Europe Ruhr
³³ Besides Ruhr, the other two important coal fields of Germany Saar, Saxony
³³ The Iron ore in Germany is mainly found in Bavaria
³³ The country of Europe having maximum coniferous trees Sweden
³³ The canal which Joins Baltic Sea with North Sea Kiel canal
³³ The city of Russia on the bank of the Angara river having Brotsk
world’s tallest hydel power station
³³ The Bay of Biscay separates France and Spain
³³ The key to the Mediterranean Strait of Gibraltar
³³ The Bosporus Strait separates Istanbul and Anatolia Peninsula
³³ The longest river of Russia Ob-Irtysh
³³ The Manchester of Italy Milan
³³ The Detroit of Italy Turin
³³ The most important fishing ground of UK Dogger Bank
³³ A large mountain mass with one or two summits Massif
³³ A narrow gate between the Vosges and the Jura through Burgundy Gate

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which the river Rhine passes

GEOGRAPHY
³³ The longest river of Europe Volga
³³ The three CIS countries which are known as Baltic States Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia
³³ Big embankments built along the sea front to protect the Dykes
land from the sea
³³ The land which is reclaimed from the sea by making dykes Polders
³³ The city of five ports Moscow
³³ The second largest country in Europe, next only to Russia France
³³ More than 90% of iron ore of France comes from Lorraine field
³³ The silk industry of France is located in The Rhone valley
³³ The White City of North Helsinki (Finland)
³³ The city known as “the key to the Baltic” Copenhagen
³³ The only fibre crop of Europe which is used for making Linen Flax
³³ The highest peak of the Alps Mt. Blanc (7807 m)
³³ The highest peak of Europe Mt. Elbrus (5633 m)
³³ The mountain forming the boundary between France and Spain Pyrenees
³³ Only Continent without desert Europe
³³ The mountain lying in the eastern France which separates it Jura
from Switzerland
³³ The mountain forming the boundary between France and Germany Vosges
³³ The mountain which separates France from Italy Alps
³³ The Ruhr is a small right bank tributary of Rhine
³³ Two important ancient cities of Germany situated along the river Elbe Leipzig, Dresden
³³ The city of Germany which is the centre for art and culture Munich
³³ The major ice-free port along the Arctic coast Murmansk

SOME GEOGRAPHICAL SUPERLATIVES

³³ Highest active volcano Ojas del Salado

³³ Most active Volcano Kilauea Hawaii
³³ Largest Bay Hudson Bay
³³ Largest Sea South China Sea
³³ Driest Place Atacama desert
³³ Wettest Place Mawsynram
³³ Lowest temperature Vostok, Antarctica
³³ Highest temperature Al-Aziziyah
³³ Highest waterfall Angel falls
³³ Largest Waterfall Victoria Falls
³³ Largest Gulf Gulf of Mexico
³³ Broadest Strait Davis Strait
³³ Largest Delta Sundarban
³³ Largest Mangrove forest Sundarban
³³ Largest Peninsula Arabia
³³ Largest Glacier Siaclin glacier
³³ Largest Gorge Grand Canyon
³³ Largest Lake Caspian Sea
³³ Saltiest lake Van lake

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GEOGRAPHY

MAJOR CROPS, GEOGRAPHCAL CONDTIONS NECESSARY FOR CULTIVATION, LEADNG

PRODUCER/ EXPORTERS ETC.
S.No. Crop Climatic Soils Other Leading Producer Exporting Production in India
Conditions (°C) Factors Countries/ Countries
T-Temperature, Regions
R-Rainfall (cms)

First country is in most cases

First in production (export)
FOOD CROPS

1. Wheat Cool and —Sandy Level land —Cool Temperate China, U.S.A, —The alluvial plains
moderately loams, facilitates use Grassland Region Canada of Sutlej—Ganga
moist during alluvial and of machines is the world’s Australia, basin comprising
growing black greatest producing Argentina Punjab, Haryana
period and —Requires region and Western Uttar
warm dry and manuring Reasons Pradesh
shiny during every —Fertile soil —Black soil
harvesting alternate —Sparsely region of Gujarat,
period, T : mild year. populated and, Maharashtra,
13 to 19, therefore, large and Madhya Pradesh and
R : moderate abundant holdings Andhra Pradesh
25 to 75; with —Suitable climate —Varieties : Kalyana,
irrigation in —Former USSR, Shera, Moti,
areas having R U.S.A, China, sonalika, Lerma,
less than 25. India, Canada, Sonara-64
Australia, Argentina
—Wheat most
important crop in
Australia in terms
of area,production
and exports

2. Rice —Hot and —Loams —Level land Tropical Mon China, U.S.A, —India second
moist with high because soon Region is the India, Former largest producer but
—Flooding in silt and clay of flooding principal producing USSR, still an importer.
early period of content requirements. region along with Sudan, Egypt —West Bengal largest
growth as these Therefore, Equatorial Lowland producer. Bihar,
T : average 27, prevent rain alluvial soils Region Orissa, Assam,
R : 100-150 water from of river valleys —China, India, Coastal plains,
seeping and deltas Indonesia, Japan, Punjab, Haryana,
to under most suitable Thailand U.P. Production low
ground. —Cheap —In Japan, because
—Constant labour, principal crop —crop dependent
use of Therefore upon rainfall.
fertilisers densely Varieties : Ratna,
and manure. populated Padma, Jaya, etc.,
Well-drained areas
deep loam

3. Maize Humid Rich fertile U.S.A, China, In U.P, Bihar, Punjab,

subtropical U.S.A, maize is M.P., Karnataka,
T : 20 to 24 in used as an animal A.P., Varieties-sartaz,
summer, 8 to feed. Deccan-103, Arun
14 in autumn

4. Barley —Similar to Can grow in Former USSR, U.P, Bihar,

wheat T : mild poor sandy U.S.A, Canada, Rajasthan, M.P.
13 to 19 soils China, West Maharashtra.
R : moderate European countries
75 to 100
—Grows in
wide range of
climate : hot,
temperate, cold.

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GEOGRAPHY
S.No. Crop Climatic Soils Other Leading Producer Exporting Production in India
Conditions (°C) Factors Countries/ Countries
T-Temperature, Regions
R-Rainfall (cms)

First country is in most cases

First in production (export)
5. Pulses Moderate Varieties of It includes India, China, U.S.A M.P., Maharashtra,
Climate Soils Gram, Arhar, U.P., Rajasthan
Moong, Peas,
Masur, etc.

6. Millets Hot and semi- Can grow in China, India, Tamil Nadu,
arid climate poor Former USSR Maharashtra,
T : 24 to 29 sandy soils Rajasthan, Gujarat,
R : 50 to 75 Uttar Pradesh

INDUSTRIAL CROPS

7. Cotton Warm Grown on —Sea breeze The top cotton China, USA, —India has largest
moderately variety of improves producing India acreage under cotton
moist dry soils; light quality countries include cultivation in the
summer days sandy, —Manuring China, India and world, but it is seond
in the later loams, heavy after a fixed the United States. largest producer.
part. clay, bottom number of —Important growing
T : 21 sands, yield years areas : Black Cotton
(average) increasing in —Use of belt of Deccan
R : 60-110 that order insecticides consisting of Plateau
(moderate) and pesticides of Malwa, Southern
to check and north eastern
disease Gujarat, almost whole
—Cheap of Maharashtra,
labour northern Andhra
— Require Pradesh, north
frost-free eastern and south
weather eastern Karnataka,
and shiny Central Tamil Nadu
sunshine. Sujata II is best qua-
lity cotton grown.
India exports short
staple cotton and
imports long staple
Cotton.
8. Tobacco Temp. –15- regularly Abundant China, Brazil, Brazil, U.S.A. A.P., Karnataka,
38° C fertilized soil rainfall India, U.S.A. Zimbabwe Gujarat
Rainfall. - 50 and frost are and Turkey
(avg.) harmful for it.
9. Jute Hot and moist —Well- Abundant India and Bangladesh —West Bengal (50
T : 24-27 drained supply of (exporter of per cent of total
R : 200 well loamy and water for Bangladesh hold raw wool), output); Assam,
distributed clayee soaking, virtual monopoly. Thailand, Bihar, Orissa
over the —Delta and washing
growing period flood plains
are best
10. Rubber —Hot and Deep well- Cheap labour Thailand is the Malaysia, Southern States:
humid drained leading rubber Indonesia, Kerala (90 per cent
T : 25-35°C loamy producing Thailand, of total production),
R : 175- country in the Sri Lankan Tamil Nadu,
250; well world. Thailand Rubber Karnataka
distributed is followed by exports
throughout the Indonesia and account for
year China respectively 20-50 per
India stands at cent of export
fourth position. earnings of
first three
countries

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GEOGRAPHY

S.No. Crop Climatic Soils Other Leading Producer Exporting Production in India
Conditions (°C) Factors Countries/ Countries
T-Temperature, Regions
R-Rainfall (cms)

First country is in most cases

First in production (export)
11. Sugarcane Tropical Alluvial soil — Abundant Brazil, India, Brazil, Cuba U.P., Maharashtra,
climate, 20- water supply Uganda, Cuba Tamil Nadu
27°C, 75-120
cm
12. Coconut —Hot wet Flourishes in Philippines, India, Lakshdweep,
Palm T : 24-28 coastal belts Indonesia, Philippines Kerala
R : over 200 of tropical Singapore
Countries
13. Groundnut —High clayey soil China, India, USA Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Temperature A.P., Karnataka,
—Moderate Tamil Nadu, Madhya
rainfall Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh
14. Sesame Tropical and India, China
sub-tropical Myanmar, Pak.
15. Linseed Warm sum-mers, Moist; loamy Canada, Argentina, U.S.A,
high hu-midity, or sandy U.S.A Canadaexport
moderate rainfall seed while
well distributed India exports
over the growing linseed oil
pe-riod

16. Soyabean Moderate Light, —Cheap USA and China USA, China M.P. Maharashtra
rainfall Sandy, labour hold virtual
loamy —Chemical monopoly
fertilisers and
17. Castor green manure India, Brazil Gujarat
Plant
18. Tea —Warm Fertile well —Virtual monopoly India, Brazil NE India and S. India
and humid drained of Monsoon Region —India China, NE India : Assam
through-out soil rich —India, China, Sri Sri Lanka Valley Surma Valley,
the year in organic Lanka —Tea accounts Darjeeling, Terai,
T : 27 (average) matter and for more than Tripura S. India : Tamil
R : Heavy, about iron 50 per cent Nadu, Kerala.
200 cm. coming of export
in frequent sh- earnings of Sri
owers Lanka
19. Coffee —Warm to hot —Fertile, Cheap labour Brazil, Colombia Brazil, Darjeeling produces
and moist well drained (S. America); Ivory Colombia the best quality tea.
T : 21 to 27 soil, rich Coast (Africa) —Karnataka, on Nilgiri
R : 125 to 250, in iron and Hills in Tamil Nadu,
well distributed potash on Cardamom Hills in
throughout the —Terra Roxa Kerala
growing period soil is ideal
20. Spices Varying It includes India, China. India, China Largest producer black
climatic black pepper, pepper-Kerala, red
conditions turmeric, chilli- Andhra Pradesh,
chilli, saffron, Turmeric-Tamil Nadu,
cardamom, Ginger- Kerala,
clove, etc. Cardamom -Kerala,
Safforn - Jammu &
Kashmir
Note : T– Temperature, R– Rainfall in cm.

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GEOGRAPHY
FAMOUS PLACES/STRUCTURES AND THEIR LOCATION
Place/Structure Location Importance
Abadan Iran World’s biggest oil refinery
Abadan Iran World’s biggest oil refinery
Angkor Vat Combodia A ruined city with specimens of Indian art and culture and
Hindu complex devoted to Lord Vishnu built by the Khemer King
Suryavarman-II in the period 1113-1150 A.D.
Babylon Baghdad (Iraq) Ancient centre of art, science and culture, remains of biblical tower/
hanging gardens found here
Bangkok Thailand Known as ‘Venice of the East’, largest city in Thailand and capital
Basra Iraq Principal port on the bank of the river Shatt-el-Arab near the Persian
Gulf
Bethlehem Israel Birth place of Jesus Christ
Boddam Near Diego Garcia A military base being developed by the US as a station for nuclear sub-
marines and ships
Diego Garcia Indian Ocean An important American military base in the Indian Ocean
Herat Afghanistan Ancient trade centre, carpet and silk products manufacturing
Harappa Pakistan Ruins of ancient India, site of the Indus Valley Civilisation
Hiroshima Japan Industrial town was known as ‘Venice of Japan’, ruined by the first atom
bomb dropped by USA in the Second World War on August 6, 1945, also
a seaport
Haifa Israel Chief seaport
Jeddah Saudi Arabia Chief seaport on Red Sea, ancient city
Jerusalem Israel Jesus Christ was crucified here, also called ‘Holy City’ and capital of
Israel
Kandhar Afghanistan Trading centre
Kandy Sri Lanka Temple of Tooth (Buddha’s Tooth)
Karachi Pakistan Chief seaport
Kirkuk Iraq Oilfields
Lop Nor China Site of the Chinese nuclear test explosion
Madina Saudi Arabia Place of pilgrimage for Muslims, birth place of Prophet Mohammed,
second capital city
Mohenjodaro Pakistan Historical site of Indus Valley civilisation
Murree Pakistan Chief hill station
Nagasaki Japan An atom bomb was dropped here on August 9, 1945 during Second World
War, seaport
Nazareth Israel Holy place of Christians associated with the life of Christ
Quetta Pakistan Hill station, commands the entrance to the Bolan Pass
Shatt-al-Arab Iraq One of the world’s ancient waterways, witnessed early human settlements
Shanghai China Largest and most populous city of China
Tashkent Uzbekistan Venue of talks between Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and President
Ayub Khan on Indo-Pak War problem.
Tokyo Japan World’s one of the most populous cities in the world. capital city
Armero Columbia Also called ‘White City of Columbia’, more than 20,000 people killed in
volcanic eruption
Barranacas Mexico World’s first urban settlement to be exclusively powered by solar energy
Belize Central America Formerly British Honduras which became independent on September 21,
1981, 156th member of the UNO

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Place/Structure Location Importance

Buenos Aires Argentina Largest city in the southern hemisphre, famous for dairy products
Chicago USA Important trading city, meat packing is the chief industry
Cape Kennedy USA Missile launching centre and HQ of NASA, named after John F Kennedy
US Senate
Capitol Washington US Senate
Detroit USA HQ of biggest car manufacturing company, Ford Motor
Gettysburg USA Historical town, site of the American civil war
Havana Cuba Cigar manufacturing, also capital town
Honolulu Hawaii Islands Tourist resort, capital city
Hollywood USA Film industry
Los Angeles USA Largest city of USA, film industry
Miami Beach USA Centre of world beauty contests
Montreal Canada Large trading centre
New York USA Leading commercial and financial centre of the world, located on the
Hudson river, houses the second largest building of the world–Empire
State Building, has the Statue of Liberty
New Oreleans USA Cotton market
Quebec city Canada Seaport
San Francisco USA Seaport, industrial centre, meat packing, automobiles
Sao Paulo Brazil Second largest city of Brazil, coffee growing
Sudbury Canada World’s biggest source of nickel
Toronto Canada Largest city of Canada
Washington DC USA White House (Official residence of the President), DC denotes District
Columbia, Capital city
Vancouver British Columbia Seaport
(Canada)
Yellow Stone USA Oldest and largest national park with about 3000 geysers and hot springs
National Park
Al-Aqsa Mosque Jerusalem Islam’s third holiest place
Kaaba Mecca Inner shrine of the great Mosque of Mecca
Kremlin Moscow A large fortified citadel, the Secretariat of the former Soviet Government
Malacanang Manila Presidential palace of Ferdinand Marcos, President of the Philippines who
Palace ruled for more than 20 years
Mao Mausoleum Beijing Built from material brought from every province of China
Pentagon Washington A five-sided building, houses the ministry of defence of the USA
Wall Street New York Stock Exchange of New York
White House Washington Official residence of the President of USA since 1800 AD and constructed
in1792. President John Adam was the first US President to occupy it
Broadway USA Broadest street in the world
C N Tower Toronto World’s tallest free standing structure, 553.33 m high
Aswan Egypt A tourist resort, world’s biggest Aswan Dam (13 km.)
Benghazi Libya Chief town and port on the Gulf of Sidra in Mediterranean sea
Durban South Africa Associated with political activities of Gandhiji
Entebbe Africa Commercial centre
Johannesburg South Africa Gold mines

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GEOGRAPHY
Place/Structure Location Importance
Kimberley South Africa Diamond mining
Al Asnam Algeria World’s greatest earthquake when 80% city was destroyed
Alexandria Egypt Seaport, city founded by Alexander the Great
Zanzibar Tanzania Produces cloves (Cloves Island)
Barcelona Spain Chief port and a commercial centre, venue of the 1992 Olympics
Bergen Norway Biggest city of Norway and seaport
Cologne Germany Industrial centre, ‘Eau-de-Cologne is after its name
Dover England Sea port on the Strait of Dover
Dunkirk France A French port on the English Channel near the Belgium border
Edinburgh Scotland Important educational centre
Epsom London Famous Racecourse
Essen Germany Coal mining, iron and steel industries
Geneva Switzerland European HQ of the UN, former seat of the League of Nations, capital
town
Genoa Italy Seaport in Mediterranean Sea
Gibraltar Spain A famous British colony
Glasgow Scotland Biggest ship building centre, seaport
Greenwich London Observatory, the time in all countries is calculated on the basis of
Greenwich Mean time
Goteborg Sweden Seaport of Gota connected to the Baltic Sea by a canal
The Hauge Netherlands Seat of UNO Internatonal Court of Justice (ICJ)
Hamburg Germany Chief seaport
Istanbul Turkey Seaport, formerly called ‘Constantinople’
Kew Gardens London Botanical gardens
Leningrad Russia Seaport, second largest city of Russia. In World War II it was sieged by
Germany, also an industrial town
Leipzig Germany Industrial town
Liverpool UK Seaport, exporter of milk
London UK Seaport, capital city
Vatican City Italy The Residence of the Pope, smallest independent State in the world 0.44
sq km, population-1000
Waterloo Belgium Battle of Waterloo was fought here between the British and her allies and
the French forces in which Napolean was defeated in 1815
Wimbledon London Famous for its tennis tournaments
Zurich Switzerland University of Switzerland
Aberdeen England Industrial city, seaport, famous as the ‘Granite City’
Antwerp Belgium Seaport, diamond cutting, ship building, oil and sugar
Baku Russia Oil centre on the Caspian Sea
Baikonur Kazakhstan Russian Rocket launch station
Milan Italy Second largest city of Italy
Moscow Russia Largest city of Russia-capital
Munich Germany Beer manufacturing, venue of 1972 Olympics
Olympia Greece Birth place of Olympic Games
Pisa Italy Leaning tower which is one of the wonders of the world
Rome Italy Centre of Roman civilisation and culture, historical buildings, capital city

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Place/Structure Location Importance

Rotterdam Netherlands Ship building, iron and steel industries
Elba Mediterranean sea An island in the Mediterrean where Napolean was exiled in 1814-15
Stratford England Birthplace of William Shakespeare
Avon Ulster Ireland Where struggle between Catholic and Protestant Christians took place
Red Square Kremlin, Moscow An open ground attached to the Kremlin and used for processions &
demonstrations
White Hall London The seat of British Government offices, the former official residence of
the Queen of England
Big Ben London A huge clock on the tower of the British Parliament installed in the year
1859
Brandenburg Gate Berlin Main gate between the erstwhile east and west Berlin
Bridge of Sighs Venice (Italy) A bridge on which condemned prisoners had to pass over before being
executed
Buckingham London Palace of the British Monarch since Queen Victoria’s accession in 1837
Palace
10, Downing England Official residence of the Prime Minister of England
Street
Elysee Palace France Official residence of President of France
Escurial Spain One of the largest palaces in Spain

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION (WORLD GEOGRAPHY)

SOBRIQUETS Land of Golden Fleece : Australia
Big Game Country : African Savanna Land of Garden Pagoda : Myanmar
Blue Mountains : Nilgiri Hills Land of Kangaroo : Australia
Land of Lilies : Canada
Britain of the South : New Zealand
Land of Maple : Canada
City of Dreaming Spires : Oxford
Land of Morning Calm : Koreas
City of Palaces : Kolkata Land of Midnight Sun : Norway
City of Seven Hills : Rome Land of Rising Sun : Japan
City of the Golden Gate : San Francisco Land of Thousand Lakes : Finland
City of the Golden Temple : Amritsar Land of Thunderbolt : Bhutan
Cockpit of Europe : Belgium Land of White Elephants : Thailand
City of Skyscrapers : New York Lighthouse of Mediterranean : Stromboli
Emerald Island : Ireland Pearl of Antilles : Cuba
Playground of Europe : Switzerland
Eternal City : Rome
Port of Five Seas : Moscow
Garden of England : Kent
Quaker City : Philadelphia
Garden City of India : Bangalore Queen of the Adriatic : Venice
Gate of Tears : Bab-el-Mandab Queen of the Arabian Sea : Cochin
Gift of Nile : Egypt Roof of the World : Pamirs
Granite City : Aberdeen Pink City : Jaipur
Hermit Kingdom : North Korea Ruhr of East : Damodar Valley
Herring Pond : Atlantic Ocean Sick Man of Europe : Turkey
Holy Land : Palestine Singapore of Future : Pinang
Golden Triangle of : South East Sorrow of Bengal : River Damodar
Opium Production Asia Sorrow of China : River Hwang Ho
Industrial Heartland : Ruhr basin Spice Garden of India : Kerala
of Europe Sugar Bowl of the World : Cuba
The lungs of the world : Brazilian Rain Forest Venice of North : Stockholm
White City : Belgrade
Clove Bowl of the World : Zanzibar
White Man’s Grave : Guinea Coast
Island of Pearls : Bahrain
Windy City : Chicago
Key to Mediterranean : Gibraltar
World’s Breadbasket : American Prairies
Land of Seven Seas : Arabia

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GEOGRAPHY
LANDLOCKED COUNTRIES
Asia Maldova Luxemburg
Afghanistan Nepal Switzerland Slovakia
Mongolia Laos Liechtenstein Serbia
Bhutan Tajikistan Africa
Kyrgyzstan Armenia Burundi Chad
South America Ethiopia Mali
Paraguay Bolivia Niger Rwanda
Europe Uganda Botswana
Belarus Czech Republic Malawi Zambia
Bratislana Austria Zimbabwe Central Burkina-Faso
Hungary Macedonia Kosovo African Republic

PRINCIPAL LAKES OF THE WORLD

Lake Country Significance
Great Bear Canada A glacial lake, drained by Great Bear River
Great Slave Canada Drained by Mackenzie river
Reindeer Canada Drained by Raindeer river
Winnipeg Canada Drained by Nelson river
Athabasca Canada —
Superior Canada & USA Largest Fresh water lake in the world
Huron Canada & USA 2nd Largest among great lakes
Erie Canada & USA Niagra waterfall lies between lakes Erie and Ontario
Ontario Canada & USA The smallest of great lakes
Michigan USA 3rd largest among great lakes
Great Salt USA
Mead Lake USA
Titicaca Bolivia-Peru Largest lake of South America world’s highest navigable lake
Marcaibo Venezuela
Victoria Zambia On river Zamberi, Largest lake of Africa.
Kariba Mozambique On river Zamberi
Nasser Egypt On river Nile
Chad — Makes boundary with Niger, Nigeria, Chad Cameroon
Timsah Egypt Located on Suez canal
Eyre Australia Salt Lake
Disappointment lake Australia Dry salt lake
Baikal Russia Deepest lake on Earth
Ladoga Largest lake in Europe
Onega Russia
Balkhash Kazakhstan
Van lake Turkey Saltiest lake
Dead sea Israel - Jordan Lowest lake in the world
Aral sea Russia Kazakhastan-Uzbekistan
Geneva lake Switzerland
Toba lake Indonesia
Rudolf Kenya
Tanganyika Tanzania-Zambiq Zaire-Burundi
Malawi (Nyasa) Africa Makes boundary with Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania
Caspian Sea Asia-Europe Largest lake in the world, makes boundary with Russia,
Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran and Azerbaijan.
Vostok Antractica Largest lake of Antarctica
Kuko China

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES
Place Discoverer Nationality Year
America Christopher Columbus Italy 1492
Brazil Petro Alvarez cafrol Portuguese 1500
Hawaii Islands Island of Tasmania Captain James Cook England 1778
and New foundland John Cabot England 1497
New Zealand Abel Janszoon Tasman Holland 1642
North Pole Robert Peary U.S.A. 1909
Planetary Motion Kepler German 1600
Sea Route to India (via Cape of Vasco da Gama Portuguese 1498
Good Hope)
South Pole R. Amundsen Norway 1911
Solar System Copernicus Poland 1540
Suez Canal Designed by French French 1869
Engineer Fardinand de Lesseps

PRINCIPAL MOUNTAIN PEAKS Thar Namibia

Name Country Range Negev NW India

Ordos Israel
Mt. Everest Nepal-Tibet Himalayas
Takla Makan China
K2 (Godwin Austin) India Karakoram
Gobi China
Kanchenjunga Nepal-India Himalayas
Kara Kum Mongolia, China
Lhotse Nepal-China Himalayas
Kyzyl Kum Turkmenistan
Makalu Tibet-Nepal Himalayas
Mohave Kazakhstan,
Dhaulagiri Nepal Himalayas
Sonoran Uzbekistan, S California,
Nanga Parvat India Himalayas N America, N America, Mexico
Nanda Devi India Himalayas
POLITICAL BOUNDARIES
McKinley (Denali) Alaska (U.S.A.) Rockies R. Rio Grande : Mexico & USA
Mt Logan Canada Rockies R. Amur : China & Russia
Mt Whitney USA Rockies R. Limpopo : S Africa & Botswana and S Africa &
Mt Elbruz Russia Caucasus Zimbabwe
R. Zambezi : Zambia & Zimbabwe
Mont Blanc France Alps
R. Orange : S. Africa & Namibia
Toubkal Morocco Atlas
R. Mekong : Cambodia & Thailand, Myanmar
Mt Kosciusko Australia Australian Alps & Laos, Thailand & Loas
R. Salween : Myanmar & Thailand
GREAT DESERTS
R. Danube : Romania & Bulgaria, Yugoslavia
Name Country/Region
R. Uruguay : Uruguay & Brazil
Sahara (Libyan, Nubian) N Africa
R. Parana : Paraguay & Argentina, Brazil
A u s t r a l i a n ( G i b s o n , Australia R. Oder : Germany & Poland
Simpson, Victorian, Great
Sandy) Durand Line : Afghanistan & Pakistan
Hindenberg Line: Germany & Poland (After 1st World War)
Arabian (Rub’al Arabia
Khali, An-Nafud) MacMohan Line: India & China
Maginot Line : France & Germany
Dast-e-Lut (Barren Desert) Iran
Oder Niesse Line: Poland & Germany (Presently)
Dast-e-Kavir (Salt Desert) Iran
Radcliffe Line : India & Pakistan
Desierto de Sechura Peru 38th Parallel : North & South Korea
Atacama N Chile 49th Parallel : USA & Canada
Patagonia Argentina 16th Parallel : Namibia & Angola
Kalahari Botswana, Namibia, 17th Parallel : North & South Vietnam (Before unifica-
tion)
Namib South Africa

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IMPORTANT STRAITS

GEOGRAPHY
PRINCIPAL LAKES OF THE WORLD
Name Links
Bab-el-Mandeb : Red Sea and Arabian Sea Name Length Country
Bering : Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea (sq. km.)
Lizon : South China Sea and Pacific ocean 1. Caspian 3,71,800 Russia-Iran
Makassar : Celebes Sea and Java Sea Sea (Largest)
Hormuz : Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman.
Bosporous : Black Sea and Sea of Marmara 2. Superior 82,350 USA-Canada
Dardanelles : Sea of Marmara and Aegean Sea 3. Victoria 69,500 Kenya-Uganda
Dover : North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean
Florida : Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean 4. Aral 64,500 Russia
Gibraltar : Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean 5. Hudson 59,600 USA-Canada
Magellan : South Pacific and South Atlantic Ocean
Malacca : Java Sea and Bay of Bengal 6. Michigan 58,000 USA
Palk : Bay of Bengal and Palk Bay
7. Tanganyika 32,900 Tanzania-Zambia
Tartar Strait : Sea of Japan and Sakhalinsky (Sea of
Okhetsh) 8. Baikal 30,500 Russia
PRINCIPAL WATERFALLS 9. Erie 25,700 USA-Canada
Name        Location
Angel : Venezuela 10. Winnipeg 24,500 Canada
Tugela : South Africa 11. Malawi 23,310 Malawi Mozambique
Yosemite : California 12. Ontario 19,500 USA-Canada
Ostra Mardolafoss : Norway
13. Chad 16,300 Nigeria-Chad
Cuqenam : Venezuela
Sutherland : New Zealand 14. Eyre (Salt) 9,580 Australia
Ribbon : California 15. Rudolf 9,065 Kenya
Grey Kamarang : Guyana
16. Titicaca 8,300 Peru-Bolivia
Northern Mardals Fossen : Norway
Buyoma falls : Zaire 17. Athabasca 8,100 Canada
Victoria Falls : Zimbabwe 18. Nicaragua 8,000 Nicaragua
Niagra : USA/Canada
19. Reindeer 6,389 Canada
LOCAL WINDS 20. Kuko 5,957 China
Name Nature Region 21. Torrens 5,775 Australia
Fohn Warm Alps 22. Victoria 26,640 East Africa
Chinook (Snow eater) Warm Rockies Nyanza
Kalbaisakhi Warm North India 23. Nyasa 30,044 Africa
Berg Warm S Africa
Zonda Warm Andes OCEANS
Loo Warm Indian subcontinent Ocean Water area Deepest point Depth (m)
(%)
Santa Ana Warm Coastal Southern
California Pacific 46 Mariana Trench 11,034
Southerly Cold New South Wales Atlantic 23 Puerto Rico 9,200
Burster Warm Egypt Trench
Khamsin Indian 20 Java Trench 7,450
Harmattan Warm Guinea Coast Southern 7 South Sandwich 7,236
Mistral Cold S E France
Ocean Trench
Puna Cold Andes
Arctic 4 Eurasian Basin 5,122
Pampero Cold S. America
Simoon Warm Arabian Peninsula COUNTRY AND ITS SHARING BOUNDARY WITH
Haboob Warm Sudan SEA
Norwester Warm New Zealand Country Sea Country Sea
Bora Cold North Italy Yemen Red sea Saudi Red sea
Blizzard Cold Canada/USA Arabia
Sirocco Warm Sahara to Algeria Mediterranean Tunisia Mediterra-
Mediterranean Sea sea nean sea

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Country Sea Country Sea COUNTRIES WITH THE LONGEST COAST LINE
Libya Mediterranean 1. Canada 2. Indonesia (Asia) 3. Russia
sea 4. Philippines (Asia) 5. Japan
Ukraine Black sea Romania Black sea 6. Australia 7. Norway 8. USA
9. New Zealand 10. China (Asia)
Bulgaria Black sea Turkey Black sea
Turkmen- Caspian sea Kazakh- Caspian sea VALLEYS OF THE WORLD
istan stan Kaghan Valley Pakistan
A z e r b a i - Caspian sea Iran Caspian sea Douro Valley Portugal
jan
Lauter brunnen Valley Switzerland
Russia Black sea Egypt Red sea
Porsmork Valley California
Sudan Red sea Eritrea Red sea
Danum Valley Borneo
GRASS LANDS Yangdi Valley China
Temperate Grassland Tropical Grassland Jiuzhargoh Valley China
Prairie USA Savanna Africa Cerce Valley France
Steppe Russia Llanos Venzuela Hunza Valley Pakistan
Pampas Argentina Campos Brazil The Valley of Kamchatka
Downs Australia Selvas Amazon Basin Geysers (Russia)
Veld South Africa Kagon Philippines Khumbu Valley Nepal
Canterbury New Zealand Waipi'o Valley Hawaii
Taiga Polar region Napa Valley California

ISLANDS OF THE WORLD

Rank Name (Island) Area (km­­2) Country
1 Greenland 2,139,800 Greenland
2 New Guinea 785,753 Indonesia and Papua New Guinea
3 Borneo 748,168 Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia
4 Madagascar 587,713 Madagascar
5 Baffin Island 507,451 Canada
6 Sumatra 443,066 Indonesia
7 Honshu 255,800 Japan
8 Great Britain 218, 595 United Kingdom
9 Victoria Island 217,291 Canada
10 Ellesmere 196,236 Canada
11 Sulawesi 180,681 Indonesia
12 South New Zealand 145,836 New Zealand
13 Java 138,794 Indonesia
14 North New Zealand 111,583 New Zealand
15 Luzon 109,965 Philippines
16 New Foundland 108, 860 Canada
17 Cuba 105,806 Cuba
18 Iceland 101,826 Iceland
19 Mindanao 97,530 Philippines
20 Ireland 81,638 U.K.

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GEOGRAPHY
SHIFTING-CULTIVATION POPULATION WISE TEN BIGGEST AND
Country Name of shifting cultivation SMALLEST COUNTRIES
Mexico Milpa
TEN BIG COUNTRIES
Laos Ray
S. No. Country Population (In
Congo/Zaire Masole Million) (2011)
Sumatra Djuma 1. China (Asia) 1,347,350,000
Ghana Proka 2. India (Asia) 1,210,193,422
Malaysia Ladang 3. U.S.A. (North America) 313,466,000
India Jhum 4. Indonesia 237,641,326
Thailand Tamrai 5. Brazil (South America) 192,376,496
Myanmar Taungya 6. Pakistan (Asia) 179,436,000
Philippines Caingin 7. Nigeria (Africa) 162,471,000
Sri Lanka Chena 8. Bangladesh (Asia) 142,319,000
Brazil Roca 9. Russia (Europe-Asia) 143,056,383
Indonesia Humah 10. Japan (Asia) 127,650,000
Madagascar Tavy
Venenzuela Conuco LIST OF LANGUAGES BY NUMBER OF NATIVE
SPEAKERS
AREAWISE TEN BIGGEST AND SMALLEST Rank Language % of World popu-
COUNTRIES lation
1. Mandarin (Chinees) 14.1 %
TEN BIGGEST COUNTRIES
S. No. Country Sq. km (Total 2. Spanish 5.85%
Portion) 3. English 5.52%
1. Russia (Europe-Asia) 17,075,000 4. Hindi 4.46 %
2. Canada (N. America) 9,976,139 5. Arabic 4.23%
3. China (Asia) 9,561,000
6. Portuguese 3.08 %
4. U.S.A. (N. America) 9,372,614
7. Bengali 3.05%
5. Brazil (S. America) 8,511,965
8. Russian 2.42%
6. Australia (S. Pacific) 7,682,300
7. India (Asia) 3,287,263 MAJOR TRIBES OF THE WORLD
8. Argentina (S. America) 2,776,654 Acta Philippines
9. Kazakhstan 2,717,300 Dayak Borneo
10. Algeria (Africa) 2,381,741 Kafir S. Africa
Beja Sudan
TEN SMALLEST COUNTRIES Fellah Egypt
S. No. Country Area (Sq. Kurd Iran, Iraq
km) Bora South East Colombia
1. Vatican City (Europe) 0.44
Fullani Nigeria
2. Monaco (Europe) 1.95
Han Nigeria
3. Nauru (Southern Pacific) 21.10
Yugeer North East Asia
4. Tuvalu (Southern Pacific) 26.00
Buryats Central Aisa
5. San Marino (Europe) 61.00
Inuit N. America
6. Liechtenstein (Europe) 160.00
Yuit Siberia
7. Marshall Island (Central Pacific) 181.00
Aborigines Australia
8. St. Kitts and Nevis (Eastern Ca- 269.00
ribbean) Afikpo Nigeria
9. Maldives (Indian Ocean) 298.00 Ainu Japan
10. Seychelles (Indian Ocean) 308.00 Alacaluf Chile

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Andmanese India Maori New zealand

Arapesh Papua New Guinea Masai Kenya
Arunta Australia Mongols Mongolia
Ashants Ghana Nambicuara Brazil
Bantu South Africa Nayar Kerla, India
Basques Spain and France Ona Argentina
Basseri Iran Papuans New Guinea
Bedouins Africa Pygmies Zaire Basin
Bushmen Kalahari desert in Africa, Botswana Red Indian North America
Delaware USA Samoans Samoa Island
Eskimos Canada & Greenland Tartars Siberia
Giriama Tanzania Tutsi Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi
Gurumba Papua Newguines Veddas Sri Lanka
Haida Canada Washo USA
Hopi USA Yana USA
Kirghiz Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan Zulu South Africa

COUNTRY-CAPITAL ; AREA ; CURRENCY ; NAME OF THE PARLIAMENT ; RELIGION

Country Capital Area (sq. km) Currency Name of Parliament Religion

ASIA
Afghanistan Kabul 6,47,807 Afghani Shora Islam
Armenia Yerevan 29,743 Dram — Christianity
Azerbaijan Baku 86,600 Manat — Islam
Bahrain Manama 707 Bahraini Dollar Islam
Bangladesh Dhaka 1,47,500 Taka Jatiya Sansad Hindu, Buddhism, Islam &
Christianity
Bhutan Thimpu 46,500 Nagultrum Tsongdu Hinduism & Buddhism
Brunei Bandar Seri 5,765 Brunei Dollar — Islam
Begawan
Cambodia Phnom Penh 1,81,035 Riel National Assembly Buddhism
China Beijing 95,72,900 Renminbi (Yuan) People’s National Bhuddhism, Taoism,
Assembly Confucianism.
Cyprus Nicosia 9,251 Cyprus Pound — Christiantiy, Islam
East Timor Dilli 17,222 US Pound
Georgia Tbilise 69,700 Ruble (Lari) — Christianity
Hong Kong Victoria 1,034 Hong Kong Dollar — Catholic Buddhism
India New Delhi 32,87,263 Rupee Sansad ; Lok Sabha Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism,
& Rajya Sabha are Jainism, Christianity
houses
Indonesia Jakarta 18,90,754 Rupiah People’s Consultative Hinduism, Islam, Christianity
Assembly
Iran Tehran 16,48,195 Rial Majlis Islam
Iraq Baghdad 4,34,128 Iraqi Dinar National Assembly Islam
Israel Jerusalem 21,946 Sheqel Knesset Judaism, Islam
Japan Tokyo 3,77,829 Yen Diet Shintoism, Buddhism

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GEOGRAPHY
Jordan Amman 91,860 Jordan Dinar — Islam
Kazakhstan Astana 27,24,900 Tenge — Islam, Christianity
Korea (North) Pyongyang 1,22,762 Won (KPW) — Buddhism, Confucianism,
Christianity
Korea (South) Seoul 99,585 Won — Multi-religions

Kuwait Al Kuwait 17,818 Kuwaiti Dollar — Islam

Kyrgyzstan Bishkek 1,99,900 Som — Islam
Laos Vientiane 236,800 New Kip People’s Supreme Buddhism, Tribal
Assembly
Lebanon Beirut 10,452 Pound — Christianity, lslam
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 3,29,847 Ringgit Dewan Rakyat & Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism
Dewan Negara
Maldives Male 298 Rufiyaa Majlis Islam
Mongolia Ulan Bator 15,65,008 Tugrik Great Peoples’ Khural Buddhism
Myanmar Nay Pyi Taw 6,76,577 Kyat Pijithu Hulttaw Buddhism
Macau Macau 23.6 — Pataka Chinese, Purtgege
Nepal Kathmandu 1,47,181 Nepalese Rupee Pratinidhi Sabha Hinduism
Oman Muscat 3,09,500 Omani Rial — Islam
Pakistan Islamabad 7,96,095 Rupee National Assembly & Islam
Senate
Philippines Manila 3,00,076 Peso — Christianity, Islam
Qatar Doha 11,437 Riyal — Islam
Saudi Arabia Riyadh 21,49,690 Rial — Islam
Singapore Singapore City 682.3 Singapore Dollar — Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism,
Christianity,

Sri Lanka Colombo 65,610 Rupee — Same as above

Syria Damascus 1,85,180 Syrian Pound People’s Council Islam
Taiwan Taipei 36,188 New Taiwani — Buddhism, Taoism
Dollar

Tajiskistan Dushanbe 1,43,100 Tajik Ruble — Islam

Thailand Bangkok 5,13,115 Baht — Buddhism, Islam
Turkey Ankara 7,80,580 Turkish Lira Grand National Islam (Secular)
Assembly
Turkmenistan Ashkabad 4,48,100 Manat — Islam
United Arab Abu Dhabi 83,657 Dirham — Islam
Emirates
Uzbekistan Tashkent 4,47,400 Som — Islam
Vietnam Hanoi 3,32,934 Dong National Assembly Buddhism, Islam,
Christianity, Taoism
Yemen Sana & Aden 5,55,000 Rial — Islam
NORTH AMERICA & CENTRAL AMERICA
Antigua & St. John’s 442 E. Caribbean — Christianity
Barbuda Dollar
Bahamas Nassau 13,939 Bahamian Dollar General Assembly Christianity
Barbados Bridgetown 430 Barbados Dollar — Christianity

Belize Belmopan 22,964 Belize Dollar National Assembly Christianity

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Bermuda Hamilton 500 — — Christianity

Canada Ottawa 99,84,670 Dollar House of Commons & Christianity

Senate

Costa Rica San Jose 51,100 Colon — Christianity

Cuba Havana 1,04,748 Peso National Assembly of Christianity

People’s Power

Dominica Roseau 750 E. Caribbean — Christianity

Dollar

Dominican Santo Domingo 48,671 Pesooro — Christianity

Republican

El Salvador San Salvador 21,041 Colon — Christianity

Greenland Godthab 21,76,000 Danish Krone — Protestantism

Grenada St.George’s 344 E. Caribbean — Christianity

Dollar

Guatemala Guatemala 1,08,889 Quetzal — Christianity

Haiti Port-au-Prince 27,700 Gourde — Christianity, Voodoo

Honduras Tegucigalpa 1,12,492 Lempira — Christianity

Jamaica Kingston 10,991 Jamaican Dollar — Christianity

Marshall Island Dalap Uliga 181 Dollar — Christianity

Mexico Mexico City 19,67,183 New Peso — Christianity

Nicaragua Managua 1,31,812 Cordoba — Christianity

Panama Panama 75,001 Balboa — Christianity

Puerto Rico San Juan 9,104 — — Christianity

USA Washington DC 98,26,629 Dollar Congress Christianity

(Senate & House of
Representatives)

SOUTH AMERICA
Argentina Buenos Aires 27,80,400 Peso National Congress Christianity

Bolivia La Paz 10,98,581 Boliviano National Congress Christianity

Brazil Brasilia 85,14,215 Real National Congress Christianity

Chile Santiago 7,56,096 Peso — Christianity

Colombia Bogota 11,41,748 Peso Congress Christianity

Ecuador Quito 2,75,830 U.S. Dollar — Christianity

French Guiana Cayenne 91,000 — — —

Guyana Georgetown 2,15,083 Guyana Dollar National Assembly Christianity, Islam, Hinduism

Paraguay Asuncion 4,06,752 Guarani — Christianity

Peru Lima 12,85,216 Sol — Christianity

Surinam Paramaribo 1,63,820 Surinam Guilder Staten Christianity, Islam, Hinduism

Trinidad & Port of Spain 5,310 Tri & Tob. Dollar — Christianity Buddhism, Islam
Tobago

Uruguay Montevideo 1,76,215 Peso — Christianity

Venezuela Caracas 9,16,445 Bolivar National Congress Christianity

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GEOGRAPHY
EUROPE
Albania Tirana 28,748 Lek People Assembly Islam, Christianity
Andorra Andorra-la Vieille 468 Euro — Christianity
Austria Vienna 83,871 Euro — Christianity
Belarus Minsk 2,07,600 Ruble — Christianity
Belgium Brussels 30,528 Euro — Christianity
Bosnia- Sarajevo 51,129 New Yugoslav — Christianity, Islam
Herzegovina Dinar

Britain London 2,43,073 Pound Sterling House of Commons & Christianity

House of Lords
Bulgaria Sofia 1,10,994 Lev Narodna Subranie Christianity, Islam, Atheist
Christianity
Croatia Zagreb 56,542 Kuna National Assembly of
People’s Power
Czech Republic Prague 78,866 Koruna — Christianity
Denmark Copenhagen 43,098 Krone Folketering Christianity
Estonia Tallinn 45,227 Euro — Christianity
Finland Helsinki 3,04,473 Euro — Christianity
France Paris 5,43,965 Euro National Assembly Christianity
Germany Berlin 3,57,034 Euro Bundestag & Christianity
Bundsrat
Greece Athens 1,31,957 Euro — Christianity
Hungary Budapest 93,030 Forint National Assembly Christianity
Iceland Reykjavik 1,02,819 Krona Althing Christianity
Ireland Dublin 70,273 Euro Dial Eireann & Christianity
Seanad Eireann
Italy Rome 3,01,277 Euro — Christianity
Latvia Riga 64,589 Lats — Christianity
Liechtenstein Vaduz 160 Swiss Franc — Christianity
Lithuania Vilnius 65,200 Litas — Christianity
Luxembourg Luxembourg 2,586 Euro — Christianity
Macedonia Skopje 25,713 Denar — Christianity, Islam
Malta Valletta 246 Lira Maltija — Christianity
Moldova Chisinau 33,848 Ruble, Lev — Christianity
Monaco Monaco 1.95 Franc — Christianity
Netherlands Amsterdam 41,528 Euro The Staten General Christianity
Norway Oslo 3,23,758 Krone Storting Christianity
Poland Warsaw 3,12,685 Zloty Sejm Christianity
Portugal Lisbon 91,905 Euro — Christianity
Romania Bucharest 2,38,391 Lev Grand National Christianity
Assembly
Russia Moscow 1,70,75,400 Ruble — Christianity
San Marino San Marino 61.19 Euro — Christianity
Slovakia Bratislava 49,034 New Koruna — Christianity
Slovenia Ljublijana 20,273 Tolar — Christianity

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Spain Madrid 5,06,030 Euro Cortes Christianity

Sweden Stockholm 4,49,964 Kroner Riksdag Christianity
Switzerland Bern 41,284 Swiss Franc Bundesvers Christianity
Ammlung (Nationalrat&
Standerat)
Ukraine Kiev 6,03,073 Hyrvania — Christianity, Islam
Vatican City Vatican City 0.44 Lira — Christianity, (Catholic)
Serbia Belgrade 1,02,173 Euro, Dinar — Christianity
Montenegro Cetirrje 13,812 Euro — Christianity

OCEANIA
Australia Canberra 76,92,030 Australian Dollar Federal Parliament Christianity
Fiji Suva 18,272 Dollar — Christianity, Islam, Hinduism
Kiribati Tarawa 811 A.Dollar — Christianity
Nauru Yaren 21.3 Australian Dollar — Christianity
New Zealand Wellington 2,70,534 NZ Dollar — Christianity
Papua New Port Moresby 4,62,840 Kina — Christianity, Tribal
Guinea
Soloman Island Honiara 28,370 S.I. Dollar — Christianity
Tonga Nuku’alofa 748 Paanga — Christianity
Tuvalu Funafuti 26.0 Australian Dollar Christianity
Vanuatu Vila 12,190 Vatu Representative Christianity, Animism
Assembly
Western Samoa Apia 2,830.8 Tala — Christianity

AFRICA
Algeria Algiers 23,81,741 Dinar (DA) National Popular Islam
Assembly
Angola Luanda 12,46,700 New Kwanza National Popular Tribal & Christianity
Assembly
Benin Porto-Novo 1,12,622 Franc CFA National Revolutionary Christianity, Islam
Animism, Assembly
Botswana Gaborone 5,81,730 Pula National Assembly Christianity, Tribal
Burkina Faso Quagadougou 2,67,950 Franc — Tribal & Islam
Burundi Bujumbura 27,834 Burundi Franc — Tribal, Christianity
Cameroon Yaounde 4,75,440 Franc CFA — Tribal, Christianity, Islam
Cape Verde Praia 4,033 Escudo People’s National Christianity
Assembly
Central African Bangui 6,22,436 Franc — Christianity, Tribal
Republic
Chad N’ Djamena 12,84,000 Franc — Christianity, Islam, Tribal
Comoros Moroni 1,862 C. Franc — Christianity, Islam
Congo Brazzaville 3,41,821 Franc — Christianity, Islam, Animism
Cote D’ Ivoire Yamoussoukro & 3,22,466 Franc — Christianity, Islam & Others
Abidjan (defacto)
Djibouti Djibouti 23,200 Djibouti Franc — Islam
Egypt Cairo 10,01,450 E. Pound People’s Assembly Christianity, Islam

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GEOGRAPHY
Equatorial Malabo 28,051 Franc CFA — Christianity
Guinea
Eritrea Asmara 11,100 Birr — Christianity, Islam
Ethiopia Addis Ababa 11,27,127 Birr Shergo Christianity, Islam
Gabon Libreville 2,67,667 Franc — Christianity, Tribal
Gambia Banjul 10,689 Dalasi — Islam, Christianity
Ghana Accra 2,38,533 Cedi — Islam, Christianity
Guinea Conakry 2,45,857 Guinea Franc — Islam, Christianity, Tribal
Kenya Nairobi 5,82,646 Shilling — Islam, Tribal, Christianity
Lesotho Maseru 30,355 Maloli (Loti) — Christianity, Tribal
Liberia Monrovia 99,065 L. Dollar National Assembly Christianity, Tribal, Islam
Libya Tripoli 17,59,540 Libyan Dollar General People’s Islam
Assembly
Madagascar Antananarivo 5,87,041 Malagasy Franc — Christianity, Islam, Animism
Malawi Lilongwe 1,18,484 Kwacha — Christianity, Tribal, Islam
Mali Bamako 12,48,574 Franc — Islam, Tribal
Mauritania Nouakchott 10,30,700 Ouguiya — Islam
Mauritius Port Louis 2,040 Rupee — Hinduism, Islam, Christianity
Morocco Rabat 4,58,730 Dirham — Islam
Mozambique Maputo 7,99,380 Metical — Christianity, Islam
Namibia Windhoek 8,25,112 Rand — Christianity, Tribal
Niger Niamey 11,86,408 Franc — Islam,Tribal
Nigeria Abuja 9,23,768 Naira — Christianity, Tribal, Islam
Rwanda Kigali 26,338 Rwanda Franc — Christianity, Tribal, Islam
Sao Tome & Sao Tome 1,001 Dobra — Christianity
Principe
Senegal Dakar 1,96,722 Franc National Assembly Islam, Tribal

Seychelles Victoria 455 Rupee People’s Assembly Christianity

Sierra Leone Freetown 73,326 Leone — Christianity, Islam, Tribal
Somalia Mogadishu 6,37,657 Somali Shilling People’s Assembly Islam
South Africa Pretoria (Adm); 12,19,090 Rand House of Assembly Hinduism, Islam, Christianity
Capetown
(Legislative);
Bloemfontein
(Judicial)
Sudan Khartoum 25,05,813 Dinar National Assembly Christianity, Tribal, Islam
South Sudan Juba — Dinar — —
Swaziland Mbabane 17,363 Liangeni Liblandla Christianity, Tribal
Tanzania Dodoma 9,42,799 Shilling — Christianity, Tribal, Islam
Togo Lome 56,785 Franc — Christianity, Tribal, Islam
Tunisia Tunis 1,63,610 Dinar — Islam
Uganda Kampala 2,41,548 Uganda Shilling — Christianity, Islam, Tribal
Zaire (Congo) Kinshasa 23,44,798 Zaire — Christianity, Tribal, Islam
Zambia Lusaka 7,52,614 Kwacha National Assembly Christianity, Islam, Animism
Zimbabwe Harare 3,90,757 Dollar — Christianity, Islam, Tribal

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GEOGRAPHY

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GEOGRAPHY
INDIAN : SOME FACTS

 Geographical Area : 32,87,469 sq. km.  Female Literacy Rate : 65.5%

 Population : 1,21,08,54,977 crore  Sex Ratio : 943 (per 1000 Male)
 Population Growth Rate : 17.7%  Child sex ratio : 919 (0-6 age group)
 Cities more than 10 lakh Population : 53  Population Density : 382 (per sq. km.)
 Union Territories : 7
Male Population : 51.47%  States : 28
Female Population : 48.53%  Total Number of Districts : 742
 Urban Population : 31.1%  Total Number of Villages : 664,369
 Rural Population : 68.9%  Population of SC : 16.6%
 Literacy Rate : 74.04%  Population of ST : 8.6%
 Male Literacy Rate : 82.14% Reference Date of Census : 1st March, 2011

Base Highest Lowest

1. Population 1. UP 1. Sikkim
2. Maharashtra 2. Mizoram
3. Bihar 3. Arunachal Pradesh
4. West Bengal
5. Andhra Pradesh
Population (UTs) 1. Delhi 1. Lakshadweep
2. Puducherry 2. Daman and Diu
3. Chandigarh 3. Dadra and Nagar Haveli
2. Density 1. Bihar 1. Arunachal
2. West Bengal 2. Mizoram
3. Kerala 3. Sikkim
4. Uttar Pradesh 4. Manipur
5. Haryana 5. Nagaland
Density (UTs) 1. Delhi 1. Andman & Nicobar Island
2. Chandigarh 2. Dadra and Nagar Haveli
3. Puducherry 3. Lakshadweep
3. Sex Ratio 1. Kerala 1. Haryana
2. Tamil Nadu 2. Jammu and Kashmir
3. Andhra Pradesh 3. Sikkim
4. Manipur 4. Punjab
5. Chhattisgarh 5. Uttar pradesh
Sex Ratio (UTs) 1. Puducherry 1. Daman and Diu
2. Lakshadweep 2. Dadra and Nagar Haweli
3. Andman & Nicobar Island 3. Chandigarh
4. Child Sex Ratio 1. Arunachal Pradesh 1. Haryana
2. Mizoram 2. Punjab
3. Meghalaya 3. Jammu and Kashmir
4. Chattisgarh 4. Rajasthan
Child Sex Ratio (UTs) 1. Andman & Nicobar Island 1. Delhi
2. Puducherry 2. Chandigarh
3. Dadra & Nagar Haweli 3. Daman and Diu

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GEOGRAPHY

5. Literacy Rate 1. Kerala 1. Bihar

2. Mizoram 2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Goa 3. Rajasthan
4. Tripura 4. Jharkhand
5. Himachal Pradesh 5. Andhra Pradesh
Literacy Rate (UTs) 1. Lakshadweep 1. Dadra and Nagar Haweli
2. Daman and Diu 2. Puducherry
3. Andman & Nicobar Island 3. Chandigarh
6. Area 1. Rajasthan 1. Goa
2. Madhya Pradesh 2. Sikkim
3. Maharashtra 3. Tripura
4. Uttar Pradesh 4. Nagaland
Area (UTs) 1. Andman and Nicobar 1. Lakshadweep
2. Delhi 2. Daman and Diu
7. Growth Rate 1. Meghalaya 1. Nagaland
2. Arunachal Pradesh 2. Kerala
3. Bihar 3. Goa
4. Jammu and Kashmir 4. Andhra Pradesh
5. Mizoram 5. Sikkim

³³ Tropic of Cancer Passes through 8 states — (From

MAJOR LANGUAGES
(NUMBER OF NATIVE SPEAKERS) West to East)
³³ Gujarat — Rajasthan — Madhya Pradesh —
Percentage to State
Rank Language Chattisgarh — Jharkhand — West Bengal — Tripura
Total Population
— Mizoram.
1. Hindi 41.03% ³³ Southernmost point of Mainland — Cape Comorin
2. Bengali 8.11% (Kanya Kumari),
3. Telugu 7.19% ³³ Southernmost point of Indian Territory — Indira Point
(6°45') Andman and Nicobar
4. Marathi 6.99%
³³ Coastline of mainland India — 6100 km.
5. Tamil 5.91%
³³ Total coastline including Lakshadweep and Andman
and Nicobar — 7516.6 km.
RELIGION-WISE POPULATIO OF INDIA (2011) ³³ India stretches from North to South — 3214 km.
Population Proportion in ³³ India stretches from East to West — 2933 km.
Rank Religion (Crores) India’s ³³ Total length of mainland — 15,200 km.
population
³³ Total length of coastline — 7516.6 km
1. Hindu 96.63 79.8%
³³ Total boundary — 22716.6 km
2. Muslim 17.22 14.2%
³³ No. of Island in Bay of Bengal — 204
3. Christain 2.78 2.3% ³³ No. of Island in Arabian Sea — 43
4. Sikh 2.08 1.7%
LAST POINT OF INDIAN BOUNDRY
5. Buddhist 0.84 i0.71%
6. Jain 0.45 0.4% 1. Eastern Point Kibithu (Arunanchal
7. Other 0.79 0.7% Pradesh)
2. Western Point Gour Meta (Gujrat)
Location
India is the seventh largest and the second most 3. Northern Point Indira Col (Jammu and
populous country in the world. Kashmir)
³³ It lies between latitudes 8°4' N and 37°6' N and 4. Southern Point Indira Point
longitudes 68°7' E and 97°25' E.
5. Southern most point Kanyakumari (Cape Co-
³³ Country is divided into almost equal parts by the of mainland morin, Tamil Nadu)
Tropic of Cancer.

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³³ Mac Mohan line divides India and China in Arunachal

GEOGRAPHY
THE INDIAN STATES ON INTERNATIONAL
Pradesh.
BOUNDRIES
³³ Indian state sharing its boundary with Nepal, Bhutan
1. Bangladesh 4096.7 km. West Bengal > Tri- and China in Sikkim.
pura > Meghalaya ³³ Andaman and Nicobar is known as Emerald Island.
> Mizoram > Assam ³³ There are seventeen states share its boundaries with
2. China 3488 km. Jammu and Kash- neighbouring countries.
mir > Arunachal ³³ Uttar Pradesh borders maximum number of states
Pradesh> Himachal (8) Uttarakhand, Himanchal Pradesh, Haryana,
Pradesh > Uttara- Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
khand > Sikkim and Bihar.
³³ 82°30' E longitude is considered as the standard
3. Pakistan 3323 km. Jammu and Kash- Meridian which passes through Mirzapur in Uttar
mir > Rajasthan > Pradesh.
Gujarat > Punjab ³³ The Indian standard Time (IST) is 5 hours 30 minutes
4. Nepal 1751 km. Uttar Pradesh > Bi- ahead of the Greenwhich Time (GMT).
har > Uttarakhand ³³ Indian Standard Meridian passes through UP, MP,
> West Bengal > Sik- Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
kim
MAIN CHANNELS
5. Myanmar 1643 km. Arunachal >
Mizoram > Nagaland 1. Great Channel Indira Point and Indonesia
> Manipur 2. 8° Channel Maldiv and Minicoy
3. 9° Channel Minicoy and Lakshadweep
6. Bhutan 699 km. Assam > West Ben-
4. 10° Channel Little Andman and Car Nicobar
gal > Arunachal >
5. Palk Strait Gulf of Mannar and Bay of Bengal.
Sikkim
7. Afghanistan 106 km. Jammu and Kash- MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
mir (POK)
1. The Himalayan Mountain Chain
There are seventeen states on International boundries. 2. The Northern Plains — (a) Great Planes, (b) Thar
Desert
VIZ : North-East States = 07
3. The Great Peninsula Plateau — (a) Central Highland,
Sikkim = 01
(b) Peninsula Plateau (c) Coastal Plains
West Bengal = 01
Uttar Pradesh + Uttarakhand THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAIN CHAIN
+ Himachal Pradesh Trans Himalayan :
+ Jammu & Kashmir + Bihar = 05 ³³ Trans Himalayans are the part of Eurasian Plate.
Punjab + Rajasthan + Gujarat = 03 ³³ It is also known as Tethys Himalayans.
Total = 17
³³ Pamir Knot is known as “the roof of the world”.
STATES OF COASTLINE (DESCENDING ORDER) ³³ Kunlun run into Tibet.
1. Andman and Nicobar Island 2. Gujarat ³³ Karakoram enters into Kashmir.
3. Andhra Pradesh 4. Tamil Nadu
³³ Karakoram pass is situated in Karakoram range.
5. Maharashtra 6. Kerala
³³ Baltoro and Siachin are the glaciers of this range.
7. Odisha 8. Karnataka
9. West Bengal 10. Goa ³³ Lengthwise glaciers of Karakoram — Siachen — Hispar
³³ There are 5 countries in Indian subcontinent — — Biafo — Balforo.
1. India 2. Pakistan ³³ Indus river originates from Chamayung dung Glacier
3. Bangladesh 4. Nepal near Kailash.
5. Bhutan ³³ Indus river flows between Ladakh and Zaskar ranges
from south east to north west.
³³ Puducherry streches in three states of India —
³³ Indus river makes the deepest gorge in Gilgit.
1. Mahe (Kerala)
³³ Trans himalayas are formed by sedimentary rock.
2. Karikal (Tamilnadu)
³³ The rocks from Tertiary age to Cambrian age are
3. Puducherry (Tamilnadu)
found here.
4. Yanam (Andhra Pradesh)
³³ Trans himalayas separate itself from great himalayas
³³ Four North-East States don't share their boundaries with Suture zone.
with Bangladesh —
³³ K2 (Godwin Austen) is the highest peak of Trans
1. Nagaland 2. Manipur Himalaya (Karakoram Range) with range of 8611
3. Arunachal Pradesh 4. Sikkim meters.

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Greater Himalayas ³³ This is called the sub Himalayan.

GEOGRAPHY

³³ It is called as Himadri. ³³ Shivalik is known as Jammu Hills in Jammu and

³³ Mount Everest is the highest peak of the world. Dafla, Mishimi, Abor, in Arunachal Pradesh.
³³ Mount Everest is located in Nepal. It is called ³³ It is the newest range.
Sagarmatha in Nepal. It’s height is 8848 meter. IMPORTANT PEAKS OF INDIA
³³ Tibetians call it Chamlungma.
Highest peak of Himalayas in India Kangchenjunga
³³ Kangchenjunga is the second highest peak of greater
himalayas. Highest mountain peak in India K2 or
³³ Kangchenjunga lies in Sikkim. Godwin Austen
³³ Namchabarva is an important peak in east overlooking Highest peak of Aravalis Gurushikhar
the Bhramaputra where this range takes a sudden
change and twist towards south to enter India. Highest peak of Western Ghats Anaimudi
³³ Namchabarva lies in Tibet (China). Highest peak of Nilgiri Dodabeta
³³ Several Passes are lie in this range like Baralacha- Highest peak of Eastern Ghats Mahendragiri
La- Pass, Lapcha, Shipkila, Thangla, Nifila, Nathula.
³³ Hindustan-Tibet way which joins shimla to Gangtok, Highest peak of Rajmahal hills Parasnath
passes through ‘Shipkila Pass’ in Satluj Valley. Highest peak of Andaman & Nicobar Saddle peak
³³ Great Himalayas separate from middle Himalays with
main central thrust. THE NORTH INDIAN PLAINS
³³ The great himalayan mountain range boasts of the
tallest heads of the world. ³³ The Great North Indian plain lies to the north of the
³³ Most of the peaks remain under perpetual snow. peninsula and to the south of the Himalayas.
³³ In Greater Himalayas, the snow line is at lower ³³ The plain extends for 3200 km between the mouths
elevation of the southern slopes than on the northern of the Ganga and the Indus, all along the foot of the
slopes because the southern slopes are steeper and moutains, with a width varying from 150 to 300 km.
received more rainfall. ³³ The plain is narrowest in Assam with its width varying
HIGHEST PEAK OF THE GREATER HIMALAYAS between 90 and 100 km.
³³ It is 160 km wide near the Rajmahal hills and 280
Peak Country Heights (in km near Allahabad.
mtrs)
³³ The plains were formed as a result of the filling of
1. Mt. Everest Nepal 8,848 depression lying between the peninsula and the
Himalayas by the depositional work of the Himalayan
2. Kangchenjunga India 8,598 and peninsular rivers.
3. Makalu Nepal 8,481 ³³ It is erroneous to characterise the plains as an
4. Dhaulagiri Nepal 8,172 area of monotonous relief having little variety in its
geomorphological features.
5. Nanga Parvat India 8,126 ³³ Generally the plain is recognised as consisting of four
6. Annapurna Nepal 8,078 divisions each characterised by important differences
in surface relief. These divisions are : (i) Bhabar (ii)
7. Nanda devi India 7,817 Terai (iii) Bhangar and ( iv ) Khadar.
8. Namchabarwa Tibet (China) 7,756 ³³ The Bhabar is a narrow belt of 8-16 km wide running
east-west direction along foothills of Shiwaliks. The
9. Gurla Mandhata Tibet 7,728 Himalyan rivers deposit their sediments creating
alluvial fans along the foot hills. The fans consisting
Middle Himalayas (Lesser Himalayas or the of gravel and unsorted sediments merge together to
Himachal) form the Bhabar belt.
³³ Lie to the south of Great Himalayas. ³³ The Bhabar zone is studded with pebbles and it
³³ Mountains and valleys are disposed in all direction. consists of porous beds. The porosity is so high that
³³ Its important ranges are ; Dhauladhar, Pirpanjal, all streams lose themselves in Bhabar.
Nag-Tibba, Mussoorie. ³³ The Terai is marshy tract south of the Bhabar marked
³³ Important hill stations are : Dharmshala, Dalhousie, by reemergence of underground streams of the Bhabar
Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, Darjeeling, Chakrata, belt. These streams convert large areas along the
Almora, Chhail, Ranikhet. rivers into marshy lands of excessive dampness.
³³ The Bhangar refers to the upland formed by deposition
Shivaliks : of older alluvium in river beds. It is alluvial terrace
³³ Southern most ranges of Himalayas are called above the flood plains, often impregnated with
Shivalik. calcareous concentration known as Kankar.
³³ Shivaliks are made of unconsolidated deposits of ³³ The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms
rivers. the flood plains along the river banks. It is a lowland
³³ Shivaliks are prone to earthquakes and land slides. formed by deposition of detritus of new alluvium in
³³ This is the outer Himalayas. the river beds during floods every year.

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³³ The Great Indian Plains of North India can be divided

GEOGRAPHY
Peninsular Plateau
into the following four major regions.
(i) The Rajasthan or Western Plains Central Upland Deccan Plateau
(ii) The Punjab-Haryana Plains 1. Aravalli range 1. Satpura range
(iii) The Ganga Plains 2. Upland of Eastern Rajasthan 2. Maharashtra Plateau
(iv) The Brahmaputra Plains
³³ The Rajasthan Plain : The plain consisting of Thar or
3. Malwa Plateau 3. Mahanadi Basin
Marusthali,& the arid plain of Rajasthan. Luni is the 4. Bundelkhand Plateau 4. Dandkaranya
only river flowing through this desert region. North of 5. Vindhyachal and Baghel- 5. Telangana Plateau
the Luni basin, there is a large area of inland drainage. khand Plateau
Eastern Thar Desert has several saline lakes such
as Sambhar, Didwana, Degana, Sargol, Khatu etc. 6. Chhotanagpur Plateau 6. Tamilnadu Plateau
Sambhar is the largest salt lake in India. 7. Meghalaya plateau 7. Western Ghats
³³ The Punjab Haryana plain : This part of the plain is 8. Eastern Ghats
formed as a result of deposits brought by five rivers (
Satluj, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum & Beas) and known as ARAVALLI REGION
Punjab. It is primarily made up of Doabs (interfluves ³³ It is a fold mountain
) -the land between two rivers. ³³ Its elevation is 800-900 m.
³³ The important Doabs in this plain are :-
³³ It is a residual mountain range.
1. Bist -Jalandhar Doab between Beas and Satluj.
³³ It is older than Himalayas.
2. Bari Doab between the Beas and Ravi.
3. Rechna Doab between the Ravi and the Chenab. ³³ Broader in South as compared to north.
4. Chaj Doab between Chenab and the Jhelum. ³³ Elevation goes on decreasing from south to north.
5. Sindsagar Doab between the Jhelum, Chenab and ³³ Gurushikhar is the highest peak of Aravalli.
the Indus.
³³ Gurushikhar is near Mount Abu in Rajasthan.
³³ Ganga plain : The plain stretches between Punjab-
Haryana plain to the Sundarbans Delta region. The ³³ Extends from Delhi Ridge to Ahmedabad.
Ganga along with Yamuna, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak ³³ Aravalli acts as Gangetic water divide.
and Kosi has deposited large quantities of alluvium to ³³ Nakki lake is located at Mt. Abu. It is very famous
build this fertile and densely populated region. for tourists.
³³ The important doabs in this plain are :
THE MALWA PLATEAU
(i) Ganga-Yamuna Doab
³³ Lies between Aravallis and Vindhyan ranges.
(ii) Ganga-Ghaghra Doab
(iii) Ghaghra-Gandak ³³ It is very affected by gully erosion.
(iv) Gandak-Kosi Doab (Mithila Plain) ³³ Rolling Plains are found on this plateau.
³³ The Ganga plain is further divided into, Upper Ganga ³³ Gwalior hills are lying to the north of this plateau.
plain, Middle Ganga plain, and the Lower Ganga plain. ³³ Chambal and its tributaries have turned the north of
³³ The Brahmaputra plain : It is an aggradational plain this plateau into ravines.
built up by, depositional work of Brahmaputra and BUNDELKHAND — BAGHELKHAND — VINDHYACHAL
its tributaries. It is girdled by Purvanchal hills, Patkai
³³ The north-east side of Malwa Plateau is known as
Bum, Naga hills in the east, Garo-Khasi-Jaintia, Mikir
hills and Meghalaya plateau in the south. Several Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.
islands have Originated because of the deposition of ³³ Chambal and Yamuna rivers have made a bad land
soil in the middle of the Brahmaputra. ‘Majuli’ is such in Bundelkhand.
island which is in Assam. It is the largest riverine ³³ Dhuandhar water falls is in Jabalpur.
island in the world.
MEGHALAYA PLATEAU
THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU
³³ It is an outlier of the Peninsular Plateau.
³³ It is a part of Gondwana land.
³³ Important ranges and peaks:
³³ Triangular in shape.
³³ Archaean age 1. Dafla, Miri Abor and Mishmi — Eastern Himalayas
³³ It is the oldest plateau not only in India but also in 2. Patkai, Naga, Mizo, Barail, Rengma, Mikir — East
the World. side
³³ Average height is 600-900 m. 3. Garo, Khasi, Jaintia — Meghalaya Plateau.
³³ Its slopes towards north and east side and in southern
³³ Lakes — Loktak in Manipur with floating island.
part from west to east.
³³ It is divided into two parts : (i) Central lands, (ii) ³³ Mynsynram receives highest rainfall.
Deccan plateau. ³³ Parks — Namdapha, Keibul Lamjao, Dampa, Norkrek.

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SATPURA RANGE 2. Kanara in Karnataka.

GEOGRAPHY

³³ Satpuras are fold mountains.

3. Malabar in Kerala.
³³ Plains are wider in south and narrower in the north.
³³ Mahadeo hills forms the highest portion.
³³ Garsopa falls (Jog falls) on Karnataka coast are
³³ Dhupgarh is the highest peak of Satpura. It is near highest in India.
Panchmarhi in Madhya Pradesh. ³³ In Kerala, Coast has salt water lakes called lagoons.
³³ River Tapi rises from Panchmarhi. ³³ Ashtamudi and Vembanad are important lakes located
³³ Narmada and Tapi rivers are west flowing rivers. here.
³³ Son river is the biggest tributary of Ganga from south. EAST COAST PLAINS
WESTERN GHATS ³³ Coastal strip along with Bay of Bengal is broader as
compared to the Western coast.
³³ Form a continuous barrier from north to south almost
³³ Known as Utkal plains in Odisha.
parallel to the Arabian sea.
³³ Chilka lagoon is located in Odisha.
³³ Extended in 1600 km. long.
³³ Kolleru lake lies in Andhra Pradesh.
³³ General altitude is 900 – 1200 m. and width 50-80 km. ³³ Pulicat lake is located here.
³³ It is standing as a wall. One can across through the pass. ³³ Coromandal Coast is in Tamil Nadu in south.
³³ It is vertical to the south-west monsoon. ³³ It is formed by alluvium brought by rivers.
³³ It is the source of many big rivers. ³³ Rivers of this coastal plains are longer and less
³³ It is known as Sahyadri in Maharashtra and erosine.
Karnataka, Nilgiri in Tamilnadu. ³³ Rivers form deltas
³³ Nilgiri is the meeting point of Western Ghats and ³³ This coast is prone to cyclone and floods.
Eastern Ghats. ³³ Ports are lesser than that of western Coast Plains.
³³ Hills of Western Ghats from North to South — Kalsubai
— Harishchandra — Mahabaleshwar — Bababudan — LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS
Nilgiris — Annamalai— Palani — Cardamom. ³³ Extend from 8°N — 12° N.
³³ Doda Beta (2637) is the highest peak of Nilgiris. ³³ Consists of 30 small islands, only 10 of which are
³³ Udagamandalam (Ooty) is a hill station located in populated.
Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu. ³³ Population consists of moppilis from Kerala.
³³ Anai Mudi is the highest peak of Western Ghats. ³³ Some islands are called Attol because of horseshoe
shaped.
³³ Anai Mudi is located in Annamalai hills.
³³ Minicoy islands lie to the extreme south, it is the
³³ It falls in Kerala. largest island of Lakhadeewp.
³³ Famous hill station Kodaikanal lies in Palani hills in
Tamil Nadu. ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLAND
³³ Pariyar lake is situated in Palani hills. ³³ Extend from 6°39' N to 13°34' N.
³³ Western Ghats is divided into two parts named — ³³ Consist of two groups — Andman Group and Nicobar
North Sahyadri and South Sahyadri. Group
³³ Western Ghats act as a water divide. ³³ They are submerged part of Arakanyoma (Myanmar).
It is a mountain range.
EASTERN GHATS ³³ 10° channel separates Andman from Nicobar.
³³ Eastern Ghats form a discontinuous line of hills Par- ³³ Little Andman is separate from Great Andman by
allel to east coast. Duncan passage.
³³ General altitude is 600 m. ³³ Great Nicobar is the largest island in the group.
³³ Width is 190km in north and 75 km is south. ³³ Saddle peak is the highest peak of Andaman and
³³ Its width decreases from north to south because Nicobar island located in North Andaman.
Peninsular Plateau is triangle is shape. ³³ Area is prone to earthquakes and tsunamis.
³³ Mahendragiri is the highest peak is in Odisha. ³³ Port Blair, the capital of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
³³ It is not a source of any big river. is situated in South Andaman.
³³ It receives less rainfall. ³³ The barren Island which is India’s only active volcano
³³ It is known by different names at different places — is situated in the east of Middle Andaman.
1. Northern circars north of Godavari ³³ Tribes : Onges, Sentelese, Jarawas, Shompens.
2. Palkonda and Nallamala between Godavari and
Palar river. CLIMATE
3. Shevaroy and Javadi as Tamil Nadu hills.
³³ Hills from north to south — Nallamala — Erralmala — ³³ The climate of India can be broadly described as
Velikonda — Palkonda — Javadi — Shevaroy. Tropical Monsoon Climate.
³³ Derived from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ monsoon
WEST COAST PLAINS implies a seasonal reversal in the wind direction
³³ Extend from Gujarat to Kerala. through the year.
³³ Known by different names at different states — ³³ The monsoon regime emphasises the unity of India
1. Konkan in Gujarat and Goa with the rest of south-east Asia region.

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 Geography

³³ The meteorologists usually recognise the following easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during

GEOGRAPHY
four seasons:- summer.
(i) Hot weather season,
DRAINAGE
(ii) Cold weather season,
(iii) South-West Monsoon season, and ³³ India has been adorned, with hundreds of large and
(iv) The Season of retreating Monsoon. small rivers, by the nature.
³³ Summer is India’s hottest season. Summer season starts ³³ The threefold physiographic division has an important
in March with day times temperatures exceeding 30° bearing on the drainage of Indian Sub-continent.
C. Coastal India as well as the southern states of Tamil ³³ On the basis of their origin the river system of India
Nadu and Kerala experience high humidity. By May, can be classified into two categories:-
most of interior India experience very high temperature (i) The Himalayan rivers
(40° C).
(ii) The Peninsular rivers.
³³ Warm land surface creates large area of low pressure
over north western India. This creates an onshore THE HIMALAYAN RIVER SYSTEM
wind bringing the moisture laden maritime air from
³³ It is constituted by the Indus, the Ganga, the
Indian Ocean to the land.
³³ Southwest Monsoons: The southwest monsoons Brahmaputra and their tributaries.
supplies over 80 per cent of India’s annual rainfall. ³³ These rivers originate from the lofty Himalayan ranges
It consists of two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm, and and are named as the Himalayan rivers.
the Arabian Sea arm. Both arms are attracted to the ³³ These rivers have large basins and catchment areas.
low pressure area over the Thar desert in Rajasthan. ³³ The total basin area of the Indus, the Ganga and the
³³ The monsson makes its presence felt by the end Brahmaputra is 11.78, 8.61 and 5.8 lakh square
of May. It starts around the 29th May, hitting the kilometres respectively.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. ³³ The Himalayan rivers flow through deep I-shaped
It strikes the mainland of Kerala on June 1. By 9th valleys called gorges. These gorges have been carved
June, it hits Mumbai and Delhi by 29th June. By out by down cutting carried on side by side with
first week of July, the entire country experiences rain. the uplift of the Himalayas. These are examples of
Predictably, Southern India receives more rainfall than antecedent drainage.
Northern India.
³³ The Himalayan rivers are perennial in nature, i.e.,
³³ The Bay of Bengal branch moves in the northwest
the water flows throughout the year in these rivers.
direction whereas the Arabian Sea arm moves in the
northeast direction. ³³ These rivers receive water both from the monsoons
³³ During this season, cyclones occur, causing and snowmelt. The perennial nature of these rivers
widespread devastation to coastal regions. Cherapunji makes them useful for irrigation.
and Mawsynram in Meghalaya, the world's wettest ³³ These rivers flow across the young fold mountains
place, receive rainfall above 300 cms annually. and are still in a youthful stage.
³³ The monsoons start, withdrawing by the last week of ³³ The upper reaches of the Himalayan rivers are highly
August. By mid September, it has withdrawn from tortuous. When they enter the plains, there is a
Mumbai and by October, the southwest monsoons sudden reduction in the speed of flow of water. Under
have completely withdrawn from India. these circumstances these rivers form meanders and
³³ Northeast Monsoons: After the withdrawal of often shift their beds.
the monsoons, the northeast monsoons begin by ³³ The Himalayan rivers form big deltas at their mouths.
November. Supplying 20 per cent of India’s rainfall it The Ganga- Brahmaputra delta is the largest in the
doesn’t cover the entire country but only the States world.
of Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh,
Karnataka, Kerala and Meghalaya. THE PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM
³³ Cold mountain air travelling along the Brahmaputra ³³ The Peninsular rivers have shorter and shallower
river brings rain to the northeast region of India. This
courses as compared to their Himalayan Counterparts.
picks up moisture over the Bay of Bengal resulting in
³³ A large number of the Peninsular rivers are seasonal,
heavy rain in southern India. as their flow is dependent on rainfall.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR INDIAN MONSOON ³³ The Peninsular drainage system is older than the
Himalayan one.
1. The differential heating and cooling of land water cre-
³³ Most of the major rivers of the Peninsula such as the
ates low pressure on the landmass of India while the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery
seas around experience comparatively high pressure.
flow Eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal.
2. The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence
³³ The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long rivers,
Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over the Ganga plain.
which flow west and make estuaries rather than
3. The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Mada- making a delta because of their swift flow and steep
gascar, approximately at 20°S over the Indian ocean. slopes.
4. The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during ³³ The drainage basins of the Peninsular rivers are
summer, which result in strong vertical air currents comparatively smaller in size.
and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at ³³ Estuaries are partially enclosed bodies of water along
about 9 km above sea level. coastlines where fresh water and salt water meet
5. The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north and mix.
of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical

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GEOGRAPHY

RIVER SYSTEM OF INDIA

Rivers of North India
River Source Length Drainage Important Tributaries
Area
(in km.)
(sq.km.)
Burhi Gandak Western slope of Someshwar 320 10,150 Joins the Ganga at Munger (Bihar)
Hills of elevation at 330m.
Beas Kulu hill (elevation 3,960 and 460 20,303
near Rohtang Pass)
Chenab At an elevation of 4,900 m at 1 , 8 0 0 (in 26,755
Lahul India)
Damodar Rises in Chhotanagpur plateau 541 22,000 Gartus, Konar, Jamunia and Barakar; once
(near Balumatha in Jharkhand) known as the Sorrow of Bengal
at an elevation of 1,366 m.
Ghaghara near Mansarovar Lake 1,080 1,27,950 Rapti, Sarda. It joins the Ganga near
Chapra. In Nepal it is known as Karnali.
Ganga (i) Alaknanda at an elevation of 2,525 8,61,404 Yamuna, Ram Ganga, Gandak, Ghaghara,
7,800 m. Kosi, Burhi Gandak, Bagmati, Gomti, Son,
(ii) Bhagirathi at an elevation of Mahananda, Kamla, Damodar, Jalangi,
6,600 m. Bhairab, Matabhanga-Gorai Confluence of
Yamuna at Allahabad
Gandak At an elevation of 7,620 m. near 425 (in India) 9,540 (in In Nepal, it is known as Narayani.
Tibet. India) It joins the Ganga at Patna. Total drainage
: 45,800 sq. km.
Gomti About 3 km. east of Pilibhit at 940 30,437 Sai, Barma, Saryu, Chuha, Gachai, Jomki
200m. elevation.
Indus Mansarovar Lake 2 , 8 8 0 o f 3,21,290 Zaskar, Astar, Dras, Shyok, Swat, Kurram,
which 1570 Shigar, Gilgit, Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi,
km. in India Beas and Satluj
Kosi From Tibet/Nepal 730 (in India) 11,600 Kosi, Arun, Tamur, Total drainage : 74,500
sq. km. Notorious for floods and hence
known as ‘Sorrow of Bihar’
Ravi Kulu hill (Himachal Pradesh) 725 14,442
Ram Ganga Near Nainital, in the lower 696 32,412 joins the Ganga below Farukkhabad.
Himalaya at an elevation of Tributaries : Khoh, Gangan, Aril Kosi, Deoha
3,110 m.
Satluj At an elevation of 4,570 m near 1 , 0 5 0 (in 24,087 Beas joins at Harike
Dharma Pass India)
Son Amarkantak 784 Joins Ganga at Maner near Patna;
Tributaries-N. Koel & Punpun
Yamuna at an elevation of 6,330 m from 1,300 3,59,000 Chambal, Betwa, Son, Hindu, Ken, Sarda
a spring at Yamunotri.
The Brahmaputra River System
River Source Length Drainage Important Tributaries
(km) Area
(sq.km.)
Barak Manipur hills 902 25,900 Jiri, Chiri, Horong, Katakhel, Longai
Burhi Dihang 362 8,473 Namphunk, Namchik, Manaton, Tirap
Dhansiri Laisang peak (Nagaland) 354 12,250 Dihing, Diphu, Nambar, Kalyan
Jia Bhorelli Tibet 264 11,843 Bichom, Khari, Dikari, Sonai, Tongsa, Kur
Jaldhaka Sikkim 186 3,958 Murk, Dihana
Koppili Mikir North Cachar hills 256 15,800 Jamuna, Borpani, Umum
Manas Bhutan 376 37,500 Tonsa, Kur

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 Geography

GEOGRAPHY
Subansiri Tibet 442 32,640 Kamla
(known as
Lohit in the
lower reaches)
Teesta Sikkim 109 12,540 Rajani, Great Ranjit, Lish, Gish, Ghel
Torsa Chumbi valley (Tibet) 358 4,883 Holong, Kalgani
Rivers of South India
River Source Length Drainage Important Tributaries
(in kms) Area
(sq.km.)
Narmada Amarkantak plateau (Madhya 1,312 98,796 Burner, Baiyar, Sher, Dudhi, Shakkar,
Pradesh) Tawa, Hiran, Tendoni, Barna, Kolar, Anjal,
Machak, Kundi, Goi, Karyan
Tapi Near Multai (Betul district) 724 64,145 Purna, Betul, Levda, Vaghur, Patki, Ganjal,
Dhattrranj, Bohad, Bori, Anbhora, Khursi,
Kapra, Sipra, Panjhara, Garja, Khokri,
Utaoli, Bokar, Subi, Mor, Mautri, Guli, Aner,
Arunavati, Gomal, Harki, Valer, etc.
Luni Annasagar (Ajmer district) 482 37,250 Sukri
Sabarmati Aravalli hills 300 21,674 Wakal, Jawai, Mittri, Sei, Harnav,
Halthmathi, Watrak, Meshwa
Mahanadi Near Pharisa village (Rajpur 806 1,41,600 Sheonath, Hasdeo, Mand, lb (left bank),
district) Jonk, Ong, Tel (right bank) Kura, Sankhed,
Tikra
Brahmani Near Nagri village (Ranchi 800 39,033
District)
Baitarni Jharkhand 333 19,500
Subarnarekha 395 19,300 Kanchi, Karfari
Godavari Trimbak in Nasik 1465 312,812 All the following rivers upto Pranhita river.
Pravara Western Ghats 200 6,537 Mula
Purna Ajanta hills 373 15,579
Manjra Balaghat 724 30,844 Tima, Lanaya.
Penganga Buldhana Range 676 23,895 Pus, Arna, Aran
Wainganga Seoni 609 61,093 Pench, Bagh, Andhari
Wardha Betul district 483 24,087 Wunna, Bembla, Penganga
Pranhita 133 after 1,09,077 Wainganga, Wardha
confluence
Indravati Kalahandi 531 41,665 Narangi, Kotri, Bandia, Nandira
Maner 13,106 Haldi
Sabari Sindaram hills 418 2,40,427 Sileru
Krishna At an altitude of 1,360, north of 1,400 2,58,948 All the following rivers
Mahabaleshwar Koyna
Ghatprabha Western Ghats 283 8,829 Hiranyakshi, Markandeya
Malprabha Western Ghats 306 11,549
Bhima Western Ghats 861 76,614 Mula, Mutha, Ghod, Nora
Tungbhadra 531 71,417 Varada, Hagari
Musi Madek District 240 11,212 Aleru
Muneru 235 10,409
Kaveri Brahmaputra hills 800 87,900 All the following rivers
Harangi Western Ghats in Mudgil Taluk 165 5,200 Yagachi Algur
Kabini Wynad Taluk 210 6,693
Suyarnayathi Nasurum Ghat 64 1,689
Bhavani Silent Valley Forest 216 7,144 Siruvani, Kundah, Coonoor, Moyar

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GEOGRAPHY

MULTIPURPOSE PROJECTS
Project River States involved Purpose

1. Bhakra-Nangal Satluj River Joint Venture o f Two dams at Bhakra and Nangal Bhakra
Project (Highest Punjab, Haryana and irrigation Canals Power houses at Ganguwal,
straight way Rajasthan. Kotla; provides water for irrigation purpose
gravity dam in
the world.)

2. Beas Project Beas River Punjab, Haryana and P o n g D a m – p r o v i d e w a t e r s u p p l i e s t o

Rajasthan Rajasthan canal; project mainly provides
irrigation to Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan;
a small power house for power generation

3. Beas–Sutlej Link Beas and Sutlej Rivers Himachal Pradesh and • To tap the hydroelectric and irrigation
Project Rajasthan potential of the River Beas.
• Remaining water of Beas is stored in Pong
Reservoir for irrigating arid wastelands in
Rajasthan through the Rajasthan canal.

4. Chambal Project C h a m b a l River Joint v e n t u r e o f • Completed in three stages Stage I–

(origin on t h e Rajasthan and Madhya Gandhisagar Dam, near Chaurasigarh fort
northern slopes of Pradesh for power production; Kota Barrage , near
the Vindhyas near Kota–irrigation to both States; Right main
Mhow in M.P.) canal–irrigation to both states; Left main
canal–irrigation exclusively to Rajasthan.
Stage II—Rana Pratap Sagar at
Rawatbhata in Chittorgarh District—
Irrigation and power generation.
Stage III—Jawahar Sagar Dam—Power
generation.

5. Damodar Valley D a m o d a r R i v e r Jharkhand and West • Flood Control

Project (rises in t h e Bengal. • Irrigation
Kamarpet hill in the • Navigation
Chhotanagpur Plateau • Afforestation and control of soil erosion
of Jharkhand). • Promotion of agriculture and industry
• Electricity generation
• Four dams at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithan,
Panchet

6. Gandak Project Gandak River Joint venture • Barrage at Balmikinagar in Bihar—

of U.P., Bihar. irrigation
Nepal; also receives • Main Western Canal—irrigation to Bihar
irrigation and power and U.P.
facilities • Main Eastern Canal—irrigation to Bihar
and Nepal
• Power House—Gift to Nepal

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GEOGRAPHY
7. Hasdeo Project Hasdeo River, a Chhattisgarh • Completed in 3 phases :—
tributory of Mahanadi Phase I—Hasdeo Barrage; Left Bank Canal—
supplies cooling water to Korba Thermal
Power Station and create irrigation potential.
Phase II—Right Bank Canal and Janjgir
branch Canal–Irrigation.
Phase III—Hasdeo Bargo Dam—storage
and irrigation; Extension of the Left
Bank Canal—irrigation and hydel power
generation.
8. Hirakud Project Mahanadi River (rises Odisha • It is divided into two stages:
from Bastar Hills near Stage I—(a) Hirakud dam in Sambalpur
Sihawa and flows district of Odisha—Power supplies to Indian
through Chhattisgarh Aluminium Co., other industries in the region.
and Orissa). (b) Canals—Sambalpur Canal, Baragarh
Canal, Saran Canal—Irrigation to Orissa.
(c) Mahanadi Delta Irrigation Scheme.
(d) Navigation—from Dholpur to Cuttack.
Stage II—Power house at Chiplima, Hirakud
Dam at Tikarpare and at Nraj west of Cuttack.
9. Kosi Project Kosi River (rises from Bihar & Nepal • It has three units :
6000 m. high Tibet Unit I—Barrage near Hanumannagar in
Plateau). Nepal—Appurtenant Works.
Unit II—Flood embankment and other
protective works–to control flood in Bihar and
Nepal.
Unit III—Eastern Kosi Canal System—
Irrigation of North Bihar.
• Others—Kosi Power House—Power supplies
to Bihar and Nepal; Western Kosi Canal—
Irrigation to Bihar and Nepal; Rajpur Canal—
Irrigation to Bihar.
• The project provides transport facilities, soil
conservation and development of agro-based
industries.
10. Nagarjunasagar Krishna River Andhra Pradesh • Irrigation to Krishna river delta and
Project surrounding regions.
• Power generation.
11. Rihand Dam R i h a n d R i v e r ( I t Uttar Pradesh • Flood control by preserving water in
rises in the Manipat Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar Reservoir
Hills in the Sarguja • Cheap Power supply to industries in U.P.
district of M.P.) and railways (Son nagar and Karamnasa).
• Provides irrigation to eastern parts of U.P.
and Bihar.
• Development of fisheries, water sports,
tourism and navigation in U.P. and M.P.
12. Tungabhadra Tungabhadra River Joint v e n t u r e o f • Irrigation to Andhra Pradesh and
Project Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Karnataka • Two Power Stations at Hampi supply cheap
power.

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Hydroelectric Power Projects in India 6. Dhauliganga project – Dhauliganga river

GEOGRAPHY

³³ India’s first hydro-electric power plant was established 7. Lakhwar Vyasi project – Yamuna river
in Darjeeling (W.B.) in 1897.
Uttar Pradesh :
³³ The second hydel power plant was established in
Shiva-samudram on the Kaveri river in 1902. The 1. Rihand project – Rihand river (a tributary of Son)
National Hydel Power Corporation was established in 2. Ramganga project – Ramganga river (a tributary of
1975 for the development of hydroelectricity. the Ganga).
3. Matatila project – Betwa river
Arunachal Pradesh : 4. Chilla project – Chilla river
1. Ranganadi project – Ranganadi river. 5. Chibro project – Tons river (a tributary of the Ganga).
2. Papumpap project
3. Paki Project Madhya Pradesh :
4. Dhinkrong project 1. Bansagar project – Son river
5. Upper Lohit project – Lohit river 2. Narmada Sagar – Narmada river
6. Kameng project – Kameng river 3. Gandhi Sagar project – Chambal river
7. Damway project 4. Pench project – Pench river
8. Upper Siyang project – Siyang river. 5. Maheshwar project – Narmada river
6. Indra Sagar project – Narmada river
Andaman and Nicobar Island :
7. Omkareshwar project – Narmada river
1. Kalingpong project. 8. Tava project – Tava river
Assam : Chhattisgarh :
1. Kopli project – Kopli river
1. Hasdeo project – Hosdeo river
2. Kulsi project – Kulsi river.
Rajasthan :
Andhra Pradesh :
1. Rana Pratap Sagar project – Chambal river
1. Machkund project – Machkund river
2. Jawahar Sagar project – Chambal river
2. Lower and Upper Sileru project
3. Zawai project – Zawai river
Jammu and Kashmir :
Gujarat :
1. Tulbul project – Jhelum river
1. Ukai project – Tapi river
2. Uri project – Jhelum River
2. Sardar Sarovar project – Narmada river
3. Salal project – Chenab river
3. Kadana project – Mahi river
4. Baglihar porject – Chenab river
5. Dulhasti project – Chenab river Bihar :
6. Kishanganga project – Kishanganga river 1. Kosi project – Kosi river
7. Bursar project – Chenab river
Jharkhand :
8. Ujh project – Ujh river
1. Damodar valley project – On Damodar river and its
Himachal Pradesh : tributaries
1. Nathpa – Jhakri project – Satluj river 2. Subarnarekha project – Subarnarekha river
2. Chamera project – Ravi river 3. Mayurakshi project – Mayurakshi river
3. Ranpur project – Satluj river
Odisha :
4. Luhari project – Satluj river
5. Khab project – Spiti river 1. Balimela project – Sileru river
6. Renuka project – Renuka river 2. Hirakud project – Mahanadi river

Punjab : Telangana :
1. Bhakra Project – Satluj river 1. Nizam Sagar Project – Manjara river (a tributary of
2. Dehar project – Beas river Godavari).
3. Pong project – Beas river 2. Ramgundam project – Godavari river
4. Shahpur project – Ravi river.
3. Pochampad project – Godavari river
Uttarakhand : 4. Nagarjuna Sagar project – Krishna river
1. Tehri project – Bhagirathi river and its tributaries 5. Srisailam project – Krishna river
2. Tankpur project – Kali river
3. Koteshwar Hydel project Maharashtra :
4. Deosari dam project – (Pindar) Alalenanda River Ba- 1. Koyana project – Koyna river
sin 2. Jaikwadi project – Godavari river
5. Deoramori project – Tons river 3. Girna project –Girna river

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Karnataka :

GEOGRAPHY
IMPORTANT PLACES ON RIVER BANKS
1. Kalinadi project – Kalinadi river
Place State River
2. Sharavati project – Sharavati river
3. Shivasamudram project – Kaveri river Agra Uttar Pradesh Yamuna
4. Bhadra project – Bhadra river Ahmedabad Gujarat Sabarmati
5. Ghataprabha project – Ghataprapha river
6. Almati project – Krishna river Allahabad Uttar Pradesh Confluence of
Ganga Yamuna
7. Tungbhadra project – Tungbhadra river
& Saraswati
Tamil Nadu :
Alwaye Kerala Periyar
1. Mettur project – Kaveri river
2. Kunda project – Kunda river Ayodhya Uttar Pradesh Saryu
3. Papanasm project – Tamraparni river Badrinath Uttarakhand Alaknanda
4. Paikara project – Paikara river
Bhagalpur Bihar Ganga
5. Periyar project – Periyar river
Buxar Bihar Ganga
Manipur :
Kolkata West Bengal Hooghly
1. Loktak project – Manipur river
2. Tipaimukh project – Barak river Cuttack Odisha Mahanadi
Delhi Delhi Yamuna
Kerala :
1. Idukki project – Periyar river Dibrugarh Assam Brahmaputra
2. Sabarigiri project – Pamba river Ferozepur Punjab Satluj
3. Pallivasal project – Madirapuzha river
Guwahati Assam Brahmaputra
4. Parimbkulam Aliyar project
Haridwar Uttarakhand Ganga
Nagaland :
Haora West Bengal Hooghly
1. Doyang project – Doyang river (a tributary of the
Brahmaputra). Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh, Musi
Telangana
Mizoram :
Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh Narmada
1. Dhaleshwari project – Dhaleshwari river
2. Tuiral project – Tuirial river Kanpur Uttar Pradesh Ganga
3. Tuibai project – Tuibai river Ludhiana Punjab Satluj
Meghalaya : Mathura Uttar Pradesh Yamuna
1. Kardamkulai project Moradabad Uttar Pradesh Ramganga
Sikkim : Munger Bihar Ganga
1. Rangit project – Rangit river Nasik Maharashtra Godavari
2. Tista project – Tista river
Patna Bihar Ganga
RIVER WATER DISPUTES AND STATES INVOLVED Srinagar Jammu & Kashmir Jhelum
Dispute States Involved Surat Gujarat Tapti
Krishna Water dispute Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka Tiruchirapalli Tamil Nadu Cauvery
and Maharashtra
Vijayawada Andhra Pradesh Krishna
Mahadayi/Mandovi Wa- Goa, Karnataka and Maha-
ter dispute rashtra Varanasi Uttar Pradesh Ganga
Vansadhara Water dis- Andhra Pradesh and Odisha Sekobabad Assam Brahmaputra
pute
Srirangaptanam Karnataka Kaveri
Cauvery Water dispute Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Ker- (River Island )
ala and Puducherry
Kurnool Karnataka Tungabhadra
Babhali Barrage issue Andhra Pradesh and Maha-
rashtra
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
Mulla Periyar Dam issue Tamilnadu and Kerala
Godavari water dispute Maharashtra, Andhra MAJOR INDIAN FOREST TYPES
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, (1) TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST
Odisha, Karnataka
 Region : Areas having 200-300 cm or more annual
Narmada water dispute Rajasthan, Madhya rainfall such as windward side of Western Ghats,
Pradesh, Maharash-tra, North-Eastern hills of India, Andaman and Nicobar
Gujarat Islands.

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 Important trees : Rosewood, Shisham, Ebony, Ma- Bacampahar : Odisha

GEOGRAPHY

hogany, etc. Barbil : Odisha

(2) Tropical Monsoon Forests Mayurbhanj : Odisha
 Region : Areas having annual rainfall between 100- Joda : Odisha
200 cm ( in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Keonjhar : Odisha
Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka). Banspani : Odisha
 Important trees : Sal, Teak, Sandalwood, Myrobal-
Bababudan hills : Karnataka
an, Bamboo, Rosewood, Ebony, Shisham, etc.
Kundremukh : Karnataka
(3) Tidal or Littoral Forests
Sandur range : Karnataka
 Region : Areas of West Bengal, Andaman and Nico-
bar, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh having annual rain- Bangarkal : Karnataka
fall above 200cm. ( deltaic regions). Bhandara : Maharashtra
 Important trees : Sundari Ratnagiri : Maharashtra
(4) Montane Forests Pansiraburu : Jharkhand
 Region : Eastern and Western Himalayas and Nilgiri, Bandaburu : Jharkhand
regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Noamundi : Jharkhand
Uttarakhand, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Singhbhum : Jharkhand
 Important trees : The type of trees depends on the Pirna-Adolpale-Asnora : Goa
height of mountain: Sal ( lower Shiwalik range); Chir Sanquelins onda : Goa
( higher range); and Pine, Cedar, Fir, Spruce,( 1,600- Kundem-surla : Goa
3,300m). Sirigaon : Goa
(5) Thorn Forests Bicholim-dalda : Goa
 Region: Areas of Rajashtan, Punjab and Gujarat
Nathrapal : Rajasthan
having annual rainfall between 25 to 80cm.
 Important trees : Khajuri, Khair, Kikar and babool. Top 5 Producing States
 According to forest Report-219, the total forest cover 1. Karnataka 2. Chhattisgarh
of the country is 7,12,249 sq.km. which is 21.67% of 3. Odisha 4. Goa
the geographical area of the country.
5. Jharkhand
MINERALS Top reserver states
Iron Ore 1. Jharkhand 2. Orissa
³³ Iron ore is not found in pure form. It is often found 3. Karnataka
mixed with lime, magnesium, phosphorus, silica etc.
Industry Supply of Iron Ore
Types of Iron Ore Durgapur (WB) Plateau of Chotanagpur and
³³ Haematite : This is called ironoxide. Its metallic Odisha
content varies between 60-70 percent. Raurkela (Odisha) Keonjhar, Bonai
³³ It is mainly found in the Dharwarian rocks.
³³ Its main deposit is in Jharkhand and Odisha Bhilai (Chhattisgarh) Dallirajhara
³³ Magnetite : It is known as 'black ore'. Bokaro (Jharkhand) Odisha
³³ This is the lighest quality of Iron ore. Jamshedpur (WB) Gurumahisani, Mayurbhanj
³³ The metal content of magnetite varies between 65-
75%. Bhadrawati (Karnataka) Bababudan hills
³³ It is mainly found in Dharwad and Cuddapah system Vishakhapttanam (AP) Bailadila
of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu.
Paradip (Odisha) Keonjhar
³³ Limonite : It is yellowish in colour.
³³ It is known as the 'hydrated iron-oxide'. Copper
³³ It is inferior and contains 35-50% of metal. ³³ It is mainly used in electrical machinery, automobiles,
³³ It is found in Damuda series in Raniganj coal fields, stainless steel etc.
Mirazapur (UP), Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh. ³³ When alloyed with zinc it is known as 'brass'.
³³ Siderite : ³³ When alloyed with tin, called 'bronze'.
³³ It contains many impurities and has just 35-40%
pure iron. Places/Mines of Copper
³³ However due to presence of lime, it is self Malajkhand : Madhya Pradesh
fluxing. Taregaon : Madhya Pradesh
Mines of Iron ore Khetri : Rajasthan
Dallirajhara : Chhattisgarh Singhana : Rajasthan
Bailadila : Chhattisgarh Khodariba : Rajasthan
Gurumahisani : Odisha Raghunathpura : Rajasthan
Pompad : Odisha Mosabani : Jharkhand

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Dhobani : Jharkhand 2. Rajasthan

GEOGRAPHY
Surda : Jharkhand 3. Jharkhand
Pathargoda : Jharkhand
Lead
Sonmukhi : Jharkhand
³³ It is widely used because of its heaviness, malleability,
Agnigundal : Andhra Pradesh softness and bad conductivity of heat.
Rangpo : Sikkim ³³ It does not occur free in nature
Bhotang : Sikkim Producing States :
Khammam : Telangana ³³ Rajasthan : Rajasthan is the leading producer of lead.
Pandharpur : Maharashtra ³³ It is mined in Udaipur, Dungarpur, Banswara and
Hassan : Karnataka Alwar.
³³ Jharkhand : Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Singhbhum
Top Producing States Top Reserve States ³³ Madhya Pradesh : Gwalior, Hoshangabad, Shivpuri
1. Madhya Pradesh 1. Rajasthan ³³ Himachal Pradesh : Kangra, Kulu
2. Rajasthan 2. Madhya Pradesh ³³ Jammu and Kashmir : Baramula, Udhampur
3. Jharkhand 3. Jharkhand ³³ West Bengal : Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling

Manganese Bauxite
³³ It is mainly used as an abrasive, also used in Stainless ³³ Aluminium is obtained from bauxite.
steel production, ferro alloys of iron and manganese. ³³ It is not a specific mineral.
³³ 90% manganese of India is found in gondite and ³³ It is a rock consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium
Kodurite series of the Dharwar rocks. oxide.
³³ About 50% Manganese is produced by Maharashtra Places/Mines
and Madhya Pradesh. Koraput : Odisha
Places/Mines of Manganese Kalahandi : Odisha
Kendujhar : Odisha Bolangir : Andhra Pradesh
Bonai : Odisha Sambhalpur : Andhra Pradesh
Kalahande : Odisha Gulf of Khambat and Kachchh : Gujarat
Gangapur : Odisha Dumka : Jharkhand
Barbil : Odisha Gunla : Jharkhand
Dhubna : Odisha Lohardaga : Jharkhand
Bhutra : Odisha Munger : Bihar
Ranchi : Jharkhand
Koraput : Odisha
Kolhapur : Maharashtra
Balaghat : Madhya Pradesh
Ratnagiri : Maharashtra
Jamarpain : Madhya Pradesh
Satara : Maharashtra
Chhindwara : Madhya Pradesh
Thane : Maharashtra
Bhandara : Maharashtra
Pune : Maharashtra
Sandoor hills : Karnataka
Raigarh : Chhattisgarh
Tumkur : Karnataka
Sarguja : Chhattisgarh
Top Producing States Top Reserve States
Amarkantak : Chhattisgarh
1. Odisha 1. Odisha
Top Producing States Top Reserve States
2. Maharashtra 2. Karnataka
1. Odisha 1. Odisha
3. Madhya Pradesh 3. Madhya Pradesh
2. Gujarat 2. Andhra Pradesh
4. Karnataka 4. Maharashtra
3. Jharkhand 3. Maharashtra
Mica : 4. Maharashtra 4. Chhattisharh
³³ India is the World’s leading producer of Mica and
accounts for about 60% of global Mica trade due to GOLD
which India is largest exporter of Mica in the world. ³³ It is known as an international currency.
³³ Mica is a non-metalic mineral. ³³ There are three gold fields in India—
³³ Mica finds its application in electrical and electronic 1. Kolar — Karnataka
industry as an insulator. 2. Hutti — Karnataka
³³ Statewise Mica production (in descending order) 3. Ramgiri — Andhra Pradesh
1. Andhra Pradesh (Approx. 72% of the national ³³ Karnataka stands first in the reserves and production
production) of gold in India.

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³³ It is obtained mainly from Kolar, Dharwar, Hassan Gypsum :

GEOGRAPHY

and Raichur districts. ³³ It is used mainly in the production of cement, plaster

³³ Andhra Pradesh is the 2nd largest producing state of paris and fertilizers.
in India. ³³ By and large, the entire production of Gypsum was
³³ The main depostits of gold in Andhra are found in reported from Rajasthan (99%). The remaining 1% was
Ramgiri, Chittoor and Kurnool districts. from Jammu and Kashmir and Gujarat.
³³ In Jharkhand, Subarnarekha river has traces of gold.
Monazite
Places/Mines of Diamond
Locality States Locality States
Anantpur : Andhra Pradesh
Cuddapa : Andhra Pradesh Nellore Andhra Monghyr Bihar
Guntur : Andhra Pradesh Ajmer Rajasthan Bhilwara Rajasthan
Panna : Madhya Pradesh
Sikar Rajasthan
Behradin : Chhattisgarh
Kodwali area : Chhattisgarh Nickel :
³³ About 92% nickel of India is found in Odisha and rest in
Tokapoul : Chhattisgarh
Jharkhand, Kerala, Karnataka, etc.
Duga poul : Chhattisgarh
Locality States Locality States
Top Producing States Top Reserver States
Ukkam Jharkhand Dhaba hills Jharkhand
1. Madhya Pradesh 1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Andhra Pradesh 2. Madhya Pradesh Singhbhum Jharkhand Cannore Kerala
3. Chhattisgarh 3. Odisha Simlipal Odisha Mayurbhanj Odisha
4. Chhattisgarh Keonjhar Odisha
Silver : Asbestos :
³³ Silver is generally found in a mixed form with ores ³³ Two different mineralas are included under this name :
like zinc, lead and copper. Amphibole and chrysotile.
³³ Zawar area of Rajasthan, Kolar and Chitradurg areas ³³ Chrysotile accounts for 80% of the asbestos of commercial
of Karnataka and district of Cuddapah, Guntur and use.
Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh are famous for production ³³ Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer and accounts for
of silver. almost 100% of the total production in India.
³³ At present, Rajasthan is producing 99 % silver of the
country. Marble :
³³ It is metamorphic rock.
SOME OTHER MINERALS ³³ It is used mainly in building construction.
Chromite : Odisha stands first in the production of Chro- ³³ The Makrana area of Nagore district in Rajasthan is famous
mite in India. for its production.
Locality States Locality States ³³ Rajasthan is the largest producer, followed by the
Madhya Pradesh.
Kondapalli Andhra Rorburu Jharkhand
Pradesh Tin :
³³ It is used in metallurgy.
Kiriburu Jharkhand Tojohatu Jharkhand
³³ Chhattisgarh is the foremost producer of tin.
Sukinda Odisha Katpal Odisha
ENERGY RESOURCES
Sindhuvalli Karnataka Byarapur Karnataka
Zinc : Coal
³³ It is used in galvanisation, dry cell, etc industries. ³³ It is found in sedimentary rocks.
³³ Mochia-Magra area, Rajsamand and Chittor are major ³³ It originated in carboniferous age.
zinc producing areas in Rajasthan. ³³ It contributes for 80% of energy production.
³³ Almost total production of zinc in the country is done ³³ India rank 3rd in the world after China and USA (IBM
in Rajasthan. 2014-15) in coal usage.
³³ Approximately 80% of coal deposits are of bituminous
Dolomite :
type in India.
³³ It is a mixture of lime-stone and magnesium.
³³ Iron and steel industry is the chief consumer of Mines/areas
dolomite accounting for over 90% consumption ³³ Gondwana coal area : It is found in Damodar,
followed by fertilizer (4%), ferror-alloys and glass (2%) Mahanadi, Godavari and Narmada valleys.
and alloy steel (1%). ³³ Over 98% of the total coal reserves of India belong to
³³ Chattisgarh is the largest producer (30%) of dolomite the Gondwana land period.
followed by Andhra Pradesh (25%) and Odisha (19%). ³³ The Gondwana coal is mainly bituminous or
Anthracite.

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 Geography

³³ Raniganj coal area : It is India's biggest coal field. ³³ Gujarat coast : 3rd largest oil producing of the

GEOGRAPHY
³³ 35% coal is received from here. country.
³³ It is in West Bengal. Ankleshwar : Gujarat
Lune : Gujarat
³³ Giridih coal area : It is in Jharkhand.
Mehsana : Gujarat
³³ Jharia coal area : It is the biggest coal production
area in Jharkhand.
Kalol : Gujarat
Kosamba : Gujarat
Bokaro
: Jharkhand
The Brahmaputra Valley
Karanpura : Jharkhand
³³ Crude oil was first discovered in the Brahmaputra
Korba : Chhattisgarh valley.
Tatapani : Chhattisgarh ³³ The oil bearing rocks are spread from the Dihang
Raigarh : Chhattisgarh Basin up to the Swime Valley.
³³ The Naharkatia oil field : This oil field lies the south
Top Producing States Top Reserve States west of Digboi.
1. Jharkhand 1. Jharkhand ³³ Arunachal Pradesh : Manabhum, Kharasang and
Charali.
2. Chhattisgarh 2. Odisha
³³ Rajasthan : In Rajasthan, oil discoveries were made
3. Odisha 3. Chhattisgarh by British Agency cairn in Burmen district.
4. Madhya Pradesh 4. West Bengal
Petroleum Refineries :
5. Andhra Pradesh 5. Madhya Pradesh
1. Indian oil corporation ltd. Guwahati
Top Producing States Top Reserve States 2. Indian oil corporation ltd. Digboi
of lignite coal of lignite coal
3. Indian oil corporation ltd. Bongaigaon
1. Tamil Nadu 1. Tamil Nadu 4. Indian oil corporation ltd. Koyali
2. Gujarat 2. Rajasthan (Gujarat)
3. Rajasthan 3. Gujarat 5. Indian oil corporation ltd. Haldia
Mines of lignite coal : 6. Indian oil corporation ltd. Mathura
Mannargudi : Tamilnadu 7. Indian oil corporation ltd. Panipat
Neyveli : Tamilnadu
8. Indian oil corporation ltd. Barauni
Palana : Rajasthan
9. Hindustan Petroleum corporation Mumbai
Jellippa : Rajasthan
Sonari : Rajasthan 10. Hindustan Petroleum corporation Vishakha-
pattanam
Industry Supply of coal
11. Bharat Petroleum corporation Kochi
Durgapur Barakar, Jharia, Raniganj
12. Bharat Petroleum corporation Mumbai
Raurkela Jharia, Talchar
13. Chennai Petroleum corporation Manali
Bhilai Jharia, Bokaro, Korba
14. Chennai Petroleum corporation Nagapatta-
Bokaro Jharia, Kargali nam
Jamshedpur Jharia 15. Numaligarh Refinery Ltd. Numaligarh
Bhadrawati Western Ghat (Assam)
Vishakhapattanam from Australia 16. Oil and Natural Gas corporation Tatipaka
Paradip Jharia, Talchar (Andhra
Pradesh)
Petroleum
17. Mangalore Refinery Ltd. Mangalore
³³ It is of Organic Compounds (Material).
³³ It is found in sedimentary basins. 18. BOPL Beena
³³ Assam is the oldest oil producer of India. 19. HPCL + Arsseler Mittal Bhatinda
³³ Oil was first discovered at Makum in 1867 in Assam. (Punjab)
Oil fields 20. Reliance Industries Ltd. Jamnagar
³³ Bombay High : ONGC has discovered oil in 1974 21. Reliance petroleum Ltd. Jamnagar
³³ 2/3 oil is produced here. (SEZ)
³³ It is the largest petroleum production oil field in India. 22. Essar Oil Ltd Vadinar
³³ Basin deposits of oil and natural gas.

OLE - 247
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

POWER RESOURCES IN INDIA ³³ The shallow and coarse grained soils of Telangana and
GEOGRAPHY

the dry regions of Rajasthan do not provide a base for

³³ There are three major means of electrical energy
developed agriculture.
production in India-thermal energy, hydro-electrical
energy and atomic energy. Also Renewable Energy ³³ The process of soil formation is known as Pedogenesis.
is emerging as the major source of electricity which ³³ The process of soil formation depends upon factors
contribute about 10% energy production of India. like Parent material, Relief, Climate and Natural
Use of Resources for Electricity production in India. Vegetation.
MAJOR SOIL TYPES OF INDIA
S. No. Resources (Fuel) Percentage
³³ All India Soil Survey Committee has divided the Indian
1. Thermal (total) 64.98 % soils into eight major groups. They are (1) Alluvial
soils, (2) Black soils, (3) Red soils, (4) Laterite and
(a) Coal 54.09% Lateritic soils, (5) Forest and Mountain soils, (6) Arid
(b) Gas (Natural Gas) 10.20% and Desert soils, (7) Saline and Alkaline soils and, (8)
Peaty and Marshy-soils.
(c) Oil 0.69%
2. Hydro-electricity (Renewable) 21.64% SOME IMPORTANT SOIL TYPES

3. Nuclear 2.75% (1) ALLUVIAL SOILS

4. Renewable Energy Sources 10.63% ³³ These soils are generally confined to the river basins
and coastal plains.
Note : Renewable Energy sources, includes, Solar ener- ³³ These soils are very fertile soils.
gy, Wind energy, Tidal energy, Geothermal energy, Small ³³ These soils contribute significantly to the development
Hydro project, Biomass Gasifier, etc. of agriculture in India.
³³ The alluvial soils are fine-grained both in the areas
Sectorwise Consumption of Electricity (%) in India
of new alluvium (Khadar) as well as the old alluvium
(2020-21)
(Bangar).
Sl. No. Sector Consumption (%) ³³ These soils vary from sandy loam to clay in texture.
1. Industrial 42.7% ³³ They are generally rich in potash but poor in
phosphorus, nitrogen and humus.
2. Domestic 24 %
³³ The soils of North India are the examples of alluvial
3. Agriculture 17.7% soils.
4. Commercial 8% ³³ These soils cover about 22% parts of the total
geographical area of the country.These are azonal
5. Railways 1.5% soils.
6. Others 6.1% (2) BLACK SOILS
Atomic Power Stations in India ³³ The black soils are concentrated over the Deccan
lava tract.
Sl. Atomic power
Place ³³ These are also known as the ‘black cotton soils’ or
No. Station ‘Regur’ soils. These soils are famous for the cultivation
1. Tarapur Palghar district, Maharashtra of cotton.
³³ The black soils are generally clayey, deep and
2. Rawatbhata Kota district, Rajasthan impermeable.
3. Kalpakkam Kanchipuram district, Tamil ³³ Chemically the black soils consist of lime, iron,
Nadu. magnesium and alumina.
4. Narora Bulandshahar district, U.P. ³³ The black soil lack in phosphorus, nitrogen and or-
ganic matter.
5. Kakrapara Surat District, Gujarat ³³ Black soil is very retentive of moisture. It swells greatly
6. Kaiga North Kanara district, Kar- and becomes sticky when wet in rainy season.
nataka ³³ Black soils of uplands are of low fertility but they are
darker, deeper and richer in the valleys.
7. Kudankulam Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu
³³ Some of the major crops grown on the black soils are
cotton, wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia tobacco, castor,
SOILS IN INDIA sunflower and millets.
³³ Soil is a mixture of many solid, liquid and gaseous ³³ These soils are mainly found in Maharashtra, Western
substances. It forms the top most layer of earth’s Madhya Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Andhra
crust. Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
³³ In India there is a vast variety in the soil cover due to ³³ These soils are zonal.
differences in terrain and climatic conditions. (3) RED SOILS
³³ The densely-populated deltaic tract of West Bengal
³³ The reddish colour of the soil is due to the presence
and the coastal plain of Kerala have rich alluvial soils
and support flourishing agriculture. of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.

OLE - 248
 Geography

³³ The physical properties of these soils vary from region ³³ These soils are also called ‘reh’, ‘usar’ or ‘Kollar’.

GEOGRAPHY
to region. ³³ These soils are rich in sodium, calcium and
³³ Red soils are generally shallow and their pH value magnesium.
ranges from 6.6 to 8.0.
³³ These soils are deficient in nitrogen and lime.
³³ Red soils are poorer in quality as compared to Alluvial
soils. ³³ In coastal areas the coconut trees are found in plenty
³³ These soils are spread on almost the whole of Tamil in these soils.
Nadu, parts of Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra, (8) PEATY OR ORGANIC SOILS
eastern parts of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Odisha and Chhota-nagpur. ³³ These soils are dark, heavy and too much acidic.
³³ By and large, the red soils are poor in lime, magnesia, ³³ These soils are formed by deposition of too much
phosphates, nitrogen and humus, but are fairly rich organic matter in marshy areas.
in potash.
³³ These soils are found mainly in Alleppey district of
³³ In their chemical composition they are mainly Kerala, Almora in Uttarakhand, the Sunderbans delta
siliceous and luminous, with free quartz as sand,
the alkali content is fair, some parts being quite rich and other lower deltaic regions.
in potassium. AREAWISE CLASSIFICATION OF
³³ On the uplands, the red soils are thin, poor and INDIAN SOILS INTO THE
gravelly, sandy or stony and porous, but in the lower FOLLOWING ORDER AS PER THE USDA SOIL
areas they are rich, deep dark and fertile. TAXONOMY.
³³ These soils are zonal.
Sl. Area in
(4) LATERITE SOILS No. Soil (Thousand Percentage
³³ The laterite soils are formed due to the alternations of Hectares)
wet and dry season which leads to the leaching away
of the siliceous matter of the rocks. 1. Inceptisols 130372.90 39.74%
³³ The soils in the higher areas are generally more acidic 2. Entisols 92131.71 28.08 %
than in low lying areas.
3. Alfisols 44448.68 13.55%
³³ The main development of laterite soil has taken place
in the higher areas of the plateau. 4. Vertisols 27960.00 8.52%
³³ The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka,
5. Aridisols 14069.00 4.28%
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh. 6. Ultisols 8250.00 2.51%
³³ The laterite soils are poor in lime and magnesia and
7. Mollisols 1320.00 0.40%
deficient in Nitrogen.
8. Others 9503.10 2.92%
(5) MOUNTAIN OR FOREST SOILS
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
³³ These soils are rich in fossils but they are undecomposed
so, humic acid is formed and the soils became acidic. Crop Classification : Indian crops can be divided into
³³ These soils contain thin layers because of their following categories :
development on mountain slopes. 1. Food Crops : Rice, Wheat, Maize, Millets-Jowar,
³³ These soils are poor in potash, phosphours and lime. Bajra, Ragi, Pulses-Gram, Tur (Arhar).
They are less fertile. 2. Cash Crops : Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco,
³³ Plantations are done in these soils because of their Oilseeds, Groundnut, Linseed, Sesame, Castors-
being on the mountain slopes. Plantations of tea, eed, Rapeseed, Mustard etc.
coffee, spices and fruits are done in these soils in 3. Plantation Crops : Tea, Coffee, Spices, Cardamom,
India. Chillies, Ginger, Turmeric, Coconut, Arecanut and
³³ These soils are affected by the problem of erosion. Rubber.
4. Horticulture : Fruits-Apple, Peach, Pear, Aprecot,
(6) DESERT OR ARID SOILS
Almond, Strawberry, Walnut, Mangao, Banana,
³³ These are infertile soils which are alkaline in nature. Citrus Fruits and Vegetables.
³³ These are sandy soils in which iron and phosphorous
CROPPING SEASON
are enough but there is a deficiency of nitrogen and
humus. 1. KHARIF CROPS
³³ Coarse cereals such as jowar, bajra, ragi etc and ³³ These are sown (in June or early July) with the com-
oilseeds are produced in these soils. mencement of south-west monsoon and are harvested
(7) SALINE AND ALKALINE SOILS by the end of monsoon or autumn (September/October).
³³ The major kharif crops are rice, jowar, maize, cotton,
³³ The development of these soils has happened in those groundnut, jute, hemp, tobacco, bajra, sugarcane,
areas where dry climate is found and there is lack of pulses, forage grasses, green vegetables, chillies,
proper drainage. gourd, lady finger etc.

OLE - 249
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

2. RABI CROPS ³³ Sugarcane : U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu,

GEOGRAPHY

³³ These crops, grown in winter, require relatively cool Bihar, Bengal, Rajasthan and A.P.
climate during growth and warm climate during ³³ Oilseeds : Bihar, Odisha, U.P., Madhya Pradesh,
germination of their seeds and maturation. Therefore, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab.
sowing is done in November and crops are harvested ³³ Cotton : Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
in April-May. Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, W. Bengal,
³³ The major rabi corps are wheat, gram, and oilseeds Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
like mustard and rape seed. ³³ Jute : Assam, West Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
3. ZAID CROPS ³³ Tobacco : Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu,
Bihar, Karnataka, West Bengal, U.P. and Haryana.
³³ Besides these two dominant crops, a brief cropping
³³ Tea : Assam, W. Bengal, Meghalaya, Arunachal
season has been lately introduced in India mainly in
Pradesh, U.P., Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
irrigated areas where early-maturing crops, called zaid
crops, are grown between March and June. ³³ Coffee : Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
³³ The chief zaid crops are urad, moong, melons, water ³³ Coconut : Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
melons, cucumber, tuber vegetables etc. Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Odisha and West
Bengal.
LARGEST PRODUCERS OF MAJOR CROPS/ ³³ Rubber : Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. 95
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS per cent of the total output of rubber is produced in
Kerala.
Crops/ Crops/ ³³ Spices (Pepper) : Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
State State
Products Products
MAJOR INDUSTRIES AND ITS CENTRES
Rice West Bengal Soyabean Madhya
Pradesh ³³ Cotton Textiles : Mumbai, Sholapur, Nagpur,
in Maharashtra; Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara in
Wheat Uttar Pradesh Sunflower Karnataka Gujarat and Indore in M.P.; Chennai, Madurai and
Maize Andhra Pradesh Tea Assam Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu; Kanpur in U.P. and
Kolkata in West Bengal.
Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh Coffee Karnataka
³³ Jute Textiles : West Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh,
Cotton Gujarat Rubber Kerala U.P. and M.P.
Pulses Madhya Pradesh Pepper Karnataka ³³ Silk Textiles : Assam, Karnataka, Jharkhand,
Andhra Jammu & Kashmir, Odisha, U.P., M.P., W. Bengal,
G r o u n d - Gujarat Chillies
Bihar, Maharashtra and Punjab.
nut Pradesh
³³ Woollen Textiles : The chief centres of woollen textiles
Potato Uttar Pradesh Coconut Tamil are Punjab, U.P., Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Nadu Karnataka, West Bengal.
³³ Sugar Industry : U.P., Bihar and some centres are
Onion Maharashtra
there in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Punjab.
IMPORTANT CROPS AND
³³ Cement Industry : M.P., Rajasthan, Jharkhand,
THEIR PRODUCING AREAS Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,
³³ Rice : W. Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Tamil Nadu,
U.P. and Odisha has some factories also.
A.P., U.P., Maharashtra, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh ³³ Paper Industry : West Bengal, Maharashtra, U.P.,
and Punjab. Bihar, Odisha, Punjab, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra
³³ Wheat : Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Pradesh and Gujarat.
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat. ³³ Iron and Steel Industry : Jamshedpur, Bokaro
³³ Bajra : Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Madhya (Jharkhand), Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Durgapur, Hirapur,
Pradesh, U.P., Haryana, and Andhra Pradesh. Kulti, Burnpur (West Bengal), Rourkela (Orissa),
Bhadrawati (Karnataka) and Neyveli (Tamil Nadu).
³³ Jowar : Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, U.P., Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, ³³ Leather Industry : Chennai, Agra, Kolkata, Delhi,
and Maharashtra. Kanpur, Mumbai.
³³ Millets : Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, ³³ Aluminium : Alwaye (Kerala), Hirakund (Odisha),
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Haryana and the dry areas of Muri (Jharkhand), Renukoot (U.P.), Bailur (W.
Andhra Pradesh. Bengal), Koyna Mettur (Tamil Nadu) and Odisha.
³³ Maize : Bihar, U.P., Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra ³³ Matches : Bareilly, Kolkata, Chennai, Gwalior and
and Gujarat. Hyderabad.
³³ Pulses : Punjab, Haryana, Rajashtan, Andhra ³³ Photo Film Industry : Octacamund (Tamil Nadu).
Pradesh, M.P., U.P., Odisha, Maharashtra and ³³ Glass : Ferozabad, Shikohabad, Naini, Howrah,
Karnataka. Bangalore, Bahjoi, and Belgaon.

OLE - 250
 Geography

³³ Chemical Industry : Delhi, Pimpri, Pune, Kolkata, ³³ Mirzapur : Carpet, pottery, stoneware and brass.

GEOGRAPHY
Mumbai, Chennai, Rishikesh, Bangalore and ³³ Moradabad : Brassware, cutlery, enamel industry.
Amritsar.
³³ Karnataka : Sandalwood oil, ivory work, silk goods.
³³ Rubber-Goods Industry : Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi,
³³ Renukoot : Hindustan Aluminium Works.
Bangalore, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Ballabhgarh.
³³ Locomotive Industry : Chittaranjan (West Bengal), ³³ Saharanpur : Paper mill.
Varanasi in U.P., Perambur (Tamil Nadu). ³³ Srinagar : H.M.T. factory, wood-work, embroidery,
³³ Automobile Industry : Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, paper machine, woolen shawls.
and Jamshedpur. ³³ Surat : Cotton textiles.
³³ Antibiotic Industry : Rishikesh, Pimpri and Delhi. ³³ Tarapur : Atomic power plant.
³³ Aircraft Manufacturing Industry : Bangalore, ³³ Titagarh : Paper and jute.
Kanpur, Nasik, Koraput and Hyderabad. ³³ Trombay : Oil refineries, atomic-reactors.
³³ Fertilisers Industry : Durgapur, Kanpur, Foolpur
³³ Varanasi : Diesel-locomotives, brass-wares, lac
(Uttar Pradesh), Haldia, Namrup, Rourkela, Vadodara,
bangles.
Barauni, Vishakhapatnam, Gorakhpur, etc.
³³ Plastic Industry : Mumbai, Kolkata, Amritsar, ³³ Vishakhapatnam : Ship-bulding.
Kanpur, Hyderabad and Coimbatore. LAKES OF INDIA
³³ Petro-Chemical Industry : Vadodara and Mumbai
State/UT Lakes
Bongaigoan, Assam.
Andhra Pradesh Kolleru Lake, Pulicat Lake
TOWNS ASSOCIATED WITH INDUSTRIES
Arunachal Pradesh Sela Lake, Gango Lake
³³ Agra : Stoneware, leather, carpets and marbles.
³³ Ahmedabad : Cotton-textiles. Assam Chandubi Lake, Deepor Beel,
³³ Aligarh : Cutlery, locks and dairy-industries. Son Beel
³³ Ambala : Scientific goods. Bihar Kanwar Lake Bird Sanctuary
³³ Amritsar : Cloth-printing, carpets, woollen goods, Chandigarh Sukhna Lake
shawls.
³³ Bangalore : Watches, telephone, aircraft industry. Gujarat Hamirsar Lake, Kankaria, Nal
³³ Bareilly : Rubber factory, match factory, wood work. Sarovar, Narayan Sarovar, Sardar
Sarovar, Thol lake, Vastrapur
³³ Bhagalpur : Silk.
lake.
³³ Chennai : Integral coach factory, leather, cigarette,
cotton. Haryana Badkhala Lake, Blue Bird Lake,
³³ Mumbai : Chemicals, oil refineries, fertilisers, film Brahma Sarovar, Damdama Lake,
industry, woollen goods, cotton manufacturing. Karna Lake, Sannihit Sarovar,
³³ Chittaranjan : Electrical locomotives. Surajkund, Tilgar Lake.
³³ Churk : Cement.
Himachal Pradesh Maharana Pratap Sagar, Pandoh
³³ Cochin : Coffee, coconut, oil, ship-building.
Lake, Gobind Sagar, Renuka
³³ Dalmianagar : Cement.
Lake, Macchial Lake, Khajjar
³³ Darjeeling : Tea, orange.
Lake, Kumarwah Lake, Prashar
³³ Delhi : Textiles, chemicals, electronics, sewing
Lake, Dehnasar Lake, Nako Lake,
machines.
Chandra Tal, Suraj Tal, Dhankar
³³ Dhariwal : Woollen goods.
Lake, Dashair, Bringhu Lake,
³³ Ferozabad : Glass-bangles.
Manimahesh Lake, Ghadhasaru
³³ Haridwar : Heavy electricals.
Lake, Mahakali Lake, Lama Dal,
³³ Jamshedpur : Iron and steel works, train coaches
Chander Naun, Kareri Lake, Re-
locomotives.
walsar
³³ Jalandhar : Sports articles and surgical goods.
³³ Jaipur : Ivory work, brass work, jewellery, pottery, Jammu and Kash- Anchar Lake, Dal Lake, Manasbal
cloth painting. mir Lake, Mansar Lake, Pangong Tso
³³ Kolkata : Iron and steel, jute, paper, pottery. Sheshnag Lake, Tso Moriri, Wular
Lake
³³ Kanpur : Leather, cotton, aircraft factories, woollen
mills, soap, iron, flour mills. Karnataka Hebbal Lake, Ulsoor Lake, Bel-
³³ Kolar : Gold-fields. landur Lake, Agara Lake, Shanti
³³ Lucknow : Embroidery, gold, silver, lac work. Sagar, Karanji, Honnamana Kere,
Pampa Sarovar.
³³ Ludhiana : Hosiery, cycle.

OLE - 251
 One Liner Approach General knowledge
GEOGRAPHY

Kerala Ashtamudi Lake, Kuttanand WATERFALLS

Lake, Manaanchira, Padinjare-
Vantang Water falls : Mizoram
chira, Paravcirkayal, Punnamada
Lake, Shasthamkotta Lake, Vada- Nohkalikai Water falls : Shilong
kkechira, Vanchikulam, Vellayani Sadthum Water falls : Meghalaya
Lake.
Karansuri Water falls : Meghalaya
Madhya Pradesh Bhojtal, Lower Lake, Upper Lake, Tyarchi Water falls : Meghalaya
Tawa Reservoir
Munri Water falls : Meghalaya
Maharashtra Gorewada Lake, Khindsi Lake,
Elephant Water falls : Meghalaya
Lonar Lake, Pashan, Powai Lake,
Rankala, Salim Ali Lake, Shi- Akashiganga Water falls : Assam
vasagar Lake, Tolao Poli, Upvan Champawati Water falls : Assam
Lake, Venna Lake Shivakundra Water falls : Assam
Manipur Loktak Lake (Keibul Lamjao Na- Arvalam Falls : Goa
tional Park)
Dudhsagar Falls : Goa
Meghalaya Umiam Lake
Karnataka
Mizoram Palak dil, Tam dil
Apsarakonda Falls Abbey Falls
Odisha Anshupa Lake, Chilka Lake, Kan-
Barkana Falls Bennehole Falls
jia Lake
Burude Falls Chunchana katte Falls
Puducherry Bahour Lake
Chelavaram Falls Dabbe Falls
Punjab Harike Wetland, Kanjili Wetland, Dondole Falls Gokak Falls
Ropar Wetland Godchinamalaki Falls Hebbe Falls
Rajasthan Ana Sagar, Balsamand Lake, Irupa Falls Jog Falls
Dhebar Lake, Jaisamand Lake, Lalguli Falls Mallali Falls
Jal Mahal Lake, Kalyana Lake,
Nisargadhana Falls Shanti Falls
Lake Foy Sagar, Loonkaransar,
Nakki Lake, Pachpadra Lake, Kerala
Pushkar Lake, Rajsamand Lake, Ananthoni Falls Kaalakkayam Falls
Ramgarh Lake, Sambhar Lake, Meenmutty Falls Nyayanad Falls
Talwara Lake, Ummed Sagar.
Soochipare Falls
Sikkim Gurudongmar Lake, Kheche-
Tamil Nadu
opalri Lake, Lake Cholamu, Lake
Tsongmo Aintharuvi Falls Catherine Falls
Tamil Nadu Berijam Lake, Chembaram bak- Elk Falls Fairy Falls
kam Lake, Kaliveli Lake, Kodai- Fairy Falls Hogenakal Falls
kanal Lake, Ooty lake, Perumal Kolakambai Falls Palar Falls
Eri, Red Hills Lake, Sholavaram Perriyar Falls Suruli Falls
Lake, Singanallur Lake, Veera- Vattaparai Falls
nam Lake Maharashtra
Telangana Durgam cheruvu, Himayat Sagar, Amboli Ghat Falls Dudhsar Falls
Hussain Sagar, Mir Alam Tank, Dhobi Falls Lingamala Falls
Osmar Sagar, Shamirpet Lake Mandakini Falls Ramtirtha Falls
Uttar Pradesh Barua Sagar Tal, Belasagar Lake, Madhya Pradesh
Amakhera Lake, Keetham Lake,
Dhuandhar Falls Dugdhadhara Falls
Ramgarh Tal Lake, Bhadital Lake,
Sheikha Lake, Nachan Tal Kabildhar Falls Pandav Falls
Pawa Falls Keoti Falls
Uttarakhand Skeleton Lake, Sattal, Bhimatal,
Nainital, Naukuchiatal, Dodital Jharkhand
West Bengal Debar Lake, East Calcutta Wet- Dassam Falls Dharagiri Falls
lands, Jore Pokhri, Mirik Lake, Gur Falls Hirni Falls
Rabindra Sarobar, Rasikbil, San- Lodh Falls Sits Falls
tragacchi Lake, Senchal Lake. Hundru Falls

OLE - 252
 Geography

Himachal Pradesh

GEOGRAPHY
Dimasas Assam
Budla Waterfalls Bhagsu Waterfalls Angami Nagaland
Badri Waterfalls Chadwick Waterfalls
Nagas Assam, Nagaland
Rahla Waterfalls Sissu Waterfalls
Rengma Nagaland
Machhrial Waterfalls
Zeliang Nagaland
Bihar
Khasa Uttar Pradesh
Kakolat Falls Madhuvdhandam Falls
North Tank Falls Tharu Uttar Pradesh
Bhotia Uttar Pradesh
Chhattisgarh
Gaori Maharashtra
Chitrakoot Falls Teerathgarh Falls
Warli Maharashtra
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
Meena Rajashtan
³³ The present day population of the Indian Sub-
continent is supposed to have affinity to the following Lushai Tripura
racial groups : Kotwalia Gujarat
1. The Negrito Rabari Gujarat
2. The Proto-Australoids Kuki Manipur, Assam
3. The Mongoloids
Khamti Arunachal Pradesh, Assam
4. The Mediterraneans
Miri Arunachal Pradesh
5. The Brachycephalic
Tangin Arunachal Pradesh
6. The Nordics
Mishmi Arunachal Pradesh
TRIBES OF INDIA
Apatamis Arunachal Pradesh
Name State/Union Territory
Bhutias Sikkim
Agaria Madhya Pradesh
Limbu Sikkim
Saharia Rajasthan, M.P.
Lepcha Sikkim
Kol Madhya Pradesh
Gujjar Great Jammu & Kashmir
Muriyas Madhya Pradesh
Changpa Jammu & Kashmir
Birhor Jharkhand
Andamanese Andaman & Nicobar
Santhal Jharkhand, W.B., Odisha
Jarawas Andaman & Nicobar
Oraon Jharkhand, Odisha
Onges Andaman & Nicobar
Ho Jharkhand
Nicobaries Nicobar
Munda Jharkhand
Sentinelese Andaman & Nicobar
Khond Odisha
Shompens Andaman & Nicobar
Gaddis Himachal Pradesh
Toda Tamil Nadu
Pawi Mizoram
Kota Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
Hmar Meghalaya,
Kadar Tamil Nadu
Mizoram, Assam, Tripura,
Badaga Tamil Nadu
Jaintia Meghalaya
Paliyan Tamil Nadu
Garo Meghalaya
Irula Kerala, T.N.
Khasi Meghalaya, Assam
Uralis Kerala
Bodos Assam
Kanis Kerala
Karbi Assam
Chenchu Andhra Pradesh, Gugarat
Mikir Assam
Baiga Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat
Abhor Assam
Gond Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand,
Mishing Assam
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh
Rabhas Assam
Bhil Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat
Tiwa/Lalung Assam

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NATIONAL INSIGNIA
GEOGRAPHY

NATIONAL FLAG galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated

The National Flag is a horizontal tricolour of deep by intervening wheels over a bell shaped
saffron (Kesaria) at the top, white in the middle and dark lotus. Carved out of a single block of
green at the bottom in equal proportion. polished sandstone, the Capital is crowned
The ratio of width of the flag to its length by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra).
is two to three. In the centre of the In the state emblem, adopted by the
white band is a navy-blue wheel which Government of India on 26 January, 1950,
represents the Chakra. Its design is that only three lions are visible, the fourth being
of the wheel which appears on the abacus hidden from view. The wheel appears in
of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its relief in the centre of the abacus with a bull on right and
diameter approximates to the width of the white band a horse on left and the outlines of other wheels on extreme
and it has 24 spokes. The design of the National Flag right and left. The bell-shaped lotus has been omitted.
was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 22 The words ‘Satyameva Jayate’ have been taken from
July, 1947. ‘Mundaka Upanishad’, meaning ‘Truth Alone Triumphs’,
The tricolour was first born in the All India Congress are inscribed below the abacus in Devanagari script.
Committee (AICC) meeting at Bezwada in 1912, when
a flag was shown by an Andhra youth and improved NATIONAL ANTHEM
by Mahatma Gandhi with the addition of a white band The song Jana-gana-mana, composed originally in
and chakra. The ratio of the width (proportion) of the Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi
flag to its length is 2 : 3. All the three bands are of version by the Constituent Assembly as the National
equal width with deep saffron at the top, white in the Anthem of India on 24 January, 1950. It was first sung
middle and dark green at the bottom. The wheel in the on 27 December, 1911, at the Calcutta Session of the
middle, symbolises India’s ancient culture, dynamism Indian National Congress. The complete song consists of
and peaceful change.
five stanzas. The first stanza contains the full version of
White: Signifies Truth and Peace the National Anthem :
Green : Signifies Faith and Chivalry
Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he
Apart from non-statutory instructions issued by the Bharata-bhagya-vidhata
Government from time to time, display of the National Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha
Flag is governed by the provisions of the Emblems and Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act. 1950 (No. 12 of Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
1950) and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Uchchala-Jaladhi-taranga
Act, 1971 (No. 69 of 1971). The Flag Code of India 2002 is Tava shubha name jage,
an attempt to bring together all such laws, conventions, Tava shubha asisa mage,
Gahe tava jaya gatha,
practices and instructions for the guidance and benefit
Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
of all concerned.
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata
The Flag Code of India, 2002, took effect from 26
Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,
January, 2002, and superseded the ‘Flag Code of India’ Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!
as it existed. As per the provisions of the Flag Code of
Playing time of the full version of the National
India, 2002, there shall be no restriction on the display
Anthem is approximately 52 seconds. A short version
of the National Flag by members of general public, private
consisting of first and last lines of the stanza (playing
organisations, educational institutions, etc., except to the
time approximately 20 seconds) is also played on certain
extent provided in the Emblems and Names (Prevention
occasions.
of Improper Use) Act, 1950 and the Prevention of Insults
of National Honour Act, 1971 and any other laws enacted
NATIONAL SONG
on the subject.
The song Vande Mataram, composed in Sanskrit by
Bankimchandra Chatterji, was a source of inspiration to the
STATE EMBLEM
people in their struggle for freedom. It has an equal status
The state emblem is an adaptation from the Sarnath
with Jana-gana-mana. The first political occasion when
Lion Capital of Ashoka. In the original, there are four
it was sung was the 1896 session of the Indian National
lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with
Congress. The following is the text of its first stanza :
a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a

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 Geography

Vande Mataram! DOLPHIN : NATIONAL AQUATIC ANIMAL

GEOGRAPHY
Sujalam, suphalam, malayaja shitalam, The Centre on October 6, 2009 declared
Shasyashyamalam, Mataram!
the dolphin (Platanista gangetica) a National
Shubhrajyothsna
Aquatic Animal to save the rare freshwater
pulakitayaminim,
species from disappearing from the India’s
Phullakusumita drumadala
shobhinim, aqua map.
Suhasinim sumadhura NATIONAL FRUIT NATIONAL TREE
bhashinim,
Sukhadam varadam, Mataram!

NATIONAL ANIMAL
The magnificent tiger, Mango Banyan Tree
Panthera tigris, is a striped National Heritage Animal
animal. It has a thick yellow
³³ Central Government has declared Elephant as a
coat of fur with dark stripes. The
National Heritage animal.
combination of grace, strength,
agility and enormous power has earned the tiger its pride ³³ Ministry of Environment has issued a notification on
of place as the national animal of India. Out of eight 22 October, 2010 regarding this.
races of the species known, the Indian race, the Royal ³³ National Wildlife Board of India has given acceptance
Bengal Tiger, is found throughout the country except in on 13 October, 2010 in its Permanent Committee.
the north-western region and also in the neighbouring
countries, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. To check the NATIONAL CALENDAR
dwindling population of tigers in India, Project Tiger was The national calendar based on the Saka Era, with
launched in April 1973. So far, 48 tiger reserves have been Chaitra as its first month and a normal year of 365
established in the country under this project, covering an days was adopted from 22 March, 1957 along with the
area of 53,547 sq. kms. Gregorian calendar for the following official purposes:
Population of tigers has gone around 2500 in 2016 in (i) Gazette of India, (ii) news broadcast by All India Radio,
country. India is home to 70 percent of tigers in the world. (iii) calendars issued by the Government of India and (iv)
Government communications addressed to the members
NATIONAL BIRD
of the public.
The Indian Peacock, (Pavo
Dates of the national calendar have a permanent
cristatus), the national bird of
correspondence with dates of the Gregorian calendar, 1
India, is a colourful, swan-sized
Chaitra falling on 22 March normally and on 21 March
bird, with a fan-shaped crest of
feathers, a white patch under the in leap year.
eye and a long, slender neck. The male of the species is Saka Months Numbers of Corresponding Gregori-
more colourful than the female, with a glistening blue Day an Dates
breast and neck and a spectacular bronze-green tail of 1 Chaitra 30 (31 in March 22 (21 in leap
around 200 elongated feathers. The female is brownish, leap year year)
slightly smaller than the male and lacks the tail. The
1 Vaishaka 31 April 21
elaborate courtship dance of the male, fanning out the tail
and preening its feathers is a gorgeous sight. 1 Jyaishtha 31 May 22
The peacock is widely found in the Indian sub-
1 Asadha 31 June 22
continent from the south and east of the Indus river,
Jammu and Kashmir, east Assam, south Mizoram and 1 Shravana 31 July 23
the whole of the Indian peninsula. The Peacock enjoys
1 Bhadra Pad 31 August 23
protection from the people as it is never molested for
religious and sentimental reasons. It is fully protected 1 Ashvin 30 September 23
under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. 1 Kartika 30 October 23
NATIONAL FLOWER 1 Agrahayana 30 November 22
Lotus (Nelumbo nuciferra) is the National
1 Pausha 30 December 22
Flower of India. It is a sacred flower and
occupies a unique position in the art and 1 Magha 30 January 21
mythology of ancient India and has been 1 Phalguna 30 February 20
auspicious symbol of Indian culture since time immemorial.

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GEOGRAPHY

State Animals, Birds, Trees and Flowers of India

State/UT Animal Bird Tree Flower

Andhra Pradesh Black buck Indian Roller Neem Lotus

Arunachal Pradesh Mithun Great Hornbill Hollong Lady slipper Orchid

Assam One horned white winged Wood Duck Hollong Foxtail Orchids
Rhinoceros

Bihar Ox House Sparrow Peepal Kachnar

Chhattisgarh Wild Buffalo Hill Myna Sal Orchid

Goa Gaur Black Crested Bulbul Matti —

Gujarat Asiatic Lion Greater Flamingo Mango Marigold

Haryana Black buck Black Francolin Peepal Lotus

Himachal Pradesh Snow Leopard Western Tragopan Deodar Rhododendron

Jammu & Kashmir Hangul Black Necked Crane Chinar Lotus

Jharkhand Elephant Koel Sal Palash

Karnataka Elephant Indian Roller Sandal Lotus

Kerala Elephant Great Hornbill Coconut Golden shower Tree

Madhya Pradesh Swamp Deer Asian Paradise Banyan Parrot Tree

Fly Catcher

Maharashtra Giant Squirrel Yellow-Footed Green Pigeon Mango Jarul

Manipur Sangai Mrs. Hume’s Pheasant Toon Shirui Lily

Meghalaya Clouded Leopard Hill Myna White Teak Lady Slipper Orchid

Mizoram Serow Mrs. Hume’s Pheasant Iron Wood Red Vanda

Nagaland Mithun Blyth’s Tragopan Alder Rhododendron

Odisha Sambar Indian roller Banyan Lotus

Punjab Black Buck Northern Goshawk Sheesham —

Rajasthan Camel Great Indian Bustard Khejri Rohira

Sikkim Red panda Blood Pheasant Rohododendron Noble Orchid

Tamil Nadu Nilgiri Tahr Emerald Dove PalmyraPalm Kandhal

Telangana Deer Indian Roller Jammi Tangedu

Tripura Phayre’s Langur Green Imperial Pigeon Agar Nageshwar

Uttarakhand Musk Deer Himalayan Monal Burans Brahm Kamal

Uttar Pradesh Swamp Deer Sarus Crane Ashok Brahm Kamal

West Bengal Fishing cat White-Breasted Kingfisher Chatian Shephali

Andaman & Nicobar — — — —

Chandigarh — — — —

Dadra & Nagar Haveli — — — —

Daman & Diu — — — —

Delhi Nilgai House Sparrow — —

Lakshadweep — — — —

Puducherry Squirrel Asian Koel Vilva Tree Cannonball

Source : Ministry of Environment of India

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 Geography

North South and East-West corridor

GEOGRAPHY
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN
³³ Under National Highways Development Project (NHDP) North-South
INDIA
corridor will join from Srinagar to Kanyakumari and East-west corridor
Road Transport from Silchar to Porbandar composing and laning of 7522 km of National
Highway. Length of North-South corridor and East-West corridor is 4,000
³³ India has one of the largest road
km and 3,500 km respectively.
networks in the world. The total
³³ Jhansi is the junction of North-South and East-West Corridors.
length of the roads is approximately
46.9 lakh km. TOP TEN LONGEST NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF INDIA

National Highways Rank National Length In Between Major cities

Highway km on Route
³³ N a t i o n a l H i g h w a y s i s t h e
responsibility of the central 1 NH-7(44) 3745 Srinagar- Varanasi → Jabalpur → Nagpur
Government. India has 1,14,158 Kanyakumari → Hyderabad → Bengaluru→
km of NH connecting all the major Madurai → Kanyakumari
cities and state capitals as of
2. NH-6 1,949 Hajira - Hajira→ Surat → Dhule → Nag-
March 2018.
Kolkata pur → Raipur→ Sambalpur →
³³ The longest NH in India is 3745
Kolkata
km long NH–44
(Srinagar – Kanyakumari). 3. NH-5 1711 Kolkata- Kolkata →Bhubaneswar → Vi-
(16) Chennai sha-khapatnam → Vijayawada →
³³ The new NH-44 is the combination
Nellore → Chennai
of NH - 1A, 1, 2, 3, 7, 26 and NH
- 75. 4. NH-15 1,526 Pathankot- Pathankot → Amritsar →
³³ It passes through 12 states J & Samakhioli Bhatinda → Bikaner → Jaisalm-
er→ Samakhioli
K, HP, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi,
UP, MP, Maharashtra, Telangana, 5. NH-2 1,465 Delhi-Dank- Faridabad → Mathura → Agra
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and uni → Allahabad → Varanasi →
Tamil Nadu. (Kolkata) Aurangabad → Dhanbad→
Durgapur → Kolkata
³³ NH-7 passes through UP (120
km), MP (504 km), Maharashtra 6. NH-8 2,807 Delhi-Mum- Delhi → Gurgaon→ Jaipur →
(232 km), Telangana (504 km.), (48) bai Udaipur→ Gandhinagar→ Ahme-
Andhra Pradesh (250 km.), da-bad → Vadodara→ Surat →
Karnataka (125 km) Tamil Nadu Silvassa → Mumbai
(627 km). 7. NH-17 1,622 Panvel- Panvel → Panaji→ Ankola →
³³ NH 1 & 2 is called G.T. Road. (66) Kanyakumari Manglore → Kozhikode → Kochi
→ Kanyakumari
³³ Jawahar Tunnel is located in
NH1A. 8. NH-4 1,235 Mumbai - Mumbai → Pune→ Kolhapur →
³³ 47A is the smallest highway of Chennai Bangalore → Vellore → Chennai
India. Its length is only 6 km. This
9. NH-3 1,161 Agra - Mum- Agra → Gwalior→ Indore →
is in Kerala. bai Mumbai
³³ NH-15 passes through the desert
10. NH-31 1,125 Barhi-Guwa- Barhi → Begusarai→ Dalkhola
of Rajasthan.
hati → Siliguri→ Kokrajhar → Gu-
³³ Recently NH-7 renamed as NH-44. wahati
³³ Golden Quadrilateral (5846 km):
High quality road joining the four STATE HIGHWAY
megacities of the country (Delhi, ³³ State Highway is the responsibilty of State Government.
Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai)
³³ At Present, the total length of State Highways is 1,42,687 km.
is called as Golden Quadrilateral
³³ State having maximum roads (length wise)
Connecting National Highways.
Maharashtra > Uttar Pradesh > Odisha
(1) Delhi-Kolkata : NH-2
³³ State having maximum road density is Kerela.
(2) Mumbai -Delhi : NH-8
³³ State having minimum road density is Jammu and Kashmir.
(3) Mumbai -Chennai : NH-4
³³ In UTs Delhi has maximum road density.
(4) Chennai-Kolkata : NH -5

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GEOGRAPHY

Road Network of India (31 March, 2020)

Road classification Length (km) Share of Network length
1. National Highways 1,51,000 2.19%
2. State Highways 1,86,528 3.02%
3. District Roads 6,32,154 10.17%
4. Rural Roads 45,35,511 72.97%
5. Urban Roads 5,44,683 8.76%
6. Project Roads 3,54,921 5.70%
Total 62,15,797 100%
³³ Manali-Leh passes through Bara Lacha La is world’s highest motorable road.
³³ Asia’s biggest ropeway road way is in Gharahwal (Uttrakhand) this joins Joshmath and Auli. Its total length is 4 kms.

STATEWISE LIST OF NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF INDIA

STATE (KM) NATIONAL HIGHWAYS LENGTH
Andhra Pradesh 4, 5, 7, 9, 16, 18, 18A, 43, 63, 202, 205, 214, 214A , 219, 221, 222, 7029; 1780
(Inclu. Telangana) 234
Assam 31, 31B, 31C, 36, 37, 35A, 38, 39, 44, 51, 52, 52A, 52B, 53, 54, 61, 3575
62, 151, 152, 153, 154, 127B, 315A
Andman & Nicorbar Islands 223 331
Groups
Bihar 2, 19, 28, 28A, 30, 30A, 31, 57, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 98, 99, 4539
101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 131A, 327, 338A, 527

Chandigarh 21 15
Chhatisgarh 6, 16, 21A, 43, 78, 200, 202, 216, 217, 111, 221, 343 3078
Delhi 1, 2, 8, 10, 24, 236 80
Goa 4A, 17, 17A, 17B 262
Gujarat NI-1, 6, 8A, 8B, 8lC, 8D, 8E, 14, 15, 59, 113, 228, 3973
Haryana 1, 2, 8, 10, 21A, 22, 65. 71. 71a, 72, 73, 73A, 2557
Himachal Pradesh 1A, 20, 21, 21A, 22, 70, 72, 88, 73A, 305, 2396
Jammu & Kashmir 1A, 1B, 1C, 13 2319
Karnataka 4, 4A, 7, 9, 13, 17, 48, 63, 206, 207, 209, 212, 218, 234 6294
Kerala 17, 47, 47A, 49, 208A, 212, 213, 220 1812
Madhya Pradesh 3, 7, 12, 12A, 25, 26, 27, 59, 69, 75, 78, 79, 86, 92, 26B, 69A 927A 5185
Maharashtra 3, 4, 4B, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 16, 17, 50, 59, 204, 211, 222, 26B, 360 6335
Jharkhand 2, 6, 23, 31, 32, 33, 75, 78, 98, 99, 100, 114A, 333 2997
Manipur 39, 53, 150, 155, 102A, 102B, 137 1504
Meghalaya 40, 44, 51, 62, 127B 1204
Mizoram 44A, 54, 54A, 54B, 150, 154, 502A 1181
Nagaland 36, 39, 61, 150, 154, 502 1046
Odisha 5, 5A, 23, 42, 43, 60, 200, 201, 203, 215, 217 4685
Puducherry 45A, 66 64
Punjab 1, 1A, 10, 15, 20, 21, 22, 64, 70, 71, 95 2136
Rajasthan 3, 8, 11, 11A, 12, 14, 15, 65, 76, 79, 79A, 7806
89, 90, 113, 112, 114
Sikkim 31A, 310 309

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 Geography

GEOGRAPHY
Tamil Nadu 4, 5, 7, 7A, 45A, 45B, 46, 47, 49, 66, 67, 68, 5006
205, 207, 208, 209, 210, 219, 220, 226

Tripura 44, 44A 562

Uttrakhand 58, 72, 72A, 73, 74, 87, 94, 108, 109, 123, 119 2365

Uttar Pradesh 2, 2A, 3, 7, 11, 19, 24, 24A, 25, 25A, 26, 27, 7863
28, 29, 56, 56A, 56B, 58, 72, 72A, 73, 74,
75, 76, 86, 87, 91, 92, 93, 96, 97, 119, 231

West Bengal 2, 6, 31, 31A, 31C, 32, 34, 35, 41, 55, 60, 80, 2910
81A, 114A, 117, 116B, 231, 232

Dadra Nagar Haveli 448A 31

Daman Diu 448B, 251 22

BORDER ROAD ORGANISATION (BRO) (ii) Super National Highway No. 2 (Guru Gobind
³³ It was istablished in 1960. Singh Marg) : Amritsar to Chennai via
³³ It is under Defence Ministry, Central Government. Chandigarh-Delhi-Kanpur-Patna-Dhanbad-
³³ It was established for the development of roads of Kolkata-Bhubaneshwar-Channai.
strategic importance in the northern and north (iii) Super National Highway No. 3 (Sant Ravi Das
eastern borders of the country. Marg) : Pathankot to Jalandhar.
³³ At present this organisation is constructing bridge, (iv) Super National Highway No. 4 (Ravindra Nath
airfield and flats. Tagore Marg) : Patna to Guwahati
³³ BRO made roads in naxalite areas of Maharashtra (v) Super National Highway No. 5 (Bhagwan
under ‘Project Hirak’. Mahavir Marg) : Delhi to Bengaluru via Agra-
³³ Road were made by BRO in Bhutan under ‘Project Nagpur-Hyderabad
Dantak’. (vi) Super National Highway No. 6 (Bhagwan
INTERNATIONAL HIGHWAYS Parshuram Marg) : Mumbai to Dhanbad via
³³ These highways are formed under the agreement of Nagpur-Rourkela
the Economic and Social Commission on Asia and (vii) Super National Highway No. 7 (Swami Dayanand
Pacific (ESCAP). Marg) : Bengaluru to Chennai
³³ These highways are financed by the World Bank.
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORTS OF INDIA
³³ It connects India with its neighbouring countries .
³³ They are of two types : Indira Gandhi International Airport New Delhi
1. The main arterial routes linking the capitals of neigh-
bouring countries like _____. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Mumbai
(i) The Lahore - Mandalay (Myannar) route passing Airport
through Amritsar-Delhi-Agra-Kolkata-Golaghat- Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Kolkata
Imphal. International Airport
(ii) The Agra-Gwalior-Hyderabad-Bangalore-
Dhanushkodi road. Anna International Airport Chennai
(iii) The Barhi-Kathmandu road.
Chaudhary Charan Singh Lucknow
2. Route linking major cities—
International Airport
(i) Agra-Mumbai road
(ii) Delhi-Multan road Lal Bahadur Shastri International Varanasi
(iii) Bangalore-Chennai road Airport
(iv) Golaghat-Ledo road.
Jaipur International Airport Jaipur
SUPER NATIONAL HIGHWAY PROJECT
Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel Ahmedabad
³³ Connecting major ports and cities in the country.
International Airport
³³ To increase the traffic flow and accelerate the means
of transport. These are — Babasaheb Ambedkar International Nagpur
(i) Super National Highway No.1 (Maharaja Airport
Agrasen marg) : Delhi-Kanyakumari via Jaipur-
Udaipur-Ahmedabad-Mumbai-Pune-Bangaluru- Gopinath Bordoloi International Guwahati
Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram. Airport

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AIRWAYS
GEOGRAPHY

Sri Guru Ram Das Jee International Amritsar

Airport ³³ The ministry of civil Aviation is responsible for the
formulation of national policies and programmes for
Trivandrum International Airport Thiruvanant-
hapuram the development and regulation of civil aviation.
³³ In the Public sector there are Air India, Indian Airlines,
Calicut International Airport Kozhikode
Air India Charters Ltd., and Alliance Air.
Rajiv Gandhi International Airport Hyderabad
³³ The Air India was constitued in 1947.
Cochin International Airport Kochi
³³ In 1952 ; the Planning Commission recommended
Dabolini International Airport Goa the nationalization of Air Transport Industry which
Kempegoda International Airport Bengaluru was effected in 1953 with the creation of nationalized
Mangalore International Airport Mangalore corporations.
Coimbatore International Airport Coimbatore ³³ Indian Airlines was setup under the Air Corporation
Act, 1953 with its Head Quarters at Delhi.
Tiruchirapalli International Airport Tiruchirapalli
³³ Director General of Civil Aviation is the regulatory
Gaya International Airport Gaya
body for civil aviation in India.
Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Patna
³³ Rajiv Gandhi International Airport, Hyderabad is the
International Airport
first green Airport in Asia.
Pune Airport Pune
³³ Airport Authority of India was formed in 1995.
Visakhapatnam Airport Visakhapa-
³³ AAI in responsible for providing safe and efficient Air
tnam
Traffic Services; communication and navigational aids
Imphal International Airport Imphal at all the airports.
Shaheed Bhagat Singh International Chandigarh Greenfield Airport and Brown-filed Airport : Greenfield
Airport
Airport is a new airport built from scratch in a new
Bagdora Airport Siliguri location because the existing airport is unable to meet
Bhogapuram Airport Visakhapa- the projected requirement of traffic.
tnam (Future) The project which are modified or upgraded from ex-
Mopa Airport Goa (Future) isting facilities are called ‘brown field projects’.
Kannur International Airport Kannur (Future) WATER TRANSPORT
Navi Mumbai International Airport Navi Mumbai ³³ Waterways are the cheapest means of transport.
(Future)
³³ They provide 1% of total transport in India.
New Pune International Airport Pune (Future)
³³ Central Inland water ways Authority was set up in
Chennai International Chennai Airport 1986.
Jewar International Airport Jewar (UP) ³³ The head office of the authority is located at Noida.
Future
³³ There are two types of water ways— (1) Inland Water
Kannur International Airport Mattanur Ways, (2) Maritime Transport
Pakyong Airport Gangtok Inland Water Ways : Navigated by river, canals and
Mopa International Airport Goa (Future) lakes
Rajkot International Airport Rajkot (Future) ³³ Waterway from Haldia to Allahabad, was declared as
Bhogapuram International Airport Vizianagaram NW1 by the central government on 22 October, 1986.
(Future) ³³ India’ first multi-modal terminal on inland waterways
Cheyyur International Airport Cheyyur has been inaugurated in Varanasi.
(Tuture)
NATIONAL WATER WAYS IN THE COUNTRY
Ludhiana International Airport Ludhiyana
Out of the 111 National Waterways (NWs) declared
(Future)
under the National Waterways Act, 2016, 13 NWs are op-
* In August, 2015, Cochin International Airport be- erational for shipping and navigation and cargo/passen-
came the world’s first fully solar powered airport
ger vessels are moving on them. The details of operational
with the inauguration of a dedicated solar plant.
NWs are as follows :

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 Geography

GEOGRAPHY
National Waterways Length Location (s)
S.No.
(NW) No. (km)
1. NW-1 : Ganga Bhagirathi-Hooghly 1620 UP, Bihar, Jharkhand,
River system (Haldia- Allahabad) West Bengal
2. NW-2 ; Brahmaputra River (Dhubri- Sadiya) 891 Assam
3. NW-3 : West Coast Canal (Kottapuram 205 Kerala
–Kollam), Champakara and Udyogmandal Canals
4. NW-4 : Phase-1 development of the stretch stretch Muktiyala to 82 Andhra
Vijayawada of river Krishna Pradesh
Waterways in Maharashtra
5. (i) NW - 10 (Amba River) 45 Maharashtra
6. (ii) NW - 83 (Rajpuri Creek) 31
7. (iii) NW - 85 (Revadanda Creek- 31
Kundalika River system)
8. (iv) NW-91 (Shastri river- Jaigad creek system) 52 Maharashtra
9. National Waterways in Goa 41 Goa
10. NW-68-Mandovi-Usgaon Bridge to 50 Goa
Arabian Sea (41 km)
NW-111– Zuari- Sanvordem Bridge to Marmugao Port (50 km)
11. NW-73- Narmada river 226 Gujarat &
12. NW-100-Tapi river 436 Maharashtra
13. Sunderbans Waterways 172 West Bengal (Through In-
(NW-97) : Namkhana to Athara Bankikhal in West Bengal. do-Bangladesh Protocol
Route)
Three Multi-modal terminals have to be constructed ³³ Vishakhapattanam is the deepest landlocked port
on the National Waterways-1 (River Ganga) as a part of in India.
World Bank aided ‘Jal Marg Vikas Project’ of Inland wa- ³³ Chennai is the oldest artificial harbour.
terways authority of India. Its objective is to promote in- ³³ Ennore is India’s first corporate port.
land waterways as a cheap and an environment- friendly
Major Ports
means of transportation, especially for cargo movement.
These multi-modal terminals are as follows : 1. Mumbai
(i) Varanasi (ii) Sahibganj (iii) Haldia ³³ Natural port on west coast
Two multi-modal terminals have been constructed at ³³ It is the biggest port of India in terms of cargo
handling.
Varanasi and Sahibganj.
³³ It makes Mumbai the gateway of India.
³³ Ro-Ro Ferry Service : In Oct 2017, Phase 1 of the ‘roll-
³³ It handles 1/5th of India’s foreign trade.
on, roll-off (ro-ro)’ ferry service between Ghogha and
Dahaj was inaugurated in Gujarat. The term ro-ro is 2. Kandla
generally reserved for large occean-going vessels. The ³³ It is a tidal port
vessels have either built-in or shore based ramps that ³³ Developed to release pressure off the Mumbai port.
allow the cargo to be efficiently rolled on and off the ³³ It is located on eastern end of Gulf of Kachchh.
vessel when in part. This is in opposite to the lift-on 3. Marmagao
and lift-off (lo-lo) vessels, which use a crane to load ³³ It is located in Goa.
and unload cargo. ³³ It has a naval base.
Source : Pib. ³³ It is India’s leading iron-ore exporting port.
4. New Mangalore
PORTS
³³ Called the ‘Gateway of Karnataka’.
³³ There are 13 major and 185 medium and small ports ³³ Located at southern tip of Karnataka coast.
in India. ³³ Handles the export of iron-ore from Kundremukh.
³³ Major ports are under the jurisdiction of the central 5. Kochi
government while the minor and intermediate ports
³³ It is a natural harbour.
are managed and maintained by the respective state
³³ It is located on Kerala coast.
governments
³³ It is a ship building centre
³³ Minor ports are maximum in Maharashtra.
³³ Handles tea, coffee and spices.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

6. Tuticorin ³³ It is the largest public sector undertaking of the country.

GEOGRAPHY

³³ It came into existence during the ³³ Of the two main segments -freight and passenger-the freight segment
reign of Pandya kings. accounts for roughly two - third of revenues.
³³ It is located in Tamilnadu. ³³ Three types of rail gauges
³³ Artificial deep sea harbour. — Broad gauge – 1.676 m.
7. Ennore — Metre gauge – 1.00 m
³³ Developed to reduce pressure of
— Narrow gauge – 0.762 m
traffic off Chennai Port.
³³ It is the latest port. Connectivity to North Eastern States :
³³ It is country’s first corporate port.
³³ The Seven sister states of North Eastern India (Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland,
8. Chennai Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur & Arunachal Pradesh) have been connected by
³³ Oldest artificial harbour. Rail Network.
³³ Handles petroleum products,
³³ Meghalaya came on the rail map with the flagging off the first ever train
fertilizers and iron-ore.
from Guwahati to Mendipathar in Meghalaya on 29.11.2014.
9. Vishakhapatnam
³³ Deepest landlocked port ³³ Tripura has been put on broad gauge railway map for the first time on July
³³ Exports iron ore. 31, 2016. Agartala New Delhi ‘Tripura Sundari Express’ was flagged off.
³³ Located in Andhra pradesh. ³³ The Agartala - New Delhi Rajdhani Express was launched on 28 October,
10. Paradip 2017. It trudges the longest route (2, 422 km) for any Rajdhani Express
³³ Located on Odisha coast along in service.
the Bay of Bengal. ³³ Jiribam, the first railway station in Manipur was connected by broad
³³ Handles iron ore and coal. gauge line, on May 27, 2016
³³ It is deep water sea port.
11. Kolkata Connectivity to States Capitals :
³³ It is a riverine port. ³³ As per Indian Railways‘ vision for North cost region, all eight North East state
³³ Located on the bank of river capitals are to be linked with broad gauge rail link by 2020-21. Previously,
Hooghly in West Bengal. only Guwahati had broad gauge railway linkage. Further Arunachal Pradesh
12. Haldia and Tripura state capital has been connected.
³³ This port is located in West ³³ India’s tallest Rail bridge with pier height of 141 m is being constructed on
Bengal. Irang River at Noney in Tamenglong district, Manipur as part of Jiribam-
³³ This port has made for reducing Tupul-Imphal new line project. Its height will be almost equal to two Qutub
pressure off Kolkata port. Minars combined.
³³ It is the harbour for those large-
sized ships which do not reach Mega Project (Commissioning of Bogibeel Bridge) :
Kolkata. ³³ It is longest Rail-cum-Road Bridge of India (4.94 km long Bridge)
³³ Handles petroleum products, ³³ It is across River Brahmaputra near Dibrugarh in the state of Assam.
coal, iron and steel.
³³ The first private train of India “Tejas Express” was flagged off in Oct 2019
13. Jawaharlal Nehru Port
³³ Located in Maharashtra
on the Lucknow New Delhi route. It will be run by IRCTC. Passengers will
³³ Occupies the 5th position in the be compensated for delay.
world’s fastest growing ports. ³³ Vande Bharat Express : India’s fastest indigenous train. Train 18 named
14. Port Blair as Vande Bharat Express, has a GPS-based audio-visual passenger
³³ Added in the list of major ports information system, pantry, on board hotspot wifi facilty for entertainment
in June, 2010. purposes, and bio-vacuum toilets.
³³ It is the 13th major port. ³³ India’s longest electrified rail tunnel built by Indian Railways has been
³³ The port is of stratagic importance inaugurated in June, 2019. It has been constructed between Cherlopalli
to India.
and Rapuru railway stations.
³³ It is closer to two international
shipping lines— ³³ The National Rail and Transportation Institute (NRTI) in India’ first and
Saudi Arabia — Singapore and only railway university located in Vadodara, Gujarat, India.
US — Singapore. ³³ Electric (Locomotive Factory, Madhepura in Bihar (A make in India Project):
– As a first step of attracting private investment and FDI in Indian Railways,
RAILWAYS a contract for setting up electric Locomotive Factory at Madhepura, Bihar
to manufacture 800 nos High Horsepower Electric Locomotive (12000 hp
³³ The rail transport in India began capacity) was signed, in 2018.
in 1853 when the first train was
run between Mumbai and Thane ³³ Diesel Locomotive Factory, Marhowra in Bihar (A make in India Project).
(34 km). Contract for setting up Diesel Locomotive Factory at Marhowra, Bihar to
³³ The first section of the East India manufacture 1000 nos High Horse Power Diesel Locomotive (4500/6000
Railway, from Howrah to Hooghly hp capacity) was signed in 2018.
was inaugurated on 15 August ³³ Mumbai–Ahmedabad high speed rail corridor –It is under construction
1854. high speed rail line connecting the cities of Ahmedabad, Gujarat and
³³ Indian railways is world’s second Indian economic hub Mumbai. When completed by Dec, 2023, it will be
largest rail network under the India’s first high speed
single management. (USA is the
Source : Pib.
largest one).

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 Geography

³³ Asansol : 2nd largest urban

GEOGRAPHY
Indian Railways has been divided into 18 zones.
agglomeration in West Bengal
Sl. Zone Name Headquarters Year and among the fastest growing
No. Estb. cities in India.
1. Central Railway (CR) Mumbai 1951 ³³ Bengaluru : Apart from MNCs,
it is also home to many startups.
2. Eastern Central Railway (ECR) Hajipur 2002 Famous for Chola temples,
3. Eastern-Coastal Railway (ECoR) Bhubaneshwar 2003 Bannerghatta National Park and
Shivasamudram Falls.
4. Eastern Railway (CER) Kolkata 1952
³³ Baroda/Vadodara : India’s first
5. Nothern Railway (NR) Delhi 1952 and only railway university has
6. North-Central Railway (NCR) Allahabad (Prayagraj 2003 been established at Vadodara.
NH-8 that connects Delhi &
7. North-Western Railway (NWR) Jaipur 2002 Mumbai passes through
8. North-Eastern Railway (NER) Gorakhpur 1952 Vadodara. It is also known as
a Sanskri Nagri (city) of India.
9. North East Frontier Railway (NEFR) Guwahati 1958 Known for Lakshmi Vilas Palace.
10. South Central Railway (SCR) Secunderabad 1966 ³³ Bhubaneswar : Also known for
11. South East Central Railway (SECR) Bilaspur 2003 Buddhists destination, famous
10th century Lingraja temple
12. South Eastern Railway (SER) Kolkata 1955 dedicated to Shiva located here.
13. South Western Railway (SWR) Hubli 2003 This city is most renowned for
changing the conqueror Ashoka
14. Southern Railway (SR) Chennai 1951 to the conquered.
15. West Central Railway (WCR) Jabalpur 2003 ³³ Chennai : Popular for being an IT
and industrial hub. The city also
16. Western Railway (WR) Mumbai 1951
known for its passion for music.
17. Kolkata Metro Kolkata 2010 ³³ Coimbatore : In Tamil Nadu,
18. South Coast Railway (SCOR) Visakhapatnam 2019 also called Koval, second largest
city of Tamil Nadu, located at the
VALLEYS OF INDIA foothills of Nilgiris. It is important
 Nubra Valley — Leh (Ladakh) for cotton textile, electric motors,
 Araku Valley — Andhra Pradesh pumps, automobile, iron and
 Murkha Valley — Ladakh (Ladakh) steel and aluminum castings. It
is known as the Manchester of
 Chumbi Valley — Sikkim South India.
 Zuku Valley — Nagaland ³³ Dalhousie : A hill station located
 Sangla Valley — Himachal Pradesh on a spur of the Dhauladhar
 Yuthang Valley — Sikkim (Valley of Flower) range of the Himalaya in
 Kullu Valley — Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh. It is famous
for handicrafts industry and is a
 Pangi Valley — Chamba, Himachal Pradesh
military base. It has spectacular
 Tons Valley — Himachal pradesh scenic beauty and is the gateway
 Dibang Valley — Arunachal Pradesh to Chamba district.
 Neora Valley — West Bengal ³³ Darjeeling : A major hill resort
 Ketti Valley — Tamil Nadu of West Bengal and has strategic
importance as a possible access to
 Charavati Valley — Karnataka
Nepal and Tibet. The Himalayan
 Kangra Valley — Himachal Pradesh mountaineering institute is
 Duke Valley — Manipur located on it. It is also famous
 Milam Valley — Uttarakhand for tea estates and handicrafts.
Darjeeling Himalayan railways
is UNESCO world heritage site.
MAJOR CITIES OF INDIA ³³ Dhanbad : Ranked as top city
³³ Agra : A Cultural, historical and industrial city of Uttar Pradesh located in India with the hightest 4G
on the banks of the Yamuna river. The most popular tourist attraction and availability in India.
UNESCO World Heritage sites - Taj Mahal and Agra Fort are located here. ³³ Ghatshila/Ghatsila : It is a copper
³³ Ahmedabad : it is also famous for diamond cutting, Konkaria lake and mining centre in the Singhbhum
kite museum. The kite museum has a rare and huge collection of different region of Chhottanagpur plateau.
types of kites that are made and used all across the globe. Located on the bank of river
Subarnrekha near Jamshedpur.
³³ Ajmer : Situated in Taragarh hills in Aravallis, important railway junction
& trade and a pilgrim centre. Famous for Pushkar Lake and Dargah of ³³ Guwahati : Known as a major
Moinuddin Chishti. riverine port city and one of the
fastest growing cities in India.
³³ Amritsar : Chosen as one of the heritage cities fo HRIDAY scheme of Govt.
Also known for ancient Hindu
of India. The city is also known for its wooden chessboards and chess
temples like Kamakhya temple
pieces manufacturing industry.
and Umananda temple.

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in January. It is the district

GEOGRAPHY

PASSES headquarters of the largest

Pass State Way district of Rajasthan.
1. Karakoram Pass Karakoram Range, J&KIndia’s highest pass ³³ Jammu : Gateway to Kashmir,
2. Zozila Pass Zaskar Range , J&K Srinagar to Leh Jammu is also the winter capital
of the state. Situated on the
3. Baramula Pass Pirpanjal Rage, J&K Srinagar to Mujaffarabad banks of the river Tawi, this busy,
4. Pir Panjal Pass Pirpanjal Range, J&KPahalgaon to Koshi prosperous town is surrounded
5. Banihal pass Pirpanjal Range, J&KJammu to Srinagar, by lakes, hills, temples and
NH1A, Jawahar Tunnel fortresses. It is a cultural,
commercial and a major tourist
6. Baralacha La Himachal Pradesh Mandi (H.P.) to Leh (J&K) centre.
7. Rohtang Pass Himachal Pradesh Manali to Leh ³³ Jharia : Located in Jharkhand,
8. Shipkila Pass Himachal Pradesh Shimla to Tibet second in India in terms of coal
9. Thangla Pass Himachal Pradesh — reserves. The best in metallurgi-
cal store of India. Base for a
10. Niti La Pass Uttarakhand, Kumaun Uttarakhand to Tibet and number of Iron-steel industries
Range Mansarovar and other metallurgical centres.
11. Mana La Pass Uttarakhand, Kumaun Uttarakhand to Tibet ³³ Jodhpur : It is popularly known
Range and Mansarovar as Blue city and Sun city among
people of Rajasthan and all over
12. Lipu Lekh Pass Uttarakhand, Kumaun Uttarakhand to Tibet and India. The city is also home to
Range Mansarovar several educational institutions,
13. Muling La Pass Uttarakhand, Kumaun Uttarakhand to Tibet and the most prominent being AIIMS
Range Mansarovar Jodhpur, IIT Jodhpur, SNMC
14. Bomdila Pass Arunachal Pradesh Tavang Valley to Tibet Jodhpur, NLU Jodhpur and
NIFT Jodhpur. Many research
15. Diphuk Pass Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh to institutes like ISRO, DRDO,
Myanmar CAZRI, & DMRC (Desert Medicine
16. Likha Pani pass Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh to Research Centre) are also located
Myanmar in the city.
17. Chaukan Pass Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh to ³³ Kakinada : A deep water port with
Myanmar Special Economic Zone status,
also known as fertilizer city of
18. Pangsad Pass Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh to
Andhra Pradesh. Hinterland have
Myanmar a great economic value due to the
19. Tuzu Pass Manipur Imphal to Myanmar natural gas deposit in Krishna-
20. Nathu La Pass Sikkim Sikkim to Tibet Godavari basin.
21. Jelep La Pass Sikkim Chumbi valley to Tibet ³³ Kalol : Famous for oil refinery,
crude-oil and natural gas reserve,
22. Palaghat Pass Kerala Palakkad to crude-oil transported through
Coimbatore pipeline to Koyali for refining.
23. Bhorghat Pass Maharashtra Mumbai to Pune ³³ Kanyakumari : Besides its
importance as a Hindu pilgrim
24. Thalaghat Maharashtra Mumbai to Nasik
centre, it is famous for its
25. Shenkotta Pass Kerala and T.N. Kollam to Madurai beautiful views of sunrise and
³³ Gwalior : Selected to be developed as a smart city. A 2016 report of the sunset over the waters.
WHO found Gwalior to be the second most air polluted city in the world ³³ Kochi : Known as the Queen of
and the most polluted city in India. Arabian sea.
³³ Haldia : It is a port town recently been developed on the river Hooghly ³³ Kodaikanal : A quiet, charming
about 105 km downstream from Kolkata. Its main purpose is to release hill station situated in the scenic
congestion at Kolkata. Haldia has an oil refinery. It receives larger vessels Palni hills of Tamil Nadu. It has
which otherwise would have gone to Kolkata. the solar physics observatory and
³³ Hyderabad : Also know as city of pearls. orchidarium. It is famous for the
Kurinji flower which blooms once
³³ Imphal : Known for scenic beauty, loktatak lake, only floating lake in the
in 12 years.
world, is located 53 kms away from Imphal. Keibul Lamjao National Park
encircles the lake. It has its own airport. ³³ Kolkata : Known as city of joy.
Home to many religions and
³³ Jaipur : Surrounded on three sides by the rugged Aravalli hills, Jaipur
reaces, museums, planetariums,
is the picturesque capital of Rajasthan. It is a planned city, known as the
libraries etc. Many famous
gateway to Rajasthan and ‘Pink City’. It is famous for forts, palaces,
freedom fighters hailed from here.
ancient observatory, handicrafts and jewellery.
³³ Korba : Power hub of
³³ Jaisalmer : The desert town founded on an oasis, palaces, fort, jain
Chhattisgarh. land of black
temple and camel and sheep’s fair, handicrafts made this city as the most
diamond, Kosa silk and Thermal
important tourist destination. Every year ‘Desert Festival’ is celebrated
power, a major mineral source of

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 Geography

Chattisgarh. Half of total mineral income of state, one ³³ Neyveli : Also famous for its goat herding industry.

GEOGRAPHY
of largest treasure of coal in India. Other limestone, Supplies large chunks of sweet water to the city of
fireclay, etc. ‘Gavra project’ largest opencast mine of Chennai on a regular basis the waters are taken from
India is located here. Major industrial hub, Aluminium the artesian acquifers found in the lignite mines.
coal and power industries are located here. ³³ Ootacamund (Udhagaman-dalam) / Ooty : Former
³³ Kullu : Kullu town is situated on the banks of the summer capital of the Madras presidency (now Tamil
winding river Beas, is famous for its orchards, Nadu), Ooty is popularly known as the ‘Queen of Hill
temples, scenery and handloom shawls. Station.’ It nestles in the Nilgiris (Blue mountain) near
³³ Ladakh : A dry, mountainous land of the passes, the junction of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
sandwiched between the Karakoram range and Zaskar Also famous for its Botanical garden and plantations.
range, most often referred to as the “little Tibet”. ³³ Paradip : A cultural, industrial and port city of
Ladakh is the highest altitude plateau region in India. Odisha, Paradeep is located on the Bay of Bengal
Leh is the largest town in Ladakh. coast. It handles iron ore and coal along with some
³³ Leh : The ancient capital of Ladakh, lies in a fertile other dry cargo.
valley near the Indus river. It has many Buddhist ³³ Porbandar : Located in Porbandar district of Gujarat,
monasteries, mosque and highest airport and golf a coastal city on the extreme west coast of Arabian
course in the world. It is a quiet little township and Sea, birthplace of Mahatma Gandhi, all weather port
tourist centre, overlooked by a hilltop palace and with direct berthing facilities.
monastery. ³³ Pune : A cultural, military and an administrative town
³³ Madurai : It is also one of Indian’s most outstanding famous for palaces, temples, film and television institute
and museum. It is the birth place and one of the main
Hindu pilgrimage centres. Famous for its temples built
estates of the Maratha hero Chhatrapati Shivaji.
by pandyan and Madurai Nayak kings in the Dravidian
style of architecture. ³³ Puri : A minor seaport of Odisha, world famous for the
Jagannath Temple. It is a cultural city and pilgrimage.
³³ Mahabaleshwar : Apart from producing over 85% of Located on the continental shelf of Bay of Bengal, it
India’s strawberries, it is also known for its chikkis, has a beautiful natural sea-beach and chemicals,
jams, spreads and more. drugs & pharmaceutical industries.
³³ Mahabalipuram : UNESCO world heritage site. ³³ Ramchandrapuram : Located in Andhra Pradesh
Famous for Shore temple (Pancha temples) and is a near Godavari delta. The central power distribution
port city. company of Andhra Pradesh is located here. It is
³³ Manali : Situated in northern end of Kullu valley, a famous for rice, betel and coconut cultivation.
hill resort, good scenic beauty, tourist spot, famous ³³ Ranchi : Capital of Jharkhand state. Industrial and
for Yak Skiing. cultural town famous for machine tools, spare parts
³³ Marmagao : It is an important port of Goa and and alumina. Dassam falls located nearby. River
occupies fifth position in handling the traffic. For a Subarnarekha flows near this city.
long period, it handled the export of iron ore from Goa. ³³ Raniganj : One of the largest and most important
³³ Mathura : Known for Mathura refinery of Indian Oil coalfields of India situated in upper Damodar valley
Corporation, one of the biggest oil refineries of Asia. in West Bengal.
³³ Mount Abu : Rajasthan’s only hill station, located ³³ Shimla : Former summer capital of British India, Shimla
on the Aravalli hill, it is an important pilgrim centre. is the largest hill station in the world and capital of the
Gurushikhar, the highest peak of Aravalli is near state of Himachal Pradesh. This hill resort is famous for
this town. Nakki lake and Dilwara temple are most its meadows and forest and handicraft industry.
important tourist attraction. ³³ Srinagar : Also known for stationary houseboats and
colourful Shikararas on Dal Lake.
³³ Mumbai : Home to three UNESCO World Heritage ³³ Surat : Also known as Diamond City of India, selected
sites : the Elephanta Caves, Chhatrapati Shivaji to be developed as smart city.
Maharaj Terminus and Victorian and Art Deco ³³ Talcher : Industrial town in Angul district (The
buildings. Bombay High is an offshore oilfield 176 industrial hubs of Odisha), rich in black diamond,
km of the west coast of Mumbai. It is run by ONGC. NTPL power plant uses coal from Talcher coalfields and
³³ Murshidabad : Located in the left bank of Bhagirathi water from a small barrage reservoir on river Brahmani.
river in West Bengal, this city is famous for ³³ Trivandrum : Known for Padmanabhaswamy
manufacturing utensil, handloom, weaving and silk Temple, the backwaters of Poovar and Anchuthengu
industry. and its western Ghats tracts of Ponmudi and the
³³ Mysuru : A cultural and industrial city, known for Agastyamala.
its palaces, garden, silk factory, and handicraft. It is ³³ Tuticorin : A port city developed in the coast of Tamil
also known as the ‘Sandalwood city’ and the ‘city of Nadu which handles traffic of coal, foodgrains, edible
palaces’. It is the second largest city of Karnataka. oils, sugar and petroleum products.
³³ Varanasi (Benaras) : The centre of Hinduism and most
³³ Nainital : Town in Uttarakhand in Kumaon hills,
important pilgrimage place in India. Located on the
present in a valley containing pear-shaped lake,
Bank of Ganga it is an important seat of learning. It
famous tourist spot. India’s oldest national park. is famous for temples, metal handicrafts and sarees.
Corbett national park is located here. ³³ Visakhapatnam : Particularly known for its beaches.
³³ New Mangalore : It is situated on the coast of Nicknamed as the city of Destiny and the jewel of the
Karnataka and handles export of iron ore from East Costs. Selected to be developed as smart city.
Kudremukh. It also handles import of fertilizers, qqq
petroleum products, edible oils and other cargo.

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POPULATION : 2011 CENSUS

GEOGRAPHY

THE STUDY OF POPULATION IS

POPULATION
CALLED DEMOGRAPHY.
(All figures based on Census, 2011)
Population Trend in India
³³ 1891-1921 Period of stagnant Total Population 1,21,08,54,977
population Male 62,32,70,258
³³ 1921-1951 Period of steady Females 58,75,84,719
growth Density 382 per sq km
³³ 1951-1981 Period of high growth Adult Sex Ratio 943 (females per 1000 males)
³³ 1981-2011 Period of declining Child Sex Ratio 919 (girl per 1000 boys)
rate
³³ The year, 1921 is known as the Largest and the Smallest States /UTs (in Population)
year of Great Divide. Top States/UTs Bottom States/UTs
National Population Policy 2000 Uttar Pradesh 19,98,12,341 Lakshadweep 64,473

This policy outlined the following Maharashtra 11,23,74,333 Daman and Diu 2,43,247
objectives to be achieved    Bihar 10,40,99,452 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 3,43,709
³³ To lower down the Total Fertility West Bengal 9,12,76,115 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 3,80,581
Rate (TFR) to achieve replacement
Andhra Pradesh 4,93,86,799 Sikkim 6,10,577
level by 2010.
³³ Population stabilisation by 2045. Effective Literacy Rate (2001-2011)
³³ Reduce MMR (Maternal Mortality 2001(%) 2011(%) Difference
Rate) to below 100 per 100000 Persons 64.83 74.04 9.21%
births.
Males 75.26 80.9 5.64
³³ Reduce IMR (Infant Mortality Rate)
Females 53.67 65.51 11.83%
to below 30 per thousand live
births. Ranks of Districts in 2011
³³ M a k i n g s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n
compulsory. Top 2 Districts Bottom 2 Districts
³³ Promote delayed marriage of girls. As per Population
³³ P r o m o t e and control
Thane 1,10,54,131 Dibang Valley 7,948
communicable diseases.
(Maharashtra) (Arunachal Pradesh)
Demographics
North Twenty Four 1,00,82,852 Anjaw 21,089
³³ First synochronized census in Paraganas (Paschim (Arunchal Pradesh)
India took place in 1881. Since Banga)
1901, it has been taking place
after every decade. As per Sex Ratio
³³ Census 2011 was the Mahe (Puducherry) 1176 Daman (Daman and Diu) 533
15th Census, and 7th after Almora (Uttarakhand) 1142 Leh (Ladakh, J & K) 583
Independence.
³³ The slogan of census 2011 was Sex Ratio
“Our Census, Our Future”. 2001 2011
³³ India was the first country to
Population Population Proportion Population
adopt family planning in world. (in mn) (in %) (in mn) (in %)
³³ According to the census 2011,
• Males 532.2 51.74 623.1 51.51
there are 50 million plus cities
in India as compared to 35 in • Females 496.5 48.26 587.4 48.46
census 2001. Adults Sex Ratio 933 943
³³ ‘Cafeteria approach’ to family
• Males 85.0 51.89 82.9 52.24
planning was adopted during
Janta Party Government Rule • Females 78.8 48.11 75.8 47.76
in 1978. Child Sex Ratio 927 919

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 Geography

³³ H i g h e s t S c h e d u l e d T r i b e

GEOGRAPHY
Ranking of States/UTs(2011)
Population is in Madhya Pradesh.
Literacy Rate Population Density Sex Ratio ³³ L o w e s t Scheduled Caste
Top 2 states/UTs Top 2 States/UTs Top 2 States /UTs Population is in Nagaland.
³³ L o w e s t S c h e d u l e d T r i b e
• Kerala 94 • NCT of Delhi 11,320 • Kerala 1,084
Population is in Punjab.
•Lakshadweep 91.80 • Chandigarh 9,258 • Puducherry 1,037 ³³ T h e N a t i o n a l P o p u l a t i o n
Bottom 2 States/UTs Bottom 2 States/UTs Bottom 2 States/UTs Stablisation Fund was renamed
as Jansankhya Sthirikaran Kosh
• Bihar 61.8 • Arunchal Pradesh 17 • Daman Diu 618
in June 2003
• Arunachal 65.40 • Andaman and 46 • Dadra and 774
Pradesh Nicobar Islands Nagar Haveli STATES OF INDIA

CENSUS 2011 LARGEST INDIAN STATES :

AREA-WISE
³³ Total Population of India — 1,21,08,54,977
³³ Sex Ratio (females per thousand males) — 943 1 Rajasthan 3,42,239.00
³³ Density — 382 persons per sq. km. 2 Madhya Pradesh 3,08,252.00
³³ Crude Birth Rate (2009) — 22.5 3 Maharashtra 3,07,713.00
³³ Crude Death Rate (2009) — 7.3 4 Uttar Pradesh 2,40,928.00
³³ Infant Mortality Rate (2006) — 57 per thousand live births
5 Jammu & Kashmir 2,22,236.00
³³ Maternal Morality Rate — 407 per lakh live births
³³ 0Literacy rate of the country — 73 per cent. (Male — 80.9 per cent, Female LARGEST INDIAN STATES
— 64.6 per cent)
(Population-Wise) : 2011
³³ with highest literacy — Kerala (94.0%)
Rank States Persons
³³ State with lowest literacy — Bihar (61.8%)
³³ State with highest female literacy — Kerala (92.1%) 1 Uttar Pradesh 19,98,12,341
³³ State with lowest female literacy — Bihar (51.5%) 2 Maharashtra 11,23,74,333
³³ State having highest decadal growth — Meghalaya (27.9%) 3 Bihar 10,40,99,452
³³ State having highest Population — Uttar Pradesh 19,98,12,341
4 West Bengal 9,12,76,115
³³ State having lowest Population — Sikkim 6,10,577
5 Madhya 7,26,26,809
³³ State with highest Population Density — Bihar (1106)
Pradesh
³³ State with lowest Population Density — Arunachal Pradesh (17)
³³ State having highest Sex Ratio — Kerala (1,084) LARGEST UNION TERRITORIES
³³ State having lowest Sex Ratio — Haryana (879) : AREA-WISE
³³ India accounts for a meagre 2.4 per cent of the world surface area of Rank States Area
135.79 million sq km. (Sq. km)
³³ India supports 17.5 per cent of the World Population. 1 Andaman & 8249.00
³³ Life Expectancy at Birth — 63.5 years, Male — 62.6 years, Female — 64.2 Nicobar Islands
years 2 Delhi
Religious Population Percentage Decadal 3 Dadra & Nagar 491.00
Haveli
Community (2011) (crore)
4. Puducherry 490.00
Hindu 96.63 79.8 16.8 5. Chandigarh 114.00
Muslim 17.22 14.2 24.6 6. Daman & Diu 111.00
Christian 2.78 2.3 15.5 7. Lakshadweep 30.00
Sikh 2.08 1.7 8.4
LARGEST UNION TERRITORIES
Buddhist 0.84 0.7 6.1 (POPULATION-WISE) : 2011
Jain 0.45 0.4 5.4
Rank States Persons
³³ First census was undertaken in 1872 but a systematic programme of 1 Delhi 1,67,87,941
Population Census started in 1881. 2 Puducherry 12,47,953
³³ Highest Death Rate among states is in Odisha — 98 per thousand. 3 Chandigarh 10,55,450
³³ Lowest Death Rate among states is in Kerala — 16 per thousand. 4. A n d a m a n & 3,80,581
³³ Decadal growth rate in Population — 17.7% Nicobar Islands
³³ State having lowest population decadal growth rate — Nagaland (–0.6%) 5. Dadra & Nagar 3,43,709
³³ Four cities having highest population in India are Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi Haveli
and Chennai respectively.
6. Daman & Diu 2,43,247
³³ Andhra Pradesh was the first state to prepare a population policy.
7. Lakshadweep 64,473
³³ Highest Scheduled Caste population is in Uttar Pradesh.

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CENSUS-2011 : AT A GLANCE
GEOGRAPHY

State-Wise Distribution of Indian population, Decadal Growth, Sex Ratio, Population Density and Literacy
State/ India/State/Union Total Population Sex Population Decadal Literacy rate
Ratio density Growth
Union (Females (%)
(Persons
per
Territ- 1000 per
ories males) sq.km)
Persons Males Females Persons Males Females
India 1,21,08,54,977 62,32,70,258 58,75,84,719 943 382 17.7 74.04 80.9 65.5
01 Jammu & Kashmir 1,25,41,302 66,40,662 59,00,640 889 124 23.6 67.2 76.8 56.4
02 Himachal Pradesh 68,64,602 34,81,873 33,82,729 972 123 12.9 82.8 89.5 75.9
03 Punjab 2,77,43,338 1,46,39,465 1,31,03,873 895 551 13.9 75.8 80.4 70.7
04 Chandigarh 10,55,450 5,80,663 4,74,787 818 9,258 17.2 86.0 90.0 81.2
05 Uttarakhand 1,00,86,292 51.37,773 49,48,519 963 189 18.8 78.8 87.4 70.0
06 Haryana 2,53,51,462 1,34,94,734 1,18,56,728 879 573 19.9 75.6 84.1 65.9
07 NCT Delhi 1,67,87,941 89,87,326 78,00,615 868 11,320 21.2 86.2 90.9 80.8
08 Rajasthan 6,85,48,437 3,55,50,997 3,29,97,440 928 200 21.3 66.1 79.2 52.1
09 Uttar Pradesh 19,98,12,341 10,44,80,510 9,53,31,831 912 829 20.2 67.7 77.3 57.2
10 Bihar 10,40,99,452 5,42,78,157 4,98,21,295 918 1,106 25.4 61.8 71.2 51.5
11 Sikkim 6,10,577 3,23,070 2,87,507 890 86 12.9 81.4 86.6 75.6
12 Arunachal Pradesh 13,83,727 7,13,912 6,69,815 938 17 26.0 65.4 72.6 57.7
13 Nagaland 19,78,502 10,24,649 9,53,853 931 119 -0.6 79.6 82.8 76.1
14 Manipur 28,55,794 14,38,586 14,17,208 985 128 24.5 79.2 86.1 72.4
15 Mizoram 10,97,206 5,55,339 5,41,867 976 52 23.5 91.3 93.3 89.3
16 Tripura 36,73,917 18,74,376 17,99,541 960 350 14.8 87.2 91.5 82.7
17 Meghalaya 29,66,889 14,91,832 14,75,057 989 132 27.9 74.4 76.0 72.9
18 Assam 3,12,05,576 1,59,39,443 1,52,66,133 958 398 17.1 72.2 77.8 66.3
19 West Bengal 9,12,76,115 4,68,09,027 4,44,67,088 950 1,028 13.8 76.3 81.7 70.5
20 Jharkhand 3,29,88,134 1,69,30,315 1,60,57,819 949 414 22.4 66.4 76.8 55.4
21 Odisha 4,19,74,218 2,12,12,136 2,07,62,082 979 270 14.0 72.9 81.6 64.0
22 Chhattisgarh 2,55,45,198 1,28,32,895 1,27,12,303 991 189 22.6 70.3 80.3 60.2
23 Madhya Pradesh 7,26,26,809 3,76,12,306 3,50,14,503 931 236 20.3 69.3 78.7 59.2
24 Gujarat 6,04,39,692 3,14,91,260 2,89,48,432 919 308 19.3 78.0 85.8 69.7
25 Daman & Diu 2,43,247 1,50,301 92,946 618 2,191 53.8 87.1 91.5 79.5
26 Dadra And Nagar 3,43,709 1,93,760 1,49,949 774 700 55.9 76.2 85.2 64.3
Haveli
27 Maharashtra 11,23,74,333 5,82,43,056 5,41,31,277 929 365 16.0 82.3 88.4 75.9
28 Andhra Pradesh 8,45,80,777 4,24,42,146 4,21,38,631 993 308 11.0 67.0 74.9 59.1
29 Karnataka 6,10,95,297 3,09,66,657 3,01,28,640 973 319 15.6 75.4 82.5 68.1
30 Goa 14,58,545 7,39,140 7,19,405 973 394 8.2 88.7 92.6 84.7
31 Lakshadweep 64,473 33,123 31,350 947 2,149 6.3 91.8 95.6 87.9
32 Kerala 3,34,06,061 1,60,27,412 1,73,78,649 1,084 860 4.9 94.0 96.1 92.1
33 Tamil Nadu 7,21,47,030 3,61,37,975 3,60,09,055 996 555 15.6 80.1 86.8 73.4
34 Puducherry 12,47,953 6,12,511 6,35,442 1,037 2,547 28.1 85.8 91.3 80.7
35 A n d a m a n a n d 3,80,581 2,02,871 1,77,710 876 46 6.9 86.6 90.3 82.4
Nicobar Islands

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 Geography

STATES OF INDIA

GEOGRAPHY
ANDHRA PRADESH (SEEMANDHRA)
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ The Satavahana empire collapsed when Abhiras seized
Maharashtra and Ikshavakus and Pallavas appropri-
³³ Location : 12o30’ to 19o45’ N. Latitude & 76o40’ to ated the eastern provinces.
84 50’ E Longitude
o
³³ After the decline of the Satavahans there was a chaos
³³ Capital : Hyderabad in this region till the advent of the eastern Chalukyas.
³³ Area : 1,60,205 sq km ³³ The Eastern Chalukyas was a branch of the Chalukyas
³³ Population : 4,93,86,799 of Badami.
³³ Popualtion Density : 308 ³³ The main kings of eastern Chalukya dynasty are
³³ Decadal growth Rate : 11.0% Vishnuvardhan (624-641), Jai Singh I (641-673),
Vishnuvardhan II (637-681), Jai Singh III (705-717),
³³ Percentage of Urban Popualtion : 33.49% Vijayaditya I (752-771), Vishnuvardhan IV (771-806)
³³ Sex Ratio (per thousand) : 992 and Vijayaditya II (806-846).
³³ Sex Ratio (0-6 age group) : 943 ³³ The successor of Mahadeva, Ganapati Deva, was the
³³ Literacy Rate : 67.41 greatest Kakatiya ruler.
• Male : 75.56 ³³ His reign is known as the “Golden Period of the Andhra
• Female : 59.74 history”.
³³ Biggest District area wise : Ananthapur ³³ The first Muslim attack on this region came in 1303.
³³ Most Populace District : East Godavari Under the leadership of Faqaruddin Juna.
³³ Least Populace District : Vizianagaram ³³ Later in 1308, Alauddin’s Slave Malik Kafur marched
against Warangal to avenge the prior defeat.
³³ District of Maximum Rural Population : East
Godavari ³³ The Kakatiyas had to face another Khalji invasion by
Khushrav Khan during the reign of Mubarak Shah Khalji.
³³ D ist r ic t of Maximu m Urban Popul ati o n :
Visakhapatnam ³³ Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent two expeditions against the
Kakatiya ruler of warangal, under the command of his
³³ State Day : 1 November
son, Jauna Khan.
³³ Principal Language : Telugu & Urdu
³³ In 1590, the fourth Qutab Shahi Sultan, Quali
³³ Largest City : Visakhapatnam Qutabshah established Hyderabad town on the bank
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30) of Musi.
³³ Official Language(s) : Telugu, Urdu ³³ The Mughals captured this region in 1687.
³³ Establishment : 1st October 1953 ³³ Aurangzeb divided the conquered part of South
³³ State Animal : Black buck India in six states, out of which Hyderabad and
³³ State Bird : Indian Roller Masulipattam were Telugu speaking areas.
³³ State Tree : Neem ³³ In 1707, after the death of Aurangzeb, the power
³³ State Flower : Lotus
of the Mughals began to decrease. In 1713, the
Emperor’s viceroy of the South, Mir Qamruddin Khan,
³³ First Chief Minister : Tanguturi Prakasam descendent of Asaf Jahans family declared himself as
³³ First Governor : Sir Chandulal Madhavlal Trivedi the Subedar.
³³ Website : www.aponline.gov.in ³³ In between 1812 and 1857 peoples of the state revolted
on many occasion.
HISTORY ³³ On 17 July, 1857 the Rohilla army under the
³³ There are 13 districts with 9 in coastal Andhra and leadership of Turrabaz Khan an Maulavi Alauddin
4 in Rayalaseema. attacked on Hyderabad Residency.
³³ Hyderabad is the joint capital of both Andhra Pradesh ³³ Krishnadeva Raya Andhra Bhasha Nilyam Library was
and Telangana states for a period of 10 years. established in 1901 in Hyderabad under the guidance
³³ The first capital of satavahanas was Dharkan which of K.V. Laxman Rao.
is identified as Dharmkota near Amravati in Guntur ³³ Osmania university’s movement against the ban of
district. Vande Matram is known as Vande Matram movement.
³³ Later Simuk shifted his capital to Paithan. ³³ The Nizam government of the state banned the
Congress which is continued till 1946 and on the
³³ Simuka (235 to 213 B.C.) was succeeded by his other hand he promoted the activities of Ittehad-ul
brother Krishna. Mulamun which was established in 1927.
³³ Satakarni II had the longest rule. ³³ Swami Ramanand Tirth, Heeralal, Motilal Mantri
³³ Hala was the 17th ruler in line. He was the compiler Sree Niwas Rao Hawaldar, A.R. Despande, Dewrabhai
of famous literary text Gatha Sapatsati, a collection Chauhan and Praneshacharya was chosen from the
of 700 erotic gathas written in Maharashtri. state by Gandhijee for the Individual Satyagraha.
³³ Sapatasati opens with a passage in adoration of Siva. ³³ When the British left India, the Nizam had aspirations
³³ The next important king who received the Satavahana of uniting with Pakistan despite 85% of his subject
power was Gautmiputra Satakarni. Hindu and only 9% Muslim.

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³³ Patronized by the Nizam, Rajakar forces became ³³ The Coastal Plain extends from the Bay of Bengal to the
GEOGRAPHY

arrogant which vitiated the atmosphere. There was mountain ranges and runs nearly the entire length of
communal violence. the Andhra Pradesh.
³³ On 13 September 1948, Maj Gen Jayant Choudhary
³³ A number of rivers flow across the coastal plain, through
was sent to quash the rebellion and he freed
Hyderabad, without finding any way Nizam joined the hills into the bay, form west to east.
India in 1949. ³³ The Krishna and Godavari deltas form the central part
³³ Thus the new Andhra Pradesh was formed. of the plain.
TELANGANA (Brief Profile) ³³ The Eastern Ghats are broken up by numerous river
valleys and do not form a continuous range in Andhra
Established 2 June, 2014 Pradesh.
Capital Hyderabad ³³ Maximum and Minimum temperature in most parts
Largest city Hyderabad of the State ranges from 23oC to 28oC and 10oC to
Districts 33 12oC respectively.
• Legislature Bicameral (119 + 40 seats)
³³ Plants like teak, bamboo, rose wood are found.
• Lok Sabha 17
³³ Cashew is grown in the coastal districts.
constituencies
• High Court High Court of Judicature at ³³ Common trees found in the state include the banyan,
Hyderabad mango neem, pipal and flowering plants like rose and
Area Jasmine.
• Total 114,840 km2 ³³ Tigers, leopards, bears, and deer are found in the hills
(44,340 sq mi) and forest areas of the State.
Area rank 12th
ECONOMY
Population (2011)
• Total 3,51,93,978 ³³ Andhra Pradesh is called the Rice Bowl of India.
• Rank 12th ³³ Agriculture is occupation of 60% people.
• Density 310/km2 (790/sq mi) ³³ Agricultural Pradocts : Rice (70%), Jowar, Bajra, Maize,
Literacy 66.50% Ragi, Small Millets, Pulses, Castor, Tobacco, Cotton
Official language Telugu, Urdu and Sugarcane.
State Animal Deer ³³ Other products are Cashew, Eucalyptus oil etc.
State Bird Indian Roller ³³ National highways in Andhra Pradesh are 4,472 km
State Tree Jammi and State highways cover 10,519 km.
State Flower Tangedu
MINERALS
Telangana ³³ Kalichettu, Telibadu, Rayapur, Atmakur
³³ Iron ore – Cuddapah, Kurnool, Chittor, Krishna,
ADMINISTRATION Warangal.
Legislature Bicameral ³³ Coal – Singareni, Tandoor, Kottagudam
Member of ³³ Mangnese – Ramagunda
Legislative Council 40 ³³ Copper – Agnigundal, Ganni
Member of Legislative ³³ Gold – Chigargunta
assembly 119 FACTS
Member of Length of State – 846 km (E to W)
Lok Sabha 17
Width of State – 804 Km. (N to S)
Member of
Rajya Sabha 7 Highest Peak – Mahendra Giri (1500 m)
High Court Hyderabad (1954) Average – 18oC to 22oC (Jan) & 30oC to
³³ Andhra Pradesh is the 7th largest state of India Temperature 35oC (July)
regarding both area and population.
Rain fall – 110 to 125 cm in northern
³³ It is bound in the north by Odisha and Telangana in
the west Karnataka and in the south Tamil Nadu the part & 50 cm in Southern
East by the Bay of Bengal with a Coastline of 974 km. Major Rivers – Krishna, Godavari, Musi,
³³ It is 846 km long from east to west and 804 km wide Penneru, Tungabhadra
from north to south.
³³ Andhra Pradesh has three main physiographic Major Canals – Godawari delta canal, Krish-
regions: a coastal plain laying in the eastern part of na delta canal, Tungabhadra
the State, the Eastern Ghats which form the western delta canal, Jawaharlal Ca-
flank of the Coastal plain and a plateau west of the nal, Lal Bahadur canal
Eastern Ghat.

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 Geography

MUSEUMS

GEOGRAPHY
³³ Agriculture is the main occupation of about 62 percent
of the people. ³³ Salarjung Museum –Hyderabad
³³ Rice is a major food crop and stable food of the ³³ Venkateswara Museum –Tirupathi
state contributing about 77 percent of the food ³³ Victoria Jubliee Museum – Vijayavada
grain production. ³³ Hyderabad Art Society – Hyderabad
³³ Forest cover 23 percent of the state’s area. ³³ Health Museum – Hyderabad
MAJOR MULTIPURPOSE RIVER VALLEY ³³ Damerela Rao Memorial Art Gallery and School – Ra-
PROJECTS jahmundry, andhra Pradesh.

1. Nagarjuna Sagar Project – Krishna River TELUGU LANGUAGE & LITERATURE

2. Tungabhadra Project – Tungabhadra River ³³ Telugu is also a language of Dravidian family and
3. Machkund Project – Machkund River largely influenced by the Sanskrit language.
4. Prakasham Project – Krishna River ³³ The origin of this language is traced in the 11th
century.
5. Pochampad Project – Godavari River
³³ The word Telugu was first used by Adikavi, Nannaya
INDUSTRY Bhatt.
³³ Cotton Garments : East Godawari, Hyderabad, ³³ The writings of Nannaya Bhat is considered as the
Guntur, Warangal, Sikunderabad first writing of Telugu.
³³ Woolen Garments : Ileru, Warangal ³³ The first grammar of Telugu language is in Sanskrit.
³³ Silk Garments : Chittor, Karun Nagar, Ananthpur, ³³ The Pre Nannaya Telugu literature is in two forms
Warangal Desi and Margi.
³³ The Mythological period of Telugu literature is
³³ Vanaspati Ghee : Hyderabad, Sikandarabad
regarded from 1000 to 1500 A.D.
³³ Sugar : Krishna, Sitanagar, Kowa, Haspet, Vijayavada
³³ Iron and Steel : Vijayanagar, Vishakhapatnam
NEWS PAPERS
³³ The famous Telugu newspapers published from
³³ Shipping : Visakhapatanam
the State are Enadu, Andhra Sabha, Andhra Jyoti,
³³ Paper : Tirupati, Rajaula, Mandangiri, Sirpur Andhra Bhoomi, Udayam and Vartha.
³³ Cement : Krishna, Vijayawada, Mangalagiri, Machhrela ³³ The famous English newspapers are Deccan
³³ Glass : Hyderabad, Warangal Chronicle, Times of India etc. Siyasat Daily, Ravi-e-
Hind and Buniyadi Deccan are some famous Urdu
³³ Caustic Soda : Hyderabad
dailies.
³³ Fertiliser : Visakhapatanam
³³ Sulphuric Acid : Sikandarabad
SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ The idol of Lord Venkateswara is considered as the
UNIVERSITIES combined form of Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva by
³³ University – Visakhapatnam the Hindus.
³³ The famous Siva temples of the State are Shreesailam,
³³ Hyderabad University – Vijayawada
Shree Kalahasthi and Draksharama.
³³ N.T.R. Medical Science University – Vijayawada ³³ The temple of Mallikarjun Swami in Sree Sailam is
³³ JNTU Kakinada an ancient temple and is counted as one of the 12
³³ JNTU Anantapur
Jyotirlingas.
³³ Sri Kalahasti is on the way from Guntur to Renugunta,
³³ Nagarjuna University – Guntur
37 km from Tirupathi to the East.
³³ National Sanskrit Vidyapeeth – Tirupathi ³³ According to legend, here Shiva is worshipped by Sri
³³ Shree Krishna Devarai University – Ananthapur (Spidev), Kall (Time) Naga i.e. Snake and Hasti i,e,
Elephant, hence the name is Sri Kalahasti.
³³ Sri Padmavati Women University – Tirupathi
³³ Simhachalam is renounced for Narasimha Dev temple
³³ Sri Venkateshvara University – Tirupathi built in the 13th century.
³³ Medical Science University – Vijayavada
TOURIST SPOTS
SOME OTHER INSTITUTIONS ³³ Charminar, Salarjung Museum, Golconda Fort in
Hyderabad.
³³ Satellite Launching Centre – Shree Harikota
³³ Thousand pillar temples and fort in Warangal.
³³ Central Tobacco Research Institute – Rajamundari
³³ Tirmalai temple at Tirupathi.
³³ Indian Geological Institute – Hyderabad
³³ Sri Mallikarjuna Swami Temple at Srisailam.
³³ Adminsitrative Staff College – Hyderabad ³³ Araku Valley, Horsley hills.

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GEOGRAPHY

ARUNACHAL PRADESH
IMPORTANT FACTS HISTORY
³³ Location : Latitude : 26°28’ W and 29°30’ N Longitude: ³³ The historical evidence indicates that not only was the
91°20’ E and 97°30 E’ area well known, but also the people living here had
³³ Capital : Itanagar close relation with the rest of the Country.
³³ Area : 83,743 sq. km. ³³ The recorded history of this state is available only from
³³ Districts : 25 the sixteenth century onwards. It was at this point of
³³ No. of cities in the State : 27 time that the Ahom Kings began to rule Assam.
³³ Modern History of Arunachal Pradesh begins with the
³³ No. of Villages in the State : 4,065 inception of British rule in Assam after the treaty of
³³ Population : 13,83,727 Yandboo concluded on 24 February, 1826.
• Male : 7,13,912 ³³ Before 1962 the area was popularly known as the
• Female : 6,69,815 North East Frontier Agency and was constitutionally
a part of Assam.
³³ Population growth rate : 26% (2001-2011)
³³ Because of its strategic importance, however, it was
³³ Population Density : 17 person per sq. km.
administered by the ministry of external Affairs until
³³ Urban Population : 22.9% 1965 and subsequently by the ministry of Home
³³ Sex Ratio : 938 Affairs, through the governor of Assam.
³³ Literacy Rate : 65.4% ³³ In 1972 it was constituted as a Union Territory and
• Male : 72.6% renamed Arunachal Pradesh
• Female : 57.7% ³³ On 20 February, 1987, it became the 24th State of
³³ Child Sex Ratio : 972 the Indian Union.
³³ Total Urban Population : 3,17,369
ADMINISTRATION
³³ Total Rural Population : 10,66,358
³³ Legislature – The State has 60 seats Legislative
³³ No. of Literates : 7,66,005
Assembly, out of which 59 are reserved for STs.
• Male : 4,39,868
³³ Judiciary – Arunachal Pradesh is under jurisdiction
• Female : 3,26,137 of the Itanagar Bench of the Guwahati High Court at
³³ Population Structure : Indo-Tibetan and Indo- Guwahati Assam.
Burmese
³³ Educational Institutions : 1 University and 4 GEOGRAPHY
Colleges ³³ Arunachal Pradesh is a land of lush green forests,
³³ Legislature : Single House deep river valleys and plateaus.
³³ Legislative Assembly : 60 members ³³ The State is divided into five river valleys ; the Kameng,
³³ No. of Members of Lok Sabha : 2 the Subansiri, the Siang, the Lohit and the Tirap.
³³ The main ranges of the great Himalayas lie further
³³ No. of Members of Rajya Sabha: 1
north along the Chinese Border.
³³ National Park : Namdapha
³³ Neighbouring States and Union Territory :
³³ Wild Life Sanctuaries : Itanagar, Lali, Parwni, and International Borders : Bhutan, China, Myanmar.
Mehao
States : Assam, Nagaland.
³³ State Day : 20th March
³³ Major Rivers : The Brahma-putra, known as Siang in
³³ Main Languages of the State : Monpa, Miji, Aka, Arunachal Pradesh and its tributaries which include
Sherdukpen, Nissi/Daffla, Nepali, Bengali, Mismi, the Lohit, Subansiri, Dibang, Kameng, Tirap, Kamla,
Idu-Mismi, Khamti, Migu Mismi, Nocte, Tangsa, Siyum, Noa-Dihing and Kamlang.
Wancho, Nyishi, Apatam, Tagin, Hillmeri, Adi, Digaru. ³³ Climate : The Climate of Arunachal Pradesh varies
³³ Largest City : Itanagar from subtropical in the South to Apline in the North.
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30)
FLORA AND FAUNA
³³ Official Language(s) : Adi, Nishi, Monpa
³³ Arunachal Pradesh has seven types of forests. These
³³ Establishment : 20th February 1987
are tropical, sub tropical, pine, temperate, alpine,
³³ State Animal : Mithun bamboo and degraded forests. Besides these forests
³³ State Bird : Great Hornbill there are greenlands in the Riverine plains and higher
³³ State Tree : Hollong altitudes.
³³ State Flower : Lady slipper Orchid ³³ The State is home to a variety of finer species, Orchids,
³³ First Chief Minister : Prem Khandu Thungan Oaks, Rhododendrons, medicinal plants, firms,
Bamboos and canes.
³³ First Governor : Bhisma Narain Singh
³³ It is home to the Mithun, Elephant, Tiger, Leopard,
³³ Website :
Snow Leopard, Clouded leopard, white browed gibbon,
www.arunachalpradesh.nic.in red Panthers, musk deer, Gaur and Wild Buffalo.

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 Geography

³³ The species of primates found in the State include TOURISM

GEOGRAPHY
slow Loris, hoolock gibbon,. Rhesus Macafue Pig ³³ Places of tourist interest are : Tawang, Dirang, Bomdila,
tualed macafue, Asamese Macafue, Stumped tailed Tipi, Itanagar, Malinithan, Likabali, Parsghat, Along,
macafue and capped Ape. Tezu, Miao, Roing, Daporijo, Namdapha, Bhismak-
³³ Three species of goat - antelope, scrow, Aoral and nagar, Parashuram Kund and Khousa.
Takin are found in the State.
SOCIETY& CULTURE
ECONOMY
³³ Most of the dance forms of the State are group dances
³³ Agriculture is the mainstay of the people of Arunachal performed by both man and women.
Pradesh About 80 percent population is dependent on
³³ The State has a notable tradition of Bamboo and cane
Jhum cultivation.
handicrafts, as well as pottery, carpet weaving and
³³ The major crops grown in the states are rice, maize, wood carving.
millet, wheat, pulses and sugarcane. ³³ Handloom is a significant aspect of the State’s culture
³³ Encouragement is being given to the cultivation of and tradition.
Cashcrops like potatoes and horticulture crops like
Apples, Oranges and Pineapples. FESTIVALS AND FAIRS
³³ Handicrafts, jackets, bags, sherdukpan shawls are ³³ Some of the important festivals of the state are ;
very popular. Mopin and Solung of the Adis. Lossar of the Monpas
³³ Coal reserves at Namchik – Namphuk coal field are and Boori-boot of the Hill miris, Sherdukpens dree of
estimated at 90 million tonnes. Petroleum crude the Apatanis, Si-donyi of the Tagins, Reh of the idu
mishmis, Nyokum of the Nishs, etc. Animal sacrifice
reserves are estimated at 1.5 million tonnes.
is a common ritual in most festivals.
³³ Besides these, there are reported deposits of iron,
³³ Parashuram kund Mela and Malimithan Mela
copper, limestones, graphites, dolomite, quartzite,
(likabali) are two notable fairs of the state.
Kyanite and Mica.

ASSAM
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ Largest City : Guwahati
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30)
³³ Location : Latitude : 24 45’ to 27 55’ North Longitude
o o

: 90 to 96’ East
o ³³ Official Language(s) : Assamese, Bodo/Boro, Karbi
³³ Capital : Dispur ³³ Establishment : 15 August 1947
³³ Area : 78,438 sq. km. ³³ State Animal : One Horned Rhinoceros
³³ Rural Area : 77476.23 sq. km. ³³ State Bird : White Winged word Duck
³³ Urban Area : 961.77 sq. km. ³³ State Tree : Hollong
³³ Total Number of Districts : 33 ³³ State Flower : Foxtail Orchids
³³ Population : 3,12,05,576 ³³ First Chief Minister : Gopinath Bardoloi
• Male Population : 1,59,39,443 ³³ First Governor : Sir Akbar Hydari
• Female Population : 1,52,66,133 ³³ Website: www.assamgovt.nic.in
³³ Decadal Population growth rate: 17.1%
³³ Population Density : 398 person per sq. km.
HISTORY
³³ Child sex ratio : 962 ³³ Assam was known as Pragj-yotisha or the place of
³³ Sex Ratio : 958 female per thousand male Eastern Astronomy during the epic period and later
³³ Literacy Rate : 72.2% named as Kamrupa.
• Male Literacy rate :77.8% ³³ In an epic Raghuvansha, written by Kalidas, this
• Female Literacy rate : 66.3% region was introduced as ‘Nillohit’.
³³ Population of 0-6 age group : 46,38,130 ³³ This region has been known in history since Gupta
• Male : 23,63,485 age. The earliest epigraphic reference to the Kingdom
• Female : 22,74,645 of Kamrupa is found in the Allahabad pillar inscription
³³ Literate Population : 1,91,77,977 of King Samudragupta. Kamrupa is mentioned as a
pratyanta or frontier State outside the Gupta empire
• Male : 1,05,68,639
• Female : 86,09,338 but with friendly and subordinate relation to it.
• Rural : 2,68,07,034 ³³ It has been told that a ruler of this region Samudra
• Urban : 43,98,542 Verma was contemporary of emperor Samudra Gupta.
³³ Main Languages of the State : Assamese (included A king of Gupta dynasty named Mihirsen had defeated
in 8th Scheduled of the Constitution). Besides its his contemporary king Susthit Verma of Assam.
Bengali, Oddissi, Hindi, Mundari and Nepali language ³³ Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese Scholar pilgrim who visited
are also prevalent. Kamrupa in about 743 AD on an invitation of its

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monarch, Kumar Bhaskar, Varman, left a record of ECONOMY

GEOGRAPHY

the Kingdom, he called komolupa.

³³ Agriculture plays an important role in the economy of
³³ Kamrupa also figures in the writings of the Arabian the State. About 80 per cent population of the state
historian Alberuni in the eleventh century. is dependent on agriculture. It occupies about 74 per
³³ In 1832, Kachar and in 1935 Jayantia Hill joined cent of work force.
Assam, but in 1839 upper Assam went out to join ³³ The State has an estimated 39.44 lakh hectares gross
Bengal. cropped area of which net area sown in about 27.01
³³ In 1874, Assam became a province under the lakh hectares.
administration of Chief Commissioners. ³³ The principle food crop is rice. The cash crops are
³³ In 1905, with the partition of Bengal, the then British Jute, Tea, Cotton, Oilseeds, Sugarcane, Potato etc.
government effected the union of Assam with the ³³ Noteworthy horticulture items are Orange, Banana,
eastern region of Bengal. Again in 1912 Assam came Pineapple, Arecanut, Coconut, Guava, Mango,
under the administration of Chief Commissioner. Jackfruit and Citrus Fruits.
Later on, since 1921 Governor was appointed to rule FOREST
the region.
³³ Assam is potentially rich in forest resources, almost
³³ With the independence in 1947, Sylhet leaving
30% of the state is forest covered.
Karimuganj went out to joint east Pakistan, now
³³ Rich forest is richer in wild stock of members. The
Bangaldesh. Devangiri of North Kamrup was added
whole state seems to be a natural zoo.
to Bhutan in 1951.
WILD LIFE
IMPORTANT FACTS REGARDING FREEDOM
³³ The State have five national parks and eleven wild
STRUGGLE
life sanctuaries.
³³ The contribution of Tarun Kumar Fukan, Naveen
³³ The Kaziranga national park, and Manas tiger project
Chandra Bardoloi, Gopinath Bardoloi, etc. during (national park) are internationally famous for one
Ghandhian age is very important. horned Rhino and Royal Bengal tiger respectively.
³³ During the Quit India Movement of 1942 the people ³³ Manas National Park is situated in Kamrup district
of this region played very important role. Alongwith near the border of Bhutan.
the male even female like Kanak Lata laid their life ³³ The Kaziranga National Park is situated 200 km away
for the sake of freedom. from Guwahati and spread in 440 sq. km. area.
ADMINISTRATION INDUSTRY
³³ From Assam, 7 members for Rajya Sabha and 14 ³³ Consumption of the Export promotion industrial park
members for Lok Sabha are elected. at Amingaon is nearing completion.
³³ Guwahati High Court is at the top of Judiciary. All ³³ A software Technology park will be constructed at
the states of North East except Sikkim are under its Borjhar near Guwahati.
jurisdiction. ³³ Cottage industries in Assam include handloom,
³³ There is a special provision for the state under Article Sericulture, bamboo, cane and carpentry, brass and
271B in the Constitution. There is also a special bell metal crafts.
provision for the administration of tribal areas of the ³³ Presently four oil refineries have been working in the
state under different acts of the sixth schedule of the state including the one at Digboi.
Constitution. IRRIGATION AND POWER
GEOGRAPHY ³³ Continuous effort to improve the power generation is
³³ Assam is the sentinel of North East India and gateway
being made. Chandrapur Thermal Project, Namrup
Thermal Project and a few mobile gas turbine units
to the North Eastern States. The State is close
along with a mini hydro electric project are some
to India’s international borders with Bangladesh
major power station.
and Bhutan, Assam is surrounded by Bhutan and
³³ Revitalising the thermal power station of Bongaigaon
Arunachal Pradesh on the north, Manipur, Nagaland
and completing the Karbi-Langpi project will boost
and Arunachal Pradesh on the East and Meghalaya,
the power supply in the State.
Tripura and Mizoram on the South and west Bengal
³³ Approval has been received for Tipaimukh Dam
in West.
Project.
³³ The river Brahmaputra travels 2900 km to fall in the
ocean. It has about 120 tributaries. TRANSPORT
³³ Nalbari district was established on 14th August 1985. ³³ Although Assam is a mountaineous state it has developed
a good transportation facilities rapidly.

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 Geography

³³ The extension of broad gauge line from Guwahati to ASSAMESE LITERATURE

GEOGRAPHY
Dibrugarh has been completed. ³³ Assemese literature is well known for its rich heritage.
³³ The regular civil air services are operating from Its evolution is considered to be occurred with a book
Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi airport (Guwahati), Prahalad Charitra, written by Hem Sarswati.
Salonibari (Tezpur), Mohambari (Dibrugarh), ³³ The great man Shankardev had lead the Assamese
Kumbhigram (Silchar), Rawriah (Jorhat) and literature in right direction in 15th century. He
Silonibari (North Lakhimpur). had written Kirtan Ghosh, Madhav Ghosh wrote
UNIVERSITIES Namghosh and Badageet.
³³ Eminent writers of modern age are Hemchandra
Assam University, Silchar,
Dhibrugarh University, Goswami, Lakshminath Bej Barua, Chandra Kumar
Guwahati University, Aggarwal, Nalni Bala Duri, Jyoti Prasad Aggrawal,
Guwahati Indian Institute of Technology, Kamleshwar Chaliha, Devkanta Barua, Dr. Virendra
Tezpur University, Tezpur. Kumar Bhattacharya, Indra Goswami etc.

SOCIETY & CULTURE TOURISM

³³ Important places of tourism in and around Guwahati
³³ Assam is a state of social and religious diversity.
Variety of castes had been intermingled in this state. are Kamakhya temple, Umananda (Peacock island),
More than one thousand regional languages are in Navagraha (temple of nine planets), Bashistha
practice. Ashram, Dolgobinda, Gandhi Mandap, state zoo, State
³³ Worshiping Goddess Kamakhya Devi reveals that once Museum, Sukreshwar temple, Gita Mandir, Madan
Shaivites were dominant in the state. Kamdev temple, a magnificent archeological place of
³³ Shankar Dev had preached Vaishnavism in the State. interest and saraighat bridge.
³³ Islam religion with the Muslim and Christianity with ³³ Other places of tourist interest in the state are :
the British entered the state. Christianity is widely Kaziranga National Park (famous for one horned
accepted among the aborigines. Rhino), Manas Tiger Project, Pobi Tara and Orang (wild
³³ Women have played a vital role in the development life sanctuaries) Sibsagar (shiv temple – Ranngghar
of Assamese culture. They do all types of work. They – Karengghar) Tezpur (Bhairavi Temple and Scenic
wear specific dresses. beauty) Bhalukpung (Angling), Haflong (health resort
³³ Bihu is the chief festival cele-brated on the three with Jatinga hills), Majuli (Largest river island in the
occasions. Rongali Bihu or Bohag Bihu marks the world), Chandubi Lake (Picnic spot), Hajo (meeting
advent of the cropping season and it also ushers in point of Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam) Batadrava
the Assamese new year. (birth place of great Vaishnava Saint Shankardeva)
³³ Bhogali Bihu or Magh Bihu is the harvest festival and Saulkuchi (famous for silk industry).
and Kati Bihu or Kongali Bihu coming in Autumn is
a simple affair.

GOA
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ Establishment : 30 May 1987
³³ Capital : Panaji ³³ State Animal : Gaur
³³ Area : 3,702 Sq, km ³³ State Bird : Black Crested Bulbul
³³ Total No. of Districts : 2 ³³ First Chief Minister : Dayanand B. Bandodkar
³³ Population : ³³ First Governor : Gopal Singh
• Person : 14,58,545 ³³ Website : www.goagovt.nic.in
• Male : 7,39,140
• Female : 7,19,405 HISTORY
³³ Popualtion Density : 394
³³ Decadal Growth Rate : 8.2 ³³ In the first century, Goa was a part of the Satavahana
³³ Sex-Ratio (per thousand) : 973 empire, followed by the Kadamba, the Rashtrakutas,
³³ Sex Ratio (0-6 age group) : 942 the Chalukyas and the Silhars.
³³ Literacy Rate : ³³ Goa was ruled from 580-750 AD by Chalukya Kings
• Person : 88.7% of Badami.
• Male : 92.6%
• Female : 84.7% ³³ In the midst of 11th century, old Goa was to have
³³ Urbanization : 62.2 % settlements under the rule of Kadamba Kings (1008-
³³ State Day : 19 December 1312 A.D.).
³³ Principal Language : Konkani, Marathi, Kannada ³³ Their capital sit was Chandrapur or Chandore in
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30) Salset taluka.
³³ Official Language(s) : Konkani

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Theeni
GEOGRAPHY

³³ Muslim rulers snatched Goa away from the Kadamba

kings in 1312 A.D. ³³ Kavepam
³³ King Harihar I of Vijaynagar defeated Muslims to take WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES
possession of Goa in 1370 A.D.
³³ Bhagvan Mahaveer wildlife Sanctuary
³³ Goa was under the rule of Vijayanagar Kings for a
³³ Bondla wild life Sanctuary
century.
³³ Salim Ali bird Sanctuary
³³ In 1510 Portugese Alfanso de Albuquerque reached
Goa and took posssession of Goa without any MUSEUM
resistance from Adilshahi. ³³ Archaeological Museum at Panaji
³³ After 3 months Sultan Usuf Adil Shah made a ³³ Taricheev Museum at Panaji
resistance and Portuguese beat a retreat.
³³ Goa is also rich in forest resources. The vast land of
³³ In the midst of 16th century, Portugese captured estuary of two rivers, Mandovi and Zuari is covered
Bardej and Salset talukas defeating King Jamorin of with mangorve forest.
Calicut and arch-rival Turkish.
³³ In 1534 Diu and in 1559 Daman came under ECONOMY
Portuguese domain. ³³ Rivers originate from wester-nghat and Sahyadri
³³ Shivajee led Marathas to capture Goa but in vain. mountain regions and Arabian sea hail Goa to keep
³³ In 1763, Portuguese took hold of Ponda, Sanguem, the state fertile.
Quepem and Konkan and in 1788 of Pednem, ³³ Rice is the main food crop. Pulses, Ragi and other food
Bicholim, Satari talukas that lead to the reformation crops are also grown.
of Goa as of today. ³³ Main cash crops are cashewnut, coconut, arecanut,
³³ But after 1797 once again Portugese conquered Goa. sugarcane and fruits like pineapple, mango and
³³ At last, Indian army took part in operation Vijay in banana.
1961 and Portuguese, Government of Goa surrendered MINERALS
in two days of war to Indian Army.
³³ Iron : Adul, male, Usaon, Pale-Anoda, Kudenam-Surla
³³ Thus 19 December, 1961, Goa was liberated and made
³³ Mangnese : Parnag, Barder
a composite union territory with Daman and Diu.
³³ Bauxite : Quenpan, Concoa
³³ On 30 May, 1987, Goa was conferred statehood and
Daman & Diu was made a separate union territory. INDUSTRY
ADMINISTRATION ³³ Chemical Fertilizer : Sankole, Vasco-da-Gama
³³ State Legislature : Unicameral i.e. Vidhan Sabha : SOCIETY & CULTRUE
Member of Vidhan Sabha : 40 ³³ The Portuguese impact may easily be traced in the
Member of Lok Sabha : 02 Goan society and its culture.
Member of Rajya Sabha : 01 ³³ The principal language Konkani is very close to
³³ High Court : Bench of Mumbai H.C. at Panaji Marathi and Hindi.
³³ The famous Marathi poet Borakar belonged to Goa.
GEOGRAPHY
³³ Father Jokim, the Mirando a Portuguese, is the
³³ Goa is the smallest state of India, 104 km from north greatest poet of the Konkani.
to south and 59 km from east to west.
³³ In the 18th century, he wrote Riglojesu Bholantam,
³³ Goa is situated on the western coast of the Indian a rebirth story of Jesus Christ.
Peninsula, on its north runs the Terekhol river which
³³ In the field of Dance, Bavalibai and Sarswati Belivykar
separates Gao from Maharashtra and on the south
are some famous name of the state.
lies north Canara district of Karnataka.
³³ Ramakrishnabua, Kesarbai Kurkar, Gogi Bai Budikar
³³ On the east lie the Western Ghats and in the west
are some famous classical musicians of the state.
the Arabian Sea.
³³ On exposition of the unemb-lamed miraculously
³³ Goa has a very moderate temperature varying from
preserved body of St. Francis Xavier.
32oC to 21oC in summer and 32.7oC – 24oC in winter.
TOURISM
MAJOR RIVERS
³³ Important tourists centres are : Colava, Calangute,
³³ Mandovi  Zuari
Vagtor, Baga, Harmar, Anjuna, and Mirmar beaches.
³³ Terekhole  Chapora Basiclica of Bom Jesus and Se cathedral Mangueshi,
³³ Gomati Bandora temples, Aguada, terekhol, Chapora and
MAJOR CANALS Cabo de Rama forts;; Dudhsagar and Harvelam
waterfalls and Mayem lake resort.

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 Geography

GEOGRAPHY
KARNATAKA
IMPORTANT FACTS saw the emergence of three Kannada dynasties,
Yadava of Devgiri, Hoysals of Halebidu and Kalchuris
³³ Location : 8 018’ to 12 048’N Latitude, 74 052’ to
of Dwarsamundra.
77022’E. Longitude
³³ Mahmud Gawan a minister of Bahamani Kingdom,
³³ Capital : Bangalore who later became the Sultan of the state, was famous
³³ Area : 1,91,791 sq.km. for his innovative nature.
³³ Total No. of Districts : 31 ³³ He promoted education and literature and he was also
³³ Population : known as a great administrator.
³³ In 16th century, Sultans of Deccan dominated the
• Person : 6,10,95,297 northern part and Hindu king of Mysore dominated
• Male : 3,09,66,657 the south.
• Female : 3,01,28,640 ³³ Though Mughals ruled Karnataka in later period, but
³³ Rural population : those are not important in history.
• Person : 3,74,69,335 ³³ The empire of Wadeyar kings was extended as a result
³³ Urban population : of war between Maratha and Mughals in 16th century.
³³ In 1761, being assisted by the French power General
• Person : 2,36,25,962
Hyder Ali out throned his lord, yadav king Wadeyar
³³ Population density : 319
and became the ruler of Mysore.
³³ Decadal Growth Rate : 15.6
³³ The British handed over the power to the king
³³ Sex Ratio (per 1000) : 973 Srikrishna (Wadeyar III). As per agreement, the British
³³ Sex Ratio (0-6 age ago) : 948 took the hold of power for 50 years in 1831 and it again
³³ Percentage of rural popula-tion : 61.3% went under control of Wadeyar in 1881.
³³ Percentage of urban popula-tion : 38.7% ³³ At last in 1947, the year of Indian independence, the
³³ Literacy Rate : then king Jaya Chamarajendra Wadeyar decided to
• Person : 75.4 join the Indian Union after getting fully support of
• Male : 82.5 his subjects.
• Female : 68.1 ³³ The only congress session which was presided by the
³³ State day : 01 Nov. Rashtrapita Mahmta Gandhi, Belgaum, is in the state
³³ Distt. With maximum rural population : Belgaum of Karnataka.
³³ Distt. With maximum urban population : Bangalore. ³³ Gangadhar Rao, R.R. Diwakar, Kaddappa Raghwendra
³³ Largest City : Bangalore Rao etc. are some famous freedom fighters of
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30) Karnataka.
³³ Official Language(s) : Kannada ³³ After independence, the state of Mysore was created in
³³ Establishment : 1st November 1956 1956 by uniting the Kannada speaking areas of Madras
³³ State Animal : Elephant presidency, Hyderabad state and Mysore state.
³³ State Bird : Indian Roller ³³ The state was renamed as Karnataka on 01 November,
³³ State Tree : Sandal 1973.
³³ State Flower : Lotus
ADMINISTRATION
³³ First Chief Minister : Arcot Ramaswami Mudaliar
³³ First Governor : Jaya Chamrajendra Wodeyar ³³ State Legilature : Bicameral,
³³ Website : www.karnataka.gov.in 1. Vidhan Sabha 2. Vidhan Parishad
³³ Member of Vidhan Sabha : 224
HISTORY ³³ Member of Vidhan Parishad : 75
³³ The history of Karnataka is very ancient. The ³³ Member of Lok Sabha : 28
evidence of the Palaeolithic and Neolithic era in the
³³ Member of Rajya Sabha : 12
forms of tools, found in the vallies of Tungabhadra,
Ghatprabha and Kauveri, tells about it. ³³ High court : Bangalore (1884)
³³ The word ‘Karnataka’ is also used in ‘Brihatsamhita’ GEOGRAPHY
written by Varahmihir.
³³ The Satavahanas were succeeded by the kadambas in ³³ Karnataka lies to the south of Goa and Maharastra,
upper karnatic and in the lower region of Tungbhadra to the west of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana to the
river, the Gang established their rule. north-west of Tamil Nadu and to the north of Kerala.
³³ The Chalukya of Badami (500-735 A.D.) ruled over ³³ It has a sea-coast of nearly 400 km (300 km with
a wider area, from the Narmada to the Kauveri inundations).
from the days of Pulikeshin II who even defeated
Harshavardhana of Kanauj. ³³ About 750km from north to south and 400 km
³³ Rashtrakutas (753-973 A.D.) of Malkhed, who from west to east, Karnataka can be divided in four
succeeded them levied tribute on the rulers of Kanauj physiographic regions :
successively in the so called ‘Age of Imperial Kanauj’. 1. The northern plateau with a general elevation of
³³ After the decline of the Chalukya dynasty, this region 300 to 600 metres with the mean sea level.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

2. The central plateau with a general elevation of MAJOR INDUSTRIES

GEOGRAPHY

450 to 700 meters. Iron & steel

³³ : Bhadrawati
3. The southern plateau with a general elevation of Glass
³³ : Bangalore
600 to 900 meters. Paper
³³ : Bhadrwati, wadeli
4. The coastal regions comprising the plains and Cotton
³³ : Bangalore, Mysore, Gulberga.
the western ghats. Silk
³³ : Belgaum, kolar, Bangalore.
³³ Wildlife found in Karnataka include gaur, sambhar, Woolen
³³ : Bangalore, Bellari
barking deer, elephant, tiger, sloath beer, open-bill Sulphuric Acid
³³ : Bailegula
stork, white ibis, egret, heron, patridge, peaflow, wail MAJOR MINERALS
and hornbill.
Gold
³³ : Kolar, Hatti.
MAJOR RIVERS Mica
³³ : Hasan
³³ Krishna  Cauvery  Sharavati
Mangnese
³³ : Chitaldurga, Kadur, Chickmanglore,
Shimoga
³³ Tungbhadra  Bheema  Palar Iron ore
³³ : Kemangundi, Donimalai, Bababudan
³³ Ghatprabha  Hemavati  Gagavali Mountain.
MAJOR WATERFALLS SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ Shivasamudram  Jog ³³ The principal language of Karnataka is kannada.
³³ Sathodi  Mogod ³³ Shree pampa was the very first poet of Kannada, who
³³ Gokaka  Abbey wrot Adipuranam and Vikrmaurjun Vijay,
³³ Unchalli  Irupu ³³ The propounder of Dvaitabad, Madhvacharya,
³³ Hebbe  Kalhatti belonged to Karnataka.
³³ Raja Rocket ³³ Karnataka boasts a fascinating variety of folk theatre
called Bayalata. Dasarata, Sannata, Doddata,
MAJOR MULTIPURPOSE RIVER VALLEY PROJECT. Parijata, and Yakshagana are the most popular forms
of Bayalata.
³³ Tungbhadra project  Ghatprabha Project
³³ Prominent festivals of the state include Ugadi,Dussehra,
³³ Bhadra Project Nagapanchami, Navaratri, Yellu Amavasya, Ramzan,
³³ Kalindi Hydro-electric Project & Deepawali.
³³ Upper Krishna Project
MAJOR TEMPLES OF THE STATE
³³ Sharvati Hydro-electric Project.
³³ Hoysaleswar temple : Halebid
MAJOR LAKES ³³ Kedareswar Shiva temple : Halebid.
³³ Valsur lake  Sankay lake ³³ Parashunath Jain temple : Halebid.
³³ Lakshminarayan Temple : Hassan.
MAJOR NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES ³³ Sriranganath swami Temple : Srirangapatnam.
³³ Bandipur National Park ³³ Prasanna Chenna keshab Temple : Somnathpur.
³³ Gometeswara Jain Temple : Shravanbelgola.
³³ Bannerghatta National Park
³³ Patlawiram Temple : Hampi.
³³ Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary ³³ Hazara Rama swami Temple : Hampi.
³³ Kakkru Belhr Sanctuaries ³³ Cave Temple : Badami.
³³ Mandagadde bird Sanctuary ³³ Papanath Temple : Pattadakal.
³³ Gudavi bird Sanctuary ³³ Sanghmeswar Temple : Pattadakal
³³ Attiveri bird Sanctuaries ³³ Ladkhan Temple : Aihole
³³ Dandeli Sanctuaries ³³ Rabanfedi Cave Temple : Aihole
³³ Shravati valley Sanctuaries ³³ Huchimalli Temple : Aihole
³³ Nandi Temple : Bangalore
³³ Bhadra Sanctuary
³³ Gangadhreswar Temple : Mysore
³³ Mukhambil Sanctuary
³³ Nagarhole National Park TOURISM
³³ Someshwara sanctuary ³³ Karnataka has many tourist spots. Some of them are :
³³ Bangalore – (famous for parks and industries).
ECONOMY
³³ Mysore – (Brindavan Gardens)
³³ Agriculture and allied activities account for nearly 56 ³³ Belur, Halebid and Somnathpur – (famous Hoysala
percent of the workforce in Karnataka. monuments).
³³ The state contributes about 5.59% in national
³³ Aihole & Pattadkal – (for the 1300 years old rock-cut
foodgrains production.
and structural temples).
³³ Karnataka enjoys a prominent position on the
horticulture and map of India. ³³ Hampi – (famous open air museum)
³³ As far as the mineral is concerned, it is endowed with ³³ Gulberga, Bidar, Bijapur, – (renovated Indo-Saracenic
rich deposits. monuments)
³³ Udupi, North Kannada – (beautiful beaches)
MAJOR CROPS
³³ Jog, Gokak, Mogod – (water falls).
³³ Paddy, Jowar, Ragi, Maize, Bajra, Wheat, Pulses, ³³ Nandi Hills, Kodachadri – (hill stations)
Ground-nut, sunflower, cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco.

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GEOGRAPHY
KERALA
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ He made a campaign to get a Himalayan stone to make
³³ Location : 8°14’ to 12°48’ N. Latitude & 74°52 to idol of the Goddess Kannagi.
78°22’ E. Longitude. ³³ Red chera was also the founder of the famous
³³ Capital : Thiruvananthapuram. Pattinicult.
³³ Area : 38,852 sq.km. ³³ Their royal emblem was the bow.
³³ Population : 3,34,06,061 ³³ The Chera rules over the modern Konkan, coastal
• Male : 1,60,27,412 region of Malabara, cochin and Travancore.
• Female : 1,73,78,649 ³³ The capital of the chera kingdom was vanji. Tondi and
³³ Literate population Total : 2,81,35,824 muziris were its famous parts.
• Male : 1,37,04,903 ³³ Muziris was a great centre of Indo Roman trade.
• Female : 1,44,30,921 ³³ The Chera dynasty declined at the beginning of 3rd
century AD.
³³ Literacy Rate Total : 94.0%
³³ The Chola also rules in some parts of the region till
• Male : 96.1%
the beginning of 10th Century A.D.
• Female : 92.1%
³³ Between 1308-11 Alauddin’s slave Malik Kafur undertook
³³ Decadal growth rate : 4.9% several campaigns against southern kingdoms and ended
³³ Sex Ratio (per 1000) : 1,084 the independent rule of these states.
³³ Sex Ratio (0-6 age) : 964 ³³ The northern territory of this state was under the rule
³³ Population density : 860 of the king of Mysore in 17the century.
³³ Principal language : Malayalam ³³ Tipu sultan also rule over it for some time of which
³³ Other languages : English, Tamil, Telgu, Tulu, the rest of the part was under local kings.
Kanadda, Konkari. ³³ The famous Portuguese trader Vasco da Gama arrived
³³ Total No. of districts : 14 at the bank of calicut on 24 April 1498.
³³ State Day : 1 Novemeber ³³ The Dutch arrived after the portugese and struggled
³³ Largest City : Kochi with them for the supremacy of trade for a long time.
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30) ³³ But at last the British East India Company captured the
³³ Official Language(s) : Malyalam Tiruvitankur state and thus this state became a part of
British India.
³³ Establishment : 1st November 1956
³³ The Moplah revolt is the land mark event of India’s
³³ State Animal : Elephant
freedom struggle.
³³ State Bird : Great Hornbill
³³ Muslim peasants of south Malabar coast are called
³³ State Tree : Coconut Moplas.
³³ State Flower : Golden Shower Tree ³³ The famous social reformer Sree Narayana guru was
³³ First Chief Minister : Pattom Thanu Pillai born in 1854 in Kerala.
³³ First Governor : Burgula Ramakrishna Rao ³³ He gave the slogan ‘One caste, one region, one god’.
³³ Website : www.kerala.gov.in ³³ He was a scholar of Sanskrit and Malayalam
HISTORY languages.
³³ He established Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalan
³³ The most authentic history of Kerals is provided by
Yogam.
Sangam Classics.
³³ In 1936 the king of Travancore allowed the entrance of
³³ Historically the Cheras were first rulers of Kerala. the Harijans (schueduled caste) in the temples of state.
³³ One of the earliest and better known among the chera ³³ After independence Travancore – Cochin states were
rulers was Udiyanjeral. During his time all the small integrated to form Travancore – Cochin state on 1st
regions united to form a strong state which was named July, 1949. However, Malabar remained under the
as Chernadu. Madras Province.
³³ His son Nedunjeral Adam conquered the Kadambas ³³ Under the State’s re-organization Act of 1956
with their capital Vanavasi, near modern Goa. Travancore – cochin state and Malabar were united
³³ He is said to have defeated the Yavanas also. to form the state of Kerala on 1st November 1956.
³³ The greatest king of the chera dynasty was ADMINISTRATION
Senguttuvan.
³³ State legislature : Unicameral i.e. legislative assembly
³³ He is said to have subjugated the Chola and the only.
Pandya kings. ³³ Members of legislative assembly : 140
³³ Senguttuvan was also known as Red chera. ³³ Members of Lok Sabha : 20

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³³ Members of Rajya Sabha : 09 ³³ Minerals – Limonite, Rutile, Monazite, Zircon,

GEOGRAPHY

³³ High Court – at Trivendram (1958) and a bench at Sillimanite, Clay and Quartz sand.
Ernakulam. ³³ There are 62 public undertaking in the state.
³³ Kerala is relatively less endowed with energy
GEOGRAPHY
resources.
³³ From Natural point of view Kerela is divided
into three parts : 1. Hill regions of east. TRANSPORT
2. Plain of mid. 3. Western parts.
ROADS
³³ Kerela is rich in rivers and back waters. 44 rivers (41
west flowing and 3 east flowing ) cut across kerala with ³³ Kerala is the maiden state in the country having cent
their innumerable tributaries and benches. percent road axis to its remote villages.
³³ Major rivers – Periyar, Bharata-puzha, Chalakudi, RAILWAY
Pumba etc.
³³ The state has a total railway route length of 1,148 km
³³ Mountains– Annamalai, Nilgiri.
and covers 13 railway routes.
³³ Lakes – Vembanad, Shastamkotta, Astamudi.
³³ Peaks – Anaimudi (3000 meter) AVIATION
Agasthy – Kuttam (2,044m) ³³ There are three airports, viz, Thiruvananthpuram,
³³ Passes – Devikolam, Moonnar. Kochi {Nedumbassery} and Kozhikode of which the
³³ Neighbouring states – Karnataka, Tamil Nadu. first two are international airports.
ECONOMY PORTS
³³ Kerala is a major producer of coconut, rubber, pepper, ³³ Among 18 ports, kochi is the only major port in the
cardamom, ginger, cocoa, cashew, arecanut, coffee state.
and tea. ³³ There are 3 intermediate ports and 14 minor ports.
³³ Tree species like Mutmeg, Cinnamon, Cloves etc. are
also cultivated. FESTIVALS
³³ Rice and Tapioca are important food crops. ³³ Onam – The most typical of Kerala festivals. It
³³ Different varities of plantation, banana, pineapple, coincides with the harvest season and is now
mango and jackfruit are major fruit crops. celebrated on astronomical new year day.
³³ Coconut is the main story of Kerala’s rural economy ³³ Mahashivaratri – It is celebrated on the banks
in view of its multiferous contribution to income and of Periyar river as a spectacular festival which is
employment. compared to kumbhmela.
³³ Pepper is one of the major export oriented commodities. ³³ Pooram festival–It is celebrated by Vadakkumnatha
The state continues to enjoy a near monopoly in area temple at Thrisser in April with an impressive
and production, of Pepper accounting for 91% in India. procession of caparisoned elephants and display of
unparalleled pyrotechnics.
³³ Kerala accounts for 84% of area under rubber in
country. ³³ Main christian festivals are Christmas and Easter.
³³ The share of kerala in coffee production is 22 percent ³³ The Muslims celebrate Miladeshareef, Ramjan, Idul
while it accounts for 24 percent of area in country. Fitra and Bakrid

MAJOR IRRIGATION PROJECT

SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ Kerala has a rich cultural heritage which is diversified.
³³ Under construction – Kallada, pazharri, murattupuzha,
Idamalayar, karappara, chaliar, Kanjirappuzha. ³³ Peoples of different cast, creed, religion and culture
live in the state.
INDUSTRY ³³ Nambooderi and higher class of Nayar are the two
³³ Kerala is rich in industrial potential and infrastructure main land lord castes.
facilities such as hydro-electric power, rich forests, ³³ The profounder of Advait Vedant Shankara born in
rare minerals and the efficient system of transport 788 at Kaladi village in the state.
and communication. ³³ Muslims live in northern part.
³³ Traditional industries – Handloom, Cashew, Coir and ³³ Christians in the central regions and Hindus in the
Handicrafts. southern part of the state.
³³ Other Important Industries – Rubber, Tea, Ceramics, ³³ Keralite men wear chadar & shirt and women wear
Electric and Electronic Appliances, Telephone cables, lungi or sari and choli.
Transformers, Bricks, and Tiles, Drugs & Chemicals,
³³ Lungi and chadar is called Mundy and Tortu
Plywood Splints and Veneers, Beedis Cigar, Sops,
respectively.
Oils, Fertilizers.
³³ The main food of keralite is rice but due to insufficient
PRINCIPAL EXPORT PRODUCTS production poor people eat Tapioca also.
³³ Cashew nut, Tea, Coffee, Spices, Lemongrass oil, Sea ³³ The famous classical dance Kathakali originated in
foods, Rosewood and Coir. the state of Kerala.

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³³ The musical instruments usually used in Kathakali UNIVERSITIES

GEOGRAPHY
are Chenda, Maddalam, Chengila, Edattalam and ³³ The universities in the state are :
Samkha. 1. Kerala university
2. M.G. university
³³ Ragini devi, Shanta Rao, Mrin-alinisarabhai, Rita
3. Calicut university
Ganguly, Krishna Nair, Gopinathan are Some noted
4. Kannoor university
artists of Kathakali.
5. Sanskrit university
³³ Mohini-attam is another distinctive dance of Kerala.
SOME IMPORTANT TOURIST CENTERS.
³³ It was revived by poet Vallathol Narayan Menon in
³³ Kovalam sea beach is the best in India and second in
early two century.
the world (next to Miami).
³³ It is a solo dance performed by women only.
³³ K o v a l a m , Padmanabswami temple in
³³ Bharati Shivajee, Vaijay-antimala, Kanak Rele, Thiruvananthpuram, Sabrimala temple, veli lagoon,
Shanta Rao are some noted artist of Mohiniattam. Neyyar dam, Ponmudi, Pakship-athalam, Edakkal
caves in waynad, munnar, peermale and periyar wild
LITERATURE
life sanctuaries.
³³ Malayalam is also a part of original Dravida like
Tamil, but there is no Malayali literature before 8th WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES & NATIONAL PARKS
century AD. ³³ Kerala has 12 wild life sanctuaries and 2 national
³³ The first is the Pach Malayalam stream which consists parks.
of folk song and folk story. ³³ Some of the important wild life sanctuaries are :
³³ The second is the Tamil stream during which the
Ramayana like composition were composed.
PIPPARA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
³³ Kotayantu Tapuran and Unayani Variyar are some ³³ Periyar Sanctuary – Mostly famous for Makhna
other popular poet. elephants, other animals such as wild Dogs, tigers,
Dhanesh, Dur, Panthers, Bison are also found.
³³ In modern times G. Shankar Kurup, S.K. Pottekkatt,
T. Sivashankar Pillai, M.T. Vasudevan Nair, Sara ³³ Benaurd Sanctuary – Kozhikode
Joseph etc. has enriched the Malayalam literature. ³³ Paramtrikulam sanctuary – Palghat.

EDUCATION PERSONALITIES
³³ Kerala is the most literate state of the country. ³³ Shankaracharya (born 788 AD): One of the greatest
³³ An analysis would show that regional and gender Hindu reformer who revived the Hindu religion and
disparities in literacy are marginal in Kerala. successfully threw back the tide of Buddhism and
Jainism, he was a founder of the Advaitic philosophy.

MANIPUR
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ Decadal growth rate (2001-2011) : 24.5%
³³ Location : 23 13’ to 25 41’ North Latitude 93 2’ to
o o o ³³ Sex Ratio : 985
97o47’ East Longitude. ³³ Child sex ratio : 936
³³ Boundries : Nagaland in North, Myanmar in South, ³³ Main Language : Manipuri
Mizoram in South West, Myanmar in East and ³³ Total Number of Districts : 16
Assam in West. ³³ Number of Cities : 33
³³ Capital : Imphal ³³ Number of Villages : 2,199
³³ Area : 22, 327 Sq. km. ³³ State Day : 21st January
³³ Population : 28,55,794
³³ Largest City : Imphal
• Male : 14,38,586
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30)
• Female : 14,17,208
³³ Official Language(s) : Manipuri
³³ Literate Population : 17,68,181
³³ Establishment : 21st January 1972
• Male : 9,60,015
³³ State Animal : Sangai
• Female : 8,08,166
³³ State Bird : Mrs. Hume’s Pheasant
³³ Literacy rate (in percentage) : 79.2%
³³ State Tree : Toon
• Male : 86.1%
³³ State Flower : Shirui Lily
• Female : 72.4%
³³ First Chief Minister : M. Koireng Singh
³³ Rural Population (in percentage) : 70.8%
³³ First Governor : Braj Kumar Nehru
³³ Urban Population (in percentage) : 29.2%
³³ Website : www.manipur.nic.in
³³ Population Density : 128

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HISTORY ³³ Climate – Sub tropical to temp-erate.

GEOGRAPHY

³³ The recorded history of Kingship started from 33 AD ³³ Main rivers of the State – Imphal/ Manipur other
which marks the coronation of Pakhangba. rivers – Ireella, Thobal, Nambul.
³³ Pakhamba, is considered to be the first king of ³³ Maximum part of Manipur is hilly made upof tertiary
Manipur. He was also known a ‘Yavishti’. stone.
³³ Suyoi Tonponk, son of Pakhamba, began a new way ³³ Manipur is situated to the east of Barail range.
to keep record of time. ³³ Loktak lake is situated in the mid valley of the State.
³³ In 1542, the king of Manipur won the region beyond Its area in general season is about 96 sq. km. and it
the river ‘Ningathi’ which caused clash with China. becomes 240 sq. km. in rainy season.
³³ Manipur defeated China in 1631. The king of Manipur ³³ There is a Thanga island in Loktak lake, which is
called himself Khagemba i.e. who defeated China. habitat of fishermen.
³³ Khagemba died in 1651. During his period Polo sports ³³ Imphal river flows in chin hills and in Kali Ghati. It
of Manipur became popular. finally merges with chindwin river of Myanmar.
³³ Accession of Cherai Sengba took place in 1698 A.D. ³³ Barak flows from the North to South West corner of
During his period a brahmin named Banmali came the state, then it takes a sharp turn to the north and
to settle here from Orissa. He encouraged the king to flows into Kachchar and Somari Valleys upto 60 cm
worship Lord Krishna. and finally joins Brahamputra.
³³ A king named ‘Garib Nawaj’ became ruler of this region ³³ Mainly four types of forests are found in the East.
in 1709 A.D. He attacked on Myanmar every year and 1. Tropical semi evergreen forest.
reached its capital.
2. Tropical wet monsoon forest.
³³ In 1738, he made a mark on Kaumodo Pagoda as a
3. Sub tropical forest of Oak.
sign of his victory.
4. Dry temperate forest.
³³ The Vaishnavism became state religion of Manipur
during the period of King Jai Singh. He built up the FOREST
temple of Sri Govindjee in 1779. ³³ The Dzuko Valley is also the only habitat of the
³³ Manipur Rash was shown for the first time on the endemic and the rarest species dzuko Lily (Liluim
eve of establishment of an idol of Sri Govindjee in Chitangade).
the temple.
³³ The state is also the only home of the Brow-Antlered
³³ After being defeated by the Burmese Chaurjeet Singh Deer (Cervus eldi eldi) locally known as Sangai
had seek help from the British, but this step proved surviving in its natural habitat.
disasterous for him later on.
³³ The Keibul Lamjao, is only floating National Park in
³³ In the Kangla war of 1891, Tikendrajit, the last sovereign
the world.
king was hanged by the British controls.
³³ Keibul Lamjao National Park, established in 1975, is
³³ With the freedom in 1947, Manipur became free as a
situated in Imphal and Vishnupur district in an area
part of India. Then Manipur had been administered
of 40 sq. km.
by the Government of India.
³³ Keibul Lamjao means the vast region with tiger
³³ By, 1950, Manipur became a ‘C’ category state.
population.
³³ Later in 1963, a Legislative Assembly of 30 elected
and 2 nominated member was established under the ³³ The Sangai (Thamin) or one horned dancing deer resides
Union Territories Act 1962. here.
³³ The status of the administrator was raised from Chief ³³ Besides Sangai deer wild bear, Civet cat and other
Commissioner to the status of Lt. Governor with effect animals roam about on the land and in the wet hubs
from 19th December 1969. and plants.
³³ Manipur attained full-fledged statehood on 21 ³³ The Second National Park of the state is Sirohi
January, 1972. National Park, situated 5 km away from the district
headquarter Ukhrool and spreaded in an area of 41
ADMINISTRATION sq.km. in hilly region.
³³ Legislature – only one house Legislative Council. ³³ Tiger Leopard, Buffaloes are the main animal roaming
³³ Members in Legislative Assembly – 60. in the National Park while Tregopane, other faizent
³³ Number of members elected for Lok Sabha –2. types birds are also found.
³³ Number of members elected for Rajya Sabha – 1. ECONOMY
³³ Judiciary – High Court situated at Guwahati. There ³³ Main Crop – Rice
is a bench of High Court in Imphal.
³³ Other Crops – Wheat, Maize, Pulses.
GEOGRAPHY ³³ Fruits – Pineapples, Orange, Banana, Mango etc.
³³ Frontier State : Nagaland in North, Myanmar in South, ³³ Forest Production – Teak, Juijan, Oak, Bamboo etc.
Mizoram in Southwest, Myanmar in East and Assam ³³ Main Power Projects – Loktak, Kopili, Khandog, Doyang,
in West. Rangn-adi, Kathalguri Leimkhong etc.

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INDUSTRIES and Nat Ras. In them the numbers of Krishna and

GEOGRAPHY
³³ Handloom is the most popular traditional industry gopies are generally eight.
providing maximum employment in the state. ³³ Manipuri Folk dance “Thabal Changba” means
³³ Industrial units include steel sheet mill, Manipur dancing in moon light.
electronic development corporation, plywood factory etc. ³³ Gaur Leela is a dance form based on the leela of
³³ Manipur Drug and Pharma-ceutical limited has been Chaitanya Prabhu.
established at Nilkooti of Imphal district in 1993 with the ³³ Chaitanya is also known as ‘Gaurang’ in this state.
help of Hindustan Antibiotics Limited, Pune. Here, he is worshipped as God.
³³ Among folk songs – Dhobigeet and Manohar Sai are
TRANSPORT very popular.
³³ Imphal, the capital of Manipur is joined by road (NH- ³³ Lai Haroba is sung at Basan-totshava.
39) with Nagaland on the North and Myanmar on the ³³ Pena-Ishei is sung with an musical instrument made
East. On the West by Assam with NH-53 and Mizoram up of a thread named Pena.
on the South by NH-150.
³³ In Mridanga dance 14 dancer dance with Mridanga.
³³ Dimapur, 215 km from Imphal is the Nearest rail head.
³³ Yaoshang (Holi) is a very important festival of Manipur.
³³ Imphal airport is the only airport which is linked with
³³ Other festivals are Dol-jatra, Lai Haroba, Rasa Leela,
other stations in the region by Indian Airlines, Jet
Cheiraoba, Ningol, Chakouba, Raht-Jatra, Idul
Airways and Alliance Air.
Fitre, Imoinu Iratpa, Gaan-Ngai, Lui-Ngai-ni, Idul
SOCIETY & CULTURE Zuha Durga Pujah, Houchongba, Diwali, kut and
Christmas.
³³ People in Manipur Valley are called ‘Mithi’.
³³ The state is considered as the birth place of Polo. TOURISM
³³ Manipuri dance is a classical dance form of India. ³³ Some important tourist centres in the state are : Shri
³³ The books like ‘Leithak Likharo’, ‘Panthobi Khongoon’ Govindajee temple, Khwairambad Bazar (Ima Keithal),
were written in 16th and 17th century. War Cemeteries, Saheed Minar, Nupi Lan (Wo-men’s
³³ Panthobi was a name of Lord Shiva’s wife Parvati. war) Memorial Complex, Khonghampat Orchidarium,
³³ ‘Garib Newaj’ had written a book ‘Lakshmi Charita’. INA memorial (Moirang), Loktak Lake, Keibul Lamjao
National Park, Bishnu temple at Bishnupur Sendra,
³³ Manipuri language is also known as ‘Maitei’.
Moreh, Siroy village, Siroy Hills, Dzuko Valley,
³³ The famous dance of Manipur is called Ras. It is of
State Museum, Kania tourist Home, Khongion war
four types – Kunj Ras, Maha Ras, Basant Mere Ras
memorial.

MEGHALAYA
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ No. of towns : 22
³³ Location : 25 1’ to 26 5’ North Latitude 85 49’ to
o o o ³³ No. of Villages : 6,839
92o52’ East Longitude. ³³ Largest City : Shillong
³³ Boundaries : Assam in North and East, Bangladesh ³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30)
in South and West. ³³ Official Language(s) : Khasi, Garo, English
³³ Capital : Shillong ³³ Establishment : 25th January 1971
³³ Area : 22,429 sq.km ³³ State Animal : Clouded Leopard
³³ Population : ³³ State Bird : Hill Myna
• Person : 29,66,889 ³³ State Tree : White Teak
• Male : 14,91,832 ³³ State Flower : Lady Slipper Orchid
• Female : 14,75,057 ³³ First Chief Minister : William-son A. Sangma
³³ Sex-ratio : 989 ³³ First Governor : Braj Kumar Nehru
³³ Rural Population : 23,71,439 ³³ Website : www.meghalaya.nic.in
³³ Urban Population : 5,95,450
HISTORY
³³ Urbanization : 20.1 per cent
³³ Population Density : 132 per sq. km. ³³ Ahom kings ruled over this region during 16th
century.
³³ Decadal Population Growth Rate : 27.9%
³³ According to Garo tradition, the ancestors of Garo
³³ Child sex-ratio : 970
were resident of Tohara state of Tibet.
³³ Total Literate Population : 17,85,005
³³ During pre british period the area surrounding
• Male Literate Population : 9,13,879
present habitation of Garo were under the landlordhip
• Female Literate Population : 8,71,126 of Karaibari Kaluna Lupara and Habraghat.
³³ Literacy Rate : 74.4 percent ³³ After the military expeditions against Garo Elliat stopped
• Male Literacy : 76 percent the interference of Landlords in the Garo’s region.
• Female Literacy : 72.9 percent ³³ During that period this area was under control of the
³³ State Day : 21st January commissioners of Kuch Bihar.
³³ Total No. of Districts : 14

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³³ In 1876, Garo revolted against the landlords of ECONOMY

GEOGRAPHY

Karaibari and put their house on fire.

³³ Meghalaya is basically an agriculture state in which
³³ Missionaries came to Khashi hills in 1813. about 80 percent of its population depends primarilly
³³ Missionaries reached Jayantia hills in 1842. for their livelihood.
³³ In 1866, an administrative headquarter was ³³ Major food crops – Rice and Corn.
established in Tura by the British government for
³³ Meghalaya is renowned for its oranges (Khasi
this region.
Mandarian), Pineapple, Banana, Jackfruits, temperate
³³ Khasi nationalism began to develop in 1925 after the fruits like Plum, Pears and Peaches etc.
establishment of ‘Khasi Rashtriya Darbar’.
³³ Cash crops, popularly and traditionally cultivated
³³ In 1920, a separate Khasi state was demanded by include Potato, Turmeric, Ginger, Black Pepper,
the Khasi Rastriya Darbar on the arrival of Simon
Arcnut, Betelrine, Tapioca, short staple, Cotton, Jute
Commission.
Mesta, Mustard and Rapeseed.
³³ Khasi status peoples union was organised in 1945-
³³ Presently special emphasis is laid on non traditional
46, which vowed for the formation of Khasi state
crops like oilseeds (Ground nut, Soyabean and
federation.
Sunflower), Cashewnut, Tea and Coffee, Mushroom,
³³ In 1953 people of this region began to agitate for the Medicinal plants, Orchids and commercial flowers.
formation of a separate state.
³³ Chief Minerals found – Sillimanite, Coal, Ceremic,
³³ All party hill leaders union was formed in 1960.
Lime stone, Granite etc.
³³ Meghalaya was created as an autonomous state within
³³ Sillimanite producing centre – Nongmebet (Khasi hill).
the state of Assam.
³³ Main Coal Producing centres – Cherapunji, Lakadong,
³³ The full fledged state of Meghalaya came into existence
of 21st January 1972. Lat Ringiv, Sizu Langloi, Dishoma, Nambore.
³³ Main lime stone producing centres – Kamara, garo,
ADMINISTRATION Khasi, Jaintia hills.
³³ `High Court – Shilong High Court. ³³ Other minerals found in the state – Dolomite, Fire
³³ Legislature – Only one house ‘Legislative Assembly. clay, Lead sand, White soil.
³³ Members in Legislative Assembly – 60 ³³ A Cement factory is situated in Cherapunji.
³³ Members elected for Lok Sabha – 2 ³³ Small Cement factory are established in Damas of East
³³ Members elected for Rajya Sabha – 1 Garo districts and Satumga in Jaiyantia hill district.
³³ ‘Erie’ silk is very popular in this region.
GEOGRAPHY ³³ ‘Hali System’ of agriculture is prevalent here.
³³ Frontier States – Assam in north and east Bangladesh
in south and west. SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ Length from east to west – 400 km. ³³ Meghalays is situated on the very old Shillong Plateau.
³³ Width from north to south – 80 km. It is also called land of God.
³³ People of this state are Mangoloid.
³³ The highest peak – Shilong Peak (1963m)
³³ Jayantia observe their harvesting festival performing
³³ The highest peak of Garo Hills – Narnek (1412 m) dances of Laho and Behdein-Khalam in the months
³³ Annual rainfall in Mausinram – 1141.87 cm. of June July.
³³ Highest rainfall receiving place in the world – ³³ Every Meghalaya citizen is apt to play guitar with
Mawsynram songs. They are by nature joyful and fond of dance
³³ Main Trees – Lakh, Bamboo, Sal, Fern, Mahisal, Khasi music.
Pinse, Bhurj, Teak, Titachaps, Gamari, Samdoma, ³³ Garo Youth live in a separate place called ‘Wokpanthe’
Khokan etc. till they get marriage.
³³ Main Rivers – Umgora, Someshwari, Umagu, Nitai ³³ Khasi and garo languages are sub dialect of Mann,
Bhugai, Krishnai, Kalu, Manda, Damring, Umium, Khamer and Baho dynasty.
Simsung. ³³ Roman script was taught to them by Christian
³³ Important Lakes – Umium, Vimiamakhwan, Maflung, missionaries in 1841.
Pupali, Mitund, Napak, Meetang, Thadlaskin. ³³ Ujeevon Rao had written a book on the religion of
Khasi after 1895 A.D.
³³ Falls – Nohamsargithiyang fall, wishop fall, Spread
³³ Jeevon is considered as the restablizer of Khasi
angle fall, widon fall, umiamakhwah fall, Masmai fall,
culture.
Elephant fall, Sweat fall.
³³ Festivals – Ka Pam,blang Nongkrem, Shad Suk
³³ National Parks – Nokrek National Park, Balpakram Mynsiem, Behdien-Khlam, Wangala.
National Park. ³³ Wildlife Sanctuaries – Nangk-heelem and Sizzo.
³³ Nongevilam wildlife Sanctuary, Sizu wild life
sanctuary. Tourism
³³ Hullock (Hylobetus Hullock), variety of monkey is ³³ Shillong, the capital city, has a number of beautiful
formed only in this state. spots. They are, ward’s lake, Lady Hydari park, Polo
ground, Minzoo, Elephant falls and Shillong Peak
³³ Meghalaya has highest number of elephant per square
overlooking the city and the golf course which is one
kilometer.
of the best in the country.

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GEOGRAPHY
MIZORAM
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ After their arrival in Mizoram Mizos had to fought
against Kukis and they subdued the Kukis. Because
³³ Location : 21 58’ to 24 29’ North Latitude 92 29’ to
o o o
of this struggle they involved in fight with the British
93 22’ East Longitude.
o
during 19th century.
³³ Boundaries : Assam in North, Manipur in North
³³ The British had to try hard to overcome Mizos. The
East, Myanmar in East and South and Tripura and British used to call the Mizo dominated area as ‘Lusai
Bangladesh in West. hills’. About 1880 the British fortified this region and
³³ Capital : Aizawl made themselve strong.
³³ Area : 21,081 sq.km ³³ The administration of South district came under
³³ Population : Bengal Suba in 1891.
• Person : 10,97,206 ³³ After being annexed by the British in 1891, for the
• Male : 5,55,339 first few years, Lushai hills in the North remained
under Assam while the southern half remained under
• Female : 5,41,867
Bengal.
³³ Sex-ratio : 976
³³ Both the parts were amalga-mated into one district
³³ Rural Population : 5,25,435 called Lushai hill district under the chief Commissioner
³³ Urban Population : 5,71,771 of Assam.
³³ Urbanization : 52.1 per cent ³³ After independence Mizoram remained a district of
³³ Population Density : 52 per sq. km. Assam.
³³ Decadal Population Growth Rate : 23.5% ³³ They did not have their any representative in the state
³³ Child sex-ratio : 971 legislature of Assam.
³³ Total Literate Population : 8,48,175 ³³ Entrance of outsiders was prohibited in their area.
• Male Literate Population : 4,38,529 ³³ With the implementation of the North-Eastern
reorganisation act in 1972, Mizoram became a Union
• Female Literate Population : 4,09,646
territory.
³³ Literacy Rate : 91.58 (2011 census) percent
³³ As a bequel to the signing of the historic memorandum
• Male Literacy : 93.3 percent of settlement between the government of India and the
• Female Literacy : 89.3 percent Mizo national front in 1986, it was granted statehood
³³ State Day : 20th February on 20th February 1987.
³³ Total No. of Districts : 11 ³³ It became the 23rd state of the country.
³³ No. of towns : 23 ADMINISTRATION
³³ No. of Villages : 830
³³ State Legislature – Only one house.
³³ Main Languages : Mizo and English
³³ Seats in Legislative Assembly –40
³³ Main Tribes : Luhsai, Panris, Humar, Ralte, Chakma,
³³ No. of Members elected for Lok Sabha – 1
Kuki, Paithe, Lakher
³³ No. of Members elected for Rajya Sabha – 1
³³ Largest City : Aizawl
³³ Judiciary– High Court– Guwahati (There is a bench
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30)
of Guwahati High Court in Aizwal)
³³ Official Language(s) : Mizo, English
³³ Establishment : 20th February 1987 GEOGRAPHY
³³ State Animal : Serow ³³ Frontier States – Assam in North, Manipur in North
³³ State Bird : Mrs. Hume’s pheasant East, Myanmar in South and Tripura and Bangladesh
in West.
³³ State Tree : Iron wood
³³ Length (North to South) – 277 k.m.
³³ State Flower : Red Vanda
³³ Breadth (East to West) – 121 k.m.
³³ First Chief Minister : L. Chal Chhunga
³³ Average Annual rainfall –­ 254 c.m.
³³ First Governor : Hiteshwar Saikia
³³ Highest Peak – Blue Mountain (Fongpui) – 2210 metre.
³³ Website : www.mizoram.gov.in
³³ Average height of the hills of the state – 900 m.
HISTORY ³³ Hills of the State – Lushai Hills
³³ According to an opinion of some historians ancestors ³³ Main Peaks – Blue Mountain, Leng Teng, Sartelang,
of Mizo were from South western China who first Lurtlang, Japui Lang, Taweent Lang, Manurung Lang,
came to live in Burma, They are the descendants of Puranlang.
Mongolians. ³³ Main Rivers – Dhaleshwari, Mat Tiyak, Kolo Dyne,
³³ Around 231 B.C. they came to China and from China Karmafully, Taichnag, Tuirayal (Sonai), Tui Chang,
via Burma to Assam in India. Tuirin Tuipui, Tui wall, Terei, Sarlui.

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³³ Main Lakes – Palak Lake, Tamdil lake, Rangdil lake. bride according to which youths get out of residence
GEOGRAPHY

³³ National Parks – Murlen National Park, Aizwal (Area to find their bride.
200 sq. km.) and Blue Mountain National Park, Chhim ³³ Mizos are very fond of music.
Tuipui (Area 50 sq. km.). ³³ Cheraw dance by Mizo girls is famous in all over the
³³ Wild life Sanctuary – Dampa Wild life Sanctuary. India now.
³³ Main Irrigation Projects – Champai Projects, North ³³ In Mizos language Kut means festival. three main
Vanlifie Project, Mat Ghati Project. Kuts, Mizo used to perform socially, in the time of
ECONOMY reaping in August-September is Mim Kut; another
reaping time of zoom in March is Chapchar kut or
³³ Main Agriculture type – Jhum or shifting Cultivation.
spring festival; and in December, Pawl kut.
³³ Major Crops – Paddy, Maize, Soyabean, Mustard,
³³ One more important festival is Chheihlam dance
Pulses, Sugarcane, Chilli, Ginger, Tobacco Turmeric,
festival that goes round the year.
Potato, Banana and Pineapple.
³³ District having maximum Urban Population ­Aizwal. ³³ ‘Zoo’ the local wine made of rice is a very favourite
drink of Mizos.
³³ District having maximum Rural Population – Aizwal.
³³ The society is Patriarchical.
³³ City having population more than ten lakhs – Aizwal.
³³ Pathian is their main God.
³³ Major Minerals – Coal, limestone and natural gas
³³ In regional language heaven is called Piyal Ral which
³³ Industry – Mizoram has no major industry. The small
is considered to be situated across the Piyal river.
scale sector comprises handloom, handicrafts, rice,
oil and flour milling, mechanized bamboo workshops ³³ After three month of death a ritual is performed which
and seri culture. is called ‘Tirith’.
³³ Ginger is the most popular cash crop of the state. ³³ On seventh Occassion Khuwa-llam dance is performed.
³³ Sericulture is operating at Aizwal with two wings ³³ Solkia dance is popular in Lakher and Pawi castes.
viz., handloom and handicrafts wing and geology and ³³ Solkia dance is performed for the victory of hunters
mining wing. over animals.

SOCIETY & CULTURE FESTIVALS

³³ Mizos are basically agriculture oriented. Mizos has
³³ There are many subcastes in Mizo tribe. They are
Lusai, Ralte, Hamar, Chakma, Paoyee and Lakher three major festivals called Chapchar Kut, Mimkut
(Mara). and Pawl Kut/Thalfavang kut.
³³ By religion there are 95% Christian. TOURIST CENTRES
³³ Women folk wear on Puan (a kind of Lungi like ³³ Champai is a beautiful resort on the Myanmar border.
woman’s garments) in Burmese style. ³³ Vantwang falls, five km from hill station. Thenzawl is
³³ Chakmas of Mizoram are Buddhists by religion and the highest and most beautiful waterfalls in Mizoram.
their dialect being Bengali. They are the devotees of ³³ The Famous Caves – Pukzing Cave, Milu Puk, Lamsial
Lord Bodhisatva Holi Ganga, Goddess Lakshmi and Puk and Kungawrhi Puk; Sibuta Lung; Thangliana
their own aborginal God Sugolong. lung; Suangpuilawn inscriptions; Mangkhai lung;
³³ The marriage system in Mizo society is unique one. Buddha’s image near Mualcheng Village.
The practice is called ‘Nularim’ or in the search of a

NAGALAND
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ Decadal growth rate (2001 to 2011) : –0.6%
³³ Location : 26 6' to 27 04’ North Latitude 93 20’ to
o o o ³³ Sex-ratio : 931
95o15’ East Longitude. ³³ Child sex-ratio : 943
³³ Capital : Kohima ³³ City having Population more than one lakh :
³³ Area : 16,579 sq.km Dimapur
³³ Rural Area : 16,431.76 sq.km ³³ Total Literate Population : 13,42,434
³³ Urban Area : 147.24 sq.km • Male Literacy : 7,23,957
³³ Population : • Female Literacy : 6,18,477
³³ Percentage of Urban Popula-tion : 28.9%
• Person : 19,78,502
• Male : 10,24,649 ³³ Percentage of Rural Popula-tion : 71.1%
• Female : 9,53,853 ³³ Main Tribes : Angami, Ao, Sema, Konyak, Lohata,
³³ Urban Population : 5,70,966 Raingma
³³ Rural Population : 14,07,536 ³³ District of Maximum Urban Population : Kohima
³³ Population Density : 119 ³³ District of Minimmum Rural Population : Kohima

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³³ Main Languages : Ao, Konyak, Angami, Sema and ³³ Second Highest Peak – Japuro (In Barrel range near

GEOGRAPHY
Lothal Kohima) (9800 feet).
³³ Total No. of Districts : 12 ³³ Soil – Made up of tertiary sediments, rich in acid
³³ No. of towns : 9 and organic carbon, lacking Potash and Phosphorus.
³³ No. of Villages : 1,278 ³³ Main Rivers – Doyang, Dikho, Jhanjhi Dishai, Lainear
³³ Largest City : Dimapur etc.
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30) ³³ Main Lake – Lacham.
³³ The main rivers of the state flow upto Shivasagar.
³³ Official Language(s) : English
³³ Animals like Asian elephant, clouded leopard,
³³ Establishment : Ist December 1963
binturong, musk deer, macafue, common langur, gaur
³³ State Animal : Mithun (Indian bison), tiger, Sambar, Barking deer, hoolock,
³³ State Bird : Blyth’s Tragopan (Tragopan blythii) serow, sloth bear and wild bear can be found in the
³³ State Tree : Alder state.
³³ State Flower : Rhododendron ³³ The grey headed fishing eagle, crested serpent eagle,
³³ First Chief Minister : Shilu Ao forest eagle owl, tragopan and hornbill are notable
³³ First Governor : Vishnu Sahay among the birds found in Nagaland.
³³ Website : www.nagaland.nic.in ECONOMY
HISTORY ³³ Available and estimated minerals
³³ The tribes of North-east has been called ‘Kirat’ in Vedic • Coal – At Nazira (about 356 lakh tonnes)
literature. • Petroleum – at Dikho Valley
³³ The Aryan called the people of this region ‘Naga’ • Marble – at Myanmar Border
(Naked). • Silver and Asbestos – Mishipur Larari
³³ Before being occupied by the British in 1879, ³³ Nagaland Mechanised Bricks Co. Ltd., in Dimapur
Nagaland was under Manipur. with one lakh capacity of bricks per day has been
³³ In 1919, during British period a group of Naga military commissioned.
officers on returning from france, set up military club, ³³ Handloom and Handicrafts are important cottage
which gradually spread over all corners of Nagaland. capacity industries which are mainly being managed
³³ Naga hill tribals council was founded in 1945. by Cooperative societies.
³³ In 1946 its name was changed to become Naga ³³ The Nagaland industrial development corporation is
National Council. the premier promotional organisation in providing
³³ Naga rebels declared indepen-dence in Sept 1954 guidance and capital assistance to entrepreneurs.
under the leadership of Hongkin. ³³ Dimapur is the only place in the state from where air
³³ Under Phizo leadership rebel Nagas formed a federal and train services are available.
govern-ment in March 1956 – Phizo also declared ³³ There is tri weekly Indian Airlines service connecting
independence.
Dimapur with Kolkata.
³³ Separate administation was introduced in Nagaland
in 1957, but it had failed to satisfy Nagas. • Sunari to Tashamon – 56 km.
• Chakbama to Fursheni­– 07 km.
³³ Ultimately, according to a bill passed in the parliament
³³ There is a sugar and wine factory at Dimapur.
on August 28, 1962, Nagaland became the 16th state
of Indian Union on Dec. 1, 1963, severing ties with ³³ A forest product processing factory is situated at Vijit.
Assam and making Kohima its capital. ³³ Wild Life Sanctuaries :
Fukim wild life sanctuary
ADMINISTRATION Intanki wild life sanctuary
³³ Legislature – Unicameral. Puliwazde wild life sanctuary
³³ No, of the Members in Legislative Assembly – 60 ³³ University – North East hill University Kohima.
³³ Lok Sabha Seats – 1 ³³ Central School – Lumai.
³³ Rajya Sabha Seats – 1 SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ Judiciary – Under the Jurisdi-cation of Guwahati
High Court, Guwahati (There is a bench in Kohima). ³³ Pottery is considered a taboo among certain sections
of the Aao Community.
GEOGRAPHY ³³ The major festivals of the state are Sekrenyi of the
Angamis, Moatsu of the Aos, Phom-Mongu of the
³³ Frontier State and regions – Assam in West and
Phom tribe and the hornbill festival of Nagaland.
North, Arunchal Pradesh in North and East, Myanmar
in East and Manipur in South. ³³ Famous Folk dances : Khewa, Utsav, Ragmanaga,
Nuralima, Kuminaga, Chong, War.
³³ Physical location – Situated between Brahmaputra
Valley and Myanmar in a Valley of hilly region. TOURISM
³³ Three main Parallel mountain ranges of the State ³³ The hornbill festival conceived by the Tourism
– Patkoi, Naga and Barrel (from North East to South Department and held in the first week of December
West). is an annual event where all tribes of Nagaland
³³ Highest Peak – Saramati (3841 metre or 12601.7 come together to celebrate, exhibit and sell their
feet) ( in Patkoi ranges) traditional wares, foodstuffs, and crafts.

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GEOGRAPHY

ODISHA
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ At Dhauli, about 8 km to the south of Bhubaneshwar,
the inscription of Ashoka are found on stone. The
³³ Location : 17°49’ to 22°23’ North Latitude & 81°29’ second edict is in Jaugarh. There are about 20 spots
to 87°29’ East Longitude. in Odisha, where traces of Buddhist culture have
³³ Capital : Bhubaneshwar been found.
³³ Area : 1,55,707 sq.km ³³ In the second century BC. it become a powerful
³³ Total No. of Districts : 30 country under Kharavela. With the death of Kharavela,
³³ Population : Odisha passed into obscurity.
³³ In the fourth century A.D., Samudragupta invaded
• Person : 4,19,74,218
Odisha which lay astride his path and overcame
• Male : 2,12,12,136 resistance offered by five of its kings.
• Female : 2,07,62,082
³³ In 610 AD, Odisha came under the sway of King
• Rural : 3,49,70,562
Sasanka. After Sasank’s death, Harsha conquered
• Urban : 70,03,656 Odisha.
³³ Literate Population :
³³ Under the kings of Ganga dynasty, Odisha continued to
• Person : 2,67,42,595 flourish. Narasingha Dev of this dynasty is reputed to
• Male : 1,50,89,681 have built the unique Sun Temple of Konark.
• Female : 1,16,52,914 ³³ From mid 16th century, Odisha was ruled successively
³³ Decadal growth rate (2001 to 2011) : 14% by five Muslim Kings till 1592, when Akbar annexed
³³ Urban Population : 16.7% it into the Mughal Empire.
³³ Population Density : 270 ³³ With the decline of the Mughal empire, Marathas
³³ Sex-ratio (per thousand) : 979 occupied Odisha. They continued to hold it till the
British took over in 1803.
³³ Literacy Rate :
³³ On the 1st April, 1803, the British came to Utkal.
• Person : 72.9%
³³ The British divided this region into three districts,
• Male : 81.6%
Cuttack, Puri and Balasore.
• Female : 64%
³³ Principal Language : Odia (Oriya) ³³ Till 1817 Puri was the capital of this region and after
then the capital was shifted to Cuttack.
³³ State Animal : Sambhar
³³ Odisha was made into a separate province on 1 April,
³³ Largest City : Bhubaneshwar 1936. After Independence, princely states in and
³³ Official Language(s) : Odia (Oriya) around Odisha surrendered their sovereignty to the
³³ Establishment : 1st January 1949 Government of India.
³³ State Animal : Sambar
CONTIRBUTION OF ODISHA IN FREEDOM
³³ State Bird : Indian Roller
STRUGGLE
³³ State Tree : Banyan
³³ During the 1857 mutiny, Surendra Sai of Sambalpur
³³ State Flower : Lotus
lead the revolt in the state.
³³ First Chief Minister : Hare Krushna Mahatob
³³ Chanki Khutiya, a priest of Puri, and Chandan Hazoori
³³ First Governor : Kailash Nathi Katju was another revolutionaries.
³³ Website : www.orissa.gov.in ³³ Odisha had also played a noteable role in 1920’s and
1930’s mass movements against the British Raj.
HISTORY ³³ Viswanath Das became the Chief minister after the
³³ Though the detailed history of Odisha in the Aryans 1936-37 election.
and Non-Aryan era is not exactly known, but ³³ By the States Merger (Governor’s Provinces) Order,
Chandragupta Maurya had the desire wanted to 1949 the princely states of Odisha were completely
conquer the then Utkal region. Traces have been merged with the state of Odisha in January, 1949.
found at Sishupalgarh near Bhubaneshwar, dating ³³ Bhubaneshwar became the capital of this state on
5th century. 19th August, 1949.
³³ Even before that, in the epic age, Kalinga third son ³³ At last, on 1 April 1936 a separate Odisha State
of the Demon King Bali established this kingdom for was formed. Six Districts – Cuttack, Puri, Balasore,
the first time. Sambalpur, Ganjam and Koraput was included in the
³³ Odisha, the land of Oriyas, was known as Kalinga State at that time.
in ancient days. In the third century BC (261 BC) ³³ Dr. Hare Krishna Mehtab Das was the Chief Minister
Ashoka the Mauryan emperor, sent a powerful force of the Congress government of 1946.
to conquer Kalinga which offered stubborn resistance.
Kalinga was subdued but the carnage which followed, ADMINISTRATION
struck Ashoka with remorse. ³³ State Legislature – Unicameral
³³ He gave up sword for ever and preached the message of ³³ Members of Vidhan Sabha–147
love obtaining Buddhism as his religion. ³³ Members of Lok Sabha – 21
³³ The Buddhist religion was widely propagated in ³³ Members of Rajya Sabha – 10
Odisha. Influence of which are found in the temples ³³ High Court – Cuttack
scattered throughout the state.

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GEOGRAPHY SOCIETY & CULTURE

GEOGRAPHY
³³ Odisha is situated in the north-eastern part of the ³³ The state is home to the Odishi and Chhau dance.
Indian peninsula. ³³ Mayur and koyal are the folk dances of the State.
³³ It is bound by the Bay of Bengal on the east, West ³³ Kelucharan Moipatra, Sany-ukta, Panigrahi, Sonal
Bengal on the north-east, Jharkhand on the north, Mansingh, Madhvi Mudgal etc. are some famous
Chhattisgarh on the west and Andhra Pradesh and Odissi dancers.
Telangana on the south. ³³ Odiya, the principal language of the state, is basically
³³ It has a coastline of about 450 km. originated from the Magadhi dialect and it is very close
³³ Odisha is divided into five major physiographic regions to the Assamese.
: the central plateaus, the coastal plain in the East, ³³ Sharda Das written Sharal Mahabharat, Jagnnath
the western rolling uplands, the middle mountainous Das written Bhagvata and Balram Das written Ra-
and highland regions, and the flood plains. mayan are very famous.
³³ The middle mountainous and highland region covers ³³ Fakir Mohan Senapati is considered as the modern
about three fourth of the entire state and is a part of the and popular architect of Oriya literature.
Eastern Ghats. ³³ The ‘Odisha Rasagola’ was awarded a GI tag, 29 July,
³³ The 'Odisha Rasagola' was awarded a GI Tag, 29 July, 2019.
2019. ³³ Kandhmal Turmaric Got GI Tag 2 April 2019.
MAJOR RIVERS TOURISM
³³ Subarnarekha, Mahanadi, Baitarani, Budha balanga, ³³ Bhubaneswar is called the cities of temples.
Brahmani, Rushikulya, and Brahmani. ³³ Lingraj temples, Anant Basudev temple, Raja Rani
temple, Mukteswar temples are some famous temples
MAJOR LAKES of Bhubaneswar.
³³ Chilka Lake – Cuttack district ³³ Puri is famous for the temple of Lord Jagganath and
³³ Ansupa Lake – Cuttack district its beautiful sea beach.
³³ Sara Lake – Puri districts ³³ Lingraj Temple – Approximately 108 temples are
inside it and it was built by the Somvanshi ruler
ECONOMY Lalitendu Kesari in 617-652 A.D. It is one of the 12
³³ About one tenth of the total rice production of the Jyotirlingas.
country is produced in Odisha. ³³ Muketswar Temple – Jewel of Oriyan architecture,
³³ Odisha is one of the four eastern state where Jute is situated on the Bhubaneswar – Puri road at the bank
produced. of Kedar Gouri.
³³ The Mahanadi’s delta region is the Jute production ³³ Sun Temple – According to Puran, Sri Krishna’s son
area. Shambva built this temple.
³³ Odisha is one of the richest mineral resource state ³³ Parshurameswar Temple – It is the oldest temple
of the country. of Odisha. Idols of Lord Vishnu, Yam and seven
³³ Dolomite, Chromite, lime stone, coal, Mangenese, Jagdambas are present.
Bauxite, Graphite, Quartz and Sulphur are some other ³³ Jagganath Temple – Built by Anantbarman
minerals, found in the state. Chodagang in 1135 A.D.
³³ Baital Temple – A temple of Chamunda Devi, built in
INDUSTRY the Khakra style, a branch of Kalinga style.
³³ Silk : Mayurbhanj, Sonpur, Bahrampur. FESTIVALS (REGIONAL)
³³ Mig’s production : Sunaveda
³³ Dola Purnima (Holi)  Rath Yatra
³³ Fertilizer : Rourkela, Para-dweep.
³³ Chandan Yatra  Konark Dance Festival
³³ Mig’s Production : Sunaveda
³³ Puri Beach Festival  Bali Yatra
³³ Aluminium : Sambalpur
³³ Dhanu Yatra  Sitalsasthi
³³ Cement : Rajgangpur
³³ Paper : Brijrajnagar PERSONALITIES
³³ Gold-Silver Ornaments : Cuttack
³³ Subhas Chandra Bose (1897): Also known as ‘Netaji’,
NATIONAL PARK AND WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES he resigned from the Indian Civil Service in 1921
³³ Bhitar Kanika National Park and supported the non-cooperation movement led by
³³ Ambapani Sanctuary  Belghar Sanctuary Gandhiji. He was elected President of the Congress in
³³ Gahirmatha Sanctuary  Simlipal Sanctuary 1938 but left the Congress in 1938 and formed the
³³ Lakhari Valley Sanctuary  Korlaput Sanctuary Forward Bloc party. Subhas Chandra Bose was arrested
during World War II but escaped from India and went to
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTES Japan where he formed the Indian National Army (INA)
³³ Utkal Universities – Bhub-aneshwar to fight the British. However, he was unsuccessful due
³³ Fukir Mohan University – Balasore to Japan’s surrender after the war. It was Netaji’s wish
³³ Xavier Institute of Management – Bhubaneswar to unfurl the national flag at the Red Fort in Delhi. It
³³ Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology – is thus in his remembrance that the National Flag is
Bhubaneswar unfurled every year at Red Fort on August 15. He also
³³ Shree Jaganath Sanskrit University – Puri gave the slogan ‘Jai Hind’ to the nation. He is believed
to have died in an air crash in 1945.

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GEOGRAPHY

SIKKIM
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ When India became indepen-dent, the then Chogyal,
Tashi Namgyal, obtained the status of a protectorate
³³ Location : 27 04’46" to 28 07’48" North Latitude
o o
for Sikkim.
88o58’ to 88o25’ East Longitude.
³³ After Tashi Namgyal died in 1963, demands for the
³³ Area : 7,096 sq.km
removal of the monarchy and the establishment of a
³³ Capital : Gangtok democratic set up intensified.
³³ Total No. of Districts : 4 ³³ By 1973, the agitation against the Sikkim Durbar
³³ Population : 6,10,577 had taken a serious turn and resulted in a collapse of
• Male : 3,23,070 the administration. This led the Indian Government
• Female : 2,87,507 to intervene and Sikkim was transformed from a
³³ Population growth rate (2001 to 2011) : 12.9% protectorate to an associate states.
³³ Population Density : 86 person per sq.km. ³³ In 1975, a referendum was held. More than 97 percent
³³ Sex-ratio : 890 of the electorate voted for the merger of Sikkim with
India.
³³ Literacy Rate : 81.4%
³³Sikkim became the 22nd state of the Indian union on
• Male Literacy : 86.6%
15 May 1975.
• Female Literacy : 75.6%
³³ The historical visit of the three revered Lamas
³³ Child sex-ratio (0-6 age group) : 957 to Yuksam in 1641 in West Sikkim took place,
³³ State Day : 16 May where they consecrated Phuntsog Namgyal, a sixth
³³ Main Languages : Lepcha, Bhotia, Hindi, Nepali and generation descendent of Khye Humsa as the first
Limbu Chogyal of Sikkim, thus heralding the beginning of
• Rural : 4,56,999 the Namgyal dynasty in Sikkim.
• Urban : 1,53,573 ADMINISTRATION
³³ Main Languages of the State : Assamese (included
³³ Legislature : There are 32 seats in the legislative
in 8th Scheduled of the Constitution). Besides its
Assembly, out of which two are reserved for SCs and
Bengali, Oddissi, Hindi, Mundari and Nepali language
12 for STs (for the Bhutia and Lepcha Community).
are also prevalent.
³³ One general seat is reserved for the Sangha community.
³³ Largest City : Gangtok
³³ For Loksabha and Rajya Sabha one member for each
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30)
is elected from the State.
³³ Official Language(s) : Nepali
³³ Judiciary : The High Court of Sikkim is at Gangtok.
³³ Establishment : 16th May 1975
³³ State Animal : Red Panda
GEOGRAPHY
³³ State Bird : Blood Pheasant ³³ Sikkim is a small hilly state situated in the eastern
³³ State Tree : Rohododendron Hima-layas.
³³ State Flower : Noble Orchid ³³ The state is surrounded by the Tibetan plateau
towards the north, the Chumbi valley of China and
³³ First Chief Minister : Kazi Lhendup Dorji
Bhutan towards the east, Darjeeling district of West
³³ First Governor : Bipen Bihari Lal Bengal in the south and Nepal towards the west.
³³ Website : www.sikkim.nic.in ³³ Besides the Kanchanjunga, other major peaks in the
HISTORY state include Jongsang, (7459m), Tent Peak (7365m),
Pauhunri (7125m), Sinivulchu (6687m), Pandim
³³ The Early history of Sikkim starts in the 13th century
(6691m), Rathong (6679m), Talung (6147m) and
with the signing of a blood-brotherhood treaty between Koktang (6147m).
the Lepcha Chief Thekong Tek and Tibetan Prince
³³ The Singalila range from the barrier between Sikkim
Khye-Bumsa at Kabi Lungtsok in North Sikkim.
and Nepal in the west, while the Dongkya range is at
³³ The Lepchas were organised into a society by a person the border with China on the east.
named Tur Ve Pa No who was eventually elected the
³³ International borders – China, Nepal, Bhutan,
leader or the king ‘Punu’ in 1400. States – West Bengal.
³³ In 1817, British India signed the treaty of Titalia with ³³ The Teesta and the Rangi are the most important
Sikkim. Consquently the territory that Nepalese had rivers of the State. Other rivers are Rongni Chu,
taken away were restored to Sikkim. Talung and Lachung.
³³ Sikkim gifted Darjeeling to British India in return for ³³ Sikkim is also home to many hot water springs like
an annual payment and chogyal Tsudpud Namgyal Ralang Sachir, Phur Cha, Yunthang and Momay.
signed the gift deed in 1835. ³³ The Intensity of rainfall during South West Monsoon
³³ In 1849, when the super-intendent of Darjeeling decreased from south to North.
visited Sikkim along with a scientist on a research ³³ Notable among the animals found in Sikkim are the
trip, they were taken prisoner. snow leopard, the Red Panda, the Musk Deer, the

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Himalayan Black Bear, the Tahr, the Yak, the wilds patriarchal many myths and taboos are prevalent in

GEOGRAPHY
Ass and the Blue Sheep. their soceity. Rice and chi has a very great importance
³³ Many birds are also found like vulture, eagle, whistling in their food.
thrush, giant lammergcier, minivets, bulbuls and ³³ Limbu man use a word ‘Yak Thumb’ for themselves.
pheasants. Lepchas and Bhotias call them Chong. They are
³³ Main Pass – Richila, Nathula, Yakla Chhola, Singali La. similar to mongoloid. They are short in height but
³³ Main Rivers – Teesta, Rangit physically very strong. Superstition prevails in their
religious life.
³³ Main Lakes – Chhangu Lake, Khichiperi Lake.
³³ About three fourth of the population of the state are
³³ Main Falls – Ralang, Yumthang.
Sikkim Nepali. They are short in height but physically
MAIN PARKS AND SANCTUARIES very strong. They are mainly follower of Hindu religion
and use Nepali language.
³³ Kanchanjunga National Park – North Sikkim.
³³ Important festivals and dances of the state are–
³³ Singna Adoden Drone Park Yumthang – North Sikkim.
³³ Saga Dawa – It is an auspicious day for the Mahayana
³³ Kongnosha Alpine Park – North Sikkim Buddhists and they go to monasteries to offer butter
³³ Fambog Lo wild life sanctuary near Gangtok. lamps and worship, monks take out a procession that
TRANSPORT goes around Gangtok with holy scriptures.
³³ Phang Lhabsol – It is a unique festival that is
³³ There is a helicopter service between Gangtok and celebrated to offer thanks to Mount Kanchanjunga.
Bagdogra heavily subsidised by the state government. ³³ Dassani – It is the biggest and the most important
³³ People of the state are heavily dependent on road festival of the Hindu – Nepali. It is celebrated in
trasportation, Gangtok is connected by roads with September/October and Symbolizes the victory of
Darjeeling, Kalinpong, Siliguri and also with all the good over evil.
districts headquarters within Sikkim. ³³ Tyohar or Dipavali – It is a festival of lights and is
ECONOMY celebrated 10 days after Dasain.
³³ Losoong – It is the Sikkimese New Year which is
³³ Maize, Millet, Tea, Rice, Wheat, Potato, large Cardamom, celebrated in the last week of December.
Ginger, and Orange are the principle crops. ³³ Losar – It is the Tibetan New Year and is celebrated
³³ Sikkim has the largest area and highest production of around February.
large brown Cardamom in India. Ginger, Potato Orange ³³ Other important festivals are Chaite Dasai/Ram
and Off Season Vegetables are other cash crops. Navami, Darsai, Sonam, Tendong, Lho Rum Fat
³³ Sikkim jewels limited is one of the sophisticated and (worship of Mt. Tendong) Sakewa Sonam Lochar
precision oriented industries for the manufacture (Gurung), Barahimzong (Magor) etc.
of Jewel bearings for electric meters, water meter ³³ Kagyat Dance – This dance is performed every 28th
and other measuring instruments like watches and and 29th day of the Tibetan calendar. The dance is
checks. one of the solemnity interpersed with comic relief
³³ Sikkim become first organic state in Indian in 2016. provided by jesters.
³³ Yok Dance – It is an important dance of Sikkim.
SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ Prominent among the inhabitants of the state are – TOURISM
Lepcha, Bhutia, Limbu and Sikkim Nepali. ³³ Recognising the potential of adventure tourism, the
³³ Lepcha tribe is the ancient inhabitant of Sikkim. They state government is setting up a Himalayan centre
use Lepcha language. They have a very old tradition for adventure tourism at Chenchey village in South
to keep thunder stone in their house. Their society is Sikkim.

TAMIL NADU
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ Sex Ratio (per 1000) : 996
³³ Location : 8o4’ to 14o North Latitude & 76o15’ to 80o21’ ³³ Sex Ratio (0-6 age ago) : 943
East Longitude ³³ Total No. of Districts : 38
³³ Boundaries : Andhara Pradesh & Karnataka in North, ³³ Total literate population : 5,18,37,507
Indian ocean in South, Bay of Bengal in east and • Male literate population : 2,80,40,491
Kerala & Karnataka in west. • Female literate population : 2,37,97,016
³³ Capital : Chennai ³³ Literacy Rate Total : 80.1%
³³ Area : 1,30,060 sq.km. • Male : 86.8%
³³ Population Total : 7,21,47,030 • Female : 73.4%
• Male : 3,61,37,975 ³³ Rural population : 3,72,29,590
• Female : 3,60,09,055 ³³ Rural population (in %) : 51.6%
³³ Decadal growth rate (2001-2011) : 15.6% ³³ Urban population : 3,49,17,440%
³³ Population density : 555 ³³ Urban population (in %) : 48.4%

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³³ Main language : Tamil ³³ Standard works : Tolkappiyam, Mulkranam,

GEOGRAPHY

³³ State Day : 14th April Isaimunukam, Bhudhyapuranam, Kali, Kurukku,

³³ Largest City : Chennai Bendoli.
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30) ³³ Tolkappiyam : writer - Tolka-ppiyar.
³³ Official Language(s) : Tamil ³³ It is Tamil grammar
³³ Establishment : 18th July 1967 ³³ It consists of three parts
³³ State Animal : Nilgiri Tahr 1. Illuthu – Varna vichar 2. Shol – Vakya vichar
3. Porul – Vastu
³³ State Bird : Emerald Dove
³³ State Tree : Palmyra Palm THIRD SANGAM
³³ State Flower : Kandhal
³³ First Chief Minister : Amandur Ramaswami Reddiar PLACE – MADURAI
³³ First Governor : Sir Archibald Edward Nye ³³ 49 Pandya king, 49 institutions and 449 poets
³³ Website : www.tn. gov.in participated in it.
³³ Continued for 1850 years.
HISTORY ³³ It was headed by Nakkirar.
³³ Pre-paleolithic stone tools like hand axes and cleavers ³³ Eminent participants - Nakkirar (Chairman)
etc. are found in excavation from different places ³³ Pandya king Ugra, Sitalai Sattnar, Kapilar, Arnar.
such as Vadinadurai, Attirampkam, Manajan karan ³³ Standard work - Padittapattu
etc. in Chennai.
³³ Second century was golden age of Tamil literature -
³³ Mega - Paleolithic has two historical importance. August age.
1. It had been associated closely with iron age. ³³ In third sangam peoples from three sects Jainism,
2. It was associated with the emergence of black and Buddhism and Hinduism were participated.
red ware.
³³ The first king of the chola dynasty was Urvappaharey FIVE EPICS
Ellan Jettisenni. He founded the capital Uraiyur 1. Shilpadikaram - Written by Illango (Hindu)
(Uragpur). 2. Manimekhalai - written by sitlai sattnar (Bud-
³³ The word Sangam means – a conference or group dhist), a trader.
of sages or learned people. In India, three Sangams 3. Jivak Chintamani - written by Tiruthakkathewar.
first in Madurai, second in Kapatpuram, and third 4. Brapathpati
again in Madurai were organized. It has been told 5. Khundalkeshi
that several sages and deities were participated in
these sangam. Several important literary works were FIVE ANTHOLOGIES
also done in them. These books are only source of the 1. Yashodhara Kavyam (based on Sanskrit book).
Tamil history and culture. The history of south began
2. Chulamani - (The biggest and the best).
later than the history of north. The vedic literature
and epics written in northern India throws light on 3. Uddyan Kavyam
the expansion of vedic culture in south. Literature of 4. Nag Kumaram
Sangam age also depicts a close relationship between 5. Nilkeshi (Based on Buddhist philosophy).
the culture of north and south India. ³³ Real history of cholas begins with Karikala,
who founded puhar and constructed 160 km of
embankment along the Kaveri river.
FIRST SANGAM ³³ Puhar is identical with Kaveri pattanam.
³³ Karikalal the man with the charred leg was great
PLACE - MADURAI warrior and he was adept in music.
³³ 89 Pandya kings provided aids and safety to it. ³³ It was the saiva saint Tiruna-vakkaurasu who
³³ 549 institutions were participated, 7 poets and 4499 used the word sangam for the earliest known Tamil
writers. Literature.
³³ Continued for 4400 years. ³³ The Pandyas are mentioned in the Ashoka edicts and
in the Ramayan and the Mahabharata.
³³ Present main dieties : August, Tirpura Meritha (shiva),
³³ Its capital was Madurai situated on the bank of Vaigai
Kumaramerinda (Murugan, & subrahmanyam),
river.
Muranjiyur etc.
³³ Korkai was its main seaport.
³³ Important works - Akattyam (written by August), ³³ The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Mudukumi.
Paripaddal, Madunaravri, Mudukuru kararia, Vidai etc. ³³ The most reputed Pandyan ruler was Nendunijhelian,
³³ This sangam was organized in the leadership of who rule from Madurai.
Aggatiyar or Augastya who carried Aryan culture from ³³ He accused Kovalan of theft. Thus the city of Madurai
north to south. was laid under a curse by Kannagi.
³³ The Pandyan kings sent embassies to the Roman
SECOND SANGAM emperor Augustus and Trojen.
PLACE - KAPATPURAM ³³ The royal emblem of the cholas was the Tiger and of
³³ Got courtship of 59 Pandya kings. the Pandyas was the fish.
³³ In both the kingdom, the king was the very centre
³³ 49 Academicians 3700 poets were participated . of administration and the court of the crowned king
³³ Continued for 3700 years was called Auai.
³³ It was headed by Agattiyar and Tolkappiyar. ³³ King’s birth date was called Peruna means the great day.

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³³ The warriors became an important element of society. ³³ He invaded and conquered ceylon.

GEOGRAPHY
Captains of army were invested with the title of Enadi. ³³ He also conquer kalinga and titled himself as
³³ Under the cholas and the Pandyas, the civil and the Gangaikonda and shifted his capital to Gangaikonda
military offices were held by Vallalas or rich farmers. Cholapuram, a new town established by himself.
³³ The ruling class was called Arasar and its members ³³ The chola administration was famous for its local self
had matrimonial relations with the Vallalas. government.
³³ Members of the lowest class were called Kadaisiyar ³³ There are three types of assemblies 1. Ur. 2. Sabha.
and they performed the agricultural operations. 3. Nagaram.
³³ The Pariyar were the agricultural labourers who ³³ Ur near the most common assembly of those villages
worked in animal skin. where land was held by different casts. Very large
³³ Silppadikaram and Manime-khalai are the twin epics villages have two Urs.
written by Ilango Adigal and Sattnar respectively. ³³ Sabha was an exclusive Brahman assembly of
³³ In Silppadikaram the love story of Kovalan and Brahma-ndeya village.
Madhavi a dancer had been depicted.
³³ While the assembly of merchants in town was called
³³ Manimekhalai is a Buddhist text. It is the story of the
Nagaram.
daughter of Kovalan.
³³ The Jivaka chintamani is one of the famous Jaina ³³ Latter on Ramanuja well established the Vaishnavaism
texts of this time. It was composed by a Jaina ascetic in Tamil region.
Teevar. ³³ In between 1336 to 1565 Vijayanagar was ruled by
³³ Some important terminology of Sangam era. three dynasties - Sangam (1336-1485), Saluva (1485-
³³ MANDALAM–The name given to the entire kingdom 1505) and the Tulva (1505-1565).
³³ NADU – A further subdivision of mandalam THE SANGAM DYNASTY
³³ UR – A town
³³ Its first ruler was Harihara I (1336-1356). He laid the
³³ PERUR – A big village
foundations of Vidyanagar.
³³ SIRUR – A small village
³³ The next one was Bukka I (1356-1379) who
³³ MUDUR – An old village
strengthened the city of Vidyanagar and renamed it
³³ PATTINAM – Name of a coastal town as Vijayanagar.
³³ PUHAR – Harbour area
³³ Abdur Razzak the envoy of the Persian king Shah
³³ CHERI – Suburb of the town or a village Rukh visited Vijayanagar during his reign.
³³ PAKKAM – Neighbouring area of a town or village
³³ KARAI – The land tax, the largest single source of SALUVA DYNASTY
revenue. ³³ The Saluvas ruled for a brief while and in turnwas
³³ IRAVU – The land booty collected from the conquered repealed by the Tuluva dynasty.
foes. ³³ The only important event of this period was the arrival
³³ ULGU/SANGAM – Tolls and custom duties. of Vasco-Da-Gama.
³³ IRAVU – Extra demand of forced gifts. ³³ He landed in Calicut during the reign of Immadi
³³ KVALLALAS – the duties paid to the king Narsimha in 1498.
³³ VARIYAR – The officer in charge of collecting taxes.
³³ AVANAM – The market place TULUVA DYNASTY
³³ MURUGAN – The God of Hillock, also called ³³ The important ruler of this dynasty was
subramanya. He was worshiped by hunters. 1. Vir Narshimha (1505-09)
³³ KORRAVAI – The goddess of victory. 2. Krishna Deva Raya (1509-29)
³³ NURUDAM– The god of farmers. 3. Achyuta Raya (1529-42)
³³ After the Satvahan rule had ended in the first half 4. Sadasiva Raya (1542-1564).
of the 3rd century A.D., three dynasties the Pallavs, ³³ In fact Krishna Deva Raya was the ablest of the
Pandyas and the Cholas were the major powers. Vijaynagar soverign and towered over all his
³³ The great Vaishnava saint - Tirumangai Aluar was a contemporaries.
contemporary of him.
³³ During his reign the Vijaynagar armies overran
³³ The pallavas were succeeded by the Cholas, destined Raichur doab and Mudgal, reached Belgaum, sackd
to be the greatest imperial power in south.
Bijapur and Ravaged gulburg.
³³ Vijayalaya established chola power by capturing
Tanjore in 850 A.D. ³³ He was a talented scholar of Telugu and Sanskrit and
extended patronage to Telgu, Kannada and Tamil
³³ Rajaraja I came to thrown in 985 A.D. and during his
scholars.
reign the chola power reached to again.
³³ His court was adorned by the Astha - diggajas (the
³³ He conquered the whole Dravi-dian land, Lanka,
Karnataka, Andhra, Kalinga and mounted naval eight celebrated poets).
expeditions against ceylone and Maldiva. ³³ After the battle of Talikota in 1565 the Tuluva dynasty
³³ He also encouraged Sriman Vijayothenga Varman, the came to an end and also the famous Vijaynagar
Sailendra ruler of Srivijaya, to built a Buddhist vihar empire.
at Negapatlam. The vihar called Chudarani Vihar. ³³ Later on Tirumala, the brother of Rama Raya shifted
³³ During the reign of his son Rajendra I (1014 A.D. the capital at Penugonda and established the Aravidu
-1042 A.D.) the power of chola dynasty reached to dynasty. But the empire secondly shrunk and finally
its zenith. ended in 1672 as a petty potentiate.

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SOME MORE FACTS ABOUT VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE NATIONAL PARKS OF STATE

GEOGRAPHY

³³ The king had a council of ministers, who met in a ³³ There are five National parks in Tamilnadu
hall called “Venkatavilas Manapa” The Pradhan was ³³ Guindy National Park : It is situated in Chennai
the Prime Minister and the minister bore the little district and famous for black buck and Snake park.
“Dandanayaka” ³³ Indira Gandhi National Park : Having an area of 117
³³ The major politico-military changes introduced by sq. km it is situated in Coimbatore district.
the Vijayanager state was Nayak System, Forts and ³³ Wildlife found in this national park includes elephant,
Brahman commanders. tiger, lion tailed macarue, sloth bear etc.
³³ The rise of Vijayanagar Empire marked a decline in ³³ Mukurthi National Park : It covers an area of 78 sq.
the importance of local institutions. km and is situated in Nilgiri distrcit.
³³ The Tamil society played an important role in the ³³ Mudumalai National Park : It is situated in Nilgiri
freedom movement and at the same time social reform district and covers an area of 103.23sq. km. Wild life
movement under the leadership of Justice party was found in this park includes Leopard, Nilgiris Tature,
also going on. bison etc.
³³ Ved Samaj was established in 1864 in Madras. ³³ Gulf of Mannar and Bioshper Reserve : It is an
³³ The Indian branch of Theoso-phical society was oceanic park which is situated in gulf of Mannar in
established in 1875 at Adyar near Madras. between Ramnathpuram and Tirunelveli district.
³³ Madam Blatvaski and Col. Alcott was the founder. ³³ Wildlife found in this park includes dolphins, dugong,
³³ In 1918 V.P. Wadia formed “Madras labour union”. turtles.
³³ Congress gained full majority in both the pre-
independence state election. C. Rajgopalachari and MAIN WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES OF STATE
T. Prakasham became the chief minister in 1937 and ³³ Pulicut lake bird sanctuaries.
1946 respectively. ³³ Valundu wild life sanctuaries.
³³ In post independence era (1947 a new state was ³³ Chitarnkudi bird sanctuaries.
formed taking parts of Andhra and Kerala, keeping
³³ Udagamarthandapuram san-ctuaries.
its old name Madras.
³³ Madras was once again formed taking Tamil spoken ³³ Mundanthurai
area of Andhra, Keral, Mysore and its became ³³ Vedanthangal bird sanctuaries.
Tamilnadu on 14th January ,1969. IMPORTANT LAKES
³³ The name of Madras became chennai in 1996.
³³ Ramanathpuram  Damba
ADMINISTRATION ³³ Kannor  Manamanglam
³³ Legislature – Unicameral ³³ Thenkarai  Perur
³³ Seats in Lok Sabha – 39 ³³ Parayankalathur  Marandu
³³ Seats in Rajya Sabha – 18 ³³ Korambalam
³³ Seats in Legislative Assembly – 234 ³³ Vijayanarayanan Periyankulam
³³ High court – Chennai ³³ Cauveripattam  Perumal
³³ Chemvarmbakkam  Veeranam
GEOGRAPHY ³³ Raja Singh Manglam  Perulam
³³ Tamilnadu is divided between the flat areas along the
eastern coast and the hill regions in the north and west. ECONOMY
³³ Eastern coastal plain lies in between eastern ghat ³³ Principal food crops-Paddy, millets and pulses.
and Bay of Bengal. It is 992 km long and its breadth ³³ Commercial crops – sugarcane, Cotton, Sunflower,
is about 80 to 90 km. Coconut, Cotton, Cashew, Chillies.
³³ It is mainly divided in three parts ³³ Plantation crops – Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Cardamom.
1. Koromandal Coast. 2. Kaveri delta
³³ Major forest producers – Timber, Sandalwood
3. Arid southern plain.
³³ The Western ghats run along the state’s western Pulpwood and Fuel wood.
border, while the lower hills of the Eastern ghats run ³³ Annual foodgrains production exceeds ten million
through the center. with rice contributing an average eight million tones.
³³ Kaveri, Palar, Ponniyar, Pennar, Vaigai and Tamraparni
MAJOR IRRIGATION CANALS
are the major rivers.
³³ The state’s climate is affected by both south-west and 1. Cauvery Delta canal.
north-east monsoon. 2. Lower Bhawani Project
³³ The Plateau remains arid because it comes in rain 3. Parambi-kulam -Aliyar Project.
shadow region. 4. Manimuthar Project.
³³ Mainly three types of soil are found 5. Grand Anicut.
1. Red soil 2. Black sol 3. Lome soil ³³ Main minerals – Granite, Lignite, Lime-stone, Felspar,
³³ Sandalwood, Pulpwood, rubber and bamboo are Bauxite, Zipsum, Quartzite, Salt.
important forest producer.
³³ Wildlife found in the states includes Elephant, Tiger, ³³ Main Export – Yarn, Tea, Coffee, Species, Tobacco,
Leopard, Stripedhyena, Lion-tailed Macarue, Sloth bear, Handicrafts, Black Granite, Tanned Skin and Leather
Black buck, Nilgiris Tatur Dugong and Mouse deer. goods.

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EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS ³³ Lime Stone - Salem, Coimbatore, Tirunelveli,

GEOGRAPHY
³³ Madras University, Chennai Tiruchirapalli.
³³ Annamali University, Nagar ³³ Phosphate - Tiruchirapalli.
³³ Madurai Kamraj University, Madurai INDUSTRY
³³ Tamil Nadu Agriculture Univer-sity, Coimbatore
³³ Cement - Salem, Coimbatore, Tiruahirapalli,
³³ Bhartiyar University, Coim-batore Tirunelveli.
³³ Bharatidasan University, Karaikudi ³³ Cycle - Coimbatore, Chennai.
³³ Tamilnadu Dr. Ambedkar University, Chennai
³³ L e a t h e r - C h e n n a i , C o i m b a t o r e , M a d u r a i ,
³³ Anna University, Chennai Tiruchirapalli.
³³ Mother Teresa Womens University, Kodaikanal
³³ Shri C.S. Saraswati University, Kanchipuram SOME MORE FACTS ABOUT BHARTNATYAM
³³ Dr. M.G.R. Medical University, Chennai ³³ Bhartnatyam is essentially a solo dance and has close
³³ Tamilnadu University, Thanjavur affinities with the traditional dance - drama form
³³ Tamilnadu Vetenary and Animal sciences University, called Bhaguata - Mela performed only by women.
Chennai ³³ It is oldest form of art - dance and its source can be
³³ Institute of Hotel Management, Chennai traced in the Natya Shastra Written by Bharat Muni.
³³ Film Institute, Chennai ³³ In Bharatnayam ‘Bh’ means ‘Bhav’ R means ‘Raga’
³³ Gandhigram Rural Institute, Ghandi gram T.means Tala and Natyam means Theatre.
³³ Aninsalingam Institute for Home Science and Higher ³³ The present form of Bharat-natyam is developed by
Education for Women, Coimbatore. Tanjore chatushtya i.e. Ponnaiya Pillai and brothers.
Previously it was known as ‘Attam’ and ‘Sadir’ and
RESEARCH INSTITUTE were performed by the devdasies.
³³ Central Electro-Chemical Research Institute, ³³ Noted Artist Rukmini devi Arundel, Bala Sarswathi,
Kariakudi Shanta Rao, Mrinalini Sarabhai, Yamini Krishnamurthi,
³³ Central leather Research Institute, Chennai Kamala, Vaijyantimala, Sonal Mansingh, Saroja
³³ Structural Engineering Rese-arch Center, Chennai Baidyanathana, Swapan Sundari etc.
³³ Indira Gandhi Nuclear Research Centre, Kalpakkam
IMPORTANT FESTIVALS
³³ Central Research Laboratry, Chennai
³³ Pongal – The harvest festival celebrated by the farmers
MAIN MUSEUM in January to worship the sun, the earth and the
³³ District Museum, Salem cattle.
³³ The Fort Museum, Chennai ³³ Adipperukku – A festival celebrated on the 18th day of
³³ Government Museum, Chennai tamil month Adi on the banks of rivers. It marks the
³³ Arignar Kodyakoddam Sreer-anyam Museum commencement of new farming operations.
³³ Gandhi Museum, Madurai ³³ Mahamagam – A holy festival that bring pilgrims to
³³ Tamilnadu state Museum, Madurai kumbha konam once in 12 years.
³³ Kanthuri – A truly secular festival where devotees
TRAINING INSITUTE block to the shrine of saint quadirwali and it lasts
³³ Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai for 10 days.
³³ Airfoce Administrative Staff College, Coimbatore ³³ Karthigi Deepam – Tamilnadu’s festival of light.
³³ Services Staff College, Wellin-gton
MAIN TEMPLES
INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTIONS ³³ Rameshwaram Temple - Rameshwaram
³³ Heavy vehicles factory Avadi, Chennai ³³ Natraja Temple - Chidambaram
³³ Hindustan Photo films Manufacturing company Ltd., ³³ Jateshwar Swami Temple -Karai Kal.
Ooty ³³ Pakshitirthan Temple - Pakshitirthan
³³ Hidustan Teleprinters Ltd., Chennai ³³ Kamleshwar Temple - Chennai.
³³ Integral Coach factory, Perambur ³³ Kailashnath Temple - Chennai.
³³ Naiveli lignite corporation, Naiveli ³³ Kailashnath Temple- Kanchi-puram.
MINERALS ³³ Kamakshi Temple - Kanchi-puram.
³³ Iron - Godamalai, Thalmalai, Panchamalai, Salem,
³³ Tourist centres – Chennai, Mamallapuram,
Tiru-chirapali. Poompuhar, Kancheepuram, Kumbakonam,
Dharasuram, Chidambaram, Tiruvannamalai,
³³ Coal - Naiveli, Bahur, Arignar, Kannanoor.
Srirangam, Madurai, Rameswaram, Kan-yakumari,
³³ Mica - Krishna, Salem & Nilgiri districts. Thanjavur, Nagoor, Kazhugumalai (Monument center),
³³ Gypsum - Tirunelveli, Tiru-chirapalli, Coimbatore, Courtallam, Hogen-akkal, Suruli (Waterfalls), Ooty,
Chengatpet. Kodaikanal, Elagiri kolli Hills,Guindy, Nudumalai,
³³ Bauxite - Shevrai hills. Point Calimere, Arignar Anna Zoological Park.
³³ Magnesite - Salem.

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GEOGRAPHY

TRIPURA
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ The British entered into this valley in 1765.
³³ Location : 22°59' to 24°31' N. Latitude 91°12' to ³³ Birchandra Manikya banned ‘Das Pratha’ in 1873 and
92°28' E. Longitude. Sati Pratha in 1888.
³³ Boundaries : Bangladesh to the north, west, south and ³³ In 1930 an airport was built near Agartala.
south east. ³³ The king of this state at the time of its accession on
Assam and Mirzoram in the north and north east. 15 th Oct., 1949 was Maharaja Manikya –Kirit Vikram
³³ Capital : Agartala. Kishore Dev Verman Bahadur.
³³ Area : 10491.65 sq.km. ³³ It was first included as a group ‘C’ state.
³³ Population : 36,73,917 ³³ It became an union territory in 1956.
• Male : 18,74,376 ³³ On 21st January, 1972 it was given a status of a full
• Female : 17,99,541 fledged state.
³³ Urban population : 9,61,453
³³ Urbanization : 26.2 percent.
ADMINISTRATION
³³ Population Density : 350 ³³ State legislature – unicameral
³³ Decadal growth Rate : (2001 to 2011) – 14.8 ³³ No. of members in state Legislative assembly – 60
³³ Sex ratio (per thousand) : 960 ³³ No. of members elected for Loksabha – 2
³³ Child sex ratio (0-6 age group) : 957 ³³ No. of members elected for Rajyasabha -1
³³ Total literate population : 28,04,783 ³³ High court – Guwahati High court Guwahati, Assam,
• Male literate population : 15,01,369 (There is a bench of the court in Agratala).
• Female literate population : 13,03,414
GEOGRAPHY
³³ Total literacy (in percentage) : 87.75%
• Male literacy : 91.5% ³³ Length of border with Bangladesh – 880 km.
• Female literacy : 82.7% ³³ Highest peak – Betling Shiv (960 meter)
³³ Main languages : Bengali, Tripuri, manipuri and ³³ Climate – hot and humid.
Kakborak. ³³ Average highest temperature – 95.4° F.
³³ Total No. of districts : 8 ³³ Average lowest temperature – 53.5° F.
³³ No. of villages : 858 ³³ Soils found in the state – Laterite soil, Alluvial soil,
³³ State Day : 21 January. red soil and yellow soil.
³³ Largest City : Agartala ³³ Water fall - Dumbar.
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30) ³³ 6 hill ranges –Baramura, Athramura, Devatamura,
³³ Official Language(s) : Bengali, Kokborok, English Long Tharai, Jampui and Sakhan.
³³ Establishment : 21st January 1972 ³³ On the eastern margin of the state mountain ranges
³³ State Animal : Phayre’s Langur are extended which are the extension of the eastern
³³ State Bird : Green Imperial Pigeon
Himalaya.
³³ State Tree : Agar ³³ From north to south the hills of the Tripura has
been spreaded between Bramhputra and Chindavin
³³ State Flower : Nageshwar
– Irawadi river.
³³ First Chief Minister : Sachindra lal Singh
³³ There are 12 river basin in between them. Among
³³ First Governor : Braj Kumar Nehru
them 7 are important – Khowai,Dalai Manu, Jury and
³³ Website : www.tripura.nic.in Langai in the north, Gumati to the west and the Fen
and Muhari rivers in the South West.
HISTORY ³³ Tripura is situated between the river valleys of
³³ The original inhabitants of the state are Tipera tribe. Bangladesh and Myammar.
³³ ‘Tripur‘has been derived from the word Tipera.
ECONOMY
³³ They are similar to shan tribe and probably they
belongs to Tibetan-Burmese race. ³³ Main crop – Rice.
³³ Huen-Tsang has mentioned this state as ‘Yano-lan’ ³³ Minerals : Natural Gas.
Kiya (Sanskrit Kamlanka). ³³ Handloom weaving is the signle largest industry.
³³ The king of Tripura considered themselves as the ³³ There are several jutefactories that make gunny bags
scion of the Druhyyu, son of the famous king Jajati and other products.
of Chandra dynasty. ³³ Aluminum, Matches, Spray paints, Leather work,
³³ According to ‘Rajmala’, the rulers were known as the Wood work, Khadi, Jute etc.
surname ‘fa’ meaning ‘Father’. ³³ Work of extension of railway line for Agratala has been
taken up by north frontier railway.
³³ Vir Vikram besides his capacity as a ruler, was an
ardent lover of literature and culture that led the royal ³³ Gomati is the longest river of Tripura.
family to develop an intimacy with Tagore. ³³ Rudra Sagar Lake is a major center of fishing.

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³³ Handicraft and small scale industries play a pivotal ³³ South-west Tripura Tourism circuit.

GEOGRAPHY
role in Tripura’s economy. ³³ 1. Agartala 2. Kamalsagar 3. Sepahijala 4. Nirmahal
³³ Lignite coal is found in Fanny valley near Sonapara. 5. Udaipur 6. Pilak 7. Mahamuni.
³³ Lime stone is found in Udaipur Rishimuk region.
³³ West – North Tripura tourism circuit
SOCIETY & CULTURE ³³ 1. Agartala 2. Kamalsagar 3. Damboor lake 4. Unakuti
5. Jampui Hills
³³ Festivals – Makar Sankranti at Trithamukh
and Unakoti, Holi, Ashokashtami at Unakoti, TOURISM FESTIVAL
Brahmakunda at Mohanpur, Rash, Bengali new
³³ Orange and Tourism festival wangmun.
year, Gariu, Biju and Hozagiri festival, Boat race and
Mansa Mangal festival, ker and kharchi festival, Sarad ³³ Unakuti Tourism festival.
festival, Diwali, Christmas at Jampui hills, Buddha ³³ Neermahal Tourism festival.
Purnima festival etc are celebrated. ³³ Pillak Tourism festival.
³³ Main tribal : Lushai, Mug, Kuki, Chakma Garo,
Chaimal, Halam, Kharia, Bhutia, Garambh Lepcha, IMPORTANT LAKES
Santhal, Bhil, Tripuri, Jamha, Nawtia, Rieg, Uncai. ³³ Rudra Sagar Lake.
³³ Famous folk dance – Chorolam, Folk, Rashleela, ³³ Dumbar Lake.
Rakhal.
³³ Main Temples – Jagannath Temple, Agartala Tripura IMPORTANT IRRIGATION PROJECTS
Sundari Temple, Udaipur chordash devta mandir. ³³ Manu project
³³ Tourism – Betaling, a very attractive place is situated ³³ Khowai project
at Jaintia hills. ³³ Gomati Project.

WEST BENGAL
IMPORTANT FACTS HISTORY
³³ Location : 21°25‘–26°50’ N. Latitude, 86°31’– ³³ Evidences of Neolithic civili-zation has been found
98°58’ E. Longitude. from Pandu rajar dibi of the state.
³³ At the time of Alexander’s invasion a powerful kingdom
³³ Capital : Kolkata.
called Gangaridai ruled over Bengal.
³³ Area : 88,752 sq. km.
³³ Ascendancy of the Guptas and the Mauryas had
³³ Total No. of Districts : 23. somewhat little effect on Bengal.
³³ Population ³³ Dharmapala (770-810) was an able ruler of the Pala
• Persons : 9,12,76,115. dynasty.
• Male : 4,68,09,027. ³³ He captured Kanuaj and placed Charkrayudha on
the throne.
• Female : 4,44,67,088.
³³ He revived Nalanda with a grant of 200 villages and
• Rural : 6,21,83,113.
founded Vikramshila University.
• Urban : 2,90,93,002. ³³ He was succeeded by Devapala (810-850), who
³³ Population density : 1,028 extended over Pragjyotishpur (Assam) ,Orissa and
³³ Sex Ratio (per 1000) : 950 part of Nepal.
³³ Sex Ratio (0-6 age gr) : 956 ³³ He shifted the capital to Monghyr.
³³ Decadal Growth Rate : 13.8% ³³ Vijayasena, who came to power in 1095 and ruled for
³³ Literacy Rate almost sixty years was among the eminent king of
the Sena dynasty.
• Person : 76.03%
³³ Lakshmansena was forced to leave his capital Naliya
• Male : 81.7%
(remamed Lakhnauti) after its take over by Bakhityar
• Female : 70.5% Khalji.
³³ Largest City : Kolkata ³³ From 1345 to 1490 Iliyasshai dynasty ruled over
³³ Official Language(s) : Bengali, English Bengal.
³³ Establishment : 1st May1960 ³³ In between, only for four years (1414-18) it was
³³ State Animal : Fishing Cat temporarily ruled by hindu king Ganesh, Jadu, Danuj
³³ State Bird : White Breasted King Fisher Mardan and Mahendra.
³³ State Tree : Chatian ³³ After the number of Muzaffarshah in 1490, his Vajir
³³ State Flower : Shephali Alauddin Husain Shah was elected as the Sultan of
³³ First Chief Minister : Prafulla Ghosh Bengal in 1493.
³³ First Governor : Chakravarti Raja Gopalachari ³³ He was the best and most popular among the Sultans
³³ Website : www.wbgov.com of Bengal.

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³³ Sayyid dynasty established by Alauddin Husain shah northern part to the warm region in the south.
GEOGRAPHY

ruled Bengal until 1538, when it was captured by ³³ The Sunderbans, which derives its name from sundari
Humayun. trees, have large numbers of genwa, dhundal, passur,
³³ In 1576 Akabar defeated the last Karnani ruler Daud garjan and kankra trees.
Khan and Bengal was annexed to the Mughal empire. ³³ Major rivers : Hooghly and its tributaries (Mayurakshi,
³³ First came the Portuguese and then the Dutch, the Damodar, Kangsabati and Rupnarayan) and Teesta,
Dannish, the French and the British and established Torsa, Subarnarekha, Joldhara and Ranjit.
their factories at Chinsura, Sirampur, Chandra Nagar ³³ International border of West Bengal is Bhutan and
and Culcutta respectively. Nepal & Bangladesh which is in east and Sikkim in
³³ From1707-on the death of Aurangzeb, Bengal became north Bay of Bengal in South and Bihar, Jharkhand
an independent Muslim kingdom. In 1756 Siraj in West, Odisha in South West.
conquered the British Fort in Calcutta.
³³ In 1764, Mir Qasim was ousted at the Battle of Buxar; ECONOMY
Bengal went into the hands of the British (East India ³³ The state ranks first in the countrywise production
Company) of the Rice and Jute.
³³ In 1773, Warren Hasting, the Governor of Bengal, ³³ The state is rich in coal deposits located in the districts
became the first Governor General of Bengal with of Bardhaman and Birbhum.
powers over the Madras and Bombay presidencies ³³ Other mineral deposits include iron ore, manganese,
as well. silica, limestone, China clay and dolomite.
³³ The Nile movement (1859-60), the Pavna movement ³³ Iron ore is found in Damuda and Mahadeva range
(1873-76), the Sanyasi revolt and the Chuar revolt ³³ Tungestan’s deposits are located in Bankura district
(1760) were the early signs of opposition against the and Birbhumi, Midnapur and Purlia regions are rich
British empire. in China clay.
³³ Bengal has always been a leader in the freedom
struggle as well as the social reform. INDUSTRY
³³ The Brahmo society established in 1928 in Calcutta by ³³ Jute : Agarpara, Teetagarh, Rishra.
Raja Ram Mohan Rai was the first reform movement ³³ Aluminium : Belur, Asansde.
in Hindu religion. ³³ Cotton : Srirampur, Bannihati, Kolkata,
³³ When Lord Curzon ordered the partition of Bengal in ³³ Iron & steel : Bernpur, kulti, Heerapur, Durgapur.
1905 the Bengalis vehemently protested it.
³³ Rail engine : Chitranjan
³³ Swadeshi and Bahishakar movement soon spread to
³³ Shipping : Kolkata
all over India.
³³ I.T. Industry : Salt lake, Kolkata.
³³ Continued opposition to the partition led to the
reunification of the state in 1911. SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ Some famous freedom fighters from the state are
Bipinchandra Pal, Master Suryasena, Arbind Ghosh, ³³ The first social and religious reforms in Hindu society
Batukeswar Datta, M.N. Roy etc. and religion started from Bengal.
³³ But people’s growing movement under the auspices ³³ Raja Ram Mohan Rai was the first social reformer.
of Congress led to reunion in 1911. ³³ Apart from him, Ishwarchand Vidyasagar, D.N Tagore,
³³ At the time of independence, the eastern part of Bengal K.L Sen, R.N Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam are some other
became East Pakistan (later Bangladesh) and the pride sons of Bengal, who led the March of India’s
western part became the Indian state of West Bengal. modernization.
³³ The princely state of Cooch Behar was integrated with ³³ Bangla is the principal language of the state which is
West Bengal in 1950.
basically derived from the Sanskrit based Indo-Aryan
³³ The state also gained some territory from Bihar after
language –Magadhi
the reorganization of Indian states in 1956.
³³ The epic star, Michael Madhusudan, the nationalist,
ADMINISTRATION Bakimchandra and the most popular novelist Sharat
³³ State legislature : Unicameral Chandra are some famous names of Bengal Literature.
³³ Members of Vidhan Sabha : 294 ³³ But it got International recognition when Gitanjali
³³ Member of Lok Sabha : 42 of Rabindra Nath Tagore was awarded Noble prize
³³ Member of Rajya Sabha : 16 in 1913.
³³ High Court : Kolkata ³³ The Pather Panchali of Vibhuti Bhusan and Ganadevta
of Tarashankar Bandopadhaya were the other
GEOGRAPHY historical works.
³³ Part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta constitutes the ³³ Jatra the hugely popular theatre form, has a range
eastern part of West Bengal. of themes : from mythological to historical to
³³ From the northern high lands to the tropical forest contemporary.
of Sunderbans, variations in altitude result in great ³³ Rabindrasangeet, consisting of songs written and
variety in nature and climate. composed by Tagore, has a strong influence on Bengali
³³ Climate in the state varies from the relatively cooler culture.

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³³ Bengali filmmakers - most notably Satyajit Ray, Tapan 5. Dooars Valley : Jaldapara, Buxa Tiger Project, Go-

GEOGRAPHY
Sinha and Mrinal Sen - have also earned worldwide rumara and Chapramari Wildlife Sancturies.
acclaim. 6. kalimpong : Dr. Graham’s Homes, Durpin Dara,
Kaibari, Thongsha Gumpha, Tharpa Choling Mon-
FAIRS AND FESTIVALS astery.
³³ Important festivals of West Bengal include Durga puja, 7. Vishnupur : Rasmancha, Pancha Ratna Temple,
Id, Diwali, Rasajatra, Navanna, Christmas, Saraswati Jorebangla Temple.
Puja, Vasanta Utsav, Holi and Chark. Important fairs 8. Siliguri.
include Gangasagar Mela, Kenduli Mela, Jalpesh 9. Beaches : Digha, Shankarpur, Janput, Bakkhali,
Mela, Rash Mela and Poush Mela. Sagardwip.

MUSEUMS OF THE STATE PERSONALITIES

³³ Asiatic Society – Kolkata. ³³ Aurobindo Ghosh : An exponent of Indian nationalism;
a philosopher, poet and saint. His famous works
³³ Victoria Museum – Kolkata.
include ‘Life Divine’ and ‘Essays on the Gita’.
³³ Shanti Niketan Museum – Bolpur,Kolkata.
³³ Sarojini Naidu (1879–1948): Also called ‘Nightingale
³³ Indian Museum House – Kolkata. of India’, she was a great poetess in English. She
³³ The Kolkata Art Society – Kolkata. participated in India’s freedom struggle and became
President of the Indian National Congress in 1925 and
MAJOR TOURIST ATTRACTIONS
the first woman Governor of UP.
1. Kolkata and Howrah:Victoria Memorial, Indian Mu- ³³ Vivekanand, Swami (1863–1902): A disciple of
seum, Kalighat Temple, Dakshineswar Kali Temple, Ramakrishna Paramhansa he championed the
Belur Math,Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Cul- greatness of the Vedantic philosophy. His famous talk
ture, St.John’s Church, Birla planetorium, Shahid the Chicago Conference of World Religions in 1893
Minar, Howrah Bridge (Rabindra Setu), Vidyasagar made the Westerners realise the greatness of Indian
Setu, Science City, Botanical Gardens. for the first time. He established the Ramakrishna
2. Santinketan. Mission, in memory of his guru.
³³ C. R. Dass (1870–1925): Also known as ‘Deshabandhu’,
3. Darjeeling : Tiger Hill, Batasia Loop, Lloyds Botenical
a lawyer at the Calcutta Bar, he entered politics. He
Garden.
presided over the Gaya Congress session and along
4. Murshidabad: Nimak Haram Deohri, Khusbagh, with Motilal Nehru and Hakim Ajmal Khan launched
Hazarduari, Plassey. the Swaraj Party in 1923.

ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ Child sex-ratio (0-6 age group) : 968
³³ Location : 6°39’ to 13°34’ North Latitude 92° to 94° ³³ Literacy Rate : 86.6 percent
East Longitude. • Male Literacy : 90.3 percent
³³ Capital : Port Blair • Female Literacy : 82.4 percent
³³ Main tribes : Andmani, Onge, Jarava and Sentinelese
³³ Area : 8,249 sq.km
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30)
³³ Total No. of Districts : 3
³³ Official Language(s) : Bengali, Tamil, Hindi,
³³ No. of towns : 3 Malayalam, Telugu, Punjabi, Nicobarese,
³³ No. of Villages : 501 English
³³ Population : ³³ Establishment : 1st November 1956
• Person : 3,80,581 ³³ First Governor : Manohar L. Kampani
• Male : 2,02,871 ³³ Website : www.and.nic.in
• Female : 1,77,710 HISTORY
³³ Rural Population :
³³ Andaman has an age old history. It has been referred
• Person : 2,37,093 to in the Ramayana.
³³ Urban Population :
³³ In second country A,D, Roman Geologist Ptolemy
• Person : 1,43,488 mentioned the islands as GOOD FORTUNE in his
³³ Main Languages : Bengali, Hindi, Nicobari, Telugu, world Atlas.
Tamil and Malayalam ³³ Andaman and Nicobar islands is referred to as the
³³ State Day : 11 March land of Naveds by Buddhist monk from China, I’Tsing
³³ Population growth rate (2001 to 2011) : 6.9% in his travelogue of 7th century A.D.
³³ Population Density : 46 ³³ In 1050 A.D. in the era of Chola dynasty Andaman
³³ Urban Population : 37.7% and Nicobar are referred to as the land of Nakeets or
³³ Sex-ratio : 876 Nakkavaram in their Ranjore stone inscription.

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³³ In 1292, Marco Polo referred Nicobar as Necuveron. ³³ Grasslands, not found in the Andaman are present in
GEOGRAPHY

³³ Car Nicobar was quoted as Lo-Tan-Kvo by the then the Nicobar group, where as deciduous forest common
contemporary Chinese writers. in Andamans can hardly be found in the Nicobar.
³³ The Name Andaman came from the word of Marco ³³ Andaman forest is abundant in timber of more than
Polo’s Angamanian. 200 species.
³³ In 1857, during first struggle for independence, the ³³ Major commerical varities are Padank and Gurjan.
frightened British Raj, first exiled (Kalapani) Freedom ³³ Silver grey, kokko, Padauk, Chooi and marble wood
fighters condemned of Sedition in 1858, numbering are a few kinds of ornamental woods noted for their
773. pronounced grain formation.
³³ The Andaman and Nicobar islands have about 50
³³ By 1864 the number had been increased to 3000 and
varieties of forest mammals, most of which have been
continued to prolong at the Penal colony till 1919. brought in from outside.
³³ On 6th Nov, 1943 by a special proclamation by ³³ National Parks : Mahatama Gandhi marine national
Japanese Prime Minister Tojo, the administration park, Rani Jhansi marine National Park, Middle
of the island had been tranferred to the provisional Button Island National Park, Mount Harriet National
government of Azad Hind or INA of Netaji Subhas. Park, North Button Island National Park, Saddle Peak
³³ The National flag was first hoisted in Port Blair on National Park, South Button Island National Park,
Dec 30, 1943, translating into reality the dream of Chambell Bay National Park, Galathea National Park.
Independence.
³³ In 1947, Andaman and Nicobar became free along ECONOMY
with the whole country. ³³ Paddy the main crop, is mostly cultivated in Andaman
³³ In 1956, on 1st Nov-Andaman went under Central Nicobar group of islands whereas Coconut and
rule. Since then Andaman and Nicobar is an integral Arecanut are the cash crop of Nicobar group of islands.
part of India. ³³ Field crops namely, pulses, oilseeds and vegetables
are grown followed by paddy during rainy season.
ADMINISTRATION ³³ Different kind of fruits such as mango, sapota, orange,
³³ The territory is administered by a Lieutinant Governor, banana, papaya, pineapple and root crops are grown
appointed by the President of India. on hilly land owned by farmers.
³³ The Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar islands ³³ Species viz. pepper, clove, nutmeg and cinnamon are
is under the Jurisdiction of the Calcutta High Court. grown under mutitier cropping system.
³³ Rubber, red oil, palm and cashew are grown on a
GEOGRAPHY limited scale in these islands.
³³ The three main Islands, namely the North, Middle ³³ Two units are hundred percent export oriented units
and South Andaman are collectively known as Great in the line of Fish/Prawn processing activities.
Andaman. ³³ There are also shell and wood based handicrafts units.
³³ The islands are covered by dense tropical forests. ³³ Industries like boat building, automobile body
³³ Saddle Peak (737m) is the highest in the Andaman building, electronics and packaging are also coming
islands. up.
³³ About 135 km from Port Blair is Barren islands,
India’s only active volcano. SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ The Nicobar islands consists of a group of islands of ³³ Poeple of all religion and sects live together in these
which 12 are inhabited and seven are uninhabited. islands.
³³ Car Nicobar and Trinlect are flat islands. ³³ Hindi is the working language in Andaman & Nicobar
³³ The Great Nicobar is hilly and is isolated from the islands. Bengali language is also in vogue.
Nicobars and the Nancowries group by the sombero ³³ Society of Andaman and Nicobar island mainly
channel. consists of the descendants of Prisoners though living
³³ Main harbours are Port Blair. Neil, Diglipur, Mayabandar in Andaman for generation, are called local born.
and Rangat in the Andaman and Car Nicobar and ³³ All tribes in Andaman Nicobar have different
Kamorta in the Nicobars. languages.
³³ Port Blair is connected to Kolkata and Chennai by air ³³ The tribal women weavs basket. They decorate their
as well as sea routes. house with the leaf of Palm tree.
³³ Major rivers are Alexandra, Dagmar, and Galathea rivers ³³ On village, people generally grow trees of Papaya,
(Great Nicobar) and Kalpong (North Andaman) are the Jackfruit and Banana near their house.
perrenial fresh water in these islands. TOURISM
³³ The climate of Andaman-Nicobar islands is warm,
³³ The important places for tourist interest are
moist and tropical.
Anthropological Museum, Marine Museum, Water
³³ North Andaman have wet evergreen forest that contain sports complex, Gandhi Park, North Bay, Viper Island,
plenty of climbers.
Ross Islands, Chidiya tappu (Bird watching), Red
³³ South Andaman forest have a luxariant growth of Skin Islands, Corbyun’s cone Beach, Islands like Neil
Orchids, Ferns and other epiphytic vegetation, while Islands, havelock Island, Cinque, Little Andaman,
the middle Andaman mostly contains deciduous Diglipur (Ross & Smith) etc.
forests.

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GEOGRAPHY
CHANDIGARH
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ The maximum temperature in summer is 44°C and
³³ Area – 114 sq.km. It is a combined capital of Hary- minimum is 28°C. The maximum temperature in
ana and Punjab winter is 18°C and minimum is 4°C.
³³ Total No. of District : 1 ECONOMY
³³ Population :
³³ Educational Institutions – University, Engineering
• Person – 10,55,450
College, Polytechnic and 12 general Colleges.
• Male – 5,80,663
³³ Agricultural Land – 3,047 hectare.
• Female – 4,74,787
³³ Urban Population : ³³ Irrigated land – about 2,740 hectare.
• Person – 10,26,459 ³³ Major Crops – Rice, Maize and Wheat.
³³ Rural Population : ³³ No. of Public sector industry – 21 big industry and
• Person – 28,991 medium size industries are 15 in number.
³³ Population Density – 9,258 ³³ Energy Resources – 15% of the Power generated by
³³ Population growth rate (2001 to 2011) – 17.2% Bhakhara Project.
³³ Sex-ratio – 818
³³ Roadways – 15.275 km National High ways.
³³ Child sex-ratio (0-6 age group)– 880
³³ Literacy Rate : ³³ Forest Area – 27 sq. km.
• Person – 86.0 % ³³ Population below poverty line – 5.75%.
• Male Literacy – 90.0 % ³³ Per Capita electricity consumption – 844 k. w hour.
• Female Literacy – 81.2 % ³³ Airport – Chandigarh.
³³ Urban Population (in percentage) – 97.3%
³³ Central scientific instrument organisation.
³³ Main Languages – Hindi, Punjabi and English
³³ Industry – Woollen cloths, Readymade garments,
³³ Seats of Lok Sabha – 1
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30) Hosiery, Electric meter, Cycle parts, Electronics, parts
³³ Official Language(s) : Hindi, Punjabi of electronic appliances, Motor parts, Blade etc.
³³ First Governor : M.S. Randhava ³³ Under e-governance significant work has been done
³³ Website :www. chandigarh.nic.in in the departments of excise and taxation, licensing
and registering authority, registration of birth and
HISTORY
deaths and Police.
³³ History of this city is not very old. The plan of this city
³³ A 111 acre site has been allocated by the administra-
was prepared by Abert Mayor in 1950. Later on it was
tion for a technology park near Kishangarh, for at-
corrected and introduced by the famous architect Le
Corbusier in 1952. tracting technology companies to set up their facilities.
³³ Le Corbusier gave a newshape to the road of the city ³³ A centre of excellence has been set up in the Punjab
while making plan. engineering College by the department in collaboration
³³ The foundation of this city was laid by Dr. Rajendra with Microsoft.
Prasad on 7th October, 1953. ³³ Chandigarh incubation facilities are being provided at
³³ Chandigarh and the area surrounding it were the Punjab Engineering College where eight companies
constituted as a Union territory on 1 November, 1966. have presently been accommodated.
³³ It serves as a joint capital to Punjab and Haryana
states. SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ Main Festival – Baisakhi.
ADMINISTRATION
³³ Main Museum – Chandigarh Museum
³³ The Governor of Punjab is also an administrator of
Chandigarh. TOURISM
³³ High Court – Punjab and Haryana High Courts are ³³ Important tourist centres are – Rock Garden, Rose
under the jurisdiction of Chandigarh. Garden, Sukhna Lake, Museum and Art Gallery, City
Museum, Tower of Shadows, Geometric Hill Museum
GEOGRAPHY of Evolution, Kala Gram, Log huts, Nepali Forests,
³³ Punjab is situated in north and west of Chandigarh, Fitness trails (in leisure valley), National Gallary of
while Haryana is situated in its east and south. Portraits, Central Plaza, International Doll Museum
³³ The average annual rainfall in Chandigarh is 50 to and Smriti Upvan.
75 c.m.

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GEOGRAPHY

DADRA & NAGAR HAVELI AND DAMAN & DIU

IMPORTANT FACTS were formally annexed to India on 11 August 1961.
Portugal officially recognised Indian sovereignty over
³³ Country : India
the areas in 1974 following the Carnation Revolution.
³³ Established : 26 January 2020[1]
³³ Dadra and Nagar Haveli was administered as a de
³³ Capital : Daman
facto state, Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli, before
³³ Government becoming a union territory in 1961. Daman and
• Body : Union Territory Administration of Dadra Diu were administered as part of the union territory
and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu of Goa, Daman and Diu between 1962 and 1987,
• Administrator : Praful Khoda Patel becoming a separate union territory when Goa was
• Parliamentary constituency : Lok Sabha granted statehood.
• High Court : Bombay High Court ³³ In July 2019, the Government of India proposed
³³ Area merging the two territories into a single union territory
• Total : 603 km2 (233 sq mi) in order to reduce duplication of services and reduce
Area rank : 33rd the cost of administration. Legislation to this effect,
• Elevation : 8 m (26 ft) the Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
• Highest elevation : 425 m (1,394 ft) (Merger of Union territories) Bill, 2019, was tabled
• Lowest elevation : 0 m (0 ft) in the Parliament of India on 26 November 2019 and
³³ Population (2011) assented to by the President of India on 9 December
2019. The two union territories had previously shared
• Total : 585,764
a common administrator and government officials. The
• Density : 970/km2 (2,500/sq mi)
town of Daman was chosen to be the capital of the
³³ Languages
new combined union territory. The appointed day for
• Official : Gujarati, Hindi, English the act to come into effect was notified as 26 January
• Time zone : UTC+5:30 (IST) 2020 by the Government of India.
• ISO 3166 code : IN-DH
• Vehicle registration : DD-01,DD-02,DD-03
ADMINISTRATION
• Total No. of districts : 3 ³³ Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu is
• Largest City : Silvassa administered as a union territory of India by virtue
³³ Website : https://ddd.gov.in of Article 240 (2) of the Constitution of India. The
President of India appoints an administrator to
HISTORY administer the territory on behalf of the central
Government of India. The central government may
³³ Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu is a union
appoint advisers to assist the administrator with his
territory in western India. It was created through
duties.
the merger of the former union territories of Dadra
and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. Plans for the Districts Edit
proposed merger were announced by the Government The union territory is made up of three districts:
of India in July 2019 and the necessary legislation
No. District A r e a , Population, Density,
was passed in the Parliament of India in December km2 (2011) per/km2
2019 and came into effect on 26 January, 2020. The
1 Daman Dis- 72 190,855 2,650.76
territory is made up of four separate geographical
trict
entities Dadra, Nagar Haveli, Daman and the island
of Diu. All four areas were part of Portuguese India 2 Diu District 40 52,056 1,301.40
with the capital in Velha Goa, they came under Indian 3 Dadra and 491 342,853 698.27
administration in the mid-20th century after the Nagar Haveli
Annexation of Goa and Damaon. The capital city is Total 603 585,764 971.42
Daman while Silvassa is the largest city.
³³ Daman and Diu were under Portuguese administration LAW ENFORCEMENT AND JUSTICE
from the 1500s until they were annexed by India on ³³ Law enforcement within the territory is the responsibility
19 December, 1961. Dadra and Nagar Haveli were of the Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu Police.
under Portuguese administration from 1818 until The territory falls under the jurisdiction of the Bombay
they were captured by pro-India forces in 1954 and High Court.

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IN THE PARLIAMENT OF INDIA ³³ Two industrial areas have been developed by Omnibus

GEOGRAPHY
³³ Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu sends Industrial development corporation at Daman.
two members (MPs) to the lower house of the Indian ³³ The other industrial area are Dabhel, Bhimpore,
parliament the Lok Sabha. The territory is divided into Kachigam and Kadaiya.
the constituencies of Daman and Diu and Dadra and ³³ All villages have been electrified.
Nagar Haveli. ³³ Daman and Diu have got adequate power allocation
from central sector power stations in western
GEOGRAPHY
region.
³³ Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu is
³³ There is no railway link between Daman and Diu.
composed of four distinct areas located in Western
India. Dadra is a small enclave within the state of ³³ The nearest railway station from Daman is Vapi on
Gujarat. Nagar Haveli is a C shaped enclave located western railway on Mumbai Delhi route.
between the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra ³³ The nearest railway station from Diu is Delvada on
which contains a counter enclave of Gujarat around meter gauge.
the village of Maghval. Daman is an enclave on the ³³ There are airports both in Daman and Diu.
coast of Gujarat and Diu is an island off the coast
of Gujarat. SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ Varli and Kokana tribes celebrates Dipawali by the
ECONOMY
name ‘Varas’.
³³ Major Crops – Paddy and Ragi.
³³ Kokana tribes celebrated Awatiz in which mainly,
³³ Dadra and Nagar Haveli is mainly rural and Tribal
women participated.
region.
³³ Dhodha and Varli tribes celebrates ‘Tyohar Diwas’.
³³ Major crop is Paddy (Kharif) while Nagli and other hill
³³ People of all caste worship village goddess before
millets are crops of the area.
harvesting crops and goddess Kali after harvesting.
³³ Among fruits mango, chiky and Banana etc. are also
produced. TOURISM
³³ Three government Industrial estates have been ³³ The prominent places of tourist interests are :
developed at Silvasa, Masat and Khadoli in the UT. Tadekeshwar Shiva Temple, Bindrabin Deer Park at
³³ The power requirement of the territory is being met from Khanvel, Vanganga lake and Island Garden, Dadra
Central sector power generating stations located in the Vanivhar Udhyan and Mini zoo,Bal Udhyan, Tribal
western region. Museum and Hiravan Garden at Silvasa.
³³ The power demand has increased tremendously ³³ The development of water sports at Dudhani has been
due to rapid industrialisation with the extension completed.
of tax holiday benefit to this union territory by the
³³ To encourage tourism activities some traditional and
government of India.
modern cultural activities like celebration of Tarpa
³³ The rail route from Mumbai to Ahmedabad links
festival, Kite festival, World Tourism day etc. are
Vapi also.
organised everyday.
³³ Mumbai is the nearest airport.
³³ Tourist Places – Bom Jesus Church, Our Lady of
³³ To meet the need of rapid industrialisation, four laning
Sea Church, Our Lady of Remedious Church, Forts
work has been taken up in Silvasa and adjoining
of Moti Daman and Nani Daman, Jampore and
areas.
Devka beaches; Public Garden and Moti Daman
³³ Converting of two lane road to four lane road for Dadra
Jetty, Pargola Garden, Moti Daman, Amusement
– Tighra raod is under progress.
Park, Devka, Damanganga tourist complex,
³³ Major Industries – Tourism, Fisheries, refined salt.
Kachigam, Satya Sagar Udyan, Mirasol garden,
³³ Important field and Garden crops are Paddy,
Mirasal Water Park.
ragi, bajra, jowar, groundnut, pulses, and beans,
³³ In Diu, St. Paul’s Church, Diu fort and Painikota
wheat, Banana, Sapota, mango, coconut and
Fort, Nagoa and Chakratirth and Children’s part
sugarcane.
at Chogla and summer house are famous tourist
³³ There are 1746 small scale and medium scale
places.
industries in Daman and Diu.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge
GEOGRAPHY

DELHI
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ In 1192 Prithviraj was defeated and killed in the
³³ Location : 20°24'17" to 28°53' North Latitude, second invasion of Afgan. Md. Gori became the Sultan
76°50'24" to 77°20'37" East Longitude. of Delhi. In successive incident Mahmud went back to
³³ Area : 1,483 sq.km. Gajni leaving Delhi to Kutab, a Das General.
³³ Capital : Delhi ³³ In 1206 the Das General assassinated the Md. Ghori
³³ Boundries : Haryana in North, West and South and and became Sultan.
Uttarpradesh in East.
³³ Kutab-ud-din Aibek died in 1210 while playing Polo.
³³ Total No. of District : 11
The Iltutmis, the son in law of Kutab became king.
³³ Population : 1,67,87,941
• Male : 89,87,326 ³³ After Kutab-ud-din Aibak 7 muslim dynasty ruled
• Female : 78,00,615 over Delhi, they were Gulam Dynasty, Khilji Dynasty,
³³ Population Density : 11,320 persons per square Tuglaq dynasty, Saiyed Dynasty, Lodhi Dynasty, Suri
kilometer. dynasty and Mughal dynasty.
³³ Population growth rate (2001-2011) : 21.2%. ³³ The foundation of the famous Qutub Minar of Delhi
³³ Sex Ratio : 868. was laid by Kutub-ud-din Aibak in 1199.
³³ Child Sex Ratio (0-6 age group) : 871.
³³ Alauddin Khilji of Turk (1290–1316) founded his
³³ Literacy Rate :
empire at Siri or today’s Hauz Khas at 1303 A.D.
• Persons : 86.2%.
• Male : 90.9% ³³ Md. Bin Tughlak, son of Giyasuddin temporarily
• Female : 80.8% shifted his capital to South India and came back to
³³ Rural Area : 558.3 sq. km. Delhi and established a new city ‘Jahapannahnagar’
³³ Urban Area : 924.68 sq. km. between Siri and Kutab. Now it is known as Chirag
³³ Rural Population : 4,19,042 Delhi.
³³ Urban Population : 1,63,68,899 ³³ A new capital city ‘Firozabad’ was founded by Firoz Shah
³³ Urban Population in percentage : 97.50% Tughlaq the third ruler of Tughlaq dynasty in 1354. Now
³³ Literate Population : 1,27,37,767 this city is known as Firoz Shah Kotla.
• Male literate : 71,94,856
³³ After two century later Humayun established a new
• Female literate : 55,42,911
city ‘Delhi, 4 km of Firozabad. Now this place is
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30)
known as Purana Quila. The decoration of this city
³³ Official Language(s) : Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu
was completed by Sher Shah Suri. It is he who built
³³ State Animal : Nilgai
Purana Quila in 1540-44.
³³ State Bird : House Sparrow
³³ First Chief Minister : Chaudhry Brahm Prakash ³³ In 1638 Shahjahan founded Shahjahanabad. At
³³ First Governor : Aditya Nath Jha present it is known as Old Delhi. He built Lal Qila in
³³ Website : www.delhigovt.nic.in 1648 and Jama Masjid between 1648 to 1650.
³³ A boundry of Quartzite stone was made around
HISTORY
Shahjahanabad in which main gates named Delhi
³³ The initial name of Delhi was Indraprastha. It has been Gate, Kashmiri Gate, Ajmeri Gate and Lahori Gate
described in Mahabharata as a capital of Pandvas. were made.
³³ In 737 A.D., At Dillika Village, the leader of Tomar
³³ In 1724 Jantar Mantar was built by Jai Singh and
Rajput community built a new city named Dillika.
Tomb of Safdurjung was built by Shiraju-ud-daula
³³ In 1052 Anangpal second rejuvenated the city and
in 1753-54.
fort of Lal kot was built to protect the city.
³³ The british made their capital at Kolkata first but in
³³ This region was captured by Vigrahraj, a Chauhan
ruler in 1151 AD during the reign of Anangpal III. But 1911 George V decided to made Delhi Capital City.
after establishment of marital relation between the two ³³ A new city named New Delhi was built in the South
dynasty Tomar dynasty continued to rule over Delhi of Old Delhi.
under Chauhan ruler.
³³ The Plan of New Delhi City was prepared by Edwin
³³ The last Rajput of Chauhan dynasty Prithviraj Chauhan
Lutheyans and Baker. The town plan of New Delhi
III founded second capital city Qila Rai Pithora around
is much similar to the town plan of Washington and
Kutab which was surrounded by 3 walls.
London.

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 Geography

³³ After Independence, it was accepted as the capital of

GEOGRAPHY
Tomb Name of the Person
Indian union in 1947.
Rajghat Mahatam Gandhi
³³ In 1956 it became Union Territory.
³³ By 69th Constitutional Amendment National Capital Santiban Jawahar Lal Nehru
Territory act 1991 came into force and a legislative Vijay Ghat Lal Bahadur Shastri
assembly was set up in Delhi.
Sakti Sthal Indira Gandhi
ADMINISTRATION Birbhumi Rajiv Gandhi
³³ The Delhi Legislative Assembly has 70 members, all Kishan Ghat Charan Singh
chosen by direct election from as many constituencies, Sadaiv Atal Atal Bihari Vajpayee
of which 13 are reserved for SCs.
³³ Universities – Delhi University, Jawaharlal Nehru
³³ No. of Seats of Lok Sabha– 7.
University, Jamia milia Islamia University, Indira
³³ No. of Seats of Rajya Sabha–3.
Gandhi National Open University, Guru Gobind
³³ Judiciary – The Delhi High Court was established Singh Indraprastha University, Lal Bahadur Shastri
in 1966. Sanskrit Vidya Peeth.
GEOGRAPHY ³³ Unique Institutions – All India Medical Institute,
Indian Institute of Technology, Indian Agriculture
³³ Delhi is divided into two zones : the extension of the Research Institute, National Institute of Fashion
Aravali Hills and plains. Technology, Indian Institute of Public Administration.
³³ Neighbouring states – Haryana, Uttar Pradesh. ³³ Major Industries – Razor Blades, Sports Articles,
³³ Major Rivers – Yamuna. Radio, Television set and Parts, cycle and its parts,
³³ Climate – Delhi witnesses hot summers characterized Plastic, shoes and shippers, chemicals, fertilizers,
by extreme dryness, with maximum temperature going medicine, housery, cold drinks, hand instruments,
up to 46oC. station wagon, goods of PVC etc.
³³ Rain fall varies between 400-600 mm. SOCIETY & CULTURE
³³ Forest and tree cover constitutes about 151 sq.km.
³³ Fairs and Festivals – Major festivals and fairs include Holi,
of the area.
Dussehra, Lohri, Deepawali, Qutub Festival, Phoolwalon
³³ The ridge with trees like dhak and Amaltas, is ki Sair, Roshanara and Shalimar Bagh festivals, and
classified as a tropical thorn forest. Mango Festivals.
³³ Delhi is also known for numerous flowering plants, ³³ Tourism – Red Fort, Purana Quila, Qutub Minar (World
mainly Chrysanthemums, Verbenas, Violas and heritage site), India Gate, Bahai’s house of worship,
Phlox. Rashtrapati Bhavan, Rajghat, Humayun’s Tomb (World
Heritage site), Parliament House, Jama Masjid, Jantar
ECONOMY
Mantar, Firoz Shah Kotla, Safdarjung’s Tomb, Dilli Hat,
³³ Airports : Indira Gandhi International Airport, Palam Mughal Gardens, Lodi Gardens, National Museum,
Airport (for domestic flight) and Safdarjung Airport Birla Temple, Vigyan Bhavan, Buddha Jayanti Park,
(for Training).
Ravindra Rangsala etc.

LAKSHADWEEP
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ Populationwise smallest Islands : Bitra (225
persons)
³³ Location : 5°C –12°C North Latitude, 71°C – 74°C
East Longitude ³³ Population Density : 2,149 person per square
kilometer
³³ Area : 30 sq.km
³³ Population growth rate (2001 to 2011) : 6.3%
³³ Capital : Kavarati
³³ No. of Islands : 36 ³³ Sex-ratio : 947

³³ Islands of human habitation : Androth, Amino ³³ Child sex-ratio (0-6 age group) : 911
Agatti, Bitra, Chetlet, Kadmat, Kalpeni, Kavaratti, ³³ Main Languages : Malyalam (Mahul language is used
Kiltan and Minicoy. in Minicoy)
³³ Population : ³³ Literacy Rate :
• Person : 64,73 • Person : 91.8%
• Male : 33,123 • Male : 95.6 %
• Female : 31,350 • Female : 87.9 %

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ No. of Districts : 1 ³³ The ten inhabited islands are – Andrott, Amini, Agatti,
GEOGRAPHY

³³ No, of towns : 3 Bitra, Chetlat, Kadmath, Kalpani, Kavarati, Kirtan

³³ No. of Villages : 28 and Mincoy.
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30) ³³ The main islands are Kavarati, Minicoy and Amini.
³³ Official Language(s) : Malyalam ³³ The low lying lagoon on the western sides protect the
³³ Establishment : 1st November 1956 islanders from the South-west monsoon.
³³ First Administrator : U.R. Panicker ³³ All islands have sandy soils derived from corals.
³³ Website : www.lakshadweep.nic.in ³³ Kochi in Kerala is the usual point of origin for
scheduled ships and aircrafts travelling to the state.
HISTORY
³³ Main rivers – It has no major rivers.
³³ These islands supposed to have been inhabited first
³³ Lakshadweep has a tropical climate.
Amini, Andrott, Kavaratti and Agathi.
³³ The monsoon season is between October and
³³ In Marcopolo’s tour dairy minicoy has been referred as
November.
a remarkable state run by the women. Even today, the
matriachal form of society exists in the Lakshadweep. ³³ Coconut is the only crop of economic importance in
the Union Territory.
³³ In 7th century, Maraboot (Muslim) Fakir of Jedda,
Ubaidullah went out to preach Islam as directed by ³³ Banana, Vazha, Bread fruit, Chakka, Colocassia,
Hazarat Mohammad in dream. Chambu, Drumstick, Morignakai and wild almond
³³ Upto 10th century Chera, Pandya and Chola of the grow extensively in Lakshadweep.
south were the main competitors for the domination ³³ Sea around Lakshadweep are rich in marine life,
of Lakshadweep. Sharks, Tuna, flying fish, devil ray, bonito, Octopus,
³³ In 13th century, Muslims of Kanoor captured sail fish, turtles, sea cucumber and snapper are found
Lakshadweep and deployed a ruler. here.
³³ In 1498, Portuguese invaded Lakshadweep, they also ³³ Colourful coral fish such as butterfly fish, parrotfish
built a fort. and Surgeon fish are also found in plenty.
³³ In the middle of the 16th century the hold of the ³³ Oceanic birds like Thatathasi and Karifetu are also
islands were transferred to the Muslim King of Arakan found in Lakshadweep.
from the Hindu King of Chairakkal. ³³ Other species of birds found here include Seagull,
³³ In 1792, Tipu Sultan occupied a few islands as the Tern, Teal, Heron and Water heron.
people of the Amini island requested to the king. ³³ The hermit crab is commonly found.
³³ After the death of Tipu, East India Company took
over the control and the King of Chirrakkal became ECONOMY
the ruler. ³³ Fishing is another major activity. The islands stand
³³ In 1847, Andrott islands was badly damaged by the first in the country in per capita availability of fish.
sea flood and from Chirrakkal the king came farward ³³ Coconut fibre extraction and conversion of its fibre
to provide relief.
products in the main industry in the islands.
³³ Again in 1865, the control of the Island went into the
³³ Under government sector, there are seven coir fibre
hand of company but continued to be ruled de facto by
factories, seven coir production cum demonstration
the rulers of Cannanore till their ultimate annexation
by the British in the early 20th century. centres and four fibre curling units, functioning under
coir sector.
³³ In 1947, along with the main island Lakshadweep was
also transferred to the Indian state. ³³ These units produces coir fibre and coir year in addition
³³ Laksha was a part of Madras uptill 1956 and on 1st to other coir products like curled fibre, corridor mat,
November, 1956 it was declared as a Union Territory. mat and mattings.
³³ It was named Lakshadweep in 1973.
³³ M.V. Tipu Sultan, M.V. Bharat Seema, M.V.Dweep
Setu, M.V. Aminidivi and M.V. Minicoy carry
ADMINISTRATION passengers to and fro from the islands of Chochin
and Beypore ports.
³³ The President of India appoints an administrator to
³³ M.V. Ubaidulla, M.V. Thinnakara, M.V. Laccadives and
govern the territory.
M.V Cheriyam carry cargo to islands from mainland.
³³ Lakshadweep is under the jurisdiction of the High
³³ M.V. Suheli 60 MT oil barge is mainly utilised for
Court of Kerala. providing bunker to inter island ferry vessels.
GEOGRAPHY ³³ Kadeeja Beevi and Hameedathbi ply between all
islands other than minicoy.
³³ Lakshadweep is an archipelago of 12 atolls, three reefs
³³ Besides these there is helicopter ambulance service
and five submerged banks.
between islands to mainland.
³³ It is scattered over 45,000 sq. km of the Indian Ocean.
³³ Indian airlines connects Agatti and Kochi daily except
³³ There are 27 coral islands. India’s only coral islands.
Sunday and Agatti and Goa thrice a week in (on
³³ In all there are only 10 inhabited islands. Monday, Wednesday and Friday) during fair season.

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 Geography

SOCIETY & CULTRUE ³³ Manikafan and Thakrufan have power and pelf in

GEOGRAPHY
³³ Mainly fisherman inhabits these islands scattered their hand.
in the Arabian sea. All of them are Muslims. There ³³ Thakru are fisherman while Raveri are Labourer.
culture is similar to the Hindus of Malabar Coast. ³³ The whole village is divided into parts which are called
³³ They, like the coastal region, follows Maru – Athiri. Each Athiri has a leader called ‘Mupan’.
Makattayam, i.e. Matriarchal lineage.
³³ The decision of Mupan is final for all. Those who
³³ The women have more freedom in social matters.
oppose the decision are socially discarded.
³³ The people of Lakshadweep and Aminidweep use
old Malyali language. While the people of Minicoy ³³ The women leader Mupani make decision in women
use Mahul language, which is a language of Maldive affairs.
islands situated south of Lakshadweep. TOURISM
³³ The people of Minicoy islands are divided into four ³³ Tourism is developing into an important industry.
social categories – Manikafan, Thakrufan, Thakru
³³ Important tourist places are Agatti, Bangaram, Kalpeni,
and Raveri.
Kadmat, Kavaratti, and Minicoy etc.

PUDUCHERRY
IMPORTANT FACTS ³³ The beautiful idol installed in the temples of
Virpattanam, Vahur Sikander Koil, Tribhuwane
³³ Area Total : 490 sq.km
and Virulinair tells about the art loving kings of the
³³ Rural : 3,95.200sq. km.
Puducherry.
³³ Urban : 8,52,753 sq.km
³³ Capital : Puducherry ³³ There were universities in Vahur and Viruvane.
³³ Population : Sanskrit plays were staged regularly in these
universities.
• Person : 12,47,953
• Male : 6,12,511 ³³ It has been told that the French soldiers used to keep
• Female : 6,35,442 vigil on the activities of British and Marathas.
³³ Population Density : 2,547 person per square ³³ In 1693 Dutches captured the city and built a strong
kilometer fort.
³³ Population growth rate (2001 to 2011) : 28.1% ³³ In 1699 it was returned to the French along with
³³ Sex-ratio : 1,037 the fort.
³³ Child sex-ratio (0-6 age group) : 967 ³³ Martin developed it as a very prosperous city and
³³ Literacy Rate : 85.8 % made it the capital of French settlements in India.
• Male Literacy : 91.3 %
³³ The French had hold on Chandranagar in Bengal,
• Female Literacy : 80.7 %
Mahe in Malabar and Karaikal at Koromandal Coast.
³³ Urban population : 8,52,753
³³ The British tried to capture Puducherry in 1745 and
³³ Urban population (in percentage) : 68.3%
1747 but they failed.
³³ Rural population : 3,95,200
³³ Rural population (in percentage) : 31.7% ³³ At last in 1761 the British captured Pondichery. The
³³ No. of Districts : 4 french hegemony was ended after this defeat.
³³ No, of towns : 6 ³³ In 1763 Puducherry was returned to the French. But
³³ No. of Villages : 92 its fortification was destroyed and a strong limit was
³³ Main Languages : Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, French imposed on the number of soldier staying there.
and English ³³ After then it remained to be the capital of the French
³³ Time Zone : IST (GMT + 5:30) in India.
³³ Official Language(s) : Tamil, French ³³ It was under the French rule for 138 yrs and merged with
³³ Establishment : 1st July 1963 the Indian Union on 1st November, 1954.
³³ First Chief Minister : Edouard Goubert
³³ First Lt. Governor : S.L. Sailam
ADMINISTRATION
³³ Website : www.puducherry.nic.in ³³ Legislature – Puducherry has a 30 seat legislative
assembly of which five seats were reserved for SCs.
HISTORY
³³ No. of Seats for Lok Sabha – 1
³³ Pallava, Rashtrakuta, Chole, Vijaynagar, Chalukya ³³ Judiciary – Puducherry falls under the jurisdiction of
and at last French people contribued in the culture the Madras High Court.
of Puducherry.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

GEOGRAPHY ³³ News Paper – Dinamalar (Tamil) published from

GEOGRAPHY

Puducherry.
³³ The Union Territory of Puducherry has four constit-
uent Parts; Puducherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam. ³³ Eighty seven percent of the cultivated area is irrigated.
³³ The ports of Puducherry does not have a harbour and ³³ Paddy is the predominant crops followed by pulses.
ship are anchored at some distance offshore. ³³ Crops like coconut, arecanut condiments and species
³³ Puducherry is located near the mouth of Arasalar, in are grown here.
the Kaveri Delta. ³³ Pulses., groundnut and chillies are the other rainfed
³³ The Nagappatinam and Thiruvarur districts of Tamil- crops grown in Yanam.
nadu surround Karaikal. ³³ Two bed dams across, Chumnambar at Nonankuppam
³³ Mahe consists of two parts. The town of Mahe lies and Sitheri at Bahour are being taken up for
on the left bank of river Mahe near its mouth while recharging the ground water and to arrest saline water
the area called Naluthrara is on the right bank and intrusion in the aquifers.
consists of the village of Chamba, Chalakra, Palour
and Pandaquel. TOURISM
³³ The Town of Yanam lies at the spot where river Koringa ³³ Major Tourist attractions are :
(Atreya) branches off from Gauthami into two parts, 1. Puducherry : Auroville and Shri Aurbindo Ashram,
about 870 km from Puducherry town. Museum of Puducherry, Botanical garden, Sri
³³ Major Rivers : Arsalar (Karaikal), Mahe (mahe), Gokilambal Thirukameshwar temple, Mansion of
Koringa and Gauthami (Yanam). Ananda Rangapillai, eglise de sacre coeur de jesus.
³³ Puducherry has a hot and humid climate for most of 2. Karaikal : Lord Darbaraneswara Temple, Karaikal
the year. Ammaiyar Temple, Jadaayu-pureeswar Temple,
³³ The month of May and June can be very humid. Dargah of Mastan Syed, Dawood, Our Lady Angles
³³ On the west Coast the Monsoon season lasts between Church.
July and October. 3. Mahe : Tagore Park, St. Theresa’s Church, Putha-
³³ The winter usually starts in November but sometime lam, Othenan’s Fort, St. George Fort, Shree Orish-
in mid October, which is also when the North-East na Temple, Choodikotta.
monsoon brings some rainfall. 4. Yaman : Annavaram, Dravsharamam, Padgaya Tem-
³³ The flora of Puducherry can be listed under seven ple.
categories. These are hydrophytes, halophytes, plants
FAMOUS TEMPLES
on sand stones, avenue trees, hedge plants and Or-
namental plants. 1. Vedpuriswara Temple
³³ Hydrophytes or aquatic plants found in Puducherry 2. Virukameshwar Temple
include the lotus, Akasathanarai and Nettiver. 3. Pachnadishwar Temple
³³ Halophytes found in the Union Territory include 4. Mankula Vinayak Temple
– muttaikkoria, Sattarani, Thakkali, Thumbai,
Karavalai, Mayil Kondaipul, Karisalankanni, Tutti FAIRS AND FESTIVALS
and gilugilupai. ³³ The Mask festival, Masquerede is held in March-April.
³³ Plants on sand dunes include woody plants like ³³ On the eve of Bastille Day, (14th July) retired soldier
Casuraina and Encatyptess some herbs are also Parade in the street singing the French and Indian
found. National Anthem.
³³ The Union Territory also possesses a limited variety ³³ The Maasi Magam Festival is celebrated during the
of mangrove species, mainly in the estuaries and the full moon period around mid March.
reverine sides of Ariyankuppam river and mallattar. ³³ In Yaman Vishnu festival is celebrated in March.
³³ A mangrove patch is also present in Thengaithitu and ³³ In March April Nillaimu Lurde festival is held.
Murthikuppam. ³³ The Chitrai Kalai vijha summer festival is held in April.
³³ There is no natural forest cover in Puducherry. ³³ The villianur temple car festival is usually celeberated
However there are patches of scattered groves. around the middle of May but its exact date depends
³³ Puducherry is also home to some tropical dry evergreen on the appearance of the full moon.
species and some medicinal plants. ³³ During the Mangani Festival Karaikal experiences
³³ The marine biodiversity of the union territory include a month long period of festivity that accompanied a
Mackeral, Shrimps, Sardines, Perches, Ribbonfish feast dedicated to Karaikal Ammaiyar.
and Fling fish. ³³ The Virapattinam car festival takes place in August.
ECONOMY ³³ Fete de Puducherry coincides with the Indian
Independence Day.
³³ Doordarshan Kendra – Puducherry. ³³ Other festivals are St. Theresa Festival in Mahe and
³³ Radio station – Puducherry Irai Vizha, both celebrated in October.
³³ Major Crops – Rice. ppp

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 6 INDIAN ECONOMY
Basic Terms : Fixed Investment : Fixed Investment in economics
Before going to a chapter students should know the refers to investment in fixed capital or to the replacement
following terms : of depreciated fixed capital thus it is investment in
National Income : physical assets such as machinery, land, buildings,
National income is the measurement of flow of goods vehicles etc.
and services in economic system. Net Investment : The amount a company invests in
business assets that does account for any depreciation.
Measurement of Income
Net Investment = Investment – Depreciations
GDP HRD (HDI) Depreciation : The monetary value of an
GNP PI assets decreases over time due to use, wear and
NMD WHI tear or obsolescence. This decrease is measured as
MDP depreciations.
NI
Balance Growth : Balance Growth is that there
PCI
should be simultaneous and harmonious development of
Growth : Quantitative economic progress called different sectors of the economy, so as to make available
economic growth. This expresses the quantitative changes a ready market for the products of different sectors.
in any person, area or any country. Private Income : It is the total of factor incomes
Development : Quantitative and qualitative progress and transfer incomes received from all sources by private
is called development. sector (Private enterprise and households) within and
Progress : It is a advancement through a series of outside the country.
events or development through time. Private income = Personal income +
Income : It is the consumption and saving opportunity profit tax + undistributed profit
gained by an entity within a specific timeline for household
and individuals. It is the sum of all the wages, salaries, Private Income =Income from
profits, interests payments, rents and other forms of domestic product occuring to private
earnings received in a given period of time. sector + net factor
Final Goods : Any commodity which is produced and Per capita Income : A measure of the amount of
subsequently consumed by the consumer to satisfy its money that is being earned per person in a certain area.
current wants or needs, is a final goods or consumer goods. ³³ This can apply to the average per person income for
³³ National Income includes only final goods. a city, region or country and is used as a means of
Intermediate Goods : Intermediate goods refer to evaluating the living conditions and quality of life in
those goods which are used either for resale or for further different areas.
production in the same year. ³³ It can be calculated for a country by dividing the
countries national income by its population.
³³ This includes—
Capital Gain : It is profit that results from a sale of
(i) Goods used for resale capital asset, such as stock, bond or real estate, were the
(ii) Goods used for further production sale price exceeds the purchase price.
³³ Sugar is the intermediate goods when it is used for ³³ It is the difference between a higher selling price and
making sweets. a lower purchase price.
³³ Sugar is final goods when it is used for consumers.
ECONOMY AND ECONOMICS
Capital Goods : Any tangible assets that an
organisation uses to produce goods or services such as ³³ Economy is the state of a country or region in terms
office buildings, equipment and machinery. of the production and consumption of goods and
Capital formations : Capital formation refers to net services and the supply of money.
addition of capital stock such as equipment, building and ³³ Economics is the branch of knowledge concerned
other intermediate goods. with the production, consumption and transfer of
wealth.
Investment : An asset or items that is purchased with
the hope that it will generate income or appreciate in the Type of Economic System
future. In other way, it is an investment for purchase of There are four primary types of economic system in the
goods that are not consumed today but are used in the world :
future to create wealth. In finance, an investment is a 1. Traditional Economic System : A traditional eco-
mother asset purchased with the idea that the asset will nomic system is the most traditional and ancient type
of economy in the world.
provide income in the future.

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³³ Products and services that are direct result of ³³ Closed Economy : It is an economy in which no
INDIAN ECONOMY

their beliefs, customs, traditions, religions etc. are activity is conducted with other economics.
produced in this system.
³³ There are certain elements of a traditional economy The goal of economy is to provide consumers with
that those in more advanced economies, such as everything that they need from their own economy.
Mixed economy. ³³ Economic Growth : An increase in the amount
2. Command Economic System : In terms of economic of goods and services produced per head of the
advancement, the command economic system is the
population over a period of time.
next step up from a traditional economy.
³³ The most important feature of this system is that a ³³ Causes of economic Growth—
large part of the economic system is controlled by 1. An increase in aggregate demand.
centralised power, often, a federal government. 2. An increase in aggregate supply (productive capac-
3. Market Economic System : A market economy is
ity)
very similar to a free market.
³³ The government does not control vital resources, ³³ Factor that affects the Economic Growth :
valuable goods or any other major segment of the 1. Human Resources
economy.
2. Resources depends on its skills, creative abilities,
³³ In this way, organizations run by the people determine
training and education.
how the economy runs, how supply is generated, what
demands are necessary, etc. 3. Natural Resources
4. Mixed Economic System : A mixed economic system 4. Capital formation
also known as a Dual Economy, is a combination of 5. Technological develpment
economic systems, but it primarily refers to a mixture
of a market and command economy. 6. Social and Political development.
³³ In this type of economic system the market is more Economic Development
or less free of government ownership except for a few
key areas.

VARIOUS TYPES OF ECONOMY Economic Non-Economic

Factors Factors
³³ Capitalist Economy : An economic system based on
private ownership of capital and production inputs ³³ Economic Development
and on the production of goods and services for profit. l Capital formation
Features of Capitalist Economy : l Natural Resources
1. Private Property l Marketable surplus
2. Price Mechanism l Economic system
3. Freedom of Enterprise l Human Resources
4. Sovereignty of the consumers. l Technological knowledge
5. Profit motive l Political system
6. No government interference l Corruption
7. Democratic l Desire of Development
8. Self Interests Sectors of Indian Economy :
³³ A Socialist Economy is characterised by social
³³ Primary Sector : When the economic activity depends
ownership and democratic control of the means mainly on exploitation of natural resources then
of production which may means autonomous that activity comes under the primary sector. Ex-
cooperatives or direct public ownership where its Agriculture and agriculture related activities.
production is carried out direct for use.
³³ Secondary Sector : When the main activity involves
³³ A mixed economy is variously defined as an manufacturing then it is the secondary sector. All
economic system consisting of a mixture of either industrial production where physical goods are
markets and economic planning, public ownership produced come under the secondary sector.
and private ownership or free markets and economic ³³ Tertiary Sector : When the activity involves providing
interventionisms. intangible goods like services then this is part of the
tertiary sector.
³³ Indian economy is the example of this type of economy.
Ex - Financial services, Banks, managements etc.
³³ Open Economy : It refers to a market economy which
³³ Organised Sector : The sector which carries out all
is generally free from trade barriers and where exports activity through a system and follows the law of the
and imports form a large percentage of the GDP. land is called organised sector.

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 Indian Economy

³³ Unorganised Sector : The sector which evade most • Diminishing Marginal Productivity (DMP) : A

INDIAN ECONOMY
of the laws and don’t follow the system comes under short run production concept where increases in
unorganised sector. the variable factor of production lead to less and
Ex - tea stall, Grossery, labour etc. less additional output.
³³ Public Sector : Companies which are run and
• Diminishing Marginal Utility (DMU) : An econom-
financed by the Government comprises the public
sector. ic concept that refers to the notion that additional
Ex - BHEL, GAIL, SAIL, IOC etc. units consumed of a particular commodity provide
³³ Private Sector : Companies which are run and less and less additional satisfaction relative to pre-
financed by private people comprises the private vious units consumed.
sector. • Equilibrium : A condition where there is no ten-
Ex - Hero Honda, Tata, Maruti Suzuki etc. dency for an economic variable to change.
General Principles of Economics • Efficient Production : Using factor inputs con-
³³ Definition of Economics : According to JB say : It is sistent with the marginal contribution to revenue
the science of production, distribution and consumption being equal to their marginal (opportunity) cost. A
of wealth. condition where an increase in the production of
³³ According to Carl Menger : It is a science which studies one good required factor inputs to be reallocated
human behaviour as a relationship between ends and from production of other goods.
source means which have alternative usage. • Factor Prices : The payments made to the factors
Form of Economy : of production (rents, wages, interest, and profits).
1. Micro Economics • Imperfectly Competitive Firm : A firm operating
2. Macro Economics in an industry where barriers to entry exist or het-
(1) Micro Economics : It is the study of decisions of erogeneous products are sold. A firm with some
people and business and the interaction of those degree of price-making power.
decisions in markets. • Income Elasticity of Demand : A measure of
³³ The goal of microeconomics is to explain the prices sensitivity of quantity demanded to changes in
and quantities of individual goods and services. consumer income.
³³ It also studies the effects of the Government regulation • Inferior Good : A good where quantity demanded
and taxes on the prices and quantities of individual decreases when consumer income increases (there
goods and services. is an inverse relationship between quantity de-
³³ A Glossary of Microeconomics Terms manded and income).
l Average Cost Pricing : An approach to regulating • Inverse Demand : Demand is expressed with
a monopolist allowing a normal rate of return or quantity demanded as the dependent variable and
profit even at the expense of a less than efficient market price as the independent variable. Inverse
level of output being produced. demand reverses this relationship and is used in
l Average Fixed Cost (AFC) : Total fixed costs di- models where quantity is the independent variable
vided by the level of output. As output increases, (costs and profit maximization).
these per-unit fixed costs asymptotically decrease. • Marginal Costs : The cost of producing one more
• Average Productivity (AP): The total level of output unit of a good in the short run. A measure of the
in production divided by the quantity of labour opportunity costs of the variable inputs in their
input.
next best use.
• Average Total Cost (ATC) : Total costs divided by
• Marginal Productivity (MP) : The incremental
the level of output. Equal to Average Fixed Costs +
addition to output from the addition of one more
Average Variable Costs.
unit of input.
• Average Variable Cost (AVC) : Variable costs
• Marginal Utility : The satisfaction a consumer
divided by the level of output. With diminishing
receives by consuming one more unit of some good
marginal productivity, these per-unit costs tend to
rise with output. or service.
• Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand : A measure of • Price Elastic Demand : When the percentage
sensitivity in the quantity demanded of one goods change in quantity demanded exceeds the percent-
in reaction to changes in the price of a related age change in market price.
good. • Price Elasticity of Demand : A measure of sensi-
• Demand : A relationship between market price tivity of quantity demanded to changes in market
and quantities of goods and services purchased in price.
a given period of time. Represents the behaviour of • Price Elastic Supply : Supply decisions that are
buyers in the market place. very sensitive to changes in market price.

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• Price Elasticity of Supply : A measure of the Duopoly : A situation in which two companies own all
INDIAN ECONOMY

price-sensitivity of quantity supplied in the market. or nearly all of the market for a given product or services.
• Price Elasticity : A measure of price-sensitivity ³³ It can have the same impact on the market as a
among buyers or sellers in the market -- price
monopoly.
changes lead to significant changes in quantity
supplied. Oligopoly : It is a situation in which a particular
• Price Inelastic Demand : When the percentage market is controlled by a small group of firms.
change in quantity demanded is less than the per- Perfect competition : It is the opposite of monopoly,
centage change in market price. in which only one firm supplies a particular good or
• Quantity Demanded : The amount of a good or service, and the firm charge whatever it wants, but under
services that a consumer chooses to buy at each perfect competitions, there are many buyers and sellers,
and every market-price. and prices reflect supply and demand.
• Quantity Supplied : The amount of a good or ser- ³³ Consumers have many substitutes.
vices that a producer chooses to sell at each and
³³ New firms can easily enter the market generating
every market-price.
additional competition.
• Supply : A relationship between market price and
quantities of goods and services made available for Monopolistic Competition : It is a market structure
sale in a given period of time. in which many firm sell products that are similar but not
• Supply Curve (for the firm) : A line or curve that identical.
indicates output and selling choices for a firm at ³³ Characteristics—
each and every market price. (i) Many sellers
• Utility : A measure of the satisfaction received from (ii) Product differentiation
some type of economic activity (i.e., consumption of
(iii) Free ending.
goods and services or the sale of factor services).
• Wants: Preferences for goods and services over and Engel’s Law : The law which says that people
above human needs. generally spend a smaller part of their budget on food
(2) Macro Economics : It is the study of the national as their income rises. The idea was suggested by Ernst
economy as well as global economy and the way that Engel, a Russian Statistician in 1857.
a economic system work. Laffer Curve : The Laffer curve is one possible
³³ The goal of macro economics is to explain general representation of the relationship between rates
price level, national income, employment, production. of taxation and the hypothetical resulting levels of
³³ It also studies the effects of the Government action- government revenue raised by taxation and all possible
taxes, spending and the deficit on total incomes and rate of taxation.
price level. Tax Revenue

Principles Economist
³³ Benefit Approach — Adam Smith
³³ Ability to Pay Approach — Adam Smith
³³ Supply side economics — Alaffer
³³ Tobin Tax — James Tobin O
35% 70% Tax Rate
³³ Zero Based budgeting — Peter Piar
Okun’s Law : The relationship between an economy’s
³³ Theory of Expansion of state Expenditure unemployment rate and its gross national product (GNP)
— Adolf Vegner ³³ 20th century economist Arthur Okun developed this
³³ Principle of Maximum Social Welfare —Dolton Pegu idea.
³³ Principle of Functional Finance — A.P. Learner ³³ This states that when unemployment falls by 1%
³³ Principle of Unbalanced development —Regner GNP rises 3%.
³³ Stages of Economic Growth —Rostow Greshm’s Law : When a government overvalues one
³³ Big Push Theory —Rogenstine Roda type of money and undervalues another, the undervalued
³³ Theory of Social productivity —Hein money will leave the country or disappear from circulation
Monopoly : It is characterised by an absence of into hoards, while the overvalued money will flood into
competition, which often results in high prices and circulations.
inferior goods. ³³ It is commonly stated as ‘Bad Money drives out good
³³ It is a market containing a single firm.
money.’

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 Indian Economy

INDIAN ECONOMY
GOOD MONEY & BAD MONEY INFLATION
Good Money : Good money is money that shows little ³³ Inflation is a quantitative measure of the rate at
difference between its nominal value (The face value of which the average price level of a basket of selected
the coin) and its commodity value the value of the metal goods and services in an economy increases over a
of which it is made, often precious metals, like nickel, period of time.
copper etc. Causes of Inflation
Bad Money : Bad money is the money that has a ³³ Rising prices are the root of inflation, though this
commodity value considerably lower than its face value can be attributed to different factors. In the context
of causes, inflation are classified into two types:
and is in circulation along with good money, where both
Demand-Pull inflation, Cost-Push inflation.
forms are required to be accepted at equal value as legal
tender. Demand Pull Factors
³³ Rise in population.
Sey’s law of Markets : According to sey’s law, when
an individual produces a product or service, he or she ³³ Black money.
gets paid for that work, and is then able to use that pay ³³ Rise in income.
to demand other goods and services. ³³ Excessive government expenditure.
Keynes’s Theory of Employment : Effective demand Cost Push Factors
signifies the money spent on the consumption of goods ³³ Infrastructure bottlenecks which lead rise in
and services and on investment. production and distribution costs.
³³ The total expenditure is equal to the national income, ³³ Rise in Minimum Support Price (MSP).
which is equivalent to the national output. Therefore ³³ Rise in international prices.
effective demand is equal to total expenditure as well ³³ Hoarding and black marketing.
as national income and national output. ³³ Rise in indirect taxes.
³³ Level of employment depends on the quantity of total Types of Inflation
production. ³³ Currency inflation: The printing of currency notes
Phillip’s Curve : The inverse relationship between rate causes this type of inflation.
of inflation and rate of unemployment is shown in the ³³ Credit inflation: Being profit-making institutions,
Phillip’s curve, pirce stability has a trade-off against commercial banks sanction more loans and advances
employment. Some level of inflation could be considered to the public than what the economy needs. Such
desirable in order to minimize unemployment. credit expansion leads to a rise in price level.
³³ Deficit-induced inflation : The budget of the
government reflects a deficit when expenditure
exceeds revenue. To meet this gap, the government
may ask the central bank to print additional money.
Inflation rate

Since pumping of additional money is required to

meet the budget deficit, any price rise may be called
the deficit-induced inflation.
³³ Demand- Pull inflation : An increase in aggregate
demand over the available output leads to a rise in
the price level. Such inflation is called demand-pull
Unemployment rate inflation (henceforth DPI).
³³ Cost-push inflation : Inflation in an economy may arise
Kuznets Curve : A kuznets curve graphs the hypothesis from the overall increase in the cost of production.
that as an economy develops, market forces first increase This type of inflation is known as cost-push inflation
and then decrease economic inequality. (henceforth CPI). Cost of pro­duction may rise due to
an increase in the prices of raw materials, wages,
etc. Often trade unions are blamed for wage rise
Inequality

since wage rate is not completely market-determined.

Higher wage means high cost of production. Prices of
commodities are thereby increased.
³³ Creeping or Mild Inflation : If the speed of upward
thrust in prices is slow but small then we have
Income per capital creeping inflation. A creeping or mild inflation is one
when annual price rise varies between 2 p.c. and 3
Giffen Good : When the price of an item increases, p.c. If a rate of price rise is kept at this level, it is
its demand should decrease, but there can be a situation considered to be helpful for economic development.
when even after Price rise, the demand increases such ³³ Walking Inflation : If the rate of annual price increase
goods are called Giffen goods. They violate the general law lies between 3 p.c. and 4 p.c., then we have a situation
of supply and demand. This concept was first identified of walking inflation. When mild inflation is allowed to
by a statistician, Robert Giffen that is why these called fan out, walking inflation appears. These two types
Giffen goods. of inflation may be described as ‘moderate inflation’.

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³³ Galloping and Hyperinflation : Walking inflation ³³ Non-Food Articles include Oil Seeds, Minerals and
INDIAN ECONOMY

may be converted into running inflation. Running Crude Petroleum

inflation is dangerous. If it is not controlled, it may ³³ The next major basket in WPI is Fuel & Power, which
ultimately be converted to galloping or hyperinflation. tracks price movements in Petrol, Diesel and LPG
It is an extreme form of inflation when an economy ³³ The biggest basket is Manufactured Goods. It spans
gets shattered. “Inflation in the double or triple digit across a variety of manufactured products such as
range of 20, 100 or 200 p.c. a year is labeled “galloping Textiles, Apparels, Paper, Chemicals, Plastic, Cement,
inflation”. Metals, and more.
³³ Hyper Inflation : Hyperinflation is when the prices of ³³ M a n u f a c t u r e d G o o d s b a s k e t a l s o i n c l u d e s
goods and services rise more than 50 percent a month. manufactured food products such as Sugar, Tobacco
It is fortunately very rare. In fact, most examples of
Products, Vegetable and Animal Oils, and Fats.
hyperinflation have occurred when the government
printed money recklessly to pay for war. How do you calculate Wholesale Price Index?
³³ Stagflation : Stagflation is when the economy ³³ The monthly WPI number shows the average price
experiences stagnant economic growth, high changes of goods usually expressed in ratios or
unemployment, and high inflation. It is unusual percentages.
because policies to reduce inflation make life ³³ The index is based on the wholesale prices of a few
difficult for the unemployed, while steps to alleviate relevant commodities
unemployment raise inflation. ³³ The commodities are chosen based on their significance
³³ Core Inflation : This shows price rise in all goods and in the region. These represent different strata of the
services except food and energy due to high prices economy and are expected to provide a comprehensive
fluctuations. Oil is a highly volatile commodity, with WPI value.
daily price variations. Food prices change based
³³ The advanced base year 2011-12 adopted recently
on gas prices (it heavily reflects on transportation
costs), which are directly linked to oil prices. As the uses 697 items.
government needs a fairly stable and true picture of Problem/limitation
inflation, core inflation is calculated. ³³ One of the major limitations of WPI is that it does not
³³ Headline Inflation : This measure considers total include services such as the health, IT, Education,
inflation in an economy, including food and energy transport etc.
prices, which are more volatile. ³³ Another problem with the WPI is that it does not
How is Inflation Measured? account for the products of the unorganized sector
The inflation rate is calculated as a percentage in India, which constitutes about 35% of the
change in a price index. The price indices widely used manufactured output of the Indian economy.
for this are the Consumer Price Index (CPI) - adopted Depression : A depression is any economic downturn
by countries such as US, UK, Japan and China, and where real GDP declines by more than 10% for a long
the Wholesale Price Index (WPI). period. In depression an extremely low aggregate demand
in the economy causes activities to decelerate.
Wholesale Price Index (WPI)
³³ Wholesale Price Index, or WPI, measures the changes
Recession : It is a period of general economic decline
in the prices of goods sold and traded in bulk by and is typically accompanied by a drop in the stock market,
wholesale businesses to other businesses. an increase in unemployment, and a decline in the housing
³³ Analysts use the numbers to track the supply and market.
demand dynamics in industry, manufacturing and ³³ In general a recession is less severe than a depression.
construction.
Factors of Recession :
³³ The numbers are released by the Economic Advisor
in the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. (1)High interest rate
³³ An upward surge in the WPI print indicates inflationary (2)Inflation
pressure in the economy and vice versa. (3)Reduced consumer confidence
³³ The quantum of rise in the WPI month-after-month (4)Reduced real wages.
is used to measure the level of wholesale inflation in Deflation : In economics, deflation is a decrease in the
the economy. general level of goods and services.
New series of WPI ³³ It occurs when the inflation rate falls below 0%
³³ With an aim to align the index with the base year of Disinflation : It is a decrease in the rate of inflations,
other important economic indicators such as GDP
a slow down in the rate of increase of the general price
and IIP, the base year was updated to 2011-12 from
level of goods and services in a nation’s gross domestic
2004-05 for the new series of Wholesale Price Index
(WPI), effective from April 2017. product over trip. It is the opposite of reflation.
Reflation : It is the act of stimulating the economy by
Major components of WPI
increasing the money supply or by reducing taxes, seaking
³³ Primary articles are a major component of WPI, further
to bring the economy (Specifically price level) back up to
subdivided into Food Articles and Non-Food Articles.
the long-terms trend, following a dip in the business cycle.
³³ Food Articles include items such as Cereals, Paddy,
Wheat, Pulses, Vegetables, Fruits, Milk, Eggs, Meat ³³ Reflation Policies can include reducing taxes, changing
& Fish, etc. the money supply and lowering interest rates.

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 Indian Economy

Index of Industrial Production (IIP) : The Index of Industrial Production ³³ Empowerment

INDIAN ECONOMY
is an index for India which details out the growth of various sectors in an ³³ Economic status expressed as
economy such as mining, electricity and manufacturing. The all India IIP is labour market participation.
a composite indicator that measures the short-term changes in the volume Gross National Happiness (GNH) :
of production of a basket of industrial products during a given period with ³³ It is an attempt to define quality
respect to that in a chosen base period. of life in more holistic and
psychological terms than gross
Inflation and class and its effect National Product.
Classes/Arres of Classes/Arres ³³ The term GNH was coined by
Effects Effects Bhutan’s Former King Jigme
Inflations of Inflations
Singye Wangchuck in 1972.
Consumer Loss Export Decrease Human Poverty Index (HPI) : An
Lender Loss Employment Increase alternative measure, focusing on the
amount of poverty in a country is the
borrower Profit Production Profit
Human Poverty Index.
Public Saving Loss Trader Groups Profit ³³ The HPI is an indication of the
Public expenditure Increase Farmers Profit standard of living in a country,
developed by the United Nations.
Import Increase Pentioner Groups Loss
Indicators used are :
Comparison between WPI, CPI and IIP ³³ Lifespan
How Lespecyre’s Formula Same Same ³³ Functional literacy skills
Who Economic Advisor CSO CSO ³³ Long-term unemployment
³³ Relative poverty with reference
When Weekly & Monthly Monthly Monthly
to the average per capita income.
Where They Ministeries, Dept. NSSO and Minstries, Dept. Multi Dimensional Poverty Index
get data Postal Workers (MPI) : This is a poverty index which
Components 3 :MFG > Primary S Categories 3 : MFC > consider many dimensions of poverty.
Fuel Mininge lectricity There are 10 indicators.
Types Only one WPI Rural urban Sector wise and (1) Child mortality
Combined goods usage wise (2) Nutrition
(3) Years of schooling
Items 676 — 682
(4) Children enrolled
Base year 2011-12 2011-12 2011-2012
(5) Cooking fuel
(6) Toilet
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INDEX
(7) Water availability
³³ Human Development Index (HDI) : The UN Human Development Index is (8) Electricity
a standard means of measuring well-being, index was developed in 1990 (9) Floor
by the Pakistani economist Mahbub-ul-Haq and has been used since (10) Assets
1993 by the United Nations Development Programme in its annual report.
³³ India drop one spot to 131 among 189 countris in 2020. INDIA : A MIXED ECONOMY
³³ India, Bhutan (129), Bangladesh (133), Nepal (142) and Pakistan (154)
were ranked among countreis with medium human development. ³³ The Indian economy is a mixed
³³ Norway top the Index followed by Ireland, Switzerland, Hongkong and economy.It has acquired this
Iceland. form with the growth of a large
public sector since Independence.
Indicators of HDI :
³³ Even before Independence, India
³³ A long and healthy life, as measured by life expectancy at birth. has a fairly important public
³³ Knowledge, as measured by the adult literacy rate and the combined sector, the most important
gross enrolment ratio. component of which was the
³³ A decent standard of living as measured by gross domestic product (GDP) railway system.
per capita at purchasing power parity (PPP) in US Dollars. ³³ In India, the Second Five Year
IHDI (Inequality -adjusted Human Development Index) : Plan summed up the objectives
of the planned development in
³³ IHDI adjusts the HDI for inequality in distribution of each dimension
across the population. the phrase ‘socialist pattern of
society’, implying that “the basic
Gender Inequality Index (GII) : The GII measures gender inequalities in three
important aspects of human development. criterion for determining lines
of advance must not be private
³³ Reproductive health, (measured by maternal mortality ratio and adolescent
birth rate) profit, but social gain....” and yet
the character of the economy that

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has emerged as a result of planned development does not resemble even

INDIAN ECONOMY

remotely socialism. GDP = C + I + G + (X – M)

³³ In many respects, the character of the Indian economy is different from C = Consumption
that of the capitalist economies of the eighteenth century Europe.
I = Investment
³³ The two factors in the Indian economy, viz, the growth of the public sector
and economic planning make it distinctly different from the capitalist G = Government Spending
economies of the West in the earlier phase of their development. X = Export
³³ Features of India’s economy which determine its character as a mixed M = Import
economy. Gross National Product (GNP) :
³³ A positive role of the State in economic activity is not just tolerated GNP is the market value of all the
but is deemed desirable for promoting economic growth as well as the
products and services produced in a
distributional objectives.
year by the citizens of a country.
³³ The expansion of the public sector is considered to be a major instrument
with which the State in a mixed economy operating under the democratic ³³ This includes any income earned
framework can influence the pace as well as the composition of economic by residents from overseas
activity with a view to pursuing the social objectives. investments minu s i n c o m e
earned within the domestic
economy by overseas residents.
GNP = GDP + (X –M)
X = Earned income in foreigns
by citizens
M = Earned income by
foreigners in a country
When X = M, GDP would be equal
to GNP, this type of economy will
be closed economy.
Net Domestic Product (NDP) :
Net Domestic product equals the
gross domestic product (GDP) minus
depreciation.
³³ Net Domestic product accounts
for capital that has been
consumed over the year in the
form of housing, vehicle, or
machinery deterioration.
NDP = GDP – depreciation
³³ An economic counterpart of the democratic framework consists of Net National Product (NNP) When
permitting private ownership of property and means of production and
Charges for depreciation are deducted
freedom of the owners to utilise them in productive activity with private
profit as a motive force. from the gross National product
³³ The democratic political framework implies that the State is not identified (GNP), we get net national Product
with any particular class. The State may represent a coalition of different (NNP).
interest groups in the society and it can be subjected to pressures from
different quarters as part of the established political processes. NNP = GNP – depreciation
³³ In brief, the mixed economy in the Indian context can be charaterised
National Income : It is also known
as essentially a capitalistic economy that is modified by the direct
participation as well as intervention by the State in economic activity as National Income at factor cost.
which, in turn, are further counteracted by the countervailing forces of NNPFC = National Income
various interest groups in a democratic framework.
NI = NNP + Subsides-Indirect taxes
GROSS & NET CONCEPT OF INCOME
GDP : It is the official measure of the total output of goods and services Disposable Income (DI) : The
in the economy. Income left after the payment of direct
³³ It is the total market value of all final goods and services produced during taxes from Personal Income is called
a given time period within a nation’s domestic border. disposable income.
³³ The word ‘domestic’ in GDP means that we are only counting things that
are produced within our domestic border whether they are produced by DI = PI – Direct Taxes
foreigners.

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 Indian Economy

9. NDPFC = GDP MP –Depreciation–

INDIAN ECONOMY
SUMMARY OF MEASURING NATIONAL INCOME
Indirect Taxes + Subsidy
↓
MP = Market Price
Product Method Income Method Expenditure
(Value added Method) Method FC = Factor Cost
↓ ↓ ↓ Changes in Terms of World Bank
Gross Value addition at Remuneration of Private Final GNP = G N I ( G r o s s N a t i o n a l
Market Price in Primary Labours Consumption Income)
Sector + Expenditure NNP = NNI (Net National Income)
+ Operating Surplus +
Gross Value Addition at + Government Final FISCAL POLICY AND
Market Price in Secondary Mixed Income Consumption BUDGETARY SYSTEM
Sector ↓ Expenditure IN INDIA
+ NDP + ³³ Public Account : This is an
Gross Domestic Product + Investment Expenditure account in which public money
is put in and Government acts
at Market Price NDPFC only as banker. It is operated by
(–) ↓ executive Action. There is no need
National to take consent of parliament
Income (NNPFC) to withdraw money from this
Depreciation account.
↓ Net Export (X–M) ³³ Contigency Fund : This is the
Net Domestic Product ↓ fund which is kept at disposal
of president to meet unforeseen
at Market Price GDPMP
expenditure. It is operated by
(–) (–) secretary, ministry of finance on
Net Indirect Taxes Depreciation behalf of the president.
↓ ↓ ³³ Public Receipts : Every receiving
to a government by revenue and
Net Domestic Product NDPMP
non revenue sources is a receipt.
at Factor cost (–) It includes all income as well non
+ Net Indirect Taxes incomed accruals of government.
Net Factor Income ↓ It is divided into two parts— (1)
Revenue Receipts (2) Capital
from Abroad NDPFC Receipts.
↓ + ³³ Revenue Receipts : These
NNPFC(National receipts do not create any
Income ) corresponding liability for the
Net Factor Income government. These receipts do
from Abroad not cause any reduction in assets
↓ of the government.
Revenue receipts of a gov-
NNPFC(National ernment are of two kinds :
Income ) (1) Tax revenue
(2) Non-Tax revenue
Per capita Income : Per capita income of a country is derived by dividing
(1) Tax Revenue : This includes all
the national income of the country by the total populations of a country. money earned by the government
via different taxes the government
PCI = Total National Income collects.
Total National Population
(2) Non-Tax Revenue : This includes
all money earned by the govern-
National Income : Important Concepts ment from sources other than
1. GNPMP = GDP MP + Income from 6. GNPFC = GNPMP – Indirect Taxes + taxes. Ex– Fees, Fines, Escheat,
Abroad Subsidy Special Assessment, Income from
Public Enterprises, Grants.
2. NNPMP = GNPMP – Depreciation 7. GDPFC = GDPMP –Indirect Taxes + ³³ C a p i t a l R e c e i p t s : T h e s e
3. NDPMP = GDPMP – Depreciation Subsidy receipts create a liability from
4. GDPMP = GNP MP – Income from the government. These receipts
8. NNPFC = GNP MP –Depreciation–
Abroad cause reduction in assets of the
Indirect Taxes + Subsidy government.
5. NNPMC = GNPFC – Depreciation

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

Capital receipts are classified as given below—

INDIAN ECONOMY

³³ Recovery of Loans : These are capital receipts because they reduce financial Liability of the government.
³³ Borrowings : Funds raised by the government from the borrowing are treated as capital receipts such receipts
create liability.
³³ Other Receipts : Funds raised through disinvestment are included in this category. By this government assets
are reduced.
Consolidated Fund

Public Receipts Public Expenditure

Revenue Capital Revenue Capital

Receipts Receipts Expenditure Expenditure
Internal &
External Debts
Tax Non Tax Provident Fund
Revenue Revenue Loan Recovery
Small Saving
Fees Gov. Securities
Interest
Direct Indirect Profit
Tax Tax Duties & Planned Non Planned
Penalties Expenditure Expenditure
Grant

Planned Non Planned

Expenditure Expenditure
Comparison Chart
Basis for
Capital Receipts Revenue Receipts
Comparison
1. Meaning Capital receipts are the Income generated Revenue receipts are the income generated from the
from Investment and financing activities operating activities of the business
of the business
2. Term Long term Short term
3. Showing Balance Sheet Income Statement
4. Nature Non recurring Recurring
³³ Revenue Expenditure : An expenditure which do not creates any assets or reduces liability is called revenue
Expenditure
Ex– Salaries of government employees, interest payment on loan taken by the government, pension, subsidies,
grants, etc.
³³ Capital Expenditure : It refers to the expenditure which leads to creations of assets and reduction in liabilities.
Ex– Constructions works, roads, bridges, etc.
³³ Planned Expenditure : Any expenditure that is incurred on programmes which are detailed under the current
plan of the centre or centre’s advances to state for their plan expenditure. Provisions of such expenditure in the
budget is called planned expenditure.
Ex–Expenditure on electricity generations irrigation and rural developments. Construction of roads, bridges,
canals, science & Tech, pollution control etc.
³³ Non Planned Expenditure : This refers to the estimated expenditure provided in the budget for spending during
the year on routine functioning of the government. It is all expenditure other than balanced expenditure of the
government.
Ex–Expenditure on police, Judiciary, military etc.
Note : Now, the government has to scraped the distinetion between plan and non-plan expenditure. Now,
there are only two types of expenditure i.e. revenue expenditure and capital expenditure.

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 Indian Economy

INDIAN ECONOMY
INDIAN TAX STRUCTURE
Tax is a compulsory payment by the citizens to the government to meet the public expenditure. Tax can be direct
or indirect.
TAXES

Direct Tax Indirect Tax

Central Tax State Tax Central Tax State Tax

— Corporate Tax — Tax on — Custome duty — State excise
— Personal Perofession — G.S.T. tax on liquor,
Income tax — Agriculture — CGST & IGST cosmetics &
— Wealth Tax — Income Tax drugs etc.
(Removed — Stamp duty — SGST
in 2015).etc. — Raod Tax. etc. — UGST

Direct Taxes : The taxes that charged upon and ³³ The Goods and Service Tax Act was passed
collected directly from the person or organisation that in the Parliament on 29th March, 2017. The Act came
ultimately pays the tax. into effect on 1st July, 2017.
List of Direct Taxes : ³³ There are 4 taxes applicable under this system: CGST,
(i) Corporate Tax : It is levied on the profit of the SGST, IGST & UTGST or UGST.
companies or corporations. • CGST : Collected by the Central Government on
— It is the largest source of revenue of the Central an intra-state sale.
Government. • SGST : Collected by the State Government on an
(ii) Income Tax : It is the tax levied directly on the intra-state.
income of the people by the Central Government. • IGST : Collected by the Central Government for
(iii) Gift Tax : This tax is imposed by the Central inter-state sale.
Government on all donation and gifts over and • UTGST or UGST : The UTGST or UGST stands
above the prescribed limits to the family members. for Union Territory Goods and Services Tax. It is
(iv) Wealth Tax : This tax is lived on the net wealth of applicable for transactions taking place in a Union
the individuals, Hindu undivided family and joint Territory (UT). It is collected by the respective Union
stock companies. It is removed from Indian tax Territory Governments.
system since April 2015. ³³ Most of the commodities and services that are subject
Other Important Tax : to GST have been categorised under four tax slabs,
viz. 5%, 12%, 18%, and 28%. This is aside from the
(i) Import Duties : Generally import duties are ad-
tax on gold that is kept 3% and rough precious stones
velorem in India. It means import duties are
that are placed at a special rate of 0.25% under GST.
imposed on the taxable item on percentage basis.
³³ The GST council is the key decision-making body
(ii) Export Duties : Export duties are more important
that will take all important decisions regarding
compared to import duties in terms of revenue and
the GST. The GST Council dictates tax rate, tax
regulation of foreign trade.
exemption, the due date of forms, tax laws, and
Indirect Taxes : The tax which has incidence and tax deadlines, keeping in mind special rates and
impact at the different points is the indirect tax. provisions for some states.
As, for example, excise, sales tax, etc, which are imposed ³³ Article 279 (1) of the amended Indian Constitution
on either the producers or the traders, but it is the general states that the GST Council has to be constituted by
consumers who bear the burden of tax. the President within 60 days of the commencement
List of Indirect Taxes : of the Article 279A.
(i) Custom Duties : These duties are imposed on ³³ GST Council will be a joint forum for the Centre and
commodities, which are to be imported or exported the States. It consists of the following members :
from India. • The Union Finance Minister, will be the Chairperson.
Goods and Services Tax (GST) • As a member, the Union Minister of State will be
in charge of Revenue of Finance
³³ GST (Goods and Services Tax) is a single indirect
tax aimed at making the country a unified common • The Minister in charge of finance or taxation
market. It is imposed on the supply of goods and/or or any other Minister nominated by each State
services within India. government, as members.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

• GST (Goods and Services Tax) Constitutional

INDIAN ECONOMY

Amendment Bill received assent of the President on INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE

8 September, 2016 as the 101th Amendment Act. INDIAN ECONOMY
• A three-tier levy of Central GST, State GST and
Integrated GST proposed. The IGST mechanism Infrastructural facilities : Often referred to as
has been designed to ensure seamless flow of input economic and social overheads, consist of :
tax credit from one state to another. (a) Energy : coal, electricity, oil and non-conventional
sources.
³³ Benefits of GST
(b) Transport : Railways, roads, shipping and civil
• Removal of the cascading effect of tax on the sale aviation.
of goods and services. (c) Communications : Posts and telegraph, telephones,
• Regulation of the unorganised sectors of business. telecommunications, etc.
• Lower burden of compliances. (d) Banking, finance and insurance.
• Wider threshold for registra-tion. (e) Science and technology.
• Proper and defined treatment for e-commerce.  (f) Social overheads : health and hygiene and
• Fully digital procedure for registration, filing education.
returns, and applying for refunds under the same INDUSTRIAL POLICY
online portal.
• Composition Scheme for small businesses. ³³ Industrial policy refers to all those rules, laws and
Tax related terminology : by-laws through which the Government of a country
controls and regulates the industrial activity to make
• Tax Avoidance : It is the legal usage of tax regime
the latter conform to its overall programme.
to one’s own advantage, to reduce the amount of
tax that is payable by means that are within the ³³ Accordingly, the industrial policy spells out the
law. attitude and the role of Government towards industry,
the role of public and private sectors, policy towards
Tax Evasion : It is the illegal evasion of taxes by
the nationalisation of industry, licensing, role of
individuals, corporation and trusts.
foreign collaboration and foreign capital, role of labour
• Tax evasion often entails taxpayers deliberately in management etc.
misrepresenting the true state of their affairs to
³³ The idea that the State had a prominent role in the
the tax authorities to reduce their tax liability and
includes dishonest tax reporting, such as declaring development of industries found its earliest articula-
less income, profits or gains than the amounts tion in the Report of the National Planning Committee,
actually earned or overstating deductions. 1938, under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
Tax Heavens : A tax heaven is a country or territory This was reiterated in the statement of Industrial
where certain taxes are levied at a low rate or not at all Policy (1945). We discuss below some of the major
individuals or corporate entities can find it attractive to initiatives in setting the industrial agenda in post-in-
move themselves to areas with reduced or nil taxation dependent India.
levels. The Industrial Policy Resolution (1948) categorised
Tax Buoyancy : It refers to the percentage change industries into four :
with the growth of national income. That is growth based ³³ defence and strategic industries to be the exclusive
increase in tax collections.
domain of the Government
Tax Elasticity : It is defined as the percentage change
³³ existing units in basic and key industries can continue
in tax revenue in response to the change in tax rate and
the extension of coverage. Buoyancy on the other hand is in the private sector but no fresh private investment
the response to economic growth when the base increases in these sectors to be allowed;
but there is no change in the rate. ³³ twenty important industries allowed in private sector
Challenges: but under strict supervision of the State;
Fiscal Federalism: ³³ all industries not covered by the above three categories
³³ This issue became controversial when GST collections would be allowed in the private sector under general
fell because of the pandemic. supervision of the State.
³³ Because GST entailed a bigger surrender of taxation ³³ The Industries Development and Regulation Act
powers for the states – states do not levy direct taxes (1951) prescribed the requirement of industrial
or customs duties – a guaranteed revenue growth of licenses. However, the rationale given in the 1st plan
14% for a period of five years was offered to them by for State intervention was that the private enterprise
the centre to get them to agree.
may not be either willing or capable of investment
Issues Highlighted by the 15th Finance Commission: in certain sectors, due to lack of resources or the
³³ The 15th Finance Commission has highlighted
magnitude of risks.
several areas of concern in the GST regime relating to
multiplicity of tax rates, shortfall in GST collections ³³ Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 (IPR 1956) :
vis-à-vis the forecast, high volatility in GST collections, Second Plan proposed massive industrialisation with
inconsistency in filing of returns, dependence of States emphasis on heavy industry in the public sector. The
on the compensation from Centre and so on. adoption of the goal of socialistic pattern of society

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 Indian Economy

demanded that "the commanding heights of the econ- NATIONAL MANUFACTURING POLICY (NMP), 2011

INDIAN ECONOMY
omy" should be controlled by the State. ³³ Manufacturing’s share in India’s GDP has been stuck
— IPR 1956 expanded the three lists which existed in at 16% since the 1980s. The policy aims to increase
IPR 1948. the share of manufacturing in the country’s GDP from
— The essence of the policy, which continued with mi- the current 16% to 25% by 2022.
nor modifications for almost two decades, was that ³³ The National Manufacturing Policy aims to create 100
while public sector had the primary responsibility million additional jobs in the next decade.
for rapid industrialisation in key sectors, private ³³ The draft policy envisages establishment ofNational
sectors had a complementary and supplementary Investment and Manufacturing Zones (NIMZ)
role. equipped with world-class infrastructure that would
be autonomous and self-regulated developed in
INDUSTRIAL POLICY 1991 : AN OVERVIEW
partnership with the private sector.
(A) Main Features (Objectives)
³³ Each National Investment and Manufacturing Zonesto
³³ to maintain a sustained growth in productivity.
have 5,000 hectares.
³³ to enhance gainful employment.
³³ Land will be selected by State Governments. Preference
³³ to achieve optimum utilisation of human resources.
would be given to uncultivable land.
³³ to attain international competitiveness.
³³ Both state and central Government would fund trunk
³³ to transform India into a major partner and players
infrastructure.
in the global arena.
³³ The policy embodies an easy exit policy and single
(B) Main Focus on
window clearance in zones
³³ deregulating Indian industry.
³³ The NIMZ would be managed by special entity
³³ allowing the industry freedom and flexibility in
responding to market forces and ³³ The policy has envisaged fiscal sops to boost
³³ providing a policy regime which facilitate and fasters manufacturing.
growth of Indian industry. ³³ Small & medium enterprises to be reimbursed for
(C) Policy Measures technology purchase.
The important measures under the NIP 1991 were ³³ Industrial training and skills development programmes
³³ Abolition of licensing for all industries except 15 which ³³ Flexible labor laws and simplified & expeditious exit
affect strategic or environmental interests. mechanism for sick units
³³ Drastic amendment to MRTP Act to eliminate approval ³³ Relaxation in environmental regulations
for expansion. ³³ Financial and tax incentives to small and medium
³³ Phased manufacturing programme (PMP) which sought enterprises
a time-table for indigenisation, was abolished. ³³ Incentives to states for infrastructure development
³³ Industrial location policies amended to provide for ³³ Incentives for Green Manufacturing
restrictions to opening industries only in large cities.
³³ Rationalization of business regulations to reduce
³³ Apart from arms and ammunition, atomic energy,
burden of procedural and regulatory compliance on
railway transport and defence equipment, no other businesses
manufacturing sector is reserved for public sector.
³³ Increased focus on employment intensive industries,
³³ Disinvestment of Government’s share holdings in PSUs. capital goods industry, industries with strategic
³³ Approval of direct foreign investment upto 51 percent in significance and those in which India enjoys a
high priority industries without pre-conditions. competitive edge and the SME sector.
³³ Prior clearance required only if foreign investment does ³³ Make industrial land (land acquisition) available
not fall in the above category. through creation of land banks by states.
³³ Automatic clearance of foreign technology agreements LIST OF MAHARATNA, NAVRATNA AND MINIRATNA
in high priority industries.
Maharatnas :
³³ FERA was amended in 1993 and in 1999. It was named
Maharatna scheme was introduced for central public
as FEMA effective from June 1, 2000.
sector Enterprises (CPSEs), with effect from May, 2010 in
³³ The New Economic Policy (1991) also initiated Public
order to empower mega CPSEs to expand their operations
Sector Reforms in India.
and emerge as global giants.
³³ Industry has a share of 28% in the overall GDP and its
To be eligible for the grant of Maharatna status, the
share in total employment increased from 16.2% in
company should have an average turnover of over Rs. 25,000
1999-2000 to 21.9% in 2009-2010.
crore, average annual net worth of more than Rs. 15,000
³³ The long-term average annual growth of industries crore and average annual net profit over 5,000 crore during
during the post-reform period between 1991-92 to the last three years. Besides, it should be a shareholding
2011-12, averaged 6.7%.
under the SEBI regulations and have global presence.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

Maharatna (Total no. of Maharatna is ten)

INDIAN ECONOMY

S. No. Weight in IIP

1. Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOC) Core Industries
2. NTPC Limited
1. Coal Industry 4.16%
3. Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC)
4. Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) 2. Crude oil Industry 3.61%
5. Coal India Limited (CIL) 3. Natural Gas Industry 2.76%
6. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) 4. Petroleum Refinery 11.28%
7. Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL)
8. Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) 5. Fertilizers 1.05%
9. Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL) 6. Steel Industry 7.21%
10. Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (PGCIL) 7. Cement Industry 2.16%
Navratnas : 8. Electricity production 7.99%
Economic reforms subject CPSEs to market competition.
Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises :
Globalization makes the competition more intense. To
perform in such conditions, CPSEs need a level playing In accordance with the provision of Micro, small and
field with the private players. Hence the Navratna Package Medium Enterprises Development Act, 2006. The Micro,
that gives autonomy to PSEs. small and Medium Enterprises are classified in two classes
one is manufacturing Enterprises and another is service
Government introduced the Navaratna PSEs in 1997.
Enterprises.
Initially there was 9 Navaratna companies, many more
central public sector Enterprises added in Navratna list. Micro Enterprises :
Today there are 14 CPSEs in Navaratna companies list. In exercise of the powers conferred by sub-section (1) read
Navratna (Total no. of Navratna is Fourteen) with sub-section (9) of section (7) of the ‘Micro, Small and
1. Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) Medium Enterprises Development Act, 2006 (27 of 2006) and
in supersession of the notification of the Government of India,
2. Container Corporation of India Limited (CONCOR)
Ministry of Small Scale Industries, dated the 29th September,
3. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) 2006, published in the Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part-II,
4. Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) Section 3, Sub-section (ii), vide S.O. 1642 (E), dated the 30th
5. National Aluminium Company Limited (NALCO) September 2006 except as respects things done or omitted
6. National Mineral Development Corporation Limited to be done before such supersession, the Central Govern-
(NMDC) ment, hereby notifies the following criteria for classification
7. Oil India Limited (OIL) of micro, small and medium enterprises, which is effected
8. Power Finance Corporation Limited (PFC) from 1 June, 2020.
(i) A micro enterprise, where the investment in Plant and
9. Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited (RINL)
Machinery or Equipment does not exceed one crore
10. Rural Electrification Corporation Limited (RECL)
rupees and turnover does not exceed five crore rupees;
11. Shipping Corporation of India Limited (SCIL) (ii) A small enterprise, where the investment in Plant and
12. Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited (NLC) Machinery or Equipment does not exceed ten crore
13. National Building Construction Corporation (NBCC) rupees and turnover does not exceed fifty crore rupees;
14. Engineers India Limited (EIL) (iii) A medium enterprise, where the investment in Plant
and machinery or Equipment does not exceed fifty
Category Miniratna Category - I
crore rupees and turnover does not exceed two hun-
³³ Public sector Enterprises that have made profit dred and fifty crore rupees.
continusouly for the last three years or earned a net
profit of Rs. 30 crores or more in one of three years. MAJOR INDUSTRIAL FINANCE INSTITUTIONS
³³ At present there are 60 Miniratna-I (1) Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI) :

Category Miniratna - II ³³ Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI) was

established under Industrial Development Bank of India
³³ Public Sector Enterprises that have made profit for the
Act 1964 as a Development Finance Institution (DFI).
last three years and should have a positive net worth.
³³ At present there are 15 Miniratna-II ³³ It is principal financial institution for providing credit
and other facilities for developing industries and
Eight Core Industries assisting development institution.
There are eight core Industries in India. These Indus- ³³ Till 1976, IDBI was a subsidiary bank of RBI.
tries are responsible for the growth of other industries in ³³ In 1976 it was separated from RBI and the ownership
the economy. The eight core industries comprise nearly was transferred to Government of India.
40.27% of the weight of items included in the Index of ³³ It continued to serve of DFI for 40 years till the year
Industrial Production (IIP). 2004 when it was merged into a bank.

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 Indian Economy

(2) Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) ³³ ICICI was established in 1955 as public limited

INDIAN ECONOMY
company under Indian Company Act for developing
³³ Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)
medium and small industries of private sector.
was established as wholly owned subsidiary of IDBI
³³ ICICI was established in 1955 as public limited
under the Small Industries Development Bank of India
company under Indian Company Act for developing
Act, 1989 as the principal financial institution for medium and small industries of private sector.
promotion, financing and development of industries ³³ It provides risk and loan capital for creation,
in the small scale sector. expansion and modernisation of productive facilities.
³³ SIDBI also co-ordinates the activities of agencies ³³ In March 2002, the ICICI merged with the ICICI Bank
which provide finances to small enterprises. SIDBI and there was a creation of Universal Bank in India.
started its operations from April 2, 1990. Its head
quarter is situated at Lucknow. HISTORY OF PLANNING IN INDIA
³³ SIDBI is one of the four All India Financial Institution 1934 Vishvesvaraya Plan in his book ‘The planned
regulated and supervised by RBI. The other three are economy in India’
India Exim Bank, NABARD and NHB. 1938 Nehru’s Congress Plan but not implemented.
(3) Industrial Finance Corporation of India Ltd. (IFCI) 1944 Bombay Plan by Industrialists such as JRD Tata,
³³ Industrial Finance Corporation of India Ltd. was P. Thakurdas, GD Birla, K. Lalbhai.
established in 1948 under a special Act on the 1944 The Gandhian Plan by Narayan Agarwal, given
recommendations of Central Banking Enquiry importance to agriculture and cottage industries.
Committee. 1945 M.N. Roy’s People’s Plan – with socialist learning.
³³ The basic aim of IFCI is to arrange medium and long 1950 Jayprakash Narayan’s Sarvodya Plan based on Vinoba
term credit for various industrial enterprises of the Bhave’s Philosophy.
country. 1952 NDC made by cabinet resolution.
³³ Initially the authorised capital of the corporation was 2014 Modi shutdown Planning Commission.
Rs. 10 crore which was divided in equities of Rs. 5000 2015 Government notified the formation of Niti Ayog.
each. Later on this authorised capital was increased [Think Tank body].
upto Rs. 20 crore. General Comparison between
³³ Since July 1, 1993 this corporation has been Planning Commission & Niti Ayog
converted into a company and it has been given the Position Planning Niti Ayog
status of a Ltd. company with the name Industrial Commission
Finance Corporation of India Ltd. Established 1 9 5 0 , M a r c h 2015, January 1st
(4) Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of 15 Abolished in
India Bank (ICICI BANK) 2014 after Modi
became P.M.
Export Development Centres
Chairman Prime Minister Prime Minister
Tripur Hosiery and Batala Machine Vice Cabinet Minister Appointed by PM
Weaving equipment Chairman rank
Panipat Handloom Nagpur Hand-made
and equipments Economic- Member A Secretary level officer
-Adviser secretary
Textiles
Ex-Officio Finance Minister P.M can nominate
Bhagalpur Weaving Vizag Fish and fish members Cabinet Minister 4 ministers
products 1. Home
Moradabad Brass Ware Aligarh Brass locks 2 Finance
Handicraft 3. Railway
4. Agriculture
Ludhiana Hosiery Khurja Clay Pots
Full Time 4 - 7 f u l l t i m e Economists etc.
Surat Gem and Selam Hand-made
members members who
Jewellery items enjoy rank of
Alleppi Coconut and Sivakashi Match boxes minister of state
Coir Special — Union ministers like
Meerut, Sport goods Ambala Scientificequi- invitees Transport,
HRD, Social justice etc.
Jalandhar pments
Part time — Tech experts
Ranipat Leather Rajkot Engine Pumps members
(Amboor)
Governing — Chairman – P.M.
Agra Leather Wapi (An- Chemical Council Chief Ministers of
shoes kleshwar) Adhoc Regional States
Jamnagar Brass spare Councils — Chairman – P.M.
parts Lt Governer of UTs.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

• Chief Executive Officer : To be appointed by the Prime Minister for a

INDIAN ECONOMY

NITI AYOG fixed tenure, in the rank of Secretary to the Government of India.
³³ G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a h a s
• Special invitees Union Minister for Transport, HRD and Social Justice
replaced the old planning ³³ NITI Aayog will house a number of specialised wings, including Research,
commission started in 1950 Consultancy and Team-India.
with a new institution called NITI ³³ NITI Aayog released a document titled ‘Strategy for New India @ 75’. It
Aayog (National Institution for outlined a vision to build a ‘New India’ by 2022 through policy proposals
Transforming India) on 1 January for furthering goal housing for all, doubling farmers’ incomes, renewable
2015. energy, sustainable environment, etc.
³³ NITI Aayog is more a “think ³³ Criticism
tank” than a finance distributing • Like planning commission, it’s also a non-constitutional body which is
agency. not responsible to parliament.
³³ NITI Aayog will provide • Dismantled planning commission without consulting the states.
Governments at the central and • UTs are represented by Lieutenant Governors, not by chief ministers.
state levels with relevant strategic This is against the principles of federalism.
and technical advice across the ³³ NITI Aayog will seek to facilitate and empower the critical requirement of
spectrum of key elements of the good governance – which is people-centric, participative, collaborative,
policy. transparent and policy-driven.
³³ The NITI Aayog will create a
knowledge, innovation and FIVE YEAR PLANS
entrepreneurial support
system through a collaborative
Five Year Plan in India
community of national and Plan Period Theme /Target
international experts. 1st 1951-56 l Harrod Domar Model.
³³ NITI Aayog is based on the 7 l Main focus on agriculture, irrigation, & power.
pillars of effective governance – l Got more GDP than its target.
(1) Pro-People (2) Pro-Activity (3) 2nd 1956-61 l P.C. Mahalanobis Model.
Participation (4) Empowering (5)
Inclusion of all (6) Equality (7)
l Socialist Model, Rapid industrialisation, heavy
Transparency. industries.
³³ In NITI Aayog, the state 3rd 1961-66 l Sukhmoy Chakraborty and sanddy.
governments has an equal role in l Also called ‘Gadgil Yojna’.
nation’s development process and l Failed to achieve its target due to droughts
NITI Aayog promises the principle and war with Pakistan & China.
of co-operative federalism.
Holiday 1966-69 l Holiday declared, 3 Annual plans followed.
³³ Composition of NITI Aayog
4th 1969-74 l Ashoka Rudra – Alon Manney.
• Chairperson-Prime Minister
l Growth with stability.
• Governing Council– Its
members are Chief Ministers 5th 1974-79 l C. Subramanyam and later DP Dhar
and Administrators of the l Focus on poverty removal.
Union Territories. Rolling 1978-80 l Morarji Desai’s Janta Government with Rolling
• Regional Councils-These Plan Plan System
are created as per need and 6th 1980-85 l Poverty Removal
its members would be chief
ministers and administrators
l IRDP, NREM, TRYSEM etc.
of UTs of respective regions. 7th 1985-89 l Focus on employment.
• Vice-Chairperson– The Vice- l Jawahar Rojgar Yojna Started.
chairperson of the Niti Aayog 2 Annual 1989-91 l Political instability at centre.
is appointed by Prime Minister. Plans l Only annual plans.
• Part-time members: Maximum
8th 1992-97 l Based on John W. Miller Model
of 2 from leading universities
research organizations and
l PV Narsimha’s LPG reforms
other relevant institutions in 9th 1997-2002 l Growth with Social Justice.
an ex-officio capacity. Part 10th 2002-2007 l 8% GDP growth rate.
time members will be on a 11th 2007-12 l Theme Inclusive growth.
rotational basis.
12th 2012-2017 l Faster, more inclusive and sustainable growth.
• Ex Officio members: Maximum
of 4 members of the Union
l 10% reduction in poverty
Council of Ministers to be l Get IMR 26, MMR 100
nominated by the Prime l Get child sex-ratio to 950, Total Fertility Rate
Minister. (TFR) 2.1

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1ST FIVE YEAR PLAN (1951-1956) 6TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1980-1985)

INDIAN ECONOMY
³³ Agricultural sector was accorded the highest priority. ³³ The prime objective of the plan was ‘removal of
³³ Emphasis was also laid on developing the basic poverty’.
infrastruc-ture for rapid industrial expansion in ³³ It aimed towards qualitative improvement of the living
future. standard of the poor through the Minimum Needs
³³ Community Development Projects was initiated. Programme.
³³ The plan achieved huge success mainly due to good ³³ Economy made widespread development.
harvests. ³³ The targeted growth rate was 5.2 per cent per annum.
³³ The Per Capital Income growth was 1.8 per cent. ³³ The achieved growth rate was 5.3 per cent per annum.
³³ Incremental capital output ratio was 2.95 per cent.
7TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1985-1990)
2ND FIVE YEAR PLAN (1956-1961) ³³ The basic objective of plan was ‘growth, modernisation,
³³ The main objective was rapid industrialisation with self-reliance and social justice’.
the help of Public Sector. ³³ Against the target of 5 per cent growth rate, the actual
³³ It was based on Mahalanobis Model. growth rate of National Income was 5.9 per cent.
³³ It also aimed at increasing National Income and ³³ Overall the plan performance was satisfactory.
reducing unemployment. 8TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1992-1997)
³³ It was based on socialist pattern of society and
³³ Due to severe economic problems the plan started
reduction in inequalities of income was one of its
in 1992.
main objectives.
³³ It aimed at achieving ‘Human Development in various
3RD FIVE YEAR PLAN (1961-1966) aspects’.
³³ This plan aimed to make India a “self reliant” and ³³ The plan introduced Indicative Planning.
self-governing economy.” ³³ Greater role was accorded to the Private Sector.
³³ The annual growth rate was only 2.5 per cent against ³³ More emphasis was laid on manufacturing activities.
the target of 5.0 per cent per annum.
9TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1997-2002)
³³ Chinese aggression (1962), Indo-Pak conflict (1965)
and poor monsoons, all played crucial role in the ³³ The objective of this plan was “Growth with Social
failure of the Third Plan. Justice and Equity”.
³³ It aimed towards ensuring food and nutritional
ANNUAL PLANNING (1966-1969) security for all.
³³ Due to the failure of Third Plan, the Government ³³ To contain the growth of population.
declared a ‘Plan Holiday’. ³³ To provide safe drinking water, primary health care
³³ Three Annual Plans were prepared in the intervening facilities and universal primary education.
time period.
10TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (2002-2007)
4TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1969-1974) ³³ It was approved by the National Development Council
³³ The prime objective of the plan was ‘growth with on 21 December, 2002.
stability’. ³³ The Tenth Five Year Plan has fixed the target of
³³ The annual growth rate was only 3.8 per cent which was achieving 8 per cent average annual growth for the
much lower than the target of 5.7 per cent. period 2002-2007.
³³ During the planning period prices increased sharply. ³³ Increase in gross domestic saving and investment.
³³ The Indo-Pak war (1971) and the problems of ³³ To improve the overall framework of governance.
Bangladeshi refugees also had negative impact on
11TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (2007-2012)
the economy.
³³ The year 2007-08 marks the beginning of the Eleventh
5TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1974-1979) plan.
³³ Its objective was ‘removal of poverty’ and attainment ³³ The declared objective was “Towards Faster and More
of ‘self-reliance.’ Inclusive Growth”.
³³ The plan aimed at 5.5 per cent growth rate. ³³ The approach paper of 11th plan proposes to create
³³ This plan followed the path of exports promotion and 70 million new work opportunities.
import substitution. ³³ Access to essential services in health and education
³³ The Janta Party Government terminated this plan one especially for poors.
year prior to its schedule. ³³ Extension of employment opportunities using NREGA.
³³ The National Income during the period increased at ³³ Growth rate 9 per cent annually estimated.
the rate of 5.3 per cent.
12TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (2012-2017)
THE ROLLING PLAN (1978-1980)
³³ The Draft approach to the 12th year Plan (2012-2017)
³³ It was started by the Janta Party Government.
was approved by the NDC on 22nd October 2011.
³³ Every year the performance of the plan would be
³³ The theme of the approach paper is faster, sustainable
assessed.
and more Inclusive growth.
³³ It is a form of continuous planning.

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³³ It proposes a growth target of 9%. ³³ Poverty is measured based on consumer expenditure

INDIAN ECONOMY

³³ The growth rate fixed for the agriculture, industry and surveys of the National Sample Survey Organisation. A
services sector is 4.0%, 9.6% and 10.0% respectively. poor household is defined as one with an expenditure
³³ The average fiscal deficit during the 12th plan has level below a specific poverty line.
been fixed at 3.25% of GDP. ³³ The incidence of poverty is measured by the poverty
ratio, which is the ratio of the number of poor to the
GROWTH PERFORMANCE IN VARIOUS PLANS total population expressed as a percentage. It is also
(in % per annum) known as head-count ratio.
Plan Target Actual ³³ Alagh Committee (1979) determined a poverty line
First Plan (1951-1956) 2.1 3.61 based on a minimum daily requirement of 2400 and
2100 calories for an adult in Rural and Urban area
Second Plan (1956-1961) 4.5 4.27
respectively.
Third Plan (1961-1966) 5.6 2.84 ³³ Subsequently different committees;Lakdawala
Fourth Plan (1969-1974) 5.7 3.30 Committee (1993), Tendulkar Committee (2009),
Fifth Plan (1974-1979) 4.4 4.80 Rangarajan committee (2012) did the poverty
estimation.
Sixth Plan (1980-1985) 5.2 5.66
³³ As per the Rangarajan committee report (2014),
Seventh Plan (1985-1990) 5.0 6.01 the poverty line is estimated as Monthly Per Capita
Eighth Plan (1992-1997) 5.6 6.78 Expenditure of Rs. 1407 in urban areas and Rs. 972
in rural areas.
Ninth Plan (1997-2002) 6.5 5.52
Tenth Plan (2002-07) 8.1 7.7 LAKDAWALA COMMITTEE
Eleventh Plan (2007-12) 8.6 7.9 ³³ Committee formed in September 1989 for estimating
Twelfth Plan (2012-17) 8.0 8.2 total no. of poor by Planning Commission under the
chairmanship of D.T. Lakdawala.
POVERTY AND THE PLANNING ³³ Committee made following suggestion.
(i) Consumption expenditure should be calculated
PROCESS IN INDIA PLANS
based on calorie consumption.
THE CONCEPT OF POVERTY (ii) Discontinuation of scaling of poverty estimates
based on National Accounts Statistics. This
³³ Poverty can be defined as a social phenomenon in
assumes that the basket of goods and services
which section of the society is unable to fulfil even
used to calculate CPI-IW and CPI-AL reflects the
its basic necessities of life.
consumption patterns of the poor.
³³ The third world countries exhibit the existence of
(iii) S t a t e s p e c i f i c p o v e r t y l i n e s s h o u l d b e
mass poverty.
constructed and these should be updated using
³³ Pockets of poverty also exist in the developed countries
consumer price index of Industrial Workers
of Europe and America.
(CPI-IW) in urban areas and consumer price
³³ The various definitions of poverty reflects the existence Index of Agricultural Labour (CPI-AL) in rural
of inequalities in a society and the extent to which
areas.
different societies are prepared to tolerate them.
³³ The income and expenditure of population, below that TENDULKAR COMMITTEE
aggregate is considered to be below the poverty line. ³³ Planning Commission formed the committee under
³³ In the relative standard income distribution of the the chairman-ship of Tendulkar, report submitted in
population in different fractile groups is estimated. December 2009.
³³ A comparison of the level of living of the top 5 to 10 ³³ This committee gave importance to expenditure on
per cent with the bottom 5 to 10 percent reflects the health, education, clothing in addition to food in its
relative standards of poverty. definition of poverty.
³³ The relative standard is considered defective as it ³³ It has estimated poverty lines at all India level as
indicates the relative position of different segments Monthly Per-Capita Consumption expenditure of
of the population in income hierarchy. ` 673 for rural areas and ` 680 for urban areas in
POVERTY ESTIMATION IN INDIA 2009-2010.
³³ Poverty estimation in India is carried out by NITI ³³ According to Tendulkar Commi-ttee Report 41.8%
Aayog’s task force through the calculation of poverty population in rural areas and 25.7% population in
line based on the data captured by the National urban area is living below the poverty line.
Sample Survey Office under the Ministry of Statistics
and Programme Implementation (MOSPI). SR HASHIM COMMITTEE
³³ Poverty line estimation in India is based on the ³³ The planning commission has constituted an Expert
consumption expenditure and not on the income group under the chairmanship of SR Hashim on May
levels. 2010.

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³³ It’s main task was to recommend detailed methodology ³³ More than one-third of their population lies below

INDIAN ECONOMY
for indentification of BPL families in urban areas, in poverty line.
the context of 12th Five year plan. ³³ As against this, the states of Punjab, Haryana,
³³ The panel has suggested that the government should Himachal Pradesh, J&K here much less numbers
use three-stage approach-automatic exclusion, of poor. It is around 10 per cent of their population.
automatic inclusion, and scoring index to identify
urban poor. Causes of Poverty
³³ Under the automatic inclusion step, homeless families ³³ Rapid growth of population.
facing social and occupational deprivation should be ³³ Low level of economic develo-pment.
included in the BPL list. ³³ Low productivity in agriculture and industry.
RANGARAJAN REPORT ON POVERTY ³³ Widespread inequality in the distribution of Income
and Assets.
³³ Planning commission constituted committee under
³³ Problem of large scale unem-ployment and
the chairman-ship of Dr. C. Rangarajan in June 2012,
to review the methodology for measurement of poverty underemployment.
in the country. ³³ Laws of inheritance.
³³ According to Report : ³³ Political Factors and State Policy
(i) The daily per capita expenditure is pegged at ` POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMS IN INDIA
32 for the rural poor and at `47 for rural urban
³³ Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
poor.
³³ J a w a h a r R o z g a r Y o j a n a / J a w a h a r G r a m
(ii) Poverty line based on the average monthly per SamridhiYojana
capita expenditure is pegged at ` 972 for rural ³³ Indira AwaasYojana
areas and `1407 for urban areas. ³³ National Old Age Pension Scheme
(iii) The percentage of people below the poverty ³³ Annapurna Scheme
line in 2011-12 was 30.95% in rural areas and ³³ SampoornaGraminRozgarYojana
26.4% in urban areas. ³³ National Rural Livelihood Mission: Aajeevika
(iv) T h e a l l - I n d i a p o v e r t y l i n e i n t e r m s o f ³³ National Urban Livelihood Mission
consumption expenditure for a family of five ³³ Pradhan MantriKaushalVikasYojana
people is estimated at `4760 per month in rural ³³ Pradhan Mantri Jan DhanYojana
areas and `7035 per month in urban areas in
2011-12. UNEMPLOYMENT AND UNDER EMPLOYMENT IN
INDIA
TYPES OF POVERTY in rural areas
1. Absolute Poverty : Unemployment
in urban areas
³³ When the level of the income of people of a country
is so low that they cannot meet even their basic Rural Employment
Seasonal
minimum requirements, it is called absolute poverty.
Rural employment
³³ On the basis of this definition, nearly 26.1 per cent Perennial
of total population fall below the poverty line.
³³ Agriculture being a seasonal occupation, it has been
2. Relative Poverty estimated that for at least 5-7 months in a year, a
³³ When we compare the incomes of different people we sizeable proportion of the population engaged in
find that some people poor than others, it is called agriculture remains idle.
relative poverty or, when people do not enjoy a certain ³³ ‘Perennial rural unemployment’ is also called ‘chronic
level of living standards as and enjoyed by the bulk of disguised unemployment’. It simply means that while
the population. This varies from country to country, increase in population has led to more and more
sometimes within the same country. Relative poverty
people being dependent on agriculture for deriving
refers to a phenomenon of relative deprivation.
livelihood, it has not led to any improvement in
³³ According to an estimate the highest 10 per cent
production. This surplus labour forms ‘disguised
people of the country receive 25 per cent share of the
country’s total income, while the bottom 10 per cent unemployment’. It means that everyone seems to be
people get only 4 per cent of the total income. employed, but in reality, enough work is not available
³³ It is important to note here that proportion of to all, The marginal productivity of surplus labour
populaltion below poverty line has declined while is zero.
the absolute number of the poor has increased over Urban Employment
the years. among industrial labourers
³³ The number of the poor in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Urban employment
Karna-taka, MP, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, UP among educated middle class
and West Bengal is relatively high. Surplus labour is zero.

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CONCEPT OF UNEMPLOYMENT ³³ Seasonal unemployment : This arises because

INDIAN ECONOMY

There are three concepts of unemployment, which demand for labour changes with seasons and so
are used by National Sample Survey Organisation workers get employment only in the peak season like
(NSSO) : harvesting and sowing seasons in agriculture.
³³ Usual Status concept : The activity status is ³³ Frictional unemployment : The unemployment
determined with reference to a longer period say a year results due to changes in demand and supply
preceding the time of survey. The persons surveyed conditions in the market. It results when workers are
can be classified into those working and/or available shifting over from one job to another.
for work in their principal activity sector and those ³³ Voluntary unemployment : There are jobs and
working and/or available for work in a subsidiary people are not ready to take job at the prevailing wage
sector of a sector other than their principal activity rate. This generally exists in advanced countries at
sector. large.
³³ The Current Weekly Status : It determines activity ³³ Involuntary unemployment : T h i s t y p e o f
unemployment exists in developing countries, in
status with reference to proceeding 7 days. A person
which people want to do job, they do not get the job.
having worked for an hour or more on any one of
more days gets the employed status. This is also a ³³ Technical unemployment : Unemployment caused
person rate. due to change in technology. Under new technique,
more production can be done with less number of
³³ Current Daily Status : It considers activity status
workers. Its immediate effect is retrenchment of
of a person for each day of the proceeding 7 days. A
workers. But, it is important to note that technological
person who works for less than 4 hours is considered
unemployment is temporary.
to be employed for half a day while more than 4 hours
³³ Cyclical unemployment : It is result of the business
is considered as full day. This is a time rate. The
cycle, where unemployment rises during recessions
current daily status unemployment provides the most
and declines with economic growth. This type
appropriate measure of unemployment.
of unemployment in India are negligible. It is a
TYPES OF UNEMPLOYMENT phenomenon that is mostly found in capitalist
³³ Open unemployment : The labourers do not find economies.
a work to do. Unskilled labour unemployment is ³³ Unemployment Trap : It is a situation when
included in this category of unemployment. unemployment benefits discourage the unemployed to
go to work. People find the opportunity cost of going to
³³ Educated unemployment : Even an educated or
work too high when one can simply enjoy the benefits
skilled person fails to get suitable employment. This
by doing nothing.
is one of the major problems for developing countries
like India. MEASUREMENT OF UNEMPLOYMENT IN INDIA
³³ Structural Unemployment : It is a category of ³³ National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), an organization
unemployment arising from the mismatch between under Ministry of Statistics and Programme
the jobs available in the market and the skills of the Implementation (MoSPI) measures unemployment in
available workers in the market. e.g. Many people in India on following approaches:
India do not get job due to lack of requisite skills and ³³ Usual Status Approach: This approach estimates only
due to poor education level, it becomes difficult to those persons as unemployed who had no gainful
train them. work for a major time during the 365 days preceding
³³ Under employment : The person is engaged in work the date of survey.
but his efficiency and capability is not being utilised ³³ Weekly Status Approach: This approach records
to the optimum level. only those persons as unemployed who did not have
³³ Disguised unemployment : If a person is engaged gainful work even for an hour on any day of the week
in a work but his contribution of marginal preceding the date of survey.
productivity is zero then it is called disguised ³³ Daily Status Approach: Under this approach,
unemployment. This is mainly found in agriculture unemployment status of a person is measured for
sector of developing economies. Removing these each day in a reference week. A person having no
disguised unemployed from work will not affect gainful work even for 1 hour in a day is described as
total production. unemployed for that day.

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INDIAN ECONOMY
Various Development and Employment Programme in India : At a Glance
Programme/Plan Year of Objective
/Institution beginning
C o m m u n i t y D e v e l o p m e n t 1952 Over-all development of rural area with people’s participation
Programme (CDP)
Green Revolution 1966-67 To increase the production of food grains, especially wheat
production.
Training rural youth for self 1979 Programme for training of rural youth to make them
Empowerment (TRYSEM) employed
Mid day Meal Scheme Aug. 1995 To give a boost to universalisation of primary education by
increasing the enrolment, attendance and nutritional status
of the children.
Swarn Jayanti Shahri Rojgar Yojna 1997 To provide gainful employ- ment to urban employment and
under employed poor through self employment or wage
employment.
Annaporna Yojna 1999 To provide 10 kgs. Food grains to senior citizens (who did not
get pension)
Antyodaya Anna Yojna Dec. 2000 To provide food security to poor
Pradhan Mantra Gram Sadak Yojna Dec. 2000 To connect all the roads with Pacca road
Sarva Siksha Abhiyan 2001 Lunched in whole country to provide useful and relevant
elementary education for all children in the age group of
6-14
Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojna Sep. 2001 Providing employment and food security
Janani Suraksha Yojna April 2005 Providing care to expectant mother
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Feb. 2006 Provide 100 days of guara-nteed wage employment to rural
Employment guarantee scheme unskilled labour
National Food Security Mission 29 May, 2007 To increase production and productivity of wheat, rice and
pulses on a sustainable basis so as to ensure food security
of the country.
National Rural Livelihood Mission June 2011 Restructured from swarna jayanti gram swarojgar yojna
National Urban Livelihood Mission 23 Sept., Restructured from swarna jayanti shahri swarojgar yojna
2013
Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojna 11 Oct., 2014 To develop model village
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojna 28 August, To provide bank account to poor (Financial Inclusion)
2014
Deen Dayal Upadhyay Sramev 16 Oct, 2014 To improve employability , skill development and other
Jayate Scheme convenience for labour
Atal Pension Yojana 9 May, 2015 Social Sector Scheme pertaining to Pension Sector
Digital India Programme 1 July, 2015 Aims to ensure that government services are available to
citizens electronically and people get benefited from the latest
information and communication technology
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas July 15 To provide skill training to 1.4
Yojna 2015 million youths (implemented by the ministry of skill
development)
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) 25 June, 2015 To enable better living and drive economic growth stressing on
the need for people centric urban planning and development.
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and 25 June, 2015 To enable better living and drive economic growth stressing on
Urban Transformation (AMRUT) the need for people centric urban planning and development.

Smart Cities Mission 25 June, 2015 To enable better living and drive economic growth stressing on
the need for people centric urban planning and development.
Project Sunrise 5 Feb., 2015 for prevention of AIDS in North Eastern States.

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Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana 13 Jan., It is new crop insurance scheme to boost farming sector in
2016 the country.
Startup India, Standup India 16 Jan., 2016 Promoting bank financing for start up ventures to boost
Scheme entrepreneurship and encourage start up with job creation.
Setu Bharatam Project 3 March, 2016 to make all national highways free of railway crossings by 2019.
One Rank One Pension scheme 6 April, 2016 OROP will provide ex-service
(OROP) men 2016 of same rank and same length of service with uniform
pension regardless of date of retirement.
UJALA Scheme 1 May, 2016 It is LED based Domestic Efficient Lighting Programme (DELP)
Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana 1 May, 2016 for providing free of cost LPG connections to women from BPL
Households.
Biju Kanya Ratna Yojana 4 Sep., 2016 Objective of scheme is to improve Sex Ratio at Birth in three
districts of the state.
Jan Aushadhi (By Government of 15 July, 2017 Generic Medicine Compaign improving access to medicine
India)
Ayushman Bharat Scheme (National 2018 National Health Protection scheme launched to cover 10 crore
Health Protection Scheme) poor and vulnerable families. Under this, up to Rs 5 lakh will
be provided to each family per year in secondary and tertiary
care institutions.
National Nutrition Mission (POSHAN 8 March, 2018 It was launched as an extension to the Beti bachao Beti Padhao
Abhiyan) programme. Its aims is to reduce the level of stunting, under-
nutrition, anemia and low birth weight babies.
GOBAR DHAN Yojana April, 2018 It aims to improve lives of the villagers. Under it, solid waste
of dung and fields will be changed into compost, biogas and
bio-CNG.
Solar Charkha Mission 27 June, 2018 Its ultimate aim is to generate employment in rural areas and
contribute to the green economy. It also aims at linking five
crore women across the country to the initiative. The mission
is expected to create one lakh jobs during the first two years.
National Bamboo mission April 2018 The scheme aims to inter-alia supplement farm income of
farmers with focus on the development of complete value chain
of bamboo sector linking growers with industry.
Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana 2018-19 The PMVVY scheme provides old age income security to senior
Scheme citizens of the country.
PM Shram Yogi Maandhan Yojana 15 Feb., 2019 Under the PM Shram Yogi Mandhan Yojana the workers of
unrecognized sector whose monthly income is less than Rs.
15000 may avail the benefits. Only by contributing Rs. 100
per month the beneficiary will get Rs. 3000 per month after
60 year age.
PM Kisan Samman Nidhi Yojana 1 Feb., 2019 The beneficiaries who will be selected under the PM Kisan
Samman Nidhi Yojana List will get Rs 6000 as Direct income
support from Government of India.
One Nation-One Ration Card August 2019 The main objective of the scheme is to introduce nation-wide
protability of ration card holders under NFSA, 2013.
It will be available across the country from 1st June 2020.
PM (KUSUM) Pradhan Mantri February To setting up of 25,750 MD solar capacity by 2022 with total
Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthan 2019 central Financial support of Rs. 34,422 crore.
Mahabhiyan
National Pension Scheme for September To provide an amount Rs. 3000 to the beneficiaries after they
Traders and self Employed Persons 2019 attain the age of 60 years.

Pradhan Mantri Laghu Vyapari July 2019 Small Retailer and Shopkeepers with GST turn over below Rs.
Maan-Dhan Yojna 1.5 Cr. will get Rs. 3000 after the age of 60.

Jal Jeevan Mission August 2019 To provide piped drinking water to the every households.

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Nal Se Jal May 2019 To provide pipe drinking water and connections to every
household by 2024.
Jal Shakti Abhiyaan July 2019 Focus on five aspects : water conservation, rain water
harvesting, renovation of traditional and other water bodies,
reuse of water and recharging of structure, water shed
development and intensive afforestation.
Food Safety Mitra Scheme October 2019 To engage motivated In-dividuals with the food safety
ecosystem at ground level.
Programme Year of Objectives
Beginning
NIRVIK Scheme 1 F e b r u a r y , ³³ The NIRVIK Scheme will play a crucial role in improving
2020 accessibility and affordability of credit for exporters
making Indian exports more competitive
³³ It will dispense with the usual red-tape and other
procedural hurdles in order to become exporter friendly.
³³ The extended insurance cover is likely to bring down the
cost of credit with factors such as capital relief, better
liquidity and quick settlement of claims in play.
³³ MSME’s (Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises) will
stand to benefit as well due to improvement in the ease
of doing business and making ECG procedures much
more simplistic.
National Technical Textiles Mission 26 February , ³³ The main aim is to get India the highest position in
(NTTM) 2020 Technical Textiles at a global level
³³ This mission also aims at improving the penetration level
of the technical textiles in the country. It must also be
noted that the penetration level of technical textiles is low
in India at 5-10%, against 30-70% in advanced countries.
³³ The authorities aim at increasing the global market for
Indian technical textiles
³³ To simplify the objectives of the mission, it has been
divided into four component as well
³³ The Mission will focus on the usage of technical textiles
in various flagship missions, programmes of the country
including strategic sectors
SVAMITVA Scheme 24 April, 2020 ³³ This will bring abut financial stability among the people
living in rural areas as the land/property can be used as
an asset to get a loan or enjoy any other financial benefit
³³ Because of lack of knowledge, the land division and records
are not well maintained and noted. Through this scheme,
the Government intends to create accurate land records
for rural planning
³³ It will help in the determination of property tax, which
would accrue to the GPs directly in States where it is
devolved or else, add to the State exchequer
³³ For the use of various Government departments, proper
survey infrastructure and GIS maps shall be leveraged
³³ This will also improve and support the Gram Panchayat
Development Plan (GPDP) by making use of GIS maps
³³ A lot of legal and property-related disputes are still pending
in the rural areas. This project will also help resolve these
issues

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Mission Sagar May 2020 ³³ The initiative is a vision for economic and security
cooperation between India and its maritime neighbours.
³³ Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the government of
India took the decision to fulfill the vision of the SAGAR
initiative by providing essential humanitarian aid to its
maritime partners.
³³ A series of 3 missions were launched in 2020, which were
carried out by the ships of the Indian Navy. These ships
bought essential items such as medicines to the ports of
India’s maritime partners.
PM SVANidhi 1 June, 2020 ³³ To give vendors access to affordable working capital loans
which can help them to resume their livelihood activities
post-countrywide lockdown (due to the pandemic.)
³³ To incentivize regular repayment of loans by provisions
like cash-back, higher loans on subsequent demands etc.
³³ To promote digitalization by rewarding vendors who opt
for digital repayments of loans.
Sahakar Mitra Scheme 12 June, 2020 ³³ The role, contribution and impact of NCDC and
cooperatives to be taught to the interns.
³³ Context and practical working of NCDC to be learnt by
the interns.
³³ Professional graduates to be oriented towards a cooperative
business model so as to engage themselves in start-up
cooperatives.
³³ To help promote the Modi’s idea of ‘Vocal for Local’
³³ Capacity development in the cooperative sector
Mission Karmayogi 2 September, ³³ The transition from Rules Based to Roles Based Human
2020 Resource (HR) Management
³³ On-Site Learning to complement Off-Site Learning
³³ An ecosystem of shared training infrastructure
³³ Framework of Roles, Activities and Competencies (FRACs)
approach
³³ Behavioural, Functional and Domain Competencies
³³ Co-creation of the common ecosystem by all the Central
Ministries, Departments and their organizations
³³ Partnership with learning content creators
Ayushman Sahakar Scheme 1 9 O c t o b e r , ³³ To assist the provision of affordable and holistic healthcare
2020 through hospitals /healthcare/education facilities by
cooperative societies
³³ To assist the promotion of AYUSH facilities by cooperative
societies
³³ To assist cooperative societies to meet the objectives of
National Health Policy
³³ To assist cooperative societies to participate in the National
Digital Health Mission
³³ Assist cooperative societies to provide comprehensive
healthcare including education, services, insurance and
activities related thereto
SERB-POWER Scheme 2 9 O c t o b e r , ³³ With the introduction of this scheme, the Department of
2020 Science and Technology (DST) aims to invite more women
scientists into the field of research and engineering.
³³ One of the biggest significance of the SERB-POWER
scheme is that it will build a gender-balanced working
environment and cultivate women-friendly culture.
³³ It will also empower women scientists to adapt leadership
qualities and work with decision making bodies.

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INDIAN ECONOMY
Mission COVID Suraksha 29 November, ³³ Funding the candidate vaccines with their testing,
2020 manufacturing, licensing, and distribution in the market
³³ Establishing clinical trial sites, strengthening the existing
laboratories, and assisting with the internal and external
quality management system
³³ Supporting the development of common harmonized
protocols, training, data management systems, and
regulatory submissions
³³ Capabilities for process development, cell line development
and manufacturing of GMP batches for animal toxicology
studies and clinical trials will also be supported under
the Mission
³³ The development of a suitable Target Product Profile is
another key element of the mission. This will ensure that
the vaccines being introduced through the mission have
preferred characteristics applicable to India
Startup India Seed Fund Scheme 1 April, 2021 ³³ The Scheme aims to provide financial assistance to
(SISFS) startups at the very initial stage of their project.
³³ It has been approved for a time period of four years,
starting from 2021-22.
³³ This scheme is in line with the Atmanirbhar Bharat
Campaign launched in May 2020.
Ujjwala2. 0 Scheme 1 0 A u g u s t , ³³ LPG infrastructure has expanded manifold in the country
2021 due to the Ujjwala scheme.
³³ In the last six years, more than 11,000 new LPG
distribution centres have opened across the country.
³³ The LPG coverage in India is now very close to becoming
100 per cent.

MAHATMA GANDHI RURAL EMPLOYMENT RAJIV GANDHI GRAMIN VIDYUTIKARAN YOJANA

GUARANTEE ACT (MNREGA) (RGGVY launched in 2005)
(MGNREGA, launched on 2nd February, 2006) ³³ Aims at providing electricity in all villages and
³³ The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act habitations and access to “electricity to all rural
(NREGA) 2005 envisages securing the livelihood of households”.
people in rural areas by guaranteeing 100 days of ³³ Connections to BPL families are given free of cost.
employment in a financial year to a rural household. 90% cost of the scheme is released as grant where
The main provisions of the Act are 10% as loan.
³³ Employment to be given within 15 days of application ³³ For creation of village electrification infrastructure,
for work. first priority is given to unelectrified villages. Prefer-
³³ If employment is not provided within 15 days, daily ence for electrification is given to Dalit Bastis, Tribal
unemployment allowance in cash has to be paid. settlements and habitations of weaker sections.
³³ Employment within 5 km radius, else extra wages JLN NATIONAL URBAN RENEWAL MISSION
to be paid.
(JNNURM launched on 3rd December, 2005)
³³ At least one-third beneficiaries have to be women.
³³ The aim of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
³³ Gram Sabha will recommend works.
Renewal Mission (JNNURM) is to encourage reforms
³³ Gram Panchayat to execute at least 50 per cent of and fast track planned development of identified cities.
works.
³³ The duration of the Mission is seven years beginning
³³ On 2nd October, 2009 NREGA renamed as Mahatma from the year 2005-06.
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act.
³³ The Mission has two Sub-missions. The first Sub-
(MNREGA)
mission is for Urban Infrastructure and Governance
³³ In March 2013, the Government admitted that the namely Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme
programme is plagued with corruption and AADHAAR- for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT).
Enabled Payments for MGNERGA workers with Bank
³³ The JNNURM has now been extended to 65 cities from
Accounts.
the previous 63 cities.
³³ India’s rural employment guarantee programme ³³ Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of
MGNREGA has been ranked as the world’s largest Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG)— ‘Sabla’ (Set up in
public work programme. November, 2010)

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l It aims at empowering adolescent girls of 11 to 18 (b) Diversified agriculture

INDIAN ECONOMY

years by improving their nutritional and health (c) Modernisation of agriculture

status, upgradation of home skills, life skills and (d) Improved agrarian system
vocational skills. (3) Problems of Agriculture sector in India.
³³ Dhan Laxmi (Set up in March 2008)
(a) Slow and uneven growth
l Conditional cash transfer scheme for the girl child
to encourage families to educate girl children and (b) Not so modern agriculture
to prevent child marriage. (i) About two third area is rain fed.
³³ Ujjwala (Set up in 4th December, 2007) (ii) Only 40% of the gross cropped area has irriga-
l A comprehensive scheme for prevention of traffick- tion facilities.
ing with five specific components-prevention, res- (c) Flaws in land reforms
cue, rehabilitation reintegration and repatriation (d) Problems relating to finance. In 1951 money-
of victims. lenders accounted for as much as 71.6% of ru-
³³ Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyaan (RMSA) or ral credit. They used to charge rates of interest
Scheme for Universalisation to Access for Secondary ranging from 18 to 50%.
Education (SUCCESS) (Set up in March 2009)
l Aims at raising the enrolment rate at secondary IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
stage from 52.26% in 2005-06 to 75% in next 5 ³³ The share of agriculture in gross domestic product
years by providing a secondary school within rea- (GDP) has reached almost 20 per cent for the first time
sonable distance of 5 km of any habitation; ensure in the last 17 years, making it the sole bright spot in
universal access by 2017 and universal retention GDP performance during 2020-21, according to the
by 2020. Economic Survey 2020-2021.
³³ National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) (Set up in ³³ The resilience of the farming community in the face of
12th April, 2005) adversities made agriculture the only sector to have
l To provide effective healthcare to rural population clocked a positive growth of 3.4 per cent at constant
with special focus on 18 states with weak health prices in 2020-21, when other sectors slid.
indices/infrastructure; to raise public spending
³³ The share of agriculture in GDP increased to 19.9 per
on health from 0.9% of GDP to 2.3% of GDP; re-
duction of IMR and MMR; and universal access to cent in 2020-21 from 17.8 per cent in 2019-20. The
healthcare with emphasis on women. last time the contribution of the agriculture sector in
³³ Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY) GDP was at 20 per cent was in 2003-04.
(Set up in 2010) ³³ This was also the year when the sector clocked 9.5
l To correct regional imbalance in tertiary health per cent GDP growth, after the severe drought of 2002
care and augmenting facilities for quality medi- when the growth rate was negative.
cal education in the country; and setting up six ³³ However, during 2020-21, while the GVA for the
AIIMS-like institution in phase-1 and in phase-2 entire economy contracted by 7.2 per cent, growth
to more AIIMS like institutions. in GVA for agriculture maintained a positive growth
AGRICULTURE of 3.4 per cent.
³³ The continuous supply of agricultural commodities,
Agriculture is a very important sector of the Indian
economy. It plays a major role in the overall development especially staples like rice, wheat, pulses and
of the country [as it contributes nearly one-fifth of GDP vegetables, also enabled food security.
and engages around 50 per cent of the population of the ³³ In 2019-20 (according to fourth advance estimates),
country]. total food grain production (296.65 million tonnes)
(1) Role of agriculture in India. in the country was higher by 11.44 million tonnes
(a) Providing employment than 2018-19.
(b) Share in national income ³³ It was also higher by 26.87 million tonnes than the
(c) Supporting Industries previous five years’ (2014-15 to 2018-19) average
(d) Share in foreign trade production of 269.78 million tonnes.
(e) Supplier of food and fodder ³³ The production also boosted allocation of food grains
(f) Savings of capital under the National Food Security Act (NFSA) that
(g) Contributions to government’s revenue. increased by 56 per cent in 2020-21, compared to
(h) Solving problems of urban congestion and brain 2019-20. The government allocated 943.53 lakh
drain. tonnes of food grains to states / Union territories till
(2) Growth of agriculture during Planning Period. December 2020.
(a) Increase in Production and Productivity. Due to
³³ The survey also termed the new farm laws as a
constant efforts of the government the productiv-
“remedy” and “not a malady” in a message to the
ity largely increases which is commonly known
farmer community opposing the laws.
as green revolution.

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³³ The three agricultural reform legislations are designed ³³ Green Revolution initiated the process of modernisation

INDIAN ECONOMY
and intended primarily for the benefit of small and of Indian Agriculture.
marginal farmers who constitute around 85 per cent ³³ Its negative aspect was that Green Revolution
of the total number of farmers and are the biggest remained confined to wheat and rice only. It did not
sufferers of the regressive Agricultural Produce Market cover pulses.
Committee regulated market regime. The newly ³³ The fruit of Green Revolution did not reach to each
introduced farm laws herald a new era of market and every region of the country.
freedom that can go a long way in the improvement ³³ Increase in food production has taken place only
of farmer welfare in India. in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and
³³ The survey gave a note of various consultations and Western Uttar Pradesh.
reports on the need for agricultural reforms. ³³ The new technology remained out of reach of the small
³³ The reforms in the agricultural sector were more and marginal farmers.
overdue than even the labour reforms as the existing ³³ The new technology has widened income inequality.
laws kept the Indian farmer enslaved to the local
³³ Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is now advocating ‘Evergeeen
Mandi (wholesale market) and their rent-seeking
Revolution’ based on biotechnology for the growth of
intermediaries.
agricultural sector.
³³ It called for a paradigm shift in how agriculture was
³³ India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber
viewed, “from a rural livelihood sector to a modern
with a share of 8.2% in world production in 2010.
business enterprise”.
³³ India is the seventh largest producer of coffee after
LAND REFORMS Brazil, Honduras, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia and
³³ At the time of Independence, there were three types Ethiopia.
of land tenure systems prevailing in the country viz., ³³ India is the second largest producer and largest
the Zamindari system, the Mahalwari system and the consumer of black tea in the world.
Ryotwari system. Various Revolutions
³³ The period from First Five Year Plan to Third Five Year Revolution Commodity
Plan concentrated on land reforms and institutional
Green Wheat, rice
changes.
³³ The steps took include abolition of Zamindari and Yellow Oilseeds
tenancy reforms for bringing about rapid agricultural Golden Horticulture
growth. Golden Fiber Jute
³³ The aims and objectives associated with land reforms Rainbow Agriculture
include : White Milk
i. Abolition of intermediaries
Blue Fish
ii. Security of rent
Red Meat and Tomato
iii. Ownership rights for tenants
iv. Redistribution of land Pink Lobster (Fish)
v. Consolidation of holdings Black Petroleum Products
vi. Cooperative farming, Brown Fertilisers
GREEN REVOLUTION Grey Wool
Round Potato
³³ It refers to the major increase in agricultural
productivity due to the introduction of High Yield Silver Egg/poultry
Variety of Seeds (HYVS) together with new techniques. Silver Fiber Cotton
³³ Green Revolution led to a significant increase in the Evergreen Increase in productivity and pros-
production of both Wheat and Rice. perity without ecological harm
³³ The credit for ushering in the era of Green Revolution
AGRICULTURE PRICE POLICY
goes to Dr. Norman Borlaug and Dr. M.S. Swaminathan.
³³ Dr. William Goud gave the term Green Revolution. ³³ The Commission on Agricultural Costs and Prices
(CACP) provide expert advice to the government on
³³ The New Agricultural strategy of Green Revolution
price policy.
was based on a ‘Package Programme’.
³³ The Food Corporation of India (FCI) has been the
³³ The production of wheat increased from 10.4 million
Government’s operational arm for entering the market
tonnes in 1965 to 70.5 million tonnes in 1998-1999.
to guarantee price support to farmers.
³³ The production of rice increased from 30.6 million
³³ Minimum Support Price (MSP): MSP is the price
tonnes in 1965-1966 to 86.0 million tonnes in 1998-
which is announced by the Government to purchase
1999.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

the crop from the farmers directly if they are willing ³³ Institutional sources includes commercial banks,
INDIAN ECONOMY

if crop prices become lower than MSP. cooperative banks and regional rural banks.
³³ CACP recommends Minimum Supprt Price (MSPs) ³³ The NABARD is the apex refinancing institution for
for commodities. It recommendation is not bending. all the institutional sources.
³³ The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) ³³ The Kisan Credit Card scheme was introduced in
gives approval for the MSPs. 1998-1999.
MSP is given for the following crops ³³ The total credit flow to agriculture in the Ninth Plan
³³ CACP is an attached office of the Ministry of Agriculture (1997-2002) amounted to Rs. 2,29,956 crore.
and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. ³³ In the Tenth Plan (2002-2007) the total credit flow to
³³ It came into existence in January 1965. agriculture is projected at Rs. 7,36,570 crore.
³³ It is an advisory body whose recommendations are
NATIONAL BANK FOR AGRICULTURE AND RURAL
not binding on the Government.
DEVELOPMENT (NABARD)
³³ The mandated crops include 14 crops of the kharif
³³ NABARD was established on July 12, 1982.
season, 6 rabi crops and 2 other commercial crops.
³³ It was established with a paid up capital of Rs. 100
³³ In addition, the MSPs of toria and de-husked coconut
crore having 50:50 contribution of Indian Government
are fixed on the basis of the MSPs of rapeseed/
and RBI.
mustard and copra, respectively.
³³ NABARD is the apex institution providing finance for
³³ The list of crops are as follows:
agriculture and rural development.
l Cereals (7): Paddy, wheat, barley, jowar, bajra,
³³ Under the 1981 Act, NABARD have a capital of Rs. 100
maize and ragi,
crore. This capital has further increased to Rs. 5,000
l Pulses (5): Gram, arhar/tur, moong, urad and
crore by the central government in consultation with
lentil,
RBI. Recently, Parliament passed a bill to increase
l Oilseeds (8): Groundnut, rapeseed/mustard,
this capital to Rs. 30,000 crore.
toria, soyabean, sunflower seed, sesamum, saf-
³³ NABARD provides refinance facilities to various such
flower seed and niger seed,
financial institutions which provide loans to promote
l Raw cotton, Raw jute, Copra, De-husked coco-
productive activities in rural areas.
nut, and
³³ NABARD obtains funds from Government of India,
l Sugarcane (Fair and remunerative price).
World Bank and other agencies.
³³ The main objectives behind MSPs are :
³³ To prevent fall in price, CLASSIFICATION OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS
³³ To protect the interest of farmers.
Major Irrigation Projects
³³ Procurement Prices : Pro-curement prices are fixed
The emphasis of projects has been on building multi-
at a higher levels as compared to the MSP and are
purpose projects which provide not only irrigation water
meant essentially for the purchase of quantities
but also flood protection, hydro-power and irrigation.
needed by the Government for maintaining the PDS
and for building the buffer stocks. Merits
³³ Issue Prices : It indicates the prices at which the ³³ Huge irrigation potential.
Government supplies food grains through fair price ³³ Serve several purposes.
shops and national depots.
Demerits
AGRICULTURAL CREDIT
³³ Long gestation period and consequent cost escalation.
³³ Credit requirements of the Indian farmers can be
³³ The projects have failed to achieve ‘flood control’
classified into three types viz, short term, medium
objective. Reason : heavy siltation of the reservoirs
term and long term.
of major dams.
³³ Short term loans are provided for a period of less
³³ Degradation of soil in command areas due to water
than 15 months.
logging. Estimated 25 per cent of total irrigated area
³³ Medium term loans are provided for a period of 15 of about 40 million hectares is threatened by water
months to 5 years. logging and salinity.
³³ Long term loans are provided for a period of more ³³ Displacement of millions of People. Our records in
than 5 years. rehabilitation have been very bad.
³³ There are two principal sources for obtaining credit ³³ Adverse environmental impact including destruction
by the farmers viz., Non–Institutional sources and of flora and fauna in catchment areas.
Institutional sources.
³³ Increased soil erosion and landslides and consequently
³³ Non-Institutional sources includes, money lenders, greater danger of floods, earthquakes and outbursts.
landlords etc.

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Minor Irrigation Projects Contribution of Livestock sector to Food-basket

INDIAN ECONOMY
These include ground water development through ³³ The contribution of Livestock sector to the food basket
construction of dug wells, deep public tube wells, small in the form of milk, eggs, and meat has been immense
surface development works through diversion schemes, in fulfilling the animal protein requirement of ever-
storage, lift irrigation projects. growing human population.
³³ The present availability of animal protein in an Indian
Merits
diet is 10 gm per person per day, as against a world
³³ Small investment. average of 25 gm.
³³ Short gestation period. ³³ However, keeping in view the growing population, the
³³ Immediate gains. animal protein availability has to increase at least two-
³³ Provide local employment. fold for maintaining the nutritional level of growing
³³ Labour intensive. Two-thirds of cost of a minor project children and nursing mothers in India.
goes in labour wages.
Operation Flood
³³ Of special importance in raising pulses and oilseeds,
³³ The largest ever dairy development project was
as these crops require only limited irrigation facilities.
launched in 1970, popularly known as Operation Flood,
Rural electrification works must be expedited in order
with the object of setting up AMUL like organisation in
to optimise returns from minor irrigation projects.
several states linking rural milk procurement points
Use of Fertilisers with urban demand centres.
³³ The food potential of high yielding varities (HYV) seeds ³³ AMUL (Anand Milk Union Ltd.) at Anand in Kheda
in India could not have been brought about but with district of Gujarat was set up in 1960s to promote
use of fertilisers. cooperative movement in milk production and
³³ Over 50 per cent of the increase in yield on a per unit marketing. AMUL subsequently began to serve as a
area basis in a worldwide spectrum during the past model for future development of dairy industry.
30 years has been due to increased use of fertilisers. ³³ Operation Flood II, launched in 1979, aimed at setting
³³ With continuous decline in land/man ratio, additional up a National Milk Grid by linking rural milk sheds
increases in agricultural production are expected to to major demand centres in urban areas.
come from increased yields only. ³³ Now, India ranks first in the world in milk production.
³³ Fertilisers may therefore rightly be defined as the Mechanisation of Agriculture
spear head of agricultural development.
³³ By mechanisation of agriculture we mean the
³³ India’s soil is deficient in nitrogen and potassium replacement of animal and human power by machinery
hence use of fertiliser is necessary for high yields of viz, ploughing by tractor; sowing/fertiliser mixing by
crop. drill; reaping/threshing by combined thresher. It also
³³ Four decades of planning and development of the includes use of pumping sets and electrically operated
fertiliser industry have brought India to the frontline of tubewells. It means elimination of wooden ploughs,
fertiliser producing countries. India today is the third bullocks, sickles etc.
largest producer of nitrogenous fertilisers in the world. ³³ It will increase agricultural production boosting
Quality Seeds productivity and also lead to reduction of product
costs.
³³ Quality seed is the bedrock of increased agricultural
production. Our position in this regard has not been AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AND
very satisfactory because specially good quality seeds WAREHOUSING
kept for sowing purposes are either consumed away
during off-season or because good seeds deteriorate Cooperative Marketing :
through bad storage. ³³ Three-tier structure
Significance of animal husbandry in Indian economy ³³ At national level - NAFED (National Agricultral
Cooperative Marketing Federation)
Animal Husbandry and Dairy development plays a
³³ At State level—Sate-level co-operative marketing
prominent role in the rural economy in supplementing the
federations.
income of rural households, particularly, the landless and
³³ At local level—Cooperative marketing societies and
small and marginal farmers. It also provides subsidiary
primary marketing societies.
occupation in semi-urban areas and more so for people
³³ Punjab, Gujarat, Maharashtra, UP together account
living in hilly, tribal and drought prone areas where crop
for about 75 per cent of total value of agricultural
output may not sustain the family. Animal husbandry
produce marketed by cooperatives.
output constitutes about 30 per cent of the country’s
³³ Foodgrains, sugarcane and cotton together account
agricultural output
for 75 per cent of total value of sales.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ ‘Operation Flood’ and Dairy Cooperatives. of the agricultural marketing department—AGMARK—to

INDIAN ECONOMY

³³ IFFCO (The Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative emphasise that they are of appropriate quality, ‘Agmark’
Ltd.) is one of the leading producers of fertilisers in grade is given after laboratory testing of the products.
the country. It also undertakes marketing. 2. Setting up of regulated markets and introduction of
³³ NAFED (National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing uniform system of weights
Federation) ³³ About two-thirds of agricultural produce is now sold
³³ It promotes inter-State and export trade of agricultural in regulated markets.
produce. ³³ Regulated markets aim at the development of the
³³ It undertakes movement of essential commodities from marketing structure to :
surplus to scarcity area. (i) ensure renumerative prices to the producers of
³³ NCDC (The National Cooperative Development agricultural commodities.
Cooperation) (ii) narrow down the price spread between the producer
³³ It is responsible for the planning and promotion of and the consumer.
programmes for processing, storage and marketing (iii) reduce non-functional margins of the traders and
of agricultural produce and notified commodities commission agents.
through cooperative societies. 3. Provisioning of warehousing facilities.
³³ It undertakes construction of godowns and cold ³³ Central warehousing corporations
storages. ³³ State warehousing corporations for constructing and
NAFED running godowns and warehouses.
4. Dissemination of market trends and prices through
NAFED (National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing
radio, TV etc.
Federation of India Ltd.) has been established in co-oper-
ative sector are national level for marketing of agriculture Warehousing in India
products.
1. At present there are three main agencies in the
STORING FACILITIES FOR AGRICULTURE public sector which are engaged in building large-scale
PRODUCTS storage/warehousing capacity, viz.
To promote storing facilities for agriculture products, ³³ The Food Corporation of India (FCI)
National Co-operative Development & Warehousing Board ³³ Central Warehousing Corporation
(1956) and Central Warehousing Corporation (1957) were ³³ State Warehousing Corporaions
established. State Warehousing Corporations were also FCI provides storage capacity for foodgrains. It has
established. Presently FCI has its own warehouses. its own godowns and it also hires storage capacities from
CWC, SWCs and private parties.
TRIFED
The main functions of CWC and SWCs are to acquire
³³ The Government established TRIFED (Tribal Co-
and build warehouses and operate them for storage of
operative Marketing Development Federation of India
agricultural produce, fertilisers etc.
Ltd.) in August 1987. The basic aim of TRIFED was to
2. The warehouses have two definite aims.
save tribals from exploitation by private traders and to
offer them remunerative prices for their minor forest ³³ To provide better and scientific storage facilities at
produce and surplus agriculture products. reasonable cost.
³³ TRIFED started functioning since April 1988. TRIFED ³³ To provide farmers and traders with a convenient
has also been declared an important agency for instrument of credit in the form of warehouse receipts
collecting, processing, storing and developing of oil against which they can borrow from commercial
seeds products. banks.
³³ TRIFED plays a role of an agent of FCI for Government MONEY & BANKING
purchase of wheat and rice.
³³ It is also an agent of agriculture and co-operation SUPPLY OF MONEY
department for Government purchase of cereals, ³³ There are four types of currency published in India
pulses and oil-seeds. Agriculture Ministry gives aid to called –M1, M2, M3, M4.
TRIFED for compensating loss incurred due to price ³³ RBI calculates the four concepts of money supply
fluctuations. in India
Government and Agricultural Marketing ³³ M1 is called the narrow money

Measures undertaken by Government in agricultural ³³ Currently Narrow Money (M1) and Broad money (M3)
marketing : are relevant indicators of money supply in India.
1. Quality control—Commodities like ghee, vegetable M0 = Reserve money or high power money currency
oils, flour, butter, cotton etc. are stamped with the seal with the public + other deposits with the RBI +

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 Indian Economy

CRR themselves + CRR held with RBI. ³³ RBI issued new Rs. 200 denomination bank notes in

INDIAN ECONOMY
M1 = Currecncy with the public + Demand deposit the Mahatma Gandhi (New) series. The new version
with the banking system + other deposit with the of the note has a depiction of Sanchi Stupa on the
RBI. reverse, depicting the country‘s cultural heritage. The
base colour of the note is Bright Yellow.
M2 = M1 + saving deposits of post office, saving banks.
³³ The new Rs. 20 bank notes has a depiction of the
M3 = M1 + Time deposit with the banking system. Ellora caves on the reverse, in the Mahatma Gandhi
M4 = M3 + All deposits with the post office saving (ex- new series has been issued by RBI depicting the
cluding NSC) country‘s cultural heritage.
Supply of Money
FORMS OF MONEY
M1 1. Fiat Money : Fiat money is money whose value is not
derived from any intrinsic value or guarantee that it
can be converted into a valuable commodity (Such as
Currency with Demand Deposits Other Deposits with gold) : instead, it has value only by government order.
the public with the Banks Reserve Bank 2. Credit Money : Credit money is money that is backed
by a promise to pay made by someone other than the
state.
3. Fiduciary Money : Money that depends for its value
Demand Deposits with Demand Deposits Demand Deposits
Reserve Bank of Public with Reserve Bank of International
and confidence that is an accepted medium of ex-
Financial Institutions of Foreign Central Financial change. It originated as a paper certificate that was a
bank and Governments Institution promise to pay a certain amount of gold or silver to the
bearer.
³³ Coins in India are limited legal tender.
4. Full bodied Money : Any unit of money, whose face
³³ Paper currency is unlimited legal tender. value and intrinsic value are equal, is known as full
³³ Narrow money is the most liquid part of the money bodied money.
supply because the demand deposits can be
TYPES OF DEFICIT
withdrawn anytime.
³³ The Mahatma Gandhi series of banknotes are issued 1. Deficit : Budget deficit refers to a situation when bud-
by the RBI-as a legal tender. get expenditures of the government greater than the
budget receipts.
³³ The RBI introduced the series in 1996 with Rs. 10
There are three types of budget deficit—
and Rs. 500 banknotes.
1. Revenue Deficit
³³ In January 2014 RBI announced that it would be
2. Fiscal Deficit
withdrawing from circulation all currency notes
printed prior to 2005 by 2014. the deadline was later 3. Primary Deficit
extended to 30 June, 2016. ³³ Revenue Deficit : It is excess of total revenue
expenditure of the government over its total revenue
³³ From the midnight of 8 November, 2016, all 500 and
receipts. It is related to only revenue expenditure and
1000 rupee denominations of this series have been
revenue receipts of the government.
demonetized.
³³ On 8 November, 2016 the RBI announced the issuance Revenue Deficit = Revenue Expenditure – Revenue Receipts
of new Rs. 500 and Rs. 2000 banknotes in the RD = RE — RR
Mahatma Gandhi (new) series of Banknotes.
³³ The new Rs. 2000 banknote has a magenta base ³³ Revenue deficit signifies that government’s own
colour, with a portrait of Mahatma Gandhi as well as earning is insufficient to meet normal functioning of
the Ashoka pillar Emblem on the front. government departments and provision of services.
³³ The denomination also has a motif of the Mars Orbiter ³³ Revenue deficit results in borrowing.
Mission (MOM) on the back, depicting the country’s ³³ It occurs when government spends more than what it
first venture into interplanetary space. collects by way of revenue, it incurs revenue deficit.
³³ The new Rs. 500 banknote has a stone grey base
colour with an image of the Red Fort along with the
Main Remedies to Control
Indian flag printed on the back. 1. Government should raise rate of taxes.
³³ RBI issued new Rs 100 denomination bank-notes 2. Any new taxes
depicts M.K. Gandhi’s Face and Back Side Features 3. Reduce expenditure.
of “Rani Ki Vav,” highlighting the country’s cultural 4. Avoid unnecessary expenditure
heritage. 2. Fiscal Deficit : It is defined as excess of total budget
³³ Both the bank notes have the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan expenditure over total budget receipts excluding
logo printed on the back. borrowing during a fiscal year.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Fiscal Deficit = Budget Expenditure (revenue + capital) — TYPE OF DEPOSITS

INDIAN ECONOMY

Budget Receipts other than borrowings (revenue receipts ³³ Current or Demand Deposit Account— Current
+ capital receipts other than borrowings). accounts are basically meant for businessmen and are
3. Primary Deficit : The borrowing requirements of the never used for the perpose of investment or savings.
government include interest obligations on accumu- These deposits are the most liquid deposits and there
lated debt. The primary deficit indicates the deficit are no limits for number of transactions in a day.
amount that the government needs to borrow for con- No interest is paid by banks on these accounts. On
sumption and investment purposes. other hand bank charges certain service charges, on
such accounts.
Primary Deficit = Gross Fiscal Deficit - Net Interest Liabilities
³³ Time Deposit Account : When money is deposited
Objectives of Government Budget : with a tenure, it can’t be withdrawn before its maturity
1. Economic Growth fixed at a particular time. Such deposits are called
time deposits or term deposits. The most common
2. Reduction of Poverty
example of the time deposits is ‘Fixed Deposit.’
3. Reduction of inequalities
³³ All time deposits are eligible for interest payment.
4. Redistribution of income
5. Reallocation of resources ³³ Recurring Deposit Account : Fixed amount is
deposited at regular intervals for a fixed term and
6. Price Stability
the repayment of principal and accumulated interest
7. Financing and management of public enterprises. is made at the end of the term. These deposits are
Types of Budget : Budgets are of three types— (1) usually targeted at persons who are salaried or
Balanced Budget (2) Surplus Budget (3) Deficit Budget receive other regular incoming. A recurring deposit
1. Balanced Budget : A government budget is said to be can usually be opend for any period from 6 months
a balanced budget in which government estimated re- to 12 months.
ceipts are equal to government estimated expenditure.
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS (BOP)
Government Receipts = Government expenditure
It refers to comprehensive record of economic trans-
³³ It ensures financial stability. actions of the residents of a country with the rest of the
³³ It avoids wasteful expenditure. world during a given period of time.
2. Surplus Budget : When government receipts are more Overall Balance of payments = Balance of payments
than government expenditure in the budget the budget on current account + Balance of payments on capital
account.
is called a surplus budget.
Balance of Payments on Current Account–It is
Estimated Govt. Receipts > Estimated Govt. Expenditure made up of exports and imports expenses on travel,
transporation, insurance, investment, income, transfer
³³ A surplus budget shows that government is taking payments.
away more money than what it is pumping in the It consists of visibles and invisibles.
economic systems. Visibles refer to commodity exports and imports
3. Deficit Budget : When government estimated expen- because these are recorded at the custom barriers of the
diture exceeds government receipts in the budget, the country.
budget is said to be a deficit budget. Invisibles refer to service exports and imports e.g.,
transport charges, shipping freight, passenger fares,
Deficit Budget = Govt. Expenditure > Govt. Receipt harbour and canal dues, commercial services (fees and
commissions), financial services (brokers, fees), services
TYPES OF LOAN connected with the tourist traffic, payment of interest
on external debt, and inward remittances of funds by
³³ Overdraft– An overdraft occurs when money is
Non-resident Indians.
withdrawn from bank account and the available Balance of Payments on Capital Account—It is
balance goes below zero. In this situation the account made up of capital transactions e.g., borrowing and lend-
is sail to be withdrawn. ing of capital, repayment of capital, sale and purchase of
³³ Cash Credit : An account with a bank by which a securities and other assets from foreigners—individuals
person or house, having given security for repayment, and Governments.
draws at pleasure upon the bank to the extent of an It is the overall balance of payment which must be
amount agreed upon, also called bank credit and favourable.
cash amount. BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND BALANCE OF TRADE
³³ Demand Loan : A demand loan is a loan that lender
Balance of trade = Value of commodity exports—Val-
may require the borrower to repay at any time. ue of commodity imports i.e. balance on visibles alone.
³³ Short term loan : A loan scheduled to be repaid in Balance of payments refers to the sum of both visi-
less than a year. This type of loan is to finance the bles and invisibles.
temporary work.
Balance of payments = Trade balance + Net invisibles

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 Indian Economy

CAUSES OF BOP PROBLEMS growth will be limited by the fact that household debt

INDIAN ECONOMY
³³ Expansion of imports has grown rapidly in the last few years.
³³ Slow growth in export earnings ³³ Limitation of Public Expenditure: Government has
resorted to increased public spending to combat the
³³ Deficits on Capital transactions
economic slowdown triggered by Covid-19 pandemic.
³³ The policy of import liberalisation
³³ Limitation of Expansionary Monetary Policy: India
³³ Higher demand for consumer durables, mention
may well have scope for expansionary fiscal policy
may be made of colour TVs, VCRs, air conditioners,
in the short run but not as a medium run growth
refrigerators, motor cycles, cars and other gadgetry
strategy.
³³ Depreciation of the rupee.
The negative list of imports consists of (i) Prohib- Reasons for India’s Underperformance in Exports
ited Items which are totally banned from imports and ³³ Low Level of Participation in Global Value Chains
these are now limited to only tallow, fat and/or oils of an- (GVCs): India’s participation in GVCs has been low
imal origin, wild animals to tallow. (ii) Restricted items compared to the major exporting nations in East and
the imports of which is limited due to special reasons. (iii) Southeast Asia.
Canalised products which can be imported only through ³³ Low Market Penetration in High-Income Countries:
state designated agencies like STC, and MMTC (items like With low participation in GVCs have resulted in a
edible oils, petroleum products, fertilisers etc.). Over the disproportionate shift in India’s geographical direction
years the restricted and canalised products have been of exports from traditional rich country markets to
continuously reduced. other destinations like African countries.
³³ Specialization versus Diversification: Indian exports
Nature of Deficits
is characterised by high diversification combined with
³³ Deficits have been caused by imports which were
low specialization in exports.
needed for country’s development.
³³ Domestic Factors: The factors like lacklustre
³³ Since the Fourth Plan, the deficits could be moderated
infrastructure, complex land and labour markets
by rising net surplus on invisibles account. have impeded the creations of conditions for Indian
Causes of Deficit companies to compete in global markets.
³³ The main cause is that imports have been growing at Way Forward
a faster rate than exports.
³³ Trade Liberalisation: India needs to raise its share
³³ Another factor, assuming significance in recent in world trade beyond 2 per cent. Doing so requires
years, is growing deficit on capital account. Of its greater trade liberalisation. It will require signing of
various components, repayment of loans (principal more free trade agreements.
and interest) have been the biggest source of deficit.
³³ Promoting Ease of doing Business: Export success
will also require genuine easing of costs of trading
INDIA’S TRADE POLICY and doing business in India.
The Government of India announces trade policy ³³ Becoming Part of GVCs: India should be striving to
from time to time. The trade policy has all along been embed itself in global value chains.
formulated with the objectives of fulfilling Plan goals. ³³ Policy Stability: In the post Covid world, multinational
Objectives companies in order to hedge against supply chain
Import substitution : Import of only essential items; disruptions will look to shift away from China.
restructuring of imports to help export promotion. WHAT ARE THE EXPECTATIONS FROM NEW
Export promotion : This objective has assumed FOREIGN TRADE POLICY 2021 – 26
great importance in recent years because of rapidly in-
³³ The new FTP will come into effect from 1st April
creasing trade deficits and repayment obligations.
2021 for a period of five years and will strive to make
Ensuring competitiveness of Indian products vis- India a leader in the area of international trade and
a-vis world markets : This is being done through liberal channelize the synergies gained through merchandise
import of certain items so that domestic producers are and services exports for growth and employment with
exposed to foreign competitions. On the other hand, vari- a goal to make India a USD 5 Trillion economy.
ous incentives are being given to Indian exporters to place
them at par with their foreign competitors. Some key expectations are:
Export-Import Policy (1988) : It gave further ³³ WTO compliant tax incentives: The government has
strength to the measures announced in 1985. introduced the Remission of Duties or Taxes on Export
Products (RoDTEP) to end the need of the hour, i.e.
NEW STRATEGY FOR EXPORT PROMOTION
WTO compliant tax benefits. The RoDTEP became
Issues in Current Economic Policies effective from 1st January, 2021 and it replaces MEIS
³³ Limited Domestic Consumption: Government seeks to but the rates & conditions of the scheme is yet to be
promote consumption-led growth, but consumption announced.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Infrastructure upgrade: The trade infrastructure

INDIAN ECONOMY

Petroleum and Natural 49% Automatic Route

needs to be developed and thus, the government has Gas
introduced a scheme in 2017 to develop the trade
infrastructure for the export sector. The scheme was Commodity Exchanges 49% Automatic Route
introduced for a period of 3 years. Power Exchanges 49% Automatic Route
³³ Digitalisation: The process of digitalisation makes the
Stock Exchanges/Clear- 49% Automatic Route
whole process of import & export paperless and online. ing Corporations
This helps in bringing a transparency in the trade
happens globally. Thus, the policy must be formulated Credit information Com- 74% Automatic Route
to make the whole process digitalised. panies
³³ Easy access to credits: There is a problem that goes Courier Services 100% Automatic Route
way back, related to lending money to MSMEs because
Single Brand Product 100% Automatic up to 49%
they lack adequate collateral. There is a demand of Retail trading government route be-
credit access from the exporters especially MSMEs. yond 49% and up to
This policy can help to start or open up the alternate 100%
avenues and the advisory group has advised to
Insurance Sector 74% FIPB route
increase the borrowing limits at the Export Import
Bank of India. Multip Brand Retail 51% —
³³ Tax breaks: The government must support in respect Print Media 26% —
of easing & lowering the tax rates. The confederation of
Indian Industry proposes to simplify the import duty Education 100% —
structure, i.e., high duties on finished goods & lower FM Radio 26% —
or minimal duties on the raw materials.
³³ Import wish list: India’s import community has a wish IMPORTANT COMMITTEES
list that includes permission to import capital goods Commission Area
on self – certification basis & to import prohibited
goods with the approval of Central Government or Lakdawala Committee Poverty
Inter – Ministerial Standing Committee. M.S. Ahluwalia Committee Employment opportunities
³³ Export awareness:There are many exporters who Subimal Dutt Committee Licensing System
lacks awareness in respect of trade opportunities. (1969)
The Indian government must formulate policy in Hazari Committee (1967) Licensing System
such a way that it consists of workshops & awareness
R.H. Patil Commission Disinvestment
programs to make the exporters aware about the
(2001)
international laws, global markets, etc.
S.S. Kohli Committee Small Scale Industries
Conclusion
Abid Hussain Committee Small Scale Industries
³³ With the help for new foreign trade policy, it can (1984)
ensure a stable demand & supply that helps in
Onkar Goswami Committee Industrial Sickness
economic growth. The policy also allows the country (1993)
to increase in import & export in the country and to
S.S. Raghvan Committee Competition Policy
makes India’s position in International market. (1999)
FDI Limits in Various Sectors Chelliah Committee (1991) Tax Reforms
Per cent Geethi Krishnan Commis- Expenditure Reforms
of sion (2000)
Sector/Activity Entry Route
FDI/
Narsimhan Committee Banking Sector
Equity
(1991)
Defence Sector 74% Automatic route Verma Committee Banking Sector
Telecom Services 100% Automatic up to 49% Kumar Mangalam Birla Corporate Governance
government route be- Committee
yond 49% and upto
100% Montek Singh Ahluwalia Power Sector
Committee
Tea Plantation 100% Automatic up to 49%
Swaminathan Committee Agriculture Reforms
government route be-
yond 49% and up to M.J. Ferwani Committee Stock Exchange
100%
C. Rangrajan Committee Balance of Payment
Asset Reconstruction 100% Automatic up to 49%
Hanumnata Rao Committee Fertilisers
Company government beyond
49% and up to 100% Mahajan Committee Sugar Industry

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 Indian Economy

INDIAN ECONOMY
R. V. Gupta Committee Agriculture Credit Shri M. Narasimham Com- On Banking Sector Reforms
Narsimhan Committee Banking Reforms mittee
(1998) MBN Rao Committee To prepare the bluepring of
Khan Working Group Development of Finance India’s first women’s bank
Institutions B. Shivraman Committee NABARD
S.L. Kapoor Committee Credit and Flow Problems Shri Raghuram Rajan Com- On Financial Sector Re-
of SSIs mittee forms,
Dave Committee (2000) Pension scheme for Unor- Mukul Mudgal Committee Looking into US giant
ganised sector Walmart’s lobbying activi-
Mashelkar Committee Auto Fuel Policy ties to enter India
(January 2002) K.M. Chandrasekhar Com- For rationalization of foreign
S.N. Verma Committee Restructuring the Commercial mittee investment norms
(1999) Banks C Rangarajan Committee For poverty scale estimates in
Bhurelal Committee Increase in Motor Vehicle the country
Tax Deepak Parekh Committee For Financing Infrastruc-
Sapta Rishi Committee Development of Domestic ture sector
(July 2002) Tea Industry Bhandari Committee Reconstruction of RRBs
Abhijit Sen Committee Long Term Food Policy R. V. Easwar Committee To simplify Income-tax Act,
(July 2002) 1961
Kelkar Committee Tax Structure Reforms P. K. Sinha Committee To shortlist the candidates for
Goiporia Committee Consumer Service Impor- Reserve Bank of India governor
tance post
Malhotra Committee Improving Insurance Centre Sudarshan Sen Committee To study regulatory issues re-
Tarapur Committee Full convertibility in capital lating to financial technology
account and digital banking in India

Rakesh Mohan Committee Infrastructure Mata Prasad Committee To overhaul in transmis-

sion planning to facilitate
Chandrashekhar Committee Transfer of Shares transfer of power on economic
J.J. Irani Committee Company Law Reforms principles.
P.J. Nayak Committee To decrease the share hold- Amitabh Kant Committee To develop a digital pay-
(2014) ing of central Government ments option for the
in Public Sector banks. payment of all govern-
ment-citizen transactions to
B. Sambamarti Committee For Mobile Banking. flush out black money and
Ajay Shaukar Committee For the development of In- corruption from the country
(2015) dustries.
Mundra Committee To speed up the process of
SIT (Special Investigation Committee - To probe black recalibration of Automated
Term) or Justice MB Shah money Teller Machines (ATM) to
Bimal Jalan To head the Expenditure dispense the new denomina-
Management Commission tion notes.
Suresh Prabhu Committee To review gas pricing for- Ravindra H Dholakia com- Constituted to upgrade
mula mittee norms for computation of
economic data
Deepak Mohanty Committee Data and Information Man-
agement in the RBI Suresh Mathur Committee To review norms for insur-
ance marketing firms
Arvind Mayaram Commit- To clear definition to the
tee FDI and FII K.P. Krishnan Committee Variable Capital Company
Gopalakrishna Committee On Capacity Building in N. K. Sodhi Committee Four-member Takeover Pan-
Banks and non-Banks el by SEBI
G.N. Bajpai Committee Guidelines for national pen- S Janakiraman Committee Advisory group to assist the
sion system (NPS) schemes second Regulatory Review
in private sector. Authority (RRA 2.0)
Urjit Patel Committee To Examine the current Nilesh Shah Committee IFSCA’s expert committee
monetary policy framework on Investment Funds
Khandelwal Committee On HR issues of public sector Sudarshan Sen Committee Asset Reconstruction Com-
banks. panies (ARC)
Jankiraman Committee To investigate the security ShyamalaGopinathCom- Panel to Evaluate Bank Ap-
transactions of the bank mittee plications
Damodaran Committee on improvement of custom- N. S. VishwanathanCom- Expert Committee on Urban
er service in bank mittee co-op Banks by RBI

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge
INDIAN ECONOMY

Ayant Kumar Dash Com- Digital lending as frauds BANKING SYSTEM IN INDIA
mittee come into sharp focus
P K MohantyCommittee Large NBFCs into banks ³³ Banking system occupies an important place
AurnGoelCommittee Capital Goods (CG) Sector in a nation’s economy. A banking institution is
through interventions that indispensable in a modern society. It plays a pivotal
help the CG Sector role in the economic development of a country and
Madhabi Puri Buch Com- Recommending Policy on forms the core of the money market in an advanced
mittee Market Data Access country.
Rajesh Pant Committee National Cyber Security Co- ³³ For the past three decades India’s banking system
ordinator to study the reve- has several outstanding achievements to its credit.
lations in China Watching
³³ It is no longer confined to only metropolitans or
Rajiv MehrishiCommittee Assessment of relief to bank cosmopolitans in India. In fact, Indian banking
borrower system has reached even to the remote corners of the
Ms SanyuktaSamaddarCo- NITI Aayog preparing Mul- country. This is one of the main reasons of India’s
mmittee tidimensional Poverty index growth process.
KV Kamath Committee Setting Parameters for Loan ³³ The government’s regular policy for Indian bank since
Restructuring 1969 has paid rich dividends with the nationalisation
Pradip ShahCommittee Plan to develop international of 14 major private banks of India.
retail business
³³ The first bank in India, though conservative, was
Ramesh ChandCommittee Sugarcane Prices to Sugar established in 1786. From 1786 till today, the journey
Rate of Indian Banking System can be segregated into three
Rajesh VermaCommittee Business Responsibility Re- distinct phases. They are as mentioned below :
porting (BRR)
• Early phase from 1786 to 1969 of Indian Banks
Professor R. Narayanaswa- National Financial Reporting • Nationalisation of Indian Banks and up to 1991 prior
myCommittee Authority
to Indian banking sector reforms.
Uday KotakCommittee IBBI reconstitutes advisory
• New phase of Indian Banking System with the advent
panel on corporate insolven-
cy resolution process of Indian Financial & Banking Sector Reforms after
1991.
Rajesh BhushanCommittee Reforms in India’s drug reg-
ulatory system NATIONALISATION OF BANKS IN INDIA
N. K. SinghCommittee 15th Finance to Commis- The nationalisation of banks in India took place in
sion review fiscal consoli-
dation road map of the both 1969 by Mrs. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister. It
state and central nationalised 14 banks then.
PravinKutumbeCommittee IRDAI sets up panel on gov- ³³ Before the steps of nationalisation of Indian banks,
ernance at insurers only State Bank of India (SBI) was nationalised. It
SanjivPuriCommittee 15th Finance commission to took place in July 1955 under the SBI Act of 1955.
boost agri exports Nationalisation of Seven State Banks of India (formed
Pay Commissions subsidiary) took place on 19th July, 1959.
Pay Chairman Appoint- Report ³³ The State Bank of India is India’s largest commercial
Commission ment bank and is ranked one of the top five banks
worldwide. It serves 90 million customers through a
First Pay S. Varadachariar 1946 1947
network of more than 9,000 branches and it offers —
Commission
either directly or through subsidiaries — a wide range
Second Pay Jaganath Das 1957 1959
of banking services.
Commission
Third Pay Raghubir Dayal 1970 1973 SCHEDULED COMMERCIAL BANKS IN INDIA
Commission The commercial banking structure in India consists of :
Fourth Pay P.N. Singhal 1983 1986 ³³ Scheduled Commercial Banks in India
Commission ³³ Unscheduled Banks in India
Fifth Pay S.R. Pandian 1994 1997 ³³ “Scheduled banks in India” means the State Bank of
Commission India constituted under the State Bank of India Act,
Sixth Pay B.N. Srikrishna 2006 2008 1955 (23 of 1955), a subsidiary bank as defined in the
Commission State Bank of India (Subsidiary Banks) Act, 1959 (38
of 1959), a corresponding new bank constituted under
7th Pay AK Mathur 2013 2015
section 3 of the Banking Companies (Acquisition and
Commission
Transfer of Undertakings) Act, 1970 (5 of 1970), or

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 Indian Economy

under section 3 of the Banking Companies (Acquisition

INDIAN ECONOMY
6. Indian Bank Allahabad Bank
and Transfer of Undertakings) Act, 1980 (40 of 1980),
or any other bank being a bank included in the Second 7. Indian Overseas
Schedule to the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 (2 Bank
of 1934), but does not include a co-operative bank”. 8. Punjab and Sind
³³ “Non-scheduled bank in India” means a banking Bank
company as defined in clause (c) of section 5 of the 9. Punjab National ³³ O r i e n t a l
Bank of
Banking Regulation Act, 1949 (10 of 1949), which is Bank Commerce
not a scheduled bank. Also we can say those banks ³³ United Bank of India
which are not included in the second shedule of RBI, 10 State Bank of ³³ State Bank of Bikaner &
1934 as Non-scheduled Bank. India Jaipur
Reserve Bank of India 1 April, 1935 ³³ State Bank of Hyderabad
³³ State Bank of Indore
Nationalisation of RBI 1 January, 1949
³³ State Bank of Mysore
IFCI 1948 ³³ State Bank of Patiala
ICICI January, 1955 ³³ State Bank of Travancore
³³ Bhartiya Mahila Bank
SBI 1 July, 1955
11. UCO Bank
UTI 1 February, 1964
12. Union Bank of ³³ Andhra Bank
IDBI July 1964
India ³³ Corporation Bank
NABARD 12 July, 1982
IRBI 20 March, 1985 PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS
SIDBI 1990 1. Axis Bank 2. Catholic Syrian Bank
EXIM BANK 1982 3. City Union Bank 4. Development Credit Bank
NHB 1988 5. Dhanlakshmi Bank 6. Federal Bank
LIC 1956 7. HDFC Bank 8. ICICI Bank
GIC 1972 9. IndusInd Bank 10. Karnataka Bank
HDFC 1977 11. Karur Vysya Bank 12. Kotak Mahindra Bank
13. Lakshmi Vilas Bank 14. ING Vysya Bank
PRIVATE BANK & ITS REGISTERED OFFICE
15. Nanital Bank
Banks Registered Office
16. Tamilnadu Mercantile Bank
Indusind Bank Pune
17. South Indian Bank
ICICI Bank Baroda
18. Yes Bank
HDFC Bank Mumbai
19. UP Agro Corporation Bank
UTI Bank Ahmedabad
20. Jammu and Kashmir Bank
Times Bank Faridabad
21. Bandhan Bank
Bank of Punjab Chandigarh
Global Trust Bank Sikandrabad 22. IDFC Bank
23. RBL Bank
PUBLIC SECTOR BANKS
THE FIRST, THE OLDEST, THE LARGEST
S. Anchor Bank Merged Banks
AND THE BIGGEST BANK IN INDIA
No.
The first bank in India to be
1. Bank of Baroda ³³ Vijaya Bank Canara Bank
given an ISO Certification
³³ Dena Bank
The first bank in Northern India
2. Bank of India
to get ISO 9002
Punjab and Sind Bank
3. Bank of certification for their selected
Maharasta branches
4. Canara Bank Syndicate Bank The first Indian bank to have
5. Central Bank of been started solely Punjab National Bank
India with Indian capital

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge
INDIAN ECONOMY

The first among the private sec- OLDER PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS
tor banks in Kerala to become a Bank of Rajasthan Dare to dream
South Indian Bank
scheduled bank in 1946 under
the RBI Act. Federal Bank Your pefect banking
partner
India’s oldest, largest and most
successful commercial bank, J & K Bank Serving to empower
offering the widest possible Karnataka Bank Your family bank across
range of domestic, international State Bank of India India
and NRI products and services,
through its vast network in In- Karur Vysya Bank Smart way to bank
dia and overseas Laxmi Vilas Bank The changing face of
prosperity
India’s second largest private
sector bank and is now the The Federal Bank Tamilnad Mercantile Bank Customer oriented and
largest scheduled commercial Limited committed to excellence
bank in India Nainital Bank Banking with personal
The first Commercial Bank of touch
Bank of Hindustan
India
³³ Local Area Bank : Announced in the Union Budget
Bank which started as private 1996-97 to ensure a focussed saving and credit
shareholders banks, mostly Imperial Bank of India Mobilisation by defining the clear boundary of
Europeans shareholders operation, the Local Area Bank operates to a narrow
The first Indian bank to open a geographical area of three contiguous districts. The
branch outside India in London Bank of India, private sector is also allowed entry in the segment.
in 1946 and the first to founded founded in 1906
Regional Rural Bank (RRB)
open a branch in continental in Mumbai
Europe at Paris in 1974 The RRBs were established since the 1975, with ob-
jectives of developing rural economy by providing credit
The oldest Public Sector Bank
and deposits facilities for agriculture and other productive
in India having
activities of all kinds in rural areas. The equity of the RRBs
branches all over India and Allahabad Bank
serving the customers is contributed by the central Government, concerned state
for the last 132 years Government and the sponsor bank in proportion of 50 :
15 : 35. There are 56 RRBs at present.
The first Indian commercial The states and UTs, where there is no presence of RRBs
bank which was wholly owned Central Bank of India
are Goa, Sikkim, Delhi, Chandigarh, Andaman and Nicobar,
and managed by Indians
Lakshdweep, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu.
Payment Bank : Payment Bank are a new model of bank
TAG LINES OF SOME BANKS
conceptualised by the RBI to meet government‘s financial
Banks Tag Line inclusion target. Payment banks can accept deposit up to Rs.
Bank of Baroda India’s International Bank 1 lakh per account from individuals and small businesses.
They can issue ATM /Debit Card but not Credit Cards.
Relationships beyond Bank-
Bank of India
ing RESERVE BANK OF INDIA
Bank of Maharashtra One family one bank
³³ Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is the Central Bank of
Its easy to change for those India.
Canara Bank who you, Love together we ³³ It was established in April 1935 under Reserve Bank of
can do.......
India Act, 1934 with authorised capital of 5 crore.
Central Bank Build a better life around us ³³ It was nationalised on January 1, 1949.
³³ It is fully owned by the government of India.
Taking banking technology
Indian Bank ³³ It is governed by a central board (headed by Governor)
to the common man
appointed by the Central Government.
Indian Overseas Bank Good people to grow with ³³ The Management of RBI rests with the Central Board
Punjab National Bank The name you can bank on of Directors consisting of 14 Directors besides the one
Governer and Four Deputy Governer.
State Bank of India With you all the way ³³ The office of Local boards — New Delhi, Kolkata,
UCO Bank Honours your trust Mumbai, Chennai.
³³ These local boards function according to the Central
Union Bank of India Good people to bank with
Board.

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 Indian Economy

Functions of RBI – (4) Reverse Repo Rate : It is a rate at which RBI bor-

INDIAN ECONOMY
1. Issue of bank Notes. rows from commercial banks.
2. Banker to the Government ³³ In case of inflationary tendencies, RBI can hike the
3. Banker’s Bank reverse Repo Rate to absorb the excess liquidity in
the market.
4. Controller of Credit
5. Custodian of foreign exchange reserves Reverse Repo Rate Liquidity Price
6. Arrangement of agriculture credit.
(5) Statutory liquidity Ratio (SLR)
7. Provide Facility of Clearing House to banks.
³³ Commercial banks are also required to keep a certain
8. Supervisory functions.
percentage of their net demand and time liabilities
9. Collecting and publishing economic data.
(NDTL) as liquid assets in the shape of cash, gold or
10. Selling of Government securities and trade bills. approved securities.
INSTRUMENTS OF CREDIT CONTROL (6) Liquid Adjustment facility (LAF) : It is a monetary
police tool which allows banks to borrow money
Quantitative Measures through repurchase agreements.
³³ Bank Rate  Cash Reserve Ratio ³³ LAF consists of repo and reverse repo operations.
³³ Repo Rate  Reverse Repo Rate (7) Open Market operations : When RBI starts buying
³³ Statutory Liqudity Ratio  Open Market Operations or selling government securities to control money
supply
Qualitative Measures
(8) Marginal Standing Facility (MSF)
³³ Rationing of credit  Direct Action ³³ MSF is the penal rate which banks can borrow money
(A) Quantitative Measures : from the Central Bank by pledging government
securities within the limits of statutory Liquidity
(1) Bank Rate : It is the rate at which the RBI is willing
Ratio (SLR).
to lend to the commercial banks.
(B) Qualitative Measures—
³³ Bank can borrow money without pleading government
securities to RBI. ³³ Fixing minimum margins for lending against specific
securities.
³³ Collateral nothing.
³³ Ceilings on amounts of credit for certain purpose.
³³ It is not the main tool to control money supply these ³³ Discriminatory rates of interest for certain types of
days. advances.
Bank rate Liquidity Demand Inflation control
³³ Cash Authorisation Scheme—Under this scheme, all
Bank rate Liquidity Demand out from recession commercial banks have to obtain RBI’s authorisation
before sanctioning any fresh credit above certain limit.
(2) Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) : Commercial banks are
required to keep a certain amount of cash reserves ³³ Selective controls are focussed mainly on credit to
at the central bank (RBI). This percentage amount is traders for financing inventories (for purposes of
called cash reserve Ratio. hoarding and speculation).
³³ CRR is maintained only in cash form with RBI. ³³ In recent years, selective controls have been used
³³ It is between 3 percent and 15 percent of total demand with great effect.
and time deposits. The present CRR is 4%. PRINTING PRESS
CRR Price 1. Indian Security Press — Nasik (Maharashtra)
CRR Money Supply in the market Demand ³³ Material related to post office.
Price Inflation ³³ Cheque, Bonds, NSS, Passports.
CRR Interest Employment ³³ Indira Vikas Patra, Kisan Vikas Patra.
CRR Liquidity ³³ Securities of Public & Private Sectors.
CRR Liquidity 2. Security Printing Press – Hyderabad (Telangana)
³³ Material related to post office for South region states.
(3) Repo Rate : It is the rate at which banks borrow
³³ Stamps.
rupees from RBI.
3. Currency Press Note – Nasik (Maharashtra)
³³ Repo rate is an instrument under Liquidity Adjustment
Facility (LAF) at which RBI lends to commercial banks ³³ Printing of Rs. 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 notes and
against government securities. supply.
4. Bank Note Press – Devas (Madhya Pradesh)
Repo rate Liquidity Interest Demand
³³ Printing of Rs. 20, 50, 100, 500 notes and supply.
Repo rate Liquidity Interest ³³ Making of ink of currency notes.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

5. Security Paper Mill – Hoshangabad (M.P) Merchant Banking

INDIAN ECONOMY

³³ Currency note paper ³³ Means a financial institution or bank which takes

³³ Non judicial stamps. up on behalf of a company, responsibilities such as
6. Shahbani (West Bengal, and Mysuru Karnataka) portfolio management, share issue, consultancy and
³³ New currency notes under RBI. any other service. It also includes underwriting.
Mints Stock Exchange
³³ Production of Coins
³³ Stock exchanges in the country—
³³ Production of Medals made of silver, gold & Bronze.
³³ Regional includes Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE)
³³ Mints of Government of India— (1) Noida (2) Mumbai
³³ National only three— (1) National Stock Exchange
(3) Kolkata (4) Hydrabad.
(NSE), Bombay (2) Over the Counter Exchange of India
Capital Market Ltd. (OTCEI) (3) Inter Connected Stock Exchange of
India Ltd. (ISE)
Capital markets are markets for buying and selling
equity and debt instruments. Capital market channel ³³ Phelwani Committee (1991) recommended for
establishment of NSE in 1992, Government authorized
savings and investment between suppliers of capital such
IDBI for establishing NSE. Thus IDBI is the main
as retail investors and institutional investors, and users of
promoter of NSE.
capital like business, government and individuals. Capital
³³ Bull : A spectacular on the stock exchange or
market are vital to the functioning of an economy, since
on a commodity market, who buys shares in the
capital is a critical component for generating economic
anticipation of rising prices so that they can be later
output. Capital markets include primary markets, where
resold at a profit.
new stock and bond issues are sold to investors, and
³³ Bear : A spectacular who sells shares in anticipation of
secondary markets, where trading of existing securities.
falling prices to buy then back and thus make a profit.
Demat Trading ³³ Footsie is ‘Financial Times Stock Exchange 100 share
³³ Trading in shares, bonds, debentures in electronic Index.’ Published by Financial Times of London.
mode through the depositors mechanism. MIBOR (Mumbai Inter-bank Offer Rate)–Landing rate
³³ There are two depositories : NSDL & CSDL for loans
³³ NSDL (National Securities Depositories Ltd.) 1996 MIBIR (Mumbai Inter-bank Bid Rate) – Landing rate
³³ CSDL (Central Depositories Services Ltd.) 1998 for recipients

MUTUAL FUNDS Share Price Indexes

³³ These funds are sizeable collections of savings by Mumbai Dolex, Sensex, SAP UNX, Nifty 50
a no. of investors and are managed by a form of Newyork Dow Jones
specialists (who make up for individual investor’s Tokyo NIKKE
lack of knowledge of capital market). They are marked Germany MID DAX
by relative safety and optimum returns to investors. Singapore Simex, STRAITS TIME
³³ Set up by public sector banks, financial institutions
and private corporate sector, under the guidelines Bombay Stock Exchange
by SEBI. ³³ Bombay Stock Exchange Limited is the oldest stock
exchange in Asia. Popularly known as BSE it was
Mutual Funds in India
established as ‘The Native Share & Stock Brokers
³³ Mutual fund is an instrument of investing money in Assiciation’ in 1875.
stock market. ³³ It is the first stock exchange in India to obtain
³³ A mutual fund is a group of investors operating permanent recognition in 1956 from the Government
through a fund manager to purchase a diverse of India under the securities Controls (Regulation)
portfolio of stocks or bonds. Mutual funds are highly Act, 1956.
cost efficient and very very to invest in. ³³ BSE is the first exchange in India and the second in
³³ The origin of the Indian mutual funds industry dates the world to obtain an ISO9001 : 2000 certification.
back to 1963 when the Unit Trust of India (UTI) came Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
into existence at the initiative of the Government of
³³ Set up as non-statutory body in April, 1988
India and RBI. Since then the mutual funds sector
³³ Given statutory status in 1992
remained the sole field of UTI till 1987 when a renew
of non-UTI, public sector mutual funds were set up Functions :
by nationalized banks and life insurance companies. ³³ Oversee the working of stock exchanges.
³³ The year 1993 saw sweeping changes being introduced
³³ Regulate merchant banks and mutual funds.
in the mutual fund industry with private sector fund
³³ Register and regulate inter-mediaries such as stock
houses making their debut and the laying down of
brokers.
comprehensive mutual fund regulations.

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 Indian Economy

³³ Curb fraudulent and unfair trade practices including GIC holds four companies :

INDIAN ECONOMY
insider tradings. (i) National Insurance Company Ltd.
³³ Promote the development of a healthy capital market. (ii) New India Assurance Company Ltd.
Money Market (iii) Oriental Fire and Insurance Company Ltd.
³³ While the Government securities market generally (iv) United India Insurance Company Ltd.
caters to the investors with a long-term investment ³³ The IRDA opened up the market in August 2000 with
horizon, the money market provides investment the invitation for application for registrations. The
avenues of short term tenor. Authority has the power to frame regulations under
³³ Money market transactions are generally used for section 114-A of the Insurance Act 1938 and has
funding the transactions in other markets including framed various regulations ranging from registration
Government securities as market and meeting short of companies to protection of policyholders interests.
form liquidity mismatches. Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority
³³ By definition, money market is for a maximum tenor of (IRDA) :
up to one year. Within the one year, depending upon
³³ IRDA was set up in 2000 through Insurance
the tenors, money market is classified into :
Regulatory and Development Act, 1999.
(1) Overnight market — the tenor of transactions is
one working day. ³³ Authority is responsible for the regulation, development
(2) Notice money market—The tenor of transactions and supervision of the Indian insurance Industry.
is from 2 days to 14 days.
(3) Term money market—The tenor of the transac- IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY
tions is from 15 days to one year.
³³ NEFT : National Electronic Funds Transfer is a ³³ Ad-Valorem Tax : A tax based on the value of a
nation wide system that facilitates individuals, firms transaction. It is normally a given percentage of price
and corporates to electronically transfer funds from at the retail, wholesale or manufacturing stage and is
any bank branch to any individual, firm or corporate a common form of sales tax.
having an account with any other bank branch in ³³ Absolute Poverty : A situation where a population is
the country. able to meet only its bare subsistence essentials of
³³ IFSC : Indian Financial System Code is an alpha- foods, clothing, and shelter.
numeric code that uniquely identifies a bank branch ³³ Administered Prices : Prices which are set by a
participating in the NEFT system. This is a 11 digit single decision taking body, e.g. a government agency
code with first 4 alpha characters representing the rather than being determined by the free play of
bank, and the last 6 numeric characters representing market forces.
the branch. The 5th Character is zero. ³³ Asian Development Bank : It was founded in 1966.
INSURANCE SECTOR It aimed at to further development and investment in
Asia, to help prepare and co-ordinate development and
³³ In India, Insurance has a deep-rooted history. These
provide technical aid. It has twenty regional members
funds mention in the writings of Manusmriti, Yagna-
and thirteen non-regional members. The bank is
valkya and Kautilya. The writings talk in terms of
having its headquarters in the Philippines.
pooling of resources that could be re-distributed in
³³ Andean Group : A common market formed by
times of calamities such as fire, floods, epidemics
and famine. Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela in
³³ 1818 saw the advent of life insurance with the an effort to promote economic integration, co-ordinate
establishment of the Oriental Life Insurance Company industrial development, regulate foreign investment
in Calcutta. and maintain a common external tariff among the
³³ 1870 saw the enactment of the British Insurance Act. member countries.
³³ The Indian Life Assurance Companies Act, 1912 was ³³ Appreciation : A rise in the value of an asset or
the first statutory measure to regulate life business. currency. Its opposite is depreciation.
³³ In 1928, the Indian Insurance Companies Act was ³³ Average Cost : It is the cost per unit of output, where
enacted. the cost of all inputs is included. If X is output and
³³ The Insurance Amendment Act of 1950 abolished TC is total cost than average cost may be written as
Principal Agencies. There were allegations of unfair AC = TC/X.
trade practices. The Government of India, therefore, ³³ Black Market : A situation in which there is illegal
decide to nationalize insurance business. selling of foods at prices above a legal maximum set
³³ An Ordinance was issued on 19th January 1956 by the government.
nationalising the Life Insurance sector. ³³ Budget Deficit : When the expenditure of the
³³ In 1972 with the passing of the General Insurance Government exceeds the revenue, the balance between
Business (Nationalisation) Act, general insurance the two is the budget deficit.
business was nationalized with effect from 1st ³³ Buffer Stocks : Stocks of commodities held to
January 1973. moderate the commodities price fluctuations.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Balanced Budget : A budget in which current income ³³ Capital Account : Portion of a country’s balance of
INDIAN ECONOMY

exactly equals current expenditure. payments table that shows the volume of a private
³³ Balance of Payments : The relation between the foreign investment and public grants and loans that
payments of all kinds made from one country to the rest flow into out of a country over a given period.
of the world and its receipts from all other countries. ³³ Capital Accumulation : It is increase in a country’s
³³ Balance of Trade : The relationship between the value stock of real capital (i.e. net investment in fixed assets).
of a country’s imports and its exports. ³³ Capitalism : Economic system featuring private
³³ Bandwagon Effect : The effect whereby as the price of property in means of production, commodity
a good falls demand by some sections or individuals in production and profit as the guiding motivating force
the community expand. Other individuals or sections of production.
expand their demand also. ³³ Capital Market : Places where long-term titles to
³³ Base Period : A point in time used as a reference point capital assets such as bonds, debentures, shares and
for comparison with some later period. mortgages are bought and sold.
³³ Boom : The expansionary phase of the trade cycle. ³³ Capital-output ratio : A ratio that shows the units
of capital required to produce a unit of output over a
³³ Bearer Cheque : It is a cheque that is payable to a
given period of time.
person whosoever presents it to the banker.
³³ Cartel : An organisation of producers agreeing to
³³ Bill of Exchange : It means the drawer makes an
limit the output of their product in an effort to raise
unconditional undertaking to pay to the drawee a sum
prices and profits.
of money at a given date. Usually three months ahead.
³³ Cash Crops : Crops produced entirely for the market
³³ Birth Rate : The average number of live births (e.g., coffee, tea, cocoa, cotton, rubber, pyrethrum,
occurring in a year for every 1000 populations. jute, wheat).
³³ Black Economy : That part of a country’s economic ³³ Cheap Money : Refers to a phase in which loans have
activity which is not recorded in the national income been available at low rates of interest or a policy which
accounts, although it does involve in the production creates this situation.
of goods and services. ³³ Commercial Banks : Financial institutions that create
³³ Backward Linkage : The relationship between an credit; accept deposit and give loans and perform other
industry or firm and the suppliers of its inputs. financial functions. They create credit by creating
A change in the output of the industry will get deposits on the basis of their cash reserves.
transmitted backwards to the supplier of its inputs ³³ Capital Budget : It comprises capital receipt and
by changing it’s demand for inputs. payments and also incorporates transactions in the
³³ Backwash Effects : These are considered to operate Public Account.
where the economic growth in one region of an ³³ Capital Expenditure : It consists of payments for
economy possesses adverse effects on the growth of acquisition of assets like land, buildings, machinery,
other regions. equipments as also investments in shares etc., and
³³ Bank Rate : The Rate of interest payable by loans and advances granted by the Government.
commercial banks on the loans or rediscounts from ³³ Capital Receipt : These are loans raised by the
the central bank. government from the public, which are called market
³³ Brain Drain : The migration of educated and skilled loans, borrowings by the government from the Reserve
labour from poor to richer countries. Bank of India and other parties.
³³ Bullion : Precious metal such as gold or silver which ³³ Comparative Cost Method : Refers to a method of
comparing the profitability of alternative projects.
are held in bulk in the form of ingots or bars.
The method takes into consideration the initial cost
³³ Bear : A person who expects prices to fall and sells
of alternative projects only, it is possible to use
securities hoping to make a profit by subsequently
this method only where the output and lift of each
repurchasing at a lower prices. competing schemes is the same.
³³ Bid : The price at which someone is prepared to buy ³³ Consumer Good : A commodity bought by house-
shares. holds for use of consumption.
³³ Brokerage : Changes made by a broker for acting as ³³ Consumerism : A widespread movement which is
a agent in the buying and selling of shares. concerned with the quality and safety of consumer
³³ Bull : A person who buys securities in the expectation goods, with harmful advertising and the conduct of
that prices will rise and so give him an opportunity business in a manner harmful to the consumer.
to resell on a profit. ³³ Cost Push Inflation : A situation of general rise in
³³ Cash Reserve Ratio : Under this method of credit prices in which costs increase faster than productivity
control, commercial banks have to keep with RBI a or efficiency.
percentage of reserves against their deposits. ³³ Creeping Inflation : Slow and persistent rise in
³³ Call Money : It is a loan that is made for a very short general level of prices over a long period.
period of a few days only or for duration of a week. It ³³ Current Account Balance : The difference between
carries a low rate of interest. (a) exports of goods and services plus inflows of

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unrequited official and private transfers, and (b) 1$ and the government reduces the value of rupee by

INDIAN ECONOMY
imports of goods and services plus unrequited making Rs. 10 = 1$, this will be devaluation. It is done
transfers to the rest of the world. to encourage the country’s exports and discourage
³³ Cyclical Unemployment : Unemployment in imports.
industrial market economies resulting from down ³³ Dependency Ratio : The number of people of non-
showing of economic activity on account of deficient working age in an economy related to those who are
demand (insufficient to ensure Keynesian full of working age.
employment). ³³ Direct Tax : Tax that cannot be shifted, the burden of
³³ Consolidated Fund : It is made up of all revenues direct tax is borne by the person on whom it is initially
received by the government loans raised by it, and also fixed. Examples: personal income tax, social security
receipts from recovery of loans granted by it. tax paid by employees, death tax, wealth tax, etc.
³³ Contingency Fund : This fund is placed at the ³³ Disguised Unemployment (under-employment) : (a)
disposal of the President to meet any unforseen A situation in less developed countries where people
expenditure where the Parliament’s approval cannot are apparently employed but are actually unemployed
be obtained due to time factor. It was created by an or under-employed; for example, in agriculture in
Act of Parliament in 1950. India, (b) A situation in developed countries in which
³³ Dividend : Distribution of a part of a company’s net the employed resources are being employed in uses
profit to share holders as a reward for investing in the less efficient than normal; for example, a doctor may
company. Usually expressed as a percentage of par be employed as a cab driver or as a compounder.
value or as percents per share. ³³ Disinvestment : Reduction in the total stock of capital
³³ Dear Money : Refers to phases when interest rates goods on account of failure to provide for depreciation.
have been high compared with their historical average ³³ Demands for Grants : It is a statement of estimates of
values. expenditure from the consolidate fund and is required
³³ Demography : The study of information in figures to be voted by the Lok Sabha.
about the population of an area or country. ³³ Expenditure Budget : It contains expenditure
³³ Decentralised Planning : Regionalised or sectoral estimates made for a scheme or programme under
planning as opposed to planning at the centre. both the revenue and capital heads.
³³ Deflation : (a) Decline in the general price level of ³³ Dumping : It is a special type of price discrimination
goods and services leading to rise in the value of in which a monopoly firm charges a higher price at
purchasing power of money. (b) A method of statistical home and a lower price at abroad.
conversion of a series of data to compensate for the ³³ Disposable Income : It means the actual income
general rise in prices. which can be spent on consumption by individuals
³³ Demand Deposit : A deposit with bank which can be and families.
withdrawn immediately by the depositor also called ³³ Debentures : Debenture is a written instrument
cheque–book money. acknowledging a debt.
³³ Demand Pull Inflation : A state of rising prices ³³ Demand : The quantity of a commodity which an
brought about by increase in aggregate demand in individual is willing to buy at a given price.
the face of short supply. ³³ Elasticity of Demand : It express the degree of
³³ Domestic Income : Income generated by the factors of correlation between demand and price.
production within the country from its own resources ³³ Engel’s Law : It is a relationship between the family’s
is called domestic income. income and expenditure on different items. According
³³ Demonetization : Demo-netization is the act of to the Law, when a family’s income increases the
stripping a curency unit of its status as a legal tender. percentage of its income spent on food decreases.
Demonetization is necessary whenever there is a ³³ Estate Duty : A tax payable on a person’s property at
change of national currency. The old unit of currency his death and before it passes into the hands of others.
must be retired and replaced with a new currency unit. ³³ Export Promotion : Purposeful development efforts
³³ Dependency burden : That proportion of the total to expand the volume of a country’s exports through
population of a country falling in the ages of 0 export incentives and other means in order to generate
to 15 and 64+, which is considered economically more foreign exchange and improve the current
unproductive and therefore not counted in the labour account of its balance of payments.
force. ³³ Fiat Money : Money which the State declares to be
³³ Depression : A phase of the business cycle in legal tender, although its content value may be little or
which economic activity is at a low ebb and there nothing. Most of fiat money has been notes, although
is unemployment/ under employment of resources; token money may also be included in the term.
prices, profits, consumption and rate of capital ³³ Fiscal Drag : The effect of inflation upon effective tax
investment are also at a low level. rates or sometimes the effect of growth in nominal
³³ Devaluation : Official reduction in the foreign value gross domestic product on tax revenue. In other
of domestic currency. For example, if the official rate words, fiscal drag is directly related to inflation and
of exchange between rupee and dollars is rupees 7 = tax rates.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Finance Bill : This contains the government’s proposals ³³ Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P) : A measure of
INDIAN ECONOMY

for levy of new taxes, modification of the existing tax the total flow of goods and services produced by the
structure beyond the period approved by parliament. economy over a specified time period, normally a year.
³³ Fiscal Deficit : It is the difference between the It is obtained by valuing outputs of goods and services
revenue receipts plus certain non-debt capital receipts at market prices and then aggregating.
and total expenditure including loans. ³³ Gross National Income : Gross National Product from
³³ Financial Intermediary : Business institutions that the income side; consists of national income at factor
act as middle men between lenders and borrowers. costs – wages + rent + interest + profits + indirect taxes
Example : commercial banks, mutual savings banks, and capital consumption.
saving and loan associations, insurance companies. ³³ Gross National Product : Aggregate value of all final
³³ Fiscal Policy : Government’s expenditure and goods and services at market prices produced in an
tax policy, an important means of moderating the economy during the period of one year.
upswings and downswings of the business cycle. ³³ Good hart’s law : This law states that any measure of
³³ Fixed Exchange Rate : The exchange value of a the money supply which is officially controlled promptly
national currency is fixed in relation to another loses its meaning.
(usually the U.S. dollar), not free to fluctuate on the ³³ Giffen Goods : Those goods whose demand tends to
international money market. fall as their price falls.
³³ Flexible Exchange Rate : The exchange value of ³³ Hard Currency : Means a currency which is having
national currency is free to move up and down in a continuing high level of demand relative to supply
response to shifts in demand and supply arising from in the market for foreign exchange.
international trading. ³³ Hedge Funds : These are basically mutual funds
³³ Floating Debt : Refers to that part of the National which invest in various securites in order to contain
Debt which involves short term borrowing, it consists or hedge the risks.
of Ways and Means Advances (q.v) and Treasury Bills. ³³ Hot Money : Refers to money which gets transferred
³³ Floating Exchange Rate : Refers to a market situation rapidly from one financial centre to another to take
in which the exchange rate between currencies has advantage of differences in short term interest rates
been free to change from day–to–day in response to or to escape the financial penalties of devaluation.
supply and demand, the opposite to fixed parity. ³³ Hyper Inflation : A situation in which general prices
³³ Full Employment : A situation in which the are rising sharply with no or little increase in output,
economy’s resources are being used fully; zero also called runaway or galloping inflation.
deflationary unemployment, i.e. a situation in which ³³ Import Duty : It can be described as a tax on imports
all those who want to work at the current rate of wages and is imposed on an ad-valorem basis.
are, in fact, employed. ³³ IDA : International Development Association is
³³ Gilt–edged : Refers to a high–grade bond issued by an international body set up in 1960 to assist the
a company which has demonstrated its ability to World Bank (IBRD) in its efforts to promote economic
earn a comfordable profit over a period and pay its development of the underdeveloped countries by
bondholders their interest without interruption. providing additional capital on a low interest basis
³³ Gini Coefficient : It measures the income inequality especially to the poorest of the poor developing countries.
ranging from zero (perfect equality) to one (perfect ³³ IFC : International Finance Corporation is an
inequality). It is graphically measured by dividing international financial institution that was set up in
the area between the perfect equality line and the 1956 to supplement the efforts of the World Bank in
Lorenz curve by the total area lying to the right of the providing development capital to private enterprises
equality line in a Lorenz diagram. The higher the value for the underdeveloped countries.
of the coefficient, the higher the inequality of income ³³ ILO : International Labour Organisation is one of
distribution and the lower it is the more equitable the the United Nations functional organisation based in
distribution of income. Geneva whose central task is to look into problems
³³ Giffen Paradox : It holds that for a commodity the of world manpower supply, its training, utilisation,
demand is strengthened with a rise in price and domestic and international distribution etc.
weakened with a fall in price. ³³ IMF : International Monetary Fund is an autonomous
³³ Green Money : Refers to a set of special exchange international financial institution that originated
rates which are used to convert common farm prices from the Bretton Woods Conference of 1944. Its main
into national currencies in the European Economic purpose is to regulate the international monetary
Community. exchange system which also originated from that
³³ Green Revolution : The revolution in grain production conference but has since been modified.
associated with the scientific discovery of new hybrid ³³ Import Substitution : A deliberate effort to replace
seed varieties of wheat, rice, and corn which have major consumer imports by promoting the emergence
resulted in high farm yields in many LDCs. and expansion of domestic industries such as
³³ Gross Domestic Investment : Consists of the outlays textiles, shoes, household appliances. It requires the
for additions to the fixed assets of both the private and imposition of protective tariff and physical quotas to
public sectors plus the net value of inventory changes. get the new industry started.

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³³ Income Per Capita : Total GNP of a country divided ³³ Monetised Deficit : It indicates the level of support

INDIAN ECONOMY
by the total population. Per capita income is often extended by the Reserve Bank of India to the
used as an economic indicator of the levels of living governments borrowing programme.
and development. ³³ Maturity : Means the date on which a loan or bond or
³³ Incremental Capital-Output Ratio (ICOR) : The debenture becomes due and is to be paid-off.
amount of capital needed to raise output by one unit. ³³ MNC : It implies Multi–national Company i.e., a large
³³ Indirect Taxes : Taxes levied on goods purchased scale company having its production base in several
by the consumer (and exported by the producer) for countries and the bulk of the production is produced
which the tax-payer’s liabilities varies in proportion in the outside nations.
to the quantity of particular goods purchased or sold. ³³ Mixed Economy : An economy in which both the State
³³ Infant Mortality : The deaths among children and the private sector co-exist; decisions on what, how
between birth and one year of age. The infant mortality and for whom are made partially by the market and
rate measures the number of these deaths per 1,000 partially by the State or any other public authority;
live births. many consider it essentially a transitory form.
³³ Inflation : Rise in the general or average price of goods ³³ Monetary Policy : Policy through which the Reserve
and services; consequently, a decline in the value Bank of India expands or contracts the money supply,
of money-doubling of the general price level means or makes credit cheap or dear.
halving the value of money. ³³ Money Market : Money market can be defined as
³³ Insider Trading : A stock market terminology which comprising the financial institutions that deal in
means transactions of shares by the person having short-term securities and loans.
access to confidential informations which are not yet ³³ Money Supply : Sum of total currency in circulation
public such persons stand to gain financially out of plus commercial bank demand deposits (M1) plus
this knowledge such kind of trading in stocks is illegal sometimes savings bank time deposits (M2).
all over the world. ³³ Mutual Fund : Type of investment operated by
³³ Invisibles : It represents services in a current account an investment company that raises money from
of the foreign trade of a country. They exclude physical shareholders and invests it in a portfolio of stocks,
goods in foreign trade. bonds, or other securities. These funds offer investors
³³ Isoquant : It is the locus of all technically efficient the advantages of diversification and professional
methods of producing a given level of output. management.
³³ Investment : That part of national income of ³³ NASDAQ (National Association of Securities Dealers
expenditure devoted to the production of capital goods Automated Quotations) : Owned and operated by the
over a given period of time. “Gross” investment refers NASD, NASDAQ is the computerised network that
to the total expenditure on new capital goods, while provides price quotations for securities traded over
“net” investment refers to the additional capital goods the counter as well as many listed securities.
produced in excess of those that wear out and need ³³ New Economics : Economics thought, founded by
to be replaced. John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) in the thirties; also
³³ Labour-intensive Technique: Method of production called Keynesian thought or Keynesianism.
that uses proportionately more labour relative to other ³³ Ninja : A mortagage business terminology became
factors of production. common word after the US subprime crisis of mid-
³³ Liquidity : It refers to the assets which can be 2007 which is an acronym for borrowers with no
converted into cash money easily. income, no job or assets.
³³ Liquidity Trap : A situation when the interest rate is ³³ Non-Plan Expenditure : It includes both revenue
so low that people prefer to hold money rather than and capital expenditure on interest payments, the
invest it. entire defence expenditure, subsidies, postal deficit,
police, pensions, economic services, loans to public
³³ Laffer Curve : A curve depicting relationship between
enterprises and loan as well as grants to State
total tax revenue and corresponding tax rates.
Governments, Union Territory Governments and
³³ Laissez-faire : The principle of non-intervention of
Foreign Governments.
government in economic affairs.
³³ OECD : Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
³³ Life Expectancy at Birth : Indicates the number Development is an organisation of 20 countries from
of years newborn children would live if subject to the Western World including all of those in Europe
the mortality risks prevailing for the cross-section of and North America. Its major objectives is to assist the
population at the time of their birth. economic growth of its member nations by promoting
³³ Lorenz Curve : A graph depicting the variance of co-operation and technical analysis of national and
the size distribution of income from perfect equality. international economic trends.
³³ Micro-economics : That branch of economics which ³³ OPEC : Organisation of Petroleum Exporting
studies the particular aspects of an economy. It is the Countries is an organisation consisting of the 13
study of the particulars of individuals, households, major oil exporting countries of the Third World that
firms, prices, wages or incomes. acts as a “cartel” or oligopoly to promote their joint

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

national interests. Members include Saudi Arabia, ³³ Retail Banking : A way of doing banking business
INDIAN ECONOMY

Nigeria, Algeria, Venezuela, Libya, Kuwait, United where the banks emphasise the individual-based
Arab Emirates, Iran, Iraq, Ecuador, Qatar, Gabon lending rather than corporate lending-also known as
and Indonesia. high street banking.
³³ Open Market Operations : Purchase and sale ³³ Revenue Budget : It consist of the revenue receipt of
of Government securities by the Central Bank. the Government and the expenditure met from these
Purchases have an expansionary effect, while sales revenues. It has two components, revenue receipts
have a contractionist effect. and revenue expenditure.
³³ Optional Money : It is non-legal tender money but, ³³ Revenue Deficit : It refers to the excess of revenue
it is generally accepted by the people as a medium expenditure over revenue receipt.
of exchange. ³³ Revenue Expenditure :­ It is meant for the normal
³³ Oligopoly : It is a situation, that emerges when a few running of Government Departments and various
sellers of a product are found in the market. services, interest charges on debt incurred by the
³³ Opportunity Cost : It refers to the forgone value of Government and subsidies.
resources in their next best alternative use. ³³ Revenue Receipt : It includes proceeds of taxes and
³³ Pigovian tax : The pigovian tax is imposed on other duties levied by the Centre, interest and dividend
bodies that have a negative externality. For example on investments made by the Government and fees and
tax imposed on sell of cigarettes, pollution creating other receipt for services rendered by the Government.
automobiles etc. ³³ Real Income : Real income is income expressed in
³³ Primary Deposits : People deposit their cash with the terms of a general level of prices of a particular year
banks. Such passively created deposits are known as taken as base.
Primary deposits. ³³ Running Inflation : When price rises rapidly, at a
³³ Public Finance : Public finance is the investigation rate of around 10 per cent per annum, it is called
into the nature and principles of public expenditure running inflation.
and public revenue. ³³ Soft Currency : A currency which is having a falling
³³ Primary deficit : It measures the fiscal deficit after exchange rate due to continuing balance of payments
excluding internal payments. It is an indicator of the deficits. Such a currency would not be held by other
real state of Government finances. countries as part of their exchange reserves.
³³ Primary data : It refers to the data collected for the ³³ Soft Loan : A loan bearing either no rate of interest
first time by the investigator. It provides original and or an interest rate which is below the true cost of the
first hand information. capital lent.
³³ Proportional Tax : A proportional tax is one which, ³³ Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) : An international
whatever the size of the income, the same rate or reserve currency system which was created by the
percentage is charged. International Monetary Fund in October, 1969. It
³³ Portfolio : Investors holding of securities of various provides for a new type of money (known as paper
types. gold) to serve the agreement of the free world nations
³³ Preference shares : Rank above ordinary shares for as the first international legal tender.
claims an assets, earnings and dividends but rank ³³ Strategic Sale : It refers to the transfer of the
below creditors and debenture holders. These shares management control of a public sector unit to a private
usually have a fixed dividend rate. party with the sale of a chunk of its equity.
³³ Premium : The amount by which a security is quoted ³³ Structural Unemployment : Unemployment in
an economy due to the fundamental change in
or issued above its value. The opposite to ‘discount’.
technology, markets or other development priorities.
³³ Payroll Tax : A tax levied on employer’s wage bills.
³³ Sunrise Industries : Industries in the forefront of
³³ Positional Goods : Goods that are necessarily scarce
development and which may become large industries
and whose security cannot be reduced by increased
in the future e.g. industries engaged in high
productivity; for example, gold. technology, biotechnology and solar energy.
³³ Purchasing Power Parity : An exchange between two ³³ SEAQ : Stock Exchange Automated Quotation.
countries such that the same basket of goods and
³³ Shadow Price : It is the opportunity cost to a society
services could be bought in each country if the cost of engaging in some economic activity. It is a concept
were converted at that exchange rate. applied to situations where actual prices cannot be
³³ Progressive Income Tax : A tax whose rate increases charged or where actual prices charged to not reflect
with increasing personal incomes i.e,. where the the real sacrifice made when some activity is pursued.
proportion of personal income paid by a rich person For example, price of crackers is a shadow price.
in taxes is higher than that paid by a poorer person. ³³ Social Capital : The total stock of society’s productive
A progressive tax strucutre therefore tends to improve assets is called social capital.
income distribution. ³³ Takeover : When a company’s share of 51 per cent
³³ Promissory Note : A promise to pay by one person to is taken away by another company (or acquired) it
another (I.O.U.) a given sum of money by a given date. is called takeover, whereas merger is the fusion of

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 Indian Economy

two or more separate companies into one. Takeover ³³ Treasury Bills : Marketable financial bill of the

INDIAN ECONOMY
is a forceful process, whereas, merger is a voluntary Central Government.
process. ³³ Underlying Inflation : The rate at which prices are
³³ Total revenue : It refers to the total money receipts rising in the economy, once the impact of erratic
of a firm from the sale of a certain given quantity of effects on price measurements has been removed.
output. ³³ UNCTAD : United Nations Conference on Trade and
³³ Tariff : It is a duty or tax which is charged by a country Development, a body of the United Nations whose
on its imports from other countries, a customs duty. primary objective is to promote international trade and
³³ Tariff (ad-valorem) : A fixed percentage tax (e.g. 30%) commerce with a principle focus on trade and balance
on the value of an imported commodity levied at the of payments problems of developing nations. Its first
point of entry into the importing country. Secretary General was Raul Prebisch of Latin America.
³³ Tax : A compulsory payment to Government against ³³ Under-development : An economic situation in which
which there is no quid pro quo. there are persistent low level of living in conjunction
³³ Tax Avoidance : Loopholes in tax laws used by tax with the following characteristics; absolute poverty,
payers to avoid taxes. Contrasted with tax evasion. low per capita incomes, low rates of economic growth,
³³ Tax Break : A situation which is providing some relief low consumption levels, poor health services, high
from tax, in whole or part. death rates, vulnerability and dependence on foreign
³³ Tax Evasion : Illegal escape from tax payment; black economies, and limited freedom to choose between
market incomes result from tax evasion. variables that satisfy human wants.
³³ Tax Incidence : Ultimate burden of tax. ³³ Underemployment : A situation in which persons
are working less, either daily, weekly, monthly, or
³³ Tax Shifting : Refers to the phenomenon whereby
those on whom taxes are leveid are able to pass the seasonally than they would like to work.
burden either partly or fully on to others. ³³ Underutilisation of Labour : Operation of labour
³³ Time Deposits : It refers to an interest bearing deposit force at levels below their capacity or potential output.
over a fixed period of time. ³³ Union : Organisation of workers for advancing their
³³ Trotting Inflation : When prices rise moderatetly and social and economic interests.
the annual inflation rate is a single digit, it refers to ³³ Unit Cost : The average total cost per unit of output
trotting inflation. of any economic good or service.
³³ Tertiary Sector : The services and commerce ³³ Utility : It is defined as a want satisfying power of a
portion of an economy. Examples of services include commodity.
repair and maintenance of capital goods, haircuts, ³³ Variable costs : Costs incurred on variable factors
public administration, medical care, transport and like raw materials.
communications, teaching. ³³ Value Added Tax (V.A.T.) : A value added tax is a
³³ Tight Money : It refers to the tightness of the money tax levied on the values that is added to goods and
market–the comparative scarcity of the loanable funds services turned out by the producers at each stages
and a consequently the high rate of interest that tends of production and distribution.
to prevail. ³³ Venture Capital : Generally, a private equity capital
³³ Tobin Tax : A proposal of imposing small tax on all which lends capital to the entrepreneurs who are
foreign exchange transactions with the objective to innovative and cannot get the required fund from the
discourage destabilising speculation and volatility in conventional set-up of the lending mechanism.
the foreign exchange markets. ³³ Welfare State : Refers to a nation that provides
³³ Trading off : Something in order to get more of minimum standards in respect of education, health,
something else – e.g. sacrificing consumption now for housing, pensions and other social benefits etc.
consumption later by devoting some present resources When the individual means of certain sections of
to investment. the population may be inadequate to provide these
³³ Transfer earnings : The price which is necessary to standards.
retain a given unit of a factor in a certain industry ³³ Ways and Means Advance : It refers to the advance
may be called its transfer earnings. of money by the Central Bank to the Government to
³³ Transfer Payment : Payment made by one sector meet short term expenditure needs.
of the economy to another without any returns. ³³ Zero–Based Budgeting : The practice of justifying
Examples: Unemployment and social security the utility in cost benefit terms of each Government
payments, relief payments and charity, etc. expenditure on projects. Otherwise in the next year’s
³³ Transfer Pricing : An accounting procedure usually budget it would not get the budgetary provision. This
designed to lower total taxes paid by multi–national form of financial planning is with an object to ensure
corporations (MNCs) in which intra-corporate sales that is every rupee that is spent is result oriented.
and purchases of goods and services are artificially ³³ Zero Growth : Zero growth in the economy occurs
invoiced so that profits accrue to those branch office when the economic growth is static and shows no rise
located in low tax countries while offices in high tax at all. ppp
countries show little or no taxable profits.

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 7 GENERAL SCIENCE
PHYSICS
Physics is the branch of science that deals with the
Magnetic flux density tesla T
study of matter and energy and their inter–relationship. Wb/m2
Numerous developments have taken place in the realm of
Magnetic field strength ampere per metre A/m
Physics, from the earlier stages of classical physics to the
emergence of Physics based on quantum theory. Classical Entropy joule per kelvin J/K
physics included topics like optics, mechanics, electricity, Specific heat joule per kilogram J / ( k g .
magnetism, acoustics. In the twentieth century quantum kelvin K)
physics has made much headway and it includes topics Thermal conductivity w a t t p e r m e t r e W/(m.K)
on like atomic, nuclear, particle physics, etc. kelvin
Some SI Derived Units Radiant intensity watt per steradian W/sr
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol Plane angle radian rad
Area square metre m 2 Solid angle steradian sr
Volume cubic metre m 3
³³ At a meeting at General Conference on weights &
Frequency hertz Hz Measurements (CGPM) in versalles, France, delegates
voted redefine the International system & units (SI)
Mass/Volume(density) kilogram per cubic kg/m 3

metre changing the world’s definition of kilogram ampere,

kelvin and mole. The Changes got implimented from
Speed, velocity metre per second m/s
20 May, 2019.
Angular velocity radian per second rad/s
³³ Kilogram will be defined in terms of Plank’s constant
Acceleration metre per second m/s2 ‘h’. its value is 6.626.7015 × 10–34 kg m2 5–1.
Angular acceleration radian per second rad/s2 ³³ The ampere will be set by the elementary electrical
Force newton N charge ‘e’. Which in 1.602176634 × 10–19 coulombs.
kg.m/s2 ³³ The Kelvin will be defined by taking the fixed numerical
Pressure pascal Pa value of the Boltzmann constant K to be 1.380649 ×
N/m2 10–23 when expressed in the unit JK–1.
Work, energy, quantity joule J ³³ Mole by the Avogardo constant (NA) contain exactly
of heat N.m 6.02214076 × 1023 elementary units. This number is
Power watt W the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant
J/s NA, when expressed in unit Mol–1.
Quantity of electric coulomb C ³³ Can add chart of various exponents of 10 like 102 –
charge A.s Hecto, 106 – mega. 109– Giga, 10–1 – deci, 10–12 Pico etc.
Potential difference, volt V
e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e v o l t p e r m e t r e W/A Multiples and Submultiples of units
(emf) (or newton per Symbol Multi- Profix Symbol Multi- Profix
coulomb)
plier plier
Electric field strength ohm V/m
N/C d 10–1 deci da 101 deca

Electric resistance Ω c 10 –2
centi h 10 2
hecto
V/A m 10–3 mili k 103 kilo
Capacitance farad F µ 10 –6
micro M 10 6
mega
A.s/V
n 10–9 nano G 109 gega
Magnetic flux weber Wb
V.s p 10 –12
pico T 10 12
tetra
Inductance henry H f 10 –15
femto p 10 15
peta
V.s/A a 10–18 atto E 1018 exa

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 General Science

VELOCITY

GENERAL SCIENCE
MECHANICS
³³ The rate of change of displacement is called velocity.
MOTION S
³³ V =
³³ Motion is change in position of a body in a reference t
³³ It is a vector quantity.
point with time.
³³ Velocity may be positive and negative or zero
³³ Types of Motion are, Linear Motion, Curvilinear and depending on displacement.
Rotatory Motion.
³³ Scalar quantities : Those physical quantities which UNIFORM VELOCITY
have completely described by their magnitude (size) ³³ When a body covers equal displacement in equal
only and no direction, are known as scalar quantities, interval of time, the velocity is said to be uniform.
e.g. length or distance, mass, time, area, volume, ³³ Acceleration is absent if the body moves with uniform
work, power, energy, temperature, speed, pressure, velocity as initial velocity equals final velocity.
charge and potential. etc.
VARIABLE VELOCITY
³³ Vector quantities : Those physical quantities which
have completely described by their magnitudes as ³³ When a body covers unequal displacement in equal
well as directions are known as vector quantities, e.g. intervals of time then it is said to have variable
displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, weight, velocity.
momentum and electric field, torque etc. Moment of ³³ Acceleration is necessarily present in this motion.
inestia, refractive index stres are tensor quantities. ³³ In this case either direction of velocity or magnitude or
DISTANCE both change with respect to time e.g. speed is constant
in uniform circular motion but velocity is variable with
³³ The distance travelled by a body is the actual length
of the path covered by the moving body irrespective change in direction.
of the direction in which the body travels. AVERAGE VELOCITY
³³ It is a scalar quantity having magnitude only.
1. Average velocity is zero if the body returns to its
DISPLACEMENT starting point in the given time interval.
³³ When a body moves from one position to another, the 2. If the body covers first half distance with velocity v1
shortest distance between the initial position and final and next half with velocity v2 then the average velocity
position of the body along with direction is known as =
its displacement.
³³ It is vector quantity having magnitude as well as 3. If a body travels with uniform velocity v1 for time t1
direction. and with uniform velocity v2 for time t2, then average
SPEED velocity is
³³ Speed is the scalar form of velocity. It is defined as =
the distance travelled in one second.
³³ If the body covers a distance d in time t, then speed ³³ A body whose velocity reduces with the passage of
V = d/t. time, it is said to be undergoing retardation.
³³ A retardation is treated as a negative acceleration.
VARIABLE SPEED
³³ The acceleration of a moving body is the rate of change
³³ If the body covers unequal distance in equal interval of
of its velocity, i.e.,
time, then it is said to be moving with a variable speed.
³³ Acceleration is always present if the velocity/speed of
a = ; where ‘a’ is the acceleration, ‘u’ is the initial
the body is variable.
velocity which becomes ‘v’ in time ‘t’ second.
UNIFORM SPEED
ACCELERATION
³³ The speed of the body is uniform if it covers equal
distance in equal interval of time. ³³ Time rate of change in velocity is known as acceleration.
³³ Acceleration may or may not be there in the motion ³³ It is a vector quantity.
if the body is moving in uniform speed e.g. a body ³³ Negative acceleration is known as retardation.
moving in uniform circular motion has uniform speed
³³ It indicates that the velocity of the object is decreasing
but variable velocity therefore acceleration is present
in the circular motion. (Direction of motion changes with respect to time as application of brakes on a
with time) body in motion.

AVERAGE SPEED VARIABLE ACCELERATION

³³ If a body has travelled ‘S1’ and ‘S2’ distance with ‘V1’ ³³ If the velocity of the body changes in different amounts
during the same time intervals, then the acceleration
and ‘V2’ velocities, then, Average speed of the body is known as variable acceleration.
³³ Acceleration is variable if either its direction or
 Total distance  magnitude or both changes with respect to time, e.g. a
 
Total time  body in uniform circular motion is accelerated motion.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

UNIFORM ACCELERATION ³³ The second law can also be termed as the law of
GENERAL SCIENCE

acceleration.
³³ If the velocity of the body changes by same amounts in
³³ Newton’s Third Law of Motion : For every action,
same intervals of time, then the acceleration of the body
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
is known as uniform acceleration, e.g. acceleration due
³³ The force acts on two different bodies in opposing
to gravity otherwise not such as a motor cyclist riding directions.
on a busy city road.
FORCE AND INERTIA
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
³³ A force is that pull or push which changes or tends
³³ When a particle moves in a circle at a constant speed to change the state of motion of a body or its shape.
then motion is said to be uniform circular motion. ³³ The tendency of a body to remain in the same state
³³ In circular motion as position of particle changes it is, either stationary or moving, is called its inertia.
so also its velocity. Hence, the circular motion, is ³³ The mass of the objects, the greater is their inertia.
considered as accelerated motion. ³³ The force (F) which causes an acceleration (a) in a
³³ In circular motion acceleration which is always moving object of mass (m) is given by F = ma
directed towards the centre of circle is called ³³ The SI unit of force is Newton (kg.ms–2).
centripetal acceleration.
³³ The work done by centripetal force is zero BANKING OF TRACKS

 
b e c a u s e F = ma i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e ³³ For a vehicle to make a safe and easier turn, roads on
displacement of particle, we know that cos large highways are generally banked i.e. road bend at
90° = 0. Hence, K.E. of particle remains constant inspite the curved path is raised a little on the sideways away
of force acting on it. Speed is constant and V = rw , from centre. With this banking of road, a component
w is constant and with constant w, the motion is of normal force points towards the centre of curvature
periodic motion. of road.
Time period of the periodic motion will be ³³ It supplies the necessary centripetal force required for
T = (2π/ω) = (2πr/V) circular motion. The vertical component is balanced
by the weight of vehicle.
When
(i) ar = 0 and aT = 0, then a = 0 and motion is N cos

uniform translatory.
(ii) a r = 0 and a T ≠ 0 then a = a r and motion is N sin
accelrated translatory. r
(iii) ar ≠ 0 but aT = 0, then a = ar and motion is
mg
uniform circular motion.
(iv) ar = 0 and aT = 0, then a = a T 2 + a r 2 and motion MOMENTUM
is non-uniform circular motion. ³³ The force which a body possesses, due to the
combined effect of its mass and velocity is called
EQUATIONS OF MOTION momentum (p = mv).
1 2 ³³ The greater the mass and velocity of an object, the
³³ (i) v = u + at, (ii) s = ut + at , (iii) v2 = u2 + 2as;
2 larger is its momentum.
Where initial velocity = u
³³ For example, cars are heavy and fast. Thus, they have
Final velocity = v enough momentum to crumple steel and break down
Elapsed time = t brick walls when they crash to a halt.
Acceleration = a ³³ According to the law of conservation of momentum,
Distance/displacement covered = s in a colliding system, the total momentum before and
³³ The acceleration caused by the earth’s attraction is
after collision remains conserved.
known as the acceleration due to gravity and it is m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
identified by the symbol ‘g’. Mean value of ‘g’ is 9.8 ³³ When a force of very large magnitude is applied on a
m/s2. body for a very short interval of time, then collective
³³ If the body travels downwards, then ‘g’ is positive. effect of force and time is called impulse.
However, if the body is projected vertically upwards, ³³ It’s impulse that allows some people break bricks on
a single hit.
then ‘g’ is negative.
GRAVITY
LAWS OF MOTION
³³ Gravity is the force which pulls all bodies towards the
³³ Newton’s First Law of Motion: Every body continues
centre of the earth, keeps the planet revolving round
to be in a state of rest or of uniform motion, unless
the sun in definite paths and is responsible for the
compelled by an external force to change that state.
weight of all objects.
This first law is also called law of Inertia.
³³ A falling body accelerates under the influence of
³³ Newton’s Second Law of Motion : The rate of change
of momentum is directly proportional to the applied gravity.
force and takes place in the direction in which the ³³ Different masses, fall to the ground together, because
force acts. acceleration due to gravity is same for all objects.

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 General Science

³³ Every particle in the universe attracts every other ³³ Gravity is a special form of Gravitational Force, in

GENERAL SCIENCE
particle with a force F which depends on the product which the interacting bodies are the earth and any
of masses ‘m1’ and ‘m2’ of the interacting particles and other object.
on their separation ‘r’. ³³ The value of acceleration due to gravity, i.e., ‘g’
³³ Greater the masses and smaller the separation, greater decreases both with height and depth.
is the force of attraction. It is called Gravitational ³³ The radius of the earth is slightly more at the equator
Force. than at the poles. So, ‘g’ is less at the equator than
mm at the poles.
F = G 12 2
r ³³ Therefore, artificial satellites are launched from the
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY places near or on the equator.
³³ The acceleration gained by a body due to the force MASS AND WEIGHT
of attraction of a body on another light body is
³³ Mass is measure of the atoms contained in an object,
acceleration due to gravity.
and the number of atoms in the object remains
It is independent of mass, size and shape of body. constant.
³³ Therefore a 1 kg mass and a feather dropped in ³³ So, mass is an intrinsic, unchanging property of
vacuum from a given height after freefall land at the matter.
same time. The value of g is maximum on Jupiter and ³³ The force with which a body is attracted towards earth
minimum on Earth. is called weight.
Value of g on surface of moon is 1/6th of its value on W = mg; where ‘W’ is the weight and ‘m’ is the mass.
earth. Therefore a body’s gravitational weight of 60N ³³ Mass is measured with the help of physical
has gravitational weight of 10N on moon. Acceleration (beam) balance, while a spring balance also called
due to gravity, at height h from earth surface Newtonmetre measures the weight of an object.
gh ³³ The unit of mass is kg and that for weight is Newton
g'h = g 1– R
(N).

due to depth, gh = g 1– h CHANGES IN APPARENT WEIGHT IN ELEVATOR

R OR CART
Due to rotation of earth, and earth being not a completely ³³ Based on Newton’s Second law, when accelerating
spherical body system, g is max. at poles and g is min. upward one feels heavier and accelerating downward,
at equator. one feels lighter. If the elevator’s cable breaks, one
If earth stops rotating on its axis, value of g will increase would feel weightlessness because both elevator and
by 0.35% at equator but remain unchanged at poles. the person would accelerate downwards at the same
If earth rotates at angular speed of 17 times, there rate.
will be weight lessness at equator but at poles, it will ³³ Effect on simple pendulum.
remain unaffected. A – Going up increases effective value of ‘g’ hence
Value of g increases from equator to poles due to time period decreases.
rotation of earth, and earth being not a completely B – Coming down decreases the effective value of ‘g’
spherical. hence time period increases.
ESCAPE VELOCITY C – Increasing the length, increases the time period.
³³ It is the minimum velocity with which a body must ³³ Time period of pendulum inside a cart moving with
escape or projected away from earth surface such acceleration a on horizontal road
that it never return. δ
T = 2π
Vesp. = 2Gm/R g2 + a2
Time period of the pendulum inside an elevator
For earth it’s value is 11.2 km/sec and for moon = 2.4
accelerating in upward direction with acceleration a
km/sec.
T = 2π δ
SATELLITE g+a
³³ A celestial body that revolves around a planet is called FRICTION
its satellite. The orbital velocity of a satellite at height
‘h’ is given as V. rb= [gR2/(R + H)]½ ³³ Friction is a kind of force that opposes relative motion.
³³ It comes into existence at the common boundary of two
= [GM/(R + h)] ½
bodies in contact with one another, when one of them
For a satellite going round near earth’s surface it is either moves or tends to move relative to the other.
= (gR) = 8 km/sec. ³³ Force of friction does not depend on the area of
Time period of satellite : contact.
1
2
³³ Frictional force increases with weight.
T = 2 R = 84.6 min. ³³ On rough surfaces, frictional force is more than that
g
on the smooth surfaces because of more interlocking.
G is universal gravitational constant with value 6.67 ³³ Less force is needed to maintain motion than to initiate
×10–11 Nm2.kg–2 it i.e., Kinetic friction < Static friction.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Kinetic friction does not depend on the speed, when the

GENERAL SCIENCE

2m m
speed is not large. T= 1 2
g
m1 + m2
³³ The vehicles are provided with wheels and their axles
are supported with ball bearings, because the rolling
(m1–m2) g
friction is much less than the sliding friction. a=
m1 + m2 + m
³³ Friction is necessary for the operation of belts, pulleys, 2
clutches and brakes. Nails and screws remain firmly When two bodies of mass m1 and m2 with m1 on
fixed in which they are driven because of friction. rest on horizontal surface and m2 attached to
³³ Therefore, friction is considered as necessary evil. other end of string passing over a pulley.
³³ For motion in a fluid, the frictional forces that oppose
the motion are called drag forces.
³³ The drag forces depend on area, shape and the velocity T
of the moving body. For faster motion, the drag force
m2
may be assumed to be proportional to the square of
the velocity. mg
TYPES OF FRICTION (m2 g m1 m2
a= ,T= g
(m 1 + m 2 ) (m1 + m2)
³³ Static Friction : Frictional force arises on account
of the contact of two surfaces. When two bodies are on inclined place.
³³ If the surfaces remain at rest, there is static friction.

n
³³ Static friction acts as a resistance to the commence-

io

m
n
ot
T
T

tio

ot
m
ment of relative motion between the two surfaces.

io
m mo

n
1
m2

m
³³ Dynamic Friction : Friction that exists during the
m2

1
relative slipping or rolling of one surface over another
is called dynamic or kinetic friction. θ mg α β

³³ Dynamic friction is always less than the Static
Friction. (m1 − m 2 sin θ )g
a=
³³ Rolling Friction : When a body rolls over a surface, m1 + m 2

the frictional force that develops is known as rolling
friction. g(m1 sin α − m 2 sin β )
a=
³³ It is minimum of all types of forces. In all cases of m1 + m 2

dynamic friction, lubrication reduces its value.
³³ Sliding Friction : It's the friction that acts between two m1m 2 g (1 + sin θ )
T =
surfaces when one body is dragged over the surface of m1 + m 2

another body such as dragging a big wooden box on
a plane surface. m1m 2
T = b1 + sin θ g g
Motion and tone acting over a pulley system. m1 + m 2

When two bodies are connected by string and placed
on the horizontal surface WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
 ³³ Work is said to be done only, when a force or its
F
component causes displacement in its own direction
or stops a body in motion or changes the body’s shape.
m1F
a = F/m1 + m2, T = m + m ³³ In SI system, unit of work is called Joule. (kg m2s–2)
1 2

When two bodies of masses m 1 and m 2 are ³³ W = F × d; where ‘W’ is the work done, ‘F’ is the force
attached at ends of a string passing over a pulley. and ‘d’ is the displacement.
³³ Rate of doing work is called power. Power (P) can be
defined as the product of force (f) and velocity (v).
P = Fv
³³ In SI system, absolute unit of power, work done/
time is called Joules/second (Js–1) or Watt or 1 kw
T1 T2 T 1 T2 = 1000 w.
m1 m2 m 1 m2 ³³ The capacity of a body to do work is called energy.
mg mg ³³ Energy is the total amount of work done by a body,
therefore, its unit is the same as that of work (Joule).
mg
(m –m )g
mg
a= 2 1 ³³ Conveniently, energy is divided into (i) potential energy
m1+ m2 , and (ii) kinetic energy.

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³³ When a body does work by virtue of its motion, it is water stored high up in the dams, a stone lying on the

GENERAL SCIENCE
said to have kinetic energy. If ‘m’ is the mass of the top of the roof etc., posses potential energy.
body, moving with an initial velocity v, then its Kinetic ³³ Magnetic energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy,
Energy (K.E.) is given by energy of static electricity are the forms of potential
energy.
K.E. = 1 mv2 ³³ Law of conservation of energy states that the energy
2
³³ A fast moving electron, running water, blowing wind; can neither be created, nor can be destroyed, It may
a speeding car; a flying projectile etc., have kinetic be transformed from one form to another form, but
energy. total energy of the system remains constant.
³³ Electric energy, radiant heat, light energy, mechanical ³³ The phenomenon of transformation of energy from
useful form to useless forms, is known as dissipation
energy can be regarded as kinetic energy. They may
of energy.
appear static but move.
³³ If a body does work by virtue of its position or Mechanical SI units and Commonly used units.
configuration, it is said to have potential energy. Physical Equivalent S.I. Unit
³³ If a body of mass ‘m’ be raised vertically through a quantity
height ‘h’ against the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’, then
its Potential Energy (P.E.) is P.E. = mgh. 1. Length 1 micrometre = 10–6 m
³³ When a body is on the surface of earth, then the 1 nanometre (nm) = 10-9m
potential energy between the system of body, and
1 angstrom (A°) = 10–10m
the earth is zero.
³³ When the body moves vertically upward, i.e., the 2. Mass 1 metriction = 103kg
height of the body from ground increases, the potential 1 pound = 0.4537 kg
energy between the system of the earth and the body
also increases. 1 amu = 1.66 × 10–27
³³ Motion and artificial satellites : When a satellite is kg
put in space in an orbit then 3. Volume 1 litre = 10–3 m3
Vorbital = when 4. Force 1 dyne = 10–5N
(Gm/r)
³³ V < V0, Satellite will fail to revolve around the earth 1 kgt = 9.81 N
and spirals inwards with decreasing radius till it falls 5. Pressure 1 kgt–m–2 = 9.81 N.m–2
on earth.
1 mm of Hg = 133 Nm–2
³³ Vesp > V < Vorb., satellite will continue revolving in
elliptical orbit. 1 pascal = 1Nm–2
V > Vesp, satellite will escape following a hyperbolic 1 atm = 76 cm of Hg = 1.01×105
path. If a body is thrown with a velocity V1 then sum 1 bar = pascal
of P.E. and K.E. is positive, when V > Vesp, Zero, when 105 pascal
1 torr =
V = Vesp. and negative when V < Vesp.
³³ Satellites : There are two type of satellites remote 133.5 pascal
sensing, weather forecasting satellites etc. mostly 6. Work/ 1 trg = 10–7J
placed close to earth at height of 800 km or above. Energy 1+v = 1.6 ×10–19J
³³ Telecommunication satellites also called geostationary
satellite which appear stationary are placed at height 7. Power 1 kg f-ms -1
= 9.81 w
of 36,800 km from earth surface. 1 horse power = 746 w
KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION : INTERCONVERSION OF ENERGY
(i) All planets are revolving in their elliptical orbit. ³³ When hands are rubbed, the mechanical energy due
(ii) All planets sweeps equal area in equal interval of to friction changes into heat energy.
time when revolving around the sun. ³³ When two stones are struck, the mechanical energy
(iii) The square of time period of a planet around changes to heat and light energy.
the sun is proportional to the cube of the semi ³³ When a knife is rubbed, against grinding stone the
major axis of the ellipse i.e. T2 αa3. where a is mechanical energy changes to heat, light and sound
semimajor axis of ellipse. energy.
³³ When a body falls towards the earth, the height of ³³ When brakes are applied, the mechanical energy
the body from ground decreases. Thus, the potential changes to heat energy at the point where brakes rub
energy between the system of the earth and the body against moving wheel.
decreases. ³³ When an arrow is stretched in a bow, the mechanical
³³ When, the spring of watch is wounded, its configuration energy changes to potential energy.
changes. Thus, it possess potential energy. ³³ On releasing string, the potential energy changes to
³³ On unwinding, the potential energy moves hands of kinetic energy of the arrow.
watch, by being converted into kinetic energy. ³³ The water stored in dams has gravitational potential
³³ Similarly, a stretched bow and arrow system, a energy. When this water is released, it changes to
cocked-up spring of an air gun, a stretched catapult, kinetic energy of flowing water.

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³³ The kinetic energy of flowing water turns blades of same with a light but strong wooden plank placed on
GENERAL SCIENCE

turbine and changes to mechanical energy. chest because of large area.

³³ This mechanical energy of turbine drives dynamo to ³³ Pascal’s law states that a change in pressure applied
generate electricity i.e., changes to electric energy. to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to
³³ When a torch is switched on, the chemical energy every point of the fluid and walls of containing vessel.
changes to electric energy. The electric energy on A fluid means a liquid or gas.
flowing through filament of bulb changes to heat and ³³ Hence, the law states that a liquid exerts pressure
light energy. equally in all directions.
³³ The electric energy in an electromagnet changes to ³³ The pressure exerted is independent of the shape of
magnetic energy. container.
³³ The electric energy flowing through an electric motor
or fan changes to mechanical energy. It partly changes
to heat energy too.
³³ The sound energy in a microphone changes to electric
energy.
³³ The electric energy changes to sound energy while
flowing through speaker.
³³ In an electric heater, electric oven, electric geyser etc.; ³³ The atmospheric pressure at sea level is equal to 1 atm
the electric energy changes into heat energy. or 1.013 ×105Pa. A bar is an another unit of pressure,
³³ In steam engine, the heat energy of steam changes to 1Bar = 1 × 10–5Pa.
mechanical energy. ³³ The rolling and pitching of ships resulting in sea
³³ In an electric generator, the mechanical energy changes sickness, unstability of top heavy floating bodies and
to electric energy. tumbling of icebergs as they melt because of centre of
gravity and the buoyancy do not match.
³³ In photo voltaic cell, the light energy changes to
electric energy. ³³ The largest animals on earth surface are aquatic
than terrestrial because in them, buoyant force is
³³ In Television, the electric energy changes to sound
and light energy. distributed over the entire body surface.
³³ Hydraulic breaks, flying of an airplane are based on
³³ When fuels are burnt, the chemical energy of fuels
changes to heat energy and light energy. the pressure and Bernaullie’s principle.
³³ In matches, due to friction, the chemical energy FACTS TO REMEMBER
changes to heat and light energy. ³³ On the surface of moon there is no atmospheric
³³ When a cracker is exploded, the chemical energy pressure and hence lemonade cannot be pushed up
changes to heat, light and sound energy. the straw.
³³ During photosynthesis, the light energy changes to ³³ Barometre is used for the measurement of pressure.
chemical energy.
³³ Mercury is used in barometres because
³³ During charging of battery, the electric energy changes
(i) With mercury, practically no vapours are
into chemical potential energy.
produced.
³³ During respiration, the chemical energy of food
(ii) Mercury does not wet or stick to glass surface.
changes to chemical energy of ATP to heat energy.
(iii) It is shining and opaque, so readings can be
³³ It is the heat energy which keeps our bodies warm,
easily taken.
changes to mechanical energy when we do perform
locomotion. ³³ A gradual fall in the atmospheric pressure indicates
a steady increase in the atmospheric water vapour,
³³ During nuclear fusion or fission, it is the nuclear
and rain may occur.
energy, which ultimately changes to heat and light
energy. ³³ A steady rise in the atmospheric pressure shows a
³³ During the pumping up of water into an overhead gradual fall in the atmospheric water vapour and
tank by an electric motor pump, the electric energy indicates a fair weather.
changes to kinetic energy of water. ³³ A sudden fall in atmospheric pressure predicts a
³³ The kinetic energy of water, then changes to gravitational storm.
potential energy of the stored water. ³³ The boiling point of a liquid increases with the increase
in pressure on its surface.
FLUID PRESSURE ³³ Boiling point of a liquid is temperature at which
³³ Pressure is defined as the thrust acting per unit area vapour pressure of a liquid equals the atmospheric
of the surface in contact i.e., P = F/A pressure.
Where ‘P’ is the pressure, ‘F’ is the thrust and ‘A’ is ³³ On higher altitudes, the pressure of atmosphere is
the area over which the thrust is acting. Thrust is less. Thus, water starts boiling below 100°C. As
force that acts normal to surface. the cooking temperature of rice, pulses, meat etc,
³³ The SI unit of pressure is known as pascal (Nm–2). is slightly above 100°C, therefore, they do not cook
³³ The smaller the area on which force acts, greater is its well on hills but cook well in pressure cooker where
impact e.g., if an elephant steps on a persons chest, the boiling point is greater than 100°C because of
ribs would crack but in circus a person shows the increased pressure inside closed pressure cooker.

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Similarly food cooks faster in a closed vessel than in ³³ With rise in temperature, it decreases except in case

GENERAL SCIENCE
an open vessel without lid. of molten copper and cadmium.
³³ Density of brine is more than that of fresh water. Thus, Tsolid > Tliquid > Tgas with Tgas = 0
upthrust experienced by the floating ice in brine is ³³ With addition of any impurity surface tension
more than upthrust due to fresh water. decreases if the impurity is sparingly insoluble in
³³ Hence, the volume of ice above brine is more as water e.g. soap added to water.
compared to that in fresh water. ³³ But it increases if impurity is soluble like common
³³ An egg dropped in water in a container sinks to its salt or sugar added to water.
bottom but in brine or by dissolving salt into water, ³³ Work done in forming a bubble in air, w = 8 πr2T and
it can be made to float. work done in increasing surface of a soap bubble if
³³ The walls of a dam are thicker at bottom than on radius r1 to r2 is
surface because with increasing depth, pressure = 8 P (R22 – R12)T.
increases. ³³ When a wire bent in form of a ring is dipped into soap
solution, and then taken out, a film is formed due to
³³ Ships are hollow from within with fairly large volume.
surface tension.
Thus, they are able to displace more weight of water
than their own weight and hence float on the surface ³³ Surface tension of liquid metals like that of mercury
of water. is very high.
³³ An egg floats in water because of surface tension. It
³³ The weight of hydrogen filled balloon as well as its
acts as if placed on a stretched membrance.
fabric is less than the weight of air displaced in it.
³³ Capillarity : It refers to rise or depression of a liquid in
³³ Thus, a net upthrust act on the balloon and hence
it rises upward. However, weather balloons are filled 2T cos
a capillary tube. The rise or fall to height h =
with helium. rdg
³³ It is chemically inert while hydrogen is inflammable. 2T
For pure water, h =
³³ Floatation and swimming in sea water is easier than rdg
in fresh water, because density of sea water is more ³³ If θ> 90°, meniscus is convex, θ= 90°, meniscus is
than fresh water. plane and if θ< 90°, meniscus is concave.
³³ Thus, for the same volume, the sea water provides ³³ It’s application involves
greater upthrust as compared to the fresh water. (1) Rising of oil/molten wax through wick in a candle.
³³ If the density of human body is slightly less than the (2) Action of towel in soaking up moisture from body.
density of water, it should have floated on water, but (3) Absorption of water by root hair in soil.
the density of human head is very large and hence, ³³ Hydrodynamics : It is the science of fluids in motion.
on the whole, density of human body becomes more
³³ Principle of continuity : According to principle, in case
than that of water.
of steady flow of incompressible and non-viscous fluid
³³ Thus, if we jump in deep water, we are liable to drown.
through a tube of non-uniform cross section, the product
³³ Human corpse always float on the surface of water, of cross section area and velocity of flow remains same
but the head stays within water. at every point in tube.
³³ The reason being when the dead body decays, its i.e. AV = constant
volume increases. Thus, it becomes lighter than water The velocity of flow increases with decrease in area
and floats up. of cross section. Therefore, deep water appear to be
³³ However, head being heavy cannot displace water still.
more than its own weight, and hence remains under ³³ Bernoulli’s theorem : Acording to it, in case of
water. steady flow of incompressible and non-viscous fluid
³³ Hydrometre is used for measuring the densities of through a tube of non-uniform cross-section, the
liquids directly. sum of pressure, potential energy per unit volume
³³ Lactometre is used to measure the purity of milk, if and kinetic energy per unit volume at every point in
it is adulterated with water or not. tube is constant.
³³ Archimedes’ Principle : When a body is immersed i.e. p + δgh+ ½ PV2 = constant.
in a liquid fully or partially, it suffers an upthrust ³³ Where with an applied thrust from a broader end of
which is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the a pipe, velocity increases and pressure decreases.
immersed part of it. This causes ;
³³ The result of the upthrust is an apparent loss of weight 1. blowing off of a tree with roots by wind storm.
of the body when immersed in the liquid. 2. blowing off parts of a house by wind storm.
³³ A body weighs more in air then when partally or wholly 3. attraction between two closely parallel moving buses,
immersed in water. boats or trains. Hence, people are adviced to stand
³³ Surface Tension : A scalar physical quantity being away from a passing train.
unidirectional is defined as the property of surface of 4. action of insect-sprayer or paint gun is based on
a liquid by which it tends to contract and occupy the Bernoulli’s theorem.
minimum possible surface area i.e. the upper surface 5. working of are aeroplane engine and its flying in air.
acts as a stretched membrane. 6. range of a flowing out of a liquid from orifice of a pipe.

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³³ Viscosity : It is the property of a fluid because of ³³ Heat energy from the sun is transmitted to earth by
GENERAL SCIENCE

which it opposes the relative motion between different radiation.

layers and the acting force is called viscous force. ³³ Very poor conductors, such as glass and plastics, are
³³ It depends on nature of fluid and is independent of called insulators.
area. viscosity of liquids > viscosity of gases, glass ³³ All substances expand on heating exerting more
being the most viscous. Viscosity increases with
pressure on side walls hence expand.
density for liquids, but with rise in temperature it
decreases for liquids, with increasing pressure of ³³ Different substances have different rate of expansion.
liquid, it increases but decreases in case of gases. Some expand more than other as shown by bimetallic
³³ It’s dimenions are (ML–1 T–1) and S.I. unit is poiseuille strip, ring and ball apparatus and different gases in
(PI) and G.S. unit is Poise (P) IPIz 10 Poise. a container.
³³ On increasing pressure and reducing temperature,
HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS gases get easily liquefied.
³³ Heat is a form of energy that flows from one body to ³³ A mechanism called liquification is used to separate
another due to temperature difference between them. gases from atmospheric air by fractional distillation,
³³ It is the combined energy of all molecules moving filling of lighters or gas cylinders.
inside a body.
³³ Oxygen required for hospital and nitrogen for synthesis
³³ Temperature is only a measure of how fast these of ammonia and cryosurgery or cryopreservation
molecules are moving. The faster the molecules in a is obtained from air by fractional distillation after
body vibrate, the hotter it is.
liquefication.
³³ The flow of heat from one body to another in contact
continues until both the bodies are at the same Temperature Scales :
temperature. Symbol
S. Lower Upper No. of
³³ The two bodies are then said to be in ‘Thermal Name of for
fixed fixed divisi-
Equilibrium’. No. Scale each
point point ons
degree
³³ In general, matter (whether solid, liquid or gas)
expands when heated and contracts when cooled 1. Celsius °C 0°C 100°C 100
except water which shows anomalous behaviour.
2. Fahrenheit °F 32°F 212°F 180
It expands on cooling with increasing volume and
reducing density. 3. Reamur °R 0°R 80°R 80
³³ It is this property of water that allows aquatic animals 4. Rankie °Ra 460Ra 672 212
to survive on freezing of water in lakes or rivers.
5. Kelvin K 273.15K 373.15K 100
³³ Black or dark bodies absorb heat while white or bright,
shiny surfaces reflect away the heat. ³³ Specific heat : The amount of heat required to change
³³ Black colours are good absorber and emitter of heat. the temperature of a body.
³³ Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature. The temperature ³³ It depends on material of body, mass of body and
is expressed in kelvin and not in degree kelvin. change in temperature i.e., ∆Q = m C ∆T
³³ If T is the temperature on the kelvin scale and 0°C is the ³³ Thermal Capacity : It is the quantity of heat energy
temperature on the celsius scale, then, required to raise the temperature of body by unit.
T = 273.15 + °C Thermal capacity = mass of body × specific heat
³³ If the temperature of a hot body on the celsius scale ³³ Water equivalent : It refers to amount of water that
and fahrenheit scale are 0° C and 0°F respectively, absorbs or gives out the same amount of heat as is
then the relation between the two is done by body when heated by 1°C.
°C = °F – 32 ³³ Latent heat : The amount of heat energy gained or
100 lost, when a body undergoes a change in its phase
180 or
from solid to liquid to gas or vice versa as latest heat
F = 9 (32 + °C) of fusion or latest heat of vapourization.
5
³³ At–40°, both the celsius and fahrenheit scales give ³³ Transmission of heat : It occurs through conduction,
same reading. At 100°C it is 212° F or 36.9°C is equal convection or radiation.
to 98.6°F. ³³ Coefficient of thermal conductivity (K) : It is the
amount of heat that flows in a unit time through unit
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow under
³³ The process of net energy transfer through a unit temperature gradient when steady state has
substance without movement of the substance itself been reached.
is called conduction. k (Q1 – Q2)t
³³ The process of transfer of heat energy within the Q=
d
heated medium by the movement of the substance For a perfect conductor, K is infinite and for perfect
within itself is known as convection.
insulator K=0 Newton’s law of cooling. According
³³ The process of transfer of heat from one body to
another without requiring any medium is called to Newton’s law of cooling : d = K (θ– θo) i.e. rate
dt
radiation.
of cooling of a hot body is directly proportional to

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³³ The area around a magnet in which the magnetic

GENERAL SCIENCE
temperature difference between the body and its
surrounding i.e. amount of heat lost = amount of strength of a magnet can be experienced, is called
magnetic field.
gained by other body.
³³ In a bar magnet, the magnetic strength is maximum
³³ Kirchoff’s law : It states that the rate of emissive at the corner regions called poles than in the middle
power and absortive power is same for all surfaces at of magnet.
same temperature and is equal to the emissive power
of a perfectly black body at that temperature. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
³³ If ‘a’ and ‘e’ represent absorptive and emissive power ³³ It is a process in which an electromotive force (EMF)
is set up in an electrical circuit by changing magnetic
then.
flux linked with the circuit.
e E
a =
A where E and A are for perfectly black body. ³³ If the circuit is closed, an electric current will flow.
A good absorber is also a good emitter at a given ³³ The magnitude of the EMF produced is proportional
wavelength. to the rate of change of flux.
Sand is good absorber and emitter, therefore in deserts, ³³ The direction of induced EMF is such that it opposes
the change of flux which produces it such as in
days are hot but nights are cool. dynamo and generator.
³³ Black body : A body that absorbs all the radiations ³³ The law of induction was given by Faraday and the
incident on its surface is called a perfect black body. direction of induced EMF was given by Lenz’s law.
It neither reflects nor absorbs any radiation which is ³³ The induction of EMF can be self induction or mutual
not 100% possible. It always appear black despite of induction.
the colour of radiation incident on its surface. SOME IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT MAGNETISM
³³ The regions of strongest magnetisation near the ends
MAGNETISM of a magnet are called poles of the magnet.
³³ Magnetism is the branch of physics concerned with ³³ The distance between the two poles of a magnet is known
magnetic phenomenon. as the effective length of the magnet.
³³ An imaginary line bisecting the effective length of the
³³ Magnetism is caused by the atoms arranged in
magnet, at right angles to it, is called the magnetic
materials.
equator of the magnet.
³³ Materials can be divided broadly into three categories. ³³ Iron can be easily magnetised even by weak magnetic
(i) Diamagnetic Substances fields whereas steel needs strong magnetic fields.
(ii) Paramagnetic Substances ³³ Such as an iron rod left buried in soil for few days
(iii) Ferromagnetic Substances develop magnetism as earth behaves as a huge
³³ Diamagnetic substances are those substances which magnet.
are repelled by a magnet. e.g. copper, lead, gold, zinc, ³³ In a magnetic field, magnetic lines of force develops
tin, water, air, antimony. outside.
³³ Paramagnetic substances are attracted by a magnet ³³ They are curvilinear, originates at north pole and
proceed to south pole. Inside a magnet these lines are
very feebly, e.g., Aluminium, Chromium, Oxygen,
parallel move from south to North pole being parallel.
Platinum.
³³ Magnetic lines of force never intersect being tangential.
³³ Ferromagnetic substances are attracted by magnets
³³ They are more concentrated near poles than in middle
and can also be magnetised. e.g. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel. of magnet.
³³ Ferromagnetic substances behave just like
paramagnetic materials but the effect is much more
intense.
N S
Paramagnetic

³³ Right hand thumb rule states that the magnetic lines

of force are produced perpendicular to direction of
Diamagnetic current and their direction is in anti clock wise mode
to the direction of current through a conductor.
N

Ferromagnetic

Dra Fr Pa S

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³³ Two conductors running parallel to each other when current is made to flow through is a solenoid.
GENERAL SCIENCE

carrying current in same direction always attract each ³³ A solenoid which has an iron core is called an
other and if carry the current in opposite direction, electromagnet. Electromagnet is a temporary magnet.
they repel each other depending on nature of magnetic
³³ Electromagnets are used :
field developed around them.
(i) in electrical appliances, such as electric bell,
³³ Solenoid is a coil of wire with length greater than its
diametre. electric fan, electric relay, electric motor, electric
generator etc, and
³³ The strength of magnetic field produced by it depend
on the number of turns, area of cross section and (ii) for magnetic separation of iron objects from garbage
material of solenoid. and for lifting heavy ferromagnetic loads.
³³ Rough handling, heating and hammering are simple
and demagnetising with other magnet and by making
magnet using alternating current through a solenoid
in north to south are some of the complex methods
of demagnetisation of permanent magnet.
³³ Curie temperature : It refers to the temperature at
S N which a given substance changes its magnetic property
+ –
for example form ferromagnetic to paramagnetic etc.
³³ If in a current carrying conductor, the direction of ³³ Galvanometre is an instrument used for :
current is from south to north then a bar magnet (i) detecting the flow of current in an electric circuit,
brought close to it deflects toward west. (Snow Rule). (ii) finding the direction of flow of current,
³³ In domestic and industrial circuits, the major cause of
(iii) measuring the strength of current,
electrical fire is either over loading or short circuiting.
(iv) making measuring devices, such as voltmetre and
³³ In short circuiting, the live wire comes in direct contact
of neutral wire. ammetre.
³³ The induced magnetism acquired by soft iron is BASIC ELECTRONICS
temporary, whereas the induced magnetism acquired
by steel is more or less permanent i.e., steel has ³³ The electrons, revolving around in the outermost orbit
greater retentivity and it has higher coercivity i.e., of metals, which are weakly held by nucleus are called
resistance to lose magnetism than iron. free electrons.
³³ Magnetic materials which retain magnetism for ³³ The electrons emitted from the surface of metal, when
considerable time are known as hard materials and heat energy is supplied to metal are called Thermions.
those which lose magnetism easily are called soft
³³ Emission of electron from any metallic surface caused by
materials.
heating is known as Thermionic Emission.
³³ Iron is an example of a soft material while steel is a
³³ The minimum heat energy required to make a metal
hard material.
emit an electron (thermion) from its surface is called
³³ A vertical plane passing through the magnetic axis of a threshold energy or work function.
freely suspended magnet at rest is called the magnetic
³³ Rate of emission of photo electrons is directly
meridian of that place.
proportional to intensity of falling radiation.
³³ A vertical plane passing through the north-south
³³ The minimum frequency of radiation that is required
direction at a place is known as the geogra-phical
for emission of electrons is known as ‘Threshold
meridian of that place.
frequency’.
³³ The angle between the magnetic meridian and the
³³ A good thermion emitter must have low work function
geographical meridian is known as the Angle of
and high melting point, e.g., alkali metal oxides.
declination which is 19.5°.
³³ A thermion emitter, which gets heated on the passage
³³ The angle which the magnetic field due to the earth,
of electric current, and when its temperature becomes
makes with the horizontal at a place is known as angle
more than threshold temperature, it starts emitting
of dip of that place.
electrons and is called directly heated thermion
³³ Angle of dip at places lying on the so-called magnetic emitter, e.g., tungsten.
equator is zero.
³³ A material, which itself does not get heated up on
³³ The magnetism of the Earth is caused by the link the passage of electric current, but when heated by
between magnetism and electricity. some other source emits thermions is called indirectly
³³ The rapid spinning of the Earth creates electric heated thermion emitter, e.g., alkali metal oxides.
currents in the molten core, which are responsible ³³ An electronic device, which allows the electron to flow
for the magnetic field around the earth. only in one particular direction is called diode valve.
³³ Repulsion, and not attraction, is the surest test for ³³ Diodes are used as half and full wave rectifiers.
polarity of a magnet.
³³ In 1904, Sir J.A. Fleming, an English physicist,
³³ Certain types of iron, which once magnetised retain invented first vacuum diode, called the Fleming’s
their magnetism, are called permanent magnets. valve.
³³ An insulated copper wire wounded on some cylindrical ³³ This electronic device allows the electron to flow only
card board or plastic tube, such that its length is in one direction.
greater than its diametre and it behaves like a magnet

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³³ When used as a rectifier i.e., it converts AC into DC, ELECTRICITY

GENERAL SCIENCE
while an invertor converts DC into AC. ³³ Electricity is the phenomenon associated with
³³ Instead of obeying Ohm’s law which states that electric stationary or moving electrons, ions or other charged
current flowing through a conductor is proportional particles.
to potential difference across its ends, it works on ³³ The electricity produced by friction is called frictional
Shield-Langumer law. electricity.
³³ Substance having number of valence or free electrons ³³ If the charges in a body do not move, then the frictional
between conductivity and insulating zone is called electricity is known as static electricity i.e., study of
semiconductor. charges at rest.
³³ It is in-between conductor and insulators, e.g., Ge, ³³ The electricity i.e., charges that travels along wires is
Si, etc. It's resistivity decreases and conductivity called current electricity.
increases with increasing temperature as compared
³³ An electric current is defined as an electric charge
to conductor in which resistivity increases with
in motion. The unit of current is ampere and it is
increasing temperature.
measured with the help of an instrument called
³³ Semi conductors are of two types called n-type and ammetre.
p-type, n-type have pentavalent impurity like arsenic
³³ The opposition or obstruction offered by a conductor
to silicon.
to the passage of drifting electrons is called electric
³³ P-type semi conductors have trivalent impurity like resistance. It’s unit is ohm.
indium to silicon.
³³ Resistance of conductor is directly proportional to
³³ Zener diode a junction diode that can work in the its length, inversely proportional to its area of cross-
reverse breakdown voltage system/region without section and upon the nature of conductor.
being damaged.
³³ Resistance of pure metals increases with the rise in
³³ For the output, voltage is regulated voltage. temperature.
³³ Transistor involves transfer of resistance. The emitter ³³ Resistance of alloy, such as German silver, Constantan,
base junction is always forward biased and collector Eureka manganin hardly changes with rise in
base junction is reverse biased. temperature.
³³ It transfers current from low resistance to high ³³ Resistance of ionic compounds, carbon, vulcanised
resistance. rubber decreases with rise in temperature.
³³ A transistor can be n-p-n type or p-n-p type. In n-p-n, ³³ The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell is called
p-section is sandwitched between two n-sections but internal resistance.
in p-n-p, the n-section is sandwitched between two-
³³ Internal resistance of cell is inversely proportional to
p-section. area of electrodes in contract with electrolyte.
³³ A semiconductor device has no filament and requires ³³ Internal resistance of cells is directly proportional to
comparatively low voltage for working of transistor. distance between the electrodes of cell.
³³ Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms to a ³³ Electric energy = Electric power × Time in seconds.
semiconductor so as to increase its conductivity. The However, in commercial unit of energy, the time is
atoms of doping are very small in number i.e., ratio kept in hour.
of 1 : 8 × 106.
i.e. kwh = 3.6 × 106 Joule.
³³ In a semi conductor, biasing is either forward or reverse ³³ Electric power (P) = Electric Current (I) × Electric
biasing. In p-n junction, in forward biasing, positive potential (V); P = V.I.
terminal of external battery in circuit is connected to
p-section and negative to n-section of junction diode. FACTS TO REMEMBER
³³ The biasing is called reverse biasing when positive ³³ Fuse is a safety device in an electrical circuit. It is
terminal of external battery is connected to n-section the weakest point in an electrical circuit,which melts
and negative terminal of p-section to junction diode. and breaks the electric circuit, when the circuit gets :
³³ In forward biasing the major carriers that act while (i) overloaded due to large withdrawal of current,
in reverse, its minority carriers that acts across the (ii) due to short-circuiting in the electric circuit,
junction. (iii) due to fluctuations of current in power supply
³³ Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si ) are pure (intrinsic) system.
semiconductors. ³³ Fuse wire has a low melting point and high resistance.
³³ Integrated Circuit (IC) chips are made of Silicon. ³³ Earthing protects the user and the appliance from
³³ Einstein has described photo electric effect. Einstein electric shock and burn out respectively.
photo electric equation : ³³ Household distribution of electricity is done in
1 parallel, so that :
mv2 = h (f – fo)
2 (i) if there is short-circuit or overloading in one
where h is the Plank constant, f is the frequency of particular circuit, then only the fuse of that circuit
the incident photon and fo is the threshold frequency will melt, but the power supply to other circuits
of the metal. remains unaffected.
1 (ii) As the resistance due to appliances goes on in-
or, mv2 = h (ν– νo )
2 creasing, the overall resistance of circuit decreases.
where νo is stopping potential. Thus, more current flows in the various circuits
³³ Good absorbers are good emitters. depending upon the resistance of appliances.

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Hence, domestic electric circuits, each appliance Coil rotates

GENERAL SCIENCE

Magnetic clockwise
receives optimum amount of current, while po- field
tential difference at the ends of each appliance
remains the same. N s
³³ Switches are always placed in live wire, so that an
Commutator
appliance is completely cut off from live wire in off Brushes reverses
position that carry charges (electrons) with energy. carry current
current to
Thus, a user will not receive any accidental shock. commutator
³³ According to new international convention for colour
coding of electric wires, Red or brown is for live wire, Electric
light blue or black for neutral wire and green or current
yellow for earth wire.
³³ Nichrome and Manganin are the common alloys used for DYNAMO
making heating elements of electric appliances, because ³³ It works on the reverse principle of the motor, i.e.
they have good resistivity, high melting point, low Electro-magnetic induction i.e., when a coil wrapped
thermal expansion and do not get oxidised till 1000°C. with wire is rotated between opposite poles of two
³³ In most of the cases, nichrome is used as heating strong magnets, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil based
element, e.g., in electric iron, electric heater, geyser
on Fleming's Right Hand rule.
etc.
³³ The heating element of heater becomes red hot, but TRANSFORMER
not the connecting wires because the resistance of
³³ Transformer is an electric device, by which the e.m.f. of
connecting wires is extremely small as compared to
the element. an alternating current can be increased or decreased
³³ So, the heat produced in connecting coils is much less as per need of a particular situation. The relation
compared to that produced in element. between the o/p voltage and i/p voltage is
³³ The filament of electric bulb is made up of tungsten. Voltage in secondary number of turns in secondary
=
³³ The bulb is filled with a mixture of nitrogen and argon voltage in primary number of turns in primary
gases at very low pressure. They being chemically The current ratio is in the inverse proportion in the
inert. case of step-down transformer
Current in secondary number of turns in primary
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS =
Current in primary number of turns in secondary
1. During electrolysis, amount of the mass deposited on COULOMB’S LAW
the electrode is directly proportional to the amount of
³³ Force of attraction or repulsion between two point
electricity that passes through it. charges is directly proportional to the product of the
M αQ M = ZIT magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to
where, M = amount of mass deposited the square of the distance between them, acting in the
Q = charge I = current direction of the line joining the points. In SI system
T = time N
Z = electrochemical equivalent of element (ECE)
INTENSITY OF ELECTRIC FIELD
2. During electrolysis, the amount of different elements
deposited from the same current is proportional to ³³ The force experienced by a point charge of 1 coulomb
their electro-chemical equivalent. in any electric field is called the intensity of the–
electric field at that point. It is a vector quantity and
DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT its unit is
³³ Direct Current or DC is that whose magnitude remains
Unit – N/C (NC–1)
constant as a function of time.
³³ An Alternating Current or AC is that which varies in
magnitude continuously and whose direction varies
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (V)
periodically.
³³ It is defined as the amount of work done (W) in
³³ Dry cells or batteries are source of d.c. but generator or bringing a unit positive charge (q) from infinity to a
power station is that of a.c. point in any electric field.
ELECTRIC MOTOR
³³ When a current carrying rectangular conductor is placed

in a magnetic field at right angles to it, the forces acting
on the two parallel lengths will be equal and opposite POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
thus constituting a couple. ³³ The amount of work required in moving a charge of
³³ The conductor therefore rotate as per Flemings left hand 1 Coulomb from a point to the another is called the
rule. This is the principle of electric motor. potential difference between those points.

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EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE UPON RESISTANCE ELECTRIC POWER

GENERAL SCIENCE
³³ In case of pure metal the resistance increases with ³³ The rate of loss of electric power in any electric circuit
increase in temperature and vice-versa. It is given by is called the power (W)
the relation Rt = Ro (1+αt) (α= coefficient of thermal ³³ Power = current × voltage (P = VI)
resistance). ³³ W=V×A
³³ In case of semiconductor, resistance reduces beyond ³³ Watt = volt × ampere
a threshold temperature. ³³ Heat is produced (H) in a resistor on passing electric
LASER current. According to Joule's law of Heating, H = I2Rt
when I is current in ampere, R is resistance in ohm
³³ (Light amplification by stimulated emission of and ‘t’ is time in seconds.
radiation) A laser is a coherent and focused beam of
³³ In a circuit the resistances can be in series or parallel.
photons; coherent, in this context, means that it is all
In series the total resistance is equal to the algebraic
one wavelenght, unlike ordinary light which showers
sum of individual resistor but in parallel, the total
on us in many wavelengths. resistance is equal to algebraic sum of the reciprocal
³³ In a basic laser, a chamber called a cavity is designed to of the individual resistors.
internally reflect infrared (IR), visible-light, or ultraviolet ³³ Hence, in series the total resistance is greater than any
(UV) waves so that they reinforce each other. individual resistor but in parallel it is always less at
³³ The cavity can contain gases, liquids, or solids. The the given voltage.
choice of cavity material determines the wavelength of
the output. At each end of the cavity, there is a mirror. OHM’S LAW
³³ One mirror is totally reflective, allowing none of the ³³ The amount of electric current passing through any
energy to pass through; the other mirror which is conductor is directly proportional to the potential
partially reflective, allowing approximately 5% of the difference between its both ends i.e. V ∝I or V = IR (R is
energy to pass through. Energy is introduced into the constant of proportionality) at any given temperature.
cavity from an external source; by a process called
pumping. ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
³³ As a result of pumping, an electromagnetic field ³³ Rutherford first invented the nucleus.
appears inside the laser cavity at the natural ³³ X rays are produced when high speed electrons fall
(resonant) frequency of the atoms of the material that on tungsten.
fills the cavity.
³³ Radioactivity was discovered by ‘Henry Becquerel.’
³³ The waves reflect back and forth between the mirrors.
³³ α particles are doubly ionized helium atoms or
The ruby laser, a simple and common type, has a rod-
helium nuclei.
shaped cavity made of a mixture of solid aluminum
oxide and chromium. ³³ γrays are electromagnetic radiation of very high
³³ The output is in the red visible range. A blue laser has energy thus its frequency is very low.
a shorter wavelength than the red laser, and the ability ³³ γrays are emitted with both αand βparticles. They
to store and read two to four times the amount of data. cannot be produced alone.
³³ The helium-neon laser is another popular type, favored Comparison of Alpha (α), Beta (β) and
by electronics hobbyists because of its moderate cost. Gama (γ ) Particles
³³ It has a cavity filled with helium and neon gases. The
output of the devices is bright crimson. Properties αparticles βparticles γparticles
³³ Other gases can be used instead of helium and neon, Symbol He4
2 β γ
producing beams of different wavelengths. Mass 4 1/2000 0
³³ Argon produces a laser with blue visible output.
Charge +2 –1 0
A mixture of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and helium
produces IR output. Speed slow (B/W- fast 99% I v e r y f a s t
³³ Lasers are one of the most significant inventions 1.4×10 7 do of light Velocity of
developed during the 20th century. 2.27× 107 light
³³ They have found a tremendous variety of uses in m/s)
electronics, computer hardware, medicine, and Ionising ability high medium 0
experimental science. Penetrating low medium high
³³ Maser : (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation). power 1/100 mm 1mm to 30 cm
³³ A LASER is a MASER that works with higher frequency 5mm sheet
photons in the ultraviolet or visible light spectrum. Can be paper aluminium lead
³³ They serve as high precision frequency references. stopped by
These “Atomic frequency standards” are one of the Magnitude of 3.3×10–19C 1.6×10–19C Zero
many forms of atomic clocks. charge
³³ They are often used as low noise microwave amplifiers Effect of deflected deflected No effect
in radio telescopes.
electric and
³³ Photons : These are bundles of electromagnetic
magnetic field
energy commonly thought of as “rays of light” which
travel in oscillating waves of various wavelengths). Ionising power Maximum moderate minimum

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β-particles are electrons ejected from the nucleus not

absorbed by the control rods made up of graphite and
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from orbits of atom. The neutron in nucleus decays boron, then the energy so released can be utilised in
into protron and electron. producing steam which can be further used in running
β-particles (–1e°) turbines to generate electricity such as in nuclear
power stations.
ANODE ³³ The process of combining lighter nuclei (atomic weight
less than 20) into heavier nuclei is called nuclear
γ-rays (0n1) fusion.
³³ To fuse hydrogen atoms, the minimum temperature
CATHODE required is 1000,000°C.
α-particles (2He4) ³³ It is for this particular high temperature, the fusion
reaction are sometimes called thermo-nuclear
³³ Photo electric effect is the phenomenon of emission of
reaction.
electrons from a metal surface when light of suitable
³³ The principle of nuclear fusion is used in Hydrogen
frequency becomes incident on it.
bomb and energy irradiated by sun and stars.
³³ It’s strength depends on intensity of light as with
increasing intensity, strength increases but K.E. of ³³ Geiger counter is used for measuring radioactivity.
emitted electrons remain unaffected and so also the ³³ The radiation which is omnipresent on the earth
stopping potential. because of radioactive substances and cosmic ray
³³ The energy of photon is affected by frequency. Work particles are called background radiation.
function i.e., minimum energy required for emission ³³ Radioactive property of carbon is used in carbon-14
of photo electrons vary from metal to metal. Alkali dating to determine the age of fossils.
metals with only one electron in outermost shell are Uses of radio isotopes :
the best suited for the purpose. P-32 : Treatment of skin diseases, lukemia, blood
³³ γ-rays accidentally produced by Roentgen are produced cancer.
in Coolidge x-ray tube which has vacuum inside with I-131 : Treatment of thyriod gland.
tungsten filament used as cathode and molybdenum
tubing for preventing the scattering of electrons. Na-24 : Treatment of defects in blood circulation.
³³ ∝ -rays are emitted by nucleus of radioactive Co-60 : Treatment of Cancer
elements/substance. They have frequency range of C-14 : Estimating age of fossils.
3 × 1019 to 5 × 1020 Hz. They however travel by only ³³ Half life : It is the time after which the amount of
10% of speed of light. radioactive element becomes half of the initial mass
³³ U.V.-rays have frequency range of 8 × 1014 to 8 × 1016 after releasing radiations. It is based on principle E
Hz. They are produced by an arc of mercury and iron. = mc2 in which mass is converted/lost to produce
³³ For humans, they are source of vitamin-D in skin cells. energy. ‘c’ is the speed of light.
³³ Infrared rays are heat radiations with frequency range ³³ Uranium obtained from earth crust can not directly
of 3 × 1011 to 4 × 1014 Hz. be used as fuel. It needs to be enriched i.e., 92U238 to
³³ They are emitted by all living organisms and hot be converted into 92U235. In India, it is mostly done
bodies. The greater is frequency, hotter is the object. at BARC (Babha Atomic Research Centre), Mumbai.
³³ Micro waves with frequency range of 3 × 108 to 3 × ³³ In nuclear reactor instead of uranium, thorium or
1011 Hz. They are produced by oscillating electric field polonium can also be used as nuclear fuels.
and used in cooking and long distance telephonic ³³ Nuclear reactor : A nuclear reactor consists of five
communication. main components:
³³ Radio waves like microwaves are produced by ³³ Fuel : Some common fuels are uranium isotopes U233,
oscillating electric field. U235, thorium isotopes Th232 and plutonium isotope
³³ These rays with frequency range of 3 × 103 to 3 × 1011 Pu239.
Hz are used for long distance telecommunication and ³³ Moderator : Used to slow down the emitted neutrons.
TV transmission. Commonly used moderators are graphite, heavy water,
³³ γrays travelling with speed of light are widely used in beryllium, beryllium oxide and some organic liquids.
radio therapy and food industry to kill germs. ³³ Coolant : Used to remove excessive heat developed
³³ An element becomes radioactive when inside the reactor core. Some commonly used coolants
are water, steam, helium, CO2, air, molten metals etc.
(i) its atomic number exceeds 82, and
³³ Control rods : Used to initiate or stop the nuclear
(ii) there is an imbalance of protons and neutrons as
fission reactions of the nuclear reactor.
compared to normal stable atoms.
³³ The process by which a heavy radioactive nuclei is broken Cadmium or boron rods are used as control rods.
into lighter nuclei by the bombardment of slow moving ³³ In nuclear fission, a bigger nuclei is broken into
neutron, so as to liberate energy and more neutrons smaller nuclei and there is a huge amount of energy
than used for bombardment is called nuclear fission. released.
³³ Chain reaction is the phenomenon in which neutrons ³³ Atom Bomb and nuclear bomb work on nuclear
liberated during fission process lead to further fission fission.
of atoms, releasing a large amount of energy. ³³ When two or more smaller nuclei are jointed fused
³³ If the fission process is carried out under controlled together to form a large nuclei, the process is called
conditions, i.e., the neutron formed during fission are nuclear fusion.

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³³ A great amount of energy is released. Hydrogen bomb ³³ A transparent body like glass or water transmits

GENERAL SCIENCE
works on principle of nuclear fusion. almost all the light that passes through it.
³³ Nuclear fusion is the source of the Solar energy and ³³ A smooth shining surface like a mirror or metal sheet
other forms of celestial energy. reflects away almost all the light incident on it.
³³ Nuclear reactor is based on controlled chain reaction.
³³ When rays shooting from a point object, after reflection
SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER or refraction, appear to converge at a second point, the
³³ Ice has the highest specific latent heat. So, compared second point is known as the real image of the first.
to other matter, it requires higher amount of energy ³³ A real image can be received on a screen as it is
for melting. That’s why; actually formed by the intersection of rays.
(i) Water bodies in cold countries do not freeze sud- ³³ When rays shooting from a point object, after reflection
denly, or refraction, appear to diverge from a second point,
(ii) Snow melts slowly on the mountains in the sum- the second point is said to be the virtual image of
mers, due to which, there are no flash floods, and the first.
the rivers contain water for whole year, ³³ A virtual image has no existence. Hence, it cannot be
(iii) Soft drinks are cooled by ice rather than iced cold received on the screen.
water.
MIRRORS
³³ Boiling point of a liquid rises with presence of
³³ The image formed by a plane mirror is erect, laterally
dissolved impurities.
inverted and virtual. Also, it has the same size as the
³³ Therefore sometimes salt is added to slow down the object and is as far behind the mirror as the object
melting of ice. is in front of it.
³³ The phenomenon due to which, a liquid changes ³³ If a person approaches a plane mirror from a distance
into its vapour state at any temperature, without the with speed of 1m/s then image would approach the
aid of any external source of heat is called evaporation. person at speed of 2m/s.
Evaporation is basically the internal property of a liquid ³³ A polished surface is visible only from that direction
and it produces cooling effect. in which it reflects the light.
³³ In reflection from irregular surfaces, the object can be seen
OPTICS from all directions.
³³ Light is the physical cause which produces sensation ³³ A man can see the whole of his body in a mirror
of sight and makes the surrounding objects visible provided the size of mirror is minimum half of his
to us. own height.
³³ Bodies which themselves emit light are called luminous ³³ The minimum size of a plane mirror required to be fixed
objects. on the wall of a room so that an observer at the centre of
³³ The luminous objects are usually hot. However, cold the room can see the full image of the wall behind him
luminous objects also exist. The sun and the stars are is one-third the height of the wall behind the observer.
examples of hot luminous objects, whereas, the light ³³ A set of two parallel mirrors produces theoretically an
emitting diodes used in digital instruments, fire fly and infinite number of images. However, in practice only
electric ray fish are examples of cold luminous objects. a limited number of images are observed, since each
³³ Objects which do not emit light themselves are called successive image is fainter than the preceeding one.
non-luminous objects. ³³ The total number of images formed by two plane
³³ They become visible to us only when the light reflected mirrors inclined at right angles is 3. Number of images
(or scattered) by them is able to enter into our eyes.
= 360° – 1
³³ In a pin-hole camera, the image is always at focus, 
real, inverted black and white and smaller than the ³³ The portion of the mirror from where reflection
object. The image can be coloured if the film used is actually takes place is known as aperture.
coloured film. ³³ In a concave mirror, the image is always real except
³³ If the size of the pin-hole is increased, the image when the object is within the focal length.
becomes blurred. ³³ In the latter case, the image is virtual, erect and
³³ When the screen is moved towards the pin-hole magnified.
camera, the size of the image decreases but its ³³ In a convex mirror, irrespective of the position of the
luminosity increases. The reverse happens when the object, the image is always behind the mirror.
screen is moved away. ³³ It is always virtual, small size and the image distance
³³ Reflection is the phenomenon whereby light, on from the mirror is always less than the object’s
striking an opaque surface is thrown back into the distance.
same medium provided that angle of incidence is equal ³³ The image formed by a concave mirror might be an
to angle of reflection with respect to normal drawn at enlarged or diminished one depending upon the
point of incidence. position of the object.
³³ An opaque body absorbs and transmit some of the ³³ But in a convex mirror, the image is always a
light that falls on it but majorly reflects the remaining diminished image.
light. ³³ Image formation by concave mirror

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A (i) A stick appears bent and short when immersed

GENERAL SCIENCE

obliquely in water. It also appears magnified because

A image is formed close to the eye.
(ii) The bottom of a beaker filled with water appears
raised. Swimming pool appears shallow when filled
C F B P B with water.
(iii) Stars twinkle and appear higher in horizon than
their actual positon.
(iv) The Sun appears bigger during sunset or sunrise.
Virtual image by concave mirror Atmospheric refraction is responsible for twilight
and helps in increasing the length of the day by four
Position of Position of Nature of minutes, difference between real and apparent day
object size of image image
length.
At focus Highly enlarged Real and ³³ The phenomenon due to which a ray of light, while
at infinity inverted
traveling from optically denser medium to optically
Between pole of Enlarged/magnified virtual and rarer medium, gets reflected into the same medium
mirror and behind the mirror erect at the surface of separation, is called total internal
focus reflection (TIR).
Between focus Enlarged beyond Real and ³³ For total internal reflection to take place :
(f) and centre of curvature inverted
(i) rays of light must travel form optically denser
centre of
curvature (c) medium to optically rarer medium,
(ii) the angle of incidence in optically denser medium,
At centre of Equal size as object Real and
curvature inverted must be greater than critical angle.
at centre of
curvature ³³ Angle of incidence in a denser medium for which
angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90° is called
Beyond centre Diminished and Real and
of between inverted Critical Angle.
curvature centre of curvature ³³ Sparkling of diamonds and formation of mirage take
and focus place due to total internal reflection.
³³ A concave mirror is used as shaving mirror, Doctor’s ³³ It is also used in optical fibres for endoscopy or in
reflector, reflectors of search light, in terrestrial communication.
telescope etc.
LENSES
³³ A convex mirror or a diverging mirror is used as
³³ A concave lens can be used as :
driving mirror, anti theft mirror in malls and street
lamp reflector. (i) eye lens for Gallelio telescope, and
(ii) correcting short sightedness.
FACTS TO REMEMBER
³³ A convex lens always forms real and inverted images,
³³ The phenomenon, due to which a ray of light deviates except it forms a virtual, magnified and erect image,
from its original path, while traveling from one optical when object is between optical centre and principal
medium to another optical medium of different density focus. It's when, it is used as magnifying lens.
is called refraction.
³³ When a ray of light travels from optically rarer medium
to optically denser medium, it always bends towards
normal, drawn at the point of incidence.
1
³³ Normal is an imaginary perpendicular drawn at the 2f f 0 f
1
2f
point of incidence on interface.
³³ When a ray of light travels from optically denser Image formation by convex lens :
medium (glass or water) to optically rarer medium (air
or vaccum), it always bends away from the normal, Position of Position of Nature of
drawn at the point of incidence. object size of image image
³³ When an incident ray strikes at right angles at the At focus At infinity and Real and
point of incidence, it suffers no refraction. highly inverted
enlarged
³³ The perpendicular shift in the path of incident
ray,while emerging out from an optical slab is called Between focus Enlarged but on Virtual and
and same erect
lateral displacement.
optical centre side of object
³³ Because of refraction :

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³³ Yellow spot in the eye is responsible for forming an

GENERAL SCIENCE
Between (f) and Enlarged Real and
extremely clear image. When we want to examine an
2f i.e. magnified inverted
object very minutely, the image of object is brought
centre of beyond 2f
curvature (c) to focus at this point.
³³ Crystalline biconvex lens of the eye focuses images
At 2f Same size as Real and of objects at different distances clearly on the retina.
object inverted
³³ Ciliary muscles alter the focal length of crystalline
at 2f only
lens, so that images of objects at various distances are
Beyond 2f Diminished and Real and clearly focused on retina. The property of eye lens to
between f and 2f inverted focus image on retina is called power of accomodation.
³³ A convex lens can be used as : ³³ Iris of the eye controls the amount of light entering
(i) burning glass, into the eye. It acts like the adjustable diaphragm of
(ii) erecting lens, the camera.
(iii) objective lens for telescopes photogaphic camera, ³³ It imparts colour to eye because of pigment present
cinema projector, search light, in it.
(iv) as a simple microscope like a drop of water on ³³ Blind spot is the area on retina from where optic nerve
transparent glass sheet and, originates and leave the eye. No image is formed if
(v) for correcting long sightedness. focused on it and the person behave as a blind person.
³³ A concave lens always forms virtual, erect and
³³ Eye-lids of human eye act as the shutter in front of
camera to restrict light.
diminished image.
³³ The power of lens is the measure of convergence or EYE DEFECTS
divergence produced by it and is measured in dioptres ³³ The common principal causes of eye defects are
(D). myopia and hypermetropia.
³³ If ‘f’ is the focal length in metres and ‘p’ is the power,
1 Myopia Hypermetropia
then p =
f Short sightedness Long sightedness
³³ The power of convex lens is considered positive and
Able to see nearby Able to see distantly placed
is denoted as +D.
objects but objects
³³ The power of concave lens is considered negative and
is denoted as–D. not distant object clearly than nearby objects
³³ If two or more than two lenses of power P1, P2 etc., Image is formed in Image is formed behind retina
are placed in contact with each other, then power ‘P’ front of retina
of the combination is :
P = P1 + P2 + ..... algebraic sum Focal length of eye lens F o cal leng th o f ey e l e n s
increases decreases
FUNCTIONING OF THE CAMERA
Corrected by concave Corrected by convex lens
³³ A photographic camera has different f-numbers lens
marked on a ring. The f-number is adjusted according
to intensity of light. ³³ The other eye defects include old age hypermetropia also
called presbyopia and astigmatism caused by roughening
³³ In dim light f-number is kept higher and in bright of cornea hence, corrected by cylindrical lenses.
light f-number is decreased so that film may not get
³³ A convex lens of short focal length is used as
over-exposed.
magnifying glass or simple microscope.
³³ The diaphragm helps in controlling the amount of
³³ A compound microscope uses lens of short aperture
light entering in camera.
and small focal length as objective lens and other
³³ A shutter of variable speed is fixed behind the lens of short focal length but large aperture as eye
diaphragm of the photographic camera to control the piece lens.
exposure time of film. u f0
³³ The time of exposure is directly proportional to the fe
square of f-number. A
³³ The shutter is so constructed that it automatically h B B' Eyepiece
B
closes after a certain required time-interval. B B O h' E
HUMAN EYE A'
Objective
³³ In human eye, cornea, acts as window to the world, i.e.,
allows the light to enter the eye. It causes maximum D
refraction of light entering into an eye. A
³³ In human eye, choroid darkens the eye from inside Ray diagram for the formation of image by a
and hence prevents any internal reflection of light. compound microscope
³³ The function of retina consisting of rod and cone cells ³³ An astronomical telescope uses objective lens of large
is to receive the optical image of an object and then aperture and large focal length and eye-piece of small
convert it into optical pulses which are finally sent to aperture and small focal length.
brain through optic nerve.

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f0 ³³ In a CFL, an electric current is driven through a tube

GENERAL SCIENCE

Eyepiece containing argon and a small amount of mercury

fe
vapor.
B' F B'
³³ The above generates invisible ultraviolet light that
h 
excites a fluorescent coating (called phosphor) on
A' the inside of the tube, which then emits visible light.
³³ CFLs need a little more energy when they are first
turned on, but once the electricity starts moving, CFLs
Astronomial telescope
use about 70% less energy than incandescent bulbs.
³³ A binocular consists of a pair of astronomical telescope
whose tube length is reduced using prism. ³³ A CFL’s ballast helps “kick start” the CFL and then
regulates the current once the electricity starts
³³ Interference of light is the phenomenon of non-
flowing.
uniform distribution of energy in a medium because
of superposition of two light waves from a coherent ³³ This entire process typically takes 30 seconds to 3
source placed closed to each other. It is explained by minutes to complete, that is why CFLs take longer
Young's Double Slit experiment. than other lights to become fully bright.
³³ Diffraction is the bending of light round the sharp LIGHT AND COLOUR
corners before spreading into the region provided ³³ The electromagnetic radiations which can excite our
that the size of hole is comparable to wave length of
retina have wave length between 8000Å (1A° = 1 ×
light. The observation of a coloured spectrum of light
10–10m) to 4000A0.
when watching across a muslin cloth is because of
³³ In a wave-band ‘VIBGYOR’ wavelength go on
diffraction.
increasing from violet to red.
³³ Polarisation of light refers to the restriction of the
vibrations of light in one plane. ³³ Colour is a sensation produced in the brain due to
the excitation of retina, by an electromagnetic wave,
³³ It is obtained by passing light through Nicol’s prism
of some particular wave length.
or tourmaline crystal. Polaroids are used in making
good sun glasses than coloured glasses, shields of ³³ A light, which is a mixture of several colours is called
automobiles, and window panes of a train or airplane. polychromatic light. White light is a polychromatic
light and has all the seven wave-bands present in it.
³³ The ordinary light from a source is transverse
unpolarised light that is polarised by polarizer. (VIBGYOR)
³³ The phenomenon due to which a polychromatic light
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED) splits into component colours, when passed through
³³ It is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a a prism, is called dispersion.
p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated. ³³ The angle through which light of a particular
³³ When a suitable voltages applied to the leads, electrons wavelength can deviate, while passing through prism,
are able to recombine with electron holes within the is called refractibility.
device, releasing energy in the form of photons. ³³ The refractibility for red light with maximum
³³ This effect is called electroluminescence, and the wavelength is the least, whereas that of the violet
color of the light corresponding to the energy of the light is maximum.
photon is determined by the energy band gap of the ³³ As the velocity of light is least in case of violet and
semiconductor. maximum in case of red in the glass, refractive index
³³ An LED is often small in area (less than 1mm2) and of red colour in glass is less than that of violet colour.
integrated optical components which may be used to ³³ The colour of an opaque object depends upon the
shape its radiation pattern. wave bands it absorbs, reflects or transmits when
³³ Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be white light is incident on it. If an object reflects all
used in including lower energy consumption, longer the colours, it appears white.
lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, ³³ If it absorbs all the colours, it appears black.
and faster switching. ³³ The colour of the transparent object in white light
³³ Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as depends upon :
diverse as aviation lighting, automotive head lamps, (i) colours of white light being absorbed, and
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera (ii) colours of white light being transmitted.
flashes and lighted wallpaper. As of 2015, LEDs ³³ A green glass will absorb all the colours of white light
powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat but transmits or reflect only green.
more expensive, and require more precise current ³³ The colour of an opaque object in coloured light
and heat management than compact fluorecent lamp depends upon pigment present in the object.
sources of comparable output. ³³ It is the pigment, which selectively absorbs or reflects
³³ CFLs (Compact flourescent lamps) : They produce coloured light falling on it.
light differently than incandescent bulbs. In an ³³ When a green light is incident on red opaque object,
incandescent, electric current runs through a wire the red pigment will absorb green light and reflects
filament and heats the filament until it starts to glow. none. Thus, the object appears dark.

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³³ When blue light is incident on blue opaque object, ³³ UV-radiations produce chemical effect in silver salts.

GENERAL SCIENCE
the blue pigment will reflect the blue light and hence ³³ UV-radiations are absorbed by ozone layer in
object appears blue. stratosphere and here they convert oxygen to ozone.
³³ When yellow light is incident on white opaque object, ³³ UV-radiations can be detected by fluorescence.
the yellow light is reflected, because there is no ³³ Fluorescence is the phenomenon, where a substance
pigment in white object. Thus, object appears yellow. absorbs an incident light of smaller wavelength and
³³ The colour of a transparent object in coloured light then reflects a light of longer wavelegnth.
depends upon the pigment present in transparent ³³ UV-radiations when absorbed by skin, stimulate the
object and the light absorbed or transmitted by it. body to produce vitamin D, which is very good for
³³ A red object will appear black through blue glass, growth of strong bones and teeth.
because red light coming from it is absorbed by blue
ACOUSTICS
glass.
³³ The scientific study of sound and sound waves is called
³³ Red, blue and green are primary colours.
as Acoustics.
³³ Cyan, yellow and magenta form primary pigments.
³³ The unit of measurement of the intensity of sound is
³³ The regions of spectrum which do not excite retina decibel (dB).
and hence is not visible are collectively called invisible
³³ The average range of audible frequencies to which the
spectrum. human ear responds is between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
³³ Infra-red and ultra-violet radiations are parts of it. However, the effective range is 50 Hz to 15,000 Hz.
³³ The electromagnetic radiations beyond red end of ³³ The safe range of audible sound is 20-120 dB.
visible spectrum are called infra-red radiation. ³³ Such vibrations are produced during earthquakes
³³ The wavelength of infra-red spectrum extends from easily assessed by wild animals like deer, elephant,
8000 × 10–10 m to 4,00,000 × 10–10 m. dogs, etc. that makes them go restless even long before
³³ White hot sources of light, such as sun, arc lamp, the arrival of real sesimic waves.
burning gases or any other material are best-suited ³³ Human ear structurally and functionally has three
for producing infra-red radiations of higher intensity. parts : external, middle and inner ear.
However, all living beings, animals, plants or humans ³³ External ear consists of ear canal that terminates with
are infra-red emitters. tymphanic membrane (ear drum). It vibrates as per
³³ Infra-red rays produce heating effect, therefore, they the received sound waves.
are used by the doctors for therapeutic purposes. ³³ The middle ear has three adjoining bones malleus,
³³ Infra-red radiations have a very long wavelength, so incus and stapes for amplification of received
they do not easily get scattered in fog or smoke. vibrations and eustachian tube that opens up in
³³ Thus, they can be used for taking infra-red photographs thorax to maintain body’s air pressure.
with suitable photographic plates and filters in foggy ³³ Inner ear filled with endolymph has sensitive part,
weather. the coiled cochlea with cells of Organ of Corti that
³³ Since all objects are the emitters of infra-red radi- transform the received mechanical signals into
ations, therefore, specially prepared devices, i.e., impulses to be carried to brain by auditory nerve.
night-vision devices can see or detect the objects in
darkness by receiving the infra-red radiations. SOUND AND WAVE MOTION
³³ Infra-red radiations are used in surface to air missiles ³³ Sound is longitudinal wave and requires a material
for tracking and destroying enemy planes. medium for transmission and propagation.
³³ The on-board sensor of infra-red radiations in the nose ³³ A transverse wave is one in which the motion of the
of missile detects the heat trail left by enemy plane to individual particle of the medium takes place at right
locate its position. angles to the direction of propagation of the wave.
³³ By measuring infra-red or heat radiations from ³³ Transverse waves can be generated in solids and liquids
crops via satelite we can find any change in the heat but not in gases.
radiation pattern. ³³ A longitudinal wave is the one in which the motion of
³³ This change generally indicates some disease. individual particle of the medium takes place in the
³³ Laws of reflection and refraction are valid for invisible direction of propagation of the wave, resulting in the
spectrum too. formation of alternate bands of compressions and
³³ The region of spectrum which extends beyond violet rarefactions.
colour of visible spectrum is called ultra-violet ³³ Longitudinal waves can be produced in solids, liquids
spectrum.
and gases.
³³ Any source of light at temperature of more than
2500°C is a good source of ultra-violet radiation. ³³ Light waves are transverse in nature, while sound
waves are longitudinal waves.
³³ Electric sparks, electric arc lamp, mercury vapour
lamps and sun-light are good sources of UV- ³³ The speed of sound is independent of loudness,
radiations. provided the amplitude is not very large.
³³ The range of UV-radiations is between 4000Å to 100Å. ³³ The velocity of sound is independent of pressure.
³³ UV-radiations produce flourescence in substances ³³ Sound travels faster in warm air. As the velocity of
like zinc sulphide, barium sulphide, barium platino- sound in air is 332 m/s at 0°C, its velocity at θ 0
C is
cyanide and quinine sulphate solution. given by C = 332 + 0.61θ .

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³³ The velocity of sound increases if the wind is blowing ³³ Velocity of sound :

GENERAL SCIENCE

in the direction of sound wave propagation and vice- Vsteel > Vwater > Vair.
versa. ³³ with increase in temperature of air, velocity of sound
³³ Sounds of all frequencies travel with the same speed. also increases.
³³ Speed of sound is more in water than in air and still ³³ At constant temperature, velocity of sound is
more in solids like steel.
independent of pressure.
³³ The phenomenon due to which repetition of sound
³³ With increasing humidity, velocity of sound increase,
is heard, after reflection from distant object (such as
high building or hillock), after the original sound from i.e. in humid air sound travel faster than in dry air.
a given source dies off is called ‘Echo’. ³³ Velocity and pitch of sound produced by a thin wire
³³ SONAR, ‘sound navigation and ranging’ is based on is greater than by a thickwire.
reflection of sound that causes echo. ³³ An organ pipe allows production of sound of all
³³ It is used to measure the depth of ocean by ships and possible harmonics.
its path ahead by sub marines. Distance is measured ³³ In closed organ pipe close end acts as node and open
using simple formula that is: end as internode.
Distance =
Speed × Time ³³ Sonic Boom : When the velocity of source exceeds the
2 phase velocity of a sound wave then Doppler’s effect
³³ These days reflection of sound (ultrasound) technique fails and it has no meaning.
is widely used in medical sciences to diagnose the ³³ There are many instances in which, source moves
presence of tumour or health of foetus in a mother
through a medium at a velocity greater than the
or presence of a stone in a body organ.
velocity of sound.
³³ Resonance is defined as a phenomenon when the
³³ A jet plane, a ballistic missile moves through the air
frequency of applied external force is equal to the
at a velocity greater than the velocity of sound.
natural frequency of the body on which force is
applied, such that it readily takes up the vibrations ³³ The jet planes or supersonic planes sends a cracking
sound called sonic boom, which can crack glass
and begins to vibrate with an increased amplitude.
dishes, window panes and even damage buildings.
³³ Tuning forks are often mounted on sound boxes. The
³³ RADAR : System of locating distant objects by means
size and amount of air enclosed in the sound box is
of the reflected radio waves usually of micro wave
so adjusted that its natural frequency matches with
frequency.
the frequency of the tuning fork, and hence a loud
³³ It is much based on Doppler’s effect as if v is the
sound is produced due to resonance.
velocity of approaching object then change in
³³ The same is responsible for production of whistling frequency is,
sound through a hollow key or tube closed from one
2V n
end. ∆n =
c
³³ Soldiers are often asked to break their steps while For a Receding target,
crossing a bridge. This precaution is taken to prevent –2V
any sudden collapse of the bridge, due to matching ∆n =
c n
of the natural frequency of the bridge with that of
³³ The rate of flow of sound energy per unit is called
the impressed force due to the marching of soldiers.
intensity of sound. The rate of flow of sound energy
³³ Pitch is the characteristic of musical sound, which
per unit area and its effect on the ear collectively is
enables us to differentiate between two sounds of
called loudness of sound.
equal loudness, coming with different frequencies
from two sources. ³³ The property by which two notes of the same frequency
and same loudness can be distinguished from each
³³ The higher the freqeuncy of a note, the higher is its
pitch or the shriller is its note. Among humans, pitch other, because of the difference in wave forms is called
of a female's sound is higher than that of a male quality or timbre.
member. ³³ The loudness and pitch of sound produced by a
³³ Waves and frequencies : Audible range 20Hz – 20,000 musical instrument particularly string instrument
Hz, generated by vibrating bodies such as vocal cords. depends on the nature of wire, tension on wire and
Audible to human. At NTP, wavelength range-16.5 m the force i.e., applied to pluck the wire to a distance
to 1.65 cm. from its mean position.
³³ Infrasonic range : Frequency below 20Hz, produced ³³ A wire plucked more produces sound of greater
by earth quakes. volcanic eruptions or ocean waves. loudness similarly a stretched tense wire produce
Mostly longtitudinal mechanical waves. sound of higher pitch.
³³ Ultrasonic range : Above 20,000 KHz, longituduinal ³³ A wave form which travels at a constant speed of
mechanical waves, produced by high frequency quartz 3 ×108 m/s and is unaffected by electric or magnetic
crystals, fishes, mosquitos, bats. Used for navigation fields, such that it needs no material medium for its
(SONAR) or bloodless surgery and wave theraphy. propagation is called electromagnetic wave.

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³³ Mach number : In fluid dynamics, it is a dimensionless ³³ Transducer : A device that transforms one form of

GENERAL SCIENCE
quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity of a energy into another form such as light into current
body to that of sound in the surrounding medium. vice versa.
M = u/c ³³ Transmitter : It’s a device that converts a signal into
Where M is the Mach number, u is the local flow velocity an electrical signal, mixes it with carrier wave before
with respect to the boundaries (either internal, such transmission.
as an object immeresed in the flow, or external, like a ³³ Modulation : It’s like piggy back of a low frequency
channel), and c is the speed of sound in the medium. signal on a high frequency wave. The two signals
In the simplest explanation, the speed of Mach 1 is combined together make up a modulated wave.
There are three possible forms of signals modulation,
equal to the speed of sound.
amplitude, frequency and phase modulation.
³³ Therefore, Mach 0.65 is about 65% of the speed of
³³ Modem : A device used to modulate or demodulate
sound (subsonic), and Mach 1.35 is about 35% faster a signal.
than the speed of sound (supersonic).
³³ Light waves are transverse electromagnetic waves. WAVE PROPAGATION
³³ Radio waves, television waves, microwaves, infra–red ³³ There are three possible ways of propagation :
rays, visible light, ultra–violet rays, x-rays and gam- — Ground wave propagation involves wave frequency
ma rays are major parts of electromagnetic spectrum range of the maximum 1500 KHz as ionosphere does
in the order of decreasing wavelength or increasing not permit these waves to penetrate into it and prop-
frequency. agate.
³³ Radio waves, TV-waves and micro-waves are produced
³³ It is also called surface wave propagation upto 100km.
by oscillating circuits in special vacuum tubes.
³³ Infra-red rays, visible radiation and ultra-violet rays ³³ Sky wave propagation involves waves of frequency
are produced by the excitation of outer electronic shell range of few MHz to 40 MHz that are reflected by
in increasing order. ionsphere.
³³ X-rays are produced by the excitation of inner ³³ Looking at the earth's curvature, the maximum
electrons of an atom and sudden destruction of high distance of reception from transmitting antenna is d
energy free electrons. = 2hr where d is distance, h is height of antenna and
³³ Gamma radiation are produced by the nucleus of radius of earth 6.4 × 106m
an atom, by the sudden destructions of high energy
particles. They find use in the cure of cancer like the ³³ Space wave propagation is meant for waves having
one released by Co-60. frequency greater than 40MHz. It mostly includes
satellite communication with geostationary satellites
COMMUNICATION being the farthest from earth.
³³ The mode used by a person to interact with an another ³³ E-mail : Electronic mail
person at distance from a few metres to thousands of
kilometres is used under communication. The device Communication Satelite
Space wave
used if any is called communication device. Ionosphere
(i) Transmitter → Channel → Reciever
(ii) Oscillator → Modulator → Transmitter ✈
LOS Sky wave
LOS
(Line Of Sight)
↓
Transmitter antennae → reciever antennae Ground wave
Dish Antenna
↓
Earth
Reciever
↓
Detector ³³ Web : World Wide Web maintained by different
↓ institutions or offices.
Loudspeaker ³³ E-commerce : Commercial transcations conducted
Terms commonly used in modern communication on Internet.
system: ³³ Online chat : Text based chat, one-to-one or group
chat on Internet.
³³ Analog signal : It’s a form of physical wave form whose
³³ Fax : Fascimile i.e., Far away xerox
amplitude varies with time such as a note produced
³³ Frequency Range for different services :
by a tuning fork or light and current signals produced
by a photo cell. Frequency range Service
³³ Digital signal : It's a signal that propagates in form 540 – 1600 KHz Standard AM Broadcast (Radio)
of pulses uniformly spaced in time. The two levels of
88 – 108 KHz Standard FM Broadcast (Radio)
signals are represented in a binary code of 0 and 1.
54 – 1890 KHz Television
³³ Amplifier : A device used to strengthen a signal to
prevent its weakening with time. 896 – 935 KHz Cellular mobile phones

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³³ Colour blindness was first discovered by Horner

GENERAL SCIENCE

SOME CONVERSION FACTORS (1976).

³³ Mass and Density ³³ Focal distance of lens is maximum for red-light and
1 kg =1000 g = 6.02 ×1026 u minimum for violet light
1 slug = 14.6 kg ³³ 3-D image is known as hologram.
1 u = 1.66 × 10–27 kg ³³ If a transparent material is invisible in any liquid, then
1 kg/m3 = 10–3 g/cm3 both of them have the same refractive index. Hence,
humans fail to see in water.
³³ Length and Volume
1 m = 100cm = 39.4 inch ³³ Magnifying glass is convex lens of small focal length.
= 3.28 ft. ³³ If two mirrors are at an angle of 75° then the number
1 mile = 1.61 km = 5280 ft. of images is 5.
1 inch = 2.54 cm ³³ Human eyes have convex lens.
1 nm = 10–9 m = 10A0 ³³ Raman effect is related to scattering of light.
1 pm = 10–12 m = 1000 fm ³³ Optical fibers works on the principle of total internal
1 light year = 9.46 × 1012m reflection.
1 m3 = 1000 L = 35.3 ft3 ³³ Hypo or radium thiosulphate is used for fusing in
= 264 gal photography.
³³ Time ³³ Power of sunglass is zero.
1 d = 86400 s ³³ Heat energy is transmitted as infra–red rays.
1 ³³ The first use of telescope for research was done by
1 Y = 365 d = 3.16 × 107 s
4 Galileo Galilie of Italy in 1609.
³³ Angular Measure ³³ Power measures the degree of divergence or
1 rad = 57.3° = 0.159 rev convergence and is measured in dioptres.
1 ³³ Negative sign denotes divergence or a concave lens.
πrad = 180° = rev
2 ³³ Positive sign is for convergence or a convex lens.
³³ Speed ³³ Air bubble in water behaves as concave lens.
1 m/s = 3.28 ft/s = 2.24 m/h ³³ As temperature of medium increases, its refractive
1 km/h = 0.621mi/h=0.278 m/s index decreases.
³³ Force and Pressure ³³ Refractive index of a material is independent of angle
1 N = 105 dyne = 0.225 lb of incidence.
1 lb = 4.45 N
³³ The angle of deviation in refraction is given by d = (i
1 ton = 2000 lb
– r), i = angle of incidence and r = angle of refraction.
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 10 dyne/cm2
³³ 100°C = 212°F = 373 K.
= 1.45 × 10–4 lb/inch2
³³ Bolometre is used for detection of infra–red rays.
1 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa
³³ Specific heat of water is 1.0 calorie/gm–0C.
= 14.7 lb/inch2
= 76 cm–Hg ³³ Two thinner blankets are more warmer than a single
blanket equal to their width because of air trapped
³³ Energy and Power
in two blankets.
1 J = 107erg = 0.239 cal
³³ Coloured cloths are good absorber of heat.
= 0.738 ft. lb
1 kW.h = 3.6 × 106 J ³³ If there is a relative motion between the source and
1 cal = 4.19 J the observer, then the frequency of sound heard by
the observer might be different from the frequency of
1 eV = 1.60 × 10–19 J
the source. (Doppler’s effect).
1 Horsepower = 746 W
= 550 ft. lb/s ³³ Echo is formed due to reflection of sound provided the
³³ Magnetism minimum distance has to be 17.2m between source
and reflector/obstacle on a dry day.
1 T = 1 Wb/m2 = 104 gauss
³³ When two sound sources of nearly same frequency
FACTS TO REMEMBER are played together, then beats occur.
³³ Speed of light is maximum in vacuum, 3 × 108 m/s. ³³ Number of beats per second is equal to difference
³³ Longitudinal waves can’t be polarized. between the frequencies of sources.
³³ Rainbow are always formed in direction opposite to ³³ The frequency of sound produced by supersonic
the sun. engines are above audible range.
³³ The frequency of visible light varies between 400 nm ³³ The same node from ‘Sitar’ and ‘Veena’ have different
to 700 nm. quality.

OLE - 378
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³³ There is a coating of iron oxide on tape used in tape ³³ The unit of Plank’s constant is J/S.

GENERAL SCIENCE
recorder. ³³ A proton is ionized hydrogen atom. (H+)
³³ The pitch of sound depends upon the frequency. If n ³³ Cryogenic engine is used in space shuttle.
is the frequency of open organ pipe and we close an ³³ Titanium is known as metal of future.
end of the organ pipe, then the frequency will be n/2. ³³ Uranium oxide is known as yellow cake.
³³ At room temperature velocity of sound is 332ms–1. ³³ Tritium is rarely found radioactive isotopes of Hy-
³³ There is no change in velocity, wavelength and frequency drogen.
of refractive wave. ³³ Tuning of radio is an example of resonance.
³³ Audible frequency ranges from 20Hz to 20,000 Hz. ³³ Cybernetics is study of communication between hu-
(20KHz) man and machine.
³³ There is no change in frequency of sound when ³³ The filament of Halogen lamp is made of tungsten–
it changes medium but its velocity, direction and iodine mixture.
intensity will be changed. ³³ Ceramic is used in Super–conductivity.
³³ The direction of wave is independent of velocity, ³³ A device which convert mechanical energy into electric
wavelength and frequency. energy is called dynamo. However, if it produces a
³³ The velocity of sound is increased with increasing fairly large amount of power, it is called Generator.
density of the medium. ³³ Generator is based on the principle of electromagnetic
³³ Sensation of sound lasts for 1/10 second. (Persistence induction proposed by Faraday.
of sound) ³³ In generator, armature consists of laminated soft iron
core, from the centre of which passes a steel axle.
³³ Receiver of telephone converts electrical energy into
sound energy and vice versa. ³³ Slip rings of generator are made of gun metal.
³³ Wave is formed by repeated vibrations of particles of ³³ Brushes of generator are made out of carbon or gun
metal.
medium in which the wave is formed.
³³ Coulomb is the unit of electric charge (coulomb =
³³ Pulse is a wave set up by single disturbance of short
ampere/second).
duration.
1 coulomb
³³ The change in frequency due to Doppler’s effect is
= 6.25 × 1018 electron.
dependent on the velocities of observer and source.
³³ Magnetic effect of electric current was discovered by
³³ A stationary wave is characterised by the appearance Oerested.
of nodes and antinodes. ³³ Biot Savart's law is used to find magnetic field at a
³³ There is a decrease of 2 in atomic number and point due to a current carrying conductor.
decrease of 4 in mass number after emission of an ³³ Galvanometre is used to test the presence of current
αparticle. in a conductor irrespective of its small quantity.
³³ There is an increase of 1 in atomic number after ³³ For an ideal voltmetre, the resistance is infinity and
emission of a βparticle. for an ideal ammetre, it is zero. An ideal ammetre is
³³ There is no effect of γradiation emission upon atomic practically not possible. It always reads slightly less
number as well as mass number. value than actual current.
³³ Neutron was discovered by Chadwick. ³³ A milliammetre has the highest resistance.
³³ Carbon dating is used in determining age of fossils. ³³ Ammetre is used in DC as well as in AC.
³³ Resistance of ammetre used in series is very low.
1
³³ Atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to of the mass ³³ Resistance of voltmetre used in parallel is very high.
12
of 6C .
12
³³ Voltmetre measures potential difference between two
points.
1 amu = 1.6 × 10–27 kg 1 amu = 931 MeV
³³ A parallel combination of a galvanometre and a small
³³ Binding energy is the amount of energy required to
resistance is equivalent to an ammetre.
separate each nucleon from the nucleus.
³³ A series combination of a galvanometre and a high
³³ Polonium is first human made element. resistance is equivalent to a voltmetre.
³³ Mass of neutron is slightly greater than that of proton. ³³ Ammetre is always connected in series while voltmetre
³³ Elements having atomic number greater than 82 must is always connected in parallel to resistors in a circuit.
be radioactive. ³³ Electron volt is the unit of energy.
³³ Cobalt-60 is normally used in radiation therapy of 1 ev = 1.6 × 10–19J
cancer. ³³ Watt is the unit of electric power, watt = volt × ampere
³³ Before X-rays, Barium is given to the patient because volt
Barium is good absorber of X-rays radiation. =
ohm
³³ X-rays is used for determining structure of crystals, Kilowatt hour (kwh) is also the unit of electric power
body bones, etc.
1 kwh = 3.6 × 106J

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³³ The resistance of low power (watt) bulb is high. ³³ Fluorine is often added to toothpaste in the form of
GENERAL SCIENCE

³³ Filament of electric bulb is made of Tungsten. fluoride ions.

³³ Wire of electric heater is made of nichrome. ³³ Both fluorine and chlorine are added to water supplies
³³ Fuse wire is made up of an alloy of lead and tin (50% for their germicidal properties.
each). ³³ Rhodium is the rarest metal.
³³ Transformers work on the principle of electromagnetic ³³ Helium has the lowest boiling point of any element.
induction. ³³ Osmium is the densest element.
³³ A step-up transformer can convert low voltage, high ³³ Tungsten (W) has the highest boiling point (3200°C)
frequency AC to high voltage, low frequency AC. of all the elements. Hence, it is used for filaments in
³³ A step-down transformer converts high voltage, low electric bulbs.
frequency AC to low voltage, high frequency AC. ³³ Cesium is used in atomic clocks.
³³ Transformation ratio of step-up transformer is always ³³ Pure silicon is a semi-conductor and is used in
greater than 1. electronic devices as the base for minute integrated
³³ For preventing formation of eddy currents, laminated circuits (ICs).
cores are used in transformer. ³³ Mercury is the only metal which is liquid at room
³³ It prevents loss of electric current and extra heating temperature. It is very poisonous and affects mental
of coils. health as causes Minamata Disease.
³³ Ohm-metre is the unit of specific resistance. ³³ 1 metre distance is equal to the length of 1,650,763.73
³³ Lead is used in storage battery. wavelength of pure orange lights emitted from Kr-86.
³³ Sliver is the best conductor of electricity. ³³ If a body is dropped vertically down, and another is
projected horizontally then both will reach the ground
³³ Heating effect of current doesn’t depend upon the
simultaneously but with different velocity.
direction of current.
³³ The ratio to distance travelled in 1st, 2nd, and 3rd
³³ AC can’t be used in electroplating.
seconds of freely falling body is in ratio of 1:3:5.
³³ Soft iron is used as electromagnet.
³³ The ratio of maximum height reached by different
³³ Capacity of battery is shown in ‘Ampere-hour’.
bodies projected upwards with different velocity
³³ Specific resistance of any conductor depends upon µ1:µ2:µ3 is equal to µ12:µ22:µ32.
material of conductor and temperature.
³³ If a body is dropped from top of a tower of height h and
³³ Dilute H2SO4 is used in car battery. another body is thrown up simultaneously with velocity
³³ A.C. is not suitable for charging of storage battery. u from the foot of the tower, then both of them would
³³ With increase in temperature there is decrease in meet after time h/u.
resistance of Carbon, Silicon and Platinum. ³³ Choke coil works on principle of electro magnetic
³³ Muscovite is a common separator in electrical induction.
industries. ³³ If a person projected a ball outside from a moving
³³ Dry cell is primary cell, it cannot be recharged. car, then the path of the ball is a straight line for the
³³ Cadmium cell is called standard cell.
person sitting in the car, but it would be a parabolic
for an observer on the ground.
³³ The frequency of D.C. and root mean square value of
³³ Retro-rocket is used for deceleration of rocket in space.
A.C. is always zero.
³³ The shape of rain drop is spherical due to surface
³³ An LCR circuit has inductor, capacitor and resistor.
tension.
Capacitor is the only device that can store a little of
³³ Lactometre is used for determining purity of milk.
A.C. current.
³³ The height of mercury column in barometre is
³³ A transformer can work only on A.C. not on D.C. as
independent of the diametre of glass-tube containing
it does not produce any induced e.m.f.
mercury.
³³ The frequency of A.C. mains in India is 50Hz and ³³ The frequency of second pendulum is 2s.
voltage difference is 230V.
³³ Clouds are flying due to their least density and
³³ The resistance of Mercury is zero at 4K. It’s when it viscosity of air.
acts as superconductor. ³³ Viscosity of gases increases with increase in
³³ Copper and aluminium are the most suitable for temperature.
electric wiring, because they have maximum number ³³ The force of attraction between atoms of the same
of free electrons. material is called cohesive force.
³³ Candalescent of tube-light is always greater than that ³³ The force of attraction between atoms of different
of electric bulb of the same power materials is called adhesive force.
1 KW = 1.34 HP ³³ Cohesive and adhesive forces leads to the formation
³³ Mica is a common insulator in electric industries. of meniscus of a liquid in a capillary tube. ppp

OLE - 380
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GENERAL SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is the branch of science concerned with ³³ Further heating leads to escaping of the particles
the composition, properties, characteristics and reactions from the surface.
of substances along with energy changes. Chemistry is ³³ When heat is removed from a gas (vapour) the kinetic
divided into various branches–Inorganic Chemistry energy of the particles is reduced and they become
is associated with the properties of compounds of the slower and thus come nearer.
chemical elements contained in minerals. Organic ³³ This leads to increase in inter-particle attractive
Chemistry is concerned with the compounds of carbon
forces and thus condensation and finally freezing
and hydrogen or their derivatives. Biochemistry is
may takes place.
concerned with the carbon compounds found in living
³³ Sublimation occurs, where the attractive forces
organisms. Electrochemistry deals with the study
between the particles are low. It involves change of a
of relation between electricity and chemical change.
solid directly into gas on heating without undergoing
Geochemistry is mainly associated with the chemical liquid state or vice versa.
composition of rocks and minerals and ores obtained
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
from them.

STATES OF MATTER
³³ Anything that occupies space and has mass is called
Matter.
³³ Matter undergoes changes which may be either
chemical changes or physical changes.
³³ All forms of matters exist in one of the three physical
forms or states: solid, liquid and gas.
³³ The three states of matter are interconvertible.
Heat Heat
Solid Liquid Gas Metalloids
Cool Cool ,
Sublimation ELEMENTS
Solid Gas ³³ An element is a pure substance that is composed of
Condensation only one kind of atoms.
³³ An element cannot be composed from or decomposed
KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER into simpler substance by a physical or chemical
³³ All forms of matter is composed of small particles change.
(molecules, atoms, ions). Examples : Aluminium (Al), Hydrogen (H), Iron (Fe) etc.
³³ The particles are in continuous, never-ending motion ³³ Metals are characterised by :
(Brownian motion). The higher the temperature, the ³³ Metallic Lustre
faster is the motion, as thermal energy is converted ³³ Good thermal and electrical conductivity
into kinetic energy. ³³ Ductility (can be drawn into wires) e.g. copper, gold
³³ The particles attract one another with a force ³³ Malleability (can be beaten or pressed into thin sheets)
(intermolecular force) which decreases with the e.g.–Iron, Aluminium
increasing distance between them. ³³ Non-metals are characterised by absence of above
properties. e.g. Oxygen, Chlorine etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATTER
³³ Metalloids are elements which exhibit properties
³³ In a solid, the particles are packed closely together, midway between those of metals and non-metals, e.g.,
so, inter-particle attractive force is very high. Arsenic, Antimony.
³³ Inter–particle force is weak in liquids, so they are able ³³ Except Mercury, all metals are solid at ordinary
to flow and occupy shape of container. temperatures.
³³ Except Bromine, all non-metals are gases or solids
³³ Inter-particle force is negligible in gases. So their
under ordinary conditions.
particles are able to wander about more freely than
³³ Percentage of different elements in human body.
those of liquids or solids.
Oxygen – 65%, Carbon – 18 %, Hydrogen – 10 %,
³³ The free random motion of fluid particles is called Nitrogen – 3 %, others – 4 %
Brownian motion.
COMPOUNDS
CHANGES IN STATES OF MATTER
³³ Compound is a pure substance that is composed of
³³ Heating increases the kinetic energy and consequently two or more elements chemically combined in definite
motion of the particles and the rigid structure of the and constant proportions. e.g. water (H2O), Sodium
solid is lost. Chloride (NaCl) etc.

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³³ The separation of a compound into its constituent

GENERAL SCIENCE

Dispersion medium and solution type

elements by chemical means is called analysis, a part
of analytical chemistry. Dispersion medium Type of solution
³³ The formation of a compound by the union of elements Water Hydrosol
is called synthesis.
Alcohol Alcosol.
³³ Silicon dioxide (SiO2), pure sand is the most commonly
found compound on the earth crust in lithosphere Air Aerosol.
while oxygen is the most commonly found element
Organic solvent Organosol.
on earth.
³³ The total number of different elements present in a
molecule of compound is called its atomicity such as SOLUTIONS, SOLUTE AND SOLVENT
its 2 for NaCl and 7 for H2SO4.
³³ A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more
MIXTURES substances.
³³ A given mixture can be a solution, colloid or ³³ The substance which is dissolved to make a solution is
suspension. The three are different in their behaviour called solute and the liquid in which solute is dissolved
as listed below in table. is known as solvent.
³³ The true solutions are always homogenous and the
Property True Colloid Suspension size of solute particles is less than 10–7 cm.
Solution ³³ In a true solution, the solute particles cannot be
distinguished from the solvent molecules even by
1. Solute Less than Between Greater than using a microscope.
size 1nm 1nm to 1000 mm ³³ A colloid is a kind of solution in which the size of
1000 mm solute particles is bigger than that of a true solution
2. Solute Invisible Visible only Visible with but smaller than those of a suspension.
visibility under ultra naked eyes ³³ Milk, Blood, Ink, Soap solution, Gum, Jelly are
microscope example of colloidal solutions.
3. Filtration Pass Possible Impossible ³³ The size of the solute particles in a colloidal solution is
through through through between 10–7 cm and 10–5 cm. Hence, solute particles
and but not filter paper
can be separated using ultra filter paper only.
parchment parchment ultra filter ³³ The scattering of light by colloidal particles is called
membrane membrane paper both Tyndall effect.
filter paper ³³ Strength of a solution : It is defined as the
and amount of the solute in grams found dissolved
parchment in one litre (or dm3) of solution. It is expressed in
membrane g/litre or g/dm3.
³³ Molarity : For a solution, it is defined as number
4. Tyndall No Yes, with Only of moles of the solute dissolved per litre (or dm3) of
effect scattering of occasionally solution. It is denoted by M:
light otherwise Number of solute
not. M=
Volume of solution in litre
If a gram of solute is present in Vcm3 of a given solu-
TYPES OF COLLOIDS tion, then
a
Dispersed Dispersion Example M= × 1000
Molecular mass V
phase medium
e.g. a solution of H2SO4 having 4.9 grams of it dissolved
1. Solid Solid Solid sol., minerals in 500 ml of solution will have its molarity
and rocks, 4.9 1000
gems M = 98 × 500 = 0.1

2. Solid Liquid Sol, gold sol., sulphur

Normality : For a solution, it is defined as the number
sol. of gram equivalent of the solute dissolved per litre (or
dm3) of the solution. It is denoted by ‘N’
3. Solid Gas Aerosol, smoke Number of gram equivalents of solute
N =
4. Liquid Liquid Emulsion, milk Volume of solution in litre
If ‘a’ gram of solute is present in V cm3 of a solution,
5. Liquid Solid Gel, cheese, jellies
a
6. Liquid Gas Liquid aerosol, cloud N= × 1000
Eq. mass of solute V
7. Gas Liquid Foam, froth in air e.g. for a solution of H2SO4 having 0.49 g it dissolved
8. Gas Solid Solid foam, pumic in 250 cm3 of solution
stone N = 0.49 × 1000

49 250

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 General Science

= 0.04 (Equivalent mass of H2SO4 = 49)

GENERAL SCIENCE
PROPERTIES OF GASES AND GAS LAWS
Molecular mass
Normality = molarity ×
Equivalent mass Kinetic-Molecular theory of Gases

Molality : For a solution, it is defined as the number ³³ Gases consist of molecules widely separated in
of moles of solute dissolved in 1000g of the solvent. space. The total volume of the molecules is negligible
It is denoted by ‘m’. compared to the volume of the gas as a whole. It
m=
Strength per 1000g of solvent occupies both the shape and volume of container.
molecular mass of solute ³³ Each molecule in a gas is in a continuous, very rapid,
It ‘a’ gram of the solute is dissolved in ‘b’ gram of straight-line motion. The moving gas molecules
solvent than, frequently collide elastically with one another and with
a 1000 the walls of the container on which they exert pressure.
m = molecular mass of solute × 5 ³³ The total kinetic energy of the gas remains unchanged
during collisions.
e.g. for anhydrocus Na2CO3 (mol. mass = 106) has
1.325g of it disolved in 250 g ³³ Inter–molecular attractive force is negligible in the
gases.
1.325 × 1000 ³³ The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is
m= = 0.05
106 25 proportional to the absolute temperature.
³³ A mixture is matter composed of two or more ³³ At a given temperature, all gases posses the same
substances (elements, compounds or both) in variable kinetic energy.
proportions in which each of its components still
Boyle’s Law
exhibit its own characteristics properties.
³³ The volume (V) of a given mass of a dry gas is inversely
³³ Mixtures can be heterogeneous i.e. non uniform, or
proportional to the pressure (P), if the temperature
homogeneous, i.e. the same throughout. remains constant i.e.,
³³ Homogeneous mixtures have the same composition P α 1 or, P1V1 = P2V2
throughout the sample e.g. salt solution. V
³³ Boyle’s law in terms of density states that at a constant
³³ Heterogeneous mixture consists of two or more parts
temperature, pressure is directly proportional to
which have different compositions. e.g. mixture of density of a fixed mass of the gas.
iron and sulphur.
Separation of a pure substance : A substance known Charle’s Law
for its specific properties such as boiling point, melting ³³ At constant pressure, the volume (V) of given mass
point, density, refractive index, etc is called a pure of gas is directly proportional to the absolute (Kelvin)
substance. temperature (T) i.e., V ∝ T.
³³ Kelvin temperature = Celsius temperature + 273 e.g.,
³³ From a given mixture, a pure substance can be
27°C = (273+27) K = 300 K
separated depending upon the property of the
³³ STP: By convention standard temperature and
substance or of the present impurity.
pressure conditions (STP) for volumes of gases have
There are different methods known and adopted to been accepted as 0°C (or 273K) and 1 atmosphere
separate a pure substance from a given mixture such pressure (760 mm of Hg).
as filtration, crystallization, sedimentation followed ³³ Ideal Gas Equation :
by decantation, distillation provided that the differ-
ence between the two liquids is minimum of 25°C, = Constant, or
fractional distillation, chromatography, sublimation,
centrifugation, etc. of these processes: Where, P1, V1, T1 are the initial pressure, volume and
temperature respectively and P2, V2, T2 are changed
³³ Evaporation and crystalization is used to obtain salt
ones. It is used for calculating the change in volume
from sea water.
of gases, when both temperature and pressure change.
³³ Fractional distillation is used to separate different
³³ Charles law explains that gases expand on heating.
fractions of petroleum such as gasoline, diesel,
Therefore, as the mass of gas sample is constant, the
kerosene oil etc. from crude oil.
larger volume of gas at high temperature has less mass
³³ Centrifugation of milk is used to separate cream from
per unit volume i.e., lower density.
raw milk.
³³ Hence, hot air is less dense than cool air. This allows
³³ Sublimation is done to separate substance such as
hot air balloons to be used for meteorological purposes
camphor which sublimate on heating. or transportation.
³³ Filtration is used to separate insoluble substances
³³ They rise up in cool air or humid air rise up in
from a mixture. atmosphere.
³³ Gravity separation using separating funnel is used to
separate two immiscible liquids such as oil and water. Measurement of physical param-eters :
³³ Reverse osmosis to obtain potable water from marine ³³ Melting point : It is temperature at which a solid
water. melts.

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³³ Boiling point : It is the temperature at which the versa. With the application of increased pressure, the
GENERAL SCIENCE

vapour pressure of a boiling liquid equals atmospheric process can be reversed and called reverse osmosis.
pressure. It is used in desalination of sea water to obtain good
³³ Therefore, water boils at different temperatures at quality potable water.
different altitudes. With increasing altitude, the
boiling point decreases. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
³³ Volume : Volume of gas,
³³ An atom consists of a small positively charged heavy
1L = 1000 cm3
nucleus with negatively charged light electrons
1ML = 1km3
revolving around the nucleus in circular orbits.

1000 L =1m3 (Rutherford Atomic Model)
Atmospheric pressure = 1atm = 1.01325 ×105 Pa =
³³ The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, called
101.325 KPa
nucleons.
Pascal (Pa)2/ Nm–2 = 1kgm–1
1 bar = 105Pa Particles Charge Mass
1 atm = 760mm of Hg Electron –1.6 × 10–19 9.109×10–31kg
³³ Temperature : Kelvin is unit for measuring temperature
Proton 1.6 × 10–19 9.672×10–27kg
K = (°C + 273.15)
5 9 Newtron n (Neutral)
0
1.674×10–27kg
°C = (°F – 32)
or °F = (°C)+32
9 5
Avogadro’s Hypothesis Symbols of some Important Particles
³³ Under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain the same Particle Symbol Atomic No. Mass No.
number of molecules/atoms. Alpha (α) particle 2
He4 2 4
³³ This number 6.023 ×10 23 is called Avogadro’s
Beta(β) particle e o
-1 0
constant. It makes up a mole of gas whose volume is -1

22.4 litre at NTP. Proton 1

H1 1 1
Ideal gas : Neutron 0
n 1
0 1
³³ A gas that obeys Boyle’s law, Charle’s law and Gamma ray (γ
) 0
γ0 0 0
Avogadro’s law strictly is called an ideal gas. Deutron H 2
1 2
1
Combined gas law states that
Positron 1
e 0
1 0
P1V1 P2V2
P1V1 = P2V2 or = Neutrino v0 0 0
T1 T2 0

Hence, gas equation is PV = nRT where R represents FACTS TO REMEMBER

work done per degree per mol or energy per degree ³³ J.J. Thomson discovered electron in cathode ray
per mole. Numerically it is equal to 0.0821 L atm discharge tube. The ratio of charge to mass i.e. e/m
K–1m–1. is same for all cathode rays irrespective of gas used
³³ Dalton’s law of partial pressure : It states that the in discharge tube.
pressure of a homogenous mixture of gases like air is ³³ Goldstein used the discharge tube and anode rays
equal to the sum of the partial pressure of individual consisting of proton. He described them to be located
gas present. in the nucleus of atom.
P = P1 + P2 + P3 ..... . ³³ Presence of neutrons as neutral sup-atomic particle in
³³ Non-ideal gas : It is also called real gas and does not nucleus was discovered and proposed by Chadwick.
follow all general gas equations at all temperatures ³³ The set of four quantum numbers are Principal
and pressure. quantum number (n), Azimuthal quantum number
³³ Therefore for non-ideal gas PV ≠nRT. Some of these (l, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (n –1), Magnetic quantum number
gases include hydrogen and helium. (m, n = 1, 0, + 1...) and Spin quantum number with
³³ Diffusion : It refers to the movement of fluid particles value +1/2 or –1/2.
i.e., liquid or gas from the region of high concentration ³³ Nucleus, consisting of protons and neutrons accounts
to the region of low concentration. for almost the whole mass of the atom.
³³ However, it is affected by the molecular mass of ³³ Extra-nuclear part is occupied by electrons orbiting
diffusing substance, distance of diffusion and DPD in fixed energy levels.
(Diffusion Pressure Deficit).
³³ Having equal number of protons and electorns, atom as
³³ It involves the flow of both solute or solvent particles.
a whole is neutral.
³³ Osmosis is special type of diffusion that involves the
³³ Mass number (A) is the number of protons plus the
movement of solvent particles only across a membrane
from hypotonic solution to by hypertonic solution i.e. number of neutrons in the nucleus, also called atomic
from solution of low conc. to high conc. mass.
³³ It is therefore salting is used for food preservation, ³³ Atomic number (Z) is a number equal to the number
dying of fresh water fish in marine water or vice of protons in the nucleus.

OLE - 384
 General Science

³³ Element (Y) is represented as : ZYA e.g. 1H2 represents neutrons i.e., difference in number of neutrons and

GENERAL SCIENCE
atomic hydrogen (H), deutron with atomic mass = 2 protons e.g. 90th 234 and 92nd 238, is = 54.
and atomic number =1 ³³ Isosters : These are molecules or ions with same
³³ Electronic configuration describes the manner in number of atoms and same number of valence
which electrons arrange themselves in the various electrons e.g. hydrogen ion and fluoride ions, sodium
orbits based on the relation 2n2 where ‘n’ is the and hydrogen, cations of O2 and N2O.
number of shell. However, the last and second last
shell cannot have more than eight electrons. PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
Mole : It refers to a group of 6.023 × 1023 particles, ³³ Periodic table is the arrangement of elements
atoms or molecules of an element or compound according to some recurring property.
respectively.
³³ Total number of known elements is 118, of which
Mass of element 92 are naturally occurring elements and others are
No. of moles of element =
Gram atomic mass of element artificially prepared in laboratories called transuranic
elements.
No. of moles of compound
³³ Mendeleev’s periodic table, based upon Atomic
Molecular mass in grams Weights was the first really successful arrangements
=
Gram atomic mass of compound of elements.
Mass of an atom of an element ³³ Modern periodic table or the extended form or long
form of the periodic table proposed by Moseley is based
Gram atomic mass upon Atomic Number.
=
6.023×1023
GROUPS
SOME PRINCIPLES
³³ Vertical columns of the table are called groups.
³³ Heisenberg’s uncertainly principle : It is not
³³ Group-number is assigned to an element depending
possible to determine simultaneously the position and
upon the number of valence electrons (electrons in
the momentum of a body to an arbitrary accuracy.
outer most valence shell) present in the atom of the
³³ Pauli’s exclusion principle : No two electrons in an
element.
atom can have the same set of 4 quantum numbers.
³³ There are 8 main and 18 vertical columns representing
³³ Hund’s rule : Pairing of electrons in degenerate
the various sub-groups, out of these,
orbitals belonging to a particular sub-shell does not
³³ 14 columns represent 14 sub-groups of the first
take place till each orbital is occupied by a single
seven groups,
electron with parallel spin.
³³ 3 columns for the elements of group VIII,
³³ Aufbau’s principle : In the ground state of an atom,
electron enters the orbital of lowest energy first. Any ³³ 1 column for the zero group elements,
subsequent electrons are filled in order of increasing ³³ Group 1 A: Alkali metals,
energies. For multi-electron atoms, the sequence ³³ Group II A: Alkaline earth metals,
observed is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 5d .... ³³ Group VII A : Halogens,
³³ Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the ³³ Zero Group: Noble gases,
same atomic number, but different atomic weights or ³³ All Group B elements: Transition metals, because their
mass numbers. e.g. Protium (1H1), Deuterium (1H2), chemical properties are between those of elements
Tritium (1H3) are isotopes of hydrogen, 6C12 and 6C14 in Group II and Group III. These elements such
are isotopes of carbon. as mangnese, from copper, etc are known to show
³³ Isobars are atoms of two elements having the same variable valency with vacant d-orbital.
mass number, though different atomic number, e.g.
Periods
both Argon (Ar) and Calcium (Ca) have mass number
³³ Horizontal rows are called periods.
= 40, C-14 and Nitrogen have mass number = 14 but
³³ There are 7 periods in the table, each beginning with
they have different atomic number.
an alkali metal on the left and ending with a noble gas
³³ Isotones are atoms with different atomic number and on the right [exception 1st and 7th period]. Ist period
mass number, but having same number of neutrons has two elements and 7th period has 29 element
30 32
e.g. 30 th , 15 p and 16 s are isotones. Each of these instead of 32 element.
14
Transition elements
three elements have same number of neutron i.e., 16.
³³ These elements form a bridge between the chemically
³³ Isoelectronic species : These are chemical species
active metals of S-block elements and less active
which have same numbers of electrons such as (2O2–
elements of group-13 and 14. These elements show
and NO2+) each have sum of 20 electrons.
variable oxidation state, are generally para-magnetic,
³³ Isodiaphers : In nuclear physics, isodiaphers refers form coloured ions with tendency to form complex
to nuclides which have different atomic numbers compounds. These elements or their compounds are
and mass numbers but the same number of excess mostly used as catalyst.

OLE - 385
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ The elements with electron in f orbital are called

GENERAL SCIENCE

f-block elements. These include lanthanoids (rare Mg Mg2+ + 2e

earth elements) and actinoids having radioactive O + 2e
–
O
2–

nature. (ii)
Mg2++ O2– MgO
Periodic Properties
[O]
× × ××
Mg MgO
³³ Atomic radii is the distance between the centre of
–

[ ]
××
nucleus and the outermost valency shell of the atom.
(iii)
Mg ×
× + 2 Cl
2+
Mg + 2 Cl 2 MgCl
It reduces moving across a period from left to right Covalent bond is formed between atoms of similar
i.e., element X in 2nd group of 2nd period has larger elements or those that do not undergo ionisation to form
radii compared to element Y in 7th group of the same cation or anion.
period. (i) Cl + Cl Cl Cl Cl – Cl
³³ Ionisation (energy) potential is the amount of energy H H
required to remove one or more electrons from (ii) C + 4.H H Cl H H C H
the valency shell of an isolated gaseous atom. It is H H
expressed in KJ mol–1. Always Ist ionisation is less
than 2nd ionisation energy because of increased (iii) N + 3.H H N H H N H
electrostatic force.
H H
I.E1 < I.E2 < I.E3 FACTS TO REMEMBER
³³ Electron Affinity is the amount of energy released on ³³ Chemical bonds are formed as a result of loss, gain
adding one or more electrons to the valence shell of or sharing of electrons between the atom of reacting
an isolated gaseous atom. elements.
³³ Atoms tend to combine together to change from an
³³ Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract
unstable form with an incomplete outer shell to a more
electrons to itself when combined in a compound. In a
stable form having complete shell.
period, the electronegativity increases across a period
³³ 2 electrons are present in the first and outer–most
from left to right while in a group it decreases from shell, e.g., Helium
top to bottom. Fluorine is the most electronegative ³³ Or, 8 electrons in the outer–most shell, e.g., inert
element and Cesium is the most electropositive among gases other than helium and hydrogen.
all elements. ³³ The linkage which actually holds the atoms together
³³ An element is considered as a metal, if it loses within the molecule is called a chemical bond.
electrons when supplied with energy. When an ³³ Cation is the positively charged particle formed by
element gains electrons, it is considered as non–metal. loss of an electron or more. e.g. Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, etc
Metallic character decreases across the period and ³³ Anion is the negatively charged particle formed by gain
of an electron or more. e.g. Cl , O , etc.
– 2–
non-metallic Characteristic increases. Metal form
³³ Valence electrons is the number of electrons present
basic oxides and non-metals form acidic oxides.
in the outer-most shell of an atom.
³³ Seven elements in periodic table share the properties
³³ Valency of an element is the number of electrons lost,
with both metals and non-metals like silicon, gained or shared by one atom of the element during
germamium etc. These are called metalloids. the course of chemical bonding.
³³ Electropositive nature is the tendency of an atom
CHEMICAL BONDING to lose electrons and form cations. e.g. Metals like
Chemical bond is meant to help atom achieve the next sodium, potassium, calcium etc.
gas electron arrangement and become stable. An atom ³³ Electro negative nature is the tendency of an atom to
achieves this by forming bond with other atoms of same gain electrons and become anion e.g. Non-metals like
element or atom belonging to different element. The hydrogen, chlorine etc.,
compound formed can be electrovalent or covalent that ³³ Electrovalent or ionic bond is the bond formed by
depends on type of bonding involved in formation of transfer of one or more electrons, from the atom
compound’s molecule. of an electropositive element to the atom of an
Electrovalent bond all strong bonds fomed between electronegative element, e.g., NaCl, MgCl2,CaO.
the cation and anion i.e. atoms that can form cation and ³³ Covalent bond is the chemical bond formed between
anion and can only be involved in electrovalent bonding
two combining atoms by mutual sharing of one or
such as members of alkali metals and halogens.
more electrons of atoms of non–metallic element, e.g.
–
Na Na + e
+
H2O, NH3, H2, N2 AlCl3, etc.
–
Cl + e Cl
–
³³ A bond is polar, if the charge is unevenly spread over
(i) the bond like in water molecule and non-Polar, if
+
Na + Cu– Na Cl [ ]
× ×

charge is evenly spread.

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³³ Coordinate bond is a type of covalent bond in which ³³ Oxidation is also described as a process involving

GENERAL SCIENCE
only one of the atoms contributes both the electrons addition of oxygen, or removal of hydrogen. Such as
of the shared electron pair, e.g. H2SO4,NH3. aerobic respiration, combustion of methane, etc.
³³ Hydrogen bond is an electrostatic force between ³³ Reduction is the process involving gain of electrons.
covalently bonded hydrogen atom of one molecule and Such as formation of ammonia in Haber’s process.
an electronegative atom (such as, Fluorine (F), Oxygen ³³ Reduction is also identified with removal of oxygen,
(O), Nitrogen (N) of another molecule) or addition of hydrogen.
³³ Hydrogen bond is responsible for exceptionally high ³³ Oxidising agent is a substance that brings about
oxidation, e.g.;
melting and boiling points of water (H2O), Ammonia
(NH3) and Hydrogen fluoride (HF). Oxygen, Chlorine, concentrated Sulphuric acid,
concentrated and dilute Nitric acid.
³³ Van der Waal’s bond is the force of attraction between
³³ Reducing agent is a substance that brings about
neighbouring atoms because of their different dipoles
reduction e.g.;
induced by instantaneous unsymmetrical distribution
of electrons in the atom. It is responsible for Hydrogen, carbon monoxide, Carbon, Ammonia, Coke,
Charcoal, Hydrogen sulphide and Sulphur oxides.
condensation of inert elements, and gases, like
H2,N2,O2, methane etc. ³³ In the reaction
³³ Metallic bond is the attractive force between mobile Reduction
electrons and the metallic Kernels, e.g. Gold, Silver,
Copper etc. I2(g) + H2S(g)→ 2HI(g) + S(s)
³³ Some of elements in adjoining groups show diagonal
Oxidation
relationship such as Beryllium and Aluminium of
group-II and group-13th . Similarly Boron of group-13 Oxidation number of iodine decreases from 0 to – 1.
and Silicon of group-14. The relationship is in size, Therefore, it is reduced and acts as an oxidant. The
electron negativity, etc. oxidation number of sulphur in hydrogen sulphide
³³ In isoelectronic series the ions of different elements increases from–2 to 0. Therefore, it is oxidised and
have same number of electrons but differ from one hence acted as a reductant.
another in magnitude of nuclear charge. Such as N3–, Similarly,
O2–, F–, Na+, Mg2+. These all have 10 electrons.
Reduction
CHEMICAL REACTION AND
2Cu2O + Cu2S → 6Cu + SO2
CHEMICAL EQUATION
Oxidation
³³ A chemical change is also termed as a chemical reaction.
In reaction Cu2O help sulphur in Cu2S to increase
³³ In combination reaction, a single or more new substance
its oxidation number from –2 to + 4 and therefore
is/are formed by the union of two or more substances.
Cu2O is oxidant. Sulphur in Cu2S helps copper in
2H2+O2→2H2O, 2Mg+O2→ 2MgO
both Cu2O and Cu2S to decrease copper's oxidation
³³ In decomposition reaction, a substance breaks up
into smaller, simpler substances. CaCO3 → CaO + number and therefore Cu2S is reductant.
CO2, 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2 ³³ Oxidation number is a charge assigned to an atom of a
³³ In displacement reaction, one element displaces compound or an ion according to some arbitrary rules.
another element from a compound, e.g. Zn + CuSO4 Such as oxidation number of sulphur in H2SO4 is six.
→ ZnSO4 + Cu ³³ Energy is either needed to break chemical bonds or
³³ A reaction, in which the constituents of two compounds energy is released when new bonds are formed.
mutually exchange their radicals to form two different ³³ S t u d y o f t h e s e e n e r g y c h a n g e s i s c a l l e d
compounds, is called a double displacement reaction. Thermodynamics.
Its subtypes are : ³³ Exothermic reaction: Heat is evolved such as oxidation
KNO3 + Ag I → KI + AgNO3 or combustion reactions.
1. Precipitation reaction is a reaction in which two ³³ Endothermic reaction: Heat is absorbed such as
compounds in their aqueous state react to form an neutralization reactions.
insoluble residue, called precipitate. ³³ ∆H describes heat evolved or absorbed in reaction at
2. Neutralisation reaction is a reaction in which an acid constant temperature and pressure. For exothermic
and base react and exchange their radicals to form salt reaction ∆H has negative value but for an endothermic
and water. reaction it has positive value.
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O ³³ In a electrochemical cell, oxidation take place at anode
³³ In redox reactions oxidation and reduction take place and reduction at cathode.
simulta-neously. ³³ Photochemical reaction : Light is required for such
oxidation reactions such as photosynthesis and photography
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2 changes.
reduction ³³ Chemiluminiscent reaction : Electricity is required for

chemical reaction to produce light.
³³ Oxidation is the process in which a substance loses
³³ Electrochemical reaction : Electricity is produced in
electrons.
chemical reaction.

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³³ Nickel and chromium plating is done to prevent steel articles from rusting. ³³ Nitric acid : Used in manufacture
GENERAL SCIENCE

³³ Gold and silver plating is done on iron or brass objects to improve their of fertilizers, chemicals,
appearance. explosives, paints, dyes and
³³ Electro-refining of metals is a process by which impurities from metals drugs.
are extracted by chemical processes and are removed electrolytically to ³³ Hydrochloric acid : Tanning and
obtain a highly pure metal. In the process pure metal is taken as cathode printing industry.
and impure metal as anode immersed in an electrolytic solution. ³³ Citric acid : In medicine (source
of vitamin C), flavouring drinks.
³³ Metals generally refined by this process are:
³³ Boric acid : As an eye-wash,
1. Zinc 2. Silver 3. Nickel preservation of grains.
4. Lead 5. Copper 6. Aluminium ³³ Acetic acid : Flavouring food, food
³³ Electrometallurgy is the extraction of metals from its ores by electrolysis preservation (Vinegar).
such as sodium and aluminium from its ore called bauxite. ³³ Benzoic acid : Food preservation
³³ Catalyst : It is a substance that cause a reaction to happen at a faster (sodium benzoate).
rate or at low temperature without itself undergoing any chemical change ³³ Carbonic acid : It lends ‘fizz’ to
during course of reation. aerated drinks called fizzy drinks.
³³ Oxalic acid : In ink-stain removers.
1. Manganese dioxide To decompose H2O2 or KClO3 to produce ³³ Tartaric acid : Constituent of
Oxygen gas. 2H2O2 2H2 → O + O2 baking powder (reacts with the
2. Platinum In catalytic convertors of automobile to sodium bicarbonate to release
convert CO to CO2. CO + N2O → CO2 + N2 carbon dioxide that makes the
dough, porous, light and spongy).
3. Iron In synthesis of ammonia by Haber’s process.
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 BASES
³³ Sodium hydroxide : Manufacture
4. Vanadium (IV) oxide Manufacture of sulphuric acid through
1 of soap.
Contact process.. SO2 + 2 O2 → SO3
³³ Calcium hydroxide :
5. Zeolite Catalytic cracking of gas oil. (i) Manufacture of bleaching
6. Platinum/Rancy powder, mortar,
Also used for hydrogenation of alkynes to
nickel (ii) Softening of hard water,
alkanes. H2C = CH2 + H2 Pt H3C – CH3 (iii) Neutralising acid in the soil
7. Chlorine Transformation of ozone to elemental oxygen. and in water supplies.
³³ Potassium hydroxide : Alkaline
8. Enzymes Catalysis of different biochemical reactions batteries.
for completion of a biochemical process.
³³ Magnesium hydroxide : As an
antacid to neutralise acidity
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS caused by excessive hydrochloric
acid secretion in the stomach.
³³ Acids are substances, which produce hydronium ion(H3O+) in their aqueous ³³ Aluminium hydroxide : Foaming
solution i.e., they are proton donor. agent in fire extinguishers and
³³ Oxy-acids essentially contain oxygen along with hydrogen and other as antacids.
elements, e.g. H2SO4, HNO3, H2CO3, ³³ Ammonium hydroxide : Used
³³ Bases are substances producing hydroxyl ions in their aqueous solution to remove grease stains from
i.e., they are proton acceptor. clothes.
³³ Oxides and hydroxides of metals (or metal like radicals) are called bases. pH value/scale :
³³ Alkali is a water-soluble base, e.g. sodium hydroxide and potassium pH refers to the concentration
hydroxide. of hydrogen ions in a solution as
³³ A weak acid remains weak even if it is concentrated because it produces compared to the hydroxide solution.
a low concentration of hydrogen ions. In neutral substance like pure water,
³³ A strong acid remains a strong acid even if it is diluted, because it produces the concentration of hydrogen ions
a high concentration of hydrogen ions. equals the concentration of hydroxide
³³ Acids generally have a sour taste, while bases have a bitter taste. ions. H+ : OH–, 1 × 10–7 : 1 × 10–7. If
³³ Strong acids are corrosive and can burn through the skin. H+ > OH– — solution is acidic
³³ Bases are soapy to touch. H+ = OH– — solution is neutral
³³ Whenever an acid reacts with an alkali or base or vice versa, salt is formed H+ < OH– — solution is basic
along with water. Salt formed can be acidic, basic or neutral depending In laboratory pH is measured on
on nature of acid and base involved in its formation. 1-14 scale using Universal indicator
solution. Value from 0-6.9 acidic with
SOME IMPORTANT USES OF ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS colour from dark red to orange, green
ACIDS colour for neutral solution and above
³³ Sulphuric acid : King of chemicals is used in manufacture of fertilizers, seven to fourteen or more the solution
chemicals, explosives, paints, dyes, drugs and electrolytic cell like lead is basic that gives blue to blue black
storage battery. colour with solution.

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³³ Chemical equilibrium is the state in which rate of

GENERAL SCIENCE
pH of Some Common Substances
forward reaction equals the rate of backward reaction
Substance PH in reversible reaction.
Soft drinks 2–4 H2 + I2 2HI
³³ Law of mass action states that the rate of chemical
Gastric juice 1–3 change/reaction is directly proportional to the product
Lemon 2.2–2.4 of the molar concentrations of the reactants at
constant temperature at any given time. For example
Vinegar 2.4—3.4
according to law of mass action for the reaction
Rain water 6.0
A+B→C+D
Tears 7.4
C D
Sea water 8.5 K=
A B
Milk of magnesia 10.5
Milk (cow) 6.3—6.6 ³³ Chemical equilibrium can be homogenous or
Urine (Human) 6 heterogenous. It is homogenous when both reactants
and products are in same phase and if not, the
Saliva 6.5—7.5
equilibrium is said to be heterogenous.
Blood (human) 7.2—7.4 ³³ Le-Chatelier’s principle states that change in any of
Wine 2.8 the factor that determine the equilibrium conditions
of a system shifts the equilibrium in such a manner
SALTS to reduce or counteract the effect of change.
³³ Salts are ionic compounds containing a positive ion ³³ For example if temperature of system at equilibrium
(cation) and a negative ion (anion). is increased, the equilibrium will shift in direction of
endothermic reaction and if decreased reaction will
³³ A salt formed can be acidic, basic or neutral.
favour exothermic reaction.
Strong acid + Weak base → Acidic salt ³³ A catalyst added to reaction to speed up rate of
Weak acid + Strong base/Alkali → Basic salt reaction and gain equilibrium achieve the above
Strong acid + Alkali/Strong base → Neutral/Normal salt by reducing the net activation energy required for
³³ Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a normal neutral salt. the reaction to continue taking place in a definite
³³ Mohr’s salt [FeSO4(NH4)2, SO4.6H2O] and Alum [K2SO4.
direction, forward or backward.
Al2(SO4).3 24H2O] are double salt. ELECTROLYSIS
³³ Hydrolysis is a reaction in which a salt reacts with
water to form a solution which is either acidic or ³³ Electrolysis is a chemical process by which a chemical
alkaline. substance, in its fused state or in aqueous solutions,
³³ Efflorescence is the property of salts to lose their water is decomposed by the passage of an electric current,
of crystallisation and hence, are transformed into a leading to the discharge of ions of the electrolyte at
powder at ordinary temperatures. the two electrodes, cathode and anode.
Examples : ³³ Electrolyte is a compound which, in the fused state or
in aqueous solution, allows the passage of an electric
1. Washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O); sodium carbonate current and is decomposed by it.
decahy-drate. ³³ Example of strong electrolytes :
2. Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4. 10H2O); sodium sulphate 1. Strong acids : Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,
decahydrate. sulphuric acid.
3. Blue vitriol (CuSO4.5H2O); copper sulphate pentah- 2. Strong bases : Sodium hydroxide, potassium
ydrate. hydroxide, barium hydro-xide.
4. Epsom salt (MgSO4.7H2O); magnesium sulphate 3. Salts : Lead bromide, sodium chloride, silver nitrate
sep-tahydrate. in aqueous state only.
³³ Deliquescence is the property of salts to absorb ³³ Examples of weak electrolytes :
moisture at ordinary temperatures to lose their 1. Weak Acids : Acetic acid, carbonic acid, formic
crystalline form and form a saturated solution like acid.
NaCl, anhydrous copper sulphate or cobalt chloride. 2. Weak bases : Ammonium hydroxide, magnesium
³³ Hygroscopy is the property of salts to absorb hydroxide, copper hydroxide.
atmospheric moisture at ordinary temperature 3. Salts : Lead acetate, sodium carbonate.
without dissolving in it. ³³ Compounds, which in the fused state or in the
aqueous solution do not dissociate into ions are called
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM non-electrolytes.
In a chemical change equilibrium is the state when ³³ Examples : Distilled water, Acetone, Sugar solution,
the sum of the concentration of reactants, equals to the Petrol, Alcohol, Benzene, Glycerol.
sum of concentration of products. i.e., their concentration ³³ Electrodes are the two conducting poles of a metal or
remain stable or do not change with time. Equilibrium can graphite, through which electric current, i.e., electrons
be physical or chemical. Physical such as solid liquid enter or leave an electrolyte in fused or aqueous
or liquid gas equilibrium. solution state.

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1. Anode is the electrode connected to the positive (i) Dry cell :

GENERAL SCIENCE

terminal of the battery. The current enters the Anode : Zinc container Cathode : Graphite rod
electrolyte through the anode. At the anode the
Electrolyte : Paste of NH4Cl and ZnCl2 with MnO2
atom loses electrons to form neutral cation.
2. Cathode is the electrode connected to the negative Anode reaction : Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–
terminal of the battery. The current leaves the Cathode reaction :
electrolyte through the cathode. At the cathode, 2MnO2 + H2O + 2e– → 2OH– + Mn2O3
the cation gains electrons to form neutral atoms.
Cell reaction : Zn+ + 2NH3 +2Cl– → Zn(NH3)2O2
³³ Electrolytic cell or voltameter is the complete set-up
or vessel consisting of electrodes and electrolytes, in (ii) Zinc-mercury cell :
which electrolysis takes place. Anode : Zn – Hg, Cathode paste of HgO and Carbon
³³ Theory of Electrolytic Disso-ciation was first explained Electrolyte : Paste of KOH and ZnO
by Avante Arrhenius. Anode reaction : Zn + 2OH– → ZnO + H2O + 2e–
³³ Non-attackable electrodes are inert and do not enter
Cathode reaction : HgO + H2O + 2e– → Hg + 2OH–
into a chemical reaction with the electrolyte.
Cell reaction : Zn + HgO → ZnO + Hg
³³ Their inertness is because of their higher reduction
potential than the ions present in the electrolyte, e.g. (iii) Lead storage battery :
graphite, platinum. Anode : Lead, cathode : lead impregnated with lead
³³ Corrosion : It is natural process that converts a dioxide
refined metal into its oxide, sulphide, etc causing the Electrolyte : 20% H2SO4
gradual destruction of metal or its gradual wasting
away. Anode reaction : Pb + SO42– → PbSO4 + 2e–
³³ Such as silver exposed to air develops black deposit.

Cathode reaction :
2Ag + H2S Ag2S + H2. PbO2 + SO42– + 4H++ 2e– → PbSO4 + 2H2O
Copper exposed to air develop a greenish coating.
Cell reaction :
Cu + H2O + CO2 CuCO3 + Pb + PbO2+ 4H++ 2SO42–→ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O.
CuCO3 +Cu OH 2 On recharging reverse reaction occurs.
H2 2PbSO4 + 2H2O → PbO2+ 4H++ 2SO42–
mixture

Rusting of iron : It is more an electro chemical process. (iv) Nickel-Cadmium storage cell :

Fe Fe2+ + 2e– Anode : Cadmium, Cathode : Nickel oxide.
1 Electrolyte : KOH solution

2e– + O + H2O 2OH–
2 2 Anode reaction : Cd + 2OH– → Cd(OH)2 + 2e–
Fe2+ + 2OH– Fe (OH)2
Cathode reaction :
1
2Fe(OH)2 + O + H2O NiO2 + 2H2O + 2e– → Ni(OH)2 + 2OH–
2 2

Cell reaction :
Fe2O3 . H2O + 2H2O
Cd + NiO2 + 2H2O → Cd(OH)2 + Ni(OH)2
In salt solution or marine water rusting occurs more (v) Fuel cell uses water as source of oxygen and
rapidly than in fresh water.
hydrogen. It is used to power cars still on trial in
³³ Steel : It is an alloy of iron having variable amounts of
carbon, manganese and other elements. Japan.
³³ Microbial fuel cell : (MFC) It’s a device that converts
Type of steel Carbon Mang- anese
chemical energy to electrical energy by the action of
Mild steel 0.05% 0.4% micro-organisms. These cells use either bio anode
Medium carbon steel 0.30% 1% or bio cathode with a membrane to separate the
compartments of cathode and anode. The electrons
High carbon steel 0.5 – 1.0% 0.3 – 0.9%
produced during oxidation are transferred to
³³ Stainless steel : It is an alloy of iron with minimum electrodes.
10.5 % chromium. The other include nickel, ³³ When micro-organism continue sugar in presence of
molybdenum, titanium or copper. air, they produce CO2 and H2O but in absence of air,
³³ Prevention of corrosion : Any step adopted to avoid they produce protons and electrons as shown below.
metal surface from coming in contact of air and
C12H22O11 → 13H2O 12CO2 + 48H+ + 48e–
moisture to prevents corrosin such as oiling, greasing,
painting, galvanisation, using zinc or electro plating. ³³ The electrons produced are channeled to electrodes
to generate electricity. Some of examples of such
ELECTRO CHEMICAL CELL cells include soil-based microbial fuel cell using
It consist of a system that converts chemical energy electrogenic bacteria, waste water treatment cells
into electrical energy. An electro chemical cell can be such as one produced recently in 2015, phototrophic
primary or secondary. A cell is primary if it cannot be
biofilm MFCs which use chlorophyta and cyanophyta.
reacharged like a dry cell of 1.5V but a secondary cell like
lead storage battery that can be recharged. They carry out photosynthesis and produce electrons.

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GENERAL SCIENCE
METALS AND NON-METALS
Roasting of concentrated ore (Heating in oxygen
presence)
FACTS TO REMEMBER
↓
³³ A metal is an electropositive element which is hard, Calcination of roasted ore (Heating in absence of
sonorous, lustrous, malleable, ductile with tensile oxygen)
strength, and a good conductor of heat and electricity. ↓
³³ Metals form basic or amphoteric oxides. Electorlysis for pure metal i.e. refining of metal
³³ A non-metal is an electronegative element which occurs (With anode the impure and cathode pure metal strip)
as solids, liquids or gases. They are generally poor ³³ Aluminothermite process is a sort of wielding process
conductors of heat and electricity. that involves redox reaction between iron oxide and
³³ Non-metals if solid are usually soft and brittle like aluminium. The process is used for wielding heavy
sulphur, etc. machine parts, rails, etc.
Fe2O3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + 2Fe
³³ Minerals are solid, naturally occurring as deposits in
For reaction to occur, the mixture is ignited using a
the earth’s crust, and contain metals in the combined
burning magnesium ribbon.
state, along with associated earthly impurties (gangue).
³³ Ores are commercially viable minerals from which LIST OF COMMON ORES
metal can be extracted profitably. Therefore, all ores
1. Iron : Hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ), Magnetite
are minerals but all minerals cannot be ores.
(Fe3O4), Ironpyrite (FeS2), Siderite
³³ Alloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metals (FeCO3)
(or metal and non-metal) combined in a definite 2. Aluminium : Bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O), Corrundum
proportion in their molten state. (Al2O3), Kryolite (Na3AlF6)
³³ Amalgam is an alloy in which one of the component 3. Copper : Copper pyrite (CuFeS2), Copper
is mercury. glance (Cu2S)
³³ Mercury and gallium, despite being metals are liquids 4. Zinc : Zinc blende (ZnS), Calamine
at room temperature. (ZnCO3)
³³ Vermilion is made from the mercury ore, Cinnabar 5. Potassium : Karnalite (KCl MgCl2 6H2O), Salt
(Mercury-sulphide). petre (KNO3)
³³ Gold and platinum occur exclusively in free state. 6. Lead : Galena (PbS), Angelsite (PbCl2)
³³ Copper, mercury and silver occur partly in free state. 7. Tin : T i n p y r i t i e s ( C u 2 F e S n S 4) ,
³³ Most of the metals occur in the form of oxides, sulphides, Cassiterite (SnO2)
carbonates, sulphates, chlorides and silicates. 8. Silver : Silver glance (Ag2S), Ruby Silver
³³ Lithium is the lightest metal. (3Ag2 S. Sb2 S3)
³³ Iridium has the highest density among metals. 9. Gold : Calverite (Au Te 2 ), Silvenites
³³ Liquation is used to concentrate metals having a low (AgAuTe2)
melting point, e.g., lead and tin. 10. Mercury : Cinnabar (HgS), Caloment (Hg2Cl2)
³³ Distillation is used to con-centrate volatile metals like 11.Magnesium : Magnesite (MgCO 3 ), Dolomite
mercury and zinc which contain non-volatile impurities. (MgCO 3 CaCO 3 ), Epsom salt
³³ Oxidation is used to concentrate metals containing (MgSO4.7H2O), Kieserite (MgSO4.
volatile impurities, which are easily oxidised e.g., H2O)
Pig iron.
Alloy of Copper
³³ A carbonate ore is converted into metal oxide by
Name % composition Uses
calcination i.e. heating in absence of air.
Brass Cu : 60% to 80% Rest Zn utensils and bul-
³³ A sulphide ore is converted into metal oxide by
let
roasting. i.e. heating in presence of oxygen.
Bronze Cu: 75% to 90% Rest Sn utensils and stat-
³³ The metal oxides are reduced to metal by carbon, ue
aluminium or electrolytic reduction. Phosphor Cu: 84.75% to 97.5% galvanometer
³³ The refining of metals can be done by electrolysis, utensils
liquation, distillation or oxidation methods. German sil- Cu: 50%, Zn: 25%, Ni; utensils
³³ Forth Floatation process is used for the concentration ver 25%
of sulphide ores. Al Bronze Cu: 80–90%, jwellery, golden
³³ Metallurgical operations : Al: 7–12%, Sn:0.5% paints, coins
Extraction of ore Monel metal Cu: 30%, Ni: 65%, Re + acid pump
↓ Mn: 30%
Concentration of extracted ore i.e. removal of Gun metal Cu: 87%, Sn: 10%, Zn: 3% in gun industries
gangue Bell metal Cu: 80%, Sn: 20% in bells

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• Sodium bicarbonate is the primary product of the Solvay

GENERAL SCIENCE

IMPORTANT ALLOYS
process.
Alnico : Al + Ni + Co • It is used in water fire exting-uisher and as baking
Aluminium bronze : Cu + Al powder in cooking. Baking powder is mixture of
Brass : Cu + Zn sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid.
Bronze : Cu + Sn Glass
Bell metal : Cu + Sn It is super cooled liquid formed from, sand, lime stone,
Coin alloys (Red) : Cu + Zn + Sn soda ash and cullet (broken pieces of glass). The mixture
Coin alloys (White) : Cu + Ag + Zn + Ni is heated in regenerative furnace. The glass produced is
Duralumin : Al + Cu + Mg + Mn called soda glass. The commercially produced glass is
borosilicate. In borosilicate glass soda is replaced with
German Silver (nickel silver) : Cu + Zn + Ni
boron oxide. The glass commercially used is imparted
Gun Metal : Cu + Sn + Zn different colour for different reason.
Magnalium : Al + Mg
Colour of glass Chemical compound
Pewter : Pb + Sn
Solder : Pb + Sn Blue colour Cobalt oxide
Type metal : Pb + Sb + Sn Green colour Chromium oxide
Wood metal : Bi + Pb + Sn + Cd Violet colour Manganese oxide
Y-alloy : Cu + Al Yellow colour Cadmium sulphide
Devarda’s alloy : Cu + Al + Zn Red colour Selenium/Iron oxide
Ferrosilicon : Fe + Si
Milky white Arsenic oxide
Ferrovanadium : Fe + V
Monel metal : Ni + Cu + (Fe + Mn is traces)
Nimonic series : Ni + Cr + Co + Al + Ti Bullet Proof Glass
Hastelloy C Nichrome : Ni + Cr It is the glass that provides the protection against the
fire or bullet. It is made of poly carbonate, thermoplastic
Rose metal : Bismuth, lead and tin and laminated glass.
Nichrome : Chromium, Nickel
Glass is also considered as super cooled liquid. It is
Rose gold : Gold, Copper considered as highly viscous substance.
Sterling silver : Silver, Copper
Gilding metal : Copper, Zinc COMPOUNDS OF CALCIUM
Misch metal : Various earth metals
(1) Lime (Calcium Oxide, CaO)
COMPOUNDS OF SODIUM • Chemically lime is calcium oxide and its formula is
CaO.
The important compounds of sodium metal are Common • It is also called as Quick Lime.
Salt, Washing Soda and Baking Soda. • It is prepared by heating limestone to a temperature
(1) Common Salt (NaCl) of 800°C to 1000°C in a lime kiln.
• Common salt is sodium chloride, NaCl. • Its melting point is very high being 2600°C.
• It is a colourless crystalline substance which is highly Use of Lime
soluble in water.
• It is hygroscopic due to the presence of small amount Calcium oxide (lime) is used in the manufacture of
of magnesium chloride. cement and glass.
• It is used to flavour food and in food preservation. – for drying gases and alcohol.
(2) Washing Soda (Sodium Car-bonate) – as a basic lining in furnaces.
• Chemically, washing soda is a carbonate of sodium – in the preparation of calcium carbide, basic calcium
metal. nitrate, and calcium bisulphite.
• It is actually sodium carbonate decahydrate, Na2CO3.
– in slaking of lime i.e. formation of calcium
10H2O.
hydroxide.
• It is prepared from sodium chloride by the Solvay
process. Uses of Calcium Hydroxide (Slaked Lime)
• The raw-material used in the manufacture includes,
Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Ammonia (NH 3 ) and (1) A solution of calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) in
Limestone. water called lime-water is used for testing carbon
• It is used to remove hardness of water and in cleaning dioxide and sulphur dioxide gas in chemistry
of fabrics. laboratories. With carbon dioxide white ppt.
formation is temporary but permanent with
(3) Baking soda (NaHCO3)
sulphur dioxide.
• Its chemical name is sodium bicarbonate or sodium
(2) A suspension of slaked lime in water is used for
hydrogen carbonate.
white-washing in buildings. The calcium hydroxide
• It is manufactured from sodium chloride by the Solvay
process. solution applied to the walls reacts slowly with the

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carbon dioxide of air to form calcium carbonate

GENERAL SCIENCE
100°C 1 3
which gives a bright white appearance to the walls.
CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4. 2 H2O + HO
2 2
(3) Slaked lime is used by brick-layers (masons) to
make mortar. Lime mortar is prepared by mixing • When Gypsum is heated to a temperature of 100°C, it
slaked lime with sand and water. loses three-fourths of its water of crystallisation and
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 forms Plaster of Paris. If heated at higher temperature,
Quick lime Slaked lime it produces dead plaster.
• Plaster of Paris is a white powder.
– in the preparation of bleaching powder, caustic
soda and ammonia. • It sets into a hard mass on wetting with water.
– the farmers to reduce the acidity of soil. Uses of Plaster of Paris
– for softening temporary hardness of hard water. Plaster of Paris is used in hospitals for setting
– to remove hair from hides before they are tanned fractured bones in the right position to ensure correct
or converted into leather. healing. It keeps the fractured bone straight. This use
³³ Hard and soft water : Water obtained from natural is based on the fact that when Plaster of Paris is mixed
water reservoirs such as wells, bore holes, rivers etc. with water and applied around the fractured limbs, it
is hardwater being rich in the chloride and sulphate sets into a hard mass. In this way, it keeps the bone
salts of calcium and magnesium. Although good for joints or fractured bone in a fixed position.
health, it’s not good for laundry purposes. It does not – chemistry laboratories for sealing the air-gaps in
form lather with soap and when boiled leaves scale of apparatus where air-tight arrangement is required.
salt deposits. It is denser than soft water. – making castings for statues, cheap ornaments, toys
Classification Hardness in Hardness in /L and decorative materials.
Mg/L – as a fire-proofing material.
Soft 0–60 0–0.60 – in making black-board chalk.
Moderately hard 61–120 0.61–1.20 Difference between Metals and Non-metals
Hard 121–180 1.21–1.80 Metals Non-Metals
Very hard >181 >1.81 1. Metals have 1 to 3 Non-metals have 4 o 8
Softening of water involves conversion of hard water electrons in the electrons in the outer-
outer–most shell of most shell of their
into soft water. If hardness of water is temporary
their atoms. atoms (except hydrogen
then it can be removed by boiling the water, or add- which has 1 electron).
ing lime, but permanent hardness is removed by
2. Metals are malleable Non-metals are brittle if
ion-exchange in permutit process. The process in-
and ductile, i.e., solid. They are neither
volves exchange of Ca2+or Mg2+ ions with sodium (Na+) metals can be malleable nor ductile.
ions. The addition of washing soda Na2CO3.10H2O re- hammered into thin
moves hardness of water prior to washing of clothes. sheets and stretched
into thin wires.
(2) Bleaching Powder
• Chemically, bleaching powder is calcium oxychloride. 3. Metals are good Non-metals are bad
• Its formula is CaOCl2, Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O conductors of heat conductors of heat
and electricity. and electricity except
• It is produced by passing chlorine gas over dry slaked
graphite, a good
lime.
conductor of heat and
• It is soluble in cold water.
electricity.
• It is a yellowish white powder which gives a strong
smell of chlorine if left exposed to air. 4. Metals are lustrous Non-metals are non-
(shiny) and can be lustrous (dull) and
Uses of Bleaching Powder polished. cannot be polished
Bleaching powder is commonly used for bleaching (except graphite and
washed clothes in laundry (laundry is a place where iodine which are
clothes are washed and pressed). lustrous non-metals).
– bleaching cotton and linen in textile industry and 5. Metals are solids at Non-metals may be
for bleaching wood pulp in paper industry. room temperature solid, liquid or
– disinfecting drinking water supply, i.e. for making (except mercury gases at the room
drinking water free from germs (chlorination). which is a liquid temperature.
– the manufacture of chloro-form (CHCl3).making metal). Galium and Bromine is the only
wool unshrinkable. galadium melts and liquid non- metal.
– as an oxidising agent in many chemical industries. turns into liquid if
placed on palm.
(3) Plaster of Paris 6. Metals are strong and Non-metals are not
• Chemically it is calcium sulphate hemihydrate. tough. strong. They have low
• Its formula is (CaSO4)2. H2O. or CaSO4 1 .H2O They have high tensile tensile strength.
2 strength.
• It is prepared from gypsum.
• Gypsum is calcium sulphate dihydrate, CaSO4. 2H2O.

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7. Metals form basic Non-metals form acidic ELEMENTS AND THEIR

oxides. oxides or neutral
oxides. OCCURRENCE IN EARTH
8. Reactive metals Non-metals do not react ³³ Earth is a rich source of elements, found either in
displace with dilute native state or in compound form.
hydrogen from dilute acids and hence do not ³³ The solid phase of the earth is called the lithosphere.
acids. displace hydrogen from ³³ Percentage distribution of elements in earth’s crust is
dilute acids. as shown below :
9. Metals form Non-metals form
Element Weight Element Weight
electrovalent halides covalent chlorides
(%) (%)
(ionic halides) with with chlorine (which are
halogens like Cl2, non electro- Oxygen 46.6 Silicon 27.7
Br2 or I2. These lytes, but volatile).
Aluminium 8.3 Iron 5.1
electrovalent chlorides
are electrolytes, but Calcium 3.6 Sodium 2.8
non-volatile. Potassium 2.6 Magnesium 2.1
10. Metals usually do Non-metals react with Titanium 0.4 Manganese 0.1
not combine with hydrogen to
hydrogen. Only a form stable, covalent Other metals >0.1 Hydrogen 0.1
few reactive metals hydrides. Phosphorous 0.1 Other non-metals <0.1
combine with
hydrogen to form ³³ Ocean and seas, which form major component of
electrovalent metallic hydrosphere, are again vast reservoirs of elements.
hydrides. ³³ The major elements are Chlorine, Sodium, Magnesium,
11. Metals are reducing Non-metals are oxidising Sulphur, Calcium, Potassium and Carbon in that
agents. agents (except carbon order.
which is a reducing ³³ The minor elements are Bromine, Boron, Strontium,
agent).
Silicon, Nitrogen, Lithium, Aluminium and Rubidium.
Dualistic nature of hydrogen ³³ Four elements, Chlorine, Bromine, Sodium and
Hydrogen as the first element of all the elements Magnesium are recovered commercially from sea
known show dualistic nature. It being a gas shows both water.
metallic and non-metallic properties. With atomic number ³³ The Manganese nodules found in the sea bed may
one and so also valence one, it behaves as if an alkali form a potential source of some of the less common
metal. It reacts with halogens halide. metals.
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl and Br2 + H2 → 2HBr ³³ The gaseous phase of the earth is called atmosphere.
With same valence of one, it behaves as an ³³ The atmosphere mainly consists of nitrogen (78.09%),
electronegative element like a non-metal. It reacts with Oxygen (20.95%). Argon (0.93) and other gases (<1%).
oxygen to form its oxide, water which is neutral. These gases are obtained by fractional distillation of
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O air.
or reacts with reactive metals to form the respective ³³ Carbon dioxide forms about 0.03% of the atmosphere.
hydride like sodium hydride ³³ Ozone exists mostly at the outer atmospheric level,
2Na + H2 → 2NaH where it helps in the absorption of solar ultraviolet
radiation. Therefore, ozone is considered as chemical
It’s because of this dualistic nature in which it partially
weed. On earth surface it is bluish toxic gas but in
behave as metal being electropositive, it has been placed
stratosphere, it is useful in protecting earth from
in the reacting series of metals. UV-rays.
Allotropy ³³ Examples of elements accum-ulated in living organisms
It is the property in which an element exhibit itself in are :
two or more than two physical forms like carbon, sulphur 1. Iodine in sea weeds
and phosphorous. Carbon exists in allotropic form of 2. Vanadium in sea cucumbers
graphite, diamond, carbon black, charcoal i.e., wood/ 3. Potassium in plant leaf
animal charcoal and fullerenes with minimum of C-60. ³³ Examples of elements conce-ntrated in different parts of
Phosphorous exists in form of white and red phosphorous. living beings are :
Stored in water because of its high reactivity and low 1. Iron (Fe-II) in blood
ignition temperature. It is used in match box industry
2. Zinc in the eyes of certain animals
in making match sticks. Wood charcoal is used as fuel
3. Magnesium in chloroplast
for absorption of gases in gas masks. Animal charcoal is
4. Copper in mollscus. They have blue colour fluid
used to remove pigment during filtration of molasses in
(blood) because copper ions.
the sugar industries.

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³³ Coal is a complex mixture of compounds of carbon,

GENERAL SCIENCE
FUELS hydrogen and oxygen.
³³ Coal was formed by the carbonisation of large plants
³³ The materials which on combustion produce heat and
and trees buried under the earth millions of year ago.
light energy are known as fuels.
³³ Bituminous coal is used as fuel in our households,
³³ On the basis of their physical state fuels can be
and in industry.
classified into solid fuels, liquid fuels and gaseous
fuels. Type of Coal Content Carbon
(i) Solid fuels : Coal, coke, wood, charcoal, nuclear
fuels. Peat 60%
(ii) Liquid fuels : Petrol (Gasol-ine), diesel, kerosene, Lignite 70%
alcohol.
(iii) Gaseous fuels : Natural gas, coal gas, LPG, water Bituminous 80%
gas, gobar gas (Biogas), producer gas. Anthracite 90%
³³ The waste material of living objects like cattle dung
and the dead parts of living objects like plants, trees, ³³ The destructive distillation of coal yields coal gas,
is called Bio–mass. ammoniacal liquor, coal tar and coke.
³³ Bio-mass contains carbon compounds and is the ³³ Coke is used as fuel with high calorific value and as
oldest source of heat energy for domestic purposes. the reducing agent in reduction of metallic oxides to
³³ Examles of Bio-mass being used as a fuel are, wood, metal.
cattle dung and agricultural wastes like bagasse. ³³ Coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen, methane, and
³³ The destructive distillation of wood yields wood gas, carbon monoxide.
charcoal, methyl alcohol, acetic acid. ³³ Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and
³³ Bio-gas is a mixture of methane (65%), carbon-dioxide, hydrogen.
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. ³³ Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and
³³ The major constituent of bio-gas is methane (65%). nitrogen.
³³ Bio-gas is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation ³³ Crude oil was formed by the carbonisation of the
of animal and vegetable i.e., plant wastes in the remains of extremely small plants and animals along
absence of water. The decomposition is brought up by with procaryotes like bacteria buried under the sea
methanogens, bacteria present in cow dung. millions of years ago in high temperature and pressure
³³ Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) is conditions.
the major organisation engaged in the promotion and ³³ The refining of petroleum is done by the process of
construction of bio-gas plants. fractional distillation.

Fractions of Petroleum
Fraction Molecular Boiling Uses
composition range
(Alkanes
present)
1. Gas C1 to C4 Below 40°C Gas is used as a fuel; in the production of carbon
black and hydrogen; in the production of liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) and in the manufacture of
gasoline (petrol) by polymerisation
2. Gasoline C5 to C12 40°C to 170°C Gasoline is used as a
or Petrol motor fuel; as a solvent; and for dry cleaning.
3. Kerosene C12 to C16 175° to 275°C Kerosene is used as a household fuel; as an illuminant
(for lighting) and for making oil gas.
4. Gas oil and C15 to C18 250° to 400°C Used as furnace fuel; fuel for diesel engines,and for
Diesel Oil making petrol by cracking.
5. Lubricating oil, Vaseline, C16 to C50 Above 350°C Lubricating oil is used for lubrication; Vaseline is
and Paraffin wax used for making toilet goods and grease, Paraffin wax
is used for making candles.

³³ The organic compounds prepared from the hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum and natural gases are called
petrochemicals.
³³ D.D.T., B.H.C., Ethyl Alcohol, Benzene are important petrochemicals.
³³ Petroleum gas is a mixture of butane, propane and ethane.
³³ Petroleum gas liquefied under pressure is called Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).
³³ LPG consists mainly of butane and small amount of propane and ethane.

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Calorific Value of Some Fuels SOME USES OF ELEMENTS AND

Fuel Calorific Value COMPOUNDS
Wood 17 KJ/g
Ozone (O3)
Coal 30 KJ/g
1. For disinfecting water of viruses for drinking purpose
Kerosene oil 48 KJ/g 2. For bleaching delicate fabrics of oils, starch etc.
Petrol 50 KJ/g 3. For purifying air in crowded places
Bio-gas 40 KJ/g 4. For the ozonolysis of organic compounds.
Natural gas 40 KJ/g Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) Oxygenated water
LPG 50 KJ/g 1. As an anticolour in bleaching
Methane 55 KJ/g 2. For restoring the colour of lead painting
3. For preserving milk, wine and other liquids
³³ Ethyl mercaptan is added to LPG to help in the
4. In the manufacture of many inorganic and organic
detection of gas leakage.
comp-ound
³³ Natural gas mainly consists of methane (CH4) and small
quantities of ethane and propane. 5. As an antiseptic, for washing wounds, teeth and ears
³³ The process of breaking bigger hydrocarbon molecules into under the name perhydral.
smaller hydrocarbon molecules by heating in the presence Ammonia (NH3)
of a catalyst is called cracking and in absence of oxygen
is called pyrolysis. 1. In the manufacture of nitric acid and sodium
³³ The amount of heat produced by burning a unit mass carbonate
of the fuel completely i.e., complete combustion of a 2. As a refrigerant
gram of fuel is known as its calorific value. 3. In the manufacture of rayon
³³ The calorific value is expressed in Kilojoules per
4. As an important reagent used in manufacture of
gram, KJ/g.
fertilizers.
NOBLE GASES 5. (ammonium ion) is the only non-metalic cation
consisting of nitrogen and hydrogen.
³³ There are six noble gases : Helium, Neon, Argon,
Nitric Acid (HNO3)
Krypton, Xenon and Radon.
³³ Also called ‘rare gases’, as they are present in very 1. In the manufacture of ammonium nitrate
small quantities in the air. 2. In the manufacture of sulphuric acid
³³ Radon is not present in air, it is the rarest of gases. 3. In the manufacture of dyes, perfumes and synthetic
silk
³³ Also called ‘inert gases’, as they do not enter into
4. In purification of gold and silver as part of aqua regia.
chemical reactions.
³³ Helium is used for filling meteorological balloons and Borax (Na2B4O7. 10H2O)
also used by sea divers. 1. In laboratory for borax lead test
³³ Neon is used in making advertising signs. It gives 2. In the manufacture of enamels and glazes for earthen
orange-red colour to fluorescent tubes. pots
Common Organic Compounds 3. In the candle industry
4. In preparation of medicinal soaps
Common name Chemical name
5. In making of optical glass
Marsh gas Methane 6. Used for softening water.
Chloroform Trichloromethane
Boric acid (H3BO3)
Methanol Methyl Alcohol
1. In manufacture of enamels and pottery glazes
Ethanol Ethyl Alcohol 2. For preservation of food in industry
Vinegar Acetic acid 3. In the manufacture of pigments and borax
4. In medicines as an eye wash.
³³ Argon is used to create an inert atmosphere in
chemical reactions and in electric bulbs. It gives Silica (SiO2)
bluish-green colour to flouorescent tubes. 1. As sand which is a building material and the most
³³ Krypton and Xenon are used in electrical valves and commonly found compound in lithosphere
TV tubes and also in lighthouses and miner’s lamp. 2. In manufacture of glasses
³³ Xenon is known to react with fluorine or oxygen to 3. Silica gel (SiO2. NH2O) is used in chromatography and
form its respective compound because of their very
also for absorbing moisture.
high electro negative and electropositive nature.

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Sulphur (S) Krypton and Xenon (Kr and Xe)

GENERAL SCIENCE
1. In manufacture of sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid 1. For filling incandescent metal filament of bulbs
(contact process) 2. Kr-Xe mixture is used in some flash bulbs
2. In manufacture of matches, gun powder, fireworks 3. Xe is used in research laboratories for detecting me-
etc. sons.
3. In making sulpha drugs Radon (Rn)
4. For disinfecting rooms
1. In treatment of cancer
5. In vulcanisation of rubber.
2. In radioactive researches.
Sulphuric acid (H2 SO4 king of chemeical)
Sodium
1. In fertiliser industry
1. Sodium amalgam is used for preparation of organic
2. In petroleum refining
compounds
3. In chemical industry
2. Liquid Na is used as a coolant in nuclear reactors
4. In metallurgy
3. In sodium vapour lamps
5. In manufacture of explosives such as T.N.T.
4. As reagent to detect presence of H2, S and Halogens.
6. In manufacture of paints, plastics, pigments
7. As a drying and dehydrating agent Potassium (K)
8. For clearing the surface of metals before electroplating. 1. as a fertiliser in agriculture.
Sodium thiosulphate (Na2 S2O3. 5H2O) Sodium Chloride (NaCl )
1. In photography as a fixing agent 1. As a table salt
2. As a preservative for fruit products 2. In manufacture of Na2 CO3, NaOH, Cl2 etc.
3. As an antichlor in bleaching 3. For salting out soaps
4. As a volumetric agent for the estimation of iodine 4. In freezing mixtures
5. Used in medicines. 5. In tanning and textile industry.
Fluorine (F2) Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)
1. The most electronegative element is used as an 1. For softening hard water
oxidizing agent 2. For washing purposes in industries
2. Fluorine and its compound (NF3, OF2) are used as 3. Na2CO3–K2CO3 is used as a fusion mixture
rocket fuel 4. In petroleum industries
3. In manufacture of plastic known as teflon 5. In manufacturing of soaps, glasses, paper, borax etc.
4. In manufacture of fluorocarbons forms (CF2Cl2) and 6. As a reagent in laboratories.
HF (hydro-fluoric acid) used for etching of glass.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
5. Preparation of uranium hexafluoride.
1. In manufacture of soaps, paper, artificial silk etc.
Bromine (Br2) 2. In petroleum industry
1. In preparation of ethylene bromide which is mixed 3. In purification of bauxite
with tetraethyl lead and added to the petrol as an 4. In textile industry for mercerizing cotton fabrics.
anti-knock 5. As a chemical reagent for machines and metal sheets.
2. In manufacture of AgBr used in photography
3. In manufacture of dyes, drugs etc. Potassium Chloride (KCl )
4. In manufacture of benzyl bromide-a tear gas. 1. As a fertilizer
2. In preparation of potassium compounds.
Iodine (I2)
1. As a laboratory reagent in testing presence of starch Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
2. In making of medicines and dyes 1. In manufacture of soft soaps
3. AgI is used in photographic emulsion. 2. Absorbing carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide
3. In some organic reactions
Helium (He)
1. In filling discharge tube Magnesium (Mg)
2. In gas chromatography 1. As a reducing agent
3. To protect metal surfaces from oxidation during the 2. Alloy with Al used in aircraft industries
welding of steel. 3. Mg-powder used in flash light
4. In meterology to fill weather balloons. 4. Mg (OH)2 is used as antacid

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Calcium (Ca) Copper (Cu)

GENERAL SCIENCE

1. Removes traces of air from vacuum tubes 1. In making utensils

2. It is a powerful reducing agent 2. In making electrical wire
3. To remove moisture from alcohol 3. In manufacturing electric goods
Calcium oxide (CaO) 4. For preparing alloys
5. In electroplating and electrotyping
1. As a building material
2. In manufacture of caustic soda 6. For preparing copper salts
3. As a flux in metallurgy 7. As a coinage metal
4. In manufacture of dying stuffs 8. In jwellery
5. In drying gases and alcohol Silver (Ag)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) 1. In ornaments and coins
1. As a building material 2. In silvering of mirrors and in photography and making
2. As a white wash material of x-rays films.
3. In silver plating, in metallic wiring
3. For softening hard water
4. In some medicines
4. For detection of CO2
5. In making useful alloys
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Gold (Au)
1. As a building material
1. In jwellery and is an article of wealth
2. In manufacture of quick lime
2. As a coinage metal
3. In metallurgy of iron and other metals as source of
CO2 3. In covering temple domes
4. As a constituent of tooth pastes 4. In dental filling
5. For gold plating other metals
Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4. 2H2O)
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4. 5H2O)
1. For manufacture of Plaster of Paris and ammonium
sulphate 1. Also called blue vitrol in anhydrous salt is used to
2. In manufacture of cement and mortar test the presence of moisture
3. In preparation of black board chalks 2. As a mordant in dying and calico printing
4. As a drying agent 3. In electroplating and electrofixing of metals
4. Used as a fungicide
Aluminum Chloride (AlCl3)
Mercury (Hg)
1. As a catalyst in Friedel Crafts reaction
2. As a catalyst in cracking of petroleum 1. Used in various instruments such as thermometers.
3. As a mordant in dying 2. In mercury vapour lamps
3. In medicines
Potash alum (K2SO4. Al2 (SO4)3. 24H2O) 4. In preparing amalgams used for filling tooth cavity
1. In purification of water for improving sedimentarion 5. As an electrode in various electrolytic processes
in primary tank
Zinc Oxide (ZnO)
2. As a mordant in dying and calico-printing
3. In tanning leather 1. As a white paint
4. To stop bleeding from a fresh cut 2. In ceramics and rubber industries
3. As an ointment in medicine
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 4. As a catalyst
1. As a red pigment
Zinc Chloride (ZnCl2)
2. For metal polishing
3. As a catalyst 1. As a dehydrating agent in organic reactions
2. As a flux in soldering
Ferric Chloride (FeCl3) 3. In preparation of vulcanised rubber
1. In medicines as a stringent and antiseptic 4. In dry cells
2. As a mordant in dying
Tin (Sn)
3. As a reagent in Friedel Crafts reaction
4. In block making 1. In tinning of copper and brass utensils
2. In tin plating
Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4. 7H2O) 3. For making tin foils
1. As a mordant in dying and tanning industries 4. For making a number of alloys
2. In manufacture of blue-black ink
Lead (Pb)
3. In manufacture of Mohr’s salt, ferric oxide, ferric alum etc.
1. For making water pipes
4. As an insecticide in agriculture
2. In lead storage batteries

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3. In manufacturing bullets, shots etc. Hydrocarbons

GENERAL SCIENCE
4. For making lead chamber
5. For preparing (C2H5)4 Pb, which is an anti knocking
Saturated hydrocarbons Unsaturated hydrocarbons
agent for petrol
(Alkane) (Depending on number of
6. For making pigments unsatisfied valencies)
7. For making a number of alloys
Carbon dioxides (CO2)
Alkene Alkyne
1. In preparation of aerated water
2. As a fire extinguisher Saturated and Unsaturated hydrocarbons
3. In manufacture of washing soda Saturated Unsaturated
4. As a refrigerant, solidified CO2 (dry ice) in deep hydrocarbons hydrocarbons
freezers. 1. All the valancies of All the valancies of
5. For artificial respiration (85% of O2 + 5% of CO2– carbon are carbon are not fully
carbon) fully satisfied therefore satisfied therefore have
6. In purification of cane sugar juice have either double or triple
single covalent bond. covalent bond.
Carbon Halides (CX4, X is F, Cl, I, Br)
1. CCl4 is used as a solvent 2. They burn with non- They burn with sooty
sooty flame. flame.
2. CCl4 is used as fire extinguisher called pyrene for
electrical fires. 3. They either do not react They react fastly with
3. CF2 Cl2 is used as a refrigerant or if react then very the bromine water to
slowly with bromine decolourize it.
4. CCl4 is also used as medicine
water to decolourize it.
Carbides The hydrocarbons based on valencies of carbon sat-
1. SiC–Carborundum is second hardest substance isfied or not have representative structural formula
2. Tungsten carbide is used for making tools depending on number of carbon atoms (n) present
3. Calcium carbide is used for preparing acetylene for Alkane : CnH2n+2 e.g. CH4, C2H6, C4H10, etc.
production of oxy-acetylene flame Alkene : CnH2n e.g. C2H4, C4H8, C3H6, etc.
4. Be4C is also very hard and is used as a shield against Alkyne : CnH2n–2 e.g. C2H2, C3H4, C4H6, etc.
radioactive radiations Homologous series : It is a series of hydrocarbon in
which all members (called homologues) follow the same
CARBON AND COMPOUNDS structural formula and every succeeding differ from the ad-
jacent by –CH2 group or 14 amu by mass. If any functional
Carbon is the first element of the 14th group of group is present then all members have same functional
periodic table with atomic number six and valency four. group.
Carbon of its small size and tetravalency has strong Isomerism : It is a phenomenon in which a hydro-
tendency to form bonds with other elements as well as carbon exists in two or more forms having two or more
with other carbon atom to form long chain compounds. structural formula without undergoing any change in its
The property of carbon to form long straight or branched molecular formula. Such as pentane (C5H12) exists in form
chain compounds is called Catenation. of three isomers :
When carbon bonds with hydrogen, it form the com- CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3, n – pentane.
pounds called hydrocarbons. The study of hydro carbons CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH3 – 2, methyl butane (iso-pentane).
or their derivatives is called organic chemistry. |
Unique properties of carbon CH3
CH3
–C–C–C– CH3 C CH3– 2, 2 dimethyl propane (neo-pentane).
–C–C–C–C– –C– CH3
Straight Chains Branched Chains
Similarly C2H5OH exists in form of two functional
isomers i.e. CH3O CH3 (di-methyl ether) or CH3CH2OH
109°2 (Ethanol).
8'
Hydrocarbon and functional group : A hydrocarbon
C compound normally has two parts called radical and
C C C
functional group. A radical contributes to the number of
C
C C carbon and hydrogen atoms present i.e. molecular mass but
functional group other than carbon or hydrogen determines
Branched Regular
Chains tetrahedron the chemical property of the compound. Some of these
functional groups are listed below in the given table :

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Name of funct- functional group Examples

ioanl group
Alkene group C =C H2C = CH2, Ethene CH3CH =CH2, Propene
Alkyne group –C ≡C– HC ≡CH, Ethyne CH3C≡CH, Propyne
Alcoholic group –OH CH3OH, Methanal CH3CH2OH, Ethanal
Aldehydic group O HCHO, Methanal CH3CHO, Ethanal
CHO/ C H

Ketonic group O O CH3COCH2CH3, Butanone

C = O/ C CH3 C CH3, Propanone
Carboxylic group O CH3COOH, Ethanoic acid CH3CH2CH2COOH, Butanoic acid
C OH/ COOH
Ester group O CH3COOCH3, Methyl ethanoate CH3COOCH2CH3, Ethyl ethanoate
C OH/ COOH
Halogen group R–X(–Cl/–Br/–I) CH3Cl, Chloromethane CH3CH2Br, Bromoethane
Amino group –NH2 CH3CH2NH2, Ethanamine CH3CH2CH2CH2NH2, Butanamine
Nitro group –NO2 CH3CH2NO2, Nitro ethane CH3CH2CH2NO2, Nitr'o propane

The presence of different functional group can be tested to identify the functional group present. The test for some
of these functional groups are listed below in the given table.

Functional group Test

C =C Reacts with bromine water to decolourise it but the
Alkene group Br Br
reaction occurs slowly. H2C = CH2 + Br2 → H2C CH2

–C ≡C– Reacts with bromine water immediately to decolourize bromine water.

Alkyne group Br Br
HC ≡CH + 2Br2 → HC CH
Br Br
–OH 1. Reacts with sodium metal to yield hydrogen gas or reacts with alkali like NaOH to give water.
Alcoholic group 2. CH3CH2OH + 2Na → 2CH3CH2ONa + H2
CH3CH2OH + NaOH → CH3CH2ONa + H2O
3. Undergoes oxidation to produce caboxylic acid.
KMnO /K Cr O
4 2 2 7
CH3CH2OH CH3COOH + H2
4. Higher alcohols undergo dehydration to form the respective alkene.
Conc. H2SO4/∆
CH3CH2OH H2C = CH2 + H2O

–CHO 1. With Tollen’s reagent [Ag(NH3)2]NO2 they give silver mirror test
Aldehydic group HCHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]NO2 + 2NH4OH → HCOOH + 2Ag + 2NH4NO3 + 4NH3 + H2O
2. Bennedict's solution they reduce Cu-II to Cu-I ions, changing its colour from blue to red or
brick red.
O 1. On oxidation, they yield respective carboxylic acid
C Alkaline KMnO4
CH3CO CH3 CH3COOH
Ketonic group
2. They do not react with Tollen’s reagent as well as with Bennedict's solution to reduce them.
O 1. They undergo decarboxylation to give respective alkane.
C OH CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O; CH3COONa + NaOH → CH4 + Na2CO3
Carboxylic group 2. They form sweet smelling ester when react with an alcohol in process called esterification.
H2SO4
CH3COOH + CH2CH2OH CH3COO CH3+ H2O

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Denaturation of alcohol : The alcohol consumed Icieslguhr’ or diatomaceous earth and named the

GENERAL SCIENCE
by people is ethanol while methanol also called spirit mixture dynamite.
if consumed leads to blindness and even death. The RDX : It stands for Research Development Explosive.
ethanol is widely used organic solvent in industries. It is colourless soild obtained by reacting white fuming
Hence, to prevent its consumption by the workers at nitric acid with hexamine. Hexamine + Nitric acid RDX
work, the alcohol used is denatured i.e. made unfit for + dinitromethene + Ammonium nitrate + water.
human consumption with addition of copper sulphate (CH2) 6N4 + 10HNO3 (CH2–N – NO2)3 + 3CH2 (NO3)2 +
or pyridine. NH4NO3 + 3H2O
Uses of known organic compounds It is stable at room temperature but sublimate in
1. Ethyl alcohol used as an organic solvent and in the vacuum. It has 1.5 times more explosive power than
alcohol thermometer as thermometric fluid to measure TNT by weight.
low temperature.
COMMONLY USED CHEMICALS AT
2. In alcoholic drinks whisky – 35%, or more, wine – 10
HOUSEHOLD
– 14%, beer – 4-6% of ethyl alcohol.
3. Ethyl alcohol is used as an antifreeze in radiators of ³³ Iodized salt : Table salt with a percentage of iodine
motor vehicles in cold countries. to prevent goitre.
4. Formaldehyde (Methanal) in form of dilute solution is ³³ Shampoo : Hair care product used for removal of
used as preservative for Biological specimens. oils, dirt, skin particles, dandruff and environmental
pollutants.
5. Propanone (acetone) is used as nail polish remover,
³³ Soap : It is sodium or potassium salt of long chain
as a solvent and in manufacture of chloroform and
fatty acids. It is prepared by heating equal volume of
artificial leather and plastic called perspex. fatty acid, NaOH and ethanol in water bath until the
6. Dilute solution of acetic acid (Ethanoic acid) 5% – 7% paste formation.
is vinegar used in food preservation. ³³ As mixture cools, saturated NaCl solution is added
7. Acetic acid is also used in making of artificial fibre to remove glycerol and NaOH (Sodium hydroxide).
cellulose acetate and in coagulation of rubber from ³³ Detergent : A detergent is the sodium salt of sulphonic
latex obtained from rubber tree. acid. Soap forms lather only with soft water but
8. Acetic acid is widely used in perfume industries as is detergent is effective in forming rich lather of foam
both in soft water and hard water.
involved in production of ester after its reaction with
an alcohol. ³³ However, the use of detergents cause water pollution
but not of soap.
³³ Nitroglycerine : It is produced by acid catalyzed
nitration of glycerol (glycerine). ³³ Oxalic acid : (C2H2O4) is widely used as household
NO2 chemical obtained from spinach, beet root, tomato,
OH O2N etc. Commercially it is used as
HO HNO3/H2SO4 O
³³ Bleaching agent for wood and stone
O
OH NO2 ³³ Stain removal such as mustard oil spots, inks, etc.
O
³³ Removal of rust deposited on plumbing pipes and
It is a heavy, colourless, oily, explosive liquid produced kitchen counter taps.
as given above by nitrating glycerol with white fuming ³³ Antiseptics : These are chemical used on living tissues
nitric acid under controlled conditions. and cells hence commonly used as hand wash and
TNT : Trinitro toulene (2, 4, 6-trinitro toulene), in treatment of mouth and throat infection with
yellow colour solid with explosive properties for use antibacterial and antifungal properties.
in military, industrial and mining operations. On ³³ Disinfectants : There are chemicals that cannot be
detonation, it decomposes as: used on living tissue or cells. These can be oxidising
or non-oxidising disinfectant.
2C7H5 N3O6 → 3N2 + 5H2O + 7CO + 7C
³³ Oxidizing disinfectants include hydrogen peroxide
The manufacture involves the reaction given below. and hypochlorite, non-oxidising disinfectants include
CH3 CH3 N quaternary ammonium compound, fungicides and
O amphoterics.
N
2

2
O

O + HONO2 + H2SO4 O + 3HO2 + H2SO4 ³³ Fire extinguishers : There are five types of them used
for different fires A, B, C, D and K.
NO2 A-type — Wood, paper, cloth and other ordinary
materials.
Dynamite : It is an explosive made of nitroglycerin.
B-type — Gasoline, oil, paints, etc.
Alfred Nobel has developed dynamite with the use C-type — Electrical fires
of nitroglycerine as a blasting explosive by mixing D-type — Combustible metals.
nitroglycerin with inert absorbent particularly, ‘ K-type — Cooking media/vegetable or animal oils or fats.

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GENERAL SCIENCE

Beverages type percentage of alcohol and Source Malachite Cu(OH)2. CuCO3

Name Percentage Source Azurite Cu(OH)2.2CuCO3
alcohol Blue vitriol CuSO4.5H2O
Rum 45-55% Molasses (Cane Sugar) Argentite (Silver glance) Ag2S
Whisky 40-50% barley Horn silver (Chlorargyrite) AgCl

Brandy 40-50 % grapes Ruby silver (Pyrargyrite) Ag3SbS3

Argentiferrous galena PbS + Ag2S
Champagne 10-15% grapes
Lunar caustic AgNO3
Beer 3-6% barley
Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O
Cider 2-6% apples
Cryolite Na3AlF6
³³ Food additives : These are substances added to food Mica K2O.3Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O
to preserve flavour or enhance taste and flavour. Alum stone (Alunite) K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.4A(OH)3
Such as pickling with vinegar, SO2 for fishes, salting
Cassiterite (Tin stone) SnO2
as with bacon, etc.
Vitamin-C and nitrogen → Antioxidant Galena PbS
Acids : Weak acids such as citric acid, acetic acid, Mohr’s salt FeSO4. (NH4)2. SO4.6H2O
lactic acid,. Green vitriol FeSO4.7H2O
Anticalving agents : for keeping food in powder form Asbestos CaMg3(SiO3)4
like milk powder.
Aqua-regia Conc. HNO3 + Conc. HCl (1:3
Colouring agent : such as annatto extract (yellow part)
colour), ...de hydrated beets (bluish-red to brown),
beta-extract (red or green) Baryta water Ba(OH)2 solution
Artificial sweetness : These inchude sacchire as Boranes Hydride of boron
partame, suiralose, advantame and stevia. They help Brine Concentrated NaCl solution
in weight loss, check diabetes, dental care and reactive Caliche NaNO3 + NalO3
hypoglycemia.
Caustic potash KOH
IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS/MINERALS AND FOR- Dry ice solid CO2
MULAS
Freon CF2Cl2
Name Formula Lead pencil Graphite
Magnesite MgCO3 Laughing gas N 2O
Dolomite MgCO3.CaCO3 Mortar Salked lime + sand (1:3 in
Kieserite MgSO4.H2O water)
Epsomite MgSO4.7H2O Matte Cu2S + FeS
Talc Mg2(Si2O5)2 Mg(OH)2 Milk of magnesia Paste of Mg(OH) 2 in water
(Antacid)
Magnesia alba (MgCO3)x (Mg(OH)2]y. 2H2O
Marsh gas CH4
Anhydrite CaSO4
Nitro chalk [NH4NO3 + (NH4)2 CO3]
Fluorspar CaF2
Nitrolim CaCN2 (a fertilizer) + C
Phosphorite Ca3(PO4)2
Oil of vitriol Conc. H2SO4
Soda lime Ca(OH)2 + NaOH
Oleum H2S2O7
Chlorapatite 3Ca3(PO4)2.CaCl2
Phosgene COCl2
Pearl ash, Potash K2CO3
Producer gas A mixture of CO + N2 + H2
Feldspar KAlSi3O3
Quartz SiO2
Saltpetre (Indian saltpetre) KNO3 Quick silver Hg
Calgon (Graham’s salt) (NaPO3)n Refrigerant CO2. NH3, CF2Cl2 etc
Chile saltpetre NaNO3 Rust Fe2O3.H2O
Salt cake NaSO4 (anhydrous) TNT Trinitro toluene (an explosive)
Glauber’s salt Na2SO4.10H2O Water glass Na2SiO3
Crystal carbonate Na2CO3.H2O Water gas CO + H2
Copper glance Cu2S Yperite Mustard gas

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Polymerisation ³³ Butadiene rubber (BR) mostly mixed with other rubber

GENERAL SCIENCE
It is the process of reacting monomer molecules types to improve elasticity, wear resistance and low
temperature properties.
together to form polymer chain. A three dimensional
³³ Neoprene polymer of chloroprene which is fire
network based on type of plastic formed by polymerisation
resistant with high tensile strength.
is thermoplastic or thermosetting plastic. Thermo
plastics are those that can be remoulded on heating like Ceramics
polyethylene, PVC (Polyvinyl chloride), poly propylene, PET, There are inorganic, non-metallic crystalline oxides,
etc. Thermo setting plastics are those which cannot be nitride or carbide materials prepared by their heating
remoulded after their heating such as bakelite, melanine, followed with subsequent cooling. These are used in
urea formaldehyde etc. making armoury, in electrical industry from insulator
to resistor in semi conductor or high temperature super
Rubber conductor like BSCCO based on element bismuth,
strontium, calcium, copper and oxygen. In space shuttle
Natural rubber is not effective for commercial use. It
ceramic tiles are used as thermal barriers.
is polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene) extracted
from latex collected from rubber tree. For commercial use White wares
natural rubber is heated with sulphur in process called the These are ceramic products with colour from white
vulcanization to obtain vulcanized rubber. If isoprene is to off white. They are produced from mixture of clay, flint
heated with chlorine the result is chloroprene, fire resistant and feldspar . They are characterized by their property of
being unwetable, poor heat and electrical conductivity.
rubber. The other types of rubber in use include :
They are impermeable to liquids and can be imparted
³³ Styrene butadiene rubber (SRB) used for covering
into different shapes of different sizes such as in making
different hoses.
flower vase, container for pickles etc.

DIFFERENT TYPE OF POLYMERS WITH USES

Name Raw material Uses

Polyethylene Ethylene Insulating wires, making toys, flexible pipes, bottle

containers like cans for storing liquid chemicals
including water.
Polypropylene Propylene Making carpet fibres, seat covers, ropes, wraps for
records and for packaging.
Polystyrene Styrene Making toys, hot drinking cups, combs, lining material
for T.V. cabinet and refrigerators.

Poly methyl methacrylate Methyl Head transparent covering for the unbreakable lights,
(PMMA) or Perpex methacrylate protective coating, aeroplane windows.
Teflon or polytetra Tetrafluro ethylene Making seal to withstand high temperature and
theroethylene pressure, non- sticking surface of cooking vessels,
insulation of high frequency electric installation.
PVS (Poly vinyl chloride) Vinyl chloride Insulation of electric cables, rain coats, table cloths,
conveyor belts, etc.

Terylene Ethylene glycol and Making magnetic recording tapes, aprons for industrial
terephthalic acid workers, blend in cloth etc.

Nylon-66 Adipic acid and Milk bristles of tooth brush, sheets, climbing ropes,
Hexamethylene diamines socks, sweater and jersey.
Nylon-6 Cyclohexane and aprolactum Tyre cords, ropes, fabrics.

Bakelite O-hydroxymethyl Making of board, pens, formica table, taps and electrical
phenol and P-hydroxymethyl switches.
phenol
Melamine Melamine and formaldehyde Making of unbreakable cups, glass
sheets and plates.
Dextron Glycodic acid Used as sutures after operation. These are self soluble
lactic acid in a week's time.

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GENERAL SCIENCE

IMPORTANT CHEMICAL REAGENTS

Fehling solution Copper sulphate + potassium tartrate (Rochelle salt) + NaOH
Tollen’s reagent AgNO3 solution + NaOH solution + NH4OH
Benedict solution Alkaline solution of cupric ion complexed with citrate ions
Schiff’s reagent Dilute solution of rosaniline hydrochloride in water, colour has been discharged by passing SO2
Soda bleach A mixture of Na2O2 and dilute HCl
Soda lime A mixture of Ca(OH2) + NaOH
Fusion mixture A mixture of Na2O3 + K2CO3
Lithopone A mixture of ZnS + BaSO4
Nessler’s reagent K2HgI4
Nitrolim Calcium cyanamide + graphite
Superphosphate Calcium dihydrogen phosphate + CaSO4
Baeyer’s reagent Cold alkaline KMnO4 solution
Lindlar catalyst Pyrolysed charcoal deactivated with sulphur compounds
Milk of magnesia Suspension of Mg (OH)2 in water
Lucas reagent A mixture of conc. HCl and anhy. ZnCl2
Fenton’s reagent H2O2.FeCl3

SCIENTISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS

Scientist Contribution
Neils Bohr Atomic model
Burzelius Catalysis
H. Becquerrel Radioactivity
Bronsted-Lowry Acid-Base concept
J. Chadwick Discovery of neutron
Debye-Huckel Theory of strong electrolytes
de Broglie Wave nature of electron
Faraday Laws of electrolysis
Fajan Polarisation of anion
Goldstein Discovery of proton
Helmholtz First law of thermodynamics
Hund-Mulliken Electronegativity scale; Molecular orbital theory
Heitlor-London Valence bond theory
Madam Curie and F. Joliot Artificial radioactivity
Libby Radioactive dating
Maxwell Kinetic theory of gases
Mendeleef Periodic table
Mosley Modern periodic law and table
Pauling-Slater Valence bond theory
Planck Wave nature of light
Rutherford Discovery of nucleus, nuclear reactions
Roentzen Discovery of X-rays
Sorenson pH and its scale
Thomson Discovery of electron, photo electric effect
Tyndall Light scattering by solute particles

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GENERAL SCIENCE
NATURAL OCCURENCE OF SOME ACIDS Elements showing diagonal Li–Mg, Be–Al; B–Si
relationship
³³ Citric acid – Citrus fruits (lemon, orange)
³³ Lactic acid – Sour milk Metalloids elements B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te

³³ Uric acid – Urine Non-metals having metallic Graphite, Iodine

lusture
³³ Formic acid – Sting of bees and ants
Element that sublime on Iodine
³³ Butryic acid – Rancid butter
heating
³³ Tartaric acid – Tamarind, grapes, apples
Noble metals Au, Pt
³³ Mallic acid – Apples
³³ Stearic acid – Fats Amphoteric metals Zn, Al, Sn, Pb
³³ Hydrochloric acid – Gastric juice Non-metal having highest Diamond
³³ Acetic acid – Vinegar m.pt, b. pt
³³ Oxalic acid – Tomatoes Metals showing highest ox. no. Pu, Os

FACTS TO REMEMBER Element having highest Boron

tensile strength
Most reactive solid element Li
Coolant in nuclear reactors D2O (Heavy water)
Most reactive liquid element Cs
Latest discovered element Hahnium
Most reactive gaseous element F (Ha, atomic no. 105)
Eka (Eka mercury
Highest electronegativity F
atomic no. 112)
Highest ionization potential H
Element kept in water P (yellow)
Lowest electron affinity Noble gases (zero)
Elements kept in kerosene oil Na, K, Cs
Liquid element of radioactive Francium (Fr)
Dry ice or Cardice CO2 (Solidified)
nature
Artificial explosive Dynamite
Total number of radioactive 25
elements in periodc table First noble prize of chemistry Vant Hoff
was given to
Volatile d-block elements Zn, Cd, Hg
Tincture iodine (antiseptic) I2 in alcohol
Element containing no neutron 1
H1 (Protium)
Some commonly used oxidants H2 O2, SO2, SO3, Cl2,
Most abundant element of Oxygen (O)
H2SO4, HNO3
earth
Some commonly used SO2, H2S, Cl2,
Rarest element of earth Astatine (At)
reductants Bleaching powder
Most abundant metal of earth Fe
Neutral oxides of non-metals CO, N2O, NO, H2O
Most abundant metal of earth Al
crust Dry bleacher O3
Element having maximum Carbon Natural explosive NCl3
tendency
for catenation and allotropes Amphoteric oxides ZnO, PbO, Al2O3,
SnO, BeO
Lightest element H
Some polymorphic elements O, S, P
Heaviest naturally occurring U238
element Some isomorphous substances FeSO4. 7H2O,
MgSO4.7H2O,
Poorest conductor of current Pb (metal), S ZnSO4.7H2O,
(non-metal)
Na2S2O3.7H2O,
Amphoteric non-metal Si FeSO4.7H2O
ppp

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GENERAL SCIENCE

BIOLOGY
The word biology is derived from the Greek words forms of life. The vast variety of plants and animals of
(bios) meaning-life and (logos) meaning -study. Hence, present day biodiversity have come up due to organic
Biology is considered as a natural science concerned evolution.
with the study of life and living organism including their 11. Palaeobiology – It deals with the study of origin,
structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution and structure and growth of various forms of life that
environment. In general, it recognizes the cell as the basic have existed in the past and only the fossils are avail-
unit of life, genes as basic unit of heredity and evolution as able now. Palaeobotany deals with the study of fossil
the engine that propels the creation of new species. There plants; and Palaeozoology deals with the study of
are varied sub disciplines of biology. These subdisciplines fossil animals. The study of fossils, as such, is known
are defined by the scale at which organism are studied, as Palaeontology.
the kinds of organisms studied and the method used to 12. Molecular Biology – It deals with the study of
study them. Some of the important sub disciplines of various complex organic molecules of which the
biology by Greek philosopher Aristotle (father of Biology) organism is made of. For example, the structures
are listed below. of various enzymes or proteins, carbohydrates, fats,
nucleic acids, hormones etc. It also includes the ways
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY they are metabolised (synthesized and used up) in our
1. Morphology – It deals with the study of external fea- body.
tures of an organism. For example a plant is made up 13. Space Biology – It deals with the effects of space
of roots, stem, leaf, flower, fruit etc.; man has eyes, conditions on an organism. It is also called as Exobi-
ears, nose, arms, legs etc. ology.
2. Anatomy – The study of gross internal structures of 14. Radiation Biology – It is the study of harmful and
plants and animals is known as internal morpholo- useful effects of various radiation (α β, γ etc.) on
rays
gy or anatomy. For example, man has heart, liver, the organisms induding U.V. rays.
lungs, kidney, pancreas, stomach etc. 15. Anthropology – It is the study of physical and mental
3. Histology – The branch of biology which deals with constitution of man, his cultural development, social
study of the microscopic cellular structures (tissues) conditions in the past and of present. In other words,
of plants and animals. it is the study of evolution of man through culture.
4. Cell Biology – It deals with the structure, function, 16. Agriculture – It is the science of producing plants
reproduction and all other activities of a cell itself. and animals useful to mankind. It includes the cul-
5. Physiology – It is the study of various life processes tivation of land, rearing, breeding and management
and functions (like digestion, respiration, excretion of crops and animals.
etc.) of the life that make an organism. 17. Agronomy – It is a branch of agricultural science
6. Embryology – It is branch of biology that deals with that deals with the study of crops and soils in which
the study of various events and changes that occur they grow.
in the formation of zygote and then its transformation 18. Soil Science – It is the study of structures, types and
into a young individual till the birth. dynamics of the soil. It is also called as Pedology.
7. Ecology – The branch of biology which deals with the 19. Horticulture – It is a branch of agriculture that deals
study of organisms with respect to their environment with the study of growing vegetables, fruits and orna-
is termed as ecology. mental plants.
8. Taxonomy – The branch of biology that deals with 20. Pathology – It is a science that deals with the study
identifying, classifying and naming (nomenclature) of nature of diseases, their causes, symptoms and
of organisms into various groups is known as taxon- effects.
omy. 21. Entomology – It is a branch of science that deals
9. Genetics – The characters are always transmitted with the study (habits, classification, functions,
from parents to their children or from one generation structures etc.) of insects.
to the next generation. For this the nucleus of the cell 22. Protozoology – It is the study of unicellular organ-
has chromosomes which bear genes on them. Genes isms.
are chemically made–up of DNA (deoxy ribonucleic
23. Bacteriology – It is the study of bacteria.
acid). This DNA acts as a hereditary material. Hered-
24. Ichthyology – It is a branch of science that deals with
ity is the science dealing with the study of resem-
the study of fishes.
blances and differences between the parents and their
off–springs while Genetics is a larger field of biology 25. Ornithology – It is a branch of science that deals with
which involves the study of heredity plus the reasons the study of birds.
governing heredity and inheritance. 26. Herpetology – It includes the study of amphibians
10. Organic Evolution – It deals with the study of how and reptiles.
simple and primitive forms have changed to, gradually 27. Veterinary Science – It is the study of diseases of
over a period of time, more complex and present day domesticated animals and their health care.

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28. Poultry Science – It deals with the study of rearing 47. Oncology – It deals with study of cancer, their caus-

GENERAL SCIENCE
and management of domestic fowls such as chickens, es and possible treatment.
ducks and geese for eggs and flesh. 48. Nanobiology – It refers to the study of how nano-
29. Sericulture – It deals with the management and technology can be used in biology, and the study of
breeding of silk worms to produce silk. living organisms and parts at the nanoscale level of
30. Silviculture – It is the science of studying the es- organization.
tablishment, development, care and reproduction of 49. Developmental biology – It deals with the study of
valuable timber trees. processes which organisms undergo i.e. progressive
and orderly changes in structure as well as physiol-
31. Forestry – It is the sciene of developing, cultivating
ogy during their entire life cycle.
and conserving forests to have the maximum utility.
50. Pomology– It refers to study of different types of
32. Apiculture – It is the science of keeping and breeding fruits.
of honey bees in apairies to obtain honey, bee venom 51. Olericulture – It refers to the branch of agriculture
and bee’s wax. that deals with study of vegetables and their cultiva-
33. Dairy Technology – It is the application of science tion.
for the manufacture of milk products. 52. Anthology – It deals with the study of flowers.
34. Microbiology – It is a science that deals with the 53. Aboriculture – It refers to study of cultvation and
structure, function, uses etc. of microscopic organ- management of individual specimens of ornamental
isms. trees.
35. Pharmacology – It is a science that deals with the 54. Eugenics – It’s the science that deals in improving
knowledge of drugs and the preparation of medicines. the qualities of human race by the careful selection
36. Psychology – It is a science that deals with the qual- of parents for desired offsprings.
ities and mental behaviour of human mind. 55. Dendrology – It is a science that deals with study of
plants with woody structure. It includes the study
37. Pharmacy – It is a science of preparing and com-
of trees, shurbs and vines. It in detail studies about
pounding medicines and dispensing them according
shape of leaves, their arrangement, blooming and
to the medical prescriptions. time of blooming of trees etc.
38. Physiotherapy – It is the science of treatment of dis- 56. Dendrochronology – It is the branch that deals with
eases, body weakness or defects by physical methods scientific method of dating based on the analysis of
like massage and exercise. growth ring of soft and hard wood.
39. Nutrition – It is the study of nourishment of human 57. Ethnobotany – It is a study of combination of
beings or other organisms. human culture and botany. It aims to describe,
40. Genetic Engineering – It involves the manipulations document and explain relationship between plants
at gene level so as to produce an organism with new and developing human culture, i.e. use of plants for
and desired characters. food, medicine, rituals, etc.
41. Biomedical Engineering – It is the science of pro- 58. Phycology – It refers to study of different forms of
algae. It also includes the study of cyanobacteria
ducing spare parts of man, implants artificial limbs,
(Blue green algae) and lichens.
heart, lung, machines etc. Pigs are known to be the
59. Arachnology – It deals with study of spiders and
carrier of human body spare parts.
related animals such as scorpions, pseudo scorpions,
42. Food Technology – It is the application of science etc.
for the processing and preservation of foods. It also 60. Ethology – It refers to study of human behaviour and
involves fruitfitication of plant products. social organisation from a biological perspective.
43. Bioinformatics – It’s the application of information 61. Eugenics – It deals with study of set of beliefs and
technology and computer science to the field of mo- practices that aims at improving the genetic quality
lecular biology in study of collection and storage of of human race/population.
genomic and other biological data. 62. Euphenics – It is the science that makes phenotypic
44. Biotechnology – It deals with use of living improvements in humans after birth, generally to
cells and microorganisms like bacteria in in- affect a problematic genetic variations such as skin
dustrial and scientific processes particularly in grafting at face.
manipulation of living matter including the genetic 63. Hematology – It is the study of blood, diagnosis,
modifications. treatment and prevention of diseases of blood.
45. Epidemiology – It’s a branch of medical science that 64. M y o l o g y – It refers to study of structure,
deals with the study of the spread and control of dis- arrangement and function of muscles.
eases. 65. Odontology – It refers to study of teeth, their precise
46. Gerontology – The branch of biology that deals with shape and spacing in a person for forensic purpose.
the processes of aging. The treatment of diseases re- 66. Ophiology – It refers the study of snakes, their types
lated to aging is called gerontotherapy. and distributions.

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1. SPECIES
GENERAL SCIENCE

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
³³ A species is a population of plants or animals which are
Biological diversity refers to occurrence of varied genetically distinct, reproductively isolated and similar
forms of life differing in size, appearance, colour, inter- in morphological characteristics. The members of a
nal structure, mode of living etc. At present number of species can freely interbreed among each other. For
living organism species known are more than 1.5 million example, a population of lions represents the species
i.e. about 1.7 to 1.8 million. This diversity has developed Panthera leo; and a population of tigers comprises the
because of organic evolution and adaptation of organisms
species Panthera tigris.
to the diversity of conditions in existence on earth i.e.
hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere. 2. GENUS
³³ For easy understanding of biodiversity, earlier ³³ It is a category consisting of two or more species.
Greek Philosophers like Aristotle, and his student In general, species in a genus usually have many
Theophrastus had proposed two kingdom system but
features in common. Such groups of common features
it failed to last long with up coming knowledge of the
are known as correlated characters. Each species of
prokaryotes (Dougherty had classified organisms as
a genus is given a scientific name based on binomial
prokaryotic and eucaryotic). In 1866 Ernst Heackel
proposed three kingdom system of plantae, Animalia nomenclature. For example; the genus Solanum
and Protista. As protista kingdom consisted of both includes the species Solanum melongena (brinjal),
prokaryotes and eucarytoes, Copeland in 1956 Solanum tuberosum (potato); Solanum nirgum (makoi)
proposed four kingdom system. and Solanum xanthocarpum (Kanteli).
Four Kingdom System 3. FAMILY

Monera Protista Planatae Animalia ³³ This category comprises one or more genera having
some common features but differing from the genera
³³ Finally R. Whittaker (1969) using three criteria
of other families in having certain characteristic
together i.e. complexity of cell structure, body
differences. For instance, the family Papilionaceae
structure and mode of nutrition proposed five kingdom
represents all the genera of the pulses; and the
system in which he separated out kingdom fungi from
family Graminae contains all the genera of cereals
plantae.
and millets.
Five Kingdom System
4. ORDER
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
³³ It consists of one or more families having certain
³³ Despite having advantages, it has its own shortcomings:
common characters which differ from families of other
– Viruses have no place in this system. orders in some diagnostic characters. For example, the
– Slime moulds do not fit into kingdom, Protista. order Carnivora includes the families felidae (which
– Separate heterogenous groups were placed together. includes cats, lions, leopards and tigers) and Canidae
³³ Biological system of taxonomy and systematics got (which includes dogs and foxes).
a big boost when system of ‘Binomial nomenclature,
introduced by Carlous Linneaus also called Father 5. CLASS
of taxonomy was included into naming of living ³³ It consists of one or more orders having certain
organism. According to system, the name were to be
characters in common but differ from orders of other
written in Latin language and a name consists of two,
generic name to be written first starting with capital classes in some other characters such as pisces, aves,
letter followed by specific epithet i.e. name of species. reptilia, mammals are classes.
³³ The introduction of binomial nomenclature helped 6. PHYLUM
maintain the uniformity in names across the world
and has made them much more informative. ³³ It comprises one or more classes having certain
³³ In Biological taxonomy exists the following taxon. common diagonstic characters but differ from classes
³³ In the system with increasing level of hierarchy, the of other phyla in some other diagnostic characters. In
number of common characteristics reduce with plant classification instead of phylum, word Division
species having maximum number of similarities is used which has its own classes.
among its organism and is also the representative of
7. KINGDOM
the existing taxon and the rest by hypothetical groups.
Species→Genus→Family→Order→Class or Division→ ³³ It is the highest category in the plan of classification.
Phylum→ Kingdom Each kingdom has several independent phylum which
³³ There are seven main categories used in any plan of in turn, represent specific classes, orders, families
classification — and genera.

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GENERAL SCIENCE
KINGDOM OF LIVING BEINGS
Kingdoms Characters Members
1.Monera Unicellular, Prokaryotic, varied modes of nutrition, Archaebacteria (ancient bacteria), Eubacteria
Asexual reproduction, Multiplication by amitosis. (true bacteria) and Blue green algae
(cyanobacteria)
2. Protista Unicellular, Eukaryotic, Aquatic, Autotrophic and Protozoans, slime moulds, and unicelullar
Heterotrophic mode of nutrition, Asexual repoduction by algae.
division into two, sexual reproduction by fusion.
3. Fungi Multicelluar, Eukaryotic, no true tissues, cell wall made Bread mould, yeasts, mushrooms.
up of chitin, Heterotrophic, Saprobiotic, parasitic mode of
nutrition (absorptive), Asexual and sexual reproduction
by spores and gametes respectively.
4. Plantae Multicelluar, non-motile forms, Eukaryotic, cell wall Algae, liverworts, mosses ferns, conifers,
made up of cellulose, well developed tissues, photo- flowering plants.
synthetic-autotrophic mode of nutrition, Asexual repoducti
on by multiplication, distinct sex organs, life-cycle
exhibits alternation of generations.
5 . Multicellular, mobile forms, Eurkaryotic, well developed Sponges, cnidarians, worms, insects, molluscs,
Animalia tissues, Heterotrophic mode of nutrition, Sexual echinoderms and classes fishes, amphibians,
reproduction with distinct sex organs, control and co- reptiles,birds and mammals.
ordination system, distinct embryological development.

CYTOLOGY
A cell first observed by Robert Hooke in 1665 and later by Von Leeuwenhoek has been described as the structural
and functional unit of life. It is also considered as hereditary unit with genes on DNA in chromosome. Structrally a
cell is described as a mass of protoplasm, invested with plasma membrane. However, all the known cells have broadly
been classified as prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
Eukaryote – Within the cell, in most of plants and animals, there are various membrane bound structures called
cell organelles like mitochondria, chloroplast, nucleus, etc. Such a cell is known as an eukaryote. There are non-
membrane bound organelles also present in eukaryotic cells such as ribosomes and nucleolus. Each cell organelle
performs a specific function of the cell in a well organised manner.
Prokaryote – In bacteria, mycoplasma, and blue green algae cells, there are no definite cell organelles and the
nucleoplasm and cytoplasm is not separated i.e. well defined nucleus is lacking in them. Such a cell is known as a
prokaryote. Prokaryotic cells can also carry out all biological functions similar to those of eukaryotic cells. However, the
absence of membrane bound structures within the cell simply shows that they are primitive cells.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL ORGANELLES
Organelle Structure Function
1. Cell Wall Found in plant cells only; mainly made up (i) It provides shape, strength and rigidity to the
of cellulose and hemicellulose, chitin (fun- cells.
gus), protein (bacteria). (ii) Cell protection
(iii) Transport of various substances
(iv) Helps in cell expansion
2. Nucleus Contains DNA and protein; limited by a nu- (i) Division of the cell
clear membrane in eukaryotic cells, nuclear (ii) Inheritance of characters.
membrane not found in prokaryotic cells, (iii) Controls various metabolic activities of the cell.
contains nucleolus; nucleoplasm contains
chromatin material.
3. Mitochondria Double membraneous, outer and inner Site of cellular respiration (Krebs cycle and electron
membrane folded inside forming cristae; the transport chain); associated with the release of
inner surface of the inner membrane has a energy by the oxidation of food (oxidative phosphor-
number of F1 or elementary particles. ylation).

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4. Plastids Double membraneous structure, inner (i) Site of photosynthesis in green plants i.e. kitchen
membrane in the form of thylakoids forming of a plant cell.
stroma and grana, They are of three types: (ii) Release of energy in the process of photosynthe-
(i) Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll sis (photophosphorylation).
(ii) Chromoplasts contain pigments other (iii) Provide different colours to flowers and fruits.
than chlorophyll (iv) Store the food of the plant body.
(iii) Leucoplasts do not contain any pig-
ment.

5. Endoplasmic re- Membrane folds forming cisternae, vesicles Provides surface for various chemical reactions and
ticulum and tubules; of two types SER (without ri- the transport of substances within the cell.
bosomes) and RER (with ribosomes).
6. Golgi Complex Stacks of membranes in the form of cister- Secretion, hence excretion. absorption and transport
nae, vacuoles and vesicles; in plant cells of various susbtances within the cell.
known as dictyosomes.
7. Lysosomes Single membrane sacs containing hydrolytic Digestion of own cell organelles during starvation or
enzymes; classified as primary lysosomes, of ageing cell hence called “suicidal bags of a cell”.
secondary lysosomes, autoph-agic vacuoles
and residual bodies depending upon the
physiological state of their action.
8. Microbodies
(i) Peroxisomes Small–sized organelles containing enzymes Photorespiration in plant cells and lipid metabolism
like catalyses and oxidases. in animal cells.
(ii) Spherosomes Small spherical bodies having high deposits Exact function not known, show some lytic activity.
of fats and lipids; enzymes like acid phos-
phates are found.

(iii) Glyoxysomes Small bodies found in the seeds of ground- During germination converts fatty acids to soluble
nut and castor (that contain fatty acids). carbohydrates — glyoxylate cycle.

9. Ribosomes Small bodies containing RNA and proteins; Site of protein synthesis, protein factories of a cell.
a group of ribosomes attached to a mRNA
strand forms polyribosomes.
10. Centriole Two dot-like bodies present near the nucle- (i) Forms spindle-fibres at the time of cell division.
us; shows 9+0 pattern of arrangement of (ii) Involved in the formation of cilia and flagella of
microtubules. the cell.
(iii) Helps in the formation of sperms from sperma-
tids.
11. Cilia and Flagella Surrounded by a membraneous covering; Locomotion in unicellular organisms
shows 9+2 pattern of arrangement of mi-
crotubules.
12. Microtubules and Long, unbranched cylindrical tubes made Transport of substances in higher organisms.
Microfilaments up of proteins like tubulin and actin; forms (i) Maintenance of cell and chromosome movements.
network in the cytoplasm of the cell. (ii) Contraction and relaxation of muscles.
13. Vacuoles Unit membraneous bags filled with cell-flu- (i) contain various materials
ids; membrane is known as tonoplast. (ii) Osmo-regulatory in function

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

Plant Cell Animal Cell
1. Cells are covered by a cell wall made up of cellulose. Cell wall is absent.

2. Centrioles with centrosome are absent (except a few Centrioles with centrosome are present near the nucleus.
lower plants).
3. Plastids containing pigments are present. Plastids are absent.
4. Golgi bodies are in the form of a number of uncon- Golgi bodies are localized and consists of connected
nected units called dictyosomes. complexes.
5. Vacuoles are large in size and more in number. Vacuoles are either absent or a few only and small in size.
6. Nucleus is mostly present at periphery. Nucleus is mostly centrally placed.

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pinocytotic distinct modes of cell division in higher organisms called

GENERAL SCIENCE
vesicle mitosis and meiosis.
lysosome mitochondrion Mitosis is an equational cell division responsible
Golgi vesicles Golgiapparatus for providing growth to an organism. The process com-
pletes in two phases called karyokinesis (nuclear division)
Rough endoplasmic nucleolus followed by cytokinesis (cytoplasm division). The various
reticulum (ER) stages involved in the process includes :
Smooth ER nucleus
Interphase : Chromosomes in which DNA undergo
replication but chromosomes still appear intertwined
centrioles
Cell (plasma) thread like structure not easily distinguishable. The cell
membrane also shows a pair of centriole, the organization site for
ribosome microtubules involved in spindle formation. It is also called
cytoplasm
microtubules resting stage.
Prophase : It involves condensation of chromatin
Animal cell material into chromosome such that they become more
visible, the nucleolus and nuclear envelop undergoes
disintegration while the formed daughter centrioles move
Chloroplast Cytoplasm
to the opposite pole of cell. It is the longest of all phases of
Cell wall
Cell Membrane Golgi body division.
Lysosome Metaphase : The condensation of chromosomes
Smooth ER
Nucleolus
continues making chromosomes markedly visible under
Nucleus microscope. The microtubules that attach to kinetochore
Rough ER condenses further such that all chromosomes happen to
come and lie in the middle of the equatorial plane. It's the
Mitochondria shortest of all phases of cell division.

Vacuole

Plant Cells
Semi Conservative Organelles : In a eukaryotic Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
cell, the mitochondria and chloroplasts are called semi-
conservative cell organelles. They live in endosymbiotic Anaphase : It involves the separation of paired
relationship with cell because of presence of their own chromosomes and each move towards the opposite poles
nuclear material (DNA) and ribosomes for necessary with condensing microtubules.
protein or enzyme synthesis. Hence, they can survive Telophase : It marks arrival of chromatids at
even outside a living cell for sometime like a bacteria.
opposite poles followed by their elongation, regeneration
Difference between DNA and RNA of nucleolus and nuclear membrane. The nuclear division
RNA DNA is followed with cytokinesis which on completion produce
(i) The sugar is ribose. The sugar is deoxyri- two daughter cells with equal number of chromosomes.
bose Meiosis : It is the reductional division restricted
(ii) It is a single–stranded It is a double–stranded to germinal cells involved in formation of germ cells
structure structure also called gametes. Thus daughter cells carry half
the number (haploid) chromosomes compared to the
(iii) Adenine, guanine, uracil Adenine, guanine, cyto- number of chromosomes present in the parental cell. The
instead of thymine and sine and thymine con- whole meiosis completes into two broad phases called
cytosine are the four stitute the four bases. meiosis-I and meiosis-II. Meiosis-I segregates homologous
bases.
chromosomes followed by crossing over of chromosomes
(iv) It is found both in the It is found only in the but meiosis-II is the equational division like mitosis.
nucleus and in the cy- nucleus and in organ-
In meiosis-I, prophase-I is the most important phase
toplasm. elles like mitochondria
and chloroplasts. with five sub-phases of leptotene, zygotene, pachytene,
diplotene and diakinesis. It is in pachytene that crossing
Cell Division – It is a mode of reproduction in some
lower animals like unicellular organisms like amoeba. In over takes place to produce variation. In meiosis-II,
higher organisms i.e. plants and animals, responsible for the number of chromosomes are reduced to half as no
growth, repair or replacement of injured and damaged replication of DNA occurs between the meiosis-I and
body parts. In sexually reproducing organisms, it is meiosis-II.
also involved in gamete formation. Hence, there are two

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BOTANY
³³ Botany is the scientific study of plants.
Plantae

Cryptogams Phanerogam

Thallophytes Bryophytes Pteridophytes

Algae Lichen Hepaticae Musci Gymnosperms Angiosperms

Cycads Conifers Monocotyledon Dicotyledon

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 1. Gymnosperms – These lack vessels and are the

A. Cryptogamae – These plants do not bear flowers or naked seed bearing vascular plants. They include
seeds and reproduce mostly by spores. They have cycads and conifers.
three divisions. (a) Cycads – They grow in the warmer regions of
1. Thallophyte – They are most primitive plants devoid the plains and have high ornamental value.
of any body differentiation. They are divided into two e.g. Cycas circinalis. Cycas are considered
classes : living fossils as they bear flagellated sperms
(a) Algae – They are simple plants, largely found despite presence of pollen tube.
in marine or freshwater habitats. Some algae (b) Conifers – They are the most predominant
are terrestrial also. e.g. Blue green algae (Nos- gymnosperms. They are a good source of tim-
toc), green algae (Ulothrix), red algae.
ber, resin and turpentine oil. e.g. Pines, Fir,
(b) Lichens – Lichens grow on rocks, tree-trunks
Cedar. Ephedra is considered as the interlink
and are symbiotic associations between algae
between Gymnosperms and angiosperms.
and fungi with 95% fungi and 5% algae by
mass, e.g. Usnea, Parmelia. 2. Angiosperms – They are vascular seed bearing plants
Lichens are considered as the pioneer characterised by their flowers containing the male
community for succession of plants on rocks and female reproductive structures. These are further
surfaces. They are also considered as the air divided into two groups :
pollution indicator particularly one caused by (a) Monocotyledons – They are characterised by
sulphur dioxide. In presence of gas SO2, they parallel leaf venation, fibrous roots and a sin-
die or perish, hence indicator of air pollution. gle cotyledon in the seed. e.g. wheat (Triticum
2. Bryophyte – These are simple, terrestrial plants com- vulgare), rice (Oryza Sativa), Maize (Zea mays).
monly found in moist habitats. e.g. Funaria, Riccia. (b) Dicotyledons – They are characterised by re-
They are divided into two classes– ticulate leaf venation, tap root and having two
(a) Hepaticae (Liverworts) – A class of bryophytes cotyledons in the seed e.g. Rose (Rose indica),
containing prostrate thallose dichotomously apple (Malus silvestris), Pea (Pisum sativum).
branching plants bearing unicellular rhizoids Some other classification of Plants :
with simple sporophyte e.g. Marchantia and ³³ Halophytes – It include plants growing in extremely
Riccia.
saline soil conditions.
(b) Musci (Mosses) – This class includes erect
³³ Eremophytes – It includes plants growing in a desert
leafy plants with multicellular rhizoids with
climate of warm temperate zone.
sporophyte differentiated into foot, seta and
capsule e.g. Funaria, sphagnum and poly- ³³ Lithophytes – It includes plants growing in rock
trichum. crevices such as some algae and liverworts.
3. Pteridophyte – These are vascular non-seed bearing ³³ Psammophyte – It includes plants that thrives in
plants. They are found mainly in shady or damp shifting sands in deserts. These plant are mostly
places. e.g. Dryopteris, Azolla (Aquatic, fern) Pteris, covered with sand with exposed roots.
Marsilea, Pteridium, Lycopodim, (used in treatment ³³ Sclerophytes – These are small, evergreen and
of rheumatid fever), Adiantum (walking fern). xerophytic plants with thick and hard leaves.
B. Phanerogamae – These are higher plants bearing ³³ Heterophytes – These are plants which obtain their
flowers and seeds. There body is differentiated into nourishment from trees or other plants or animals
root, stem and leaves and vascular system is well–
(insectivorous plant). The other organism may be
developed. These are divided into Gymnosperms and
dead or living.
Angiosperms.

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³³ In plants stem and root, xylem and phloem together

GENERAL SCIENCE
PLANT TISSUES make up vascular bundle for transport of substances.
A tissue represents the second level of cellular These vascular bundles are found radially arranged in
organisation. It is made of cells that are both similar dicot stem and root but scattered in monocot plants.
in structure and functions or even if it does not have Secondary growth : It is the characteristic of dicot
structurally similar cells, they are engaged in performing plants because of which stem grows in thickness with
a particular function. A tissue based on above can be increasing girth. It's because of lateral meristem called
homogenous or heterogenous. In plants following types cambium/vascular cambium that adds number of xylem
of tissues are present. and phloem elements. In dicot plants growing in tropical
Parenchyma : It is a simple permanent tissue with areas, an year has favourable and unfavourable growth
isodiametric cells. They can be polygonal, rounded, season of spring and autumn respectively. In spring
oval or cylindrical shaped with a large central vacuole, season that favours growth, the cells formed are thin
prominent nucleus and thin cell wall. They are walled and light making up soft wood followed by darkly
responsible for storage of food, water or air (aerenchyma) stained thick walled cells of autumn wood. The alternate
in free floating plants, they show conduction and provide layers of soft and hard i.e. spring and autumn wood
turgidity to cell. In roots, hair arise from them and in represents growth and are called annual rings.
shoot in form of chlorenchyma, they posses chloroplasts Cork cambium : In dicot plant stems, the
for photosynthesis. continuous secondary growth develops and transform
Collenchyma : It is a simple permanent tissue like some of cells as meristematic cells forming cork
parenchyma but have thickened non-lignified cell wall cambium. The cells of cork cambium divide both
made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. It acts outwardly and inwardly. The cells formed outside
as mechanical tissue for support to young leaves, stem soon get suberised and die forming cork. It forms
and petioles. Therefore, the fresh leaves do not break off impermeable, insulating layer and removed from time
or lamina does not tear off on a windy day. Some of them to time for commercial purposes particularly from
cork oak (Queracus super). The cells formed inside are
have chloroplasts also for photosynthesis.
parenchymatous or collenchymatous forming secondary
Sclerenchyma : It is a simple permanent tissue cortex (phelloderm). The cork, cork cambium and
but have thick-walled dead cells to provide mechanical secondary cortex constitute periderm.
strength, support and protection. It can be in form of long
elongated structures called fibres. These fibres help plant PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
to bear forces of compression, pull, bending and shearing
with elastic property. Sclerenchyma in form of sclerids THE ROOT
make up seed coat of legumes, present in form of grit of ³³ The plant structure that grows into the soil and
apple and pear. Fibres commercially obtained from Flax, anchors the plant to the ground for absorption of
Hemp, Jute, etc. are sclerenchymatous fibres like cotton water and minerals.
fibre and coconut choir. ³³ Roots develop from the radicle of the embryo.
Vascular tissues : There are two types of vascular ³³ Roots differ from shoots in lacking chlorophyll and in
tissues, xylem and phloem for transport of water, the arrangement of Xylem and Phloem.
minerals and manufactured food respectively. The
transport of water and minerals across xylem from root Kinds of Root Systems
to leaf is called ascent of sap that occurs because of (1) Tap Root System – Root develops from the radicle
transpiration pull created in it. Xylem as complex tissue and continues growing actively producing lateral
consisting of tracheids, vessels, fibre and parenchyma. branches. Tap roots are characteristic of most of the
The transport of synthesized food in form of sucrose dicot plants.
across the phloem from green to non-green plant parts (2) Fibrous Root System – In monocot the radicle
is called translocation of solute. Phloem as a complex (embryonic root) at the time of germination produce
tissue consisting of living but non-nucleated sieve cells, fibrous roots with many branches.
companion cells, fibre and parenchyma. (3) Adventious Root System – Root develops from any
³³ In monocot plant leaves, both abaxial and adaxial part of the plant other than the radicle. They occur
surfaces have the microscopic openings called in grasses and may be regarded as characteristic of
stomata. In dicot plants, they are present only on monocot plants.
lower surface. A stomata has a pair of cells, kidney
Modifications of Roots
shape in dicot or dumble shaped in monocot called
guards cells surrounded with subsidiary cells. (1) Fusiform – Swollen root, tapering at both ends. e.g.
The guard cells possess chloroplast and carry out Sweet potato.
photosynthesis that helps in opening and closing of (2) Napiform – Root is globular and tapers abruptly e.g.
stomata for transpiration i.e., loss of water in form Beet root, Turnip.
of water vapour. The opening and closing of stomata (3) Tuberous – Root with no definite shape e.g. 4’O Clock
also regulate gaseous exchange in plants, keep the plant.
leaf cool on a summer day and in transport of water. (4) Fasciculated – When storage roots occur in cluster
It is maximum on a hot, dry, windy day. e.g Dahila, Asparagus.

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(5) Beaded – When roots are swollen at frequent inter- (iv)Corm – Short erect fleshy swollen under-
GENERAL SCIENCE

vals e.g. Bitter gourd. ground stem. e.g. Alocasia, Colocasia.

(6) Assimilatory – Roots which develop chlorophyll and (2) Subaerial Modifications –These are of four types.
carry out photosynthesis e.g. Tinospora and Trapa. (i) Runner – e.g. Grass, Oxalis.
(7) Haustoria – These are the roots of the parasitic (ii) Stolon – e.g. Jasmine, Strawberry.
plants which penetrate the host tissue e.g. Cuscuta. (iii) Offset – e.g. Water hyacinth, Pistia.
(8) Pneumatophores – These are aerial roots found in (iv) Sucker – e.g. Rose, Chrysanthemum.
plants growing in marshy conditions for gaseous ex-
change e.g. Rhizophora. (3) Special Modifications :
Functions of Root (i) Stem tendril : e.g. Grapes, Cucurbita
(ii) Thorns : e.g. Citrus, Bougainuvillea.
(1) The roots absorb water and minerals from the soil
and transport them through xylem. (iii) Phylloclade : e.g. Cactus, Cocoloba
(2) The roots fix the plant to the soil firmly. (iv) Cladodes : Ruscus, Asparagus.
(3) Some roots help in vegetative propagation of species (v) Bulbils : e.g. Aloe.
e.g. Sweet potato. THE LEAF
(4) Some roots store food and become swollen e.g. Pota-
³³ Leaf is a flattened appendage of the stem that arises
to, Ginger, etc. (Assimilatory roots)
as a superficial outgrowth from the apical meristem.
(5) Some roots manufacture food through photosynthe-
³³ Leaves are the chief photosynthetic organs of the
sis.
plant.
(6) In parasitic plants roots penetrate the host stem to
³³ Collectively leaves constitute the foliage of the plant.
obtain food and water (haustoria).
³³ Leaves initiate from the shoot meristem as Primordia
THE STEM and gradually emerge as they grow older.
³³ Stem is a longitudinal axis upon which are borne Types of Leaves
the leaves, buds and reproductive organs (flowers)
³³ Depending upon the incision of lamina, they are of
of the plants.
two kinds — (i) Simple leaves (ii) Compound leaves.
³³ The stem along with its leafy branches and reproductive
³³ Simple Leaves – A leaf is said to be simple when its
appendages called flowers constitutes the shoot
system of the plant. lamina is entire or is incised but the incision do not
touch the midrib.
Categories of Stem ³³ Compound leaves – A leaf is said to be compound
(1) Tree – A tree possesses a main stout stem called the when its lamina is completely divided into two or more
trunk and bears branches. distinct segments or leaflets.
(2) Shurb – The stem is 3 to 10 ft long and bears branches ³³ Compound leaves may be of two types (a) Pinnate
near the base of the plant. e.g. Rose, Jasmine etc. and (b) Palmate.
(3) Herb – Soft and pliable stem mostly green in colour. Modifications of Leaves
Therefore, banana with green stem is considered as
the tallest herb. (1) Leaf Tendrils – e.g. Sweep pea, Wild pea.
(2) Leaf Hooks – e.g. In Begnonia unguis – cacti
Forms of the Stem (3) Leaf Spines – e.g. In Berberis, Opuntia.
(1) Erect Stems – These are stout stems and can stand (4) Leaf Scales – e.g. In Asparagus, Ruscus
erect without any external support. e.g. Neem, Mango, (5) Phyllodes – e.g. In Acacia moniliformis, Parkinsonia
Bamboo. aculeata.
(2) Weak Stems – These stems are thin, delicate, weak (6) Pitcher – e.g. Nepenthes
and are unable to stand erect e.g. Portulaca, Cuscuta,
Grass. They are either creepers or climbers. Functions of Leaves
(1) The most important function is the manufacture of
Modifications of Stems
organic food through photosynthesis.
(1) Underground Modifications –They are of four types.
(2) Gaseous exchange, necessary for photosynthesis and
(i) Rhizome – horizontally growing, fleshy, under- respiration takes place through surface of the leaves.
ground stem e.g. Ginger, Turmeric etc.
(3) Stomata borne on the leaves helps in the process of
(ii) Bulb – The stem is reduced to a disc like struc- transpiration.
ture, bearing concentric layers of fleshy leafy
(4) In Insectivorous plants, leaves are modified into in-
bases that comprises the food store e.g. Onion,
sect-traps, such as in pitcher plant.
Garlic.
(5) In some plants, leaves store water to resist drought.
(iii) Tuber – A swollen underground stem that
contains stored food, and acts as an organ of THE FLOWER
perennation and vegetative propagation. e.g. ³³ Flower is the characteristic reproductive structure of
Potato. an angiosperm.

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³³ Morphologically, the flower is considered as a shoot ³³ In insect pollinated flowers the pollen grains are

GENERAL SCIENCE
bearing nodes and modified floral leaves. smooth and sticky but in wind pollinated flowers, the
³³ Flowers exhibit wide variation in size, shape, colour pollen grains are light, dry and rough. All sexually
and arrangement of floral parts. reproducing plants are characterized by the double
fertilization in which ovule develops into seed and
Basic Plan of Flowers ovary with its parts develops into fruits. In some
³³ The stalk of the flower is called Pedicel. plants like grapes and banana, the fruit development
³³ Sepals are green, leaf-like structure that arise at the may take place without fertilization. Such fruits are
base of a flower and forms the outermost circle of called parthenocarpic fruits. In some other plants the
appendage. cells of other parts of ovary get involved in embryo
³³ Collectively the Sepals are referred to as Calyx. They formation. Such plants like orange are known to
provide protection to flower during bud stage. show polyembryoeny. Normally the radicle of seed
³³ The whorl of appendages that arise inner to sepals develops into root and plumule into shoot but seeds
is petals. of polyembryonic fruits are not viable i.e. they do not
germinate or produce seedlings.
³³ Petals are brightly coloured and are collectively called
³³ A seed endospermic or not upon receiving water,
Corolla.
oxygen from air and suitable temperature except in
³³ The third group of appendages consists of Stamens,
some seeds sun light (called photoblastic) germinate to
collectively called the Androecium.
produce seedling depending upon the transent stored
³³ Each stamen consists of a slender stalk, the filament food in form of endosperm (endosperm) or cotyledon
and pollen grains bearing bilobed anther. (non-endospermic).

IMPORTANT INFORMATION
Petal
Stigma (i) Hypogynous Flowers – When the ovary is situated
Filament
Style Stamen on the torus above all other floral parts. e.g. Mustard,
Anther Tomato.
(ii) Perigynous Flowers – The thalamus forms a cup
Pistil shaped structure around the ovary and bear sepals,
Fruit petals and stamens. e.g. Rose.
(iii) Epigynous Flowers – The thalamus is cup shaped
Ovary and is fused with the ovary such that the other floral
Sepal
parts arise on the top of the ovary. e,g, Cucumber,
Ovule
Apple.
Pollen tube
(iv) Hermaphrodite – Flowers that contain both stamen
Receptacle
and pistil.
Structure of a flower (v) Unisexual – Flowers that bear organs of only one sex,
³³ The stamens are the male reproductive organs of the staminate or pistillate flower.
flower. (vi) Monoecious – Plants that bear flowers of both sexes.
³³ The centre of the flower contains the female e,g, Maize.
reproductive whorl called the Gynoecium or Pistil. (vii) Dioecious – A plant species in which male and female
³³ Pistil is composed of one or more carpels. flowers are borne on separate individual plants e.g.
³³ Each Carpel consists of three parts — Stigma, Style in papaya and date palm.
and Ovary.
Plant Hormones and their functions
³³ Inside the ovary the egg cell carrying ovules develop
attached to the placenta. Hormone Functions
Auxins Prevent premature fall of leaves, fruits
Pollination
etc., promotes enlargement, stimulates
³³ The term pollination refers to the transfer and respiration lat crol root developement.
deposition of pollen grains on the stigmatic surface
Gibberellins Promote germination, promote
of the flower. It can be self or cross pollination. Each
flowering, responsible for breaking
flower is well adapted and modified for its mode of dormancy of buds.
pollination.
Ethylene Gasous hormone triggers fruit ripening,
A cross pollinated flower based on the agent involved
accelerates abscission of leaves, flowers
in pollination can be :
and fruits.
(1) Anemophilous — Wind
Cytokinin Break dormancy in seeds, delay the ageing
(2) Entamophilous — Insects
process in plants.
(3) Zoophilous — Animals
Abscisic Acid It is a growth regulator, involves in the
(4) Ornithophilous — Birds
dormancy of seeds, acts as a stress
(5) Hydrophilous — Water hormone.
(6) Chirpetrophilous — Bat

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³³ Macronutrients – Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitro-

GENERAL SCIENCE

FRUITS gen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Magnesium, Sulphur,

³³ A Fruit is a ripened ovary. Calcium, Iron.
³³ Fruit is formed through the processes of pollination ³³ Micronutrients – Boron, Copper, Manganese, Zinc,
followed by fertilization which stimulates the ovary Molybdenum, Chlorine.
to grow into a fruit. Nitrogen Nutrition in Plants
³³ The fruit consists of a fruit wall, the Pericarp. ³³ Atmosphere is the ultimate source of nitrogen.
³³ Nitrogen cannot be used directly but has to be fixed
Zones of Fruit Wall (Pericarp) in form of compounds.
³³ Higher plants utilise nitrogen in the oxidised forms
1. Epicarp – Outer Skin.
such as nitrate (NO3) and nitrite (NO2-) or in the
2. Mesocarp – Sweet, edible fleshy.
reduced form (NH4+).
3. Endocarp – Innermost hard zone that encloses the
³³ The best known nitrogen fixing symbiotic bacterium
seeds.
is Rhizobium found in roots of legume plants.
Types of Fruits ³³ Free living micro–organisms such as the cyanobacteria
1. True Fruits – Fruit which is derived only from the (Nostoc, Anabena) and nitrogen fixing bacteria can
single ovary of a single flower and in the development also fix atmospheric nitrogen.
of which no other part outside the ovary has taken ³³ In nitrogen fixation the dinitrogen of the atmosphere
part is called the true fruit e.g. Mango. is reduced to ammonia with the help of enzyme ni-
trogenase.
2. False Fruit – When apart from the ovary other floral
³³ Soil bacteria like Nitrosomonas and Nitrosococcus are
parts also take part in the formation of fruit, it is
capable of converting ammonia to nitrite (NO2-) ions.
called as false fruit. e.g. Apple, Banana and Straw-
³³ Then, these (NO2–) ions on oxidation form Nitrate (NO3–) by
berry.
Nitro-bacter and Azotobacter species.
3. Simple Fruits – A simple fruit is one in which ovary
³³ These nitrates are absorbed by the plants through
takes part in development e.g. Bean, Mustard, Cit-
their roots.
rus.
4. Aggregate Fruit – In an aggregate fruit each free car- Mineral elements in Plants and Their Deficiency
pel develops independently to form a bunch of fruits Symptoms
e.g. Strawberry, Custard apple. Elements Deficiency symptoms
5. Composite Fruit – A composite or multiple fruit de- Nitrogen Stunted growth, chlorosis.
velops from an inflorescence by the fusion of flowers
Magnesium Chlorosis, yellowing of leaves.
and their parts e.g. Pineapple.
Calcium Stunted growth.
Common fruit with types and edible parts Phosphorus Poor growth, leaves become dull green.
Fruit Type Edible part Potassium Yellow edges of leaves, premature death.
Apple Fleshy, Simple, Pome False fruit, fleshy Sulphur Chlorosis, leaf curls, woody stems.
thalamus
Iron Chlorosis, reduced growth.
Orange Fleshy, Simple, Mesocarp and
endocarp Manganese Chlorosis, grey spots on leaves.
Hesperdium
Lithchi Simple Nut Fleshy Juicy aril Boron Brown heart disease.
Mango Fleshy, simple, Drupe Mesocarp Copper Dieback of shoots.
Gauva Fleshy, simple, berry Thalamus and Molybdenum Retardation of growth.
pericarp Zinc Malformed leaves, reduced flowering
Coconut Fleshy, simple, drupe Endosperm and fruiting.
Tomato Fleshy, simple, berry Pericarp and Insectivorous plants
placentae
³³ Nitrogen is one of the major nutrient required by
Wheat & Indehiscent, simple Starchy plant for amino acid and protein synthesis. Plants
Maize Caryopsis endosperm
rely on soil for supply of nitrogen in the form of the
Banana Fleshy, simple, berry Mesocarp and nitrate ions but in soils deficient in nitrogen, the
endocarp growing plants are found to be insectivorous such as
NUTRITION IN PLANTS Nepenthes (Pitcher plant), Drosera, Utricularia, etc.
³³ Autotrophic Nutrition and Heterotrophic Nutrition are They have modified their different body parts to trap
insects, kill them and obtain nitrogen to fulfill their
two modes of Plant Nutrition.
nitrogen requirements.
³³ Seventeen essential elements are required for the
normal growth of plants. Photosynthesis
³³ Sixteen essential elements includes ten macroele- ³³ Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants
ments and six micro-elements but now nickel has trap solar energy and fix it into chemical energy of
also been added to list of nutrients. carbohydrates.

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³³ Photosynthesis is the only source of energy for all in the absence of oxygen catalyzed by presence of yeast

GENERAL SCIENCE
organisms. is called fermentation. The process can be represented
Sun light
³³ 6 CO2 +12H2O through the following equation
Chlorophyll
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O Yeast
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP.
³³ The light reaction occurs in the grana of cell’s Oxygen
chloroplast, in this reaction O 2 is liberated by
photolysis of water, ATP and NADPH2 are formed. C6H12O6 absence Pyruvic acid + 2ATP.
³³ The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of chloroplast 2. Aerobic Respiration – Respiration which uses oxy-
and CO2 absorbed from the atmosphere is reduced to gen is called aerobic respiration. The process can be
make carbohydrate. represented through the following equation
³³ Only 0.2% of the light energy incident on earth is C6H12O6 +6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP
utilised by photosynthetic organisms. But the net gain of ATP is 36 only.
³³ Leaf is the major organ of photosynthesis in plants.
FACTS TO REMEMBER
³³ Phyllotaxy is the way in which leaves are arranged
on stem.
³³ P-Proteins are proteinaceous structures present in sieve
tubes of phloem.
³³ Para rubber and Indian rubber are obtained from
the latex of Hevea brasiliensis and Ficus elastica,
respectively.
³³ Latex of poppy (Papaver somniferum) yields opium
which contains the alkaloid morphine and source of
many drugs like hashish.
³³ All green parts of the plants have chloroplasts. ³³ Latex of banana contains tannins.
³³ Chloroplasts are enveloped by double membrane ³³ Shrubby climbers which climb with the help of hooks
enclosing stroma, in which grana are present. The grana are called stragglers e.g., Artabotrys.
contains pigments such as Chlorophyll. ³³ Suckers developing in Musa are called sword suckers.
³³ Photosynthesis involves two distinct phases – ³³ Wood is secondary xylem formed by vascular cambium
Photochemical phase (light reactions) and biosynthetic during secondary growth.
phase (dark reactions). ³³ Soft-wood is non-porous wood because it lack vessels.
³³ However, plants differ in their mode of photosynthesis. ³³ Softwood is generally produced by Gymnosperms e.g.
On basis of light effective in photosynthesis, plant coniferous woods.
can be C3 or C4 plants. C 3 are commonly found ³³ Lightest wood is found in Ochroma pyramidale (=
plants but C4 plants with karanz anatomy undergo Ochroma Lagopus).
photosynthesis at night time when stomata are closed ³³ Heaviest wood occurs in Guaiacum officinale. In India,
like sugarcane, millet, maize and sorghum. it occurs in Acacia sundra.
³³ In C3 plants RuBP is the acceptor of CO2 for dark ³³ Most durable soft wood is obtained from the plants
reaction but in C4 plants, it is PEP (phosphoenol of Cedrus deodara.
pyruvate). In both C 3 and C 4 plants, there is
³³ Most durable wood is obtained from Tectona grandis
compensation point when no gaseous exchange take
(Teak).
between plant and atmoshpere with rate of respiration
³³ There is no distinction between heart wood and sap
equals to rate of photosynthesis.
wood in Salix, Populus, etc.
Mineral nutrition : To all green plant of all the known
³³ In Morus, Taxus, the heart wood is most abundant
elements, total of 17 elements are considered im-
and the sap wood zone is quite thin.
portant for their proper structure and function. The
significance of different elements is practically studied ³³ Heart wood is dark coloured due to deposition of
by water culture of plants called hydroponics. extractives and is considered durable.
³³ Number of annual rings decrease as we proceed from
Respiration base to the top of tree.
³³ Respiration is the chemical breakdown or oxidation ³³ The bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Dalchini) is
of food to release the energy. used as a flavouring material.
³³ Respiration is of two types – ³³ Psychrometer is an instrument use for measuring
1. Anaerobic respiration – Respiration which takes place both relative humidity and transpiration.

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³³ Trace element is an element which is needed in very small amounts in plants.

GENERAL SCIENCE

³³ Tracer elements are the atoms of chemical elements called isotopes. They differ in atomic weight but not in
chemical properties, Examples 14
C, 18
O and 32
P.
³³ Molybdenum is the micro–nutrient required by the plants in least quantity.
³³ Nickel is the latest discovered 17th element considered to be essential for plant.
³³ Potassium is required for the activity of about 40 enzymes.
³³ Manganese is essential for photolysis of water and magnesium for synthesis of chlorophyll.
³³ Prokaryotes (Blue green algae) absorb the element nitrogen in gaseous form.
³³ Characteristic pungent smell of onion and garlic is due to presence of sulphur compounds.
³³ Gold has been reported to occur in the stems of Equisetum.
³³ Goerick (1940) developed hydroponics. i.e. culturing of plants in water.
³³ Photometer is an apparatus used for measuring the rate of transpiration.
³³ Porometer is an apparatus for assessing the relative sizes of stomata.
³³ Tensiometer is an instrument used for measuring soil water tension.

ROLE OF MINERAL ELEMETNS IN PLANTS

Element Obtained as Regions of plant in which Functions
from soil required

Sulphur SO2+4 Stem and root tips; young Constituent of certain proteins, vitamins (thiamine, biotin, CoA) and
leaves; remobilised during ferredoxin
senescence

Iron Fe3+ Everywhere; collects along Constituent of ferredoxin and cytochromes; activates catalase; re-
leaf veins quired for synthesis of chlorophyll

Manganese Mn2+ Leaves and seeds Activates certain enzymes (carboxylases)

(trace)

Molybdenum MO3+ or MO4+ Everywhere; MO3+ particu- Activates certain enzymes in nitrogen metabolism
(trace) larly in roots

Boron (trace) BO3–

3
,B4O2–
2
Leaves and seeds Required for uptake and utilisation of Ca2+, pollen germination and
cell differentiation, carbohydrate translocation.

Copper (trace) Cu2+ Everywhere Activates certain enzymes

Zinc (trace) Zn2+ Everywhere Activates various enzymes especially carboxylases, part of carbonic
anhydrase and various dehydrogenases; needed for auxin synthesis.

Chlorine Cl – —
With Na+ and K+ helps determine solute concentration and anion-cat-
ion balance in cells; essential for oxygen evolution in photosynthesis.

Nitrogen NO 2 - NO 3 - or Everywhere Constituent of proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins, hormones, coen-

NH4+ zymes, ATP, chlorophyll.

Phosphorus H2PO4/PO42– Everywhere particularly in Constituent of Cell membrane, certain proteins; all nucleic acids and
meristematic tissues nucleotides; required for all phoshphorylation reactions.

Potassium K+ Younger tissues, withdrawn Helps determine anion-cation balance in cells; involved in protein
from older, metabolically synthesis; involved in formation of cell membrane and in opening
less active cells and closing of stomata; increases hardiness; activates enzymes and
helps in maintenance of turgidity of cells.

Calcium Ca2+ Meristematic tissues; buds, Involved in selective permeability of cell membranes; activates certain
leaves, root tips enzymes; required for development of stem and root apex, and as
calcium pectate in the middle lamella of the cell wall.

Magnesium Mg2+ Leaves; withdrawn from Activates enzymes in phosphate metabolism; constituent of chloro-
ageing leaves and exported phyll; maintains ribosome structure.
to developing seeds

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GENERAL SCIENCE
ZOOLOGY
³³ Zoology is the scientific study of animals. ³³ Body consists of layer of cells
lining of non-living matrix.
Basis of Classification
³³ The matrix consists of calcareous
Animalia
and siliceous spicules embedded
in the gelatinous material.
Cellular level Tissue Organ /System ³³ Flagellated collar cells line canals,
Organisation level Organisation
while flattened cells line the outer
& inner surfaces.
Mesozoa Parazoa Porifera Eumetazoa ³³ Amoeboid cells wander through
the matrix carrying food between
cells.
³³ Water and food is drawn through
Radiata Bilateria
(Radial Symmetry) (Bilateral Symmetry) collar cells & expelled through
osculum.
Cnidaria ³³ Sponge reproduce asexually by
(Coelenterates) fragmentation. During sexual
reproduction some cell become
Acoelomata Pseudocoelomata Coelomata
egg or sperm cells.
(Platyhelminthes) (Nematyhelminthes)
(3) Cnidaria (Coelentrata)
Protostomia Deuterostomia ³³ Mainly marine.
Development of mouth Development of anus
³³ Hydra is fresh water form, Corals
takes place first takes place first
& sea anemones found in shallow
warm sea & Jelly fish found in
Annelida Arthropoda Mollusca Echinodermata Hemichordata Chordata cooler water.
³³ Cnidarians exhibit a blind sac
Urochorda Cephalochordata Verteberata body plan and are radially
symmetrical, advanced than
sponges in having true tissue,
Pisces Amphibians Reptiles Aves Mammals acoelomate, body wall consist
of only two layer (ectoderm &
³³ The animal kingdom is divided into two main sub-kingdoms – Protozoa endoderm) i.e. diploblastic.
and Metazoa. ³³ Most ectoderm cell are contractile
³³ Protozoa are unicellular or acellular organisms. Metazoa are multicellular and posses muscular fiber, some
organisms. transmit stimuli & form primitive
³³ The two major groups of Metazoans are the non-chordates and the nervous system.
chordates. ³³ Muscles and nerve cells allow
³³ They derive their names from the absence or presence of notochord. body to co-ordinate its move-
³³ A notochord is present at same time in the life of Chordates. ments.
³³ Non-Chordates don’t possess a notochord at any stage of their life. ³³ Stinging cells (Cnidoblasts
unique to Cnidarians) mainly
³³ Hemi chordates or cephalo chordates have notochord in embryonic stage.
in ectoderm of the tentacles
NON-CHORDATES – This group consists of the following phyla : discharge-stinging chemical
called nematocyst.
(1) Protozoa
³³ Endodermis cells, lining blind
³³ They are the most primitive, microscopic, unicellular organisms. sac, specialized in digestive
³³ They occur either singly or in colonies. enzyme. Undigested matter is
³³ Many protozoa live as parasites in the body cavities, tissues and cells of egested from mouth.
animals and plants. ³³ Cnidarians exhibit alternation of
³³ They reproduce by fission, budding, by spores or sexually. generation with two basic body
³³ Examples includes, Amoeba, Paramecium, Vorticella, Euglena, Trypno-
forms, the Polyp & Medusae.
soma and plasmodium (malaria parasite). ³³ In many Cnidarians, polyp gives
rise to medusa by budding &
³³ Euglena being peculiar autotrophic during day and heterotrophic at night.
medusae form polyp by sexual
(2) Porifera reproduction.
³³ Sponges are the most primitive group of animal. Most of them are marine ³³ Hydra doesn’t have medusae stage.
and sessile. Euspongia is the only fresh water sponge. It reproduces asexually at polyp
stage & do exhibit locomotion.

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(4) Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) ³³ Arthropods, particularly insects also communicate by

GENERAL SCIENCE

³³ Mostly parasite. The liver and blood fluke (Fasciola chemicals called pheromones.
& Schistosoma) are prevalent in places with poor ³³ Sexes are separate. In few aquatic arthropods fertiliza-
sanitation and unprotected water supply. tion is external, but in others fertilization is internal.
³³ Flatworm help biologist to understand animal evolu- ³³ Eggs are laid by most arthropods, i.e., oviparous.
tion. ³³ In some (e.g. scorpion), the eggs hatch within the
They are acoelomates with blind sac body plan, exhibit female body i.e. viviparous. Therefore, scorpions are
bilateral symmetry and triploblastic. considered as living fossil among animals.
³³ They require a flat body because each cell has to be ³³ In some arthropods development is direct. The young
near external body surface and internal surface of hatched from egg resembles the adult. They grow by
branched digestive cavity to obtain oxygen and nutrients moulting.
& removal of waste products. ³³ To enable growth, the exoskeleton is periodically shed
³³ Flatworm can regenerate and reproduce asexually. by a process called moulting.
They are hermophrodite or bisexual, e.g. Liver Fluke, ³³ In others, developments occur through series of
Marine flatworm, Planaria, Tapeworm. Planaria is only transformations called metamorphosis. (Egg → larva
free living flatworm. → Pupa→ Young one)
(5) Nemathelminthes (Roundworms) ³³ An insect does not possesses any nasophauynx but
has small pores called spiracles on their body surface
³³ Round worms have tube within tube body plan with for the gaseous exchange.
mouth, pharynx, intestine & anus.
³³ Therefore if an insect's head is immersed in water, it
³³ The muscular pharynx allows the parasitic nematode does not die but if body is immersed in water, it dies
to suck blood from the host. because of spiracles filling up with water.
³³ They have pseudocoelom. Sexes are usually separated, ³³ Insects do not have blood even if they look reddish
often with small male and large female individuals. like a cockroach. They contain hemocoel.
³³ Several nematodes infect plant roots and other live as ³³ Therefore if someone happens to step on a cockroach,
parasite in animals e.g. Hookworm (Ascaris). Filaria he does not see any red colour blood but white
worm, Guinea worm, Pinworms etc. yellowish fluid like substance.
(6) Annelida (Segmented Worms) Arachnids
³³ Segmented with each segment called metamere has ³³ Six pair of appendages. Posterior four pairs are legs,
bilateral symmetry, soft and true body cavity. anterior two are for feeding.
³³ Body is covered with true chitnious cuticle. ³³ Head and thorax are fused.
³³ Bristles on the lower side help to grip the ground ³³ Wings and antennae are absent. e.g. spider, scorpion,
during locomotion in earthworm. tick and mites.
³³ Earthworm also have a dark red band called clitellum Crustaceans
in 14 to 16th segment.
³³ Distinctive with two pair of antennae.
³³ A close circulatory system of blood vessel, a heart to
³³ Head and thorax are fused.
move the blood is found for the first time in annelids
³³ Appendages are present in all segments, mostly
in the evolution of animals.
aquatic e.g. Crabs, crayfish, prawns, water flea,
³³ Mostly hermaphrodite but sexes are separate in poly- lobster, and shrimps.
chaetes. Some grow asexually by regeneration e.g.
Nereis, Earthworm, Blood sucking leech (Hirudinaria) Myriapods
³³ Body has numerous segments. Each segment bear
(7) Arthropoda
one or two pair of legs.
³³ Arthropoda consists largest group of animals. It ³³ One pair antennae per segment e.g. centipedes,
includes four major classes – Arachnida, Crustacea, millipedes.
Myriapods, & Insecta.
³³ Success of arthropoda is to a large extent due to their Insects
unique cuticle, it’s lightweight, and tough and hard ³³ Body is divided in thorax, abdomen and head,
chitin composed of protein and polysaccharides. distinctly.
³³ Body is bilaterally symmetrical, segmented and ³³ Thorax bears three pair of legs. The second and third
divided in head, thorax, and abdomen. segment may have wings.
³³ A characteristic feature is jointed legs, which may be ³³ Insects could be graded into four groups, based on
variously modified for walking, swimming and feeling. absence or presence of wings and type of deployments
³³ Arthropods eyes may be simple or compound. :
³³ Compound eye is made of many identical units, each 1. Wingless form e.g. silverfish.
with own lens. So, several separate images are formed. 2. Wings not foldable: dragon and damselflies.
This enables the detection of slightest movement. 3. Wings foldable : grass hopper, locust, cricket, cock-
³³ Sensory structures in arthropods are pair of antennae. roach, termites, & some aphids.

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4. Winged insects can both, fold their wings and exhibit ³³ In Vertebrate the notochord is present only during

GENERAL SCIENCE
complete metamorphosis: this group include most embryonic development.
successful and diverse insects. ³³ The gill slits remain functional only in gill–breathing
(8) Mollusca fishes.
³³ This subphylum is further divided into two super
³³ It is second largest animal phylum after arthropoda.
classes – Agnatha and Gnathostomata.
³³ They breathe through gills. Land snails and slugs (a
shell less form) have lungs. (i) Agnatha
³³ Single coiled shell forms the largest class of mollusc. ³³ They are fish–like forms with no jaws and no scales.
Bivalve (two hinge shell) form the second largest class ³³ The skeleton is cartilaginous.
e.g. oyster, clam and mussels. ³³ All are parasites on other fishes.
³³ Bivalves have no sensory tentacles & their foot is ³³ Examples are sea lamprey, hag fish.
reduced into tongue shaped structure, which help
(ii) Gnathostomata
them burrow over sea floor.
³³ Chephalopods include squids and octopus (without ³³ These are the Vertebrates with jawed mouth.
shell). ³³ This superclass is further subdivided into five classes.
³³ They have mantle cavity modified from where water (1) Pisces
can be expelled with force, which help animal to have
³³ It includes true fishes.
fast movement.
³³ All are aquatic with stream-lined body.
³³ Their foot and head region is modified into structure
³³ The body bears fins and gill.
bearing eyes and tentacles.
³³ Many of them have blue blood because of presence Fishes are of two types
of phycocyanin instead of haemoglobin a copper con- Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes
taining pigment.
Cartilage fish with ventral Bony fishes with terminal
9. Echinodermata mouth and heterocercal mouth and homoceral tail
³³ They are all benthoic i.e. found at the bottom surface tail fin. fin
of ocean and have great tendency of autotomy i.e. Gills 5-7 without the oper- Gills are 4 pairs with oper-
giving away their body part to predator to escape. The culum. culum.
given up body part soon regenerates. Swim bladder is absent. Swim bladder is present.
³³ All adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical, but
their larvae are bilaterally symmetrical. (2) Amphibians
³³ Spiny skin contains calcareous plate. ³³ These include toad, frog, newt, salamander.
³³ Their most distinctive feature is water vascular system. ³³ Amphibian live in fresh water or near by land have
It consists of radiating canals and tube feets. Their moist, smooth, nonscaly skin.
main function is locomotion and capture of food. ³³ In frog and toads, the four limbs have fore toes while
³³ Echinoderms have proper circulatory system called hind limb have five.
water vascular system. ³³ Nostrils are used for perceiving odour and in
respiration.
CHORDATES ³³ The amphibians heart is three chambered. Gaseous
³³ The name chordate refers to the notochord which exchange takes place in lungs, by moist skin and
these animals possess, either throughout or during moist buccal cavity and insectivorous in nutrition.
early embryonic life.
(3) Reptiles
³³ Chordates are divided into two sub-phylums,
Invertebrates and Vertebrates. ³³ Cold blooded, body protected with waterproof scaly
exoskeleton.
(A) Invertebrate Chordates ³³ They respire through lung, eardum is depressed.
³³ These are also known as Protochordates. ³³ Reptiles are oviparous.
³³ These forms are without a backbone but they do ³³ Respiration in reptiles has improved due to
possess a notochord. development of ribs, which help expanding and
³³ Invertebrate chordates are further sub–divided into contracting the body cavity.
three superclass, Caphalochordata, Hemichordata, ³³ Heart is three chambered. In crocodile only heart is
Urochordata. four chambered.
³³ Respiration occurs typically by gills. ³³ Two feature make reptiles truly land animals :
³³ They are cold blooded. 1. Development of internal fertilization.
(B) Vertebrate 2. The presence of special third membrane in yolk
filled egg called “Amnion”. The amnion enclose
³³ Vertebrates represent the largest group of the embryo and provide watery environment during
chordates. development.

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(4) Aves
GENERAL SCIENCE

Organs of Excretion — Invertebrates

³³ Characteristic features are presence of feather and
Excretory System Invertebrates
power of flight.
³³ Birds have a reptilian ancestry. Feather are highly 1. Canal System Sponges
modified reptilian scales. 2. Hypostomal Opening Hydra
³³ Their egg resembles reptilian egg but have calcareous 3. Flame or Rennet Cells Tapeworm like fluke and
shell. planaria
³³ Body is streamlined, fore limb converted into wings.
4. Nephridia Annelids like earthworm,
Long feather are essential for flight. Weight is reduced
leech
due to hollow bones (pneumatic bones), heart and
lung improve in order to transport oxygen. Heart is 5. Green Glands Prawn and aquatic arthro-
four chambered. pods
³³ Warm blooded and oviparous but viviparous in caring 6. Malphigian Tubules Insects
of chickens.
³³ Few birds have wholly or partly lost the ability to fly. ANIMAL TISSUES
e.g.; Emu, Kiwi, penguin and ostrich. The tissues which make up different parts of an organ
³³ In absence of teeth birds swallow food. The digestive of an organism (animals) body are called animal tissues.
tracts have additional chambers the Crop and Gizzard. The different types of animal tissues include epithelial
³³ The crop store and soften food, where as muscular tissue, connective tissues, muscular tissues and nervous
gizzard help in crushing in and churning it. tissue.
Epithelial tissues : These are fundamental animal
³³ Some birds store small stone in their gizzard for
tissues, simple or stratified with basal membrane called
effective grinding churning.
basement membrane. Epithelium can be endothelium like
³³ Birds are known for double respiration. those involved in formation of the lining of heart, blood
(5) Mammals vessels or mesothelium like pleural or pericardial cavities.
In some organs like fallopian tube, lining of respiratory
³³ The most unique characteristic is milk producing
tract, external ear, they have hair like structures cilia.
mammary gland.
Simple epithelium occurs in alveoli, Bowman's capsule
³³ Mammals are viviparous, with exception of two; egg
or uniferous tubules that are all single cell thick. The
lying animal, the platypus and echidna (spiny ant pseudostratified or stratified epithelial is found in lining
eater). of trachea, outer dead layer of skin (stratum corneum)
³³ Other features are presence of hair on body and sweat and over the surface of cornea, pharynx, buccal cavity,
glands in skin. External ear is present in most of oesophagous, etc. The different glands responsible for
mammal. Heart is four chambered. secretion of enzymes, saliva, sweat, sebum, wax, etc are
³³ Other than eggs lying there are two major groups : made of epithelial cells where they perform glandular
1. MARSUPIALS 2. PLACENTAL secretory function.
³³ Marsupials are common in Australia. Young one is Connective tissues : As the name suggests, the tissue
nourished in special pouch e.g. kangaroo, koala, is concerned with connecting of different body parts. There
Tasmanian wolf. are three types of animal connective tissue called vascular,
³³ Placental can be arranged in four evolutionary series : connective proper and skeletal tissue. Blood and lymph
are fluid connective tissues. Blood has all three types of
1. The insectivorous : The most primitive mammals
corpuscles i.e., RBC, WBC and blood platelets but lymph
are insect feeding ones e.g. Shrew, mole, hedgehog,
has only WBC being devoid of RBC and blood platelets.
and bats. The Edentates or toothless mammals are
³³ Connective tissue proper consists of areolar tissue,
related to insectivorous e.g. anteater or pangolin,
tendon (joins muscles to bones) and ligaments (join
armadillo. Primates have evolved from shrew like
bone to bone) along with adipose tissue which forms
animals.
a protective insulating layer around important body
2. Whales, dolphins and porpoises.
organs. Cartilage and bones are the two types of
3. Rodents : rat, mice, squirrel, and beavers. Two skeletal connective tissues, cartilage are soft like
pair of long chisel like incisor characterizes them. outer, ear/nose, tongue etc. with protein called
Rabbits and hares are also closely related. chondrin but bones are hard deposit of tricalcium
4. Carnivorous and Ungulates (hoofed mammals) and phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2). In mouth each tooth that
elephant : carnivores include cats like lion, tiger, represents a bone has the enamel, the hardest body
leopard, cheetah, house cat. Other major group part as the outermost covering being resistant to
is dog like — wolfs, foxes, jackals, & dogs. Seal, mechanical or chemical effect. The mast cells present
walrus and sea lion are aquatic carnivores. in areolar tissue produce histamine for allergic action.
³³ Ungulates are divided into two groups–even hoofed
Muscular tissues : There are three different types
ungulate (cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, camel, pig, of muscular tissues called skeletal, smooth and cardiac
giraffes, hippopotamus) and odd toed ungulates muscles. The skeletal muscles also called striated muscles
(horse, donkey, zebra, rhino). There is no cud–chewing with alternate light and dark bands of protein actin and
animal in this group. myosin are cylindrical, multinucleated with nucleus at

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periphery and voluntary. They are mostly found attached ³³ Several organs constitute an organ system. Organs of

GENERAL SCIENCE
to body bones for movement and locomotion. a system function in a coordinated manner to carryout
³³ Smooth muscles are involuntary, spindle shape with a major life process such as digestion, excretion, etc.
actin and myosin. They mostly form the lining of
alimentary canal, respiratory tract, etc. Their alternate Human Body
contraction and relaxation provides movement to the ³³ The Human Body has nine organ systems :
substances present in body cavity such as of food in 1. The Digestive System
alimentary called peristalsis. The Cardiac muscles are
2. The Respiratory System
striated muscles like skeletal muscles with alternate
light and dark band but are involuntary in action 3. The Circulatory System
and uninucleated with single nucleus present in the 4. The Excretory System
centre. They are also highly branched and found only 5. The Endocrine System
in the middle heart wall. 6. The Reproductive System.
Striations 7. The Skeletal System
Striations
Smooth Nucleus
8. The Muscular System
muscle 9. The Nervous System
fibers

The Digestive System

Junction between
Nucleus adjacent cells ³³ Digestion is the process of biochemical transformation
of complex and large food particles into simpler form,
making it suitable for absorption and assimilation.
(a) (b) (c)
The process of the breakdown of large food molecules
into simpler compounds is catalysed by special
³³ The whole of nervous tissue is made of nerve cells
enzymes.
called neurons, the longest of body cells and never
divides in life once formed in body. They are of different Organs involved and their functions
types with or without axon. The one without axon are ³³ The Mouth : Ingestion and chewing takes place in the
relay or central neuron which make up the major part mouth with the help of teeth. Humans are heterodonts
of brain and spinal cord. A neuron with axon can be with four types of teeth in pattern of 2 :1 : 2 : 3. A
sensory neuron or motor neuron. Sensors nerves carry starch hydrolysing enzyme, Ptyalin is present in the
impulses from body parts to spinal cord or brain. They saliva added to food during chewing.
have laterally placed cell body while motor nerves have
³³ The Oesophagus : The mouth leads to a funnel-shaped
terminal axon and carry impulse from central nervous
pharynx which communicates with a long muscular
system (CNS i.e. brain and spinal cord) to body parts
tube-like oesophagus. The oesophagus opens into the
for action. In a neuron, axon may be invested by layer
of myelin sheath or not. If yes, neuron is myelinated stomach carrying the food by peristalsis.
which is faster in impulse conduction, if not neuron ³³ The Stomach : The stomach is a large muscular
is called non-myelinated. The flow of nerve impulse sac. It has many glands on its wall. The cells of these
generated and propagated by Na+ and K+ pump is gastric glands secrete HCI, protein-digesting enzymes
always unidirectional from axon to dendrite except and mucin in the lumen (cavity) of the stomach. The
at the junction of two nerves called synapsis. Here mixture of their secretions in the gastric lumen is
transmission takes place with secretion of chemical called Gastric Juice. It digests proteins in the stomach
called neurotransmitter like acetylcholine. into amino acids, peptones or peptides.
³³ In CNS, spinal cord is responsible for coordination of
short lived, involuntary action called reflex action but
brain is for voluntary with main actions such as Mouth (oral cavity) Parotid gland
Tongue* Sublingual gland Salivary
thinking, memory, reasoning, hearing, vision and Submandibular gland glands*
balance.
Esophagus Pharynx
ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY AND Stomach
Pancreas*
HYGIENE Liver* (Spleen)
Gallbladder*
³³ C e l l s o f m u l t i – c e l l u l a r o r g a n i s m s u n d e r g o Duodenum
Transverse colon
differentiation and each type of cell is specialised for Small Jejunum Descending colon
intestine Ascending colon
a limited number of specific functions. Ileum Cecum Large
Sigmoid colon intestine
³³ One or more types of specialised cells are set in specific Rectum
Anus Appendix
extra–cellular materials to constitute a tissue. Anal canal
³³ An organ is made up of different types of tissue. Each Steps involved : Ingestion→ Digestion → Absorption
organ performs specific functions which depend on → Assimilation → Egestion
the collective and integrated activities of its tissues.

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³³ The Small Intestine : The small intenstine is distinguished into three parts, viz, Duodenum, Jejunum and Ileum.
GENERAL SCIENCE

The common bile duct opens into duodenum and drains juices from pancreas and liver. The jejunum follows
duodenum and is longer and more coiled. The last part or ileum is also highly–coiled and opens into the large
intenstine. Nearly all absorption of digested material takes place from the wall of the ileum through the villi. From
intestine absorbed food is taken to liver by hepatic portal vein for assimilation.
³³ The Large Intestine : The large intestine has three parts, Caccum, Colon and Rectum. The walls of the large
intestine absorb much of the water. So that it is not lost from the body. The semi–solids which remain are called
faeces. They are stored in large intestine and passed out at intervals through the anus.
STAGES IN DIGESTION
Part of the Gland and its secretion Enzyme secreted Substrate Product of Digestion
Alimentary
Canal
Mouth Salivary gland : Saliva Salivary amyl-ase Starch Maltose
(Ptyalin)
Oesophagus None None None None
Stomach Glands lining the Pepsin in adu-lts Renin Proteins, Coagulation Proteases and Peptones
stomach : Gastric juice in children of milk proteins Casein
and hydroch-loric acid. (Caseinogen)
Duodenum 1. Liver : Bile juice None Fats 1. Emulsified fat
2. Provides an alkaline
medium for the action of
intenstinal juices
2. Pancrease : 1. Amylopsin Strach Proteins Maltose and glucose
Pancreatic Juice Proteases,
2. Trypsin peptones, peptides,
amino acids
3. Steapsin (lipase) Fats Fatty acids and glycerol
Ileum Glands lining the ileum Erepsin (Peptidase) Proteins and peptides Amino acids Glucose and
: Intenstinal juice. Maltase Sucrase Maltose Sucrose Fructose Glucose and
(invertase) Lactase Lactose galactose
Colon None None None Absorbs water and mineral
salts forming feaces
Rectum None None None Temporarily stores
u n d i g e s t e d f o o d before
egestion

The Respiratory System ³³ However during strenuous exercise with increasing

³³ The Respiratory System takes in oxygen rich air and energy demand, anaerobic respiration too occur
expels carbon dioxide and water vapour. simultaneously producing lactic acid with 2 ATP.
³³ The mammalian respiratory system consists of ³³ It’s the accumulation of lactic acid that causes
nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, muscular cramps affer strenuous exercise.
bronchioles and alveoli in lungs.
³³ The lungs are enclosed in double walled sacs called Frontal sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
Pleura. Nasal conchae
³³ During inspiration, the diaphragm and external
Nasal cavity Nose
intercostals muscles contracts, due to which
diaphragm moves down. i.e. flattens the volume of larynx
thorax increases, which lead to fall in pressure inside. Pharynx Adam Apple
³³ Expiration is carried out passively by relaxation of Trachea
diaphragm and intercoastal muscles. The volume Alveoli Bronchus
of thorax decreases and pressure inside thorax and
lungs increases to expel the air to outside. Right lung Bronchioles
³³ Cellular respiration involves oxidation of food to
release energy in form of ATP. A mole of glucose Diaphragm Left lung
produce 38 ATP with net gains of 36 ATP only, 2 ATP
being used up in the process.

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³³ In body transport of oxygen from lungs to body cells ³³ Important constituent organs of the excretory system

GENERAL SCIENCE
takes place in form of oxyhaemoglobin while that of are :
carbon dioxide from body cells to lungs takes place 1. Skin
in form of bicarbonates and carboxy-haemoglobin.
³³ Human skin possess glands for secreting two fluids
Cellular respiration on its sufrace viz. sweat from sweat glands and sebum
from sebaceous gland.
³³ Sweat is an aqueous fluid containing mainly sodium
chloride, lactic acid, urea, amino acids and glucose.
Acetyl NADPH, GTP
co-A FADH ³³ Sebum is wax–like secretion which eliminates some
lipids, hydrocarbons and fatty acids.
2. Kidney
Glycolysis Electron
Kreb's Transport
Glucose Pyruvate cycle ³³ Kidneys are a pair of the urine forming organs after
Chain
blood filtration.
³³ Nephrons are functional units of kidney.
ion
ndr Adrenal gland
cho
Mito
Inferior Renal artery
2 ATP vena cava
2ATP 34 ATP Renal vein
Cytoplasm Cell Pelvis

Medulla Kidney
The Circulatory System
³³ The Circulatory System is constituted of following Cortex
important parts :
Dorsal aorta
1. Arteries : These are large thick elastic walled
blood vessels that carries blood from the heart Ureter
to the limbs and organs. All arteries except the
pulmonary artery carry oxygenated blood.
2. Veins : A blood vessel that conveys blood from Urinary
the capillary network in the tissues/organs to the bladder
heart. All veins except the pulmonary vein carry Urethra
deoxygenated blood. They all have valves to pre- ³³ They form urine and drain it ultimately into the pelvis
vent back flow of blood.
of kidney, from where the ureter arises.
3. Heart : The human heart is situated in the thorax
between the lungs with its apex resting on the ³³ Ureters from both the kidneys finally open into urinary
diaphragm is responsible for double circulation. bladder which stores urine temporarily.
It consists of four chamber viz two Atria (Auricles) ³³ Urethra arises from the neck of the bladder and
and two Ventricles. The Auricles receive blood conducts urine to the exterior.
from the veins. The ventricles pump blood into the
³³ The act of temporary storage in urinary bladder then
arteries. Human heart beats at the rate of about
72/min in the resting condition i.e. a single beat expulsion of it is called micturition.
completes in 0.8 sec. ³³ In a normal person daily output of urine is about
Aorta
1-1.5 litre.
³³ Each time a person expels urine he/she loses 420 ml
Pulmonary trunk
of urine normal capacity of urinary bladder.
Superior
vena cava Left atrium 3. Lungs
³³ Lungs regularly participate in the excretion of some
Right
atrium Pulmonary veins volatile materials by respiration.
³³ The entire volume of carbon dioxide, produced in the
Right
ventricle body, and some moisture are regularly excreted in
Left ventricle
the expelled air.
inferior
vena cava 4. Liver
³³ Liver is principal organ for the excretion of cholesterol,
The Excretory System bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin) produced
³³ Metabolism of different chemical susbstances from dead RBC and inactivated products of steroid
produces different waste products in the body. The hormones, some vitamins and many drugs.
process of elimination of these metabolic waste ³³ It is also the site of production of urea from proteins
products from the body is called excretion. and ammonia (deamination).

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

GENERAL SCIENCE

Nervous System ³³ Nerves conveying impulses to

glands, involuntary muscles and
Central Pripheral Autonomic heart muscles constitute ANS.
Nervous System nervous system nervous system ³³ ANS is divided into two Sym-
(CNS) (PND) (ANS) pathetic and Parasympathetic
nervous system.
Spinal cord Cranial Spinal Sympathetic Parasympathetic ³³ Sympathetic nerves enhance
Brain
nerves nerves system system
the force and rate of heart beat,
constrict blood vessel, raise arterial
³³ The Nervous System receives information about external and internal blood pressure, dilate pupils, relax
changes, conducts such information between different parts of the body urinary bladder to help body
and coordinates their activities in the light of those changes. adjust to changes.
³³ Parasympathetic nerves, decrease
³³ The Nervous System consists of the Central Nervous System, Peripheral
both rate and force of heart beat,
Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System.
dilate many blood vessel, lower
The Central Nervous System the blood pressure, constrict
the pupils, contract the urinary
³³ The Central Nervous System consists of brain and spinal cord.
bladder. i.e. brings body back to
³³ The forebrain consists of cerebrum, it is the largest part of human brain. normal after the change.
³³ Brain and spinal cord are covered by three connective tissue membranes– ³³ Tongue (Taste) : position of taste
pia matter, archnoid matter and dura matter. sensation over tongue sweet-top,
³³ An extra–cellular fluid called Cerebrospinal fluid produced by cerebral sour-sides, bitter-back saltish
plexus occurs between pia and archnoid matter. and umma.
³³ It affords some protection to CNS against mechanical injury and shock,
it exchanges materials. The Skeletal System
³³ Hypothalamus contains higher nerve centres for osmo-regulation, Axial Skeleton (80 bones)
temperature regulation, hunger, thirst and emotional functions. Skull
³³ It secretes five neurohormones which control secretions of pituitary Cranium 8
hormones, It synthesises the posterior pituitary hormones.
³³ Cerebellum is the second largest portion of brain located at base, under Face 14
the cerebrum. It helps in maintaining body balance and posture, when Ear ossicles 6
walking, running or swimming etc. Hyoid bone 1
³³ Cerebral hemisphere is divided into frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital Vertibral column vertebrae 26
lobes each with its own association centres. (cervical 7, thoracic 12,
³³ The spinal cord is present in a series of 31 sections called vertebrae. Each
lumbar 5, sacrum 1, coc-
segment giving rise to pair of spinal nerve.
cyx1)
³³ From brain it arise as an extension of medulla that comes out of cavity
in skull called formen of magnum.. Thorax : Sternum 1
Corpus Ribs 24
callosum Appendicular Skeleton (126
Lateral ventricle
Skull bones)
Meninges Upper Regions
Cerebrum Pectoral girdle : Clavicle 2
rd
3 ventricle Scapula 2
Thalamus
Hypothalamus Diencephalon Arm : Humerus (upper 2
Midbrain Pituitary gland arm)
4th ventricle Radius 2
Pons
Brain Cerebellum
stem Ulna 2
Medulla
oblongata Carpals (wrist) 16
Spinal cord Metacarpals (palm) 10
Vertebra Phalanges (jingers) 28
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Lower extremities : Pelvic 2
(hip) Girdles
³³ PNS is composed of spinal nerves and cranial nerves.
³³ Neurons and nerve fibres conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to
Femur (thigh) 2
peripheral organ are called efferent neurons. Tibia 2
³³ Neurons and nerve fibres conduct nerve impluses from peripheral to CNS Fibula 2
are called afferent neurons. Patela (knee cap) 2
³³ Neurons and nerve fibres which cause movement of the muscles are called Tarsals 14
motor neurons. Metatarsals 10
³³ There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves among
Phalanges 28
humans.

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change the shape of coelom produces movement

GENERAL SCIENCE
Skull due to the presence of fluid inside fluid-filed cavity
Fixed Joint
(parieto - temporal) such as in earthworms, round worms, etc.
(ii) Exoskeleton : It is the skeleton made of chitin
Vertebra and calcium carbonate found outside the body
Ball & Socket
Joint (Shoulder) such as in insects. Therefore animals with exo-
Sternum skeleton have to shed off the skeleton from time
to time growth.
Rib (iii) Endo skeleton : It is comprised of bones and
Humerus
cartilages found in higher animals such as birds
Radius and mammals.
Pelvis
Ulna The Endocrine System
³³ Endocrine glands are ductless glands which secrete
hormones into the blood. Hormones are informational
molecules. They regulate functions of other organs
Femur and tissues. Their actions are more widespread but
Hinge Joint
slower than nerve impulses in coordinating the activ-
(knee) ities of different organs and tissues.

Fibula Hypothalamus
Tibia
Pineal gland
pituitary gland

parathyroid glands
(there are four)

Thyroid gland

Thyroid gland
³³ In skeletal system where two bones meet is called
joint. It can be movable (synovial) allowing movement
of bones or immovable. The moveable joints are hinge
Adrenal gland
joints or ball and socket type depending on type of
motion, they permit. In movable joints, bones have
Pancreas
synovial membrane with synovial fluid to facilitate
easy movement. Ovary
Types of skeleton : There are three types of skeleton (in females)
called.
(i) Hydrostatic skeleton : In organisms showing Testis
hydrostatic skeleton, the musles contract to (in males)

Endocrine System and its Functioning

Gland/ Location Secretion Function Hyposecretion
1. Pituitary gland/ 1. Adrenocorti pcotrophic Control the activities of adrenal
Attached to the hormone, follicle stimulating gland, gonads and thyroid gland.
hypothalamus of the brain. hormone, TSH
a. Anterior lobe 2. Human growth hormones Stimulate general body growth. Dwarfism Gigantism
(Hgh)
3. Prolactin Stimulate the mammary glands to
produce milk.
4. Lutenizing hormones Induces ovulation
b. Intermediate pituitary Melanocyte stimulating Regulates amount of pig ment in skins Darkening of
hormone of certain animals. skin
c. Posterior lobe 1. Vasopersin (ADH) Stimulates kidneys to re tain water, Diabetes
causes blood vessels to constrict. insipidus
2. Oxytocin (Birth hormone) Stimulates the muscles of the utrerus
to contract during labour.

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GENERAL SCIENCE

2. Thyroid/On either side of Thyroxine Increases rate of metabolism and Cretinism, Grave's
the trachea, infront of the maintains energy balance. Myxedema disorder
larynx. Hashimoto
Calcitonin Regulates calcium and phosphate Simple goitre Goitre
levels in the blood. Tetany
3. Parathyroid gland Parathormone PTH maintain calcium level and synthesis
of collagen
4. Adrenal gland/ Superior
to each kidney.
a. Adrenal cortex 1. Glucocorticoid (especially Regulate metabolism. Help body adjust Addison’s
corti sol) to stress. disease
2. Mineralocorticoid (especially Stimulate kidney to retain sodium and
aldosterone) excrete potassium.
3. Gonadocorticoid (especially Stimulate development of secondary Pre-puberty In adults,
androgens) sexual characteristics especially in males develop results in
males. female acute change
secondary sex in secondary
characteristics sexual char-
& vice versa. acteristics
b. Adrenal medulla Adrenailne (Emergency Carbohydrate metabolism. Helps body Prolonged
hormone) adapt to stress and other ex-treme ‘fight’ fear or
conditions. ‘flight’ (3-F)
Symptoms
include
wearing down
of Individual
5. Pancreas/ Slightly below the 1. Glucagon level. Raises blood sugar
stomach.
2. Insulin Lowers blood sugar level. Diabetes Insulin shock
3. GHIH (Somatot rophin) Inhibits secretion of glucagon and mellitus high blood
insulin. sugar level,
feeling of thirst
6. Gonads
a. Testes (male)/In the scrotum Testosterone and androsterone Development of primary and
in males secondary sexual characteristics in
males. Influences sex instincts and
reflexes.
b. Ovaries (female)/In the 1. Oestrogen Development of the primary and
pelvic cavity. secondary sex characteristics in females.
2. Progesterone (Pregnancy Prepares the uterus for the implatation, Reduced
hormone) retention and growth of the foetus. development of
sex organs

3. Relaxin Helps to dilate the cervix towards the

end of pregnancy to enable child birth.
7 . T h y m u s /-Posterior to Thymosin, thymoprotein Initiates production of lymphocytes,
breast bone, between the antibodies.
lungs. Its size declines with
age after 15 years
8. Pineal gland Serotonin melatotion Serotonin is neurotransmitter
melatorin for skin pigmentation.
diurual rhythm

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³³ Albumin and globulin retain water in blood plasma. A

GENERAL SCIENCE
BLOOD fall in plasma protein leads to filtering out of excessive
Blood volumes of water from blood to tissue.
³³ This is why hands and feet get swollen with
accumulated fluid in person suffering from dietary
Blood Cells Blood Platelets Plasma
deficiency of protein.
Fluid matrix ³³ Plasma functions in transport, body immunity,
Erythrocytes Leukocyte
prevention of blood loss, retention of fluid in blood,
maintenance of pH, uniform distribution of heat.
Granulocytes Agranulocytes
Functions of Blood
Neutrophilis Eosinophils Basophilis Monocytes Lymphocytes 1. Transport
(a) Respiratory gases
³³ Blood is a fluid connective tissue along with lymph.
(b) Nutrients
³³ Erythrocytes (RBC) are most numerous of the formed
element of blood. (c) Waste products
³³ Their most characteristic feature is presence of (d) Hormones, enzymes, minerals
haemoglobin and absence of nucleus. 2. Protective Function
³³ The total number of erythrocytes per microlitre of (a) Production of antibodies
blood is known as total count of RBC. (b) Phagocytosis
³³ It averages 5 and 4.5 million per cc of blood in adult (c) Clotting mechanism
man and adult women respectively. 3. Regulatory Function
³³ The total count would be low in anaemia. (a) Body temperature
³³ The abnormal rise in total count in RBC is called (b) pH balance
polycythemia. (c) Fluid balance
³³ Erythrocyte participate in transporting oxygen from Blood Coagulation
lungs to tissue.
³³ Coagulation is brought about by hydrolysis of soluble
³³ CO2 is carried in both plasma and RBC as bicarbonate fibrinogen of blood plasma to insoluble fibrin. This
ions of sodium. is catalysed by an enzyme called thrombin. Fibrin
³³ In foetus, erythrocytes are mainly formed in the liver precipitate as network of fibres.
and spleen. ³³ Thrombin occurs in blood as an inactive globulin
³³ But from birth onwards, erythrocytes are formed in called Prothrombin.
red bone marrow while destroyed in liver and spleen ³³ In case of injury, Coagulation promoting substances
(grave yard of RBC). called Thromboplastins are released, which help in
³³ Erythrocyte has average life of 120 days. formation of enzyme Prothromkinase. This enzyme
³³ Iron (Fe-II) and proteins are essential raw material hydrolyses prothrombin to thrombin. Ca2+ ions and
while B12 and folic acid stimulate synthesis and vit.k are essential for both the activation and action
maturation. of thrombin.
³³ Leukocytes (WBC) are devoid of haemoglobin and Body Injury
are nucleated.
³³ Neutrophils and monocytes protect the body against
Thromboplastin
microbes.
³³ Lymphocytes secrete antibodies in the blood to destroy Prothrombin Thrombin
microbes and neutralise their toxin. Ca2 + vit – k
³³ The number of leukocytes per micro litre of blood
is called total count of WBC. It is normally 5000 in Fibrinogen Fibrin
humans. The ratio of RBC to WBC is 1000 :1. (Blood Clot)
³³ Blood Platelets (thrombocytes) are non nucleated, ³³ In some people timely blood clotting does not take
round or oval, biconvex cell. place. They are known to suffer from haemophilia
³³ Their normal life span is a week. (Hereditary disease).
³³ When blood vessel is injured, platelets get clamped at
Blood Groups
the injured spot and release certain chemical called
Platelet Factor, which promote blood coagulation. ³³ K. Landsteiner in 1900 classified human beings in
³³ The extra–cellular fluid is straw-coloured, slightly four groups on the basis of the reactions of their blood
alkaline and aqueous called plasma, which is 30%- A, B, AB and O.
35% of blood. ³³ Blood compatibility depends upon chemicals called
³³ Plasma contains 92% of water and three major classes agglutinogen or antigens on the surface of the red
of plasma proteins – albumin, globulin and fibrinogen. cells and chemicals called agglutinin or antibodies
It serves as source of protein for tissue cells. in the plasma.

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³³ There are two types of antigen: A and B; and two types development starts in seminiferous tubules of testes
GENERAL SCIENCE

of antibody: anti-A and anti-B. under the effect of androgens mainly testosterone.
³³ Blood Transfusion. Anti-A plasma agglutinates A red ³³ The male sex hormone from leydig cells under the
cells, and anti-B plasma agglutinates B red cells. influence of FSH from anterior pituitary gland.
So these combinations of plasma and red cell are
³³ During excitation, the sperms passes into urethra
incompatible as far as blood transfusion is concerned.
where secretions from seminal vesicle and prostate
However a child’s blood group can not directly be used
for providing the maternity or faterinity as a mother or gland takes place.
father with blood group A & B can have blood group ³³ The seminal vesicle added fructose rich secretion
AB or O type too. to provide energy for swimming of sperms and the
secretion from prostate gland is basic in nature to
ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES
neutralise acidity of urine before it could damage the
Blood May May re- sperms.
group Antigen Antibody donate ceive
³³ The mixture of mucus along with secretions from
blood to blood from
glands and sperm that is ejaculated is called semen.
A A b A, AB A,O
³³ Female Reproductive System : In human females,
B B a B, AB B, O
a pair of ovaries located in lower abdominal cavity
AB A,B neither AB A, B, AB, O
on either side of vertebral column are the primary
a nor b
female sex organ.
O neither a,b A, B, AB, O
A nor B O ³³ In females ovary although primary oocytes are present
right from birth as their formation occurs during
Rh factor : Called Rhesus factor, people having it are foetal stage, the development starts with beginning
Rh+ and people without it are Rh­–. Problem arise at time
of adolescence at an age of about 12 years when the
of tansfusion of Rh+ and Rh– and same at time of preg-
first menstrual cycle called menarche occurs to end
nancy, first Rh+ foetus in Rh– mother is safe if mother is
transferred with Rh+ blood. But in 2nd pregnancy disin- with menstrual discharge on 28 days of the cycle.
tegration of RBC of feotus occur causing anaemia and ³³ In females these menstrual cycles continues upto age
death (Erythroblastosis foetalsis). These days to prevent of 50 years when menopause occurs and after which
this Rhogan containing defective unit anti Rh antibody a mother cannot become pregnant.
are injected in pregnant mother. ³³ During this fertile period from menarche to menopause,
Blood Group Chart female undergo menstrual cycle and period when
pregnant and a few months after child birth (lactation
Blood group of Possible blood
amenorrhea) mother does not undergo menstrual
Parents group Impossible
of children/off- blood group cycle.
springs ³³ During the course of a menstrual cycle the changes
O×O O A, B, AB a female undergoes in its reproductive system are
O×A O, A B, AB regulated by sex hormone called oestrogen and
O×B O, B A, AB progesterone.
O × AB A, B O, AB ³³ The secretion of progesterone also called pregnancy
A×A A, O B, AB hormone starts after 14th day of menstrual cycle when
A×B A, B, AB, O — ovulation takes place in which an ovum is released
A × AB A, B, AB O to be pushed into fallopian tube (oviduct) where act
of fertilization takes place.
B×B B, O A, AB
B × AB A, B, AB O ³³ If successful fertilization takes place a zygote is formed
AB × AB A, B, AB O and the embryo development start to occur and
complete in uterus where embryo gets implanted and
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM if the fertilization does not takes place, the dead ovum
³³ Humans like mammals show sexual dimorphism is expelled from body in menstrual flow marking the
with male and female reproductive organs present in end of menstrual cycle and start the new one.
different individuals. ³³ The developing embryo in uterus for its growth takes
³³ In males the primary sex organs are a pair of testes found oxygen and nourishment from a muscular connection
in muscular pouch called scrotum that hangs outside called placenta.
human body because development of sperms requires ³³ It also secrete the hormone relaxin and HCG whose
2°-3°C less temperature than body temperature.
presence in urine is taken as pregnancy test by a
³³ Therefore, males are also advised to avoid wearing doctor.
tight underpants. A human male enters into
³³ After the completion of pregnancy period also called
adolescence at age of about 15 years when the sperm
gestation period of 270 days i.e. 9 months.

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³³ The hormone oxytocin also called birth hormone ³³ Individual organisms in which the members of a pair

GENERAL SCIENCE
from posterior pituitary gland marks the beginning of alleles are different are said to be heterozygous.
of parturition i.e. child birth. ³³ Individuals in which the members of a pair of alleles
³³ The first milk produced and secreted by mothers for are same are said to be homozygous.
breast feeding of her child is called colostrum. ³³ The Genotype is the genetic constitution of an
³³ It is rich in antibodies, proteins and IgE for protection organism.
against allergy. ³³ The observable characteristics of an organism
³³ In a child number of changes takes place soon after constitutes its Phenotype.
birth in first three months such as ossification of ³³ The ability of a gene to have many effects is called
bones i.e. at birth total number of bones in an infant Pleiotropy.
are about 270 but in 3-months they are reduced to ³³ Pedigree analysis is a system to analyse the
206, the development of RBC which takes place in liver distribution and movement of traits in the family tree.
of foetus now shifts to bone marrow while the liver
³³ The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance by Sutton
become the site for death of RBC therefore in most
and Boveri states that Mendelian genes are located
cases an infant suffers from anemia after child birth.
on chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that
As you have learnt in human health and diseases.
segregate and assort independently.
³³ An infant is ought to be vaccinated for number of
³³ The sexually reproducing animals have, in each of
diseases like T.B., Polio, Diptheria, Tetanus and
their cells, a set of chromosomes called autosomes and
chicken pox etc.
a pair of sex chromosomes (X and Y).
Contraceptive methods : These are methods
³³ In human females there are two X chromosomes and
developed to achieve the goal of ‘Family Planning’ of ‘Hum
in males one X and one Y Chromosome.
Do Humare Do’ to check the growing human population
³³ HarGobind Khorana, along with his associates,
and spacing of child birth. It uses different methods or
manufactured first short DNA molecules having a
techniques such as :
known sequence of bases (Gene).
³³ Natural method of abstaining during fertile period
³³ DNA molecules synthesize messenger RNA molecules
from 12th day to 17th day of menstrual cycle or coitus
also of known base sequence. These RNA molecules
interruptus.
then direct protein synthesis and form the sequence
³³ Barrier methods like use of diaphragm or Copper-T by
of the proteins, the codes were directly established.
females and condom by males or other IUD devices.
This is a milestone in the history of genetics. For this,
³³ Chemical contraceptive methods that include the use Khorana shared with M.W. Nirenberg and R.H. Holley
of the contraceptive pills of different types like ‘Saheli’ (1968) Nobel prize in medicine.
developed in India.
Transcription
³³ Surgical method for permanent control on child birth ³³ C e n t r a l D o g m a , D N A mRNA
i.e. vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females. Translation
However in family planning under ART (Assisted Protein
Reproductive Technology) the infertile or issueless
Genetic Disorders
parents are helped too by Test Tube Baby or techniques
³³ Albinism : caused by recessive gene, which block the
like ZIFT or GIFT. (Zygote or Gamete Intra Fallopian
conversion of amino acid tyrosine to melanin. Effect
Transfer) or Artificial insemination.
is absence of pigment in skin, hair and iris of eyes.
GENETICS ³³ Down syndrome (Mongolism) : caused by trisomy
of chromosome 21. Effect is physically and mentally
³³ The term ‘Genetics’ was coined by Watson to describe retarded patient with round face, widely separated
the study of inheritance and variation and the factors eyes and slightly bitorked tongue.
controlling them. ³³ Glactosemia : caused by recessive autosomal gene,
³³ Today the subject has three main subdivisions results in defect in enzyme system utilizing sugar
— Mendelian genetics, population genetics and glactose lead to high–level of galactose in blood;
biochemical genetics. resulted in development of cataract and brain damage.
³³ Hemophilia : caused by sex–linked recessive gene;
³³ Heredity may be defined as the transmission of
produce defective protein, essential for clotting of
characteristics from one generation to successive
blood.
generations of living things.
³³ Huntington’s disease : caused by dominant
³³ The first quantitative study of inheritance was carried autosomal gene; lead to progressive deterioration of
out by Gregor John Mendel on Garden Peas (Pisum nervous system. Peculiar feature developed between
sativum). 30 to 40 years.
³³ Gene a segment of DNA consisting of three consecutive ³³ Klinefelter syndrome : because of additional
bases is a unit of heredity. X-chromosome; resulted in improper development of
³³ The various forms of a gene are called alleles. testes.

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³³ Muscular Dystrophy : caused by sex linked recessive ³³ Fats : These are tested by rubbing them on a piece
GENERAL SCIENCE

gene, resulted in childhood muscle weakness suffering of paper to which it makes oily and translucent/
and atrophy. transparent.
³³ Phenylketonuria (PKU) : caused by recessive ³³ It is also tested by adding in solution of ethanol with
autosomal gene in homozygous condition, results into
which oils gives cloudy white precipitate.
accumulation of acid phenylanine and brain damage.
It can be prevented by giving phenylalanine diet. Important Facts
³³ Sickle Cell Anaemia : caused by recessive gene that
³³ Carbohydrates are more suitable for the production
lead to abnormal haemoglobin molecule. RBC are
sickle shaped with reduced haemoglobin. of energy in the body than protein and fats because
carbohydrate molecules contain relatively more
³³ Tay-Sach disease : caused by autosomal recessive oxygen than the others.
gene-resulted in cerebral degeneration, epilepsy,
³³ Carbohydrates are supplied to the tissues mainly as
paralysis and blindness.
blood sugar.
³³ Thalassemia : (Cooley’s anaemia) mostly in children ³³ Carbohydrates are also stored in the tissues as
caused by recessive gene-resulted abnormality in glycogen.
haemoglobin structures.
³³ Athelets, labourers doing heavy work and mountaineers
³³ Turner Syndrome : caused by lack of X chromosome should live on high carbohydrates.
(OX); resulted in phenotypical female but have ³³ Yield of 1 gm carbohydrate is 17 KJ or 4.1 K cal.
rudimentary sex organ and mammary gland.
³³ Carbohydrates account for 60 – 80% energy
requirement.
FOOD AND NUTRITION
³³ Fats gives slightly more than twice of energy than
Balanced Diets carbohydrates because they contain less oxygen.
³³ 1 gm fat or oil give 37 kJ or 9.45 k Cal.
³³ A diet is balanced if it contains all the nutrients in
³³ Butter, ghee, cheese, milk, egg, yolk, nut, meat are
the correct amount. rich sources of fat.
³³ A balanced diet is related to the state of one’s age, health ³³ Fat is insoluble in water and soluble in organic
and occupation. solvent.
³³ Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals ³³ Fats are stored as lipid in our body.
are nutrients. ³³ Few fats that cannot be synthesized by our body
³³ Carbohydrates and fats : provide energy. are called essential fat. The most important of these
³³ Proteins : growth and repair or replacement of cellular is Linoleic acid (all vegetable oil contain it, except
mechanism. coconut oil).
³³ Vitamin and minerals : aid vital reaction in cells and ³³ Linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids are essential
tissues. fatty acids.
³³ Unsaturated fat : Low melting point, more reactive.
³³ Roughage : adds bulk in food for proper digestion
³³ Saturated fat : Occur mostly in animal fat, high
otherwise leads to constipation.
melting point, solidify at room temperature.
³³ For Pregnant woman and children protein requirement
³³ The principal nutritional role of proteins is to build
is high for body building. tissue structures.
³³ For Hard–working adult, carbohydrates and fats re- ³³ Proteins are made up of 20 amino acids. Some of the
quirement is high. amino acids cannot be synthesized in the animal body
and must be supplied with food in adequate amounts.
Food Tests
³³ They are called Essential Amino Acid. Other Amino
³³ Starch : With iodine solution, brown colour it gives Acids may be synthesized in the body, are called Non-
blue black colour. Essential Amino Acid.
³³ Reducing sugar : Sugars such as glucose gives ³³ Eight–amino–acids are considered essential for hu-
Benedict’s solution or Fehling's solution test. man nutrition. These are methionine, theronine,
³³ Benedict’s solution blue in colour gives yellow to brick tryptophan, valine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine and
phenylalanine.
red colour depending on percentage of the glucose
present in given solution. ³³ Plants proteins are frequently deficient in one or more
essential amino acids.
³³ For oligosaccharide like galactose or maltose. The
³³ They are considered nutritionally inferior to animal
sugar is first acidified and heated to break into simple proteins with respect to essential amino acids.
sugar before testing it for presence of simple sugar.
³³ Groundnut, beans, cereals (maize and wheat), pulses
³³ Proteins : The proteins present are tested by Biurette are source of plant protein.
test. In the test the given amount is mixed with equal ³³ Fungal infections– although fungi do not cause many
volume of ammonium or sodium hydroxide and then diseases yet the two caused by them i.e. ring worm
heated with solution of copper sulphate. and athlete foot are very infectious diseases both to
³³ The appearance of purple colour shows the presence individual and family member, Hence, they need to
of protein. be treated from their onset only.

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GENERAL SCIENCE
MINERAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES
Minerals Sources Daily Functions Deficiency-signs
Requirement
Calcium Milk, Cheese, green 1.0-15 g m Essential for the formation of bones, teeth, Rickets (malformation
vegehard water, tables, coagulation of milk, contraction of muscle, of bones), in Children
fish, meat etc neuromuscular excitability, permeability of and Osteomalasia in
the capillary endothelium and activation of adults, tetany etc.
certain enzymes.
Potassium All food stuffs 4 gm It plays an important role in maintaining Retardation of bone
int-racellular osmotic pressure, intracel- growth, lowering of
lular reaction, CO2 carriage, cardiac and heart rate, paralysis of
muscular contraction. muscle, hypertrophy
of Kidney, sterility.
Magnesium G r e e n v e g e t a b l e s , 300 to 350mgm It is essential for the formation of bones and Vascular disturbanc-
bread, meat, etc. teeth and muscular contraction. It activates es, hypprexcitability,
the enzyme, phosphatase. convulsions, tetany
etc.

Iron Green leaves, lentils, 5 to 20 mg It is one of the main constituents of hae- Anaemia
peas fruits (Guava) moglobin, cytochrome and myoglobin. It is
meat, fish, liver, egg etc. related to oxygen carriage in blood in the
form of haemoglobin, and acts as oxygen
store for muscle in the form of myoglobin.
It is also related to the tissue oxidation in
the form of cytochrome.
Copper Green vegetables milk, 2 mgm It acts as an important component of many Anaemia, Wilson’s
brain, liver, etc. enzymes e.g., cytochrome oxidase, tyrosi- disease
nase, urinase.
Iodine Common salts, s e a 5-10 mgm It is an essential constituent of the hormone Goitre
weeds, milk, fish, ma- thyroxine (an active principle hormone of
rine food etc. thyriod gland).
Sodium Common salt, milk, wa- 5-10 gm Essential for normal functions of cells, con- Reduction of fat de-
ter, different food stuffs traction of muscles, excitation of nerves. It posit, atrophy of mus-
etc. helps to maintain blood reaction, formation cles and testis, lung
of HCL of gastric juice, osmotic pressure infection, retarded
and absorption. bone formation and
growth.
Phosphorus Cereals, legumes, fish, 1-1.5 gm It is an essential constituent of cells, bones Rickets, Ostemalacia,
meat, eggs, liver, kid- and teeth. It takes an essential role in dy-function of renal
ney etc. muscular contraction, phosphorylation of tubules etc. lack of
sugars, fats, blood coagulation, enzymatic energy with reduced
functions of vitamin B-Complex, regulation ATP formation.
of pH of cells, blood and urine etc.

SOURCE AND ROLE OF PRINCIPAL VITAMINS

Vitamin Best Food Source Function Deficiency disease

Retinol : (Vitamin Carrots, Yellow and Synthesis of the purple of the retinal Night blindness :
A) (Fatsoluble) green vegetables. Other rods. Maintains general health and inability to see in the dark.
sources include butter, vigour of epithelial cells. Hence es- Xerophthalmia :
milk, fish-liver oil sential for good skin and hair. drying of cornea and ulceration.
Keratinization of eptthelium :
Dry skin and hair.

Thiamine Whole grains, yeast, liv- Carbohydrates metabolism. Ensures Beri-beri : Partial paralysis of skeletal
(Vitamin B1) (Water er, egg, pork, nuts normal functioning of the central muscles and digestive disturbances
Soluble) nervous system.

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Riboflavin Cereals, legumes, milk Essential carbohydate and protein Arbiflavonosis : Characterised by
(Vitamin B2) (Wa- egg, liver, kidney, yeast metabolism especiially in the cells corneal ulceration and cracking of skin
ter Soluble) of the eye, skin, intestines and blood. (especially around the lips).

Niacin (Water Sol- Lean, meat, liver, milk, Inhibits production of cholesterol Pellagra : Characterised by dermatities
uble) eggs, nuts, whole grains and helps in the breakdown of fats, (skin inflammation), Diarrhoea and
proteins and carbohydrates. dementia (loss of intellectual function)
(3-D)

Pyridoxine Salmon, yeast, yogurt, Essential for aminoacid metabolism. Epileptioform: Seizures observed in
(Vitamin B6) (Wa- corn, spinach, cheese, Assists in production of antibodies. children. Symptoms include dermati-
ter Soluble) cereals & legumes. Also tis of eyes, nose and mouth; retarded
synthesised by intestial growth.
bacteria.

Folic Acid Yeast, liver, green leafy Helps normal production of blood Macrocytic anaemia : Production of
(Water Soluble) vegetables. Synthesized cells. Identified in chromosomes an abnormally large red blood cells.
by intenstinal bacteria important reproductive factor.
also.

Cyanocobala- Liver, Kidney, meat, Necessary for red blood cells for- 1. Pernicious anaemia
mine (Vitamin eggs, milk and cheese. mation and normal functioning of 2. Neuro-psychiatric abnormalities :
B12) (Water Sol- (Note: Absent in veg- nervous system. Memory loss, mood and personality
uble) etables, only Vitamin changes.
containing cobalt).

Ascorbic acid Citrus fruits, tomatoes, Influences permeability of capillary Scurvy : Swollen gums, teeth loss,
(Vitamin C) (Water cabbage. walls. Develops immunity against bleeding gums, body more prone to
Soluble) diseases. Forms collagen. infections.

Calciferol Fish liver oil, egg yolk, Controls calcium and phosphorus Rickets in children, bow shaped hands
(Vitamin D) (Fat milk, butter. Also syn- levels in metabolism which contribute and legs. Oesteomalasia (demineral-
Soluble) thesized in the human to formation of teeth and bones. ization of bones). Bones prone to easy
body by the skin under fractures.
the influence of sun-
light.

Tocopherol Wheat germ, fresh nuts, As anti–oxidant which protects lipids Deficiency not reported in humans. Caus-
(Vitamin E) (Fat seed oils, green leafy of cells memberances against oxygen es sterility in rats.
Soluble) vegetables damage

Phylloquinones Liver, spinach, cauli- Assists in the production of pro- Haemorrhage : Subcutaneous and
(Vitamin K) flower, green vegeta- thrombin and other factors that intramuscular bleedings due to de-
(Fat Soluble) bles, tomatoes. ensure normal clotting of blood. layed clotting time.

Human Diseases :
Disease

Non-infectious Infectious

Protoza Bacteria Virus Helminthes Fungi

DISEASES CAUSED BY PROTOZOANS

Disease Pathogen re- Habitat Mode of transmis- Main symptoms of disease
sponsible sion and incuba-
tion period
Malaria Plasmodium Passes thorugh Transmitted to man Three stages : Cold stage, headache, shivering
a developmental by bite of an infect- and rising temperature. Fever stage-fever rises
phase in liver, resides ed female anopheles to its maximum, severe headache, pain in back
inside RBCs and mosquito. and joints, vomiting; Sweating stage-profuse
carried by blood to sweting, fall in temperature, pain relieved
all organs

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GENERAL SCIENCE
Amoebic dys- E n t a m o e b a Large intestine Transmitted from Acute dysentery with blood and mucous in
e n t e r y o r histolytica man to man through stools, and severe abdonimal pain, Secondary
Amoebiasis ingestion of cysts complications include formation of multiple
in drinking water, abscesses in liver, lung, brain, spleen and
vegetables and food ulceration of skin, vagina and penis.
contaminated with
faeces.

Sleeping sick- Trypanosoma R e a c h e s l y m p h Transmitted by bite Fever, severe headache, enlargement of glands
n e s s ( T r y - gambiense nodes via lymphat- of testse fly at back of neck, rash on the back and chest,
panosomiasis) ics, blood and in- joint pains, swelling of eyelids, ankles and
fests brain (cere- hands, trembling, loss of appetite, no desire to
brum). work except sit or sleep, mental disturbances,
coma and death.

Kala-azar or L e i s h m a n i a Reticuloen-dothelial M a n b e c o m e s Enlargement of spleen, liver, fever, jaundice,

black sickness donovani cells infected by bite of skin becomes dark through pigmentation.
sandfly

DISEASES CAUSED BY WORMS

Disease Pathogen responsible Mode of Transmission Main symptoms of disease

and its habit

Taeniasis Taenia solium; small in- Part of the life cycle in pig, man Abdominal discomfort, chronic indigestion,
testine (jejunum) of man get infected on eating pork, in- anemia, diarrhea, alernating with constipa-
fected stage being mature cyst tion, false hunger pains.
(cysticercus) in pork.

Ancylosioniasis Ancyclostoma duode- Transmission from person to Dermatitis; reddish, itchy papule along the
or ‘Hook-worm nale; small intestine person, filarial form larvae path traversed by larvae; severe anaemia;
disease’ (jejunum) of man passed out in faeces, man duodenal ulcer, constipation. Patient pale,
picks up infection walking face puffy with swelling of lower eyelids,
bare-foot on faecally contami- oedema of feet and ankle.
nated soil.

Ascariasis Ascaris lumbriocoides; Transmission from person to Larvae in lung cause pneumonia. May give
small intestine (jeju- person, ripe eggs passed out rise to typhoid like fever causes protein and Vita-
num) of man in faeces, infection affected by min A deficiencies resulting in protein calorie
swallowing ripe Ascaris eggs malnutrition and night blindness respectively.
with raw vegetables Can cause appendicitis, jaundice by blocking
lumina of appendix and billary passages.

Enterobiasis or Enterobius verm- icu- Transmission from one person Eczematous condition round the anus, bed-
‘Pinworm’ disease laris; caecum and ver- to another by ingestion of eggs wetting at night, infla-mmation of vermiform
miform appendix in contaminated food or drink, appendix.
Autoinfection itching in anus;
scratching anus and ripe eggs
on fingers transferred during
food ingestion of such food.

Filariasis Wuchereria bancrofti Part of the life cycle in mosquito Elephantiasis i.e. enormous enlargement of
or W.malaye; lymphat- in which larvae develop and certain body parts such as that of leg, scro-
ic vessels and lymph become infective to man, with tum, penis, labia, clitoris, breast, forearm.
nodes mosquito bite larvae deposited
on skin which enter through
punctured wound and reach
lymphatic channels.

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GENERAL SCIENCE

DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES

Disease Pathogen responsible Mode of transmission Main Symptoms of the disease
and incubation period
Small pox (Now co- Variola Virus Direct contact (droplets); Onset sudden or gradual High fever, headache,
sidered completely indirect by infected arti- backache skin rash on third day, passes through
cradicated) cle; 12 days stages of macules (bright red spots), papules,
vesicles (with clear fluid), postules (with pus like
fluid) and scabs (dried crusts). Scabs fall off and
leave behind pitted pock marks.
Chicken pox Varicella zooster virus Direct contact (droplets); Fever, cold, skin eruption starts as red spots,
indirectly by infected ob- vesicles and crusts. Scab : formation in 36 hours
jects; 12-16 days which fall off within 5 to 20 days.
Common Cold Rhino virus Contact : 2-5 days Headache, cough, nasal discharge, mild fever.
COVID-19 Corona Virus The virus is primarily Fever, cough, fatigue, shortness, of smell, some-
spread between people times no symptoms at all. Complications of pneu-
during close contact via monia, viral sepsis, acute respiratory distress syn-
small droplets produced drome, kidney failure, cytokine release syndrom.
by coughing, sneezing
and taking
Rabies (Hydropho- Rabies virus (rhabdo Bite of a mad (rabid) dog Headache, nausea, vomiting, fever, insomnia,
bia) virus) and other animals like hoarse voice, sight of water sends throat muscles
kitten, horse, etc. 2-16 into painful spasms (fear of water), convulsions,
weeks or longer paralysis, death.
Dengue feve r o r Dengue virus (arbo vi- Mosquito (Aedes aegypti) Fever, headache, pain in joints, back muscles
break bone fever rus) bite; 4-8 days and eye balls, skin rash for a few days, prolonged
convalescence. Disease can be classical or hamor-
rhagic with decline in number of blood platelets
Acquired Immuno Human T cell Leukemia Via blood and sperm Loss of 10% or more of body weight, fever of
Deficiency Syn- Virus (HTL VIII) ; also among homosexuals, het- unknown origin, pneumonia, brain tumours,
drome (AIDS) called LAV (retrovirus) erosexuals, intravenous haemorrahage, unremitting diarrhoea, swelling
or HIV drugusers, hemophiliacs of lymph glands, mouth ulcers.
promiscuous individuals
and prostitutes. Infec-
tions mother to child.
Measles Rubella virus Direct contact, virus First stage marked by running nose, sneezing, fe-
t r a n s m i t t e d t hrough ver, headache, backache and chills. Second stage
air by droplets during starts 2-3 days later with inflammation of mucus
talking, coughing and membrane of upper respiratory tract, constant
sneezing; 10-14 days flow of mucus and a red blotchy skin rash.
Mumps M u m p s v i r u s Direct contact; virus in sa- First stage marked by high fever, headache, back-
(Paramyxo-virus) liva and secretion of nose ache, reddened taste buds, either excess of saliva
invades salivary glands; or mouth and throat very dry. In second stage
12-21 days. swelling of salivary glands about ear and jaws
for 7-10 days.
Poliomyelitista/ Enterovirus (Polio virus) Intestinal discharge After incubation period of 7-14 days it inflames
Infantile Paralysis hence contaminated food nervous system, with stiffness of neck, fever,
or drink. headache, chilliness, pain all over body with par-
alytic attack in 2-3 days.
Trachoma Chlamydia trachomatis Direct contact, use of Cornea and conjunctiva are affected with develop-
handkerchiefs, towels, ment of granules, pain, watering of eyes and can
pillows, sharing, etc. lead to the blindness if left untreated.
Chikungunya Chikungunya virus Transmited by the Aedes Severe joint pains such patient lies doubled up.
aegypti Fever is biphasic with a period of remission after
1-6 days.
Viral hepatitis 6 varieties of Hepatitis Different modes for differ- Fever, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, muscular
virus A, B, C, D, E and G ent strain of virus. and joint pains, enlargement of liver, Jaundice
condition

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DISEASES CAUSED BY BACTERIA
Name of Disease Causative agent Mode of transmission Symptoms/signs of disease
Cholera Vibrio Cholerae Contaminated food and After incubation period of 2-3 days, stomach
water. ache, caused, vomiting, rice water diarrhea. It
requires use of ORS (Oral Rehydration Solution)
along with drugs.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Contaminated food and Fever, body aches diarrhoea characterized by
water. green stools, in severe case, disease is diagnosed
by Widal test.
Tuberculo sis Mycobacterium tuber- Contaminated air and Mild fever, headache, chest pains, blood stained
culie inhaled water droplets. sputum in severe case with damage to lungs.
Diphtheria Cornybacterium diph- Contaminated water Sore throat, tonsil with grey membrane, hoarse
theriae ness, difficulty in the breathing. Blood tinged
nasal discharge from nostrils.
Pertussis (Whoop- Bordetella pertussis Coughing discharge in- After incubation period of 10-16 days, continuous
ing cough) halation. coughing leading to reddening of face, vomiting,
convulsions and pneumonia.
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Contamination of cut or Restlessness, headache, difficulty in swallow-dis-
(Lock Jaw ease) wound with soil contain- ing, and chewing with locking of jaw. Treatment
ing cow dung. should be with intravenous intake of ATS (An-
ti-tetanus Serum)

Diarrhoeal dis- E. Coli, Shigella dys- Contaminated food and Stomach ache, diarrhoea leading to body dehydra-
eases enteries, salmonella, water. tion. Hence ORS to be used as treatment along
giardia intestanlies. with drugs.

IMPORTANT MEDICAL TERMS

³³ Antibody : These are substances produced by ³³ Dumb : A person's unability to speak words/ sentence.
lymphocytes to check growth of antigens or neutralise ³³ Deaf : A person's unability to hear sound.
their toxins by agglutination, lysis, etc.etc. ³³ Eczema : A skin condition in which skin become
³³ Antigen : Anything alien to body in form of an sore and red.
organism or toxin that triggers the production of ³³ Emphysema : Smoker's disease with difficulty in
necessary antibodies. breathing because of blocking of alveoli in lungs with tar.
³³ Anorexia : Inability to breathe or feeling of being fat ³³ Hemodialysis : An act of filtering blood in kidney
hence quit eating. machine to remove nitrogenous waste.
³³ Antidote : A substance administered to a person to ³³ Hysteria : A state of extreme excitement, fear or anger
check the effect of poison. in which a person loses control of emotions to cry or
³³ Analgesic : A substance that acts as a pain killer. laugh uncontrollably.
³³ Hallucination : To seem to see or hear something
³³ Anaemia : A person with reduced number of RBC
that doesn't exist because of illness.
in blood. ³³ Hemorrhage : Loss of blood inside body where it clots
³³ Antipyretic : Any substance that reduces body and appear as a red-dry dot/spot.
temperature or help to prevent fever. ³³ Insomnia : State of sleeplessness due to illness/
³³ Appetite : A desire to eat being hungry depression/excitement.
³³ Barbiturate : A drug used to induce calmness and sleep. ³³ Immunisaton : An act of boosting immunity with
³³ Choking : Difficulty in breathing because of blockage intake of antibiotics or vaccine.
of throat. ³³ Fatigue : State of weariness from exertion or tiredness.
³³ Dozing : Feeling sleepy or sleeping for short time ³³ Flatulence : Filling of bowel with air that is irritable
during day. unless it is expelled out.
³³ Dementia : Unability to think, remember or behave ³³ Perspiration : Sweat perfusly
in normal way. ³³ Psychedelic : To see or face without any existence of
³³ Dermatitis : Roughening and reddening of skin anything under the effect of a drug.
becoming swollen and itchy. ³³ Psychiatry : Study and treatment of mental illness.
³³ Diarrhoea : Elimination of waste from bowel in liquid ³³ Strain : Pulling of muscles at tendon because of
form frequently. overstretching.
³³ Dysentery : Severe diarrhoea with blood ³³ Tetani : Stiffness of muscles.
contamination. ³³ Sedative : Drug that induces sleep.
³³ Dystaxia : Neural disorder in which a person fails to ³³ Thrombus : A small blood clot formed inside blood
read and spell properly. vessel.

OLE - 437
 One Liner Approach General knowledge
GENERAL SCIENCE

COMMONLY USED MEDICAL TECHNIQUES 6. 9–12 months Measles One dose

AND DEVICE FOR DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASE 7. 18–24 months DPT and Polio First booster
1. Stethoscope : Measuring heart beat with 8. 15th month–2 MMR Vaccine –
sound of lub-dub. years
2. Sphygmomanometer : Measuring blood pressure. 9. 2-3 years Typhoid Two doses at one
3. E.C.G. : Electro cardiogram, finding month interval
working of cardiac wall. 10. 4-6 years Dual Antigen Second booster
4. Angioplasty : Finding presence of thrombus and Polio
if any in blood vessel and
opening of blocked coronary 11. 10th year T T a n d T y - First booster
vessel. phoid
5. E.E.G. : Electro encephalogram, finding 12. 16th year T T a n d T y - Second booster
working of brain. phoid
6. Biopsy : Verification of cancerous BCG – Tuberculosis Vaccine (Bacille Calmette Guerin)
growth.
DPT – Diphtheria, Pertussis (whooping cough), Tetanus
7. Isihara card : Finding of colour blindness.
MMR – Mumps, Measles and Rubella vaccine
8. CT-Scan : Computed tomography test for
TT – Tetanus Toxoid
cancer detection.
9. MRI : Magnetic Resonamic Imaging for DISEASES AND ASSOCIATED BODY PART
cancer detection.
Part or Part or
10. Endoscopy : Test for presence of ulcer,
Ailment region Ailment region
viewed with endoscopy tubing.
affected affected
11. ELISA test : Enzyme Linked immunosorbent
Assay Test, to test for presence 1. Arthritis Joints 2. Bronchitis Lungs
of antibodies of AIDS (HIV). 3. Carditis Heart 4. Colitis Intestines
12. Keratoplasty : Transplant of cornea in eye.
5. Cystitis Bladder 6. Conjunctivitis Eye
13. Northern Blotting : To test presence of mRNAs.
Technique 7. Dermatitis Skin 8. Gastritis Stomach
14. Southern Blotting : To detect presence of DNA 9. Glossitis Tongue 10. Hepatitis Liver
fragments. 11. Meningitis Brain 12. Myelitis Spine
technique
15. Western Blotting : To test for a specific protein. 13. Nephritis Kidneys 14. Neuritis Nerves
technique 15. Otitis Ear 16. Osteomyelitis Bones
16. Amniocentesis : To test for health of foetus and 17. Peritonitis Abdomen 18. Rhinitis Nose
sex determination.
17. Ultra sound : To test for formation of cyst or 19. Tonsilitis Throat
stone in body along with x-ray.
18. X-ray : Bone fracture or dislocation, COVID-19 DISEASE
presence of spsam or strain.
Facts About COVID-19
19. DNA Finger Printing : To test maternity or faternity, or
culprit in forensic science. ³³ COVID-19 is a disease caused by a new strain of
20. ZIFT : Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer coronavirus.
21. GIFT : Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer ‘CO’ stands for corona,
22. IVF : In Vitro Fertilization such as in ‘VI’ for virus, and
‘D’ for disease.
case of Test tube baby
³³ Formerly, this disease was referred to as ‘2019 novel
23. Blood/Urine Test : For varied reasons such as
coronavirus’ or ‘2019-nCoV.’
presence of sugar pathogens,
³³ The COVID-19 virus is a new virus linked to the same
ketones, heavy metals, etc. family of viruses as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
(SARS) and some types of common cold
IMMUNIZATION SCHEDULE ³³ First Case 1 December, 2019
S. Age Vaccine Dose ³³ Origin- Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
No. ³³ Many health experts believe that the new strain of
coronavirus likely originated in bats or pangolins. The
1. New born BCG –
first transmission to humans was in Wuhan, China.
2. Within 15 days ‘O’ Polio – Since then, the virus has mostly spread through person-
3. 6th week DPT and Polio First dose to-person contact.
³³ On 11 March, 2020 the World Health Organization (WHO)
4. 10th week DPT and Polio Second dose declared COVID-19 a pandemic. A pandemic occurs when
5. 14th week DPT and Polio Third dose a disease that people are not immune to spreads across
large regions.

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 General Science

Symptoms of COVID-19

GENERAL SCIENCE
Malaria germs 1880 Laveran France

³³ Symptoms can include fever, cough and shortness of Aspirin 1889 Dreser Germany
breath. Loss of smell or taste. Virology 1892 Ivanovski & Russia,
³³ In more severe cases, infection can cause pneumonia Bajernick Netherlands
or breathing difficulties. More rarely, the disease can Psycho-(Dream) 1895 Sigmund Freud Austria
be fatal. analysis
³³ These symptoms are similar to the flu (influenza) or Anti-toxin (science 1890 Behring & Kitasato Germany,
the common cold, which are a lot more common than of Japan
COVID-19. immunity)
Electro- 1903 Willam Einthoven Netherlands
Treatment for COVID-19 cardiograph
³³ There is no currently available vaccine for COVID-19. Typhus Vaccine 1909 J. Nicolle France
³³ However, many of the symptoms can be treated and Sex Hormones 1910 Eugen Steinach Austria
getting early care from a healthcare provider can make
Vitamins 1912 Sir F.G. Hopkins Britain
the disease less dangerous
Synthetic antigens 1917 Landsteiner USA
Prevetion
Insulin for 1921 Banting & Best Canada
³³ Public health measures are everyday preventive actions Diabetes
that include: Peniciliin 1928 Alexander Fleming Britain
l staying home when sick;
Electro- 1929 Hans Berger Germany
l covering mouth and nose with flexed elbow or tissue encephalogram
when coughing or sneezing. Dispose of used tissue
Cardiac Pacemaker 1932 A.DS. Hyman USA
immediately; D.D.T. (Dichloro-
l washing hands often with soap and water; and
Diphenyl- 1939 Paul Muller Germany
l cleaning frequently touched surfaces and objects. Trichloroethane)
Trichloroethane)
MILESTONES IN MEDICINE
Rh-factor 1940 Karl Landsteiner USA
Discovery Time Person Country
LSD (Lysergic acid 1943 Hoffman Switzerland
Ayurveda 2000-1000 BC Atreya India
diethylamide)
Western Scientific 460-370 BC Hippo- Greece
Streptomycin 1944 Selman Waksmann USA
Therapy crates
Kidney Machine 1944 Kolf Netherlands
Yoga 200-100 BC Patanjali India
Chloromycetin 1947 Burkholder USA
Ashtanga Hridaya c.550 AD Vagbhata India
Aureomycin 1948 Duggar USA
Sidhayoga c.750 Vrdukunta India
Reserpine 1949 Jal Vakil India
Anatomia 1316 Mondino Italy
Terramycin 1950 Finlay & Others USA
Chemotherapy 1493-1541 Paracelsus Switzerland
Cryo-Surgery 1953 Henry Swan USA
IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES Open Heart 1953 Walton Lillehel USA
Discovery Year Person Country Surgery
Circulation of 1628 Willaim Harvey Britain Poliomyelitis 1954 Jonas Salk and USA
blood (Father of Vaccine Sabin
Physiology) Oral Contraceptive 1955 Gregory Pincus USA
Biochemistry 1648 Jan Baptista Van Belgium Pills
Helmont Artificial Heart 1957 Willam Kolff Netherland
Bacteria 1683 Leeuwenhoek Netherlands
Use of artificial 1963 Michael de USA
Physiology 1757- Albrecht Von Switzerland heart (for surgery) Bakey
1766 Haller
Heart 1967 Christian S. Africa
Vaccination 1796 Edward Jenner Britain
Transplant Barnard
(Father of
Immunigation)
Surgery

Stethoscope 1819 Rene Laennec France CAT Scanner 1968 Godfrey Britain
Hounsfield
Morphine 1805 Friderich Sertumer Germany
First Test Tube 1978 Steptoe & Britain
Chloroform as 1847 James Simpson Britain
anasethetic
Baby Edwards
Hypodermic 1853 Alexander Wood Britain Small Pox 1980 W.H.O. USA
Syringe eradicated Declaration
Rabies Vaccine 1860 Louis Pasteur France Genes 1982 Robert Weinberg USA
Bacteriology 1872 Ferdinand Cohn Germany associated with & others
Cancer
Cholera, T.B. 1877 Robert Koch Germany
germs (Father of Medicine)
(Oncogenes)

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Gene Therapy, in human, is to replace a ‘faulty gene’

GENERAL SCIENCE

IMPORTANT FACTS by a normal healthy functional gene. Such as in SCID

³³ The only movable bone in the skull of man is lower (Severe Combined Immuno Deficiency Syndrome).
mandible or lower jaw bone. ³³ Cloning is a process of producing many identical
³³ The vertebral column has 33 vertebrate. organisms or clones.
³³ Stapes in the ear is the smallest body bone. ³³ Stem cells have ability to divide for indefinite periods in
³³ 1st seven pair of ribs are known as true ribs. culture and to give rise to specialised cells.
³³ Pair 8th, 9th, and 10th attach indirectly to sternum ³³ The fertilised egg is a totipotent.
and are thus called false ribs. ³³ Eyes capable of focusing the images of objects are
³³ 11th and 12th rib do not attach to sterum and are called possessed only by vertebrates and some higher
floating ribs. invertebrates like prawn, crab and insects.
³³ Femur is the longest bone. ³³ Many insects such as honey bee, flies, butterflies and
moth possess chemoreceptors for taste sensation at
³³ 1st vertebra is called atlas, it supports the head and
their feet.
called 'yes' bone.
³³ Some mammals like rhesus monkey, dogs, pig and
³³ 2nd vertebra is called axis.
cat posssess taste sensation for water. Man does not
³³ Hyoid is a U-shaped bone, that supports the tongue. possess taste buds for tasting water.
³³ Cavity in pectoral girdle is called–Glenoid cavity. ³³ Kidneys are the urine forming organs of vertebrates.
³³ Cavity in pelvic girdle is called acetabulum. They also play role in regulating blood pressure and
³³ Tooth enamal is the hardest susbtance of our body. osmotic potential.
³³ Spontaneous involuntary, activities, evoked by ³³ An abnormal rise in arterial blood pressure is called
stimulation of receptors are called Reflexes. Hypertension. A rise in blood cholesterol may lead to
³³ Ureotelic animals include man and all other deposition of cholesterol. This causes the arteries to
mammals, aquatic mammals like whales and seals, lose their elasticity. This is called Atheriosclerosis.
amphibian like toad and frog and shark, sting ray, Arterioscleroses is loss of elasticity of arterial walls.
alligators and turtle. The stiffened arterial wall fails to exert moderating
³³ Man can concentrate urea in urine more than 100 effect on blood pressure and collapse.
times its concentration in blood. ³³ Hypotension is an abnormally low pressure. It may
³³ Nephrons are structural and functional unit of kidney. result from chronic vasodilatation of arterial, anaemia,
³³ In case of eye transfer, only cornea is used. and blood loss due to bleeding or failure of pumping
action of heart.
³³ Retina is inner–most light sensitive, made up of many
³³ The mast cells store inflammation producing
layers of (rod and cone) cells and nerve fibres.
substances such as histamine, which help in defence
³³ Bitter taste is evoked by quinine, morphine, caffeine,
by attracting phagocytes to injured tissue.
nicotine, and urea. It is also produced by cation of
³³ Normal blood sugar level: 80-100mg per 100ml of
many inorganic salts like Magnesium salts.
blood. Blood sugar above 120mg leads to diabetes.
³³ Salty taste results mainly from cations like Na+.
³³ Cholesterol : 50-180mg per 100ml used in synthesis
³³ Major cells of Immune system are WBC. They are of of cell membrane.
two type B-cells and T-cells. ³³ About 30% of CO 2 entered into RBC, combined
³³ T-cells which mature in thymus are responsible for with globin part of deoxyhemoglobin to form
cellular immunity and B-cell which mature in bone- carbaminohemoglobin.
marrow produce antibodies. ³³ The connective tissue provides structural framework
³³ The body has thousands of antigen-specific B-cells. and support to different tissue forming an organ.
³³ Allergies are caused by allergens, which are generally ³³ First man–made cereal is Tritisecale (Rai + wheat).
weak antigens. ³³ Milk and fish are rich source of all vitamins except
³³ In first exposure, it helps in formation of antibody. Vitamin C.
³³ In second exposure antibodies react and release ³³ Vitamin D (skin, U.V. rays) & K (liver) can be
histamine or serotonin which are responsible for synthesised by our body.
inflammatory responses. ³³ Deficiency of protein, carbohydrates and fats results
³³ Anti-histamines control allergic reaction. in ‘protein – energy– malnutrition’.
³³ T-cells respond to antigens by producing clone of ³³ Protein deficiency (PCM- Protein Calorie Malnutrition)
T-cells. Each T-cells recognize specific antigen. – Kwashiorkor, Marasmus.
³³ The Killer T-cell directly attack and destroy antigen. ³³ In Kwashiorkor (affected child) skin crack and become
³³ The Helper T-cell act to stimulate antibody production scaly, abdomen swell (pot belly condition), hair
by B-cells. become reddish.
³³ The Suppressor T-cells suppress the total immune ³³ Marasmas child show all above symptoms besides
reaction keeping it from attacking the body’s own wasting of muscles.
cells. (life span of T-cells 4-5 years). ³³ Disease restricted to given region and arising from
³³ Both B-cells and T-cells also produce memory cells its specific environment condition is called Endemic
and effector cells. disease. Such as goiter in Sub-Himalayan region.

OLE - 440
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³³ Pellagra is common amongst people living on a maize ³³ Bradycardia : A slow heart rate of below 60/min.

GENERAL SCIENCE
diet, because maize interferes with the absorption of ³³ The smaller the animal, the higher its metabolic rate
niacin in boby (3-D disease). and consequently greater is the need for pumping
³³ Overdose of water soluble vitamins does not cause action of the heart.
any harm. ³³ The heart rate increases during exercise, fever and
³³ Accumulation of fat soluble Vitamin can be toxic–Dis- emotions like anger and fear. Normally it is myogenic
ease caused by it is called Hypervitaminosis. but become neurogenic during exercise.
³³ Vitamin A accumulate in liver, while Vitamin D
promotes high Ca++ absorption which damage the Important Institutes of Medical Research and
kidney where it is deposited. Biotechnology
³³ Human eye is sensitive only to wavelength ranging ³³ National Institute of Immunology (NII), New Delhi
from 380 to 760 mm. ³³ National Brain Research Centre (NBRC), New Delhi
³³ Human being, apes, monkey, birds, lizards, turtles ³³ National Centre for Plant Genome Research, New Delhi
and some fishes possess colour vision. ³³ Centre for DNA Finger-Printing and Diagnostics
³³ Genetically modified DNA fragments are termed as (CDFD), Hyderabad
recombinant DNA (r DNA). These can be cloned and ³³ National Institute of Ayurveda, Jaipur
amplified virtually to an unlimited extent. ³³ National Institute of Homoepathy, Kolkata
³³ Genetic engineering is essentially the alternation of ³³ National Institute of Unani Medicine, Bangalore
genetic make-up of cells by deliberate and artificial ³³ National Institute of Siddha Medicine, Chennai
means. It is cut by called restriction endonuclease.
³³ National Institute of Naturopathy Medicine, Pune
³³ DNA ligase enzymes are used to join DNA fragments.
³³ Morarji Desai National Institute of Yoga, New Delhi
They do so by forming phosphodiester bond.
³³ All India Malaria Institute, Delhi
³³ New technology like gene gun (Biolistics) are also
³³ Indian Institute of Experimental Medicine, Kolkata
available for vectorless direct gene transfer.
(W. Bengal)
³³ Transgenics or transgenic organisms are also called
³³ Institute of Ayurvedic Studies and Research, Jam-
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) like Bt-
nagar, (Gujarat)
cotton, Bt-Brinjal. etc.
³³ National Institute of Communicable Diseases, Delhi
³³ Dendrite carry impulse towards the cell, Axon away
from the cells i.e. transmission by Na+ and K+ pump ³³ Nutrition Research Laboratory, Coonoor (Tamil Nadu)
is unidirectional. ³³ Tuberculosis Institute, Delhi
³³ Acetylcholine and serotonin at neuro-musuelar Food Adulteration
junction is the chemical neuro transmitter of impulse ³³ Cereals (wheat) – mud, grit, sandstone
between synaptic knobs.
³³ Dals – Khesari dal, mentil yellow (a dye)
³³ The ligament connects bones at the joints and hold
³³ Haldi – Lead chromate
them in a position.
³³ Dhania – Cowdung, horse dung
³³ Tendon is semi-rigid and flexible connective tissue
that connect muscle to bone. ³³ Black Pepper–dried papaya seeds
³³ Chilli powder – Saw dust, brick powder
³³ Bone is solid and strong connective tissue.
³³ Mustard Seeds – Argemone seeds
³³ The matrix is heavily deposited with appetite salts
of calcium and phosphorus (Tricalcium phosphate) ³³ Edible Oils – cheaper oil
Ca3 (PO4)2. ³³ Milk – addition of starch
³³ Adipose tissue is a connective tissue rich beneath the ³³ Honey – Jaggery, Sugar
skin, around kidney in mesentry and bone marrow. Human body at a glance
Animals living in cold regions have a thick layer of it
³³ Normal blood pressure : 120 to 80
like blubber in whales.
³³ Adult teeth : 32, Milk teeth 20
³³ Besides fibroblast, macrophages, collagen and elastic
fibres, adipose tissue also contain Fat cells. ³³ Volume of Blood : About 7 liters in normal body or
about 7% of the total body weight
³³ The adipose tissue synthesize, store and metabolises
fats. It prevents heat loss by forming heat insulating ³³ Largest part of human brain : Cerebrum
layer beneath the skin and forms shock absorbing ³³ Biggest organ : Liver
cushions. ³³ Heart Beat : 72 times in a minute
³³ The contraction and relaxation of cardiac chamber ³³ Super master gland : Hypothalamus
are respectively known as Systole and Diastole. Heart ³³ Master gland : Pituitary
produce sound 'Lub-Dub' per beat. ³³ Number of Bones : 206
³³ Human heart beats at the rate of about 72/min in the ³³ Number of Muscles : 639
resting condition i.e., about 0.85 per beat. ³³ Number of chromosomes : 46 or 23 pairs, 22 pair
³³ Tachycardia : A rapid heart or pulse rate of over 100/ autosomes and one pair sex-chromosomes
min. ³³ Number of bones in fore ..... 30 bones

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

7. Mixed Farming
GENERAL SCIENCE

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

³³ In it equal emphasis is laid on crop production and
³³ Agriculture and Domestication of animals constitutes
livestock rearing and management.
an important stage in the evolution of modern man.
³³ The main objective is not only to produce cereal crops
³³ The surplus generated from agriculture and large scale
but also fodder and cash crops on the same scale.
use of animal power provided a new momentum to
the development of human society. 8. Dairy Farming
³³ India is fortunate enough to possess rich agricultural ³³ Cattle rearing particularly rearing of milk cows in
resources.
order to meet demand of milk and milk products.
³³ They include a wide variety of fertile soils, ample
If for urban areas, it is referred to as dairy farming.
water for irrigation and a growing season almost all
the year round. ³³ Dairy is highly labour intensive activity.
³³ The variety of soils and variations in climatic ³³ Dairy farming requires large capital.
conditions from region to region makes it possible to ³³ Dairy farming in India has been organised on sound
grow a large number of crops in our country. footing in Gujarat through dairy cooperatives.
³³ Different kinds of agriculture are practised in varying
9. Truck Farming
environmental conditions.
³³ Cultivation of vegetables for market is known as truck
TYPES OF CULTIVATION farming.
³³ It is an intensive farming.
1. Shifting Cultivation
³³ It is done with the help of irrigation, manure and
³³ It is a form of primitive agriculture. HYV seeds.
³³ Cultivator clears a small piece of forest by burning.
10. Horticulture
³³ It is also known as ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
³³ Major products are fruit and flowers.
³³ Mainly food crops are grown.
³³ There is great regional variation in production of fruits
2. Sedentary Agriculture and flowers.
³³ Farmers adopt a particular cropping pattern.
Types of Agriculture based on Management
³³ Livestock farming becomes an integral part of
1. Peasant Agriculture : It is organised by the farmers
agriculture.
individually. They own the land as well as other fac-
³³ Different types of agricultural implements are used. tors of production.
3. Intensive Agriculture 2. Cooperative Farming : All the members of the coop-
erative collectively own the factors of production.
³³ Characterised by small land holdings.
3. State Farms : The factors of production are owned
³³ Higher inputs of capital and labour per hectare of land. by the State. In India. Suratgarh farm is an example
³³ Yield per hectare is quite high. of State Farm.
³³ Rice is the main crop.
Important Institutes of Agriculture and Allied
4. Extensive Agriculture Activities
³³ Large scale farming on large holdings. ³³ Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur
³³ Sophisticated agricultural machines are utilised. (Rajasthan)
³³ Low per hectare productivity but the total production ³³ Cotton Technological Research Laboratory, Mumbai
is quite high. (Maharashtra)
³³ Generally adopted in areas of low population density ³³ Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack (Odisha)
with high man-land ratio. ³³ Central Plantations Crops Research Institute,
Kasargad (Kerala)
5. Subsistence Agriculture
³³ Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla (Himachal
³³ Sole objective is of sustaining one’s family. Pradesh)
³³ Specialisation of crops is not possible. ³³ Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajamundry
³³ The farmers grow as many crops as are required for (Andhra Pradesh)
their household consumption.
³³ C e n t r a l T u b e r C r o p s R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e ,
6. Commercial Agriculture Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)
³³ The main aim is to sell the produce in the market. ³³ Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal
³³ An important characteristic is crop specialisation. (Haryana)
³³ Plantation agriculture is an important form of ³³ Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute,
commercial agriculture. Barrackpore (West Bengal)

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 General Science

³³ Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Groundnut : Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil

GENERAL SCIENCE
Mandapam Camp (Tamil Nadu) Nadu
³³ Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Ernakulam Sesamum : Odisha, Karnataka, Gujarat
(Kerala) Rapeseed : Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana
³³ Deep Sea Fishing Research Station, Mumbai & Mustard
(Maharashtra) Jute : West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Odisha
³³ Central Sheep and Wool Research Statistics, New Cotton : Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab,
Delhi Andhra Pradesh
³³ Central Coconut Research Station, Ernakulum Rubber : Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
(Kerala) Sugarcane : Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil
³³ Fruit Research Institute, Sabour (Bhagalpur, Bihar) Nadu
³³ Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Muketshwar Tobacco : Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar
and Izatnagar (UP) Tea : Assam, West Bengal, Kerala, Tamil
³³ Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi Nadu, Punjab
³³ Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore (Tamil Cocoa : Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Nadu) Coffee : Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala
³³ Indian Council of Agricultural Research (New Delhi)
³³ Dairy Research Institute, Karnal SPICES
³³ Indian Botanical Survey, Kolkata Pepper : Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
³³ Jute Research Institute, Barrackpore Turmeric : Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil
Nadu
³³ Goat Research Institute, Mathura
Coriander : Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh
³³ Sugarcane Research Institute, Lucknow
Chillies : Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tam-
³³ Bee Research Institute, Pune
il Nadu, Karnataka, Bihar, Madhya
³³ Cotton Research Institute, Mumbai Pradesh, Rajasthan
³³ Poultry Training Institute, Bengaluru Ginger : Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
³³ Silk Research Institute, Mysore Maharashtra
³³ Coffee Research Institute, Chickmanglur Cardamom : Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
³³ Leather Research Institute, Chennai
³³ Potato Research Institute, Shimla FRUITS
³³ Tea Research Institute, Jorhat Banana : Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu,
³³ Rubber Research Institute, Kottayam Kerala
³³ Tobacco Research Institute, Rajamundri Grapes : Maharashtra, Karnataka, Punjab,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Hary-
³³ International Centre for Plantation Affair, Bengaluru
ana
³³ National Research Institute for Spices, Calicut
Mango : Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar
³³ Indian Dairy Corporation, Anand Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh
MAJOR CROPS PRODUCING
Pomgranate : Maharashtra
STATES IN INDIA
Sapota : Maharashtra, Gujarat
CROPS
Rice : Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra Types of Irrigation
Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Tamil Nadu
Percentage
Wheat : Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
of Total
Bihar Type Dominant areas
Irrigated
Bajra : Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajas- Area
than
Tube Well 51% Punjab, Haryana,
Ragi : Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Jammu & U.P.
(well irrigation)
Kashmir
Jowar : Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Madhya Tank Irrigation 6% Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh Pradesh,
Karnataka.
Maize : Karnataka, Haryana, Gujarat
Pulses : Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Canal Irrigation 33% Punjab, Haryana,
Maharashtra, Bihar U.P., Bihar, West
Bengal
Barley : Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana,
Punjab

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge
GENERAL SCIENCE

DISEASES OF MAJOR CROPS

Name of the Disease Pathogen Symptoms

crop

1. Rice (paddy) Blast Fungus, Pyricularis oryzae Brown boat-shaped lesions (spots) appear
on the margins of leaves.

2. Wheat Rust Fungus, Puccinia graminis Yellow, brown or black elongated spots
appear on leaves and straws.

3. Sugarcane 1. Red rot Fungus Collectortrichum falcatum Small red spots on leaf midarcane look
red.

2. Grassy shoot Fungus Production of many thin tillers from the

base.

4. Groundnut Tikka Fungus, Cercospora personata Light brown oval-shaped lesions appear
on leaflets, petioles and stems.

5. Mustard 1. White rust Fungus White or cream yellow scattered pustules

appear on the lower surface of leaves.

2. Downy mildew Fungus Yellow irregular spots appear on leaves.

In severe infection, the inflorescence is
malformed, twisted and covered with
white powder.

6. Chick pea Wilt Fungus The leaves become yellow and dry up.
Roots turn black and decompose.

7. Pigeon pea Stem rot Fungus Development of brown to dark brown le-
sions on the stem near soil surface. These
lesions girdle the stem and plant dies.

INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS

Name of the Name of Insect-pests Zoological name Nature of damage

crop

Rice 1. Gundhy or Rice bug 1. Leptocorisa acuta 1. Attack during post-flowering period

2. Leaf hopper 2. Nephotettix 2. Attack the leaves

Wheat 1. Gujhia weevil — 1. Grubs feed on the roots and adults cut the growing points.

2. Shoot fly — 2. Attack seedlings and kill the central shoots

Sugarcane 1. Top borer 1. Scirpophaga nivella 1. Larvae bore into the midrib of leaves and make tunnel.
Later on it enters into growing points and damage them.

2. Shoot borer 2. Chilo infuscatellus 2. The caterpillars bore into the central shoot and make
tunnel downward. They feed inside the soft tissue.

3. Sugarcane leaf hopper 3. Pyrilla perpusilla 3. Both nymph and adult suck sap from underside of the leaf.

Groundnut White grub — The grubs feed on roots. Adult-beetles feed on leaves.

Mustard 1. Aphids 1. Brevicoryne brassicae Both nymph and adult suck the sap of all the plant parts.

2. Painted bug 2. Bagrada hilaris Both nymph and adult suck the sap of leaves at the seedling
stage.

Chickpea Pod borer — The caterpillars first feed on tender leaves.Later on make
(Gram) holes in the pods and feed on the developing grain.

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3. Wild Sorghum

GENERAL SCIENCE
Plant diseases caused by Mycoplasma
4. Nut grass (Cyperus rotundus)
Diseases Plant/Crop
Sesamum phyllody Sesamum Important Weeds of Rabi Season
Little leaf diseases Brinjal 1. Chenopodium album (Bathua)
Bunchy top of Papaya Papaya 2. Wild Oat
Peanut witches broom Peanut 3. Mandoosi (Phalaris)
4. Hirankhuri (Convolvulus pluricaulis)
Potato witches broom Potato
Some Common Weedicides
Little leaf of Sweet Potato Sweet Potato
Sweet Potato witches broom Sweet Potato 1. 2, 4–D (2, 4–Dichlorophenoxy acid)
2. 2, 4, 5–D (2, 4, 5 –Dichlorophenoxy acid)
Aster yellow corn Smut Corn 3. Butachlor
Spike diseases of Sandalwood Sandalwood 4. MCPA (2–Methyl 2–Chloro 1–Phenoxy Acetic Acid)

(a) Seed-Borne diseases : Brown or sesame leaf spot of rice, Some Common Pesticides
red rot of sugar-cane, bacterial blight of rice and angular 1. D.D.T. (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane)
leaf spot of cotton. 2. B.H.C. (Benzene Hexa Chloride)
(b) Air-borne diseases : Blast of rice, black stem and coffee 3. Malathion
rust caused by fungal infections. 4. Copper Oxychloride
(c) Soil-borne diseases : Root knot of tomato, tikka disease
5. Sulphur
of ground-nut, smut of bajra and green ear of grain.
6. Zinc Phosphide (Rat poison)
7. Warfarin
Chemical Fertilizers
³³ Nitrogenous Fertilizers. The nitrogen containing 8. Agrosan
fertilizers are called nitrogenous fertilizers. Examples 9. Ceresan
of the nitrogenous fertilizers are :
1. Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
BOTANICAL NAMES OF COMMON PLANTS
2. Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 1. Maize — Zea maize
3. Sodium nitrate NaNO3 2. Rice — Oryza sativa
4. Urea CO(NH2)2 3. Wheat — Triticum aestivum
³³ The use of urea is the best option because it does not 4. Sugarcane — Sacchrum officinrum
affect the pH of soil.
5. Gram — Cicera arietinum
³³ Phosphatic Fertilizers. The phosphorus containig
6. Lentil — Lens culinaris
fertilizers are called phosphatic fertilizers. Examples
of phosphatic fertilizers are : 7. Arhar — Cajanus cajan
1. Calcium dihydrogen phosphate or Superphosphate 8. Kidney bean — Phaseolus vulgaris
Ca(H2PO4)2 9. Cowpea — Vigna unguiculata
2. Ammonium phosphate 10. Soyabean — Glycine max
(NH4)3PO4 11. Moong — Vigna radiata
3. Ammonium hydrogen phosphate or Ammophos 12. Black gram — Phaseolus mungo
(NH4)H2PO4 13. Solanum — Potato tuberosum
³³ Potassium Fertilizers. The important potassium 14. Brinjal — Solanum melongana
fertilizers are :
15. Tomato — Lycopersicum trubescens
1. Potassium chloride KCl
16. Bell pepper — Capsicum trutescens
2. Potassium sulphate K2SO4
17. Clove — Melilotus indicus
3. Potassium nitrate KNO3
18. Ginger — Zingiber officinale
SOME COMMON WEEDS 19. Black peper — Piper nigrum
20. Turmeric — Curcuma domestica
Some Common weeds found in wheat and rice 21. Ginger — Zingiber officinale
fields : 22. Lemon — Citrus limon
1. Wild Oat (Javi) 23. Onion — Allium sepa
2. Grass (Ghaas) 24. Garlic — Allium seame
3. Amaranthus (Chaulai) 25. Carrot — Daucos carota
4. Chenopodium (Bathua)
26. Turnip — Brassica rapa
5. Convolvulus (Hiran Khuri)
27. Radish — Raphanus sativus
Important Weeds of Kharif Season 28. Beet — Beta Vulgaris
1. Saathi (Trianthema) 29. Sweet potato — Ipomoea bafatas
2. Amaranthus (Chaulai) 30. Spinach — Basella rubra

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31. Garden pea — Pisum sativum

GENERAL SCIENCE

32. Sweet pea — Lethyrus odoratus

BREEDS OF ANIMALS
33. Mint — Mentha arvensis Indian breeds of buffaloes
34. Sem — Dolischos lablab 1. Murrah Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
35. Broad bean — Vicia faba Pradesh
2. Bhadawari Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
36. Lady finger/Okara — Abelmoschus esculentus Pradesh
37. Lotus — Nelunibo nucifera 3. Jaffrabadi Gujarat
38. Sunflower — Helianthus annus 4. Surti Rajasthan, Gujarat
5. Mehsana Gujarat
39. Rose — Rosa indicus 6. Nagpuri or Ellichpuri Central and South India
40. China rose — Hibiscus rosasinerisis 7. Nili Ravi Punjab, Haryana
41. Orange — Citrus reticulata COW BREEDS
42. Grape — Vitis vinifera Milch Breeds
43. Mango — Mangifera indica 1. Gir Gujarat, Rajasthan
44. Guava — Psidium guajava 2. Sahiwal Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
45. Banana — Musa paradisiaca Pradesh
3. Red Sindhi Andhra Pradesh
46. Date — Phoenix dactylifera
4. Deoni Andhra Pradesh
47. Coconut — Cocas nucitera
Draught breeds
48. Apple — Maluspumila/ Pyrusmalus
1. Malvi Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
49. Pomogranate — Punica granatum
2. Nageri Delhi, Haryana, Uttar
50. Banyan — Ficus bengalensis Pradesh
51. Reepal — Ficus religiosa 3. Hallikar Karnataka
52. Neem — Azardirachta indica 4. Kangayam Tamil Nadu and the other
parts of South India.
53. Betel — Piper beetle
54. Money plant — Pothos sp. General Utility Breeds
55. Doopgrass — Cynocton dacfylon 1. Haryani Haryana, Punjab, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat
56. Pineapple — Ananas comsus
2. Ongole Andhra Pradesh
57. Strawberry — Fragaria vesca 3. Kankrej Gujarat
58. Datura — Datura inoxia/stramonium 4. Tharparkar Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat
59. Belladona — Atropa belladona GOAT BREEDS
60. Tobacco — Nicotiana tobaccum Breed Distribution
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 1. Gaddi Himachal Pradesh
2. Kashmiri Pashmina Hills of Kashmir, Tibet, Him-
³³ The branch of agriculture which deals with the
achal Pradesh
3. Jamunapari UP, MP
feeding, shelter, health, rearing and breeding of 4. Beetal Punjab
domestic animals is called animal husbandry. 5. Marwari Rajasthan
³³ India has the largest livestock population, accounting for 6. Berari Maharashtra
about 57 per cent of the world buffalo population and 7. Malabari Kerala
15 per cent of the cattle population. 8. Bengal Bihar, Odisha
³³ Due to low economic status of the livestock owners, PIG BREEDS
much of the livestock is reared under sub–optimal Breeds Distribution Indian Breeds
conditions. 1. Desi Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab,
³³ Livestock sector provides regular employment to Madhya Pradesh
about 11 million in principal status and 8 million in 2. Ghori Manipur, Assam, Meghalaya,
subsidiary status. Arunachal Pradesh
Exotic Breeds
³³ Women constitute 69 per cent of the labour force in
3. Berkshire U.K.
livestock sector as against 35 per cent in crop farming.
4. Large White Yorkshire U.K.
³³ Fisheries sector occupies a very important place 5. Landrace U.S.A., Switzerland and Den-
in the socio-economic development of the country mark
particularly in coastal areas of western and eastern 6. Tamworth U.K.
ghats. 7. Duroc U.S.A.

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HORSE BREEDS EXOTIC BREEDS

GENERAL SCIENCE
Breeds Distribution Cow : Jersey, Holstein, Friesian, Brown Swiss,
1. Kathiawari Rajasthan, Gujarat Ayrshire and Red Dhane.
2. Marwari Rajasthan Buffalow : Binhu and Enshi Swamp type Chinese,
3. Bhutia Bhutan, Punjab after their cross with indigenous species Murrah and Nili-
4. Manipuri North eastern mountains Ravi.
5. Spiti Himachal Pradesh Goat : Anglo Nubian, British Alpine, Sannen and
6. Zanskari Ladakh Toggenburg.
SHEEP BREEDS Sheep : Dorset, Sufflok, Merion, Cheriod and
Souldown.
1. Gurej Gurej tehsil, Kashmir
Camel : Bectrian Camel, Dromedaxy Camel, F-1
2. Karnah Kol in Kashmir
camel, (F-1, largest number in Australia).
3. Bhararwal Lower hills of Himalayas
Horse : American Quarter Horse, Arbian, Shire
4. Gaddi Jammu region, Kullu/Kangra
Horse, Percheron, with kathiware, Marwari, Bhutia and
valleys and Chamba/Mandi Zanskari the Indian species.
areas of H. P.
5. Rampur Bushair Mahasu and Kinnaur district GESTATION IN CATTLE AND OTHER
of H.P. ANIMALS
6. Lohi Punjab, S. Rajasthan
7. Bikaneri Bikaner division, Rajasthan Gestation period is time from conception to birth. It
8. Marwari Jodhpur, Jaipur, Pali, Barmer depends upon the size of animals and varies from animal
districts of Rajasthan to animal.
9. Kuchi (Dhesi) Saurashtra and Gujarat S.No. Animal Gestation period
10. Kathiawari Kathiawar, Kachchh, S. Ra-
jasthan and N. Gujarat 1. Cow 280-290 days
11. Deccani SE Maharashtra and adjoin- 2. Sheep 145-155 days
ing A.P. 3. Horse 330-345 days
12. Nellore Nellore district of A.P.
13. Bellary Bellary/Kurnool districts of 4. Goat 145-155 days
A.P. 5. Donkey 360-290 days
14. Mandhya Karnataka state 6. Dog 65 days
15. Bandhur Karnataka state
7. Mice 19-21 days
POULTRY BREEDS 8. Guinea pigs 34-56 days
Domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) 9. Cat 64 days
American Type : Plymouth Rock, Red Rhode Island, New
Hampshire. 10. Pig 112-115 days
English Type : Sussex, Austratorp. 11. Camel 360-420 days
Mediterranean Type : Leghorn, Minorca. 12. Elephant 617 days (longest gestation
Indian Type : Ghagus, Busra, Donki, Aseel, Black Bengal, (Asian) peirod)
Tellicherry etc.
Elephant 645 days (longest gestation
Asiatic Type : Brahma, Cochin, Langshan. (African) peirod)
SHEEP AND USES 13. Rabbit 31-32 days
Breeds Uses 14. Lion 106 days
1. Lohi Yield good quality wool and milk 15. Leopard 92-95 days
2. Rampur Bushair Fleece is brown in colour, yields
superior wool. Lactation period
3. Nali Produce superior wool for making S.No. Cattle Lactation period
of carpets 1. Cow 12-14 months, normally 9 months
4. Bhakarwa Suitable for the production of high with 6800 kg of milk per lactation
period.
quality woollen shawls
2. Buffalo Lactation period 260-290 days with
5. Deccani Gives mutton, wool is not formed yield of 2000 kg per lactation period.
6. Nellore Gives mutton, wool is not formed 3. Goat Lactation period 10 months, 6-8 kg
7. Marwari Produces coarse quality wool. milk per day.
8. Patanwadi Produces wool that is used for 4. Camel Lactation period18 months with 4-5
army hosiery kg per day.

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FISH
GENERAL SCIENCE

7. Pink Revolution Shrimp/Onion production

³³ A large section of the Indian population uses fish as 8. Brown Revolution Fertilizer/Leather
food particularly those living in coastal areas. production
³³ Fish and other variety of sea food are rich in proteins. 9. Gray Revolution Production of Spices

³³ Fish liver oil is rich in Vitamins A and D. 10. Red Revolution Meat/Tomato production
11. Black Revolution Biodiesel production
³³ On the basis of their habitat, fish are mainly divided
12. Rainbow Revolution Emphasis on all the above
into two categories: (i) Marine Fish (ii) Fresh Water
revolutions.
Fish
³³ Marine Fishes of India – Bombay Duck, Eel, Hilsa, DISEASES IN ANIMALS
Pomphret, Salmon, Sardine. Viral Diseases of Animals

³³ Fresh Water Fishes of India – Catla, Tirica, Rohu, Diseases Animals

Malli, Singhara, Calbasu. Foot and Mouth Disease All cattle

Pox Cow, Buffalo, sheep, goat,
³³ The production of fishes in fresh water is called
fowl
Pisciculture and of marine fishes is called mariculture.
Dermatitis Sheep and goats
³³ India is the third largest producer of fish and second
Bacterial Diseases of Animals
largest producer of inland fish in the world.
Diseases Animals
³³ The fisheries sector provides employment to over 11 Fowl Cholera Poultry Birds
million people engaged fully, partially or in subsidiary Diarrhoea of chick Poultry Birds
activities pertaining to the sector. Rinderpest Cattle
³³ Potential of fish production from marine and inland Tuberculosis Cattle and Birds
sources has been estimated at 3.9 million tonnes and Anthrax Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs
4.5 million tonnes, respectively.
DISEASES OF ANIMALS TRANSMITTED TO HUMAN
Apiculture : It refers to rearing and management of honey BEINGS
bees in bee-hives or aparies by farmers for honey, bee-wax
³³ Bacterial Diseases – Anthrax, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis
and bee venom. The indigenous species is Apis indicus
³³ Viral Diseases – Rabies, Cow Pox, Encephalitis
while high yield exotic species is Italian, Apis melifera
³³ Fungal Diseases – Aspergillosis, Actinomycosis,
The honey collected from bee hive varies in flavour as if
Ringworm
depends on pasturage i.e., surrounding vegetation. Hon-
³³ Parasitic – Ascariasis, Amebiosis, Trypanosomiasis
ey is a good source of sugar, minerals and vitamins with
medicinal value. IMPORTANT INSTITUTES

AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS 1. Central Sheep Breeding Farm, Hissar

1. White Revolution Milk production 2. Central Fodder Seed Production Farm, Hessarghatta
2. Silver Revolution Egg production (Karnataka)

3. Blue Revolution Fish production 3. The Central Institute of Fisheries, Nautical and Engineer-
ing Training, Kochi
4. Golden Revolution Honey production
4. The Central Institute of Coastal Engineering for Fish-
5. Green Revolution Overall agricultural
production eries, Bangalore

6. Yellow Revolution Oilseed production 5. The National Research Centre on Pigs, Guwahati.
ppp

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 8 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
segments from one organism and recombine it with
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND
DNA in another organism. This is called recombinant
GENETIC ENGINEERING DNA (rDNA) technology, and it is one of the basic tools
³³ In modern times, biotechnology exists in two facets of modern biotechnology.
called the traditional biotechnology and modern ³³ rDNA technology is the laboratory manipulation
biotechnology. The traditional biotechnology merely of DNA in which DNA, or fragments of DNA from
involves the use of microorganism in production of different sources, are cut and recombined using
curd, yoghurt, cheese, acetic acid, etc. The modern enzymes. This recombinant DNA is then inserted into
biotechnology involves the fruitification of agronomic a living organism. rDNA technology is usually used
food products, production of GM crops, plants or synonymously with genetic engineering.
animals and production of antibiotics and other drugs ³³ rDNA technology allows researchers to move genetic
of use. Herbert Boyer and Stanly Cohen are considered information between unrelated organisms to produce
as the father of modern biotechnology. desired products or characteristics or to eliminate
PRINCIPLES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY: undesirable characteristics.
Among many, the two core techniques that enabled birth GENETIC ENGINEERING:
of modern biotechnology are: ³³ Genetic engineering is the technique of removing,
³³ Genetic engineering: Techniques to alter the chemistry modifying or adding genes to a DNA molecule in order
of genetic material (DNA and RNA), to introduce these to change the information it contains. By changing
into host organisms and thus change the phenotype this information, genetic engineering changes the
of the host organism.
type or amount of proteins an organism is capable
³³ Bioprocess engineering: Maintenance of sterile of producing. Genetic engineering is used in the
(microbial contamination-free) ambience in chemical production of drugs, human gene therapy, and the
engineering processes to enable growth of only the development of improved plants.
desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in large quantities
³³ This process involves the use of restriction
for the manufacture of biotechnological products like
endonucleases, DNA ligase, appropriate plasmid
antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes, etc.
or viral vectors to isolate and ferry the foreign DNA
HOW DOES MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY WORK? into host organisms, expression of the foreign gene,
³³ All organisms are made up of cells that are programmed purification of the gene product, i.e., the functional
by the same basic genetic material, called DNA protein and finally making a suitable formulation for
(deoxyribonucleic acid). Each unit of DNA is made up marketing. Large scale production involves use of
of a combination of the following nucleotides; adenine bioreactors.
(A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (D) as well
TOOLS OFRECOMBINANT DNA (rDNA) TECHNOLOGY:
as a sugar and a phosphate.
Restriction Enzymes:
³³ These nucleotides pair up into strands that twist
together into a spiral structure call a ‘double helix’. ³³ Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes
This double helix is DNA. Segments of the DNA tell called nucleases. These are of two kinds; exonucleases
individual cells how to produce specific proteins. and endonucleases. Exonucleases remove nucleotides
These segments are genes. It is the presence or from the ends of the DNA whereas, endonucleases
absence of the specific protein that gives an organism make cuts at specific positions within the DNA.
a trait or characteristic. ³³ Each restriction endonuclease functions by ‘inspecting’
³³ When cells reproduce, the DNA strands of the double the length of a DNA sequence. Once it finds its specific
helix separate. Because nucleotide A always pairs with recognition sequence, it will bind to the DNA and
T and G always pairs with C, each DNA strand serves cut each of the two strands of the double helix at
as a precise blueprint for a specific protein. Except for specific points in their sugar -phosphate backbones.
mutations or mistakes in the replication process, a Each restriction endonuclease recognises a specific
single cell is equipped with the information to replicate palindromic nucleotide sequences in the DNA.
into millions of identical cells. ³³ Restriction endonucleases are used in genetic
³³ Because all organisms are made up of the same engineering to form ‘recombinant’ molecules of DNA,
type of genetic material (nucleotides A, T, G, and C), which are composed of DNA from different sources/
biotechnologists use enzymes to cut and remove DNA genomes.

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Separation and isolation of DNA fragments: removed by appropriate treatments and purified
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

³³ The cutting of DNA by restriction endonucleases DNA ultimately precipitates out after the addition of
results in the fragments of DNA. These fragments chilled ethanol.
can be separated by a technique known as gel Cutting of DNA at Specific Locations:
electrophoresis.
³³ Restriction enzyme digestions are performed by
³³ Since DNA fragments are negatively charged molecules incubating purified DNA molecules with the restriction
they can be separated by forcing them to move towards enzyme, at the optimal conditions for that specific
the anode under an electric field through a medium/ enzyme. Agarose gel electrophoresis is employed
matrix. Nowadays the most commonly used matrix to check the progression of a restriction enzyme
is agarose which is a natural polymer extracted from digestion.
sea weeds. The DNA fragments separate (resolve)
according to their size through sieving effect provided Amplification of Gene of Interest using PCR:
by the agarose gel. ³³ PCR stands for Polymerase Chain Reaction. In this
³³ The DNA fragments purified in this way are used in reaction, multiple copies of the gene (or DNA) of interest
constructing recombinant DNA by joining them with is synthesised in vitro using two sets of primers (small
cloning vectors. chemically synthesised oligonucleotides that are
complementary to the regions of DNA) and the enzyme
Cloning Vectors:
DNA polymerase.
³³ Vectors used at present, are engineered in such a
way that they help easy linking of foreign DNA and Insertion of Recombinant DNA into the Host Cell/
selection of recombinants from non-recombinants. Organism:
The following are the features that are required to ³³ There are several methods of introducing the ligated
facilitate cloning into a vector: DNA into recipient cells. Recipient cells after making
³³ Origin of replication (ori): This is a sequence from them ‘competent’ to receive, take up DNA present in
where replication starts and any piece of DNA when its surrounding.
linked to this sequence can be made to replicate within
the host cells.
Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product:
³³ Selectable marker: In addition to ‘ori’, the vector ³³ When a piece of alien DNA is inserted into a cloning
requires a selectable marker, which helps in vector and transfered it into a bacterial, plant or
identifying and eliminating non-transformants and animal cell, the alien DNA gets multiplied. In almost
selectively permitting the growth of the transformants. all recombinant technologies, the ultimate aim is to
Transformation is a procedure through which a piece produce a desirable protein. Hence, there is a need for
of DNA is introduced in a host bacterium. the recombinant DNA to be expressed. If any protein
³³ Cloning sites: In order to link the alien DNA, the vector encoding gene is expressed in a heterologous host, it
needs to have very few, preferably single, recognition is called a recombinant protein.
sites for the commonly used restriction enzymes. ³³ Small volume cultures cannot yield appreciable
quantities of products. To produce in large quantities,
Process of recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology:
the development of bioreactors, where large volumes
³³ Recombinant DNA technology involves several (100-1000 litres) of culture can be processed, was
steps in specific sequence such as isolation of DNA, required.
fragmentation of DNA by restriction endonucleases,
isolation of a desired DNA fragment, ligation of Downstream Processing:
the DNA fragment into a vector, transferring the ³³ After completion of the biosynthetic stage, the product
recombinant DNA into the host, culturing the host has to be subjected through a series of processes
cells in a medium at large scale and extraction of the before it is ready for marketing as a finished product.
desired product. The processes include separation and purification,
Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA): which are collectively referred to as downstream
processing.
³³ Since the DNA is enclosed within the membranes,
the cell is break opened to release DNA along with Applications of Genetic engineering:
other macromolecules such as RNA, proteins, ³³ Genetic engineering has applications in medicine,
polysaccharides and also lipids. This can be achieved research, industry and agriculture and can be used on
by treating the bacterial cells/plant or animal tissue a wide range of plants, animals and microorganisms.
with enzymes such as lysozyme (bacteria), cellulase
³³ In medicine, genetic engineering has been used to
(plant cells), chitinase (fungus).
mass-produce insulin, human growth hormones,
³³ The RNA can be removed by treatment with follistim (for treating infertility), human albumin,
ribonuclease whereas proteins can be removed by monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic factors,
treatment with protease. Other molecules can be vaccines, and many other drugs.

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 Science & Technology

³³ In research, organisms are genetically engineered to virtually error-free. This is fast becoming an enabling

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

discover the functions of certain genes. technology for modern molecular biology.
³³ Industrial applications include transforming ³³ This technology provides several advantages during
microorganisms such as bacteria or yeast, or insect the research and development process. Gene
mammalian cells with a gene coding for a useful synthesis is used to make custom plasmids, optimise
protein. Mass quantities of the protein can be gene expression, produce recombinant antibodies,
produced by growing the transformed organism in study mutant genes and even design and synthesise
bioreactors using fermentation, then purifying the DNA vaccines.
protein.
DNA fingerprinting:
³³ Genetic engineering is also used in agriculture to
create genetically-modified crops or genetically- ³³ It is a technique, for identification of an individual by
modified organisms. examining their DNA.
³³ Emmanuelle Charpentierand Jennifer Doudnawon ³³ DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic acid, is the basic building
the Nobel Chemistry Prize 2020for the gene-editing block of life. This component in cells contains all
technique known as the CRISPR-Cas9 DNA snipping the information about an organism and it also helps
‘scissors’. transfer the characteristics to the next generation.
³³ Using components of the CRISPR system, researchers ³³ Blood, bones, hair with root, saliva, semen, teeth, and
can add, remove, or even alter specific DNA sequences. tissue can be used to study the DNA.
This technology has introduced new opportunities in
Uses of DNA fingerprinting:
cancer therapies, curing inherited diseases and also
in plant inbreeding. For criminal identification
³³ To resolve disputes of maternity /paternity
Why the name CRISPR/Cas?
³³ To identify mutilated remains
³³ CRISPR is an abbreviation for clustered regularly
³³ In cases of exchange of babies in hospital wards,
interspaced short palindromic repeats.
³³ In forensic wildlife (The arrangement of the nucleotides
³³ These sequences are a part of the bacteria’s immune
is unique to any living form (except identical twins)
system. Bacteria that have survived a virus infection
be animals, plants, or microbes.)
add a piece of the genetic code of the virus into its
genome as a memory of the infection. Bio fortification:
³³ In addition to these CRISPR sequences, researchers ³³ Biofortification is the process by which the nutritional
discovered special genes called CRISPR-associated, quality of food crops is improved through agronomic
abbreviated as cas. practices, conventional plant breeding, or modern
Applications: biotechnology.
³³ • The CRISPR/Cas9 tool has already contributed ³³ Biofortification differs from conventional fortification
to significant gains in crop resilience, altering their in that biofortification aims to increase nutrient levels
genetic code to better withstand drought and pests. in crops during plant growth rather than through
³³ • The technology has also led to innovative cancer manual means during processing of the crops.
treatments, and many experts hope it could one ³³ On 16 October, 2020, Indian Prime Minister dedicated
day make inherited diseases curable through gene 17 biofortified varieties of 8 crops to the nation on the
manipulation. occasion of 75th Anniversary of the Agriculture and
Food Organization (FAO), the United Nations. This
Artificial Gene Synthesis: included HD 3298, DBW 303 and DDW 48 Biofortified
³³ Artificial gene synthesis is the production of gene- wheat varieties.
length double-stranded DNA fragments through ³³ Examples of biofortification projects include:
chemical synthesis of oligonucleotides. Unlike natural
³³ Iron-biofortification of rice, beans, sweet potato,
DNA synthesis in living cells, artificial gene synthesis
cassava and legumes;
does not require a template DNA, allowing almost any
sequence to be synthesised. ³³ Zinc-biofortification of wheat, rice, beans, sweet potato
and maize;
³³ The technology makes it possible to produce DNA
molecules that do not exist naturally in living ³³ Pro-vitamin A carotenoid-biofortification of sweet
organisms. Gene synthesis is not a new technology, potato, maize and cassava; and
and DNA fragments have been synthesised in ³³ Amino acid and protein-biofortification of sourghum
laboratories since the 1970s. and cassava.
³³ However, earlier methods were time-consuming, Bioremediation:
prohibitive, and prone to errors. Commercial gene-
³³ Bioremediation is the use of living micro organisms
synthesis services available today have shorter
to degrade the environmental contaminants into less
turnaround times, are cost-effective, and are
toxic forms.

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³³ It uses naturally occurring bacteria and fungi or ³³ Besides health and environmental concerns, activists
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

plants to degrade or detoxify substances hazardous point to social and economic issues. They have voiced
to human health and/or the environment. serious concern about multinational agribusiness
³³ The micro organisms may be indigenous to a companies taking over farming from the hands of
contaminated area or they may be isolated from small farmers. Dependence on GM seed companies
elsewhere and brought to the contaminated site. could prove to be a financial burden for farmers.
³³ Farmers are reluctant because they will have limited
First genetically engineered marsupial:
rights to retain and reuse seeds.
³³ In July 2021, researchers at RIKEN, Japan have ³³ Their concern also includes finding a market that
succeeded in creating the first genetically engineered would accept GM food.
marsupial. This study will contribute to deciphering
³³ People in general are wary of GM crops as they are
the genetic background of unique characteristics
observed only in marsupials. engineered in a lab and do not occur in Nature.
³³ Genetically modified animals, particularly mice and GM crop in India:
rats, are extremely important tools for researching
³³ Bt cotton remains the only GM crop approved for
biological processes. For example, researchers often
cultivation in India, even though Bangladesh has
silence genes to find out what their normal functions
are. reaped much success with Btbrinjal.
³³ Since marsupials have unique characteristics, ³³ The Union government had, in May 2020, allowed
studying them requires developing a representative a Maharashtra-based company to conduct field
animal model. To date, the best option is the opossum, trials for Btbrinjal in eight states, including Madhya
which is thought to be the ancestor of all marsupials. Pradesh and Karnataka. The varieties to be tested
Like other marsupials, the opossum has a variety of were a proprietary product of the government-run
characteristics that are not found in other mammals. Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). However,
Covid-19 is believed to have kept the trials from
Genetically Modified (GM) crops: proceeding.
³³ GM food involves the editing of genes of a crop in ³³ The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
such a way that it incorporates beneficial traits from (FSSAI) in a February 2021 order has set 1% threshold
another crop or organism. This could mean changing for Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) in food
the way the plant grows, or making it resistant to a crops imported into India.
particular disease. Food produced using the edited ³³ Earlier in August 2020, FSSAI had issued the order
crop is called GM food. This is done using the tools that 24 food crops the country imports would need a
of genetic engineering. ‘non-GM-origin-cum-GM-free certificate’ issued by a
What are the advantages of GM crops? competent authority.
³³ Genetic engineering can improve crop protection. ³³ Bt cotton has alien genes from the soil bacterium
Crops with better resistance to pest and diseases can Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that allows the crop to
be created. The use of herbicides and pesticides can develop a protein toxic to the common pest pink
be reduced or even eliminated. bollworm.
³³ Farmers can achieve high yield, and thereby get more ³³ Herbicide Tolerant Bt (HtBt) cotton, on the other hand
income. is derived with the insertion of an additional gene,
³³ Nutritional content can be improved. from another soil bacterium, which allows the plant
to resist the common herbicide glyphosate.
³³ Shelf life of foods can be extended.
³³ In Btbrinjal, a gene allows the plant to resist attacks
³³ Food with better taste and texture can be achieved.
of fruit and shoot borers.
³³ Crops can be engineered to withstand extreme weather
³³ In DMH-11 mustard, genetic modification allows
Why is there stiff opposition to GM crops? cross-pollination in a crop that self-pollinates in
³³ Genetically engineered foods often present unintended nature.
side effects. Genetic engineering is a new field, and First complete Human Genome launched in 2021
long-term results are unclear. Very little testing has
been done on GM food. ³³ The Human Genome Project that began in 1990
³³ Some crops have been engineered to create their own gave the first results of the complete human genome
toxins against pests. This may harm non-targets such sequence in 2003. However, though it was announced
as farm animals that ingest them. The toxins can also as the complete human genome, about 15% of it was
cause allergy and affect digestion in humans. incomplete.
³³ Further, GM crops are modified to include antibiotics ³³ Now,scientists from the Telomere-to-Telomere (T2T)
to kill germs and pests. And when we eat them, these Consortium, an international collaboration of around
antibiotic markers will persist in our body and will 30 institutions have nearly completed the job, adding
render actual antibiotic medications less effective over 200 million base pairs and 115 new protein-coding
a period of time, leading to superbug threats. This genes to the list.The total size of the genome they have
means illnesses will become more difficult to cure. sequenced is close to 3.05 billion base pairs.

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³³ The cell line that the researchers studied had an X 3D printers facilitate manufacturing by:

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

chromosome only and no Y chromosome. Therefore, ³³ Helping re-engineer lighter and better designed
information about the Y chromosome is missing in versions of existing parts
this release.
³³ Being cost-effective for design changes
Manav Human Atlas Initiative: ³³ Allowing low-risk manufacturing for market testing
³³ A human atlas initiative named Manav has been ³³ Promoting customisation and personalised products
launched by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), ³³ Improving accuracy
Government of India and Persistent Systems, a ³³ Decreasing expensive mistakes
biotechnology company. ³³ Promoting collaborative design between departments
³³ The aim is to create a unified database of molecular
³³ Highlighting costly design flaws
network of all the tissues in the human body and to
derive a holistic picture of working of the human body. ³³ Improving customer and designer involvement and,
hence, overall satisfaction
³³ The project will be executed by the Indian Institute
of Science Education and Research (IISER) and the ³³ Speeding up decision-making
National Center for Cell Sciences (NCCS) based in
Pune. NANOTECHNOLOGY
STARLINK MISSION ³³ The term nanotechnology describes a range of
technologies performed on a nanometer scale with
³³ The Starlink internet service by SpaceX, a company
widespread applications as an enabling technology
founded by Elon Musk, might soon complete its setup.
in various industries.
The internet service is expected to provide internet
to different parts of the globe, especially for people ³³ Nanotechnology is the understanding and control
in remote areas. The internet service will also be of matter at the nanoscale, at dimensions between
introduced in India. approximately 1 and 100 nanometers, where unique
³³ Starlink is high-speed, low latency broadband internet phenomena enable novel applications.
which delivers initial beta service domestically What is nanometer?
as well as internationally. It is a satellite internet
³³ A nanometer (nm) is one thousand millionth of a
constellation, constructed by SpaceX to provide
meter. A single human hair is about 80,000 nm wide,
satellite Internet access across the world.
a red blood cell is approximately 7,000 nm wide, a
³³ Internet constellation comprises of thousands of
DNA molecule 2 to 2.5 nm, and a water molecule
mass-produced small satellites in low Earth orbit
almost 0.3 nm.
(LEO). These satellites communicate with designated
ground transceivers. ³³ The term ”nanotechnology” was created by Norio
Taniguchi of Tokyo University in 1974 to describe the
³³ It relies on the over 1,000 satellites that the company
precision manufacture of materials with nanometer
has already positioned into the Earth’s orbit. The aim
tolerances , but its origins date back to Richard
is to make it a nearly 12,000-satellite network, so that
high-speed satellite internet can be provided to users. Feynman’s 1959 talk “There’s Plenty of Room at the
Bottom” in which he proposed the direct manipulation
³³ Startlink will provide an internet network everywhere
of individual atoms as a more powerful form of
except the poles.
synthetic chemistry.
3D PRINTING:
Properties of materials on nanoscale:
³³ Today, 3D printers can be seen building everything
³³ The properties of materials can be different on a
from homes to cars and even viable personal protective
nanoscale for two main reasons. First, nanomaterials
equipment (PPE), which are used by healthcare
have, relatively, a larger surface area than the same
workers all over the world in the fight against
COVID-19. mass of material produced in a larger form. This can
make materials more chemically reactive (in some
³³ 3D printing uses computer-aided design (CAD)
cases materials that are inert in their larger form are
to create three-dimensional objects through a
reactive when produced in their nanoscale form), and
layering method. Sometimes referred to as additive
affect their strength or electrical properties.
manufacturing, 3D printing involves layering
materials, like plastics, composites or bio-materials ³³ Second, below 50 nm, the laws of classical physics give
to create objects that range in shape, size, rigidity way to quantum effects, provoking optical, electrical
and color. and magnetic behaviours different from those of the
same material at a larger scale.
³³ 3D printers are part of the additive manufacturing
family and use similar methods to a traditional ³³ These effects can give materials very useful physical
inkjet printer- albeit in 3D. It takes a combination of properties such as exceptional electrical conduction
top-of-the-line software, powder-like materials and or resistance, or a high capacity for storing or
precision tools to create a three-dimensional object transferring heat, and can even modify biological
from scratch. properties, with silver for example becoming a
bactericide on a nanoscale.

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Carbon Nanotubes Electronics and IT Applications:

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

³³ Carbon nanotubes, long thin cylinders of atomic ³³ Nanotechnology has greatly contributed to major
layers of graphite, may be the most significant new advances in computing and electronics, leading
material since plastics and are the most significant to faster, smaller, and more portable systems that
of today’s nanomaterials. They come in a range can manage and store larger and larger amounts of
of different structures, allowing a wide variety of information.
properties.
Energy Applications:
³³ They are generally classified as single-walled (SWNT),
³³ Nanotechnology is finding application in traditional
consisting of a single cylindrical wall, or multiwalled
energy sources and is greatly enhancing alternative
nanotubes (MWNT), which have cylinders within the
energy approaches to help meet the world’s increasing
cylinders.
energy demands.
Application of Caron nanotubes: ³³ For example, Nanotechnology is improving the
³³ The most promising applications of nanotubes may efficiency of fuel production from raw petroleum
be in electronics and optoelectronics. materials through better catalysis. It is also enabling
reduced fuel consumption in vehicles and power
³³ Chemical and Genetic Probes: A nanotube-tipped
plants through higher-efficiency combustion and
atomic force microscope can trace a strand of DNA
decreased friction
and identify chemical markers that reveal which of
several possible variants of a gene is present in the Environment remediation:
strand. ³³ In addition to the ways that nanotechnology can help
³³ Mechanical memory (nonvolatile RAM): A screen of improve energy efficiency, there are also many ways
nanotubes laid on support blocks has been tested as that it can help detect and clean up environmental
a binary memory device, with voltages forcing some contaminants
tubes to contact and others to separate. ³³ For example, Nanotechnology could help meet the
³³ Nanotweezers: Two nanotubes, attached to electrodes need for affordable, clean drinking water through
on a glass rod, can be opened and closed by changing rapid, low-cost detection and treatment of impurities
voltage. Such tweezers have been used to pick up and in water.
move objects that are 500 nm in size.
Future Transportation Benefits:
Quantum dots: ³³ Nanotechnology offers the promise of developing
³³ The quantum dots are defined as the ball bearings multifunctional materials that will contribute to
of the nano-age. Quantum dots are like “artificial building and maintaining lighter, safer, smarter, and
atoms”. They are 1 nm structures made of materials more efficient vehicles, aircraft, spacecraft, and ships.
such as silicon, capable of confining a single electron, In addition, nanotechnology offers various means to
or a few thousand, whose energy states can be improve the transportation infrastructure
controlled by applying a given voltage. Everyday Materials and Processes:
³³ One more likely set of possible applications exploits ³³ Nanoscale additives to or surface treatments of fabrics
the fact that quantum dots can be made to emit light can provide lightweight ballistic energy deflection
at different wavelengths, with the smaller the dot the in personal body armor, or can help them resist
bluer the light. The dots emit over a narrow spectrum wrinkling, staining, and bacterial growth.
making them well suited to imaging, particularly for ³³ Clear nanoscale films on eyeglasses, computer
biological samples. and camera displays, windows, and other surfaces
³³ The wide range of colors that can be produced by can make them water- and residue-repellent, anti-
quantum dots also means they have great potential reflective, self-cleaning, resistant to ultraviolet
in security. They could, for example, be hidden in or infrared light, anti-fog, antimicrobial, scratch-
bank notes or credit cards, producing a unique visible resistant, or electrically conductive.
image when exposed to ultraviolet light.
CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY
APPLICATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN INDIA:
Medical and Healthcare applications: 1. Coal
³³ Nanotechnology is already broadening itself in the ³³ India is currently producing about 729 million tonnes
areas of medical tools, knowledge, and therapies of coal. However, it is a fact that domestic production
currently available to clinicians. is not able to meet the demand of coal in the country.
³³ Nanomedicine, the application of nanotechnology in ³³ India has imported 247 million tonnes of coal last year
medicine, draws on the natural scale of biological and had spent 1.58 lakh crore as foreign exchange.
phenomena to produce precise solutions for disease ³³ Despite India being world’s second largest coal
prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. producer and being the 5th largest country in terms

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of coal deposits, with coal reserves which may last at ³³ Crude Oil import rose sharply to US$ 101.4 billion in

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

least 100 years more, the country is unable to produce 2019-20 from US$ 70.72 billion in 2016-17.
adequate quantity of coal to meet the requirement of ³³ As of June 01, 2021, the sector’s total installed
domestic industry and development. provisional refinery capacity stood at 249.9 MMT and
³³ Coal Sector Reforms introduced ease of doing business IOC emerged as the largest domestic refiner, with a
while retaining transparency - ushering Commercial capacity of 69.7 MMT.
Mining of Coal in 2020. ³³ As of December 01, 2020, India’s oil refining capacity
³³ Relevant provisions of the CMSP Act and the MMDR stood at 259.3 million metric tonnes (MMT), making
Act were amended through the Mineral Laws it the second-largest refiner in Asia.
(Amendment) Act, 2020 with a view of ensuring ease ³³ Private companies own about 35.29% of the total
of doing business, removing redundancy in provisions refining capacity in FY20.
and bringing flexibility in allocation. ³³ In FY20, crude oil production in India stood at 32.2
³³ With the above changes in law and policy, the auction MMT. Crude oil production stood at 4.9 MMT in FY22
of coal blocks for commercial mining was launched in (April-May 2021) and was 30.5 MMT for FY21.
June 2020 with 38 blocks in the first tranche. ³³ In FY20, crude oil import increased to 4.54 mbpd from
³³ In the above background it is seen that Import 4.53 mbpd in FY19.
substitution is one of the topmost priorities of the ³³ Natural Gas consumption is forecast to reach 143.08
Govt. of India presently. million tonnes (MT) by 2040. India’s LNG import stood
³³ An Inter-Ministerial Committee (IMC) has been at 33.68 bcm during FY20.
constituted for the purpose. ³³ India’s consumption of petroleum products grew
³³ Towards the goal of Aatmanirbhar Bharat, the Ministry 4.5% to 213.69 MMT during FY20 from 213.22 MMT
along with all stakeholders is actively pursuing to in FY19.
achieve the mission of Import Substitution. ³³ The total value of petroleum products exported from
³³ It is projected that the coal demand will grow from the country increased to US$ 35.8 billion in FY20
955.26 MT in 2019-20 to 1.27 BT in 2023-24. To meet from US$ 34.9 billion in FY19.
this growing demand a coal production plan has been ³³ Export of petroleum products from India increased
prepared and CIL has been given a target of producing from 60.54 MMT in FY16 to 65.7 MMT in FY20.
1 BT coal by 2023-24.
³³ Exports of petroleum products from India reached
The various steps taken to make coal environment 56.8 MMT in FY21 from 60.5 MMT in FY16.
friendly are
³³ As of December 31, 2020, Gas Authority of India
³³ Coal Bed Methane: It means a natural gas trapped Ltd. (GAIL) had the largest share (69.39% or 11,884
in a coal seam. Coal bed Methane (CBM), an kms) of the country’s natural gas pipeline network
unconventional source of natural gas is now (17,126 kms).
considered as an alternative source for augmenting
India’s energy resource. India has the fifth largest In India there are six major oil fields.
proven coal reserves in the world and thus holds ³³ Oldest and largest at Digboi in Lakhimpur District,
significant prospects for exploration and exploitation Assam.
of CBM. In order to harness CBM potential in ³³ Surma Valley at Badarpur and Masimpur.
the country, Government has undertaken several
³³ Upper Assam at Nahartika and Rudrasagar.
initiatives including the CBM policy.
³³ Gujarat oil wells at Ankleswar, Cambay, Kalol,
• Surface coal gasification: India has a reserve of 289
Kosamba, etc.
Billion tonnes of non-coking coal and about 80%
³³ Bombay High out in Arabian Sea, about 152 km north-
of coal produced is used in thermal power plants.
west of Bombay city with richest oil and gas deposits.
Coal gasification is considered as cleaner option as
compared to burning of coal and utilises the chem- List of oil refeneries in India
ical properties of coal. Syn Gas produced from Coal
³³ There are total of twelve refineries in India, at Barauni,
gasification can be utilised in producing Synthetic
Guhawati, Haldia, Kayali, Bombay, Vishakhapatnam,
Natural Gas (SNG), energy fuel (methanol & ethanol),
Cochin, Digboi, Mathura and Madras.
production of urea for fertilisers and production of
3. Natural Gas
Chemicals such as Acetic Acid, Methyl Acetate, Ace-
³³ Total consumption of natural gas (including internal
tic Anhydride, DME, Ethylene and Propylene, Oxo
consumption) for the month of February, 2021 was
chemicals and Poly Olefins. These products will help
5045 MMSCMwhich was 12.7% lower than the
in import substitution and help the mission of Gov-
corresponding month of the previous year.
ernment of Atmanirbhar Bharat.
³³ The cumulative consumption of 55053 MMSCMfor
2. Petroleum the current year till February, 2021 was lower by
³³ India is expected to be one of the largest contributors 6.4% compared with the corresponding period of the
to non-OECD petroleum consumption growth globally. previous year.

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³³ Qatar, the biggest supplier of liquefied natural gas Bhilangana Valley as may be entrusted to the
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

(LNG) to India, wants the government to consider Corporation by the Government.

bringing natural gas in the ambit of Goods and ³³ The Corporation is presently engaged in the
Services Tax (GST). implementation of Tehri Hydro Power Complex (2,400
4. Hydro-Power MW) comprising of Tehri Dam and HPP, Stage-1,
³³ Hydro–power is a renewable and pollution free source (1,000 MW) and 400 MW Koteshwar HE Project and
of generating power. Tehri Pumped Storage Plant (1,000 MW).
³³ It requires a perennial flow of large volume of water, ³³ Presently, THDCIL has a portfolio of 13 projects
falling from a height. (Hydro, Thermal, Wind & Solar), totaling to an
³³ A readily available market is an essential requirement installed capacity of 5,539 MW, which includes 1587
for generating HEP as electricity cannot be stored. MW operational and balance under various stages of
³³ The hydro–electric power generation is a capital development / implementation.
intensive activity. It requires huge capital outlays. ³³ The project will provide drinking water facilities for
5. Nuclear Power Delhi, towns and villages of Uttarakhand and U.P.
³³ The main objective of India’s nuclear energy POWER FINANCE CORPORATION LIMITED
programme, as defined in the Atomic Energy Act
³³ The Power Finance Corporation Limited (PFC), New
of 1948, is the development of various nuclear
Delhi, was incorporated on July 16th, 1986 and was
applications like power generation.
declared a public financial institution in August 1990.
³³ The executive agency for all activities pertaining to
³³ The main objectives of the Corporation include
atomic energy in the country is Department of Atomic
financing of power generation projects, transmission
Energy (DAE), set up in 1954.
and distribution works, renovation and mod-
³³ Nuclear Power stations are located at Kota in Rajasthan, ernisation of power plants, system improvement and
Tarapore in Maharashtra, Kaiga in Karnataka, energy conservation schemes, maintenance and repair
Kalpakkam near Chennai, and Kundakulam in Tamil of capital equipment.
Nadu, Narora in Uttar Pradesh and Kakrapara in
³³ PFC has been declared as Mini Ratna (Category I) PSU.
Gujarat.
³³ Nuclear energy production faces serious problem RURAL ELECTRIFICATION CORPORATION LIMITED
pertaining to disposal of waste and hazards of ³³ The Rural Electrification Corporation Limited (REC)
radioactivity by emission of radiations. was set up in 1969 with the primary objective of
providing financial assistance for rural electrification
NHPC LIMITED
in the country.
³³ National Hydro electric Power Corporation was
³³ REC is a schedule ‘A’ organisation.
founded in 1975 under Electric utility.
³³ It is meant to plan, promote and organize an integrated SATLUJ JAL VIDYUT NIGAM LIMITED
and efficient development of hydro electric power. ³³ The Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam (SJVN) Ltd. (formerly
³³ However later it took on the production of solar energy, Nathpa Jhakri Power Corporation Ltd) was
tidal energy, wind and geothermal energy. incorporated on May 24th, 1988 as a joint venture
³³ India is 5th globally for installed hydroelectric power of the Government of India and the Government of
capacity. Himachal Pradesh to plan, investigate, organise,
³³ As of 31 March, 2020, India's installed utility-scale execute, operate and maintain hydro-electric power
hydroelectric capacity was 46,000 MW, or 12.3% of projects in the Satluj basin in Himachal Pradesh.
its total utility power generation capacity. ³³ The equity-sharing ratio of Government of India and
³³ Additional smaller hydroelectric power units with a Government of Himachal Pradesh is 3:1 respectively.
total capacity of 4,683 MW (1.3% of its total utility ³³ The 1500 MW, Nathpa Jhakri Hydro-electric Power
power generation capacity) have been installed. Project is the first project undertaken by SJVN.
³³ While three more with capacity of 3290 MW are
under construction in Jammu & Kashmir, Assam and DAMODAR VALLEY CORPORATION
Himachal Pradesh each. ³³ The Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), the first
multi–purpose river valley project of the Government
TEHRI HYDRO DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION
of India, was set up in July, 1948 for the unified
LIMITED
development of Damodar Valley region spread over
³³ The Tehri Hydro Development Corporation (THDC) was the state of Jharkhand and West Bengal.
incorporated on July 12th, 1988 as a joint venture ³³ DVC’s main projects include four dams at Maithon,
of the Government of India and Government of Uttar Panchet, Tilaiya and Konar, with connected hydro-
Pradesh to execute the 2,400 MW Tehri Hydro Power electric power stations (except at Konar), thermal
Complex in Tehri Garhwal (Uttarakhand) and also power station at Bokaro ‘A’, Bokaro ‘B’, Chandrapura,
to plan, promote and organize the development and Durgapur, Mejia and also one gas turbine station at
harnessing of hydro-electric projects in Bhagirathi- Maithon.

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³³ DVC supplies power to coal mines, steel plants, railways metre height as 302 GW. This is almost 81% of the

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

and other big industries, besides State Electricity Boards country’s current installed electricity generation
of Jharkhand and West Bengal. capacity.
³³ DVC developed and expanded its infrastructure to ³³ A June 2021 report, “India Wind Energy Market
six thermal power stations (6750 MW) and three Outlook 2025” by the Global Wind Energy Council
hydro-electric power stations with a capacity of 147.2 (GWEC) and MEC Intelligence (MEC+), a strategic
MW which contribute to a total installed capacity of advisory and market consulting firm, notes that India
6897.2 MW. is expected to install nearly 20.2 GW of wind power
³³ Presently DVC has 49 sub-stations and receiving capacity between 2021-2025, a growth of nearly 50
stations more than 7280-circuit km of transmission percent compared to the 39.2 GW currently installed
and distribution lines. in the country.
³³ Tamil Nadu tops the list of states with the largest
HPCL (HINDUSTAN PETROLEUM CORPORATION
installed wind power generation capacity in the
LIMITED)
country followed by Gujarat and Maharshatra.
³³ It was founded in 1974 with its headquarters
in Mumbai. It is an Indian state owned oil and Offshore Wind Energy:
natural gas company with the government of India ³³ Wind energy typically comes in two different “types”:
owing 51.11% shares. It deals in products such as onshore wind farms which are large installations of
petrol, diesel particularly HSD (High speed Diesel), wind turbines located on land, and offshore wind
Lubricants, LPG, and Aviation turbine fuel. It has its farms which are installations located in bodies of
own five refineries of varying capacity. water.
³³ Offshore wind energy refers to the deployment of
BPCL (BHARAT PETROLEUM CORPORATION
wind farms inside the water bodies. They utilise the
LIMITED)
sea winds to generate electricity. These wind farms
³³ The Department of Investment and public asset either use fixed-foundation turbines or floating wind
management has appointed Deloitte Touchre turbines.
Tohmatsu Ltd. as advisor for the strategic sale of
³³ A fixed-foundation turbine is built in shallow water,
Bharat Petroleum Corporation.
whereas a floating wind turbine is built in deeper
³³ Completion of the stake sale in India's second
waters where its foundation is anchored in the seabed.
largest state-owned oil refiner by March 2020
Floating wind farms are still in their infancy.
could help the government mobilse more that
³³ Offshore wind farms must be at least 200 nautical
Rs. 60,000 crore and narrow the fixed deficit.
miles from the shore and 50 feet deep in the ocean.
But excluding the stake in Numaligarh Refinery which
will be carved out of BPCL before privatisation. SOLAR ENERGY
³³ It is the Indian state-controlled oil and gas company
³³ Today India stands at 4th position in the world in
with its headquarters in Mumbai with two refineries
terms of installed RE capacity, 5th in solar and 4th
at Kochi and Mumbai.
in wind in terms of installed capacity.
³³ It was founded in 1976, to be the first refinery to
³³ As of August 2021, in India 100 GW has been
process crude oil from Bombay High. It like HPCL deals
installed, 50 GW is under installation and 27 GW is
in petroleum, natural gas and other petrochemicals.
under tendering. India has also enhanced its ambition
NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY to install 450 GW of renewable energy capacity
by 2030.If large hydro is included the installed RE
WIND ENERGY IN INDIA capacity increases to 146 GW.
³³ India has over three decades of experience in ³³ The country is targeting about 450 Gigawatt (GW) of
harnessing power through a grid-connected wind installed renewable energy capacity by 2030 – about
energy system. Wind power continues to be a major 280 GW (over 60%) is expected from solar.
constituent of India’s renewable energy (RE) based Target of 100GW:
grid-connected power generation mix and constitutes
³³ India set itself an ambitious target: 100 gigawatts (GW)
4% of the overall share of electricity generation in the
of solar generation capacity by 2022. That would be
country.
a boon for its commercial and industrial consumers,
³³ Between 2010-2011 and 2019- 2020, wind generation
who account for 74% of installed energy capacity,
capacity grew at a CAGR of 11.39% while the overall
compared with 13% of installed capacity for residential
installed electricity capacity witnessed a CAGR of
customers and public sector organizations.
8.78%.
³³ As of December 2020, it had 38.8 GW of installed
³³ The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE),
solar capacity, including ground-mounted and rooftop
autonomous research and development institution
operations. Solar is also powering other essential
of the Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
infrastructure, including transport. One of India’s
(MNRE), has estimated wind power potential at 100
flagship solar projects, the giant Rewa solar park,

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powers the New Delhi metro rail system: a network permitting natural light inside just as conventional
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

that serves over 2.6 million commuters daily. architectural glasses. Rising awareness about
³³ Vital government-led initiatives like 24x7 - Power for green infrastructure plus zero-emission buildings is
All, which committed to providing each household expected to additional boost market growth.
access to electricity around the clock, are helping to
Mono PERC Modules:
empower communities – both literally and figuratively,
improving the quality of life. ³³ There has been an augmented recognition of high-
efficiency monocrystalline technology in solar
³³ India on its part has been working on a raft of ventures in India which in turn has urged the module
measures including clean electricity, ethanol
manufacturers to promptly scale-up production of
blending with fossil fuels, green mobility, battery
storage and green hydrogen to help reduce pollution mono PERC modules.
and facilitate commitments made at COP-21 in ³³ This modification from polycrystalline modules to
Paris. mono PERC modules is primarily driven by higher
³³ India plans to reduce its carbon footprint by 33- efficiency which reliefs in reducing land and other
35% from its 2005 levels by 2030 and meet 40% balance of system (BoS) costs for developers, resultant
of its electricity needs from non-fossil fuel sources in higher returns.
by then, as part of its commitments to the United
³³ Worldwide, the modification from poly to mono solar
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
adopted by 195 countries in Paris in 2015. panels has previously been in place for the last 2
years. Due to its price-sensitive nature, the Indian
Solar Technologies in India: market has been slow to espouse the technology,
³³ The solar revolution in India is truly happening, and with mono PERC modules being 10-15% more
has provided impetus to several Indian companies to expensive. Though, with technological improvements
boost capacities for manufacturing solar modules; and growing volume of production, the price variance
solar module escalating structures, solar power packs, between the two is expected to reduce further.
solar generators, solar inverters, etc., in accumulation
to the world-class land based solar EPC and rooftop GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
solar EPC services. ³³ Geothermal energy is an energy source that is stored
in the form of heat beneath the earth's surface,
Floating Solar Photovoltaic Plants:
which is clean, renewable, sustainable, carbon-free,
³³ In a compactly populated country like India, land is a continuous, uninterrupted and environment-friendly.
scarce resource. Setting up a utility scale PV project ³³ It is the only renewable energy available 24x7 to
requires large bounces of land, typically about 4.5 mankind not requiring storage and unaffected by
to 5 acres for a 1 MW solar project as per current day-night or seasonality variance.
technology values. Furthermore, scaling up these
projects require large chunks of contiguous land, India’ first geothermal Project:
which is challenging to acquire in most cases. ³³ State-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)
³³ Floating solar photovoltaic (FSPVs) plants, as the will implement India's maiden geothermal field
term proposes, refers to a solar PV installation system development project in Ladakh that will use the heat
which is straddling on a floating structure over a body generated by the Earth's core to generate clean energy.
of water, typically an artificial basin or a lake. ³³ Geothermal power plants have average availabilities
³³ Besides recompenses of zero land requirements, of 90 per cent or higher, compared with about 75 per
floating solar PV modules produce about 10% more cent for coal plants.
power associated to land based/ rooftop solar plants ³³ Puga and Chumathang in Eastern Ladakh happen
due to the conserving effect of water. These plants to be the most promising geothermal fields in India.
are also environmentally valuable for the water body These areas were discovered in the 1970s and
wherever they are set-up. initial exploratory efforts were made in 1980s by the
BIPV Solar Technology: Geological Survey of India (GSI).

³³ Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) denote to TIDAL ENERGY

photovoltaic building materials which naturally merge ³³ Tidal energy is created using the movement of tides
into a building architecture in the form of roofs, and oceans, where the intensity of the water from the
canopies, atrium, facades, and skylight systems. rise and fall of tides is a form of kinetic energy.
³³ It delivers a sustainable and effective solution for ³³ Tidal power surrounds gravitational hydropower,
augmenting the energy efficiency of the building, which uses the movement of water to push a turbine
thereby providing significant savings in electricity to generate electricity. The turbines are likened to
costs, with zero carbon footprints. wind turbines, except they are positioned underwater.
³³ Dual glass modules are frequently used in place of Tidal can be harnessed in three different ways; tidal
regular glass walls, which produce clean energy, while streams, barrages, and lagoons.

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³³ Currently, the Sihwa Lake project remains the world’s crops, therefore eliminating the main problem with

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

largest tidal power station in operation, located on the first generation biofuels.
west coast of South Korea. The 254 MW Sihwa project, ³³ Second Generation biofuels are also aimed at being
consisting of 10 water turbine generators, has enough more cost competitive in relation to existing fossil fuel.
power to support the domestic needs of a city with a
population of 500,000 people. Third Generation of Biofuels:
³³ The Third Generation of biofuels takes advantage of
Scenario in India: specially engineered energy crops such as algae.
³³ India is having an estimated tidal energy potential of ³³ The algae are cultured to act as a low-cost, high-
around 8000 megawatt (MW), according to a study energy and entirely renewable feedstock.
conducted by the Indian Institute of Technology,
³³ It is predicted that algae will have the potential to
Chennai, along with credit rating firm Crisil Ltd.
produce more energy per acre than conventional
³³ While the Gulf of Kambhat and Gulf of Kutch near crops.
Gujarat have an estimated potential of 7000 MW and
1200 MW, respectively, even the Gangetic delta in Four Generation Bio-fuels:
Sunderbans in West Bengal has a potential of 100 ³³ Four Generation Bio-fuels are aimed at not only
MW. producing sustainable energy but also a way of
³³ However, commercial projects are still some time capturing and storing CO2.
away, given the high costs involved. The cost of ³³ Biomass materials, which have absorbed CO2 while
harnessing tidal energy ranges from Rs30 crore to growing, are converted into fuel using the same
Rs60 crore per MW. processes as second-generation biofuels.
³³ India has reportedly decided not to go forward with ³³ This process differs from second and third generation
the proposed tidal power plant developments in states production as at all stages of production the carbon
of Gujarat and West Bengal on financial challenges dioxide is captured using processes such as oxy-fuel
in implementation of these projects combustion.
³³ India’s large consumer base and economies of scale
Major types of biofuels
will help bring down the cost, as was witnessed in
the case of solar and wind power tariffs. India has Bioethanol:
registered record low wind and solar power tariffs of ³³ Bioethanol (ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH)) is an alcohol
Rs2.43 per kilowatt-hour (kWh) and Rs2.44 per unit, produced from starch and sugar crops. It is commonly
respectively. blended with petrol.
³³ Bioethanol is mainly produced by fermentation and
BIOFUELS by reacting ethylene with steam.
³³ India has brought forward its target of blending ³³ It is biodegradable, low in toxicity and causes little
petroleum with 20% ethanol by five years in its efforts environmental pollution.
to accelerate towards renewables and make its overall ³³ Ethanol burns to produce carbon dioxide and water.
energy basket cleaner. India would now aim to achieve ³³ Ethanol is a high-octane fuel and has replaced lead
the target of 20% blending by 2025, instead of 2030. as an octane enhancer in petrol.
Biodiesel:
First Generation Biofuels:
³³ It is produced through a biochemical process called
³³ First generation biofuels are made from sugar, starch, “Transesterification.”
or vegetable oil. They differ from “second generation
³³ Biodiesel is made from renewable sources such as
biofuels” in that their feedstock (the plant or algal
vegetable/plant/animal oils for use in diesel engines.
material from which they are generated) is not
Biodiesel comprises esters of long chain fatty acids
sustainable/green or, if used in large quantity, would
derived from these oils.
have a large impact on the food supply.
³³ To make biodiesel, fats in the vegetable oil (triglycerides)
³³ First generation biofuels are the “original” biofuels
are reacted with alcohol usually methanol.
and constitute the majority of biofuels currently in
³³ In this reaction, glycerine (in triglycerides) is replaced
use.
by methanol to produce methyl ester (biodiesel).
Second Generation Biofuels: Biofuel development in India centres around the
³³ Second generation biofuels are “greener” in that they cultivation of Jatropha plant seeds.
are made from sustainable feedstock. In this use, the Biogas:
term sustainable is defined by the availability of the ³³ It is created as a by-product of decomposing plant
feedstock, the impact of its use on greenhouse gas and animal waste in environments with low levels
emissions, its impact on biodiversity, and its impact of oxygen: landfills, waste treatment facilities, and
on land use. dairies.
³³ They are produced from non-food crops such as wood, ³³ It is produced by anaerobic decomposition of organic
organic waste, food crop waste and specific biomass matter.

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³³ Biogas is made up primarily of methane and carbon ³³ To raise spending on research and development.
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

dioxide (greenhouse gasses), thus the natural ³³ Better utilisation of urban solid waste.
incentives are strong to keep biogas from entering ³³ Possible employment generation.
the atmosphere.
Biobutanol:
HYDROGEN FUEL CELL
³³ It is a four-carbon alcohol produced by the fermentation ³³ Japan’s lead in the practical application of the
of biomass. hydrogen fuel cycle, and the ongoing research in
³³ The production of biobutanol can be carried out in this field at the International Research Center for
ethanol production facilities. Hydrogen Energy at Kyushu University, are being
studied closely by the Indian government as it readies
³³ The primary use of biobutanol is as a fuel in internal
a hydrogen-fuelled blueprint.
combustion engines.
³³ Its properties are similar to that of gasoline. What are hydrogen-powered fuel-cell electric
³³ Biobutanol exhibits the potential to reduce carbon vehicles?
emissions by 85% when compared to gasoline, thus ³³ A fuel-cell electric vehicle is essentially a hybrid
making it a viable and suitable alternative to gasoline electric vehicle wherein, the internal combustion
and gasoline-ethanol blended fuels. engine is replaced with a fuel-cell stack. The onboard
Biohydrogen: sources of power include hydrogen as well as an
³³ It can be produced using a number of processes such advanced battery system.
as pyrolysis, gasification, etc. ³³ The hydrogen, stored in its pure form, in high-
³³ It could be considered as valuable and alternative pressure tanks, is sent through the fuel-cell wherein
energy carrier to fossil fuels. it is combined with oxygen, resulting in the the
Ethanol blending in India: production of water (H2O) and electricity.
³³ The blending percentage of ethanol with petrol has ³³ The electricity produced is used directly to drive
gone up from 1.53 percent in 2013-14 to 8.5 percent in the vehicle with water being the waste and the only
2020-21. The National Biofuel Policy 2018 envisages emission through the tail-pipe.
an indicative target of 20 percent blending of ethanol Globally, EVs are bracketed under three broad
in petrol and 5 percent blending of biodiesel in diesel categories:
by 2030.
³³ BEVs such as the Nissan Leaf or Tesla Model S,
³³ The Indian Sugar Mills’ Association (ISMA) has said
which have no internal combustion engine or fuel
that to achieve the target of 8-8.5% ethanol blending, tank, and run on a fully electric drivetrain powered
it is important to increase the blending level to at least by rechargeable batteries.
12% in surplus States and adjoining ones.
³³ Conventional hybrid electric vehicles or HEVs such
What is ethanol blending? as the Toyota Camry sold in the country combine a
³³ It means blending of ethanol with other relevant fuels conventional internal combustion engine system with
to make them more energy efficient. Ethanol can be an electric propulsion system, resulting in a hybrid
mixed with gasoline to form different blends. vehicle drivetrain that substantially reduces fuel
³³ As the ethanol molecule contains oxygen, it allows use. The onboard battery in a conventional hybrid is
the engine to more completely combust the fuel, charged when the IC engine is powering the drivetrain.
resulting in fewer emissions and thereby reducing the ³³ Plug-in hybrid vehicles or PHEVs, such as the
occurrence of environmental pollution. Since ethanol Chevrolet Volt, too have a hybrid drivetrain that uses
is produced from plants that harness the power of both an internal combustion engine and electric power
the sun, ethanol is also considered as renewable fuel. for motive power, backed by rechargeable batteries
that can be plugged into a power source.
³³ Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) programme was
launched in January, 2003. The programme sought ³³ FCEVs are widely considered to be the next frontier
to promote the use of alternative and environment in EV technology. FCEVs such as Toyota’s Mirai and
Honda’s Clarity use hydrogen to power an onboard
friendly fuels and to reduce import dependency for
electric motor.
energy requirements.
Purpose and importance of blending NATIONAL HYDROGEN MISSION
³³ To provide green and clean alternative fuel source. ³³ Indian Prime Minister on August 15, 2021, launched
³³ To reduce burden of high fuel imports. the National Hydrogen Mission on India’s 75th
³³ To reduce emission of greenhouse gases. Independence Day. The Mission aims to aid the
³³ To provide alternative market for crops. government in meeting its climate targets and making
³³ Promote organised sale of reduce crops. India a green hydrogen hub.
³³ To benefits farmers with income security and high ³³ Currently, India spends over Rs 12 lakh crore on
returns. importing energy. The government aims to make India
an energy-independent country before 100 years of
³³ To promote behavioural change in fuel consumption.
independence is completed.

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³³ Given the favorable geographic landscape and Types of Hydrogen:

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

availability of natural elements of India, the country ³³ As per the World Energy Council (WEC), 96 per cent
has a huge edge in effectively integrating renewable of hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels through
energy sources into its energy mix. carbon-intensive processes. Hydrogen is classified
What is National Hydrogen Mission? into three forms: Green, Grey, and Blue.
³³ The National Hydrogen Mission proposal was ³³ Green Hydrogen: Green hydrogen is extracted through
announced in the Union Budget 2021-22 to harness the electrolysis of clean energy sources such as
the potential of hydrogen in the energy area and renewables. This hydrogen type releases zero carbon
enable generating hydrogen from green power sources. (CO2) emissions but is expensive and commercially
³³ The mission will focus deeply on the generation of not viable yet. The government is working on projects
green hydrogen which is extracted from clean and to produce green hydrogen.
green power sources and enable its commercial ³³ Grey Hydrogen: Not an expensive type but releases
viability as a transportation fuel. a lot of CO2 emissions as it is extracted through the
³³ However, technology to produce hydrogen and using burning of fossil fuels.
it commercially is one of the biggest challenges. The ³³ Blue Hydrogen: The CO 2 released during the
technology for producing green or blue hydrogen using production of hydrogen is trapped through carbon
hydrogen fuel cell technology and carbon capture and capture and storage (CCS) processes to turn grey
storage (CCS) is quite expensive. hydrogen into blue hydrogen.
How can Hydrogen help India in becoming low- SOLAR JET
carbon economy?
³³ It received 1st Aireg Award for producing the first solar
³³ The policymakers find hydrogen fuel an attractive fuel that can be used for aviation.
energy source as it aids in controlling emissions.
³³ The production of jet fuel has been achieved using
³³ Whether hydrogen is burned to generate heat or used sunlight, captured carbon dioxide from air and water.
in a fuel cell, it aids in slowing down global warming,
³³ In the process, it first synthesizes syngas (mixture of
Industries such as fertilizer and refinery, iron,
CO + H2) from carbon dioxide and water.
chemicals, steel, transport, and heat and power can
³³ The fuel obtained is also called renewable fuel.
utilize hydrogen as a ‘decarbonizing agent’.
Recently work is going on in production of other type
³³ Hydrogen is the most abundant element found on
of fuels for transport applications such as Biodiesel,
Earth that can lead to a clean energy transition. It is
gasoline (Gasohol) and pure hydrogen.
found in complex molecules such as hydrocarbons
³³ The whole project of solar-jet was funded by EU hence
or water. As an energy carrier,it can be produced,
putting it at forefront in fuel technology.
extracted, stored.
³³ Jatropha curcas is a multiple purpose plant with
³³ Hydrogen usage will aid in achieving environmental
potential for biodiesel production and medicinal use.
goals under the Paris Agreement and reducing carbon
emissions generated from the burning of fossil fuels. ³³ e.g. It has been recently used at biojet fuel in spicejet
operates from Dehradun to Delhi.
³³ Hydrogen fuel unlike other combustion fuels produces
only water as a byproduct. NET ZERO BUILDINGS (NZEB)
³³ The World Energy Council (WEC) has noted that ³³ These buildings also called net zero energy buildings.
combusting one kilo of hydrogen released three times
³³ The Indira Prayavaran Bhawan is the first of this type
more energy than a kilo of gasoline and only water as
building built in India, under Central Government.
a byproduct. Hydrogen fuel that converts the chemical
³³ It is rated under Green Rating for Integrated Habitat
energy of hydrogen and oxygen into electricity also
Assessment (GRIHA).
produces water as the only waste product.
³³ It has earthquake resistant structure. The building
Commercial usage of hydrogen as a fuel in India: has an enormous impact on environment, human
³³ India has been working on several pilot projects such health and economy with usage of thin-client
as Green Hydrogen, Blue Hydrogen, Hydrogen CNG networking system instead of conventional desktop
for introducing hydrogen for use in transportation systems, allows 75% day light to be used, has the
and industries. largest rooftop solar system among all multistoried
³³ 18 per cent blend of Hydrogen with CNG (H-CNG) was buildings in India, and with energy efficient chilled
declared as an automotive fuel in September 2020. beam system of air-conditioning that saves about
40% consumption.
³³ As a part of the Hydrogen CNG pilot project, 50 buses
in Delhi have been rolled out with blended hydrogen ³³ NZEB came upto fruitification with USAID ECO-III
in Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). Project guided by US Department of energy.
³³ Two hydrogen refueling stations have also been set ³³ Presently NREL (National Renewable Energy
up, one at the National Institute of Solar Energy, Laboratory) is developing and testing energy modelling
Gurugram, and another at the Indian Oil R&D Centre, and optimizing tools and technologies for low-energy
Faridabad. buildings.

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NET METERING (NEM) in the far-flung rural areas.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

³³ The concept involves recording the net energy between (ii) To utilise space technology for the timely survey and
export of generated energy using solar pannels at management of the country’s natural resources.
roof tops or building walls and import of energy from ³³ During the formative decade of 1960s, space research
distribution licensee for a period of time. was conducted by India, mainly, with the help of
³³ Hence, it involves usage of the bidirectional meter to sounding rockets.
record both import and export duties. ³³ The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was
formed in 1969.
FLOW BATTERY ³³ In the history of the Indian space programme,
³³ It also called redox-flow battery is a type of rechargable 1970s were the era of experimentation during which
battery. experimental satellite programmes like Aryabhatta,
³³ In these batteries, the capacity is a function of the Bhaskara, Rohini and Apple were launched in space.
electrolyte volume and the power a function of the ³³ The success of these programmes led to the era of
surface area of electrodes. operationalisation in 1980s during which operational
satellite programmes like INSAT and IRS came into
³³ These batteries are of use in load balancing, electric
being.
vehicle, storing power from renewable sources of
³³ Today, INSAT and IRS are the major programmes of
energy like solar or wind energy and in telecom
ISRO.
industriy for use in cellphone power stations where
³³ Antrix, the commercial arm of ISRO is marketing
there is no grid power available.
India’s space services globally.
³³ Energy’s Power System installed a 30 KW-hour ESP
³³ MOM (Mars Orbiter Mission) : A Mars (raft is a prob-
30 vanadium flow battery at Global Acadamey College
orbiting Mars since sept. 24th, 2014. However, it was
of Technology, Banglore in India.
launched on November 5th, 2013 by ISRO as India’s
³³ These batteries help to reduce diesel fueled generators
first interplanetary mission and ISRO to become
use during power outages.
fourth agency to reach Mars.
³³ Recently Sun Edison announced the purchase of ³³ It was lifted off using PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch
1000 Energy’s flow batteries for rural electri-fication Vehicle) rocket 25. The transit time was 298 days
bringing power to 20 million people by 2020. before it was successfully made to enter into Mars
³³ Vanadium flow batteries are preferred because they Orbit.
can provide many hours of storage, require little
maintenance and have long life in decades. ³³ Mangalyaan-II : India’s second interplanetary mission
planned for launch to Mars by ISRO in 2020. It is
IRENA (INTERNATIONAL RENE-WABLE ENERGY expected to consist of an orbiter, a lander and rover.
AGENCY)
³³ South Asian Satellites : India is the only country in
³³ It is an intergovernmental organisation with Abu SAARC that has the capability to launch and operate
Dhabi in the United State of Emirates being it’s interim satellites in space.
seat as announced on June 20th, 2009. Although
³³ The South Asian satellite has been developed by ISRO
it has Innovation and Technology Centres in Bonn,
to serve SAARC nations excluding Pakistan after the
Germany and New York in USA.
words of Indian Prime Minister, Narendra Modi in his
³³ The agency supports countries in their transitions to
efforts to help developing SAARC countries like Sri
a sustainable energy future.
Lanka, Bangladesh etc. in fields of telecommunication,
³³ It promotes widespread adoption and sustainable use tele medicine, with unwilling of Pakistan, the SAARC
of all forms of renewable sources of energy. satellite ended up being called ‘South Asia Satellite’.
³³ India chaired 9th meetting of agency with total
³³ Chandrayaan : Chandrayaan-I was India’s Ist lunar
strength of 140 members.
probe launched by ISRO in October 2008.
SPACE SCIENCE AND ³³ It lasted until August 2009. Presently ISRO is looking
DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA forward in launching of Chandrayaan-II by 2018.
³³ It is expected to include a robotic rover, designed to
³³ The foundation of space research in India was laid in move on wheel on lunar surface, picking up soil or
1962 when the Government of India entrusted the task rocks, do-on spot analysis and send the data to earth
of developing a programme on space responsible to its via the orbiter, orbiting the moon.
Department of Atomic Energy. ³³ ADITYA : Aditya L-I is the first Indian Mission to study
³³ The Department of Atomic energy set up a National
the Sun and its corona that extends to thousands of
Committee that identified two major objectives for
Km above the photosphere with a temperature of more
India’s space research programme.
than a million kelvin.
³³ These objectives were –
(i) To utilise space technology for the rapid development ³³ The mission was conceived as a 400 kg class satellite
of mass communications and education, especially carrying one pay load, the visible commission line
corona graph (VELC).

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Power Stations of India
State Thermal Power Stations Hydel Power Stations Nuclear Power
Stations

Andhra Pradesh Ramagundam (coal) Kothagudem (Super Sivasamudram Nagarjuna sagar Up- —
thermal coal) Vijayawada (Super thermal per Sileru Lower Sileru Muchkund
coal) Muddanur Srisailam

Assam Bongaigoan (oil based) Namrup —

Bihar Barauni (Oil) Kosi

Jharkhand Chandrapura (coal) Tilaiya

Santaldih (coal) Panchat, Maithon
Bokaro (coal)

Gujarat Gandhi Nagar (oil) Ukal Kakrapara

Sabarmati (oil)
Dhuvaran (super Thermal) (Based on oil/
natural gas) Vanakabari, Ahmedabad

Haryana Faridabad (coal) Bhakra Nangal —

Punjab Bhatinda, Ropar Dehar —

Panipat (coal) Shamen (Naptha)

Himachal Pradesh Subernerekha Hirakund

Odisha (coal) Talcher (Super thermal coal) Balimela

Madhya Pradesh Parichha (coal) Gandhi Sagar] —

Satpura (coal) Fhilla
Korba (coal)

Chhattisgarh Amarkantak (coal) Badarpur,

Rajasthan Indraprastha — Kota, Rawat-

bhata

Uttar Pradesh Obra (super thermal coal), Singrauli (coal) Yamuna Narora
Harduagang Kanpur Ennore (Coal) Ram ganga
Joginder nagar

Tamil Nadu Neyveli (lignite) Mettur, Lower Kalpakkam

Bhavanti, Kundah, Pykara, Periyar, Kundakulum

West Bengal Durgapur, Bandel, Titagarh (oil) Kolkata Kodayar —

Yelahanka (oil) Damodar Valley
Raman, Farakka

Karnataka Raichur Kalindi Kaiga

Sharavathy
Jog Fall Sabarigri, Idukki

Kerala — Pallivasal Tarapore,

Maharashtra Trombay (oil) Pallivasal Jaitapur

Uran (oil) Tata
Busawal (coal) Koyna
Nashik, Parli, Chandrapur, Koradi

³³ It was launched in 800 km orbit in halo orbit around the Lagrangian point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth system because
of an advantage that it allowed continuous viewing of the sun without any obstruction by eclipse.
³³ GSAT-16 : ISRO communication satellite was launched from Kourou by Ariane-5 launch vehicle on October
16th, 2014.
³³ It has been placed in Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) before it is going to be uplifted to geostationary orbit.
³³ It has total of facility for putting in 48 transponder in space by ISRO. It’s control center is at Hassan in Karnataka.

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³³ NISAR Satellite : NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar mission is a joint project between NASA and ISRO to co-
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

develop and launch a dual frequency synthetic aperture radar satellite for remote signaling to observe and study
to understand natured processes of earth.
³³ It is expected to be launched in 2019-20 with duration of 3 years.
³³ Clean Space One : A model was for first time presented at Bangalore Space Expo 2016 by Swiss Scientists.
³³ The technology is developed to target smaller satellites as part of active debris removal from space.
³³ The satellite is only 820g equipped with two antennas.
³³ Scramjet rocket Engine : On August 28, 2016. ISRO successfully tested the above which use atmospheric oxygen
to burn engine fuel and hence it is light to bring down the total launching cost and simultaneous by allowing the
carriage of heavy payloads into orbit.
³³ These engines are the most idealy suited for launch vehicles moving at supersonic speeds.

SPACE PROGRAMME OF INDIA : MILESTONE

1962 : Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) formed and started working on establishing
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) started.
1963 : On November 21, 1963, first sounding rocket launched from TERLS,
1965 : Space Science and Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba.
1967 : Satellite Communication Earth Station was set up at Ahmedabad.
1968 : TERLS dedicated to the nation, February 2.
1969 : The Indian Space Research Organisation constituted for peaceful exploration of space.
1972 : Department of Space and Space Commission constituted. Air borne remote–sensing experiments committee
for surveying earth resources.
1972-76 : Air-borne remote-sensing experiments.

INDIAN SPACE PROGRAMME : AT A GLANCE

Satellite Date Type Launch Vehicle Result
Aryabhatta 19-04-75 Scientific Cosmos Successful
Bhaskara–I 07-06-79 Geosurvey Cosmos Successful
Rohini 10-08-79 Geosurvey S.L.V.3 Unsuccessful
Rohini D-1 18-07-80 Geosurvey S.L.V. 3 Successful
Rohini 31-05-81 Scientific S.L.V.3 Successful
Apple 19-06-81 Communication Ariane Successful
Bhaskara–II 20-11-81 Geosurvey Cosmos Successful
INSAT-1A 10-04-82 Multipurpose Delta Unsuccessful
Rohini 17-04-83 Scientific S.L.V.3 Successful
INSAT-1B 30-08-83 Mutlipurpose Space Shuttle Successful
SROSS–I 24-03-87 Technical ASLV-D-1 Unsuccessful
IRS-1A 17-03-88 Remote sensing Vostok Successful
SROSS–II 17-07-88 Technical ASLV-D-2 Unsuccessful
INSAT-1C 21-07-88 Multipurpose Ariane–4 Unsuccessful
INSAT-1D 12-06-90 Multipurpose Delta Successful
IRS-1B 29-08-91 Remote sensing Vostok Successful
INSAT-2A 10-07-92 Multipurpose Ariane Successful
INSAT-2B 23-07-93 Multipurpose Ariane Successful
IRS-P1 20-09-93 Remote sensing PSLV-D-1 Unsuccessful
SROSS-4 04-05-94 Scientific ASLV-D-3 Successful
IRS-P2 15-10-94 Remote sensing PSLV-D-2 Successful

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

INSAT-2C 07-12-95 Telecom Ariane-4 Successful
IRS-1C 28-12-95 Remote sensing PSLV-D-3 Successful
IRS-P3 20-03-96 Remote sensing PSLV-D-3 Successful
INSAT-2D 20-04-97 Telecom Ariane Unsuccessful
IRS-ID 29-09-97 Remote sensing PSLV Successful
INSAT-2E 03-04-99 Multipurpose Ariane Successful
INSAT-3B 22-03-2000 Multipurpose Ariane Successful
G-SAT-1 18-04-2001 Multipurpose GSLV-D Successful
INSAT-3C 24-01-2002 Communication Ariane-4 Successful
MET SAT 12-09-2002 Meteorology PSLVC-4 Successful
INSAT-3A 10-04-2003 Multipurpose Ariane-5 Successful
INSAT-3E 28-09-2003 Communication Ariane-5 Successful
Resource SAT-1 17-10-2003 Remote sensing PSLV-C-5 Successful

EDUSAT 20-9-2004 Education GSLVF Successful

CARTOSAT-I 05-05-2005 Cartography PSLV C-6 Successful
INSAT-4A 22.12.2006 Telecom Ariane-5 Successful
INSAT-4C 10.07.2006 Telecom GSLV-F-02 Unsuccessful
CARTOSTAT-2, 10-01-2007 Multipurpose PSLV-C-7 Successful
LAPAN TUBESAT,
PAHUNSAT
INSAT-4B 12.03.2007 DTH Services Ariane Successful
INSAT-4CR 02.09.2007 Telecom GSLV-F-04 Successful
TECSAR 21.01.2008 Remote sensing PSLV-C-10 Successful
CARTOSAT-2A 24.04.2008 Multipurpose PSLV-C-9 Successful
CHANDRAYAN-1 22.10.2008 Obs. of Moon PSLV-C-11 Successful
OCEANSAT-2 23.11.2009 Multipurpose PSLV-C-14 Successful
CARTOSAT-2B 12.07.2010 Remote sensing PSLV-C-15 Successful
RESOURCESAT-2 20.04.2011 Multipurpose PSLV-C-16 Successful
& OTHERS
GSAT-12 15.07.2011 Communication PSLV-C-17 Successful
SPOT-6 09.09.2012 Multipurpose PSLV-C-21 Successful
GSAT-10 29.09.2012 Communication Ariane-5 Successful
SARAL 25.02.2013 Oceanography PSLV-C-20 Successful
Navigation IRNS-1A 01.07.2013 Oceanography PSLV-C-22 Successful
INSAT-3D 26.07.2013 Multipurpose Arian-5 Successful
GSAT-7 30.08.2013 Defence Arian-5 Successful
MANGALYAN 05.11.2013 Obs. of Mars PSLV-C-25 Successful
GSAT-14 05.01.2014 Communication GSLV-D-5 Successful
IRNSS-1B 04.04.2014 Navigation PSLV-C-24 Successful
5 Foreign Satelites 30.06.2014 Multipurpose PSLV-C-23 Successful
IRNSS-1C 16.12.2014 Navigation PSLV-C-26 Successful
IRNSS-1D 20.03.2015 Indian Regional Navigation Sate- PSLV-C-27 Successful
llite System

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

GSAT-6 27.03.2015 Communication satellite marked GSLV-D-6 Successful

success of upper sate cryogenic engine
Astrosat 28.09.2015 Multi wavelength space observatory PSLV-C-30 Successful

GSAT 11.11.2015 Communication satellite, carried Ariane-5 Successful

GAGAN, Augmented Navigation payload VA-227
IRNSS-1E 20.01.2016 Fifth Satellite in Indian Regional PSLV-C-31 Successful
Navigation, Satellite System
IRNSS-1G 28.04.2016 Seventh and final satellite in Indian Space PSLV-C-33 Successful
Regional Navigation System
Cartostat-2C 22.06.2016 Remote Sensing Satellite PSLV-C-34 Successful
INSAT-3DR 08.09.2016 Meteorolagical Satellite with imaging GSLV-F05 Successful
system & an atmospheric sounder
SCATSAT-1 26.09.2016 Miniature satellite to provide weather PSLV-35 Successful
forecasting, cyclone prediction and fracting
services to India
GSAT-18 05.10.2016 Communication Satellite Ariane 5 ECA VA-231 Successful
Resource-SAT 15.02.2017 Remote sensing satellite for resource PSLV-C-36 Successful
monitoring
CARTU 15.02.2017 Single launch vehicle with 104 satellites, PSLV-C-37 Successful
SAT-20 the highest of number sector.
IRNSS-H 02.09.2017 Navigation Global Positioning PSLV-C-39 Successful
GSAT-6A 29.03.2018 Communication satellite GSLV-F-08 Successful
GSAT-7A 19.12.2018 Military satellite GSLV-F-11 Successful
Microsat–R 23.01.2019 Earth observation satellite GSLV-F-11 Successful
Kalam SAT student satellite
GSAT–31 06.02.2019 High through put Telecommunication satellite GSLV-F-11 Successful
Arian 5-VCA
IRNSS-II 12.04.2018 Navigation satellite PSLV-C41 Successful
GSAT-29 14.11.2018 Communication satellite GSLV-MK III Successful
HYSIS Mission 29.11.2018 To study the earth's surface PSLV-C43 Successful
GSAT-II Mission 5.12.2018 Communication satellite Ariane-5 VA-246 Successful
EMISAT Mission 01.04.2019 Electro Magnetic spectrum mesurement PSLV-C45 Successful
Carto Sat-3 Mission 27.11.2019 Commercial satellite PSLV-C47 Successful
RISAT-2BR1 11.12.2019 Disaster Management, Earth observation PSLV-C48 Successful
GSAT-30 17.01.2020 Comunication Arian-5 VA-251 Successful

SPACE PROGRAMME LAUNCHED BY ISRO IN 2020-21

SPACECRAFT LAUNCHED BY ISRO IN 2020
GSAT-30:
³³ On 17 January 2020, GSAT-30 was successfully launched into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) from
Kourou launch base, French Guiana by Ariane-5 VA-251 launch vehicle.
³³ It is India's telecommunication satellite and was launched to replace INSAT-4A spacecraft services with enhanced
coverage.
³³ The satellite is configured on ISRO’s enhanced I-3K Bus structure to provide communication services from
Geostationary orbit in C and Ku bands.
EOS-01:
³³ On 7 November 2020, EOS-01 was successfully launched into a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) from Satish Dhawan Space
Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota by PSLV.

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³³ It is India's earth observation satellite and is launched ESO-03:

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

for applications in agriculture, forestry and disaster ³³ EOS-03, a powerful earth observation satellite that
management support. was supposed to help in near real-time monitoring of
CMS-01: the Indian landmass, was lost in the process.
³³ The deployment of EOS-03, initially planned for
³³ On 17 December 2020, CMS-01 was successfully
launched into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit March 2020, was already delayed by over a year and
(GTO) from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) a half, first by some technical glitches and then by
SHAR, Sriharikota by PSLV-C50. the pandemic.
³³ EOS-03 would have provided relatively low-resolution,
³³ It is India's communication satellite envisaged for
providing services in the Extended-C Band of the but continuous, imagery of the Indian landmass
frequency spectrum which includes the Indian that was meant to be used for monitoring of natural
mainland, Andaman-Nicobar & Lakshadweep Islands. disaster like floods and cyclones, water bodies, crops,
It is India's 42nd Communication Satellite. vegetation and forest cover.

SPACECRAFT LAUNCHED BY ISRO IN 2021 ISRO launched 20 satellites including 3 Indian

satellites aboard PSLV-C34, the highest number of
Amazonia-1 along with 18 co-passenger satellites satellites launched aboard a single flight. The foreign
(PSLV-C51): satellites included :
³³ India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle PSLV-C51 LAPAN -Indonesia Sky Sat Gen. 2-1 –U.S.A.
successfully launched Amazonia-1 along with 18 co- BIROS -Germany GHG Sat –D– Canada
passenger satellites (February 28, 2021) from Satish
M3M Sat-Canada 12 Dove satellites – U.S.A.
Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota.
³³ Cartosat-3 has the sharpest eye of civil searing
³³ PSLV-C51/Amazonia-1 is the first dedicated
satellite in the world. One of cartosat-3's. Cameras
commercial mission of NewSpace India Limited (NSIL),
offer a ground resolution of 25 cm. It can pick up an
a Government of India company under Department
object of a minimum of 25 cm size from a height of
of Space
around 500 km.
³³ Amazonia-1 is the optical earth observation satellite
³³ Indian space research organisation (ISRO) announced
of National Institute for Space Research (INPE). This
their intention to send a second mission to soft-land
satellite will provide remote sensing data to users for
on the Moon planned for November, 2020 dubbed as
monitoring deforestation in the Amazon region and
chandrayan 3 mission. ISRO just and recent attempt
analysis of diversified agriculture across the Brazilian
went away on 7 September, 2019 and resulted
territory.
in a partial failure of Chandrayan 2 mission after
³³ The 18 co-passenger satellites onboard PSLV-C51 communication cost with mission & lender (vikram)
includes four from IN-SPACe and fourteen from NSIL. and rover (Pragyan) which crash landed on Moon
³³ The fourteen satellites from NSIL carried were the while attempting a soft-landing.
commercial satellites from India (1) and USA (13).
INTERNATIONAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE LAUNCH ³³ In world, different countries employ independent
VEHICLE-F10 (GSLV-F10) navigation satellites. However, it was realised that
³³ ISRO’s Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle- multiple constellations of satellites can improve
F10s (GSLV-F10) fails midway through the launch positioning, navigation and timing for all. Hence,
on August 12, 2021. international systems came into existence such as :
³³ The GSLV-F10 was on its way to put into orbit the ³³ GPS : Operated by U.S-Dept. of Defense, coordinated
Geo-Imaging Satellite-1 (GISAT-1) renamed as Earth with the U.S. Dept. of transportation and other civilian
Observation Satellite-03 (EOS-03). government agencies.
What happened during the launch? ³³ GLONASS : Developed by USSR during cold war but
now operated by Russian Federal Space Agency.
³³ About five minutes into the launch, the flight of
³³ Galileo : A civilian operated global system by a
GSLV-F10, which was carrying an earth observation
consortium of European Agencies under European
satellite EOS-03, deviated from its scheduled
trajectory. The first and second stages of the rocket Commission.
had functioned normally and detached. ³³ Beidou : It was planned and developed by the
³³ But the upper stage, powered by a cryogenic engine government of China with about 35 satellites by 2020.
fuelled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen at very ³³ IRNSS : Developed by ISRO to provide positioning
low temperatures, failed to ignite. The rocket lost the services around India.
power to carry on and its remains, along with that ³³ QZSS : Auasi-Zenith Satellite System being developed
of the satellite, most likely fell off somewhere in the by Japan, for providing data links and positioning
Andaman Sea. services.

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INDIAN REGIONAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE Chandrayaan 3:

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

SYSTEM (IRNSS): NAVIC ³³ Chandrayaan 3 is a follow-up mission from ISRO to

³³ On November 11, 2020India became the fourth the Chandrayaan 2 that was launched in 2019.
country in the world to have its independent regional ³³ The Chandrayaan 2 mission was intended to make a
navigation satellite system recognised by the landing on the moon's far side. However, complications
International Maritime Organisation (IMO) as a part in the final minutes before touchdown led to a loss
of the World Wide Radio Navigation System (WWRNS). of communications with the lander-rover module,
³³ The navigation system can now replace GPS in the which crash-landed on the surface at a higher-than-
Indian Ocean waters upto 1500 km from the Indian planned velocity.
boundary. ³³ The Chandrayaan 2 orbiter continues to perform
science experiments and map the lunar surface from
What is the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite an altitude of 100 kilometres.
System?
³³ Chandrayaan 3 will have similar components, a lander
³³ IRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite and a rover but not the orbiter, since the Chandrayaan
system being developed by India. 2 orbiter is live and operating well. The lack of an
³³ It is designed to provide accurate position information orbiter also brings down the overall mission cost, to
service to users in India as well as the region extending an estimated Rs 6.15 billion, compared to the Rs 9.7
up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its primary billion that it cost ISRO to carry out the Chandrayaan
service area. 2 mission.
³³ An Extended Service Area lies between primary service ³³ The third moon mission will touch down in the Aitken
area and area enclosed by the rectangle from Latitude basin, on the Earth's natural satellite, which is an
30 degSouth to 50 deg North, Longitude 30 deg East important location for any future sustainable lunar
to 130 deg East. habitation.

Service provided: Mangalyaan 2:

³³ IRNSS will provide two types of services, namely, ³³ So far, the US, China and UAE have made successful
Standard Positioning Service (SPS) which is provided trips to the Red Planet. All of them have missions that
to all the users and Restricted Service (RS), which is arrived at Mars in 2021.
an encrypted service provided only to the authorised ³³ It is hardly surprising that India has also announced
users. its upcoming Mars mission. The orbiter-only mission,
³³ The IRNSS System is expected to provide a position called Mangalyaan 2, will be similar to Mangalyaan
accuracy of better than 20 m in the primary service 1. While ISRO is yet to announce a deadline for the
area. Mars mission, Mangalyaan 2 will only be undertaken
after Chandrayaan 3 is launched.
Some applications of IRNSS are: ³³ The landing on Mars is tougher and that Chandrayaan-3
³³ Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation will demonstrate ISRO's landing capabilities.
³³ Disaster Management ³³ The Mangalyaan-1 mission or Mars Orbiter Mission
³³ Vehicle tracking and fleet management (MOM) was launched in November 2013, after which
³³ Integration with mobile phones it entered Mars orbit in September 2014. This was
³³ Precise Timing India's first endeavourto successfully reach another
³³ Mapping and Geodetic data capture planet. The launch vehicle, spacecraft and ground
³³ Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers segment cost Rs 450 crore, making it one of the
³³ Visual and voice navigation for drivers cheapest missions to Mars till date.
³³ While the mission was designed to work for a period
UPCOMING MAJOR LAUNCHES BY ISRO of six months, it is now in its seventh year running.
The Mars Orbiter has returned thousands of pictures
³³ Space missions in India were challenged by delays
of the Red Planet, according to ISRO, adding up to
due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with all the mission
launch planned for 2020 having been postponed to over two terabytes.
2021 or later. Gaganyaan:
³³ As per the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), ³³ The first uncrewed mission for Gaganyaan will take
Chandrayaan-3 will likely be launched in 2022. place in December 2021. As per the ISRO mandate,
³³ ISRO is working towards their second mission to two uncrewed missions need to be carried out
Mars, Mangalyaan 2, which will take place only after successfully before the crewed mission launches for
the third moon mission is launched. The first Indian orbit.
human spaceflight mission Gaganyaan may send ³³ ISRO had targeted sending Indians to space before the
three Indians to space by 2022. country completes its 75th year of independence on

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15 August 2021. But with the COVID-19 pandemic

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

slowing down progress, the timelines have now been INDIAN SATELLITE SYSTEM
revised.
INSAT – SATELLITES
³³ Currently, four Indian astronauts have been sent to
³³ ‘INSAT’ means Indian National Satellite.
Russia to train as part of the joint partnership between
ISRO and the Russian space agency Roscosmos. The ³³ ‘INSAT’ system started with the launch of INSAT-1A
candidate astronauts began training at the Gagarin on April 10, 1982 from Cape Canaveral.
³³ T h e I n d i a n N a t i o n a l S a t e l l i t e ( I N S A T ) i s a
Cosmonaut Training Center (GCTC) in February 2020.
multipurpose operational satellite system for domestic
ISRO surgeons will also be trained in space-related
telecommunication, meteorological observations
medical situations.
and data relay nationwide direct satellite television
LUPEX: broadcasting and radio, television programme
³³ ISRO's Lunar Polar Exploration Missionin collaboration distribution.
with JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) will ³³ The system is a joint venture of Department of Space
be launched in the year 2024. (DoS), Department of Telecommunication (DoT),
Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), All India
³³ The mission aims at obtaining the actual data related
Radio (AIR) and Doordarshan.
to the quantity and forms of water present on the
³³ INSAT-1 series were made by the United States (US)
surface of the Moon to determine the feasibility for India and launched by foreign rockets.
of utilizing such resources for sustainable space ³³ INSAT-2 series were made by India and launched by
exploration activities in the future. foreign rockets.
Aditya-L1: ³³ INSAT is one of the largest domestic communication
satellite system in the world with six satellites, INSAT-
³³ It is India's first solar mission and was expected to
2DT, INSAT-2E, INSAT-3A, INSAT-3B, INSAT-3C and
launch in the year 2020 but due to the COVID-19
INSAT-3E.
pandemic, the launch has been delayed and is now
³³ INSAT system also includes a few transponders leased
expected in the year 2022. from other agencies for meeting the current demands.
³³ The mission aims at studying solar corona in visible ³³ EDUSAT is specially configured for audio-visual
and near IR bands. medium, employing digital interactive classroom and
multimedia and multi-centric system.
RISAT-1A:
³³ The satellite has five Ku–band transporters and six C–
³³ It is expected to launch in the year 2021 by ISRO. band transponders.
³³ It is a radar-imaging satellite and will be similar to the ³³ EDUSAT provides connectivity for school, college
RISAT-1 satellite in terms of configuration. and higher levels of education and also to supports
³³ It is a land-based mission for terrain mapping and non-formal education including communicational
analysis of land, ocean and water surface for soil development.
moisture. APPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITES
NISAR: ³³ The INSAT system was supposed to carry out three
³³ NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR)is independent tasks, namely–
expected to be launched in the year 2023 by ISRO in 1. Tele Communications
collaboration with NASA (US Space Agency). 2. Television and Radio Broadcasting
³³ It aims at studying global environmental change and 3. Meteorological Observations
natural disasters and will be the first dual-band (L & ³³ Remote areas and offshore islands have been
S) radar imaging satellite. connected with rest of the nation using INSAT system.
³³ NISAR satellite is likely to be the world's most ³³ Interactive education system has been provided with
expensive Earth-imaging satellite to date with an a big boost.
expected cost of $1.5 billion. ³³ Nation–wide library networking has been initiated on
³³ The mission is expected to have a life of three years. a large scale.
³³ INSAT communication services have been used
Shukrayaan-1: in mobile satellite services, rural telegraphy,
³³ The inter-planetary mission is expected to launch in telemedicine, computer networking etc.
the year 2025 by ISRO in collaboration with CNES ³³ The INSAT T.V. network today provides access to over
(National Centre for Space Studies; French Space 80 per cent of India’s population.
Agency). ³³ Regions of South-East Asia and Middle–East are now
³³ It is a proposed mission to study the atmosphere of able to receive Indian Television through INSAT-2C.
the planet Venus, the second planet from the Sun and ³³ Education television broadcasting through INSAT has
the hottest planet of our solar system. been introduced from primary level to university level.

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³³ The entire radio networking of all radio broadcasts in ³³ IRS imagery has also been used for mineral prospecting
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

the country is now through INSAT. and forecasting of potential fishing zones (shoals).
³³ The meteorological data gathering with Very High ³³ With regard to the applications in planning and
Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) on board INSAT-2 management, IRS data is being used for urban
series has vastly improved weather forecasting. planning, flood prone area identification and the
³³ INSAT system provides meteorological services consequent suggestions for mitigation measures.
through Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) and OTHER IMPORTANT SATELLITE MISSION
CCD cameras on some of its spacecrafts.
³³ Curiosity : A robotic rover of almost of the size of
³³ Cyclone monitoring through meteorological imaging
car was launched from Cape Canaveral on Nov.
and cyclone warning through disaster warning 26th, 2012 that landed on Aeolis Palus in Gale
receivers has been operationalised. crater of Mars on August 6th, 2012. It was aimed at
INDIAN REMOTE SENSING SATELLITE SYSTEM to study and investigate Martian climate, geology,
environmental conditions whether favourable for
³³ Today, India has the largest constellation of Remote
microbial life or not, investigation of water presence
Sensing Satellites which are providing services both
and planetary habitability.
at the national and global levels.
³³ Mars 2020 Rover Mission : It was announced on
³³ From the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) Satellites, data
December 4th, 2012 at the meeting of American
is available in a variety of spatial resolutions starting
Geophysical Union in San Francisco.
from 360 metres with highest resolution being 5.8
meters. ³³ It is internetted to investigate an astrobiologically
relevant ancient atmosphere of Mars, it’s surface
³³ Besides, the state-of-the-art cameras of IRS spacecraft
geological processes, proof for the existence of past
take the pictures of the Earth in several spectral
life on the planet and potential for the preservation
bands.
of biosignatures within accessible geological material.
³³ The first Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-IA was
³³ The Rover is going to be powered by radioisotope
launched on March 17, 1988.
thermo electric generator. The whole mission is
³³ The second Indian Remote Sensing Satellite IRS-IB approximately going to cost about US $ 2.5 billion.
was launched on August 29, 1991.
³³ Kepler Space Telescope : It installed by NASA has
³³ The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite system, discovered 3030 explanets with 709 confirmed that
comprising IRS-IC, IRS-ID and IRS-P4 besides IRS-P3, revolve around a star. It’s studies reveal that 25% of
is the largest such system in the world today. sun like stars bear 1-3 times size of our planet, Earth.
³³ The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle PSLV-C5 launched ³³ Recently it discovered two planets, Kepler and K2. i.e.
in October 2003 putting into orbit the Indian Remote K 47 with possibility of extra-terrestrialife.
Sensing Satellite IRS-P6, also known as RESOURCE
³³ MAVEN (Mars Atomosphere and Volatile Evolution
Satellite-1.
Mission) : It was launched using Atlas V launch
³³ This is the first time when the PSLV placed a satellite vehicle on Nov.
of over 1,300 kg in orbit.
³³ 18th, 2013. To reach Mars on Sept. 24th, 2014. It was
³³ The Resourcesat is the most sophisticated Remote meant to study that how the planet’s atmosphere and
Sensing satellite of the ISRO. water happened to be lost over time.
³³ Resourcesat has application in agriculture, forestry, ³³ The answer did come inform of solar storms being
land and water resources, and disaster management. responsible which struck the planet some 4.2 to 3.7
³³ CARTOSAT-1 is the heaviest Remote Sensing Satellite billion years ago. The mission lasted for an year.
to be orbited by a PSLV. ³³ Space-X -Falcon Rocket : Falcon-9 received
³³ TECSAR is the Remote Sensing Satellite to be orbited commercial Resupply Service contract from NASA in
by a PSLV-C-10. 2008 to deliver cargo to International space station.
APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING It’s first flight of older version was on December 22nd,
2015 and the last on August 14th, 2016.
³³ IRS imagery is used for agricultural crop acreage and
³³ It is planning even to transport astronauts to
yield estimation.
International space station. The fuel used in was
³³ It has important application in drought warning, flood
LOX /RP-1.
warning and damage assessment.
³³ Europa : Jupiter’s moon is subject to speculation
³³ IRS imagery is used for ground and surface water about existence of life due to strong possibility of liquid
harvesting, monitoring of reservoirs and irrigation water ocean beneath its ice solid surface.
command areas to optimise water use. ³³ The case for life on Europa got strong belief in 2011
³³ Forest survey and management and wasteland when it was discovered that vast lakes exist with
identification and recovery are other allied uses in Europa’s thick icy shell.
this regard.

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³³ In 2013, NASA detected clay like matter on its surface. AUGMENTED SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (ASLV)

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

³³ Since then, its subsurface is considered as the best ³³ ASLV represents the next stage in India’s Launch
target for discovery of life. Vehicle Development Programme.
³³ Titan, the largest moon of Saturn also showed the ³³ It is a five-stage solid-fuel rocket developed by ISRO.
possibility for existence of extra terrestrial life but it
³³ ASLV was an improved version of SLV-3.
yet to be proved firmly.
³³ ROSETTA : A spacecraft funded by European space ³³ The ASLV was derived from the SLV-3 with the
agency was launched on March 4th, 2004 from kourou. addition of two boosters.
³³ It was meant to have detailed study of comet 67/P. It ³³ ASLV was 24 metres high and its capacity reached 150
was in November, it landed on comet. kg payload in LEO.
³³ The aim was to study role of comets in the orgin of life ³³ The first two flights of ASLV carrying SROSS-1 and
on earth. However, its stay in space didn’t last long SROSS-2 satellites respectively, failed.
because of power failure. ³³ The first flight was in March, 1987 and second in
³³ Dark Matter : It is invisible matter that makes up July, 1988.
most of the universe. It can’t be seen but can only be
³³ The third launcher ASLV-D 3, was launched in May,
detected by its gravitational effects.
1992 carrying the SROSS-3 satellite. The satellite was
³³ It does not interact with electromagnetic force i.e. it
successfully placed in lower earth orbit of 400 km.
does not emit, reflect or absorb light hence making
it hard to detect. ³³ The final ASLV-D4 was launched in May, 1994 and
³³ It is considered to make up about 27% universe. While was a success.
the matter in the form of stars, galaxies, we use to see POLAR SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (PSLV)
make up only 5% of universe.
³³ PSLV was designated to carry much heavier satellites of
³³ Most distant galaxy cluster : CL J 1001 + 0220 has
the IRS class to Polar Sun-Synchronus orbits.
been discovered to be the most distant galaxy cluster.
It’s light has started arriving recently after a journey ³³ It works on solid and liquid propulsion systems
of 11.2 billion years. alternately. In first stage hydroxyl-terminated
³³ ARIES telescope : Asia’s biggest telescope is a joint polybutadience urethane-bound (HTPB) propellant
collaboratory of Indian, Russian and Belgian scientist used, which produces thrust upto 4,800 KN.
it is located in Nainital, Uttarakhand at height of ³³ In second stage liquid propellant unsymmetrical
2500m. dimethylhydrazine as fuel and nitrogen tetroxide
³³ The telescope can be operated with help of remote (N2O4) as oxidiser used, which produces thrust upto
control from any where in world to study and explore 800 KN.
planets, stars, magnetic fields and space debris. ³³ Again in 3rd and 4th stage HTPB and (UDMH) and
³³ GIRI Radar System : ISRO has installed GIRI Radar (N2O4) used respectively.
system (Gadanki Ionospheric Radar Information)
³³ The PSLV is a 4-stage launcher measuring 44 metre
radar system at National Atmospheric Research
height with a 2.8 metre diameter and weighing 275
Laboratory in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh.
tonnes.
³³ It consisting of 30 MHz radar system will help
improving the equatorial Plasma Bubble forecasting for ³³ The first development flight i.e., PSLV-D1 in 1993
improved satellite based navigation/ communication was unsuccessful.
applications. ³³ The PSLV-D2 launch in October, 1994 successfully
³³ SONAR Dome : It is the dome attached to the bottom placed IRS-P2 in the Polar Sun-Synchronous Orbit
of the ship, for navigational measurements. It has (PSO).
been designed and produced by DRDO (Defence and ³³ The second developmental launch in March, 1996
Research Development Organisations) in Pune. successfully placed IRS-P3 in PSO.
³³ It is a structure fitted over the sonar array to make ³³ It was in September, 1997 that first successful
acoustically transparent to avoid exposure of its operational flight PSLV-C1 was undertaken. It placed
electronic equipments and sensors. IRS–1D in PSO.
³³ The PSLV-C2 in May, 1999 lifted and placed three
LAUNCH VEHICLES satellites–the Indian IRS-P4, the Korean KITSAT-3
³³ The first Indian Satellite Launch vehicle was SLV-3. and the German TUBSAT in PSO5.
³³ The first successful flight of SLV-3 took place from ³³ The PSLV-C3 in October, 2001 placed three satellites
the Sriharikota range in July 1980. - the Indian TES, the Belgian PROBA and the German
BIRD.
³³ It carried a small Indian built satellite Rohini-1 and
placed it a near-earth orbit. ³³ India’s Space Programme reached new heights with
³³ Two more successful launches of SLV-3 were the successful launch of the 44.4 metre tall four-stage
conducted in May, 1981 and April, 1983 with the PSLV C-6 carrying the CARTOSAT-1 and HAMSAT
Rohini Satellites. satellite, on May, 2005.

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³³ CARTOSAT-2, LAPAN, TUBESAT and PAHUNSAT are

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

the heaviest Remote Sensing Satellite to be orbited IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

by PSLV-C7.
³³ Space : The vast and limitless region that exists
GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE beyond the earth’s atmosphere.
(GSLV) ³³ Space Exploration : The collection of information
³³ GSLV represents the most advanced generation of Indian about the various objects present in outer space is
Launch Vehicle. called ‘space exploration’.
³³ Satellite : A satellite is a celestial object which
³³ It’s height is 49 metre with a lift-off mass of 415
revolves around a planet in circular path or elliptical
tonnes.
path.
³³ GSLV is a Delta-II class medium launch vehicle, with ³³ The satellites are of two types– Natural satellites and
an objective of placing 2.5 metric ton payloads into Man-made satellites.
GTO. ³³ Orbit : The closed path of a satellite around the
³³ GSLV is a three stage launch vehicle. The stage 3 and earth is called its orbit. The orbit of a satellite may
4 of PSLV are replaced by a single, cryogenic stage be circular or elliptical in shape.
in GSLV. ³³ Apogee : It is the farthest point from the earth on the
³³ The first stage in GSLV is a solid propellant core motor obrit of a satellite.
with four liquid propellant strapons. ³³ Perigee : It is the nearest point from the earth on the
³³ The second stage is a liquid propulsion system. The orbit of a satellite.
cryogenic upper stage has oxygen and liquid hydrogen. ³³ Inclination : The inclination of the orbit of a satellite
is the angle made by the orbit of the satellite with the
³³ On April, 18, 2001 the GSLV-D1 was successfully
equator of the earth.
launched from the Sriharikota and placed GSAT-I
³³ Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites : These satellites are
in the GTO.
stationed at a relatively low altitude (ranging between
CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGY 200 to 900 kms) above the surface of the earth. They
have an elliptical orbit.
³³ A cryo engine use liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen
³³ Polar Orbit Satellites : Such satellites move from
as propellants. It is called cryo engine because both
pole to pole i.e., from North Pole to South Pole and
these gases are required to be cooled to extremely low
vice versa.
temperatures, called Cryogenic temperature.
³³ These satellites have nearly circular orbit in a pole to
³³ India got cryogenic engine technology from soviet pole direction. They are mostly meterological weather
union’s Glavkosmos space agency. forecasting.
³³ It is in GSLV that Cryogenic engines have been used ³³ Sun Synchronous Satellites : A satellite that always
for the first time. appears to be in a fixed position vis-a-vis sun is called
³³ Cryogenic engines provide two important benefits i.e., a ‘sun-synchronous satellite.’
greater thrust power and lower weight of propellants, ³³ Geo-stationary Satellite : Geo-stationary orbit is at
due to which it is possible to carry additional payload. a high altitude of about 36800 km. It is a circular and
³³ Cryogenic technology is crucial for the success of
equatorial orbit.
³³ Communication satellites are normally geo-stationary
the GSLV programme as it seeks to place a 2500 kg
satellites.
satellite in a 36800km high geostationary orbit.
³³ Rocket Propellants : Rocket fuels or rocket
ANTRIX propellants are special fuels which are highly compact,
³³ ANTRIX, the commercial arm of ISRO is a single having very high calorific value, burn extremely
window agency for marketing Indian space capabilities. rapidly, and leave no residue on burning.
It headquarters is in Bangalore. ³³ There are three types of rocket propellants, solid
rocket propellants, liquid rocket propellants and
³³ It is playing a key role in the worldwide availability of
hybrid (solid and liquid mixed) propellants.
IRS data through Space Imaging, USA.
³³ The solid rocket propellants are a mixture of solid
³³ ANTRIX also provides IRS specific data processing hydrocarbon and a solid oxidising agent.
equipment. ³³ Most of the propellants used in rocket are liquid.
³³ It offers launch services using India’s PSLV. Two German, However, some use mixture of solid and liquid
one Korean and one Belgian satellites have already been propellants.
successfully launched by PSLV. ³³ E.g. of Rocket Propellants : Liquid Hydrogen, Synthetic
³³ T h r o u g h A N T R I X , T e l e m e t r y , T r a c k i n g a n d Rubber, Liquid Ammonia, Alcohol, Hydrazine,
Command support from the Indian ground stations Kerosene oil, Paraffin Wax, Methyl Hydrazine with
are offered. liquid oxygen (LOX).

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INSTITUTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH SPACE Aided Institutes

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

RESEARCH ³³ DAE financially supports seven autonomous national
³³ V i k r a m S a r a b h a i S p a c e C e n t r e ( V S S C ) , institutes.
Thiruvananthapuram ³³ Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) –
³³ ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore Mumbai
³³ Space Application Centre, Ahemdabad. ³³ Tata Memorial Centre (TMC) – Mumbai
³³ SHAR Centre, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh (the main ³³ Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics (SINP) – Kolkata
launching centre of ISRO). ³³ Institute of Physics (IOP) – Bhubaneswar
³³ Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre, Mahendragiri (Tamil ³³ Harish Chandra Research Institute (HRI) – Allahabad
Nadu), Thiruvananthapuram and Bangalore ³³ Institute of Mathematical Sciences (IMSc) – Chennai
³³ Development and Educational Communication Unit ³³ The Institute for Plasma Research (IPR) – Ahmedabad
(Ahmedabad).
³³ ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network, AUTONOMOUS SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Bangalore
³³ Master Control Facility at Hassan, Karnataka. INSTITUTIONS
³³ ISRO Inertial Systems Units, Thiruvananthapuram.
³³ Department of Science and Technology provides
³³ Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad.
grants-in aids to 16 autonomous scientific research
ATOMIC RESEARCH institutions engaged in frontier areas of research in
basic and applied sciences :
³³ Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and Dr. Homi. J. Bhabha ³³ Bose Institute, Kolkata is devoted to fundamental and
laid the foundation for Nuclear Energy Programme applied research in physics and life sciences.
in India. ³³ Agarkar Research Institute, Pune, research in basic
³³ India’s nuclear research programme aims to develop and applied aspects in the fields of biological sciences.
and utilise nuclear energy for peaceful purposes such ³³ Shri Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical
as power generation, applications in agriculture, Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram–
medical sciences, industry and other areas. developing biomedical engineering and technology;
³³ The objectives of India’s nuclear energy programme providing and demonstrating high standards of
have been defined in the Atomic Energy Act of 1948. patient care in advanced medical specialities and
³³ The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was created developing post-graduate training programme of
in 1954. the highest quality in these fields.
ATOMIC RESEARCH INSTITUTES AND OTHER ³³ Indian Association for the cultivation of Sciences,
ORGANISATIONS Kolkata–studies on solid state physics, material
sciences, theoretical physics, spectroscopy, energy
Research Centre research, chemistry including biochemistry polymer
³³ Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) – Mumbai. science etc.
³³ Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) ³³ Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore–
– Kalpakkam. research in emerging as well as interdisciplinary areas
³³ Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) – Indore of astrophysics and heavenly bodies and development
³³ Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC) – Kolkata of instruments used in astrophysical studies.
³³ Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and ³³ Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific
Research (AMD)–Hyderabad Research, Bangalore–research in frontier areas of
Industrial Organisations chemistry, physics of materials, computational fluid
dynamics, geodynamics, condensed matter theory,
³³ Heavy Water Board (HWB)–Mumbai
animal behavioural genetics etc.
³³ Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) – Hyderabad
³³ Raman Research Institute, Bangalore–research
³³ Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT) –
in basic sciences such as astronomy, astrophysics,
Mumbai
liquid crystals etc.
Public Sector Undertakings ³³ S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences,
There are five PSUs under DAE Kolkata–promoting advanced studies in selected
³³ Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd, (NPCIL) – branches of basic sciences.
Mumbai ³³ Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow–
³³ Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. (UCIL) – Jadugoda research in the area of palaeobotany, its relevance in
(Jharkhand) modern context.
³³ Indian Rare Earth Ltd, (IRE) – Mumbai ³³ Indian Institute of Geomagnetism, Mumbai–
³³ Electronics Corporation of India Ltd. (ECIL) – observing and understanding some of physical
Hyderabad processes taking place in the innermost crusts of the
³³ Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI) earth as well as phenomena occurring on the sun and
in near earth and interplanetary space.

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³³ Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun– ³³ With a total installed capacity of 3260 MW, 15 atomic power
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

basic research in areas of biostratigraphy, petrology reactors–2 boiling water reactors (BWR), 12 pressurised
and geochemistry, sedimentology, tectonics and heavy water reactors (PHWR) and one 540 MW PHWR
environmental geology to understand the geodynamics are under operation.
of the Himalayan regions. ³³ One 540 MW PHWR Tarapore Atomic Power Project
³³ International Advanced Research Centre for Power — (3) in Maharashtra, two 1,000 MW light water
Metallurgy and New Materials, Hyderabad–the reactor (Russain VVER) Kundankulam Atomic Power
development of high performance materials and Project in Tamil Nadu, and two 220 MW PHWR each
processes. at Kaiga (3&4) in Karnataka and Rawatbhata (5&6)
³³ DST also extends financial and administrative support in Rajasthan, are under construction.
to the following academics and professional bodies ³³ These are being constructed by the Nuclear Power
engaged in the promotion of Science and Technology Corporation of India.
in the country through the involvement of scientists
³³ These will add 3,420 MW to take the total installed
and engineers;
capacity of 6,680 MW in the coming few years.
³³ Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore
³³ Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi ³³ To provide a parallel stream for faster growth of
³³ Indian National Academy of Engineering, New Delhi nuclear power, India has entered into an agreement
³³ National Academy of Sciences, Allahabad with the Russian Federation for setting up an atomic
³³ Indian Science Congress Association, Kolkata. power station comprising two pressurised water
reactors of 1,000 MW capacity each at Kudankulam
NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME (Tamil Nadu).
³³ Here construction has begun with the first pour of the
³³ The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is following reactor concrete on March 31, 2002.
a three stage programme which envisages building
³³ India has so far acquired an experience of about 200
of, on a commercial scale, Pressurised Heavy Water
reactor years of nuclear power plant operation.
Reactors (PHWRs), Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) and
Thorium based reactors. ³³ The average capacity factor of the plants has also
touched a new high of 89 per cent.
FIRST STAGE : PHWR PROGRAMME ³³ DAE has an ambitious nuclear power programme
³³ It took off in the sixties. Initially two boiling reactors aiming at achieving an installed nuclear power
were set up at Tarapore in Maharashtra. capacity of 20,000 MWe by the year 2020.
³³ The station was commissioned in 1969 and was
SE COND ST A GE : F A ST B RE E DE R RE A C TO R
collaborative venture with General Electric of USA.
PROGRAMME
³³ The PHWR programme commenced with the building
of two pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs) at ³³ The research and development in the field of Fast
Rawatbhata (Rajasthan). Breeder Reactor (FBR) undertaken in the early sixties
³³ These reactors built partly with Canadian collaboration, at Trombay, marked the beginning of the second stage
started commercial production in 1972 and 1980. of the Nuclear Power Programme.
³³ Later, in 1984 and 1986 two indigenous PHWRs were ³³ To develop R&D capabilities in the field of fast
commissioned at Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu). reactors, the Reactor Research Centre (now Indira
³³ With this, the Department achieved comprehensive Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, (IGCAR) was set
capability in the design, construction and operation up in 1971 at Kalpakkam.
of PHWRs. ³³ The Centre commenced work on setting up the 40MWt
³³ With its R & D endeavour and the support of the (13MWe) Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) in 1972.
Indian industry, DAE standarsized 220 megawatt ³³ The reactor attained criticality in October, 1985. The
PHWR design. critical components of the reactor were manufactured
³³ The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited in India.
(NPCIL), a public sector undertaking of DAE, is ³³ Its fuel, that used mixed carbides of Uranium and
responsible for the design, construction and operation Plutonium, was developed at Trombay.
of nuclear power reactors. ³³ This is the first fast reactor of its kind in the world
³³ Two such reactor units were commissioned at Narora that uses such a fuel core.
(Uttar Pradesh) in 1989 and 1991. ³³ These fast breeder systems produce more fuel than
what they consume. FBRs can increase fuel utilisation
³³ The design of the 220 megawatt atomic power reactors
was further improved, and the indigenous technology by about sixty times of what is possible with PHWRs.
of PHWR reached commercial maturity with the ³³ Thus, FBRs generate electricity and build up fuel
commissioning of two 220 megawatt power reactors inventory.
at Kakrapara (Gujarat) in 1992 and 1995 and two ³³ The design of 500 MW sodium cooled Prototype Fast
each at Kaiga (Karnataka) and Rawatbhatta in 1999 Breeder Reactor (PFBR) is ready and its construction
and 2000. is underway, with the Government giving its nod.

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³³ The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor is being ³³ In smaller units there are also being used in furnishing

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

constructed by the Bhartiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam power to ships.
Ltd. (BHAVINI). ³³ Nuclear reactor involved in generation of electricity,
³³ Nuclear Reactors based on Pressurized Heavy Water the changes in sequence involve.
technology (PHWR) utilise natural uranium, in which
only 0.6 per cent of it gets used in energy production, Reactor Types
while in Fast Breeder Reactors, the natural Uranium Reactor Type Coolant Moderator Fuel
utilisation increases to over 75 per cent. Pressurized light water light water Enriched
³³ India’s first prototype FBR has a construction period water uranium
of 7 years and after its completion, the Department
of Atomic Energy proposes to build four more FBRs Reactors (PWR, light water light water Enriched
of 500 MW each by the year 2020. WER) Boiling uranium
water reactor
³³ It also proposes to undertake desigining and
(BWR)
development of 1,000 MW FBRs. With this programme,
the target of 20,000 MW by 2020, may be achieved. Pressurized Heavy, Heavy Natural
Heavy water water water uranium
THIRD STAGE : THORIUM BASED REACTORS
reactor (PHWE) (D2O)
³³ The third stage of the Indian Nuclear Power Programme,
Gas-Cooled re- Carbon Graphite Natural
envisaging the use of Thorium for power generation
actor (Magnox, dioxide or en-
that has already begun.
AGR, UNGG) (CO2) riched
³³ The efforts have resulted in the successful design and
uranium.
operation of 30KW (normal power) reactor Kamini,
at IGCAR. Light water Pressur- Graphite Enriched
³³ It uses Uranium– 233 fuel obtained from irradiated graphite reactor ized uranium
Thorium. boiling
water
³³ The reactor is being used for irradiation of specimens
for experimental/forensic purposes. Plutonium Liquid Graphite Plutonium
³³ The technologies relating to the production of fueled sodium cadmium
Uranium–233 have been established. reactors. rods
³³ Thorium fuel bundles have also been successfully (Fast reactors)
used in the nuclear power programme, Bhabha Atomic ³³ Generation of heat nuclear fission →Heating of
Research Centre (BARC) has been developing the 300 molten metal or gas→ Transfer of heat to water →
MW Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR). Steam formation → steam drives turbine→ Rotation
³³ The reactor, a vertical pressure tube type cooled of turbine →Production of Electricity.
by light water and moderated by heavy water, ³³ Uranium Fuelled Reactors : Uranium is the only
incorporates several passive features in line with the naturally found radio active element used in the
concept of innovative advanced reactor system. nuclear reactors.
³³ AHWR, which will use both Thorium–Uranium–233 ³³ The element occurs in two forms; U-238 and U-235.
and Thorium Plutonium mixed oxide as fuel, is in The former is not fissionable hence it needs to be
transformed into fissionable form.
development phase.
³³ The process of transforming non-fissionable
NUCLEAR REACTOR AND TYPES uranium-238 into fissionable U-235 is called
³³ A nuclear reactor is a device designed to maintain enrichment of uranium.
continuous chain reaction by producing a steady ³³ The process carried out in atomic centres such as BARC
flow of neutrons produced by nuclear fission of heavy (Bhaba Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai) in India.
radioactive nuclei.
INDIA’S NUCLEAR REACTORS
³³ These reactors can be nuclear power reactors or
research reactors. ³³ 4 August, 1956 Apsara – first research reactor in Asia,
³³ Nuclear Research Reactors: These reactors are attained criticality at Trombay.
operated at university level or research centres. ³³ 10 July, 1960 CIRUS – the 40 MWe research reactor
³³ These reactors are being used for producing neutrons attained criticality.
for multiple purposes such as radio pharmaceuticals, ³³ 14 January, 1961 Research reactor ZERLINA attained
medical diagnosis, medical therapy, testing materials criticality, (It was decomissioned in 1983).
or conducting varied research work. ³³ 2 October, 1969 Tarapore atomic power station started
³³ Nuclear Power Reactors : These reactors are found commercial operation.
in nuclear power plants, dedicated to heat generation ³³ 18 May, 1972 Research reactor PURNIMA-1 attained
for producing electricity. critically.

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³³ 30 November, 1972 Unit-1 of Rajasthan atomic power ³³ 3 November, 2000 Unit-4 Rajasthan atomic power
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

station at Kota began commercial operation. station attained criticality.

³³ 22 December, 2009–PHWR (202 MWe) Rajasthan
Currently Functional Power Plants atomic power station attained criticality.
S. Reactor’s State Tyep Capacity ³³ 28 March, 2010–PHWR (202 MWe) Rajasthan
no. Name Power atomic power station attained criticality.
(MW) ³³ Nuclear Energy Parks : NPCIL to have five energy
1. Tarapur Maharastra BWR 1400 parks by 2032 to raise the generation of nuclear
energy. The selected sites are :
2. Rawatbhata Rajasthan PHWR 1,180
1. Haripur — West Bengal
3. Kudankulam Tamil WER-100 2,000 2. Mithi Virdhi — Gujarat
Naidu
3. Jaitapur — Maharashtra
4. Kaiga Karnataka PHWR 880 4. Kowada — Andhra Pradesh
5. Kakrapara Gujarat PHWR 440 5. Kulamkulam — Tamil Nadu
³³ With these India will have installed capacity of
6. Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu PHWR 440
35,000 MW by 2020 and 60,000 MW by 2032. Of this
7. Narora Uttar PHWR 440 40,000 MW to 45,000 Mw is expected to come from
Pradesh energyparks.
6,780 ³³ Agricultural Nuclear Technology : Isotopes can
be used in number of ways in food and agricultural
All these nuclear reactors are operated by NPCIL (Nucu- sector such as in ;
lear Power Corporation of India Limited). ³³ Combating pests and diseases by sterlizing insect
pests.
HEAVY WATER PLANTS ³³ Increasing crop production by exposing plants to small
doses of radiation.
Location in Capacity in
³³ Protecting land and resources as isotopes can help in
MW/ Year
measurement of soil fertility, amount of fertilizer and
1. Nangal (Punjab) 14 pesticide waste in soil,etc.
³³ Storage of agronomic products for longer period of
2. Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu) 49 time.
3. Baroda (Gujarat) 45 ³³ Increasing live stock production.
³³ Mutation breeding in development of varieties of oil
4. Kota (Rajasthan) 85 seeds and pulses such as of ground nuts, sunflower,
5. Talcher (Odisha) very little cowpea, soyabean, etc by BARC.
³³ ITER (International Thermo nuclear Experimental
6. Taj (Maharashtra) 100 Reactor) : It is an international nuclear fusion
research and engineering mega project.
7. Munuguru (Andhra Pradesh) 185
³³ It is an experimental to Kamak nuclear fusion reactor
8. Hazira (Gujarat) 100 that is being built next to the Cadarache facility in
Saint Paul-le’s Durance, South of France.
³³ 27 January, 1984 Unit-1 of Madras atomic power station ³³ Recently ITER celebrated the start of Assembly of ITER
at Kalpakkam started commercial operation. Tokamak at Saint Paul-Lez-Duvance, France.
³³ 10 May, 1984 Research reactor PURNIMA-II, fuelled ³³ It is being run and funded by seven member entities-
by Uranium - 233, attained criticality. the European Union, India, Japan, China, Russia,
³³ 8 August, 1985 Research reactor Dhruva (100MWe) South Korea and the United States.
attained criticality. ³³ The EU is contributory to 45.6% of its cost the
³³ 18 October, 1985 Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) remainder is equally shaved by China, Japan, South
at Kalpakkam attained criticality. Korea, Russia, USA including India (9.1% each).
³³ 12 March, 1986 Units-2 of Madras atomic power ³³ The facitity expected to be operational with deuterium-
station went commercial. tritum fusion experiment in year 2020 to become
³³ 12 March 1989, Unit-1 of Narora atomic power station the largest magnetic confine and plasma physics
attained criticality. experiment in use, surpassing the joint European
³³ 9 November, 1990 Research reactor PURNIMA-III, Torus.
a Uranium-233 fuelled reactor, attained criticality. ³³ For reactor, the source of deuterium will be sea water
³³ 20 October, 1996 Kalpakkam mini reactor (KAMINI), and for tritium, lithium would be used.
with Uranium-233 fuel, attained criticality at IGCAR, ³³ Nuclear waste Management: Each year, nuclear power
Kalpakkam. generation facilities worldwide produce about 2000,000
³³ 24 September, 1999 Unit-2 of Kaiga atomic power m3 of low and intermediate level of radioactive waste
station attained criticality. and 10,000m3 i.e. 12,000 tonnes of high level waste.

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³³ It is based on the calculated assumption that a typical ³³ It is the largest public sector undertaking under the

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

1000 MWe light water reactor generates 200-350m3 of Department of Defence Production.
low and intermediate level waste per year along with ³³ The HAL’s products range consists of aircraft, engines,
27 tonnes of used fuel. The only way out of managing accessories, avionics, structures for aerospace
these wastes include: vehicles, satellites and industrial and marine gas
— Recycling of fuel. turbine engines.
— Processing of used fuel for recycling. ³³ The HAL has established joint ventures BAe-HAL,
— Direct disposal to a geological repository after a Indo-Russian Aviation Ltd., with international
storage. participation.
— Aqucom reprocessing to remove only corenum and 2. Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
plutonium. ³³ It was established in 1954 and its corporate office is
Waste in Bangalore.
³³ BEL has nine units in the country.
Pre-Treatment ³³ It is engaged in the design, development and
Nuclear material for
Exempt Waste manufactured of sophisticated state–of the–art
recycle/reuse
Treatment electronics equipments for the use of defence services,
para military organisations and other government users
like AIR, Doordarshan, Police Wireless, Department of
Conditioning
Telecommunications.

Disposal 3. The Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML)

³³ It was established in May, 1964 and commenced its
Troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel : operations from January, 1965.
— Neptunium (half-life, two million years) ³³ Government holdover 61.23 per cent of equity shares
— Plutonium (half-life, 24,000 years). in BEML.
³³ Deep geological repository: Crystalline rock near ³³ The BEML has three manufacturing divisions located
Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu after an intrian storage of at Bangalore, Kolar Gold Fields (KGF) and Mysore.
minimum of 30 years. 4. Garden Research Ship–builders and Engineers
Limited (GRSE)
NUCLEAR TESTS CONDUCTED BY INDIA
³³ The Government of India acquired it in 1960 with its
³³ Pokhran I – On May 18, 1974, India conducted its corporate office at Kolkata.
first nuclear underground test. ³³ The GRSE builds and repairs warships and auxiliary
³³ The test was conducted in Pokhran area of Jaisalmer vessels for the Navy and the Coast Guard.
District in Rajasthan. ³³ Its product range includes frigates carrier, oil tankers,
³³ Pokhran I – Test is also known as "smiling Buddha". petrol vessels, attack craft, high technology ship borne
³³ Pokhran II – On May 11, 1998, India conducted equipment, tubing pumps, diesel engines etc.
three nuclear underground tests on Pokhran range in 5. Goa Shipyard Limited (GSL)
Rajasthan — (1) a fission device (2) a low yield device
³³ The GSL is located at Vasco–da-Gama port in Goa.
and (3) a thermo nuclear device.
³³ It primarily builds small and medium size Naval
³³ The low yield device will enable Indian Scientists to vessels and repair ships and vessels.
carry forward their research with a sound computer ³³ The company has undertaken construction, repair,
simulation capacity, supported by subcritical refit of variety of vessels for the Indian Navy and the
experiments. Coast Guard as well as non-defence sectors.
³³ The three nuclear tests covered the full spectrum of 6. Mazagon Dock Limited : India’s prime shipyard that
nuclear weapons. manufactures warships and submarines for Indian Navy
³³ On May 13, 1998, two further undeground tests were and offshore platforms for offshore oil drilling. It has its
conducted. manufacturing units in Mumbai and Nhava.
³³ Pokhran II – Test also called "Operation Shakti". ³³ It was established in 1934 with headquarters
in Mumbai. However now it is a public sector
DEFENCE undertaking of the Government of India.
DEFENCE UNDERTAKINGS 7. Hindustan Shipyard Ltd (HSL)
³³ Nine Public sector undertakings currently function ³³ Hindustan Shipyard Ltd. strategically located as the
under the Department of Defence Production. East Coast of the Indian peninsula at Visakhapatnam,
Andhra Pradesh.
1. The Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
³³ It is nation's premier ship building ship repair
³³ HAL was set up in 1964 with its corporate office at submarine construction of sophisticated state of the
Bangalore. art offshore and structures.

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³³ Considering the strategic requirements, the yard

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

was brought under the adminstrative control & the INDIAN MISSILE SYSTEMS
Ministry of Defence on 22 February, 2010. ³³ Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme
³³ Ordinance factory Board : It is industrial organisation. (IGMDP) was launched in 1983.
It functions under the Department of defence ³³ Its objective was to design and build missiles
production of Ministry of Defence, Government of India. indigenously with the help of technologies already
³³ It is engaged in research, development, production, available in the country.
testing, marketing and logistic of product ranging in ³³ The missile systems to be designed and developed
areas of land, air and sea systems. were–
³³ It has 41 Ordinance factories. 9 Training institutes, 3 1. Tactical Surface to Surface Missile ‘PRITHVI’.
Regional marketing centres and 4 Regional controllers 2. Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) ‘AGNI’
of safety, all spread across the contry.
3. Short Range Surface to Air Missile ‘TRISHUL’
³³ It is considered as the “Fourth Arm of Defence.” and 4. Medium Range Surface to Air Missile ‘AKASH’
‘Force Behind the Armed Forces’. of India.
5. Anti Tank Guided Missile ‘NAG’
8. The Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL)
(A) AGNI
³³ It was set up in 1970 with corporate office at
³³ Agni is an intermediate range ballistic missile (IRBM).
Hyderabad for manufacture of guided missiles.
³³ It can carry a payload of 500-1000 kg upto a range
³³ The company has two units located at Kachanbagh
of 1000-2500 km.
and Medak.
³³ It possesses the capability to produce advanced guided ³³ It can carry both conventional and nuclear war head.
missile systems. ³³ AGNI can be launched from a platform and can also
³³ The BDL is the prime production agency for missile be mounted on road-mobile launchers.
weaponry systems. ³³ AGNI-I has a ranage of about 700–1250 km.
9. Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited (MIDHANI) ³³ AGNI-II is a two stage solid propellant missile with a
range of 2000 to 3500 km.
³³ It is located at Hyderabad and incorporated on
³³ AGNI-III has a 3500–5000 km plus range.
November 20, 1973 with the primary objective of
³³ AGNI-IV has a range about 3000–4000 km.
ushering in self reliance in special metals and alloys for
strategic sectors like Defence, Space and Atomic Energy ³³ AGNI-V has a range about 5,500–5,800 km.
as well as hi-tech commercial industries in India. ³³ The missile has advanced features like Global
India’s First Defence Industrial Park Positioning System.
³³ Under the Union Government Flagship of ‘Make in (B) PRITHVI
India’ programme Kerala Government is to set up ³³ PRITHVI is a surface to surface battle field tactical
India’s first Defence Industurial Park, at Ottappalam, missile, having a range of upto 250 km.
Palakkad district in Kerala. ³³ PRITHVI can carry a 500 kg payload upto 250 km or
³³ The park is expected to be 231 crore defence component a 1000 kg payload upto 150 km.
park. The park is to reach its maximum production in ³³ It can carry both conventional and nuclear warhead.
two year time from the starting day and time. ³³ PRITHVI-I has a strike range of 150 km with a one
Defence Research and Development Organisation tonne warhead. It has been fully inducted into the
(DRDO) army.
³³ PRITHVI-II has a strike range of 350 km or the
³³ Defence Research and Development Organisation Air force version of Prithvi has undergone several
(DRDO) was formed in 1958 by amalgamating successful tests.
Technical Development Establishments (TDEs) of ³³ PRITHVI-III has a strike range of 350–600 km or
the Indian Army and the Directorate of Technical Naval version of Prithvi, also called DHANUSH has
Development and Production (DTDP) with the Defence been successfully test–fired.
Science Organisation (DSO).
(C) TRISHUL
³³ DRDO laboratories are engaged in a variety of
Defence technologies covering various disciplines like ³³ TRISHUL is a surface to air missile having a short
aeronautics, armaments, electronics, combat vehicles, range of 500 metres to 9 km.
engineering systems, missiles, advanced computation, ³³ It has a radar guided surveillance, tracking and
naval systems etc. guidnace mechanism for accurate interception of
³³ P a n c h i , t h e w h e e l e d v e r s i o n o f t h e U A V targets.
Nishant, capable of taking off from and landing ³³ It can be used by Army, Navy, and Airforce.
on small airstrips, made its maiden flight on 24 ³³ TRISHUL has undergone several successful test
December, 2014 at Kolar in Karnataka. flights.

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³³ The range of the TRISHUL Missile is 12 km and is Dr. Abdul Kalam has worked prior to becoming the

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

filled with a 15 kg warhead. The weight of the missile president of the country.
is 130 kg. ³³ SHAURYA : Short -range surface-to-surface ballistic
missile developed for use by Indian Navy. It is capable
(D) AKASH
of travelling at supersonic speed carrying a payload of
³³ ‘AKASH’ is a surface to air missile having a range of one-tonne conventional or nuclear war head.
30 km. ³³ PRAHAAR : It a solid-fueled surface-to-surface
³³ It has a launch weight of 720 kg, a diameter of 35 cm missile for hitting tactical and strategic targets.
and a length of 5.8 m. ³³ PRADYUMNA BALLISTIC MISSILE RUTER CEPTOR
³³ It is a multi-target air defence weapon that can target : It is Prithvi air Defence missile, maximum
four to five enemy aircrafts of missiles at a time. interception of 80 km travelling at speed of Mach 5.
³³ It the first Indian missile system to use Scramjet
principle for its propulsion. BARAK-8 MISSILE
³³ AKASH was test–fired for the first time on August 14, ³³ BARAK-8 also known as LR-SAM (long range-surface
1990 from the Interim Test Range, Chandipur. to air Missile) or as MR-SAM is an operational air and
³³ The quick reaction Air Defence Missile ‘AKASH’ has Missile defence system used by Israeli Navy as well
undergone several consecutive successful flight trails as by Indian Navy and Airforce.
in guide mode. ³³ It has been jointly developed by Israel Aerospace
³³ The AKASH missile is supported by a multi-target and Industries and India's DRDO, Israel's administration
multi function phased array fire control radar called for development of weapons and technological
the ‘Rajendra’ with a range of about 80 km in search infrastructures.
and 60 km in terms of engagement. ³³ It has maximum speed of Mach 2 with maximum
(E) NAG operational range of 70 km.
³³ India’s third generation ‘Fire-and-Forget’ anti-tank BRAHMOS
missile having a range of 3 to 7 km. ³³ It is a Mach-3 supersonic cruise missile, jointly
³³ It can be fired at night and during bad weather developed by India and Russia.
conditions as it uses imaging infrared guidance. ³³ It is the first and only supersonic cruise missile that
³³ First test of NAG missile was conducted on November uses liquid ramjet technology.
23, 1990.
³³ Brahmos-II, the land to land version of the supersonic
³³ HELINA is helicopter launched version of NAG
cruise missile was test–fired for the first time in the
Anti Tank guided missile, designed and developed
Army configuration in a desert range in Rajasthan on
Indigenously for Indian Army under integrated Missile
December 21, 2004.
development programme (IGMDP). It has operational
³³ It is a hypersonic cruise missile with a range of 290
range of 7-10 km (after air- launched).
km.
OTHER TECHNOLOGICAL ³³ Brahmos II-will be the first hypersonic (Mach-7) cruise
missile and is expected to be ready by 2013-2014.
ACHIEVEMENTS IN DEFENCE SECTOR
‘SAGARIKA’ MISSILE
ELECTRONIC WARFARE SYSTEM
³³ K-15 Sagarika is a nuclear-capable submarine
³³ India announced the develo-pment of the first ever launched ballistic missile with a range of 700 km. It
indigenously built and largest integrated electronic belongs to the K-missile family.
warfare system on January 19, 2004. ³³ The latest test of the K-15 Missile was successfully
³³ The system has been named as “Samyukta” . It is done on 11 March, 2012.
the first state–of the–art integrated electronic warfare
system for the army. ‘ASTRA’ MISSILE
³³ Defence research laboratories have already developed ³³ India successfully test-fired a prototype of the beyond
similar system for the navy called “Sangraha” and for visual range (BVR) air to air missile ‘Astra’ from the
the Air Force called “Tempest”. Chandipur interim test range.
MISSILE AND ITS COMPONENTS ³³ The ‘Astra’ missile is being developed indigenously to
³³ A missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition arm all fighters in the IAF’s inventory, including the
system. It has four systems; targeting/missile Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) when it becomes fully
guidance, height system, engine and war head. operational by around 2010.
³³ Type of missile include; surface-to-surface, surface- ³³ The 3.8 m long ‘Astra’ version has a strike range of
to-air, air-to-surface, air -to-air missile. 25-40 km.
³³ Air-to-surface and surface- to-surface missiles include
‘Saras’ Makes Maiden Test Flight
ballistic, cruise, anti-tank, anti-ship missiles.
³³ IGMDP : Integrated Guided missile Development ³³ ‘Saras’ is India’s first indigenously built civilian
programm was the one in which the president of India, aircraft.

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³³ It recorded its maiden flight in Bangalore on May

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Pinaka Missile
29, 2004.
³³ ‘Saras’ has been designed and developed by the ³³ A new tactical missile that will fill the gap between the
National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL). Pinaka rocket system and the Prithvi series of missile
has been developed.
³³ ‘Saras’ is designed to touch a speed of 550 km an hour
and cruise an altitude of 7500 metres. ³³ The first successful test of the missile was carried on
17 July, 2011.
³³ The aircraft’s maximum take-off weight is 61,00 kg.
³³ It is equipped to carry a payload of 1232 kg. Prahaar Missile
Shaurya Missile ³³ The 150 km range missile has been named Prahaar.
³³ Each road mobile launcher is designed to carry six
³³ The Saurya missile is a short-range surface-to-surface
missiles.
ballastic missile developed by DRDO for use by Indian
Army capable of supersonic speeds. Pragati Missile
³³ It has a range of 600 km and is capable of carrying ³³ The 60-170 km range missile has been named Pragati.
a payload of one-tonne conventional or nuclear ³³ Pragati is a surface to surface battle field tactical
warhead. missile.
³³ Shaurya missile is a land version of the under-water
launched K-15 missile, Sagrika. Namica
³³ A ballistic missile (Code named Sagrika), which would ³³ Nag missile carrier, is a tank destroyer built for army.
be the naval version of the Prithivi, and an inter- It is equiped with thermal imager to target acquistion.
continental - ballistic - missile (code named Shourya
Maareech
missile) with a range of 8,000-12,000 km.
³³ It is an Advanced Torpedo defense system indigenously
Nirbhay (Fearless) Missile developed for Navy. It is an anti torpedo system with
³³ Nirbhay is a long range, subsonic cruise missile being to wed and expandable decoys.
developed in India. The missile will have a range of ³³ It is capable of detecting, confusing, diverting and
1000 km. decoying the incoming torpedoes.
³³ The missile will have a speed of 0.8 mach. The Nirbhay ³³ The decoys help in exhausting the energy of torpedo
will be able to be launched from multiple platform on by directing it to run on defective but in effective path.
land, sea or air.

MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS OF DEFENCE RESEARCH AND

DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION (DRDO) IN 2020-2021
Air Defence Fire Control Radar (ADFCR) ‘Atulya’ 3rdGeneration Helicopter Launch Anti-Tank Guided
³³ Air Defence Fire Control Radar (ADFCR) in Missile (Dhruvastra)
conjunction with Anti- Aircraft Guns forms a Ground ³³ DRDO successfully conducted three flight tests of
Based Air Defence System whose main purpose is its indigenously developed anti-tank guided missile
effective point defence against all air threats at short (ATGM) ‘Dhruvastra'’ from the Integrated Test Range
and very short ranges during day and night under at Chandipur in Odisha, in July 2020.
all weather conditions and also in the presence of ³³ This is one of the most advanced anti-tank weapons
enemy jamming. in the world.
³³ The radar has been developed as an indigenous ABHYAS - High-speed Expendable Aerial Target
solution against DAC approval for large quantity (HEAT):
required for Indian Army.
³³ India successfully conducted the flight test of ABHYAS
³³ During February 2020, Phase-I of User Assisted
- High-speed Expendable Aerial Target (HEAT) - from
Technical Trials (UATT) i.e. high-altitude low a test range in Odisha.
temperature tests were completed. ³³ The trial, carried out by the Defence Research and
Advanced Light Weight Torpedo (ALWT): Development Organisation (DRDO) from the Integrated
³³ Advanced Light weight Torpedo (ALWT) is an anti- Test Range (ITR) at Chandipur near Odisha, was
submarine torpedo launched from ship, helicopter or tracked by various radars and electro-optic systems.
from a fixed wing aircraft. ³³ ABHYAS has been designed and developed by the
³³ The presence of enemy target is detected by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) of
sonar onboard a ship or an aircraft. Based on target the DRDO.
parameters estimated by the sonar and Fire Control Hypersonic Technology Demonstration Vehicle
System, torpedo is fired with a few preset parameters (HSTDV):
to ensure that the weapon is in most favourable ³³ Only three countries;Russia, USA and China have
position to acquire the target, home in and destroy it. flown a vehicle in the atmosphere at a hypersonic

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speed: Six times the speed of sound (Mach 6), or 2 QRSAM Missile System:

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

kilometres (km) per second. ³³ Quick Reaction Surface to Air Missile (QRSAM) System
³³ On September 7,2020 India entered that elite has achieved a major milestone by a direct hit onto a
club when the Defence Research & Development Banshee Pilotless target aircraft at medium range &
Organisation’s (DRDO’s) experimental Hypersonic medium altitude.
Technology Demonstration Vehicle (HSTDV) took off ³³ The missile uses all indigenous subsystems. In
from the APJ Abdul Kalam Launch Complex, off the successful flight test on
Odisha coast, and, after separating from its launch ³³ 17th November, 2020 the QRSAM tracked the target
vehicle at an altitude of 30 km, flew at Mach 6 for accurately and successfully neutralised the airborne
more than 22 seconds. target. The flight test was second in the series.
³³ DRDO successfully demonstrated the hypersonic air- ³³ This test was carried out once again, against the
breathing scramjet technology with the flight testing high-performance Jet Unmanned Aerial Target, which
of Hypersonic Technology Demonstration Vehicle simulates an aircraft.
(HSTDV). Prithvi-II Missile:
Active Electronically Scanned Array Radar (AESAR) ³³ India conducted a successful night testfire of its
‘Uttam’ indigenously developed nuclear capable surface-to-
³³ Active Electronically Scanned Array Radar (AESAR), surfacePrithvi-II missile as part of a user trial by the
UTTAM is a multimode, solid-state active phased array Army from a base in Odisha.
fire control radar with scalable architecture that can ³³ The trial of the missile, which has a strike range of
be adapted for various types of fighter class of aircraft. 350 km, was carried out from a mobile launcher from
³³ It is capable of tracking multiple targets with high launch complex-3 of the ITR.
accuracy suitable for firing missiles with interleaved BrahMos supersonic cruise missile:
Air to Air, Air to Ground and Air to Sea modes for all ³³ A naval version of the BrahMos supersonic cruise
terrain operation. missile was successfully test-fired from an indigenously
Successful Flight Test of SMART: built stealth destroyer of the Indian Navy in the
Arabian Sea.
³³ Supersonic Missile Assisted Release of Torpedo
³³ The missile was fired from INS Chennai, a stealth
(SMART) has been successfully flight tested on 5th
destroyer, and it hit the target with pin-point accuracy
Oct 2020 from Wheeler Island off the coast of Odisha.
after performing "extremely complex" manoeuvres.
³³ All the mission objectives including missile flight ³³ BrahMos Aerospace, an India-Russia joint venture,
upto the range and altitude, separation of the nose produces the supersonic cruise missile that can be
cone, release of Torpedo and deployment of Velocity launched from submarines, ships, aircraft, or from
Reduction Mechanism have been met perfectly. land platforms.
³³ Tracking stations (Radars, Electro Optical Systems)
along the coast and telemetry stations including down
New version of nuclear-capable Shaurya Missile:
range ships monitored all the events. ³³ India successfully test-fired a new version of nuclear-
³³ SMART is a missile assisted release of lightweight capable Shaurya missile off the coast of Odisha, which
Anti-Submarine Torpedo System for Anti-Submarine can strike targets at around 800 kms.
Warfare operations far beyond Torpedo range. ³³ The missile would be lighter and easier to operate in
³³ Indigenously Developed Anti-Radiation Missile comparison with the existing missile. In the last phase
(RUDRAM) while moving close to its target, the missile moves at
hypersonic speeds.
³³ New generation Anti Radiation Missile (RUDRAM)
was successfully Flight tested on 9th October, 2020 Hypersonic Wind Tunnel:
onto a radiation target located on Wheeler Island off ³³ Defence Minister Rajnath Singh visited DRDO’s Dr
the coast of Odisha. The missile was launched from APJ Abdul Kalam Missile Complex during his visit to
SU-30 MKI fighter aircraft. Hyderabad on 19th Dec 2020.
³³ The RUDRAM is first indigenous anti-radiation ³³ On this occasion, he inaugurated the advanced
missile of the country for Indian Air Force (IAF), being Hypersonic Wind Tunnel (HWT) test facility. The state-
developed by DRDO. The missile is integrated on of-the-art HWT Test facility is pressure vacuum driven
SU-30 Mk-I fighter aircraft as the launch platform, enclosed free jet facility having nozzle exit diameter of
having capability of varying ranges based on launch 1 meter and will simulate Mach No 5 to 12.
conditions. ³³ After USA and Russia, India is the third country to
³³ The RUDRAM hit the radiation target with pin-point have such a large facility in terms of size and operating
accuracy. The missile is a potent weapon for IAF for capability. It is an indigenous development and
Suppression of Enemy Air Defence effectively from an outcome of synergistic partnership with Indian
large stand-off ranges. industries.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ The facility has the capability to simulate hypersonic ³³ The US-based aerospace giant Boeing completed
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

flow over a wide spectrum and will play a major role in deliveries of its CH-47F (I) Chinooks to the Indian Air
the realization of highly complex futuristic aerospace Force (IAF) in March 2020.
and defence systems. ³³ The H-47 Chinook is an advanced multi-mission
helicopter that provides the Indian Air Force with
INS VIKRAMADITYA unmatched strategic airlift capability across the full
³³ The Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC) 1, which will spectrum of combat and humanitarian missions.
be calledINS Vikrant once it enters service with the ³³ It contains a fully integrated glass cockpit for mission
Indian Navy in 2022, completed sea trials. management, a digital advanced flight control system
to enhance aircrew safety, and advanced cargo-
What is IAC-1? handling capabilities that allow aircrews to quickly
³³ This is the first aircraft carrier designed and built and easily shift from moving cargo to transporting
in India. people and vehicles. All of these features are
³³ IAC-1 has been designed by the Indian Navy’s
Boeing AH-64E Apache:
Directorate of Naval Design (DND), and is being built
at Cochin Shipyard Limited (CSL), a public sector ³³ Boeing handed over the last of the five AH-64E Apache
shipyard under the Ministry of Shipping. attack helicopters to the Indian Air Force (IAF),
completing the contract for 22 Apaches in June 2020.
Why does it matter that this is a Made-in-India ³³ The Apaches were deployed at the Leh air base as part
warship? of the forward movement of assets, amid the stand-off
³³ Only five or six nations currently have the capability with China in Ladakh.
of manufacturing an aircraft carrier, India joins this ³³ The AH-64 Apache is the world’s most advanced multi-
elite club now. Over 76 per cent of the material and role combat helicopter.
equipment on board IAC-1 is indigenous.
Mirage-2000:
³³ India’s earlier aircraft carriers were either built by
the British or the Russians. The INS Vikramaditya, ³³ The Mirage-2000 is undoubtedly one of the Indian
currently the Navy’s only aircraft carrier that was Air Force's (IAF) most versatile and deadliest aircraft
commissioned in 2013, started out as the Soviet- and it was first commissioned in 1985. Soon after
Russian Admiral Gorshkov. inducting the Mirage, IAF gave it the name ‘Vajra’
³³ The country’s two earlier carriers, INS Vikrant and INS meaning lightning thunderbolt in Sanskrit.
Viraat, were originally the British-built HMS Hercules ³³ The Mirage-2000 is developed by DassaultAviation
and HMS Hermes before being commissioned into the and took its first flight in 1978 and was inducted in the
Navy in 1961 and 1987 respectively. French Air Force in 1984. India placed an initial order
of 36 single-seater Mirage-2000 and 4 twin-seater
FIGHTER JETS OF INDIAN AIR FORCE Mirage 2000 in 1982 as an answer to Pakistan buying
the US-made F-16 fighter jets by Lockheed Martin.
Dassault Rafale:
³³ The Mirage-2000 played a decisive role in the 1999
³³ The multi-role Rafale jets, built by French aerospace war of Kargil.
major Dassault Aviation, are known for air superiority
and precision strikes. Tejas Mk 1:
³³ India had signed an inter-governmental agreement ³³ India has long borrowed its fighter jets from countries
with France in September 2016 for procurement of 36 like Russia, France and Britain under a license
Rafale fighter jets at a cost of around Rs 58,000 crore. agreement to manufacture it locally by Hindustan
³³ The aircraft is capable of carrying a range of potent Aeronautics Limited. However, back in the 1980s
weapons and missiles and the first squadron of the the HAL started the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA)
aircraft will be deployed at Ambala air force station, programme to replace the ageing Soviet sourced
considered one of the most strategically located bases MiG-21. With India’s former Prime Minister giving
of the IAF. the LCA its name – Tejas – the 1st indigenously built
³³ The second squadron of Rafalewill be stationed at fighter aircraft was inducted in the Indian Air Force
Hasimara base in West Bengal. with the IAF placing a 20 jet order initially and the
³³ The Rafale is a modern fighter jet known for its 1st Tejas Squadron was formed in 2016 called the
agility, speed, weapon holding capacity and attack Flying Daggers.
capability. The DassaultRafale has a delta wing design ³³ Till now IAF has placed an order of 40 Tejas Mk 1,
and is capable of g-forces as high as 11g (in case of including 32 single-seat aircraft and eight twin-seat
emergency). trainers. IAF has also initiated procurement of a
further 73 single-seat fighters in Mk 1A configuration.
Boeing CH-47F Chinook:
³³ To replace the ageing Mil Mi-26 as the mainstay heavy MiG 21:
lift helicopter of the Indian Air Force the IAF placed ³³ The first supersonic jet aircraft in aviation history,
an order for 15 Boeing CH-47F Chinooks in 2015. the MiG 21 is one of the most known fighter jets on

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Earth. Having served 60 countries over a course of 60 ³³ Introduced in the 1970s to counter U.S. F-Series

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

years, the MiG 21 is still in service in many countries, planes like F-15 and F-16 the MiG29 is known as
including India. Baaz (Hindi for Hawk) and forms the second line of
³³ In 1961, IAF opted for the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design defence after the Sukhoi Su-30MKI.
Bureau made MiG 21 and since then has bought ³³ The MiG-29 is exported to more than 30 nations,
more than 250 estimated units of this incredibly India being the first and one of the largest exporters
competent planes. of this jet.
³³ While the 21s played a pivotal role in the 1971 India ³³ The IAF currently uses the upgraded MiG-29 UPG,
Pakistan War, they are currently being used only as the most advanced MiG-29 variant ever.
Interceptors with a limited role as fighter jets and IAF ³³ The MiG29 were used extensively during the Kargil
will soon replace the remaining units of the MiG21 War by the Indian Air Force to provide escort for
Bison with the Tejas LCA. The MiG 21 has a single- Mirage-2000 attacking targets with laser-guided
seater cockpit with a maximum speed of 1.05 mach bombs.
(1300 kmph). Missiles
Sukhoi Su-30MKI: S. Type Range
³³ The Sukhoi Su-30MKI is the most advanced fighter No.
jet in operation with the Indian Air Force and is the 1. Inter Continental Ballistic Missile upto 14,800 km
primary air to air and air to ground strike machine. (I.C.B.M.)
³³ Also known asFlanker (NATO), the Su-30 MKI is
2. Submarine Launched Ballistic upto 9,100 km
built in India by HAL under a license agreement with Missile (S.L.B.M.)
Russia’s Sukhoi.
3. Medium Range Ballistic Missile upto 5000 km
³³ The Su-30MKI is exclusively used by India and there’s
(M.R.B.M.)
an estimate that IAF has 290 operational units of
30MKI till now. The first unit was inducted in 2002. 4. Short Range Ballistic Missile upto 900 km
³³ The Sukhoi Su-30MKI has a top speed of Mach 2 (2120 (S.R.B.M.)
kmph) and has a maximum takeoff weight of 38,800 The Antarctica Treaty
kg. The jet can carry a wide range of equipment from
³³ India signed the Antarctica Treaty of 1959 and became
radars to missiles, bombs and event rockets.
a consultative member of the Antarctica club in 1983.
MiG 27: ³³ The Scientific Committee on Antarctica Research
³³ The MiG 27 is Soviet sourced ground-attack aircraft admitted India as a member in 1984.
designed by Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau from Bodies connected with Antarctica Treaty
the Soviet Union and manufactured by HAL under a
³³ SCAR : Scientific Committee on Antarctica Research.
license agreement.
³³ The MiG27 is known as ‘Bahadur’ (meaning Valiant ³³ COMNAP : Council of Managers of National Antarctic
in English) in India and the IAF retired the last 27 ML Programmes.
squadron in 2017. ³³ SCALOP : Standing Committee on Antarctic Logistic
³³ India is only among a handful of countries who still Operation.
operates the updated MiG-27 UPG ground attack The Antarctica Expeditions
aircraft. The 27s are based on the MiG23 with a
³³ The Antarctica Research Programme in India was
redesigned nose and flies low altitude.
initiated in 1981.
SEPECAT Jaguar: ³³ So far 23 scientific expeditions have been launched
³³ The SEPECAT Jaguar is a fighter jet developed on a regular basis.
together by British Royal Air Force and French Air ³³ Two expeditions to the southern oceans for carrying
Force. Only the Indian Air Force is currently using out research in the thrust area of polar science
the upgraded Jaguar in active duty. viz Weddel Sea Expedition and Krill Expedition for
³³ The SEPECAT Jaguar is known as Shamsher and assessment of Krill Resources in Antarctica water,
serves IAF as primary ground attack aircraft. Indian were also undertaken.
Jaguar is quite different from the RAF’s Jaguar and ³³ The Indian station ‘Maitri’ is situated in the Central
are built locally by HAL under a license agreement. Droning Maud land of east Antarctica.
³³ IAF recently upgraded its entire fleet of Jaguars by ³³ From 1999 onwards the Indian scientific expeditions
adding Avionics support. The only problem with the to Antarctica are launched from Cape town, South
Jaguar is its inability to fly high altitude with heavy Africa.
load on board. ³³ Scientific experiments being carried out at Antarctica
are in the field of measurements of Green House
MiG 29:
gases, the seismic studies, permanent GPS tracking
³³ Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau produced at Maitri, study of crack propagation on ice sheet,
MiG called the MiG 29. communication at Maitri and polar logisitics. ppp

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 9 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT
ECOLOGY dry areas called xerophytes have their stem modified
³³ Ecology is a scientific study of the reciprocal as leaves with water storage capacities and leaves
relationship between organisms (including microbes, modified in form of spines. These structures together
plants, animals, man) with their environment. called phylloclade are seen in optunia (cactus) and
other xerophytic plants. In a habitat animals can be
³³ It is defined ‘as a scientific study of the relationship
aquatic and plants hydrophytic. Aquatic animals can
of the living organisms with each other and with their
also stenohaline aline or euryhaline. Therefore, we
environment’.
realize that a fresh water fish cannot survive in the
³³ The term Ecology was coined by famous biologist marine water or vice versa.
Ernest Haickel.
³³ Light equally affects both plants and animals. In plants
³³ The term ecology has been derived from two Greek the exposure to light affects rate of photosynthesis,
words namely Oikos meaning home and Logos transpiration, flowering, seed germination in some
meaning study. plants, fruit ripening, etc. In animals duration of light
³³ Literally it is the study of the home of nature. affects daily activity as nocturnal (active at night),
³³ Ecosystems are parts of nature where living organisms diurnal (active during day), auroral (active at dawn)
interacts amongst themselves and with their physical or vespersal (active at sunset) are affected by the
environment. presence of light intensity.
³³ The term ecosystem was coined by Sir Arthur Tansley. ³³ Water availability along with soil type affect plants
more than animals except in case of animals like earth
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
worm that are burrowing animals. Soil is of four types
³³ Ecology deals with study of inter-relationship of depending on particle type which dominate in its
living organisms with each other and their existing presence i.e. sandy soil, clayey soil, loam and alluvial
environment. In ecological hierarchy, the study begins soil. Clayey soil is used in making of earthern pots,
at the level of organism before proceeding to levels of but in a mixture with loam, it makes alluvial soil, the
greater complexity. best for plant growth of wheat, rice and pulses, black
Organism(Species) → Population → Community → soil of Gujarat support cotton plantation, gravel soil
Ecosystem → Biome (landscape) → Biosphere of hilly area supports tea and coffee plantation while
³³ In an environment, the habitat (dwelling place) of an those of coastal area supports growth of coconut, palm
organism is affected by both biotic factors and abiotic , cycas, rubber, etc.
factors. Biotic factors include producers, consumers ³³ In an environment, animals show different forms
and decomposers. They along with their interaction of adaptations in their morphology to physiology
with others are studied in Ecosystem. The abiotic such as hibernation (winter sleep) in cold regions,
factors of an environment include temperature, water aestivation (summer sleep) in hot regions, camouflage
(precipitation), sunlight and soil. (resemblance in colour or shape with surroundings)
³³ The temperature effect is considered as primary such as leaf insect, stick insect, chameleon, etc.,
factor because of its regulatory effect on enzymatic mimicry i.e. Batesican or mullerian or echolocation
activity that regulate number of metabolic processes (production of high frequency of sound) as in shark,
essential for the successful survival. An organism whales and horse shoe bats.
can be (Homotherm) or eurythermal (poikilotherm) Population : It refers to the number of individuals
stenothermal like humans, birds can only survive of a species living in a definite area at any given time.
in a narrow range of temperature while eurythermal A population size is easily affected temporarily by
like amphibians, pisces can survive in a wide range immigration or emmigration, permanently by birth rate
of temperature. A frog wouldn't normally die even if
and death rate, each of these contribute to the growth rate,
kept in a deep freezer for few hours. Plants too are
+ve or –ve. A population sample has three components :
equally affected by temperature range such as those
pre-reproductive, reproductive and post reproductive age
found in hilly areas of colder regions have leaves with
group. The size of these age groups decide the nature of
thick cuticle or leaves modified in form of needle like
in Pinus for water conservation and frost resistance. future population size of the population sample.
Similarly, animals living in colder regions have a ³³ Expanding — Triangular shape
thick layer of hair or fur, subcutaneous layer of fats Pre-reproductive > Reproductive > Post-reproductive
or feathers in birds. Humans have light pigmentation ³³ Stable — Bell shape
in cold region, yellow brown to red in arid climate and Pre-reproductive = Reproductive > Post-reproductive
black in hot humid region.
³³ Declining — Urn shaped
³³ Water is the second most important factor that rely
Pre-reproductive < Reproductive > Post-reproductive
on the annual precipitation in region. Plants living in

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 Ecology and Environment

i.e. type of soil etc. These factors determine the type of

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Post productive
flora and fauna that can survive successfully in a given
Reproductive habitat.
Pre-reproductive Temperature : It is the most important of all
the abiotic factors as on earth it ranges from subzero
Expanding Population temperature of polar regions or at very high altitudes to
50°C or above of tropical deserts in summer. It affects both
the physiological functioning and geographical distribution
of organisms.
Temperature and life zones : The varying
Stable Declining temperatures have created different life zones on earth.
population population These include tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, arctic
³³ A population sample based on above if plotted can or alpine. A very high or low temperature causes an
give the J-shape or S-shape curve. The J-shape is immediate death of piokilotherms than homotherms.
exponential growth curve that does not last long Poikilotherms : These animals also called cold
looking at the carrying capacity of the habitat while blooded animals are lower animals such as insects, fishes
S-Shape called sigmoid shape curve is the most stable and amphibians. They can tolerate and survive in a wide
as it matches and proceeds according to the carrying but narrow range of temperature. They lack any internal
capacity of habitat. mechanism of thermoregulation (haemostasis).
Population interactions : In a geographical region Homotherms : These animals also called warm
living community include two or more populations which blooded animals like birds and mammals have a specific
interact continuously. These interaction depending on their body temperature which they maintain with the help of
nature have been classified into different types : internal thermoregulatory mechanisms such as sweating
Predation : It explains predator (lion) and prey (deer, in summer, shivering in winter or presence of thick
buffalo) relationship in which predator survive at the cost subcutaneous layer of fats underneath the skin like
of prey's life. blubber in whales adapted for living in cold arctic oceans.
Parasitism : It is like predation in which the parasite Annual precipitation : The availability of water is
does not kill the host but harms and damages it by with the second most important factor that influences the life
drawing food and other essentialities necessary for its on earth. The organisms living on earth based on water
survival. A parasite can be ectoparasite or endoparasite. availability can be xerophytic, mesophytic or hydrophytic
Commensalism : It is the relation between two in habitat. The percentage availability of water in a living
populations in which one is benefited while the other zone is directly or indirectly dependent on the anuual
remains unaffected such as relation between Jackals or precipitation.
Wolves following a tiger or lion for left over flesh, epiphytic Sunlight : The green plants are the primary
plants or between sucker fish and shark. producers as they can manufacture their own food by
Mutualism : It is the relation in which both photosynthesis. It’s metabolic process that entirely
populations living together are benefited by each others depends on the availability of sunlight for its onest. All
presence such as when a natural association between algae organisms irrespective of their trophic level direcly or
and fungi in lichen, nitrogen fixing bacteria, Rhizobium in indirectly depend on green plants for matter and energy.
roots of the legume plant, mycorrhiza with roots of higher The light also play role in plant movements, germination
plants for stimulated water and minerals absorption from of photoblastic seeds like that of lettuce, photo-periodism
soil or between wasp and fig tree. Some like Mediterranean and daily rhythms in animals.
orchids deceit male wasps for pollination by making them Daily rhythm in animals : The animals show a
involved in act of preudo copulation as one of petal in great variation in their daily rhythm being nocturnal (night
flower bear close resemblance in shape and color with active), diurnal (day active), vesperosal (Active at sunset
female bee. like rabbits) or auroral (active at dawn like Babalcus).
Habitat : The dwelling place of an organism in Sciophytes : The plants growing in shade of tall trees
an ecosystem is called its habitat. In the habitat an such as some shrubs and herbs.
organism interact both with its abiotic environment and Heliophytes : The plants growing in bright sunlight
boitic environment, interacting with the other members like members of climax community.
of community involves intraspecific and interspecific
Light zones in deep waters of lakes or oceans :
competition.
There is light zonation in deep water in four zones. These
Intraspecific competition : The competition between
are
the members of a same species such as for food and
shelter. Littoral zone : It is the shallow water zone of the
coastal region in which the light manages to pass and
Intrerspecific competition : The competition in the
reach the bottom. Hence, the producers occur throughout
members of two or more different species occupying the
from top to bottom.
same habitat such as for sunlight and water among plants.
Limentic zone : It is an open water zone in which
Abiotic factors : These factors may seem non-
the light reduces with the increasing depth. It shows the
influential but are of indispensible significance such as
presence of both the producers and consumers.
temperature, annual precipitation, light, edaphic factors

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

Profoundal zone : It also called as aphotic zone, it is Migration : It involves temporary migration from
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

the deep water zone below the photic zone but above the unfavourable habitat to favourable habitat followed by
bottom zone. It is perpetually dark characterized by the te return to the native habitat on arrival of favourable
presence of consumers only. conditions.
Benthoic zone : It is aphotic bottom zone of Hibernation : It is also called winter sleep in which
perpetual darkness characterized by the presence of an organism temporarily lives a passive life hiding in a cave
consumers and decomposers. or burrow to pass time during outside cold unfavourable
Soil : In the words of Buckman and Brady, “Soil is conditions.
a dynamic natural body, on the earth’s surface in which Asestivation : It is also called summer sleep in which
plants grow, is composed of minerals, organic matter and an organism temporarily lives a passive life hiding in a cave
living organisms.” or burrow to pass time during outside hot unfavourable
Soil composition : Soil has five components-mineral conditions such as shown by snails and some fishes.
matter, organic matter, soil water, soil air and soil Diapause : It is a state of suspended development
organism. The average proportion of these components is such as observed in zooplanktons and larvae of pink cotton
as follows : bollworm which enter in diapause in winter month to hatch
Mineral matter — 40% in summer.
Organic matter — 5% -10% Environment : An environment irrespective of its type
Soil water — 20% - 25% has two major components, biotic and abiotic component.
Each of these is incomplete without the other because of
Soil air — 20% - 25%
their interdependence.
Soil organisms Variable
³³ Biotic components include herbivores, carnivores and
Soil texture : It refers to the physical structure
omnivores along with detrivores and decomposers
of soil due to size, proportion and arrangement of its
such a some saprophytic fungi and bacteria.
constituents. Three main types of soil textures are sandy,
³³ Detrivores : The organisms which feed on dead
clayey and loam based on the three types of mineral
decaying organic matter both of plant and animal’s
particles present i.e. sand, clay and silt.
origin to form humus like earthworm are called are
Clayey soil : It has 40-50% of clay, the rest being called detrivores.
mostly silt. It is good in mineral nutrients but poor in
³³ Natural cleaners of the environment ; The term is
aeration. It is closely packed with clay particles, makes
used for saprophytes like some saprophytic fungi
root growth difficult. However, it makes a good potter soil and bacteria because of their role in mineralization
being excellent for use in making earthen pots. of humus.
Loamy soil : It contains 20% clay, 40% sand and the ³³ Abiotic components include average temperature
rest of silt. This appropriate mixture of different particles conditions, annual precipitation, edaphic factors and
makes it the best for plant growth being rich in mineral other topographic factors.
nutrients and having a good water holding capacity and Types of ecosystems : The type of ecosystem de-
necessary soil aeration for optimum root growth. pends primarily on the existing abiotic conditions in an
Weathering of rocks : It stands for the destructive ecosystem i.e. xerophytic, aquatic, mesophytic, arctic,
process of natural breaking of rocks to form soil. There etc. The relationships vary from place to place depending
are number of factors that contribute to the weathering on the habitat primarily affected by the prevailing abiotic
such as : conditions. This has also helped divide the earth into dif-
³³ Climatic and physical factors like change in ferent bio-geographical areas such as tropical rain forests,
temperature, blowing wind or flowing water, etc. savannah, deserts, etc.
Anthropogenic ecosystem : An artificially man made
³³ Chemical weathering caused by hydration, oxidation,
ecosystem is an anthropogenic ecosystem such as a fish
reduction etc.
aquarium, a city garden, etc.
³³ Biological weathering caused by pioneer community Bio-magnification : also called bioaccumulation in-
of lichens and plants or animals growing or living in volves the accumulation of non-biodegradable substances
rocks cervices. with succeeding number of trophic levels. If an aquatic
Environment and organisms : All organisms try bird is compared for the presence of non-biodegradable
to cope up with the environment in which they live, chemical with respect to fishes it feeds on, the birds will
some regulate their physiological functioning internally show a higher percentage of the chemical than fishes.
(homeostasis) while others try but only upto a certain Reasons for the ban on use of DDT and other
narrow limit. The former such as homotherms are pesticides : The biomagnifications of non-biodegradable
called regulate and the later are called conform such chemicals have led to the ban on use of insecticide. It was
as poikilotherms. The homotherms have evolved ability observed that the aquatic birds feeding on fishes living
to regulate but only for a limited period of time beyond in DDT contaminated water had started laying shelless
which, they have developed and tend to develop necessary eggs that started decimating their population hence, to
adaptations. protect those birds population, the ban was instituted on
the DDT use. The same was observed in case of mercury
Temporary alternatives of adaptations : These
contaminating the water that led people of coastal areas
include :
feeding on fishes to suffer from Minmata disease.

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 Ecology and Environment

Food pyramids : A pyramid is also used to express Hydrophytes : also called aquatic plants and they

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

a food chain based on factors such as the number of or- grow in aquatic habitat. They can be submerged , suspend-
ganisms at a trophic level , their biomass or total amount ed, free floating, leaves anchored or emergent hydrophytes.
of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next. These plants are characterized by the presence of mucilage,
A pyramid of number and biomass can be inverted roots either absent or if present without root hairs, poorly
but the pyramid of energy is always erect from broad base developed xylem for water transport and presence of aer-
to the pointed edge. enchyma in plant parts like stem and leaves. Aerenchyrna
Assimilation efficiency : It is the percentage of food is a type of parenchyma whose cells are filled with air
energy assimilated for body building to the total ingested cavities to make them soft and spongy to float in or water
food by an organism. on water surface. Leaves if present are waxy with large
Evil quartet : It describes the reason for the causes stomata only on upper leaf surface. Ranunculus aquatilis
of loss of biodiversity. It includes the fragmentation of a is an aquatic plants which has two types of leaves, the
habitat, invasion of alien species, act of co-evolution and fragmented submerged leaves and broad non-fragmented
mass extinction. Presently, the ecologist are of the view air-borne leaves.
that so far earth has faced five mass extinction because of Halophytes : also called saline plants as they grow
natural causes but the sixth extinction if happened would in saline habitat of coastal marshes, mangroves, coastal
purely be anthropogenic looking at the alarming rate of dunes and saline soil such as Atriplex, Spartina, Sueda,
extinction of species because of human activities. etc. They have succulent types of leaves and stem having
Adaptation : refers morphological, physiological or thick cuticle and sunken stomata to store water and mu-
behavioural changes in an organism to survive success- cilage while some secrete salts using salt glands.
fully and interbreed in a given habitat. Both plants and Mangrove plants : These plants are known to posses
animals show different types of adaptations depending on pneumatophores the breathing roots found in plants such
their environmental demands. as Rhizophora. These roots being negatively geotropic
Plants stratification and light : It refers to the verti- emerge out of water surface with a pore in the centre or
cal arrangement of plants depending on their height based
lenticels for gases exchange, necessary for root cells. These
on light requirements forming different strata, the plants
plants are also known to exhibit vivipary i.e. the seed
with more light intensity requirements grow taller than
germinate while still attached to the parental plant. It is
others with less light requirements like heliophytes
only the radicle that grows into water while the plumule
and schiophytes.
Plants with fulfillment of water requirements : remains above water attached to the plant.
There are basically three broad categories of plants based Plants and oligotrophic soils : These are soils poor
on the water requirements and its fulfillment. These are in nutrients such as in some areas of tropical zone of
xerophytes , hydrophytes and mesophytes. rain forests. Plants growing in these soils such as Pine,
Xerophytes : These are plants adapted to water Oak, Eucalyptus, etc develop mycorrhizae, the mutual-
scarcity hot desert conditions. They have further been istic relationship with fungi for the absorption of water
classified as: and minerals. The mycorrhizae can be ectomycorrhiza or
Drought escapers : also called ephemerals live only endomycorrhiza.
for a short time during rainy season such as Tribulus Adaptation in animals : The animals show adapta-
terresteris and Euphorbia prostrate. tion for different reasons such as for feeding , escaping
Drought evaders : They have short life span as from unfavourable conditions , mating or protection from
manage to survive even after rains for few months by the predators.
improving water absorption and reducing transpiration Migration: The animal migration can be long dis-
such as Echinopus echinatus and Solarium surattense. tance, short distance, periodic or daily. Long distance
Drought resistants : also called succulents have migration is exhibited by Arctic Tern that migrates from
fleshy body parts like stem in Opuntia and Euphorbia or one pole to another every year. Short distance migration is
fleshy roots in Asparagus to store water. The fleshy photo- shown by birds and fishes such as whales. They migrate
synthetic stem are called phyllocladodes( indefinite growth) from Arctic ocean to warmer areas for food. Periodic mi-
and cladodes (definite growth). They all posses sunken gration is shown by locusts in the search of rich feeding
stomata which open only at night and in photosynthesis grounds upon hatching.
for reduction of carbon dioxide to produce sugar use CAM Camouflage : It refers to the ability of an animal to
(Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) cycle. blend with colour or form of the surroundings such as in
Drought endurers : These plants are capable of endur-
case of stick insect, leaf like grasshopper, leaf insect or
ing drought conditions with presence of sunken stomata,
Praying mantis.
smaller shoot system but an extensive root system. In some
Mimicry : It refers to the resemblances of a species
of them like grasses, the leaves fold during dry weather or
with another as means of protection against predators.
others have leaves with spines or prickles such as Acacia.
They also posses chaperonins, the heat shock proteins, thick The mimicry can be Batesian or Mullerian. In Batesian
cuticle with waxy covering and use C–4 cycle for reduction mimicry, the insect Vicroy butterfly mimics the toxic
of carbon dioxide to produce sugar. Monarch fly.
Phreatophytes : These are trees found in deserts ³³ In Mullerian mimicry, the insect being ferocious mimic
whose roots grow to the depth of water table to absorb for mutual benefit like Monarch butterfly and Queen
water such as Tamarix and Prosopis. butterfly.

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Cold hardiness : It refers to the development of ³³ They depend on organic food derived from plants,
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

protection against extremely cold conditions with the animals or both.

deposition of antifreeze proteins and glycerol in body fluids ³³ Consumers can be divided into two broad groups—
such as in Ice fish or Antarctic fish. 1. Macro Consumers
Adaptation in desert animals : These animals like
2. Micro Consumers
camel or kangaroo rat are well adapted to live in hot desert
Macro Consumers
conditions of water scarcity with thick coat, almost no
sweating, dry faeces, concentrated urine and ability to ³³ Macro consumers feed on plants or animals or both
survive on metabolic water produced during respiration. and categorised on the basis of their food sources.
Alien’s rule: The rule, describe the relation in size ³³ Herbivores are primary consumers which feed on
of body organs with climatic conditions. According to the plants.
rule animals living in cold climates have shorter limbs, ear ³³ Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers.
and tail than their counterparts living in warm conditions ³³ Carnivores feed on secondary consumers are called
to minimize the heat loss from body. tertiary consumers.
COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM ³³ Omnivores are organisms which consumes both plant
³³ Ecosystems consist of life forms existing in a symbiotic and animals. Example - man.
relationship with their environment. Micro Consumers : Saprotrophs
³³ Two main components exist in an ecosystem : (a) ³³ Micro Consumers are bacteria and fungi which obtain
Abiotic (b) Biotic energy by decomposing dead organic substances.
(a) Abiotic component : The abiotic components of Ecotone
any ecosystem are the non-living properties of the ³³ Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more
environment. diverse ecosystems Examples – Mangrove, grassland,
 The abiotic components consist of the non-organic estuary and river bank.
aspects of the environment that determine what life
Niche
forms can thrive.
(b) Biotic Component : The biotic components of ³³ A niche is the unique Functional role or place of a
ecosystem are the life forms that inhabit it. species in an ecosystem.
 The biotic components include living organisms ³³ It is a description of all the biological, physical and
comprising plants, animals and microbes and are chemical factors that a species needs to survive.
classified according to their functional attributes ³³ It is a unique for species as it plays an important role
into Producer and Consumers. in conservation of organism.
³³ Not two species have exact identical niches.
COMPONENTS
Biome
Abiotic Biotic ³³ The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible
Atmospheric gases and wind Animals into enormous regions called biomes, which are
Energy Green Plants characterised by climate, vegetation, animal life and
general soil type.
Gravity Decomposers
³³ The boundaries of biome is determined by the climate
Geological Substratum Parasites ³³ Not two biomes are alike.
Fire Man ³³ The most important climatic factors are temperature
Temperature Non-green plants and precipitation.
³³ Example-Biome Tundra, Taiga, Tropical rain forest,
Topography Symbionts
Temperate deciduous forest, Savannah, Desert etc.
Water, soil
Cold
Primary Producers : Autotrophs
Polar
³³ Primary producers are basically green plants and
Tundra
certain bacteria and algae.
³³ They synthesise carbohydrates from simple inorganic Boreal Forest
raw materials like CO2 and water in the presence
Cold Temp.
of sunlight by the process of photosynthesis for Prairie Deciduous
Desert
themselves. Forest
³³ In terrestrial ecosystem, producers are basically Trop. Trop. Trop.
herbaceous and woody plants. Warm Grass- SavannaDeco. Rain
Forest land Forest Forest
³³ In aquatic ecosystem producers are various species
Warm
of microscopic algae. Dry Wet

Consumers : Heterotrophs or Phagotrophs BIOME Distribution based on

Temperature and precipitation
³³ Consumers cannot produce their own food.

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 Ecology and Environment

FOOD-CHAINS Food web in Grassland Ecosystem

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

³³ The sequence of eaten and being eaten, produces
transfer of food energy and it is known as food chain.
³³ A food chain starts with producer and ends with top
carnivores.
³³ The shorter the food chain, the greater is the available
energy.
³³ Small herbivores consume the vegetable matter and
convert them into animal matter. These herbivores
are eaten by large carnivores.
Types of Food Chain
³³ There are two types of food chain :
(1) Grazing food chain ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
(2) Detritus Food Chain The steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagram-
matic way are referred as ecological pyramids. The food
Grazing of Food Chain producer forms the base of the pyramid and the top car-
³³ The consumers which start the food chain, utilising nivore forms the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in
the plant or plant part as their food, constitute the between.
grazing food chain. ³³ The pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars
³³ Grazing food chain beings from green plants at the depicting specific trophic levels which are arranged
base and the primary consumer is herbivore. sequentially from primary producer level through
herbivore, carnivore onwards. The length of each bar
represents the total number of individuals at each
trophic level in an ecosystem.
³³ The number, biomass and energy of organisms
gradually decrease with each step from the producer
level to the consumer level and the diagrammatic
representation assumes a pyramid shape.
³³ The ecological pyramids are of three categories
1. Pyramid of numbers, 2. Pyramid of biomass, and
3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.
Pyramid of Numbers
This deals with the relationship between the numbers
of primary producers and consumers of different levels. It
is a graphic representation of the total number of individ-
uals of different species, belonging to each trophic level in
an ecosystem.
³³ Depending upon the size and biomass, the pyramid
of numbers may not always be upright, and mav even
be completely inverted.
(a) Pyramid of numbers- upright
³³ In this pyramid, the number of individuals is
decreased from lower level to higher trophic level.
³³ This type of pyramid can be seen in grassland
ecosystem.
Detritus food chain :
³³ Detritus food chain starts from dead organic matter C4
Top Carnivore
of decaying animals and plant bodies to the micro C3

organisms and then to detritus feeding organism

C3
called detrivores or decomposer. Secondary C2
Carnivore
Litter → Earth worms → Chicken → Hawk
C2
C1
FOOD WEB Primary
Carnivore

³³ A food web illustrates, all possible transfers of energy C1

Herbivores P
and nutrients among the organisms in an ecosystem.
P
³³ The food web provides more than one alternative for Producers
A B
food to most of the organisms in an ecosystems.
Upright Pyramids on Number (A) In a Grass Land (B) in a Pond

OLE - 489
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level (base) size difference problem because all kinds of organisms
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

because of their abundance. at a trophic level are weighed. Biomass is measured

³³ The next higher trophic level is primary consumer - in g/m2.
herbivore (example - grasshopper). (a) Upward pyramid
³³ The individual number of grasshopper is less than that For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass
of grass. The next energy level is primary carnivore has a large base of primary producers with a smaller tro-
(example—rat) phic level perched on top.
³³ The number of rats are less than grasshopper,
because, they feed on grasshopper. The next higher
trophic level is secondary carnivore (example -snakes). Top Carnivore
They feed on rats.

1
kg
³³ The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore.
(Ex. Hawk). Primary Carnivore

10
³³ With each higher trophic level, the number of

kg
individual decreases. Herbivores
10
0
kg
(b) Pyramid of numbers - inverted
³³ In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased Producers 1000 kg
from lower level to higher trophic level.
Upright Pyramid of biomass in
a terrestrial Ecosystem
Hyperporasites
Upright Pyramid of Biomass
The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the
Parasites
maximum. The biomass of next trophic level i.e primary
consumers is less than the producers. The biomass of
next higher trophic level i.e secondary consumers is less
herbivores
than the primary consumers. The top, high trophic level
has very less amount of biomass.
(b) Inverted pyramid
Producers In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid
of biomass may assume an inverted form.

Inverted pyramid of number

/m 2
³³ A count in a forest would have a small number of large Carnivore

gm
producers, for e.g. few- number of the trees.

12
³³ This is because the tree (primary producer) being

m2
few in number and would represent the base of the Herbivore m/
8g

pyramid and the dependent herbivores (Example-

Birds) in the next higher trophic level and it is followed
/m 2

by parasites in the next trophic level. Hyper parasites

gm

being at higher trophic level represents higher in

4

Producers
number.
³³ And the resulting pyramid is in inverted shape. A
pyramid numbers does not take into account the
fact that the organisms being counted in each trophic Inverted Pyramid in an Aquatic Ecosystem
level cart vary. ³³ This is because the producers are tiny phytoplanktons
³³ It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a that grow and re-product; rapidly. Here, the pyramid
pyramid of numbers and so the pyramid of number of biomass has a small base, with the consumer
does not completely define the trophic structure for biomass at any instant actually exceeding the
an ecosystem. producer biomass and the pyramid assumes inverted
shape.
Pyramid of Biomass
In order to overcome the shortcomings of pyramid of Pyramid of Energy
numbers, the pyramid of biomass is used. In this approach To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels
individuals in each trophic level are weighed instead of in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most suitable. An
being counted. This gives us a pyramid of biomass, i.e., energy pyramid, reflects the laws of thermodynamics, with
the total dry weight of all organisms at each trophic level conversion of solar energy to chemical energy and heat
at a particular time. energy at each trophic level and with loss of energy being
³³ Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting depicted at each transfer to another trophic level since the
all organisms occupying each trophic level separately pyramid is always upward, with a huge energy base at the
and measuring their dry weight. This overcomes the bottom.

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 Ecology and Environment

³³ Let us explain this with an example. Suppose an

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

ecosystem receives 1000 calories of light energy in a
given day. Most of the energy is not absorbed; some
is reflected back to space; of the energy absorbed
only a small portion is utilised by green plants, out
of which the plant uses some for respiration and the
1000 calories, therefore onlv IOO calories are stored
as energy rich materials.

Biomagnification
Pyramid of Energy
In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant
³³ Now suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant must be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fate, biologically
containing 100 cal as food energy. The deer uses active.
some of its for its own metabolism and stores only 10
³³ If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken down
cal as food energy. A lion that eats the deer gets an
before it can become dangerous. If it is not mobile, it
even smaller amount of energy. Thus usable energy
will stay in one place and is unlikely to be taken up by
decreases from sunlight to producer to herbivore to
organisms. If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will
carnivore. Therefore, the energy pyramid will always
be excreted by the organism. Pollutants that dissolve
be upright.
in fats, however, may be retained for a long lime.
³³ Energy pyramid concept helps to explain the
³³ It is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in
phenomenon of biological magnification and the
fatty tissues of organisms such as fish. In mammals,
tendency for toxic substances to increase in
we often test the milk produced by females, since the
concentration progressively at higher levels of the
milk has a lot of fat in it are often more susceptible
food chain.
to damage from toxins (poisons). If a pollutant is not
POLLUTANTS AND TROPHIC LEVEL active biologically, it may biomagnify, but we really don’t
Pollutants especially nondegradable ones move worry about it much, since it probably won’t cause any
through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem. problems Examples : DOT.
³³ Nondegradabale pollutants mean materials, which BIOTIC INTERACTION
cannot be metabolized by the living organisms. ³³ Organisms living in this earth are interlinked to each
Example : chlorinated hydrocarbons. other in one way or other. The interaction between the
³³ We are concerned about these phenomena because, organisms is fundamental for its survival and functioning
together they enable even small concentrations of of ecosystem as a whole.
chemicals in the environment to find their way into
organisms in high enough dosages to cause problems. Biotic Interaction
Movement of these pollutants involves two main pro- S. No. Type Spices 1 Spieces 2
cesses : 1. Mutualism (+) (+)
(i) Bioaccumulation
2. Commensalism (+) (0)
(ii) Biomagnification.
3. Competition (–) (–)
Bioaccumulation
³³ It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain. 4. Predation (+) (–)
³³ In bioaccumulation there is an increase in 5. Parasitism (+) (–)
concentration of a pollutant from the environment to 6. Amensalism (–) (0)
the first organism in a food chain.
7. Neutralism (0) (0)
Biomagnification
³³ Biomagnification refers to the tendency of pollutants (+) Benefited (–) harmed
to concentrate as they move from one trophic level (0) Neither Benefited nor harmed.
to the next. Types of biotic interaction
³³ Thus in biomagnification there is an increase in
³³ Mutualism : both species benefit.
concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food
chain to another Example : in pollination mutualisms, the pollinator

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

gets food (pollen, nectar), and the plant has its pol- The Carbon Cycle
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

len transferred to other flowers for cross-fertilization ³³ Carbon is found in the atmosphere in the form of CO2.
(reproduction). ³³ In the presence of sunlight, plants take up CO2 from
³³ Commensalism : one species benefits, the other is the atmosphere through their leaves.
unaffected. ³³ The plants combine CO2 with water which is absorbed
Example : cow dung provides food and shelter to dung by their roots from the soil.
beetles. The beetles have no effect on the cows. ³³ In the presence of sunlight plants are able to form
³³ Competition : both species are harmed by the carbohydrates that contain carbon. This process is
interaction. called photosynthesis.
Example : if two species eat the same food, and there ³³ Plant releases O2 into the atmosphere on which
isn’t enough for both, both may have access to less animals depend for their respiration.
food than they would if alone. They both suffer a ³³ Plants therefore help in regulating and monitoring the
shortage of food percentage of O2 and CO2 in the earth's atmosphere.
³³ Predation and parasitism : one species benefits, the CO2
other is harmed.
Example : predation — one fish kills and eats par- Respiration
Photosynthesis
asitism: tick gains benefit by sucking biood; host is Food
Nutrients
harmed by losing blood. organic
matter
³³ Amensalism : One species is harmed, the other is
unaffected.
dead organic
Example : A large tree shades a small plant, retarding matter
the growth of the small plant. The small plant has no Waste materials
Biodegradation
effect on the large tree.
Biodegradation
³³ Neutralism : There is no net benefit or harm to either
species. Perhaps in some interspecific interactions,
CO2
the costs and benefits experienced by each partner
are exactly the same so that they sum to zero It is not ³³ Both plants and animal release CO2 during respiration.
clear how often this happens in nature. ³³ When the plants and animal die, they return their
³³ Neutralism is also sometimes described as the Carbon to the soil. In this way Carbon cycle completes.
relationship between two species inhabiting the same Photosynthesis :
space and using the same resources, but that have 6CO2+12H2O→C6H12O6+602+6H2O
no effect on each other. In this case, one could argue Respiration : C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy.
that they aren’t interacting at all.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nutrient Cycling :
³³ Our atmosphere contains 78% free nitrogen (N2).
The nutrient cycle is a concept that decribes how nu- ³³ All animals including aquatic animals need nitrogen
trients move from the physical environment to the living to produce proteins necessary for life.
organisms, and subsequently recycled back to the physical ³³ Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein and is
environment. a basic building block of all living tissue.
³³ This movement of nutrients from the environment into ³³ Animals can use N2 in free form.
plants and animals and again back to the environment ³³ They must consume N2 by eating N2 compounds.
³³ There are four process in the N2 cycle —
is essential for life and it is the vital function of the
1. Nitrogen Fixation 2. Digestion
ecology of any region.
3. Decomposition 4. Waste production
³³ These cycles include water cycle, carbon or oxygen
cycle dependent on the complimentary method of Denitrification N2 Ammonification
photosynthesis and respiration, nitrogen, sulphur or
phosphorous cycle. Waste
De

Ammonium
Water Cycle
com

Animals Compounds
³³ The water cycle is the continuous circulation of water
pos

in the earth-atmosphere system.

itio

Plants Nitrites
n

³³ This water cycle is driven by solar energy.

³³ This water is stored in many reservoirs like — atmosphere, Nitrification
oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfield and ground Nitrates
water.
³³ Water move from one reservoir to another by the
1. Nitrogen Fixation
processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, ³³ The N2 cycle shows how the free N2 in the air is
precipitation, deposition etc. turned into N2 compounds and put into the soil by

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 Ecology and Environment

nitrogen fixing bacteria. This process is called Nitrogen one community replacing another community, until

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Fixation. a stable, mature community develops.
³³ Nitrogen fixing bacteria's are Azotobacter, Clostridium ³³ Succession is a progressive series of changes which
Rhizobium as well as blue green algae (e.g. Analsaena, leads to the establishment of a relatively stable climax
spirulina) community.
³³ Plants that soak up the nitrogen compounds in the ³³ The first plant to colonise an area is called the pioneer
soil are called legumes, oats, peas, beans, corn etc. community. The final stage of succession is called the
climax community. The stage loading to the climax
2. Digestion
community are called successional stages or seres.
³³ Animals eat legumes to get the N2 compounds they ³³ Succession is characterised by the following: in-
need to produce protein. creased productivity, the shift of nutrients from the
3. Decomposition reservoirs, increased diversity of organisms with in-
creased niche development, and a gradual increase
³³ When animals die, bacteria called decomposers break
in the complexity of food webs.
down the organic matter chemically into all the simple
elements return back to the environment.
4. Waste Production
³³ When an animal makes a bowel movement, the waste
is loaded with N2.
³³ This N2 returns to the soil.
³³ N2 is a great fertilizer.

Atmospheric N2 Fixation Softwood

Annual Perennial Shrubs Hardwood
³³ Thunder storms and lightning are the common Plant Plants and Trees-Pines Trees
Grasses
photochemical and electrochemical reactors in nature Time
which convert N2 to oxides of nitrogen.
Ecological Succession
³³ They get dissolved in water forming nitrous acid and
nitric acid which is turn combine with other salts to Primary Succession
produce nitrates. ³³ In primary succession on a terrestrial site the new site
N2 + O2 → 2NO is first colonized by a few hardy pioneer species that
2NO + O2 → 2NO2 are often microbes, lichens and mosses. The pioneers
2NO2 + H2O → HNO2 + HNO3 over a few generations alter the habitat conditions by
3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO their growth and development.
Oxygen Cycle ³³ These new conditions may be conducive to the
establishment of additional organisms that may
³³ The oxygen in the atmosphere is freed by the process
subsequently arrive at the site. The pioneers through
of photolysis. The energy in the sunlight breaks the
their death any decay leave patches of organic matter
O2 bearing O2 to produce free O2.
in which small animals can live.
³³ O2 molecules is broken down by UV rays from the
³³ The organic matter produced by these pioneer species
sun. This cycle shields earth from harmful UV rays.
produce organic acids during decomposition that
³³ In the biosphere, O2 undergoes cycles of respiration dissolve and etch the substratum releasing nutrients
and photosynthesis. to the substratum. Organic debris accumulates in
³³ Human and animals breathe in O2. pockets and crevices, providing soil in which seeds
³³ This O2 is used in metabolic processes and CO2 given can become lodged and grow.
out. ³³ As the community of organisms continues to develop,
³³ Plants and phyto planktons undergo process of it becomes more diverse and competition increases,
photosynthesis where CO2 is used in the presence of but at the same time new niche opportunities develops.
sunlight to form carbohydrates and O2. ³³ The pioneer species disappear as the habitat conditions
³³ In the lithosphere, O2 is fixed in minerals like silicates change and invasion of new species progresses, leading
and oxides. to the replacement of the preceding community.
³³ O2 from these minerals is freed by chemical weathering.
Secondary Succession
³³ When the mineral bearing O2 is exposed to chemical
reactions, the mineral wears down free O2 is produced. ³³ Secondary succession occurs when plants recognize
an area in which the climax community has been
SUCCESSION disturbed.
Succession is a universal process of directional change ³³ Secondary succession is the sequential development
in vegetation, on an ecological time scale. of biotic communities after the complete or partial
³³ Succession occurs when a series of communities destruction of the existing community. A mature or
replace one another due to large scale destruction intermediate community may be destroyed by natural
either natural or manmade. This process continues events such as floods, droughts, fires, or storms or by

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

human interventions such as deforestation, agriculture, ³³ This carry on desirable genes.

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

overgrazing, etc ³³ The genetic diversity gives up beautiful lives like—

³³ This abandoned farmland is first invaded by hardy butterflies, roses, coral reefs etc.
species of grasses that can survive in bare, sun­baked
2. Species Diversity
soil. These grasses may be soon joined by tall grasses
and herbaceous plants. These dominate the ecosystem ³³ Species diversity refers to the numbers and kinds of
for some years along with mice, rabbits, insects and living organisms.
seed-eating birds. ³³ Species differ from one another, markedly in their
³³ Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds genetic make up, don't interbreed in nature.
of which may be brought by wind or animals. And ³³ It is the ratio of one species population over total
over the years, a forest community develops. Thus number of organisms across all species in the given
an abandoned farmland over a period becomes biome.
dominated by trees and is transformed into a forest. ³³ Zero would be infinite diversity and 1 represents only
³³ The differences between primary and secondary one species present.
succession, the secondary succession starts on a
3. Ecological Diversity
well developed soil already formed at the site. Thus
secondary succession is relatively faster as compared ³³ Ecological diversity denotes the variety of habitats,
to primary succession which may often require biological communities and ecolgical process.
hundreds of years. ³³ There are several type of habitats around the world.
³³ Change in climatic conditions is accompanied by a
Autogenic and Allogenic Succession
change in vegetation as well.
When succession is brought about by living inhabi- ³³ Each species adapts itself to a particular kind of
tants of that community itself, the process is called auto- environment.
genic succession, while change brought about by outside
forces is known as allogenic succession. Biodiversity and Agriculture
Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession ³³ Agriculture diversity can be divided into two parts—
1. Intraspecific diversity
Succession in which, initially the green plants are much
greater in quantity is known as autotrophic succession; and 2. Interspecific diversity
the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater in quantity ³³ Intraspecific diversity includes the genetic variety
is known as heterotrophic succession. within a single species like the potato that is composed
³³ Succession would occur faster in area existing in the in many different forms and types.
middle of the large continent. This is because, here ³³ Interspecific diversity refers to the number and types
all propagules or seeds of plants belonging to the of different species.
different seres would reach much faster, establish Value of biodiversity of plants : In any area the
and ultimately result in climax community. existing biodiversity has its own value as about :
³³ 80,000 edible plants and about 9% of present day
BIODIVERSITY food crops have been domesticated from wild plants.
³³ Biodiversity is defined as the variability among living ³³ 75% of world’s population depend on plants or plant
organism for all sources, including terrestrial, marrine extracts for drugs and medicine.
and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological ³³ Plant wood and timber has been used as fuel and in
complexes of which they are part, this includes making furniture since ages.
diversity within species, between species and of
³³ 2% -4% of plants like tulsi, lotus, peepal ,etc are
ecosystem.
considered as he holy plants.
³³ India is a recognised as one of the mega diverse
countries, rich in biodiversity and associated Services Provided by Biodiversity
traditional knowledge.
(a) Ecosystem Services
³³ India accounts for nearly 7% of the recorded species.
³³ A healthy biodiversity provides a number of natural ³³ Protection of water resources.
services, resources and social benefits for a everyone. ³³ Soil formation and protection.
³³ Nutrient storage.
Types Of Biodiversity
³³ Pollution breakdown and absorption.
1. Genetic Biodiversity ³³ Climate stability.
³³ Genetic diversity refers to genetic variation within (b) Biological Services
species.
³³ Food
³³ It is the total number of genetic characteristics is the
genetic makeup of a species. ³³ Wood
³³ Genetic diversity allows species to adopt to changing ³³ Fresh water
environme-nts. ³³ Ornamental Plants
³³ This diversity aims to ensure that some species survive ³³ Medicinal Plants
drastic changes. ³³ Diversity in genes, species.

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 Ecology and Environment

(c) Social Services

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Biogeographical region Biotic province
³³ Research 1. Trans-Himalayas Upper reaches of Himalaya.
³³ Education and monitoring 2. Himalaya North-west Himalaya, West,
³³ Recreation Central and East Himalaya
³³ Tourism 3. Desert Kutchh, Thar and Ladak
³³ Cultural values 4. Semi-arid Central India , Gujarat Ra-
jwara
PATTERN OF BIODIVERSITY
5. Western-Ghats Malabar coast. Western Ghats
Latitudinal gradients Mountains.
³³ The diversity of plants and animals is not uniform 6. Deccan Peninsula Deccan Plateau, South-Cen-
throughout the world but shows a rather uneven tral plateau, Eastern Pla-
distribution. teau, Chotta Nagpur, Central
High Lands
³³ Species diversity decreases as we move a way from
the equator towards the poles. 7. Gangetic Plains Upper and Lower Gangetic
³³ Several ecological mechanisms may contribute to
plains,
the gradient, but the ultimate factor behind many of 8. North East India Brahmputra Valley, North
them is the greater mean temperature at the equator Eastern Hills
compared to that of the poles. 9. Islands Andaman Nicobar islands
,Lakshdweep islands
Species-Area relationships
10. Coasts East and West coast.
³³ The relation between species richness and area for
a wide variety of taxon turns out to be a rectangular INDIAN BIO-GEOGRAPHICAL HABITATS
hyperbola.
Deccan peninsula : The largest region that occupies
Measurement of Biodiversity 42% of land mass.
³³ Biodiversity is measured by two components Western Ghats : The most biodiversity regions of In-
1. Species richness dia with large number of endemic amphibian population
2. Species evenness and wild relatives of cultivated plants like Citrus, Mango,
Pepper, etc.
1. Species richness Trans-Himalayas : The cold region with sparse
³³ Species richness is the number of different species vegetation but with rich community of goats, sheep and
represented in an ecological community, landscape or snow leopard.
region species richness is simply a count of species, Islands : These are rich in ever green forests
and it does not taken into account the abundances of Coasts : These are known for mangrove vegetation.
the species or their relative abundance distributions. Megadiverse Countries
³³ The maga diverse countries are a group of countries
(a) Alpha diversity that harbor the majority of the Earth's species and are
³³ It refers to the diversity within a particular area of therefore considered extremely biodiverse.
ecosystem. It is usually expressed by the number of ³³ Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse
countries in 1998.
species in the ecosystem.
³³ All are located in, or partially in tropical or subtropical
(b) Beta diversity regions.
³³ In 2002, Mexico formed a separate organisation
³³ It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems,
focusing on ‘Like Minded Megadiverse Countries’
usually measured as the change in amount of species
(LMMC).
between the ecosystems. ³³ Consist of countries rich in biological diversities and
(c) Gamma Diversity associated traditional knowledge.
³³ This organisation does not include all the megadiverse
³³ It is measure of the overall diversity for the different countries as identified by conservation international.
ecosystem within a region.
(ii) Species Evenness LIST OF 17 MEGADIVERSE COUNTRIES
³³ Species evenness refers to how close in numbers Australia Brazil
each species in an environment is. It is a measure China Colombia
of biodiversity which quantifies how equal the Democratic Republic of the Cango India
community numerically. Ecuador Madagascar
Indonesia Mexico
India and biodiversity : India is one of the twelve Malaysia Peru
mega diversity regions of the world with about 7.7% of ge- Papua New Guinea South Africa
netic resources. Wildlife Institution of India has divided the Philippines Venenzuela
country into ten bio-geographical regions as shown below. USA

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

Causes for the loss of biodiversity : There are num- ³³ The 25 biodiversity hotspot as indicated is Norman
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

ber of the causes that have combined together to adversely Myers ‘Biodiversity hotspot for conservation priorities’.
affect the existence of the present biodiversity. Some of ³³ 9 hotspot have since been added thus there are 34
these causes include: hotspot in the world. These are :
Fragmentation : The fragmentation of the natural 1. Indo-Burma
areas has led to the habitat loss. Among all, the animals 2. the Philippines
which require large territories like birds and mammals 3. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
are the most affected along with migratory animals. They 4. The mountains of South-West China
end up going astray to be hunted or killed. Its prime cause 5. Sunda land
being an increase in human population over last few 6. Wallacea
decade at an alarming rate. It not only requires land for 7. The Caucasus
residential areas but also for establishing the industries 8. South West Australia
to satisfy the increasing human needs.
9. New Caledonia
Over-exploitation : The excessive exploitation of a
10. New Zealand
species for human need has led to the extinct of several
11. Polynesia and Micronesia
species such as of Dodo bird. Passenger pigeon, etc. Sim-
12. The Mediterian Basin
ilarly, the over logging of trees is threatening extinction
13. The succulent Karoo
of some of the trees.
Invasion of alien species : The invasion of an alien 14. The Cape Floristic Region
species whether voluntarily or involuntarily always threat- 15. The Tropical Andes
ens the existence of the native species such as 16. Measoamerica
³³ Introduction of Water Hyacinth (Echhornia crassipes) 17. The Caribbean Island
now called Terror of Bengal to check water pollution is 18. The Atlantic Forest
clogging the water ways leading to the death of aquatic 19. The Carrado
plants and animals. 20. The Guinean Forests
³³ Introduction of Nile perch, predator fish in lake 21. The California Floristic Province
Victoria in South Africa has led to the extinction of 22. Madagascar Car and Indian Ocean Island
the native Cichlid fish. 23. The Atlantic Forests
³³ Introduction of Partherium hysteophorus has led to 24. Tumbes- Choco-Magdalena
death of many of the herbs and shrubs in India. 25. The Horn of Africa
³³ Introduction of only a dozen of rabbits has now 26. The Eastern Afromontance
become a cause of disaster to farmers. 27. Maputa land -Pond-Albany
28. The Madrean Pine-oak Woodlands
Monoculture: it refers to the mode of agriculture or
29. The Irano-Anatolian
forestry where only a specific of economical value is reared
and managed for commercial gains. This however led to 30. The mountain of Central Asia
the extinction of the other species inspite of their biological 31. Japan
importance in maintain the ecological balance. 32. East Melanesian Islands
33. Eastern Himalayas
BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS Biodiversity and its conservation : Biodiversity
³³ A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region that refers to the sum of diverse forms of life with forests, their
is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is habitat as hot spots. IUCN in 2004 has stated the total
threatened with destruction. number of plants and animals species to be slightly more
³³ Most of these hotsopots are located in the tropics. than 1.5 million. Of these 70% are of animals, 22% plants
and rest of micro-organisms belonging to Monera and
Criteria for declaring region as biodiversity hotspot Protista. The pie charts below shows the different plant
1. Region must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 and animal species in existence on earth today.
species of vascular plants as endemic.
2. It has to have lost atleast 70% of its primary Other phyla 16,000
vegetation. Mammals 5,000
Cnidaria 9,000
Other Chordate
Indian Hotspots 55,000
Mollusca 85,000
Other Arthropods Annelida 12,000
Major — 1. The Himalayan Hot spot. 150,000
Nematoda 20,000
2. Indo-Burma Hotspot Other Insects
Diptera
200,000
3. Western Ghats Hotspot 150,000

Minor — Sundaland Hotspot Lepidoptera

120,000
(in this Hotspot Nicobar Island included)
Coleoptera
HOT SPOT OF THE WORLD 400,000
Hymenoptera
³³ A biodiversity hotspot is a bio-geographic region with 125,000
a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under
threat from humans.

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 Ecology and Environment

³³ In India there are total of 12 biogeographical regions ³³ The BSR is declared by a notification by the central

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

each characterized by its own biodiversity. Of these government of India and the state government.
twelve regions Deccan peninsula is the largest with ³³ The central government assumes the responsibility of
42% land mass with Western Ghats being the most meeting the costs of setup while the state government
diversity rich regions of amphibians community. would setup derived machinery.
³³ The bio-diversity of a region is adversely affected by ³³ Nilgiri the first biosphere reserve in India came into
four known an evil quartel. These include habitat loss being in 1986.
or fragmentation, over exploitation, invasion of alien ³³ There are 18 BSRs in India till today.
species and coexistence. The construction of dams,
large veld (forest) fires or widescale pathogen invasion BIOSPHERE RESERVES OF INDIA
promotes fragmentation to be followed by extinction
or migration. The invasion of species with no known 1. Manas 1984 Assam
natural parasite affects varied forms of ecosystem and
life such as introduction of water by water hyacinth 2. Dibru Saikhowa 1997 Assam
called Terror of Bengal has spoilt water bodies and 3. Kanchanzongha 2000 Sikkim
aquatic ecosystem. Similarly the introduction of carrot
grass (Peritherum) in Northern India or of Rabbits in 4. Nokrek 1988 Meghalaya
Australia has now become a terrible dream. Along
with the above factor, sixth extinction also called 5. Dehang-Dibang 1998 Arunachal Pradesh
Anthropogenic extinction has aggravated the problem.
6. Sunderbans 1989 West Bengal
³³ The human activities include overhunting, over
explotation of resources, the desertification of 7. Simlipal 1994 Odisha
fertile lands, introduction of alien species without
going through proper qurantine check, etc. IUCN 8. Nilgiri 1986 Tamil Nadu
(International Union for Conservation of Nature
9. Seshachalam Hills 2010 Andhra Pradesh
and Natural Resources) looking at this disregard to
biodiversity has come up with RDB, (Red Data Book) to 10. Agasthyamalai 2001 Kerala
make public aware of the endangered and vulnerable
species on earth at present to prevent their extinction 11. Panchmarhi 1999 Madhya Pradesh
in near future.
12. Panna 2001 Madhya Pradesh
³³ IUCN in order to prevent their extinction has come up
with different practices of in situ and ex-situ practices 13. Achankamar 2005 Madhya Pradesh
to conserve wildlife. In in-situ conservation the
Amarkantak
organisms are protected in their natural environment
such as in National Parks, Reserves, Sanctuaries or 14. Kachchh 2008 Gujarat
in MAB programme (Man and Bioshphere). In these
areas the hunting or poaching practices are completely 15. Gulf of Mannar 1909 Tamil Nadu
banned and are considered as a punishable offence.
In ex-situ conservation the wild life is protected in 16. Great Nicobar 1989 Andman Nicobar
Zoological parks, Botanical gardens, seed bank, Gene Islands
banks etc. where even practice of cryo preservation 17. Cold desert 2009 Himachal Pradesh
i.e., the storage at –192°C in liquid nitrogen is
observed for sperms,embryo etc. 18. Nanda Devi 1988 Uttarakhand
BIOSPHERE RESERVE
MAN AND BIOSPHERE RESERVE (MAB)
³³ Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal
³³ MAB was launched in 1971.
ecosystem promoting solutions to reconcile the
conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. ³³ UNESCO’s man and the biosphere programme (MAB)
³³ They are internationally recognized, nominated by is an inter governmental scientific programme that
national governments and remain under sovereign aims to establish a scientific basis for the improvement
jurisdiction of the state where they are located. of relationship between people and their environment.
³³ Biosphere Reserve protect larger areas of natural ³³ Participating countries establish MAB programme is
habitat and often include one or more National Parks. defined by its main governing body, the International
³³ Protection is granted not only to the Flora and Coordinating Council.
Fauna of the protected region, but also to the human ³³ The MAB secretariat is based at UNESCO’s Division
communities who inhabits in these reign. of Ecological and Earth Science, at UNESCO’s head
³³ The biosphere reserve programme was launched by quarter is in Paris.
the UNESCO in 1971 under the aegis of its ‘man and ³³ Out of 18 biosphere reserve eleven are a part of the
biosphere programme’.
World Network of Biosphere Reserve based on the
³³ Department of Environment is nodal agency for UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme list.
biosphere reserve programs.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Namdafa is the highest tiger reserve in the world. It

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

LIST OF INDIA'S BIOSPHERE RESERVE IN

is in Arunachal Pradesh.
UNESCO'S MAB LIST
³³ Madhya Pradesh is known as tiger state.
1. Nilgiri Tamil Nadu 2000 ³³ Hukand Valley (Myanmar) is the biggest tiger reserve
2. Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu 2001 in the world.
3. Sunderbans West Bengal 2001 Top 5 State auording to tiger population
4. Nanda Devi Uttarakhand 2004 Rank State Population
1. Madhya Pradesh 526
5. Nokrek Meghalaya 2009
2. Karnataka 524
6. Panchmarhi Madhya Pradesh 2009
3. Uttarakhand 442
7. Similipal Odisha 2009
4. Maharashtra 312
8. Achanakmar Chhattisgarh 2012
5. Tamil Nadu 264
Amarkantak
9. Great Nicobar Andaman Nicobar 2013
NATIONAL TIGER CONSERVATION AUTHORITY
(NTCA)
10. Agasthyamalai Kerala-T.N. 2016
³³ NTCA is comes under Environment and Forest
11. Kangchenjunga Sikkim 2018 Ministry.
³³ It is a statutory authority.
WILDLIFE PROTECTION
PROJECT HANGUL
PROJECT TIGER ³³ Project Hangul was started in 1970 by cooperation of
³³ Project Tiger is a tiger conservation programme IUCN and WWF.
launched in 1973 by the government of India during ³³ The Kashmiri Stag is called Hangul.
PM Indira Gandhi's tenure. ³³ It is a state animal of Jammu and Kashmir.
³³ The main objective of this programme is to ensure ³³ In Kashmir, it is found in Dachigam National Park at
a viable population of tiger for economic, scientific, elevations of 3035 meters.
cultural, aesthetic and ecological values. ³³ This dwindled to as low as 150 animals in 1970.
³³ Census of tiger began in 2006. ³³ Due to this Project, the population increased to over
³³ As per the all India Tiger Estimation Report 2018. 340 by 1980.
India has 2967 tigress, a third more than in 2014. ³³ This deer lives in groups in dense riverine forests,
The tiger census made public on ocassion of Global high valleys and mountains of the Kashmir valley and
Tiger Day (29 July) northern Chamba in Himachal Pradesh.
³³ In 1973, the project tiger was launched in Palamu
Tiger Reserve under the leadership of ‘Tiger man PROJECT CROCODILE
Kailash Sankhla’. ³³ This project was started in 1975-76.
³³ Tiger reserves are areas that are notified for the ³³ The project has not just produced a large number of
protection of the tiger and its Prey, and are governed crocodiles, but has contributed towards conservation
by Project Tiger which was launched in 1973. in number of related fields as well.
³³ Initially 9 tiger reserves were covered under this
³³ The main objective of this project is to protect the
project and has currently increased 50 falling in 19
remaining population of crocodiles in their natural
states.
habitat by creating sanctuaries.
³³ The state government shall notify an area as a tiger
reserve on the recommendation of National Tiger ³³ To promote captive breeding.
Conservation Authority. ³³ Crocodiles are found only in Indian subcontinent.
³³ The scientific name for the tiger is Panthera tigris. ³³ Indian government has set up a Central Crocodile
³³ There are eight species of tiger. Among the eight there are Breeding Management Authority in Hyderabad.
five species exist at present name Bengal, South Chinese, ³³ 80% of world's crocodiles found in India.
Indochines, Sumatran and Siberian.
³³ Most crocodile sanctuaries are in Andhra Pradesh.
³³ Three species of tiger– Caspian, Bali and Javan are
extinct. Major Crocodile Projected Area
³³ The Bengal tiger is endangered because it is poached 1. Nandankanan wildlife sanctuary Odisha
for its body part and also due to habitat loss.
³³ No two tiger have exactly the same pattern of stripes. 2. Satkosia wildlife sanctuary Odisha
³³ Banerghatta tiger reserve is the smallest reserve in 3. Bhittarkanika wildlife sanctuary Odisha
India. 4. Chambal wildlife sanctuary Rajasthan
³³ Nagarjun Sagar Sri Sailam is the biggest tiger reserve
in area. 5. Gundi wildlife sanctuary Tamil Nadu
³³ Pench is the smallest tiger reserve in area. 6. Kukrail wildlife sanctuary Lucknow (UP)

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 Ecology and Environment

PROJECT RHINOS

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

16. Wayanad Elephant Reserve Kerala
³³ This project was started in 1987.
17. Garo Hills Elephant Meghalaya
³³ The main objective is to protect and increase the total
Reserve
rhinoceros.
³³ ‘One Horn Rhinos’ are only found in India. 18. Khasi Hills Elephant Meghalaya
³³ Manas National Park was selected as the first site for Reserve
translocation of rhinos. 19. Mayurbhanj Elephant Odisha
³³ White Rhinos were found in Cango but now they have Reserve
been extinct. 20. Mahanadi Elephant Reserve Odisha
INDIA RHINO VISION 2020 21. Sambhalpur Elephant Odisha
³³ This vision was implemented by the department Reserve
of environment and forests, Assam with the Bodo 22. Baitarani Elephant Reserve Odisha
autonomous Council as a active partner.
23. South Odisha Elephant Odisha
³³ The programme is being supported by the International Reserve
Rhino Foundation (IRF), WWF India and a local NGOs.
³³ The vision of this programme is to increase the rhino 24. Anamalai Elephant Reserve Tamil Nadu
in Assam from about 2000 to 3000 by the year 2020. 25. Srivillipthar Elephant Tamil Nadu
Reserve
PROJECT ELEPHANT
26. Coimbatore Elephant Tamil Nadu
³³ This project was launched in 1992.
Reserve
³³ This animal was declared ‘National Heritage Animal’
in 2009-10. 27. Nilgiri Elephant Reserve Tamil Nadu
³³ Elephants are found in 17 states of India. 28. Sivalik Elephant Reserve Uttarakhand
³³ This project is running in 14 states. 29. Uttar Pradesh Elephant Uttar Pradesh
³³ The main objective is to protect the elephants from Reserve
poachers and other unnatural causes of death and
30. Mayur Jharna Elephant West Bengal
preventing illegal ivory trade.
Reserve
³³ Elephant is the state animal of three states – Kerala,
Karnataka, and Jharkhand. PROJECT OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLES
³³ Odisha government started this project in 1975.
Elephant Reserve State
³³ It aimed to conserve dwindling population of Olive
1. Kameng Elephant Reserve Arunachal Pradesh Ridley Turtles
2. South Arunachal Elephant Arunachal Pradesh ³³ The project was launched at Bhitarkanika in Cuttack
Reserve district.
3. Sonitpur Elephant Reserve Assam ³³ Odisha is home to 50% of the total world’s population
of olive Rideey’s and about 90% of Indian population
4. Dihing Pat Kai Elephant Assam of sea turtles. Recently Odisha forest department
Reserve added olive riddley mass nesting site Bahuda
5. Dhansiri Lungding Assam Rookery at beach on Bohnda river mouth in Ganjam
Elephant Reserve district.
6. Kaziranga karbi Elephant Assam PROJECT SEA TURTLE
Reserve ³³ This project was launched in 1999.
7. Chirang ripu Elephant Assam ³³ This project was launched by the Ministry of
Reserve Environment and Forests in collaboration with UNDP.
8. Rayala Elephant Reserve Andhra Pradesh ³³ Wildlife Institute of India is a nodal agency of it.
³³ The project has helped in preparation of inventory
9. Lemru Elephant Reserve Chhattisgarh
map of breeding sites of sea turtles, identification of
10. Badalkhol Elephant Chhattisgarh nesting and breeding habitats along the shore line.
Reserve
PROJECT VULTURE
11. Singhbhum Elephant Jharkhand
³³ India started the Action Plan for Vulture in 2006.
Reserve
³³ Diclofenac drugs causes death of vulture.
12. Mysore Elephant Reserve Karnataka ³³ Vulture conservation is needed for the fact that these
13. Nilambur Elephant Reserve Kerala are extremely efficient scavengers.
14. Anamudi Elephant Reserve Kerala ³³ A population crash of vulture could cause a dramatic
increase in epidemics as carcass and waste disposal
15. Periyar Elephant Reserve Kerala system has remained more or less unchanged.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Under this project ministry popularising the drug 8. The National Environmental Tribunal Act, 1995
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Medoxican to eliminate the treat to vulture from con- 9. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
taminated carcasses, and taking effects to bank the
10. National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016).
use of painkiller drug Diclofenac, as this Diclofenac
drug responsible for the 95% deaths of vultures. 11. National Environment Policy 2006.
³³ Opening breeding centres. Pollution : The addition of undesirable substances
called pollutants into natural resources that affect their
PROJECT SNOW LEOPARD quality or quantity or both is called pollution. The pollution
³³ This project was launched in 20 January, 2009. based on affected natural reserve is air pollution, water,
³³ This project was implemented in 5 Himalayan soil/land and noise pollution. The two primary causes
States — Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, other than natural causes for all forms of pollution are
Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. human population explosion ever since 1950 onwards and
³³ India is believed to have about 750 snow leopards in increasing rate of industrialization.
five Himalayan states. ³³ The basic air pollutants include SPM (Suspended
³³ This animal is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red particulate Matter), oxides of nitrogen and sulphur,
List. ozone and CO2. Ozone is actually considered as a
³³ In October 2019 Union forest minister launched chemical weed being harmful on earth surface but
country’s first national protocol for enumerating the useful in stratosphere in preventions of the entry of
population of snow leopards, an elusive predator found UV-rays in earth atmosphere. Similarly CO2 is actually
in the higher reaches of the Himalayans and other not an air pollutant but as its excessive concentration
mountain range of Asia. as a green house gas has led to Global warming, it is
³³ More than 400 leopards are found in Ladakh, Jammu considered as an air pollutant. The Global warming
and Kashmir. has led to the melting of polar ice, rise in ocean water
level, submerging of coastal land and unpredictable
³³ Project SOS (Save our Snow leopards) is being run in
changes in earth atmosphere. The other effects of air
Kargil, Jammu and Kashmir by WWF India.
pollution have led to acid rains responsible for marble
Threats to snow leopard cancer of Taj Mahal, destruction of metallic and
³³ Competition with live stock marble structure with rise in frequency of respiratory
³³ Degradation disorders among humans.
³³ Poaching ³³ The depletion of ozone layer whose thickness is
measured in Dobson unit by air pollutants such as
GANGES DOLPHIN
CFCs (Chloro fluro Compounds) from refrigerating or
³³ Ganges Dolphin has been declared as a ‘National
deep freezing devices, A.C.s etc. along with gas like
Aquatic Animal’ by the government of India in 2009.
NO has led to an increase in % of UV-rays reaching
³³ The River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges — Brahmputra
earth surface. It affects crop production with decline
— Meghna and Karnnaphuli — Sangu river systems
by almost 28%, skin tanning, skin cancer, increased
of Nepal, India and Bangladesh.
number of people suffering from cataract or snow
³³ In India, the Ganges River Dolphin is threatened
by river water pollution and siltation, accidental blindness and reducing body's immunal power among
entanglement in fishing nets and poaching for their oil. humans and animals. A number of precautionary
steps are now being observed to minimise air
GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD PROJECT pollution such as use of electrostatic precipitators or
³³ Launched by the government of Rajasthan in 5 June, scrubbers in industries, promotion to afforestation
2013. and reforestation, and usage of catalytic converter
³³ The objective of this project is to increase the in motor vehicles along with use of CNG instead of
population of this bird. petrol or diesel.
³³ This is listed as critically endangered species on the ³³ The primary cause of water pollution is the addition
IUCN Red List.
of sewage and industrial or agricultural effluents in
Important Policies and Central Legislations Relevant water reservoirs. The agricultural run off fertilizers
to Biodiversity : cause accelerated eutrophication causing an
1. Indian Forest Act, 1927. unnecessary development of BOD or COD adversely
2. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 affecting the aquatic life along with its pollution
making water unpotable. To reduce increasing water
3. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
pollution, sewage water treatment plants have been
4. The Forest (Conservation) Act 1980.
installed at places and stress is being laid on practices
5. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) of water harvesting to harvest and manage water. The
6. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 usage of Ecosan toilets is one such step to manage
7. National Forest Policy, 1988. and conserve water.

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 Ecology and Environment

³³ The land and soil pollution caused by desertification,

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Rank State Cover Forest (in km2)
shifting agriculture practice use of chemical fertilizers
1. Madhya Pradesh 77,482
weedicides and pesticides is being demoted with
promotion of organic farming using HYV (High yielding 2. Arunachal Pradesh 66,688
varieties). The regulated hybridization practices along 3. Chattisgarh 55,611
with GM crops like Bt-cotton, Bt-Tomato/Brinjal along
Top state with highest forest cover in terms of
with controlled irrigation practices has helped achieve percentage geographical area
the above to conserve soil and land.
³³ Noise pollution is of the common occurrence in modern Rank State % of states area
cities. The audible human range 20Hz to 20KHz but 1. Lakshadweep 90.33%
effective is in range of 50Hz to 15KHz. Noise measured
2. Mizoram 84.41%
in decibel (dB) has its own ill effects sound above 60-
3. A & N Islands 81.74%
80 dB is considered as noise that affect concentration,
causes hypertension and damage hearing capacity.
FOREST AND TREE COVER OF INDIA IN 2019
Therefore people working in areas having sound of
higher range use ear protector and these area are Percentage
covered with Green muffler around them to minimise Area of
Class
the transmission of sound to the surrounding areas (sq km) Geographical
such as from airports, road sides, etc. Area
National Green Tribunal (NGT) Forest Cover
The NGT has been established on 18.10.2010 under Very Dense Forest 99,278 3.02
the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010, for effective and
Moderately Dense 3,08,472 9.38
expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental Forest
protection and conservation of forests and other natural
resources including enforcement of any legal right relating Open Forest 3,04,499 9.26
to environment and giving relief and compensation Total Forest Cover* 7,12,249 21.67
for damages to persons and property and for matters
Tree Cover 95,027 2.89
connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Total Forest and 8,07,276 24.56
Organisation :
Tree Cover
³³ The sanctioned strength of the tribunal is currently
Scrub 46,297 1.41
10 expert members and 10 judicial members although
the act allows for up to 20 of each. Non-Forest #
25,28,923 76.92
³³ The chairman of the tribunal who is the administrative Total Geographic 32,87,469 100.00
head of the tribunal also serves as a judicial member. Area
³³ Present Chairman Justice Adarsh Kumar Goel. *Includes 4,975 sq km under Mangrove Cover
Principal place of sitting of the Tribunal– New Delhi #
Non-forest includes Tree Cover (Percentage rounded off)
other 4 place of sitting of the Tribunal–Bhopal, Pune,
Kolkata and Chennai. FOREST COVER
³³ Forest Cover (Area-wise) : Madhya Pradesh> Arunachal
Functioning Pradesh> Chhattisgarh> Odisha> Maharashtra.
³³ Act or a special fast track court. ³³ Forest Cover (Percentage): Mizoram (85.4%)> Arunachal
³³ Not found by the procedure laid down under the code Pradesh (79.63%)> Meghalaya (76.33%)
of civil procedure, 1908, but guided by the principles MANGROVE FOREST
of natural justice. ³³ Mangroves are trees and bushes growing below
Forests in India [State of Forests Report 2019] the high water level of spring tides which exhibits
remarkable capacity of salt water tolerance.
³³ Forests and tree cover of the country as per state of
³³ Mangroves are characteristic littoral plant formation of
Forests Report 2019 is 8,07,276 km2.
tropical and subtropical sheltered coostlines.
³³ Total forest Cover as percentage of geographical area ³³ The best locations are where abundant silt is brought
is 21.54%. down by rivers.
³³ Total forest and tree cover is 24.56% ³³ It produce phenatophores to over come respiration
problem in the anaerobic soil conditions.
³³ State with largest forest cover is Madhya Pradesh.
³³ Mangroves exhibit viviparity mode of reproduction
³³ India is ranked 10th in world, with 24.56% of land i.e. seed germinate in the tree itself (before falling to
area under forest and tree cover. the ground).

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Forest Cover in the Stateswise in 2019

S. State/UT Geo. 2019 Assessment Change % of Change %
No. Area VDF MDF OF Total GA in forest w.r.t
(GA) Forest cover ISFR
Cover w.r.t ISFR 2017
2017
1. Andhra Pradesh 1,62,968 1,994 13,938 13,205 29,137 17.88 990 3.52
2. Arunachal Pradesh 83,743 21,095 30,557 15,036 66,688 79.63 -276 -0.41
3. Assam 78,438 2,795 10,279 15,253 28,327 36.11 222 0.79
4. Bihar 94,163 333 3,280 3,693 7,306 7.76 7 0.10
5. Chhattisgarh 1,35,192 7,068 32,198 16,345 55,611 41.13 64 0.12
6. Delhi 1,483 6.72 56.42 132.30 195.44 13.18 3.03 1.57
7. Goa 3,702 538 576 1,123 2,237 60.43 8 0.36
8. Gujarat 1,96,244 378 5,092 9,387 14,857 7.57 100 0.68
9. Haryana 44,212 28 451 1,123 1,602 3.62 14 0.88
10. Himachal Pradesh 55,673 3,113 7,126 5,195 15,434 27.72 334 2.21
11. Jammu UT of J&K 53,258* 4,203 7,952 8,967 21,122 39.66 348 1.68
& UT of 1,69,421* 78 660 1,752 2,490 1.47 23 0.93
Kashmir# Ladakh
Total 2,22,236 4,281 8,612 10,719 23,612 10.62 371 1.60
12. Jharkhand 79,716 2,603 9,687 11,321 23,611 29.62 58 0.25
13. Karnataka 1,91,791 4,501 21,048 13,026 38,575 20.11 1,025 2.73
14. Kerala 38,852 1,935 9,508 9,701 21,144 54.42 823 4.05
15. Madhya Pradesh 3,08,252 6,676 34,341 36,465 77,482 25.14 68 0.09
16. Maharashtra 3,07,713 8,721 20,572 21,485 50,778 16.50 96 0.19
17. Manipur 22,327 905 6,386 9,556 16,847 75.46 -499 -2.88
18. Meghalaya 22,429 489 9,267 7,363 17,119 76.33 -27 -0.16
19. Mizoram 21,081 157 5,801 12,048 18,006 85.41 -180 -0.99
20. Nagaland 16,579 1,273 4,534 6,679 12,486 75.31 -3 -0.02
21. Odisha 1,55,707 6,970 21,552 23,097 51,619 33.15 274 0.53
22. Punjab 50,362 8 801 1,040 1,849 3.67 12 0.65
23. Rajasthan 3,42,239 78 4,342 12,210 16,630 4.86 58 0.35
24. Sikkim 7,096 1,102 1,552 688 3,342 47.10 -2 -0.06
25. Tamil Nadu 1,30,060 3,605 11,030 11,729 26,364 20.27 83 0.32
26. Telangana 1,12,077 1,608 8,787 10,187 20,582 18.36 163 0.80
27. Tripura 10,486 654 5,236 1,836 7,726 73.68 0 0.00
28. Uttar Pradesh 2,40,928 2,617 4,080 8,109 14,806 6.15 127 0.87
29. Uttarakhand 53,483 5,047 12,805 6,451 24,303 45.44 8 0.03
30. West Bengal 88,752 3,019 4,160 9,723 16,902 19.04 55 0.33
31. A & N Islands 8,249 5,678 684 381 6,743 81.74 1 0.01
32. Chandigarh 114 1.36 14.24 6.43 22.03 19.32 0.47 2.18
33. Dadra & Nagar Haveli 491 0 80 127 207 42.16 0 0.00
34. Daman & Diu 111 1.40 5.69 13.40 20.49 18.46 0 0.00
35. Lakshadweep 30 0 16.09 11.01 27.10 90.33 0 0.00
36. Puducherry 490 0 17.66 34.75 52.41 10.70 -1.26 -2.35
Total 32,87,469 99,278 3,08,472 3,04,499 7,12,249 21.67 3,976 0.56
* Area of shape file provided by Survey of India (December, 2019). Notified geographical area from SOI awaited.
#
Includes Jammu & Kashmir area outside LoC that is under illegal occupation of Pakistan and China.

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³³ The mangroves of Sunderbans are the largest single ³³ Reproduction place of animals

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

block of tidal holophytic mangroves of the world. ³³ Wood, food, colour, honey etc.
³³ The mangroves of Bhitar Kanika (Odisha) is the second ³³ Reduces green house effect
largest in the Indian sub continent.
³³ Natural habitat
³³ National mangrove Genetic Resources centre is in
³³ Medicinal plants
Odisha.
³³ The largest mangrove forests are in Indonesia which ³³ Prevents U.V. Rays
is 21% of world's mangrove forests. STATE WISE MANGROVE FORESTS
³³ Densly mangrove forests are in Malaysia in the world.
Sunderbans — West Bengal
Mangrove Forest in India
Mahanadi — Odisha
(4975 sq.km) (0.15%)
Devi — Odisha
Kalibhanja — Odisha
Bhitarkanika — Odisha
Most Densely Modarate Open Mangrove Forest
Subrnrekha — Odisha
Mangrove forest Densely (2020 sq.km)
(1476 sq.km) Mangrove Forest (40.61%) Dhamra — Odisha
29.66%( (1476 sq.km) East Godavari — Andhra Pradesh
(29.73%) Krishna — Andhra Pradesh
(Source ISFR-2019) Koringa — Andhra Pradesh
Pichavaram — Tamilnadu
Muthupet — Tamilnadu
Pulikat — Tamilnadu
Kenjuveli — Tamilnadu
South Andman — A&A
North Andman — A&N
Vembanad — Kerala
Kannoor — Kerala
Kundapur — Karnataka
South Kannar — Karnataka
Mangroves
of Gujarat Sundarbans Mangluru — Karnataka
mangroves Karvar — Karnataka
Mahanadi Charo — Goa
mangroves
Devgarh
Krishna Godavari
Vijaydurg — Maharashtra
Ratnagiri mangroves Kundlika — Maharashtra
mangroves Kherdana
Srivardhan — Maharashtra
Andaman and Vellun — Maharashtra
Nocobar Islands
Cauvery
mangroves Munkadiva — Maharashtra
deltaic
mangroves Vactarna — Maharashtra
Malvan — Maharashtra
Khambat — Gujarat
Bayof Kachch — Gujarat
Indian Mangrove Profile Dumas — Gujarat
³³ 5 top mangrove forest states/UTs — (ISFR 2019) CORAL REEFS
1.West Bengal (2112 sq.km) ³³ Coral is actually a living animal.
2.Gujarat (1177 sq.km) ³³ Coral has a symbiotic relationship.
3.Andman and Nicobar (616 sq.km) ³³ The builder of coral reefs are tiny animals called
4.Andhra Pradesh (404 sq.km) Polyps.
5.Maharastra (320 sq.km) ³³ When polyps die, they leave their limestone skeltons
(Source : ISFR - 2019) behind.
³³ Mangrove forests are found much more on eastern ³³ The limestone is colonised by new polyps. Therefore,
coasts rather than western coasts. a coral reef is build up of layers of these skeletons
covered ultimately by living polyps.
ROLE OF MANGROVES ³³ Coral reefs are a habitat of various sea animals.
³³ Prevent sea waves and cyclones ³³ Coral reefs are called a rain forest of ocean.
³³ Flood controls ³³ They are 0.2% of total area of oceans.
³³ Prevents coastal erosion ³³ They are generally found between line of cancer and
³³ Biodiversity line of capricorn (23½ North — 23½ South)

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³³ Year 2008 was declared as an International coral Red Tide :

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

reef year. ³³ Red Tide is a phenomenon caused by algal blooms

³³ Environment and Forest Ministry set up a National during which algae become so numerous that they
Coral Reef Research Center in Port Blair. discolor coastal waters.
³³ Sometimes the color appears red but not always, but
Cold Water Corals
it is generally termed as red tide.
³³ Cold water corals inhabit in deep cold water. ³³ It is the bloom in any type of algae not necessarily red
³³ According to UNEP reports there are more cold water algae. The algal bloom may also deplete oxygen in the
coral reefs world wide than tropical reefs. waters and release toxins that may cause illness in
³³ The largest cold water coral reef is the 'Rost Reef of humans and other animals.
Norway'.
Hope Spots
³³ Four Major Coral Reefs in India
1. Gulf of Kachchh ³³ Hopes spots are special places that are critical to
health of the ocean.
2. Gulf of Mannar
³³ A hopes spot is an area of an ocean that needs special
3. Lakshadweep Island
protection because of its wildlife and significant
4. Andman and Nicobar Islands underwater habitats.
³³ Among the four major reefs areas of India, Andman
³³ These are declared by the International Union for
and Nicobar Islands are found to be-very rich in conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Mission Blue an
species diversity. organization involves in the study of oceans.
Threat to Coral Reefs ³³ Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshdweep
³³ 75% of the world’s coral reefs are in danger due to islands the two groups of islands, considered
local and global causes. extremely rich in nature in marine biodiversity, are
the first places in India to have been added in the list
³³ Local causes — Intensive fishing
of global ‘hope spots.’
³³ Global causes—
• Increasing in temperature due to global warming LIST OF SACRED GROVES
• Pollution Sacred Groves State
• Sediment loading Pavithravana Andhra Pradesh
• Cyclone etc.
Deorai Goa
Importance of Coral reefs Gumpa Arunachal Pradesh
³³ Coral reefs are natural protective barriers against
Pann Goa
erosion and storm surge.
³³ They are the reproductive centre of many species. Sarana Jharkhand
³³ They provide substrate for mangroves. Devara Kadu Karnataka

Coral Bleaching Kavu Kerala

³³ Bleaching or the paling of coral colour occurs when Sara Kavu Kerala
1. the densities of zoo xanthellae decline or Devrai Maharashtra
2. the concentration of photosyn-thetic pigments Devrahati Maharashtra
within the zooxanthellae fall.
Devgudi Maharashtra
Snowflake Coral : Gamkhap Manipur
³³ It is an invasive species. A native of the tropical
Mauhak Manipur
Western Atlantic and the Caribbean, snowlflake coral
was first reported as an invasive species from Hawaii Ki La Lyngdoh Meghalaya
in 1972. Ki La Kyntang Meghalaya
³³ Since then it has spread to Australia, Thailand, Ki La Niam Meghalaya
Indonesia and Philippines.
Jahera Odisha
³³ Invasive species are alien to an ecosystem and are
Thakuramma Odisha
likely to cause harm to the ecosystem.
³³ By crowding out other species it threatens the Kovil Kadu Puducherry
biodiversity of the ecosystem. It may crowd out other Orans Rajasthan
species like corals, sponges, algae, ascidians that Kenkris Rajasthan
contribute to the rich marine biodiversity of the region.
Jogmaya Rajasthan
³³ In India snowfaloke coral has been reported from the
Gulf of Mannar, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Swami Shola Tamil Nadu
Gulf of kutch and Goa. Koil Kadu Tamil Nadu

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 Ecology and Environment

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Deo Bhumi Uttaralhand 14. Hokersar Wet Land Jammu and Kashmir
Bugyal Uttarakhand 15. Chandra taal Himachal Pradesh
Garamthan West Bengal 16. Pong Dam Himachal Pradesh
Harithan West Bengal 17. Renuka Wet land Himachal Pradesh
Jahera West Bengal 18. Kanjali Punjab
Santalburithan West Bengal 19. Ropar Punjab
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 20. Harike Punjab
³³ It is international treaty for “The conservation and 21. Keoladev National Park Rajasthan
sustainable use of wetlands.” 22. Bhoj Madhya Pradesh
³³ The convention was signed on 2nd February, 1971.
23. Sambhar Lake Rajasthan
³³ It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran.
24. Upparganga River Uttar Pradesh
³³ The number of parties to the convention (COP) is 169.
³³ At the centre of the Ramsar Philosophy is the “wise 25. Eastern Kolkata West Bengal
use” of the wetlands. 26. Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary Gujarat
³³ It is also know as the convention on Wetlands. 27. Sunderban Wetland West Bengal
International Organisation Partners
The Ramsar convention words closely with six other
Tiger Reserve in India
organizations known as International Organisation S. Tiger Reserve State Total
Partners (IOPs). These are : No. Area
1. Birdlife International (BI) (km2)
2. International Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust (WWT) 1. Bandipur Karnataka 1,456
3. World Wild Fund (WWF) 2. Jim Corbett Uttarakhand 1,288
4. International Union for Conservation of Nature
3. Kanha Madhya Pradesh 2,052
(IUCN)
5. Wetlands International (WI) 4. Manas Assam 3,151
6. International Water Management Institute (IWMI) 5. Melghat Maharashtra 2,769
The Montreux Record 6. Palamau Jharkhand 1,130
The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites 7. Ranthambore Rajasthan 1,411
on the list of Wetlands of International importance 8. Similipal Odisha 2,750
where changes in ecological character have occured, are
occuring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological 9. Sunderbans West Bengal 2,585
developments pollution or other human interference. It 10. Periyar Kerala 925
is maintained as part of the Ramsar List. Currently, two
11. Sariska Rajasthan 1,213
wetland of India are in Montreux record viz. Keoladeo
National park, and Loktak lake. 12. Buxa West Bengal 758
13. Indravati Chhattisgarh 2,799
Ramsar Wetland Sites of India
14. Namdapha Arunachal 2,053
1. Ashtamudi Lake Kerala
Pradesh
2. Sastham Kotta Kerala
15. Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh 2,202
3. Vembanad Kerala
16. Kalakkad- Tamil Nadu 1,602
4. Point Calimere Tamil Nadu Mundanthurai
5. Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 17. Valmiki Bihar 899
6. Bhitarkanika Mangroves Odisha 18. Pench Madhya Pradesh 1,180
7. Chilka Lake Odisha 19. Tadoba Maharashtra 1,728
8. Deepor Beel Assam 20. Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh 1,598
9. Rudra Sagar Lake Tripura 21. Panna Madhya Pradesh 1,579
10. Loktak Lake Manipur 22. Dampa Mizoram 988
11. Wular lake Jammu and Kashmir 23. Bhadra Karnataka 1,064
12. Tsomoriri Lake Jammu and Kashmir 24. Pench Maharashtra 741
13. Surin Sar Mansar Lake Jammu and Kashmir

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25. Pakhui Arunachal 1,198 List of the Environment/Forest Research

Pradesh Institutes
26. Nameri Assam 344 1. Indian Institute of Forest Bhopal
27. Satpura Madhya Pradesh 2,133 Manegment

28. Anamalai Tamil Nadu 1,480 2. Wildlife Institute of India Deharadun

29. Udanti-Sitanadi Chhattisgarh 1,843 3. Botanical Survey of India Kolkata
30. Satkosia Odisha 964 4. Zoological Survey of India Kolkata
31. Kaziranga Assam 1,174 5. Institute of forest Survey of Dehradun
32. Achanakmar Chhattisgarh 914 India

33. Kali Karnataka 1,098 6. Indira Gandhi National Forest Dehradun

Acadamy
34. Sanjay-Dubri Madhya Pradesh 1,675
7. National Institute of Animal Faridabad
35. Mudumalai Tamil Nadu 689
Welfare
36. Nagarahole Karnataka 1,206
8. Wildlife Crime Control Bureau New Delhi
37. Parambikulam Kerala 644
9. Govind Vallabh Pant Institute
38. Sahyadri Maharashtra 1,166 of
39. Biligiriranga Karnataka 575 Himalayan Enviornment and Almora
40. Kawal Telangana 2,019 Development

41. Sathyamangalam Tamil Nadu 1,408 10. Indian Plywood Industries Bengaluru
Research and Training Institute
42. Mukandra Hills Rajasthan 760
Centre of excellence
43. Nawegaon- Maharashtra 1,895
Nagzira 11. Centre for Environmental Ahmedabad
Education
44. Nagarjunsagar- Andhra Pradesh 3,296
Srisailam 12. Centre for Environmental Chennai
Economics
45. Amrabad Telangana 2,611
13. Centre for Ecological Sciences Bengaluru
46. Pilibhit Uttar Pradesh 730
14. Centre for Enviornmental
47. Bor Maharashtra 816
Managment of
48. Rajaji Uttarakhand 1,075
Degraded Ecosystem Delhi
49. Orang Assam 492
15. Centre for Mining Environment Dhanbad
50. Kamlang Arunachal 783
Pradesh 16. Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology
and Natural
Total 71,027
History (SACON) Coimbatore
(Source— Government of India, Ministry of Environment,
update till Jan. 2019) 17. Tropical Botonical Garden and Tiruvanantha-
research Institute puram
List of Natural Site in Institutes under Indian Councils of Forestry
UNESCO's World Heritage List Research and Education
1. Kaziranga Assam 18. Advance Research Centre for Aizwal
Bamboo
2. Manas Assam
19. Arid Forest Research Institute Jodhpur
3. Sunderbans West Bengal
20. C e n t r e f o r F o r e s t b a s e d Agartala
4. Western Ghat livelihood and
5. N a n d a D e v i a n d Uttarakhand extension
Valley of flower 21. Rainforest Research Institute Jorhat
6. Keoladev National Rajasthan 22. Centre for Forestry Research Chhindwada
Park and Human
7. Great Himalayan J & K, Himachal Resource Development
National Park Pradesh

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 Ecology and Environment

2. Increased forest-based livelihood income about 3

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

23. Centre for Social Forestry and Allahabad
million households living in the around forests.
Eco-Rehabilitation
3. Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration by 50 to 60
24. Forest Research Institute Dehradun million tonnes in the year 2022, also improved ecosys-
25. Himalayan Forest Research Shimla tem services including biodiversity and hydrological
Institute services.
26. Institute of Forest Biodiversity Hyderabad GLOBAL WARMING
27. Institute of Forest Gentics and Coimbatore ³³ Global warming is an average increase in the
tree breeding temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth's
28. Institute of Forest Productivity Ranchi surface and in the troposphere, which can contribute
to change in global climate patterns.
29. Institute of Wood Science and Bengaluru
³³ Global warming can occur from a variety of causes,
Technology
both natural and human induced.
30. T r op i cal Fo re s t Re s e arc h Jabalpur
Institute IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
31. Forest Science Centre Dehradun ³³ Melting of Glaciers
³³ Melting of the ice Caps
CLIMATE CHANGE
³³ Changes in rainfall patterns
³³ Climate change means a change of climate which
³³ Rising of sea level
is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity
that alters the composition of the global atmosphere. ³³ Bleaching of Coral Reefs
³³ The phrase ‘Climate Change’ represents a change in ³³ Loss of plankton due to warming of seas
the long term weather pattern. ³³ Heat wave, flooding
³³ Climate change is not a change of weather in a ³³ Hurricanes
particular day. It is the cumulative changes in climate.
³³ Climate change is the measurable effects of the con-
GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL
tinual warming trend. ³³ Global warming potential describes the impact of each
³³ Climate change is usually measured in major shifts gas on global warming.
in temperature, rainfall, snow and wind patterns ³³ The two most important characteristics of a GHG in
lasting decades.
terms of climate impact are how well the gas absorbs;
³³ Humans are creating climate change by burning large
amounts of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas etc.) energy (preventing it from immediately escaping to
deforestation. space), and how long the gas stays in the atmosphere.
³³ The Global Warming Potential (GWP) for a gas is
India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change
(NAPCC) a measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs
India’s first National Action Plan on Climate Change over a particular period of time (usually 100 years),
(NAPCC) released on June 30, 2008, outlining existing compared to carbon dioxide.
and future policies and programmes addressing climate ³³ Gases with a higher GWP absorb more energy, per
miligation and adoptation. pound, than gases with a lower GWP, and thus
Eight Mission outlined under NAPCC are : contribute more to warming Earth.
1. National Solar Mission
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency. GWP & Lifetime of Green House Gases
3. National Mission on Sustainable habitat. Sl. GWP (100- LIFETIME
4. National Water Mission GAS
No. year) (years)
5. National Mission for sustaining the Himalayan 1. Carbon dioxide 1 50-200
Ecosystem.
2. Methane 21 12
6. National Mission for a “Green India”.
7. National Mission for sustainable Agriculture. 3. Nitrous oxide 310 120
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate 4. Hydro fluoro 140-11,700 1-270
Change. carbons (HFCs)
GREEN INDIA MISSION (GIM) 5. Perfluoro carbons 6,500-9, 200 800-50,000
(PFCs)
National Mission for Green India was approved by
government on 22.02.2011. 6. Sulfur 23,900 3,200
Aims at— hexafluoride
1. Increased forest/tree cover on 5 mha of forest/non- (SF6)
forest lands and improved quality of forest cover on ³³ Carbon dioxide (CO2) has a GWP of ‘1 and serves as a
another 5 mha (a total 10 million hectares) baseline for other GWP values.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ The larger the GWP, the more warming the gas causes. ³³ Nitrous oxide (N2O)
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

For example, methane’s 100-year GWP is 21, which ³³ Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
means that methane will cause 21 times as much
³³ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
warming as an equivalent mass of carbon dioxide over
a 100-year time period. ³³ Primary green house gas.
³³ Methane (CH4) has a GWP more than 20 times higher ³³ Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC5)
than CO2 for a 100-year time scale. CH4 emitted today ³³ Perflurocarbons (PFC5)
lasts for only 12 years in the atmosphere, on average.
³³ Ozone (O3)
However, on a pound-for-pound basis, CH4 absorbs
more energy than CO2, making its GWP higher. ³³ Water Vapour (H2O)
³³ Nitrous Oxide (N2O) has a GWP 300 times that of CO2 Rankwise Top 10 Green House Emitting Countries :
for a 100-year timescale. N2O emitted today remains
in the atmosphere for an average of 120 years. Rank Country
³³ Chloro fluoro carbons (CFCs), hydro fluoro carbons 1. China
(HFCs), hydro chloro fluoro carbons (HCFCs), 2. USA
perfluoro carbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride
(SF6) are called high-GWP gases because, for a given 3. European Union
amount of mass, they trap substantially more heat 4. India
than CO2.
5. Russia
GREEN HOUSE 6. Indonesia
³³ A Green House is a building made of glass chambers 7. Brazil
in which plants are grown in cold countries or in cold
elevated areas. 8. Japan
³³ There is a continuous increase in temperature in green 9. Canada
house even when the outside temperature remained 10. Mexico
low.
³³ It protects plants from frost. ACIDIFICATION
³³ Acid rain is the rainfall that has been acidified.
THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
³³ It is formed when oxides of sulfur and nitrogen react
Greenhouse effect is term for the role the atmosphere with the moisture in the atmosphere.
plays in helping to warm the Earth’s surface.
³³ Rain considered as acid rain when PH goes below 5.6.
³³ The atmosphere is largely transparent to incoming
solar radiation, because it is largely comprised of Acid Deposition
ays of shorter wave lengths. Much of this oncoming ³³ There are two types of acid depositon
radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface. The 1. Wet deposition
hot surface of the earth than re-emits heat energy at 2. Dry depositon
long-wave infrared rays. While some of the infrared
radiation passes through the atmosphere, a large part WET DEPOSITON
of it is absorbed and redistributed back by gases such ³³ When the acid fall to the ground in the form of rain,
as carbon dioxide, Methane, nitrous oxide, halocarbons, snow, fog or mist due to wet weather, it is called wet
water vapour and ozone in the atmosphere. This deposion.
heating effect is called the green house effect and it
causes global warming. The green house effect has Dry Depositon
two types : ³³ In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals
³³ The natural greenhouse effect, which refers to the may become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall
greenhouse effect which occurs naturally on earth and to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the
it is essential to maintain normal global temperature ground, buildings, vegetation, cars etc.
patterns. ³³ About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back
³³ Without it, temperature would drop by approximately to earth through dry deposition.
30°C, the oceans would freeze and life as we know it Compounds Causing Acid rain
would be impossible.
Compounds Sources
³³ The enhanced anthropogenic greenhouse effect, which
results from human activities. Sulphur Soil and oceans, volcanic eruptions,
³³ It is this green house effect that is a cause of serious Biological process in the soil, Burning
concern for the global environment. of coal, petroleum products, Industries.

GREEN HOUSE GASES Nitrogen Lightening, volcanic eruption,

Biological activity, Industries
³³ Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Formic Acid Biomass burning.
³³ Methane (CH4)

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 Ecology and Environment

20 and 40 km.

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Other Acids Chlorine, Phosphoric acid, Hydrochloric ³³ It is very important because it absorbs ultraviolet rays
acid, carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide which is harmful for human being, animals & plants.
Impact of Acid Rain : ³³ The ultraviolet rays cause direct damage to the genetic
³³ The exchange between hydrogen ions and the nutrient
material, on DNA of animals and plants cells.
³³ Dobson is the unit of Ozone Layer measurement.
cations like Potassium and magnesium in the soil
cause leaching of the nutrients, making the soil Sources of Ozone Depletions
infertile. ³³ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)–The most widely used
³³ This is accompanied by a decrease in the respiration Ozone depleting substance, accounting for over 80%
of soil organisms. of total stratospheric ozone depletion.
³³ An increase in ammonia in the soil due to a decrease ³³ Used as coolants in refrigerators, freezers and air
in other nutrients decrease the rate of decompositions. conditioners in buildings and cars.
³³ The nitrate level of the soil is also found to decrease. ³³ Also found in industrial solvents, dry-cleaning agents
³³ Loss of feeder-root biomass. and hospital sterilants.
³³ Premature ageing of older needles in conifers. ³³ Methyl Chloroform–used mainly in industries for va-
³³ Prodigious production of lichens on affected dress. pour decreasing, cold cleaning, aerosols, adhesives
³³ Acid rain can directly affect the eggs and tadpoles and chemical processing.
of frogs and salamanders that breed in small forest ³³ Halons–Used in some fire extinguishers, in case where
ponds. materials and equipment would be destroyed by water
³³ Acid rain affects human health. or other fire extinguisher chemicals.
³³ Acid rain reduce visibility, irritation of the skin, eyes ³³ Carbon Tetrachloride–used in soluvents and some
and respiratory tract. fire extinguishers.
³³ Food poison through drinking water & food. ³³ Hydrochlorofluoro Carbons (CHCFCs)–HCFCs have
³³ Surface erosion in building stones, black crust formation become major, transitional substitutes for CFCs.
etc. ³³ They are much less harmful to stratospheric ozone
³³ Fading colour change in monuments. than CFCs are, but HCFCs still cause some ozone
destructions and are potent greenhouse gases.
Ocean Acidification :
Efforts taken for the Conservation of Ozone layer
³³ Oceans are an import reservoir for CO2. Vienna Convention
³³ They absorb one third of CO 2 produced by ³³ The Vienna conference is 1985 the first internation
anthropogenic activities. conference on ozone layer depletion.
³³ Ocean acidification is the change of ocean chemistry. ³³ Convention in this conference entered into force in
³³ When the uptake of atmospheric CO2 by the ocean 1988.
³³ The convention does not include legally binding re-
increases, the concentration of H2 ions in the ocean
duction goals for the use of CFCs and other Ozone
increases, but when the concentration of CO2 ions Depleting Substances.
decreases, the pH of the oceans decreases and the ³³ These legally binding reduction goals for Ozone
ocean become less alkaline this process is called Depleting Substances are laid out in the Montreal
ocean acidification. protocol.

CO2 effect on Ocean Acidification

Montreal Protocol
³³ It is an international treaty to protect the ozone lay-
Ocean Less Plankton Less Productive er by phasing out the Ozone Depleting Substances
acidification Production Fisheries across the world.
³³ The treaty was put forward in 1987, this treaty entered
Coral reaf can’t grow into force on January 1989.
³³ The montreal Protocol has been revised seven times
Ozone layer and its protection so far, the lost one in 1999 (Beijing).
³³ Ozone is a natural gas. It is found in atomosphere. ³³ It is believed that if this agreement is adhered to, the
³³ Ozone consists three atoms of oxygen bound together ozone layer will recover by the year 2050.
in non linear fashion. ³³ India is a signatory of this treaty.
³³ The chemical symbol is O3. ³³ india has Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation
³³ About 90% of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained and control) Rules since the year 2000.
in the stratosphere (range 10-50km) above Earth’s National Air Quality Index (AQI)
surface, the highest concentrations between about

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³³ For monitoring the air quality in major cities across ³³ To import education in relation to the human treat-
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

the country on the real time basis government ment of animals.

launched Air Quality Index is April, 2015.
Central Zoo Authority (CZA) :
³³ It is colour based index and shows the quality of air
by different colour. ³³ It was constituted in 1992 through wildlife protection
³³ There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfac-
Act, 1972
tory, Moderately polluted, poor, very poor and severe. ³³ The authority consists of a chairman, 10 members
³³ The AQI considers eight pollulants there are :
and a member secretary.
³³ The main objective of the authority is to complement
NO2 NH3
the national effort in conservations of wildlife.
SO2 Pb
³³ The authority also coordinates and implements
CO PM 10
programmes on capacity building of zoo personnel,
O3 PM 2.5 planner breeding programmes and ex-situ research
Monitoring the O3 Layer including biotechnological intervention for conserva-
(1) World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) tion of species for complementing in-situ conservation
(2) World Weather Watch (WWW) efforts in the country.
(3) Integrated Global Ocean Services Systems (IGOSS) LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT ZOOLOGICAL
(4) Global Climate Observing Systems (GCOS) PARKS IN INDIA
Environmentally Significant Days 1. Rajiv Gandhi Zoological Park Pune (Maharashtra)
Event Day and Month 2. Indira Gandh Zoological Park Vishakhapattnam
World Wetland day 02 February (A.P.)

National Science day 28 February 3. Nehru Zoological Park Hyderabad

(Telangana)
World Wildlife day 03 March
4. National Zoological Park New Delhi
World Forest day 21 March
5. Padmana Naidu Himalayan Darjeeling (W.B.)
World Water day 22 March Zoological Park
World Heritage day 18 April
6. Allen Forest Zoo Kanpur (U.P.)
Earth day 22 April
7. Marble Place Zoo Kolkata (W.B.)
International Biodiversity day 22 May
8. Sanjay Gandhi Jaivik Udyan Patna (Bihar)
World Environment day 05 June
National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGBRA) :
World Populational day 11 July
³³ It was constituted on February 2009 under the Envi-
International Tiger day 29 July ronment Protection Act 1986.
World Ozone day 16 September ³³ It is a planning, financing, monitoring and coordinat-
Green Consumer day 28 September ing body of the centre and the states.
World Habitat day 03 October ³³ Its members are CM of those states from where the
rivger Ganga passes.
Wildlife week 1-7 October
³³ It is chaired by the Prime Minister of India.
Animal Welfare day 04 October ³³ The main objective of this authority is to clean the
Bhopal Tragedy day 02 December river Ganga and make it free from pollution.
NATIONAL ORGANISATIONS National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP)
³³ Ministry of Environment and forests has implemented
The Animal welfare Board of India the NLCP in 2001.
³³ The Animal welfare Board of India, the first of its kind ³³ The objective of NLCP is to restore and conserve the
to be established by any Government in the world, urban and semiurban lakes of the country degraded
was setup in 1962. due to waste water discharge into lakes.
³³ Its Headquarters is located in Chennai.
National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP)
³³ It is a Statuary advisory body.
³³ National wetland Conservation Programme was
Functions launched in 1985-86
³³ To keep the law force in India for the Prevention of ³³ In 2001, National lake conservation programme was
cruelty to Animals. launched.
³³ To advise the central governments on the making of ³³ Under the programme, 115 wetlands have been iden-
rules under the Act. tified till now by the ministry which require urgent
³³ To give financial assistance conservation and management interventions.

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National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) ‘Hornbill’ and also an internationally well-known

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

³³ NBA was established by the central government in “Journal on Natural History.”
October, 2003, at Chennai (Tamil Nadu). ³³ The BNHS has over the years helped the Government
to frome wildlife-related laws and has taken up battles
³³ NBA is an autonomous, statutory and regulatory
such as the “Save the Silent Valley” Campaign.
organisation which is intended to implement the
provisions of Biological Diversity Act, 2002. National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) :
The Main Objectives of NBA are : ³³ It is a statutory board constitubed under section 5 of
Wildlife (protection) Act, 1972
³³ To regulate occess to biological resources of the coun-
³³ NBWL is chaired by Prime Minister.
try to conserve and sustainable used of biological
diversity. ³³ Its members includes Members of Parliament, NGOs,
eminent conservationists, ecologists etc.
³³ To respect and protect the knowledge of local com-
munities related to biodiversity. ³³ Function of the board is to promote the conservation
and development of wildlife and forests.
Forest Survey of India (FSI)
³³ A national level organization for forest resource as- INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION
sessment of the country under the MOEF.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
³³ Organization set up in 1981.
(IPCC)
³³ It headquarter located in Dehradun.
³³ It was established by the UNEP and the WMO in 1988.
³³ It was successor of “Peeinvestment Survey of Forest
Resource” that set up in 1965. ³³ It was established to provide the governments of the
³³ The objective of FSI is assessment of forest and tree
world with a clear scientific view of what is happening
cover. Also estimating growing stock of wood within in the world’s climate.
and outside the countries forests. ³³ It is a scientific body.
³³ FSI assesses forest cover of the country in every 2 years ³³ The IPCC does not carry out its own original research,
by digital interpretations of remote sensing satellite nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related
data and publishes the result in a biennial report called phenomena itself.
“State of Forests Report.” UNFCCC
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) : ³³ The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
³³ This bureau was constituted by Government of India Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental
in June, 2007. treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on
³³ The bureau would complement the efforts of the Environment and Development (UNCED) informally
state governments, Primarily enforces of the wildlife known as the Earth Summit help in Rio-de Janeiro
Act 1972. in June 1992.
³³ Its Headquarters is in New Delhi. ³³ The objective of the treaty is to stabilize green house
³³ Its five regional offices are in Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
Kolkata and Jabalpur. would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
³³ This organisation was constituted to control crime with the climate systems.
against wild animals. ³³ The treaty is considered legally non-binding.
³³ The parties to the convention have met annually from
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) 1995 in conference of the parties (COP) to assess
³³ This institute was established in 1982, as a major progress in dealing with climate change.
training establishment for forest officials and for re- ³³ The conference of the parties (COP) is the highest
search in Eildlife Management. decision making authority.
³³ Its headquarter is located in Dehradun.
Kyoto Protocol
³³ Its most significant publication has been “Planning a
wildlife Protected Area Network for India. ³³ The kyoto Protocol is an umendment to the United
Nations Framework Convertion on Climate Change
Wildlife Trust of India (UNFCC). an international treaty on global warming.
³³ It is a NGO founded in 1998. ³³ The kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session
³³ It aims to conserve nature, especially endangered of the conference of parties (COP) to the UNFCCC in
species and threatened habitats, in partnership with 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.
communities and government. ³³ The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement
setting targets for industrial countries to cut their
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
greenhouse gas emission.
³³ It is India’s oldest conservation research based NGO. ³³ The protocol operates on the principle of “Common
³³ It’s headquarter located in Mumbai. but differentiated responsibility.”
³³ The BNHS is established in 1883 as small environ- ³³ On 16th February, 2005 the Kyoto Protocol finally
mental conservation society. become on international law.
³³ The BNHS publishes a popular magazine called the

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Targeted gases under this protocol are : PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals)
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) ³³ PETA is an American animal rights organisation.

2. Methane (CH4) ³³ Its Headquarter is in Virginia, USA.
3. Nitrous Oxide (N2O) ³³ It is non profitable organisation.
4. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) ³³ It is world’s largest animal right organisation.
5. Perfluorocarbons (CFCs) ³³ It opposes cruetly against animals.
6. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) ³³ Its slogan is–Animals are not owns to eat, to wear,
experiments on, use for entertainment or abuse in
United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP)
other way.
³³ It is established in June 5, 1972.
³³ It is the agency of UNO. GEF (Global Environment Facility)
³³ Its Headquarters is in Nairobi,Kenya. ³³ The Global Environment Facility was established
³³ It coordinates its environmental activities, assisting in October 1991 in the World bank to assist in the
developing countries in implementing environmentally protections of the global environment and to promote
sound policies and practices. environmental sustainable development.
³³ Its activities cover a wide range of issues regarding ³³ The GEF would provide new and aditional grants and
the atmosphere marine and terrestrial ecosystems, concessional funding.
environmental governance and green economy. ³³ The UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank were the three
³³ It has played a significant role in developing interna- initial partners implementing GEF projects.
tional environmental conventions. Promoting envi- ³³ The GEF work focuses on seven main areas including
ronmental science. biodiversity, climate change, chemicals, internation-
³³ ‘Global 500’ awards are gives by this organisations. al waters degradations, sustainable forests and O3
depletion.
WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature)
Basel Convention
³³ The world wide fund for Nature (WWF) is an inter-
national non governmental organisation founded in ³³ The Basel Convention on the control of transboundry
1961. Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
³³ Its headquarter is in Gland, Switzerland. was adopted on 22 March, 1989 by the Conference of
plenipotentiaries in Basel, Switzerland.
³³ It is the world’s largest conservation organisation.
³³ Its slogan is ‘for a living planet.’ Objectives
³³ Earth Hour Day is celebrated every year by this or- ³³ The reduction of hazardous waste generation and the
ganisation. promotion of environmentally sound management of
³³ It is a cooperative organisation of IUCN. hazardous wastes, wherever the place of disposal.
³³ Earth Hour : It is a global event organized by WWF ³³ The restriction of transboundry movements of haz-
and is held on the last Saturday of March annually, ardous wastes except where it is perceived to be in
asking households and businesses to turn off their accordance with the principles of environmentally
non-essential lights and other electrical appliances sound management.
for one hour to raise awareness towards the need to ³³ A regulatory system applying to cases where trans-
take action on climate change. boundary movements are permissible.
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of REDD and REDD+
Nature) ³³ REDD+ stands for countries efforts to Reduce Emis-
³³ It was founded in 1948 as International Union for the sions from Deforestation and forest Degration, and
Protection of Nature. It changed its Name as IUCN foster conservation. Sustainable management of
in 1956. forests and enhancement of forest carbon stock. This
³³ Its headquarter is in Gland, Switzarland is United Nations programme for mitigating climate
³³ Its aim is to influence, encourage and assist societies change and its adverse effect. This mechanism has been
throughout the world to conserve the integrity and under negotiation by the united Nations Framework
diversity of nature. Convention on climate change (UNFCCC) since 2005.
³³ IUCN Supports Scientific research, manages field proj- ³³ It works on the basis of creating a financial value for
ects globally and brings governments, NGO’s, United the carbon stored and enhanced in biomass and soil of
Nations agencies and local communities together to standing forests. Countries that reduce emissions and
develop and implement policy. undertake sustainable management of forests will be
³³ It publishes Red data list since 1964 to show the emitled to receive funds and resources as incentives.
situation of wildlife. ³³ The Stockholm Convention on Presistent Organic
³³ The Red Data Book is the report established for doc- Pollutants (POP)
umenting rare and endangered species of animals, ³³ The stockholm Convention of POP was adopted at a
plants and fungi as well as some local sub-species conference of plenipotentiaries on 22 May, 2001 in
that exit within the territory of the state or country. Stockholm, Sweden and enterered into force is 2004.

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 Ecology and Environment

POPs (Presistent Organic Pollutants) : isms resulting from modern biotechnology that may

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

POPs are organic chemical substances that is, they are have adverse effect on the conservation and sustain-
carbon based. They possess a particular combination of able biological diversity, taking into account risk to
physical and chemical properties such that, once released human health.
into the environment, they :
Nagoya Protocol :
³³ Remain intact for exceptionally long periods of time.
³³ become widely distributed throughout the environ- The Nagoya (Japan) Biodiversity summit attended by
ment as a result of natural process involving soil, 193 nations representatives closed on 29 october, 2010
water and air. with Nagoya Protocol which is now added to the CBD.
³³ Accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms ³³ Nagoya Protocol requires the signatories to enact a
including humans, and are found at higher concen- national legislation to ensure fair and equitale benefit
trations at higher levels in the food chain. sharing arising out of biodiversity resources and their
³³ PoPs are toxic to both humans and wildlife. commercial derivatives.
Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) : Birdlife International
³³ The convention on the conservation of Migratory spe- ³³ It is a NGO foremd in 1922.
cies of Wild Animals also known as Bonn Convention ³³ It’s headquarters is locoted in Cambridge, organi-
aims to conserve terrestrial, aquatic and avian Mi-
sations that strive to conserve birds, their habitats
gratory species throughout their range.
and global biodiversity, working with people towards
³³ It is an intergovernmental treaty concluded under the
sustainability in the use of natural resources.
design of the United Nations Environment programme,
concerned with the conservation of wildlife and habi- ³³ It is widely recognized as the world leader in Bird
tats on global scale. Conservation.
³³ Recently India become the 54 signatory to the CMS Wetlands International
convention.
³³ It is a NGO its headquarter located in Ede, Nether-
GTF (Global Tiger Forum) lands
³³ GTF is the only inter governmental and international ³³ This global organisation that works to sustain and
body functioning exclusively for the conservation of restore wetlands and their resources for people &
tiger in the world. biodiversity
³³ Members— ³³ It is independent, non-profit global organisation,
1. Myanmar 2. Bhutan supported by government and NGO membership from
3. India 4. Bangladesh around the World.
5. Vietnam 6. Nepal
7. Combodia 8. UK Earthwatch
³³ GTF has its own technical, communication and ad- ³³ Earthwatch is an international non-profit organisation
ministrative staff. established in 1971.
CBD (Convention on Biodiversity) ³³ Its headquarter located in Boston (USA).
³³ The convention on Biological Diversity is an interna- ³³ It is one of the largest global underwriters of scientific
tional treaty. field research in archaeology, poleontology, marine life
³³ This convention was opened for signature at the Earth biodiversity, ecosystems and wildlife.
Summit in Rio-de Janeiro on June 5, 1992 and en- ³³ This organisation raise funds and recruit individuals,
tered into force on 29 December, 1993. students, teachers and corporate fellows to partici-
³³ 195 states and European Union (EU) are parties to pate in critical field research to understand nature’s
the convention. response to occelerating global change.
³³ India is also the member of CBD.
³³ India signed this treaty on May 1992. Worldwatch Institute
³³ The convention on Biological Diversity is dedicated to ³³ The worldwatch Institute is a globally focused envi-
promoting sustainable development. ronmental research organisation established in 1974.
Cartagena Bio-safety Protocol (CPB) : ³³ It’s headquarter located in Washington D.C.
The cartagena Protocol on Biosafely (CPB) was ne- ³³ The Worldwatch institute works to accelerate the tran-
gotiated under the aegic of the convention on biological sition to a sustainable world that meets human needs.
diversity and adopted on 29th January, 2000. The protocol ³³ The institutes top mission objectives are univarsal
has come into force from 11th Spetember 2003. As of date access to renewable energy and nutritions food, ex-
163 countries are parties to the protocol India is party to pansion of environmentally sound jobs and develop-
the protocol. Cartagena city is located in Colombia. ment, transformation of culture from consumerism to
³³ The main objective of the protocol is to ensure safe sustainability, and an early end to population growth
transfer, handling and use of living modified organ- through healthy intentional childbearing.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

Green Peace International ³³ CITES is administered through the United Nations

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

³³ Formation -around 1969-72 in Vancouver, Canada. Environment Programme (UNEP).

Headquarter is in Amsterdam, Netherland. ³³ Its headquarter located in Geneva, Switzerland, over-
seas the implementation of the treaty and assists with
³³ Goal - Insure the ability of the Earth to nature life in
communications between countries.
all its diversity.
³³ Currently 178 countries are parties to CITES.
³³ It used direct action, lobbying and research to
³³ India is the signatory of CITES.
achive its goal.
³³ This global organisation does not accept funding from MIKE (Monitoring of Illegal killing of Elephants)
governments, corporation or political party relying on ³³ Mandated by cop resolution of CITES, MIKE program
2.9 million individual supporters and fundation grants. started in South Asia in the year 2003 with following
objectives :
CITES
1. to measure level and trends in the illegal hunting
³³ The Convention on International Trade in Endangered of elephants.
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an inter-
2. To determine changes in theise trends over time.
national agreement between governments entered into
3. to determine the factors causing or associated with
force in 1975, and become the only treaty to ensure
such changes, and to try and assess in particular to
that international trade in plants and animals does
what extent observed trends are a result of any deci-
not threaten their survival in the wild.
sions taken by the conference of the parties to CITES.

STATEWISE LIST OF NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA

S. National Park Estb. Area S. National Park Estb. Area
No. (in km2) No. (in km2)
Andhra Pradesh Gujarat
1. Papikonda National Park 2008 1012.86 19. Blackbuck National Park, 1976 34.53
2. Rajiv Gandhi National Park 2005 2.40 Velavadar
3. Sri Venkateswara National 1989 353.62 20. Gir National Park 1975 258.71
Park 21. Marine National Park, Gulf 1982 162.89
of Kutch
Telangana
22. Vansda National Park 1979 23.99
4. Kasu Brahmananda Reddy 1994 1.43
N.P. Haryana
5. Mahavir Harina Vansthali 1994 14.59 23. Kalesar National Park 2003 46.83
N.P. 24. Sultanpur National Park 1989 1.43
6. Mrugavani National Park 1994 3.60 Himachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh 25. Pin Valley National Park 1989 675
7. Namdapha National Park 1983 1807.82 26. Great Himalayan National 1984 754.4
Park
8. Mouling National Park 1986 483
27. Inderkilla National Park 2010 104
Assam
28. Khirganga National Park 2010 710
9. Dibru-Saikhowa National 1999 340
29. Simbalbara National Park 2010 27.88
Park
Jammu and Kashmir
10. Kiziranga National Park 1974 858.98
30. Dachigam National Park 1981 141
11. Manas National Park 1990 500
31. Hemis National Park 1981 3350
12. Nameri National Park 1998 200
32. Kishtwar National Park 1981 425
13. Orang National Park 1999 78.81
33. Salim Ali National Park 1992 9.00
Bihar
Jharkhand
14. Valmiki National Park 1989 335.65
34. Belta National Park 1986 226.33
Chhattisgarh
Karnataka
15. Indravati National Park 1982 1258.37
35. Bandipur National Park 1974 874.2
16. Kanger Valley National Park 1982 200 36. Banerghatta National Park 1974 260.51
17. Guru Ghasi Das (Sanjay) 1981 11,440.71 37. Kudremukh National Park 1987 600.32
National Park
38. Nagarhole (Rajiv Gandhi) 1988 643.39
Goa National Park
18. Bhagwan Mahavir (Mollem) 1992 107 39. Anshi National Park 1987 417.37
National Park

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 Ecology and Environment

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

S. National Park Estb. Area S. National Park Estb. Area
No. (in km2) No. (in km2)
Kerala Sikkim
40. Eravikulam National Park 1978 97 74. Khangchendzonga National 1977 1784
41. Mathikettan Shola National 2003 12.82 Park
Park Tamil Nadu
42. Periyar National Park 1982 350 75. Mudumalai National Park 1990 103.24
43. Silent Valley National Park 1984 89.52 76. Mukurthi National Park 1990 78.40
44. Anamudi Shola National 2003 7.50
77. Indira Gandhi (Annamali) 1989 117.10
Park
National Park
45. Pambadum Shola National 2003 1.32
78. Guindy National Park 1976 2.82
Park
79. Gulf of Mannar Marine Na- 1980 6.32
Madhya Pradesh
tional Park
46. Bandhavgarh National Park 1968 448.85
Tripura
47. Kanha National Park 1955 940
80. Bison (Rajbari) National Park 2007 31.63
48. Madhav National Park 1959 375.22
81. Clouded Leopard National 2007 5.08
49. Mandla Plant Fossils Nation- 1983 0.27
Park
al Park
50. Panna National Park 1981 542.67 Uttar Pradesh
51. Indira Priyadarshini Pench 1975 292.85 82. Dudhwa National Park 1977 490
National Park Uttarakhand
52. Sanjay National Park 1981 466.88 83. Gangotri National Park 1989 2390.02
53. Satpura National Park 1981 585.17 84. Govind Pashu Vihar 1990 472.08
54. Van Vihar National Park 1979 4.45 85. Jim Corbett National Park 1936 520.82
Maharashtra 86. Nanda Devi National Park 1982 624.6
55. Chandoli National Park 2004 317.67 87. Rajaji National Park 1983 820.24
56. Gugamal National Park 1975 361.28
88. Valley of Flowers National 1982 87.5
57. Navegaon National Park 1975 133.88 Park
58. Sanjay Gandhi National Park 1983 86.96 West Bengal
59. Tadoba National Park 1955 116.55
89. Gorumara National Park 1992 79.45
60. Pench National Park 1975 257.26
90. Buxa National Park 1992 117.10
Manipur
91. Neora Valley National Park 1986 159.89
61. Keibul Lamjao National Park 1977 40
Meghalaya 92. Singalila National Park 1986 78.60
62. Balphakram National Park 1985 220 93. Jaldapara National Park 2014 216.51
63. Nokrek National Park 1986 47.48 94. Sundarbans National Park 1984 1330.10
Mizoram Andaman and Nicobar Islands
64. Murlen National Park 1991 100 95. Mahatma Gandhi Marine 1983 281.50
65. Phawngpui Blue Mountain 1992 50 National Park
National Park 96. Middle Button Island Na- 1987 0.44
Nagaland tional Park
66. Intanbi National Park 1993 202.02 97. Mount Harriet National Park 1987 46.62
Odisha 98. North Button Island National 1987 0.44
67. Bhitarkanika National Park 1988 145 Park
68. Simplipal National Park 1980 845.70 99. Rani Jhansi Marine National 1996 256.14
Rajasthan Park
69. Sariska National Park 1982 273.80 100. Soddle Peak National Park 1987 32.54
70. Ranthambore National Park 1980 282 101. South Button Island Nation- 1987 0.03
71. Mukundra Hills (Darrah) 2006 200.54 al Park
National Park 102. Campbell Bay National Park 1992 426.23
72. Desert National Park 1992 3162 103. Golathea National Park 1992 110
73. Keoladeo National Park 1981 28.73
ppp
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 10 COMPUTER
7. Secondary storage devices
HISTORY
8. Punch Card Readers
³³ The genesis of mechanical/digital computing can be 9. Optical Mouse
traced back to Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) and GW 10. Speech Recognisition system
Liebnitz (1646-1716). However, Charles Babbage Output Unit : The Output Unit also provides an
(1792-1871) was the first to imagine a machine that interface between the user and the machine. The output
could process data. He designed first difference engine unit receives the data from the CPU in the form of binary
and analytical engine and an all purpose calculating bits. This is then converted into a desired form (graphical,
machine. He is rightly known as the father of computer audio, visual etc.) understandable by the user.
science. Some common output devices are :
COMPUTER 1. Visual Display Unit (Monitor)
2. Printers
“Computer is an electronic device for performing
3. Speakers
arithmetic and logical operations”, or “Computer is a
4. Secondary Storage Devices
device or flexible machine to process data and convert it
into information. Computer is programmable meaning that 5. Tape Reader
it all depends upon what program computer is using for 6. Plotter
performing a particular function. The input and output unit are collectively referred to as
³³ Programme : It is a set of instructions fed into the ‘peripherals’
computer on what to do. Central Processing Unit (CPU) : It is the brain of the
computer system. The input and output devices may vary
³³ Hardware : It is a actual machine that does whatever
for different application, but there is only one CPU for a
the Software (computer programs) tells it to do.
particular computer.
Four basic operations of a computer
The central processing unit can be further divided
1. Input : This is for the purpose of inserting or feeding into :
data into the computer by means of an input device 1. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
like keyboard.
2. The Control Unit
2. Processing : Some kind of processing is done in 3. Main Memory
the computer to take out or transform the data in
some way. Functions of CPU :
3. Output : The computer produces output on a 1. Performs arithmetic calculations such as addition,
device, such as printer, scanner or a monitor, that subtraction etc.
shows the result of processing operations. 2. Performs logical decisions.
4. Storage : The computer stores the result of 3. Performs data transmission.
processing operations for future use in some 4. It can manipulate tasks such as word processing.
storage device like hard disk, compact disk drive Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) : The arithmetic logic
(CD Rom) or a floppy disk. unit performs all arithmetic and logic calculations on the
Characteristices of Computer data it receives. Arithmetic Calculations like addition,
l Accuracy l Versatility l Memory subtraction, multiplication division, exponentiation
l Diligence l Speed l Storage etc. Logical Calculations are basically decision making
l Reliability l Automated
statements e.g. A > B, It decides whether A is greater
than B or not. If A is greater, the statement is true and
Components of a digital computer
logical '1' would be generated otherwise illogical '0' would
A digital computer can be broadly classified as a col- be generated.
lection of four components. They are :
Control Unit : The Control unit controls the entire
1. Input unit 2. Output unit operations of the computer and the CPU. It controls all
3. Central Processing Unit 4. Memory (auxiliary) the other devices connected to the CPU, i.e. Input devices,
Input Unit : The Input Unit provides an interface Output devices, Auxiliary Memory etc. Hence, the control
between the users and the machine, for inputing data and unit acts as the nerve centre of the computer.
instruction etc. Main Memory Unit : The main memory also known as
Some common input devices are listed below : the primary memory. It is a part of the central processing
1. Keyboard 2. Mouse unit and is a combination of both RAM (random access
3. Voice data entry 4. Joystick memory) and ROM (read only memory).
RAM : The random access memory is read write
5. Light pen 6. Scanner
memory i.e. information can be read as well as written into

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 Computer

this type of memory. It is volatile in nature, i.e., the information it contains Computer Programming : It

COMPUTER
is lost as soon as the system is shut down unless ‘saved’ for further usage by is the process of designing, writing,
users. It is basically used to store programs and data during the computer’s testing, debugging / troubleshooting,
operation. and maintaining the source code of
ROM : It contains information that can only be read. It is non-volatile or computer programs. This source code
permanent in nature. It is basically used to store permanent programs such is written in a programming language.
as program for the functioning of the monitor. Programming languages :
Cache Memory : The cache memory lies in the path between the processor Consists of words, symbols and usage
and the main memory. rules pertaining to the grammar that
permits people to communicate with
DATA MEASUREMENT CHART the computer programming languages
must cater to the following tasks :
DATA MEASUREMENT SIZE
— input/output
Bit Single Binary Bit Single Binary — text manipulations/
Digit (1 or 0) Digit (1 or 0) calculations
— logic/comparison
Nibble 4 bits Terabyte (TB) 1,024 Gigabytes
— storage/retrieval
Byte 8 bits Petabyte (PB) 1,024 Terabytes Some of the commonly used lan-
Kilobyte (KB) 1,024 Bytes Exabyte (EB) 1,024 Petabytes guages for various applications are :
1. Scientific and Engineering :
Megabyte (MB) 1,024 Kilobytes Zettabyte (ZB) 1,024 Exabytes
Ex., BASIC, FORTRAN
Gigabyte (GB) 1,024 Megabytes Yottabyte (YB) 1,024 Zettabytes 2. Business and Commercial
purpose : Ex., COBOL , BASIC,
CONVERSION TABLE 3. Text Processing : Lisp, SOSL
4. General Purpose : PASCAL,
Traditional Units Decimal for Comparison
ADA,
Name Symbol Bionary Equal to Name IEC Decimal 5. Artifical Intelligence (AI) :
Kilobytes KB 210 1024 B Kilobit kbit 103 PROLOG, LISP
Megabyte MB 2 20
1024 KB Megabit Mbit 106 Note : World’s Smallest
Computer – Michigan Micro
Gigabyte GB 230 1024 MB Gigabit Gbit 109 Mote (USA). Size is 0.3 m.m.
Terabyte TB 2 40
1024 GB Terabit Tbit 1012 World’s fastest Super
Petabyte PB 250 1024 TB Petabit pbit 1015 Computer – Summit (U.S.)

Exabyte EB 2 60
1024 PB Exabit Ebit 1018 OPERATING SYSTEM
Zettabyte ZB 270 1024 EB Zettabit Zbit 1021
The operating system is the core
Yottabyte YB 280 1024 ZB Yottabit Ybit 1024 software component of the computer.
It performs many functions and is, in
very basic terms, an interface between
your computer and the outside world.
Types of Operating System
There are many types of operating
systems. The most common is the
Microsoft suite of operating systems.
They include from most recent to the
oldest :
l Windows 10
l Windows 7
Next Generation Computer l Windows XP Professional

Nano Computer : It is a computer whose fundamental parts are in Edition

nanometers. It can be built by using mechanical, electronic, biochemical or l Windows XP Home Edition

quantum technology. l Windows 2000

l Windows ME
Quantum Computer : It is a computational device that makes direct use
of quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, l Windows 98
l Windows NT
to perform operations on data.
l Windows 95
Software : It is used to describe the instructions that are given to computer.
l Unix
These instructions can be either a single programme or a group of programmes.
l Linux
Types of Software
l Apple Macintosh
1. System software 2. Application software 3. Utility software

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

Basic Characteristics
COMPUTER

COMPUTER GENERATION
Gene- Chief Memory Operating Structural Terminology
Years Language Examples
ration Components Elements System
Formal Informal
Vacuum Machine
ENIAC Relational Term Equivalence
Tubes/ Magnetic language
EDSAC
Ist 1940-55 Electronic drums for No (Lowest-level Relation Table
EDVAC
valves for memory programming
UNIVAC Tuple Row or Record
circuitry language)
Assembly Cardinality of a Number of rows
Magnetic Language, Relation
Transistors IBM 700/
cores High level
2nd 1956-63 (invented in) No 1401 Attribute Column or Field
Magnetic language e.g.,
1947 IBM 7030
Tapes FORTRAN, Degree of a Number of
COBOL
Relation Column
Integrated CDC 6600/
Circuits
ALGOL C,
760 Primary Key Unique Identifier
RAM, C++
3rd 1964-71 (semi con-
DISKS
LINUX
JAVA
IBM 360 Domain A pool of values
ductors IBM 370
SQL from which the
were used) CRAY-1
values of specific
LSI (Large
Scale All Primary, attributes of
Windows All PC’s & specific relations
1972 Integration)/ Secondary SQL
4th DOS, Desktops,
Present VLSI (Very Storage ORACLE are taken
LINUX CRAYX-MP
Large Scale devices
Integration) ³³ N o t e : India’s Fastest
Artificial Supercomputer – Pratyush
Develop-
ment
Intelligence,
Some application such as voice recognition that are being
(Maximum Speed of 6.8 Petaflops)
5th Robotics &
phase used today are based on artificial intelligence.
Nano Keys
Science
Candidate Key : A candidate key
of a table is defined as a set of one or
Kernel : The kernel is the central component of most computer operat-
more attributes of the table that can
ing systems. It is a bridge between applications and the actual data processing
uniquely identify a row in a given table.
done at the hardware level. The kernel's responsibilities include managing the
Simple Candidate Key : A
system's resources. It typically makes these facilities available to application
candidate key comprising of one
processes through inter-process communication mechanisms and system calls.
attribute only.
Multitasking : In computing, multitasking is a method where multiple tasks,
also known as processes, share common processing resources such as a CPU. Primary Key : During the creation
of the table (the implementation
Multiprocessing : Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central
phase), the database designer chooses
processing units (CPUs) within a single computer system. The term also refers
one of the candidate key (amongst the
to the ability of a system to support more than one processor and/or the ability
several available) to uniquely identify
to allocate tasks between them.
rows in the table. The candidate key
Applications : Applications are programs that are installed on computers
so chosen is called the primary key.
to give users the ability to do specific tasks. For example, Microsoft Word is a
Foreign Key : A foreign key is
program that gives the user the ability to write documents.
defined as a set of attribute(s) in a
Features of window system
table with a restriction that its value
l Desktop l Icon l Window l Dialouge Box l Start Menu l Taskbar should be matched with the values of
l Title bar l Toolbar l Menu Bar l Status Bar l Scroll Bar l Tab Menu a candidate key in the same or another
l Start Up l Shut down l Stand by l Hibernation table. The foreign key attributes(s) can
have duplicate or null values.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)
Normalization : It is a refinement
Database : A database is a data structure that stores organized information. process wherein it helps in removing
Most databases contain multiple tables, which may include several different anomalies in insert, update and delete
fields. A database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can operations.
easily be accessed, managed, and updated. There are three normal forms
that were defined which are being
Advantages of the DBMS approach
commonly used :
1. Data Redundancy is reduced Ø 1NF is used to makes sure
2. Programming effort is also reduced that all the attributes of the
3. Response time is much faster relation are atomic in nature.
4. Data independence is achieved Ø 2NF removes the partial
5. USER make database design changes very easily. dependency.
6. Significant cost savings are achieved through the use of a DBMS. Ø 3NF removes the transitive
7. Provide security and privacy features which are essential for the success dependency.
of the system.

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 Computer

Types of SQL Statement : addresses of the nodes residing on each network segment

COMPUTER
1. Data Definition Language (DDL) : CREATE, and allow only necessary traffic to pass through the bridge.
ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE Routers : Routers filter out network traffic by specific
protocol rather than by packet address. Routers also divide
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML) : SELECT, networks logically instead of physically. An IP router can
INSERT INTO, UPDATE, DELETE FROM, divide a network into various subnets so that only traffic
3. Data Control Language (DCL) : GRANT, REVOKE, destined for particular IP addresses can pass between
COMMIT, ROLLBACK segments.
A Network Firewall : A firewall is a system or group
NETWORKING of systems that enforces an access control policy between
two networks. Some firewalls place a greater emphasis on
Computer Network Definition : A network is any blocking traffic, while others emphasize permitting traffic.
collection of independent computers that communicate with Probably the most important thing to recognize about a
one another over a shared network medium. A computer firewall is that it implements an access control policy.
network is a collection of two or more connected computers. Proxy server : In computer networks, a proxy server
TYPES OF NETWORKS : is a server that acts as an intermediary for requests from
clients seeking resources from other servers. A client
LANs (Local Area Networks) : A network is any connects to the proxy server, requesting some service,
collection of independent computers that communicate such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource,
with one another over a shared network medium. LANs available from a different server. The proxy server evaluates
are networks usually confined to a geographic area, such the request according to its filtering rules.
as a single building or a college campus. IP Addressing : An IP (Internet Protocol) address is
WANs (Wide Area Networks) : Wide area networking a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP
combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. network. An IP address is a 32 bit binary number usually
This is accomplished by connecting the different LANs represented as 4 decimal values, each representing 8
using services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial- bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by
up phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), decimal points. This is known as “dotted decimal” notation.
satellite links, and data packet carrier services. Example : 140.179.220.200
MANs (Metropolitan area Networks) : A metropolitan Address Classes : There are 5 different address
area network (MAN) is a computer network that classes. You can determine which class any IP address is
usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN usually in by examining the first 4 bits of the IP address.
interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) Class A addresses begin with 0xxx, or 1 to 126
using a high-capacity backbone technology such as fibres- decimal.
optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area Class B addresses begin with 10xx, or 128 to 191
networks (or WAN) and the Internet. decimal.
The OSI Model : Open System Interconnection (OSI) Class C addresses begin with 110x, or 192 to 223
reference model has become an International standard and decimal.
serves as a guide for networking. This model is the best Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239
known and most widely used guide to describe networking decimal.
environments. Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 254
There are seven layer in OSI model the physical layer, decimal.
data link layer, network layer, transport layer, session Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127 decimal,
layer, presentation layer, and the application layer. are reserved for loopback and for internal testing on a
Network Topologies : It is the geometric arrangement local machine.
of nodes and cable links in a LAN, There are two types of
topology: physical and logical. The physical topology of a INTERNET
network refers to the configuration of cables, computers,
and other peripherals. Logical topology is the method used The Internet, the World Wide Web, or the Web are all
to pass the information between workstations. names used to describe the vast network of information
The most common protocols are : in cyberspace, available to anyone who has access to
l Ethernet l Local Talk a computer, a browser (software), and a connection to
l Token Ring l FDDI an Internet service provider through a modem (or other
Main Types of Physical Topologies connection such as DSL, ISDN, LAN etc.).
The Internet is a massive network of networks, i.e. a
l Linear Bus l Star
networking infrastructure.
l Star-Wired Ring l Tree Web : The Web is a way of accessing information over
Hubs/Repeaters : Hubs/repeaters are used to the medium of the Internet. It is an information-sharing
connect together two or more Ethernet segments of any model that is built on top of the Internet. The Web uses
media type. Hubs provide the signal amplification required the HTTP protocol, to transmit data. This stands for Hyper
to allow a segment to be extended a greater distance. Text Transfer Protocol.
Bridges : The function of a bridge is to connect E-mail : Electronic mail, commonly called email,
separate networks together. Bridges connect different e-mail is a method of exchanging digital messages from
networks types (such as Ethernet and Fast Ethernet) or an author to one or more recipients.
networks of the same type. Bridges map the Ethernet FTP : stands for File Transfer Protocol. This is both
a program and the method used to transfer files between

OLE - 519
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

computers. Anonymous FTP is an option that allows users PC Banking : PC banking is a form of online banking
COMPUTER

to transfer files from thousands of host computers on the that enables customers to execute bank transactions
Internet to their personal computer account. from a PC via a modem. In most PC banking ventures, the
Web Browsers : A web browser is software, installed on bank offers the customer a proprietary financial software
your computer, that allows you to navigate the Internet. program that allows the customer to perform financial
Example : Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet transactions from his or her home computer.
Explorer. Internet Banking : Internet banking, sometimes
Web Sites : contains all the information offered by a called online banking, is an outgrowth of PC banking.
particular organization, individual, or company, and will Internet banking uses the Internet as the delivery channel
sometimes include links to other sites as well. by which to conduct banking activity. An Internet bank-
ing customer accesses his or her accounts from browser-
INTERNET ACCESS METHODS
software that runs Internet banking programs resident on
Internet access refers to the means by which users the bank’s World Wide Web server, not on the user’s PC.
connect to the Internet. Common methods of consumer Smart Card : A smart card is a plastic card about the
Internet access include: size of a credit card, with an embedded microchip that
l Dial-up l Wimax l ADSL
can be loaded with data, used for telephone calling, elec-
l Wifi l Mobile l Broadband
tronic cash payments, and other applications, and then
l Modem
periodically refreshed for additional use.
VIRUSES Credit Card : The plastic credit card with a mag-
netic strip many people carry in their wallets or purses
VIRUSES is the end result of a complex banking process. Holders
Virus is a program that runs on a system against the of a valid credit card have the authorization to purchase
owner’s or user’s wishes and knowledge. Viruses have one goods and services up to a predetermined amount, called
or more methods they use to spread. Most commonly they a credit limit.
will attach a file to an e-mail message and attempt to trick ATM Card : An ATM card (also known as a bank card,
victims into running the attachment. client card, key card or cash card) is a card issued by a
bank, credit union or building society that can be used at
Types of viruses : an ATM for deposits, withdrawals, account information,
l Memory resident virus l Direct Action Virus and other types of transactions.
l Overwrite virus l Boot sector virus
COMPUTER ACRONYMS
l Macro virus l Directory virus
CDAC : Centre for Development of Advanced Parallel
l Polymorphic virus l Companion virus
Computing
l FAT virus l Multipartite virus
C-DOT : Centre for Development of Telematics
l Webscripting virus
HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
Spyware : This usually comes with some free
ROM : Read Only Memory
programs and it will monitor your internet activity and
send information to some corporation. This type of program RAM : Random Access Memory
is not normally seriously harmful but most people do not BIOS : Basic Input-Output System
want to have their activities monitored. MODEM : Modulator-Demodulator
Worms : It is a program very similar to a virus, it has CAD : Computer Aided Design
the ability to self replicate and can lead to negative effects PSTN : Public Switched Telephone Network
on your system PSPDN : Pocket Switched Public Data Network
Trojans : Trojans or Trojanhorse, do not reproduce by RABMN : Remote Area Business Message Network
infecting other files, nor do they self-replicate like worms. LAN : Local Area Network
It is a program which disguises as a useful program or WAN : Wide Area Network
application. MAN : Metropolitan Area Net-work
Spam : Spam is unsolited junk e-mail sent to large CDMA : Code Division Multiple Access
numbers of e-mail addresses. It is used to promote GAIS : Gateway Internet Access Service
some product or service and many spam e-mails are E-Mail : Electronic Mail
pornographic in nature. CD : Compact Disc
LCD : Liquid Display Unit
E-COMMERCE
VDU : Visual Display Unit
E-Commerce : Electronic commerce (E-Commerce or ARPA : Advanced Research Project Agency
EC) is an emerging concept that describes the process of IP : Internet Protocol
buying and selling or exchanging of products, services, and TCP : Transmission Control Protocol
information via computer networks including the Internet. PING : Packet Internet Groper
PROM : Programmable Read Only Memory
Types of E-Commerce :
WWW : World Wide Web
l Electronic Banking
CPU : Central Processing Unit
l Internet Banking
IBM : International Business Machines
l PC banking
Fortran : Formula Translation
Electronic banking : The process by which a custom-
er may perform banking transactions electronically. IC : Integrated Circuit

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 Computer

HTML : Hyper Text Markup Language to 1,024 megabytes. Gigabyte is often abbreviated as G

COMPUTER
CD-ROM : Change Director Route-Read Only Memory or GB. (1 MB is equal to 1,048,576 bytes. Megabyte is
WAP : Wireless Application Protocol frequently abbreviated as M or MB.)
BCD : Binary Coded Decimal Code GIF : Acronym “Graphic Interchange Format” One of
EBCDIC : Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange two popular systems used to compress the size of image
Code files so, they require less bandwidth to transfer on the Web.
ASCII : American Standard Code for Information GUI : This is a system where things are shown
Interchange graphically. This means that instead of entering commands
OMR : Optical Mark Recognition on a text only screen with a keyboard, the user manipulates
COBOL : Common Business Oriented Language icons and windows, often with a mouse.
Address Bar : An address bar is a text field near the Hyperlink : A code which contains an “address,”
top of a Web browser window that displays the URL of the which when clicked, will take you to that address.
current webpage. The URL, or web address, reflects the Icons : pictures that are shortcuts to programs or files.
address of the current page and automatically changes By clicking on an icon, you start the program or open the
whenever you visit a new webpage. Therefore, you can file. Usually these are
always check the location of the webpage you are currently ISDN : Acronym “Integrated Services Digital Network”
viewing with the browser's address bar. Large bandwidth telephone line. Allows you to transfer
Bios : Basic Input Output System. This is the basic information quickly.
set of instructions that tell the computer how to act. Most JAVA : Developed by Sun Microsystems mainly to
computers have these instructions built into a chip that enhance the “online experience” of the World Wide Web.
plugs into the motherboard. Port : port refers to the hardware through which
Bit : Short for binary digit; either a 1 or a 0; the computer data is transmitted; the plugs on the back of your
smallest unit into which digital information may be broken. computer are ports. On the Internet, port often refers to a
Boot up : The process of turning on the computer, particular application. For instance, you might telnet to a
which includes a number of functions that are performed
particular port on a particular host. The port is actually
automatically every time the power switch is turned on.
an application.
Byte : There is Eight Bits in a Byte
Protocol : A set of rules computer programmers apply
CMOS : Acronym “Complimentary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor”. A CMOS computer circuit consumes when writing code for a specific software. Computers and
very little power and is used in computers to keep track networks interact according to standard protocols, which
of the system setup information, data, time, type of disk determine the behaviour that each side of a network
and hard drives, etc. that a computer has installed. The connection expects from the other side.
CMOS information is powered by the computer’s on-board SQL : Acronym “Structured Query Language” an
battery. So if the on-board battery fails, the information official ANSI language for retrieving information from
in CMOS will be lost. a database. Most database software providers add
Compressed File : Computer files that have been extensions. The “official” pronunciation is “sequel,”
reduced in size by a compression program. Such programs Surfing : The random, aimless exploration of
are available for all computer systems. web pages achieved through following links that look
Crash : An unexpected shutdown either of a program interesting within a document.
or the whole system. TCP/IP : Acronym “Transmission Control Protocol/
Cyberspace : A term coined by author William Gibson. Internet Protocol” A set of protocols (communications
It describes the imaginary space in which computer users rules) that control how data is transferred between
travel when “surfing” the Internet. computers on the Internet.
Domain Names : A name given to a host computer on UNIX : A computer operating system, popular with
the Internet. E-mail names are good examples of domain high-end computer users, academics and the research
names (i.e.,[email protected]).
community. Most hosts connected to the Internet run UNIX.
Download : The process of transferring information
USB : Acronym “Universal Serial Bus” (the plug is
from one computer to another, usually from a server to a
client. You download a file from another computer to yours. very flat and has no pins or prongs). This is a style of port
DPI : Dot per inch is a measure of spatial printing or connection that is used by many peripheral devices such
video dot density, in particular the number of individual as Palm Pilots, phones, scanners, printers etc. This type
dots that can be placed in a line within the span of 1 inch of connection is much faster than more traditional kind
(2.54 cm). of connections such as serial and parallel ports (often
Floppy Disk : is a flat, portable, disk made of plastic used by older printers these ports have plugs with little
that can store files written magnetically on it’s surface. screws attached).
Information stored on Floppy disk can be read, copied, or URL : Acronym “Universal Resource Locator” The
deleted. The disk is protected by a shell or cover of some specific path to a World Wide Web file, including filename
kind. “Floppy” is now a misnomer, it was originally referred and extension.
to an obsolete type of disk 5.25" disks were actually flexible Web Page : A single screen (document) on a Web site.
or floppy, while new ones, 3.5" disks, are not. Information Technology (IT) including : ICT
GB : Acronym “Gigabyte” 1,000 Megabytes. A measure (Information and Communication Technology) is the
storage space. Hard Drives are measured in GB capacity. application of appropriate (enabling) technologies to
Gig : refers to the amount of memory or space, when information processing.
used to describe data storage. One Gig or gigabyte is equal ppp

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 11 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
³³ The UN and its 17 independent specialised agencies General and Assistant Secretaries-General. The
and 14 major Programmes and Funds embrace almost normal term of the office of the UN Secretary-General
every man in every corner of the Globe. is 5 years.
³³ The United Nations Organisation is an association
GENERAL ASSEMBLY
of sovereign states bound by a Charter to maintain
international peace and security and to co–operate in ³³ The Assembly consists of the representatives of all
promoting political, social and economic conditions the member of states.
for the betterment of human life. ³³ Each member country has one vote.
³³ The proposal for such an organisation was mooted ³³ The General Assembly meets at least once in a year,
at Dumbarton Oaks Conference (Washington DC) the session commencing on the third Tuesday of
between the erstwhile USSR, the USA and the UK September and continuing normally till the middle
between August 21 to September 28, and between the of December.
USA, China and UK from September 28 to October ³³ The Assembly can also meet for special emergency
7, 1944. sessions.
³³ The Charter of the UN was signed by the delegates ³³ The sessions are presided over by the President who
from 50 countries on June 26, 1945 at San Francisco. is elected annually by the members of the Assembly.
³³ The UN was formally inaugurated on October 24, ³³ The General Assembly passes the annual budget of
1945. This date is taken as the official birthday of the UN and determines the contribution payable by
the UN and is celebrated every year as the UN Day. each member.
³³ The Charter of UN provides for : ³³ It receives and considers the reports of the special
1. Maintaining international peace and security. committees including the Security Council.
2. Working towards improved relations among ³³ The General Assembly elects the non–permanent
nations based on respect for the principle of members of the Security Council, the members of the
equal rights and self-determination of peoples. Economic and Social Council and the elected members
3. Co–operation in finding a solution for of the Trusteeship Council.
international social, economic, cultural and ³³ The Judges of the International Court of Justice are
humanitarian problems and in advising respect elected by the General Assembly, in conjunction with
for human rights and basic freedoms. the Security Council.
4. Serving as a base for co–ordinating the actions ³³ The Assembly elects its own President and Vice-
of nations to attain these common goals. Presidents every year.

S. List of Secretaries General SECURITY COUNCIL

No. Name Years ³³ It consists of 15 members each with a single vote.
³³ Of these, 5 are permanent members and 10 non–
1. Trygve Lie (Norway) 1946-1953
permanent members elected for a term of 2 years by
Dag Hammarskjold 1953-1961 Killed in an air a two-third majority of the General Assembly.
2.
(Sweden) crash ³³ The permanent members have the power to veto any
3. U. That (Burma) 1961-1971 move.
Kurt Waldheim ³³ The Security Council bears the primary responsibility
4. 1972-1981 of maintaining peace and security.
(Austria)
³³ It is also responsible for the functioning of the UN
Javier Peres de trust-territories known as “strategic areas”.
5. 1982-1991
Cuellar (Peru)
³³ Decisions on procedural matters are taken by an
Dr. Boutros-Boutros affirmative vote of 9 members (7 to 9 in 1968 under
6. 1992-1997
Ghali (Egypt) article 109).
7. Kofi Annan (Ghana) 1997-2007 ³³ On substantive matters involving action by member–
nations, all permanent members must vote in the
Ban Ki-Moon (South
8. 2007 - 2016 affirmative.
Korea)
³³ A single negative vote VETO can prevent the proposals
Antonio Guterres from being accepted.
9. 1st January 2017- till date
(Portugal) ³³ Permanent members – China, France, Russia, UK
³³ The Secretary-General is assisted by Under Secretaries- and USA.

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 Update Traditional G.K.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL (iv) as subsidiary means for the determination of

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
³³ It is responsible under the General Assembly for the law, judicial decisions
carrying out the function of the UN with regard to (v) it may also give an advisory opinion on any legal
international economic, social, cultural, educational, question to any organ of the UN or its agencies
health and related matters. ³³ The Court has its seat at the Hague, but may sit
³³ It consists of 54 member States (27 to 54 in 1973 elsewhere whenever it considers this desirable.
under article 61) elected by a two-third majority of SECRETARIAT
the General Assembly.
³³ It comprises the Secretary-General, who is the chief
³³ Nine are elected every year for a three-year term.
administrative officer of the UN and an international
³³ Retiring members are eligible for immediate re– staff appointed by him under regulations established
election. by the General Assembly.
³³ Each member-nation has one vote and decisions are ³³ H o w e v e r , t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l , t h e H i g h
taken by a majority of members present and voting. Commissioner for Refugees and the Managing Director
³³ The President of the Council is elected every year. of the Fund are appointed by the General Assembly
³³ The Council has the following regional Economic itself.
Commissions : Head Quarters : New York
³³ Economic Commission for Europe, ECE-Geneva
³³ Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the SPECIALISED AGENCIES OF THE UN
Pacific, ESCAP-Bangkok.
³³ Economic Commission for Latin America, ECLA- CHILDREN’S EMERGENCY FUND (UNICEF)
Santiago, Chile. ³³ It was established in 1946 at New York as United
³³ Economic Commission for Western Asia, ECWA- Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund to
Baghdad. deliver post–war relief to children.
³³ Now concentrates its assistance on development
TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL activities aimed at improving the quality of life for
³³ The Charter provides for an international trusteeship children and mothers in developing countries.
system to safeguard the interests of the inhabitants
of territories which are not yet fully self-governing UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
and which may be placed thereunder by individual (UNDP)
trusteeship agreements. These are called trust ³³ It is the world’s largest agency for multilateral
territories. technical and pre-investment co–operation. It is the
³³ It consists of the permanent members of the Security funding source for most of the technical assistance
Council. provided by the UN.
³³ It meets once a year and can meet on more occasions, ³³ It helps developing countries exploit their human and
if so required. natural resources by providing expert assistance and
³³ Each member has one vote and decisions are taken training local personnel.
by a majority vote. Headquarters : New York

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE UN FUND FOR POPULATION ACTIVITIES (UNFPA)

³³ It was created by an international treaty, the Statute ³³ It was set up in 1967 at New York to build up capacity
of the Court, which forms an integral part of the UN to respond to needs in population and family planning.
Charter.
³³ To promote awareness of population problems
³³ All members of the UN are ipso facto parties to the
and possible strategies to deal with them to assist
Statute of the Court.
developing countries at their request in dealing with
³³ It comprises 15 Judges.
population problems.
³³ Two judges of the same nationality cannot serve
simultaneously. UN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION
³³ These judges are elected by the General Assembly in (UNIDO)
conjunction with the Security Council for a term of ³³ It was established on November 17, 1966 and was
9 years. upgraded as a specialised agency of the UN in 1985.
³³ Retiring judges are eligible for immediate re–election. ³³ It provides assistance to developing countries for
The Court elects its own President and Vice-President the development, expansion and modernisation of
for a term of 3 years and remains permanently in industry.
session except for judicial vacations.
Headquarters : Austria

³³ The jurisdiction of the Court applies in :
(i) international conventions UN EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATION (UNESCO)
(ii) international custom
(iii) the general principle of law recognised by ³³ UNESCO came into being on November 4, 1946.
civilised nations ³³ It is based at Paris.

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³³ Its purpose is to contribute to peace and security WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANISATION (WMO)
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

by promoting collaboration among nations through ³³ Conference of Directors of the International

education, science and culture in order to facilitate Meteorological Organisation (Set up in 1873), meeting
justice, rule of law and human rights and freedom in Washington in 1947, adopted a convention creating
without distinction of race, sex, language and religion. the World Meteorological Organisation.
Head Quarters : Paris
³³ The WMO was formally established on March 19, 1951,
UN ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME (UNEP) when the first session of its Congress was convened
in Paris. It aims at promoting international exchange
³³ Initiated in 1972.
of weather reports and maximum standardisation of
³³ The Programme co–ordinates international co–
observations. It also tries to help developing countries
operation in matters relating to the human establish weather services.
environment.
Headquarters : CH-1211, Geneva-2, Switzerland
Headquarters : Nairobi

WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO)
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (IAEA)
³³ An International Conference, convened by the UN
³³ Came into existence on July 29, 1957.
Economic and Social Council, to consider a single
³³ Its statute had been approved on October 26, 1956, at
health organisation resulted in the adoption on
an international conference held at UN headquarters,
July 22, 1946 of the constitution of the WHO. This
New York.
constitution came into force on April 7, 1948.
³³ A relationship agreement links it with the UN.
³³ It aims to promote peaceful use of nuclear energy and ³³ It aims at promoting better health facilities all over
discourage its use for military purposes. the world.
Headquarters : Vienna, (Austria) Headquarters : Geneva, Switzerland
Regional Offices : Alexandria, Brazzaville,
INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION
Copenhagen, Manila, New Delhi and Washington.
(ICAO)
³³ The convention providing for the establishment of INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION (ILO)
the ICAO was drawn up by the International Civil ³³ Established in 1919 as an autonomous part of the
Aviation Conference held in Chicago from November League of Nations,
1 to December 7, 1944. ³³ It is an intergovernmental agency with a tripartite
³³ A provisional ICAO operated for 20 months until the structure representing the workers, employers and
formal establishment of ICAO on April, 4 1947. governments.
³³ Its purpose is to establish international standards and ³³ To promote better living conditions, economic stability
regulations in relation to civil aviation. It promotes safety and social justice among workers.
of civil aviation.
³³ The ILO consists of the International Labour
Headquarters : Montreal, Qubec, Canada
Conference, the governing body and the International
INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANISATION (IMO) Labour Office.
³³ It was established on March 17, 1958, with its base Headquarters : Geneva
at London. FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION (FAO)
³³ Its objective is to promote co–operation in international
³³ The UN Conference on Food and Agriculture in May
shipping and remove discriminatory and restrictive
1943, at Hot Springs, Virginia, set up an Interim
practices.
Commission in Washington in July 1943 to plan the
INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION Organisation.
(ITU) ³³ It came into being on October 16, 1945.
³³ The International Teleco-mmunication Union was set ³³ It aims at improvement in production and distribution
up in January 1, 1934. of food and agricultural products to eliminate hunger
³³ It came into being on January 1, 1934. and to improve the nutrition level and living conditions
of the rural population all over the world.
³³ ITU frames international regulations for radio,
telegraph, telephone and space radio communication. ³³ FAO sponsors the World Food Programme with The
UN.
Headquarters : Geneva, Switzerland

Headquarters : Rome, Italy
UNIVERSAL POSTAL UNION (UPU)
INTERNATIONAL FUND FOR AGRICULTURAL
³³ It was established on July 1, 1875, when the Universal DEVELOPMENT (IFAD)
Postal Convention, adopted by the Postal Congress of
Berne on October 9, 1874, came into force. ³³ Proposed by the 1974 World Food Conference,
the agreement for IFAD came into force on
³³ The UPU was known at first at the General Postal
November 30, 1977 following attainment of initial
Union.
pledges of $1,000 m and the agency began its
³³ Its name was changed at the Congress of Paris in operations the following month.
1878.
Headquarters : Rome, Italy

Headquarters : Berne, Switzerland

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WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION ³³ Such loans are for creating Social Capital–construction

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
(WIPO) of roads and bridges, slum clearance, and urban
³³ The Conventions establishing WIPO. was signed at development, sanitation etc.
Stockholm in 1967 by 51 countries. ³³ All IDA loans are-repayable over 50 years, interest free
³³ It came into force in April 1970. but bear a service charge of 0.75 per cent per annum.
³³ In December 1974 WIPO became a specialised agency INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION (IFC)
of the UN. ³³ An affiliate of the World Bank, was established on
Headquarters : Geneva, Switzerland
July 20, 1956 at Washington DC.
INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTIONS ³³ It assists private enterprises in underdeveloped
AND DEVELOPMENT (IBRD) countries without any Government guarantee.
³³ Conceived at the Bretton Woods Conference, July WORLD TOURISM ORGANIZATION
1944. ³³ World Tourism Organization is the United Nations
³³ The IBRD was established on December 25, 1945, agency responsible for the promotion of responsible,
which began operations on June 25, 1946. sustainable and Universally accessible tourism.
³³ IBRD is a world wide effort to guide international
³³ It is established in 1975.
investment into productive channels. Its purposes
are : ³³ It’s headquarter located in Madrid, Spain.
(i) to assist in the reconstruction and development ³³ It is the leading international organization in the
of territories of members who had suffered field of tourism, which promotes tourism as a driver
during war. of economic growth, inclusive development and
(ii) to promote private investment. environmental sustainability.
(iii) to promote the long-range balanced growth UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR
of international trade and the maintenance of REFUGEES
BOPs.
³³ It is established in 1950.
(iv) to promote long term foreign investments.
³³ Its headquarter is in Geneva, Switzerland and it is a
Headquarters : Washington DC
member of the United Nations Development Group.
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF) ³³ It is also known as the Un Refugee Agency.
³³ It was established on December 27, 1945 as an ³³ It is a United Nations Programme mandated to protect
independent international organisation. and support refugees at the request of a government or
³³ It began operations on March 1, 1947. the UN itself and assists in their voluntary repatriation
³³ Its relationship with the UN is defined in a agreement local integration or resettlement to a third country.
of mutual co-operation, which came into force on UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
November 15, 1947. PROGRAMME (UN-HABITAT)
³³ Its purposes are : ³³ UN-Habitat is the United Nations agency for human
(i) to promote exchange stability and prevent settlements and sustainable urban development.
unnecessary exchange depreciations. ³³ It is established in 1978.
(ii) to assist in the establishment of multilateral ³³ It’s headquarter located in Nairobi, Kenya.
system of payments. ³³ It is mandated by the United Nations General
(iii) to facilitate growth of international trade. Assembly to promote socially and environmentally
sustainable towns and cities with the goal of providing
(iv) to ultimately eliminate foreign exchange
adequate shelter for all.
restrictions.
³³ The first amendment to the Fund’s articles creating UNITED NATIONS INSTITUTE FOR TRAINING AND
the Special Drawing Rights (SDR) took effect on July RESEARCH
28, 1969 and the second amendment on April 1, 1978. ³³ UNITAR is established in 1963.
Headquarters : Washington D.C. ³³ Its headquarter located in Geneva, Switzerland.
Offices in : Paris and Geneva ³³ It was established for the training of personnel,
particularly from developing member states for
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION administrative and operational assignments with
(IDA) the UN.
³³ It is an affiliated agency of the World Bank.
UNITED NATIONS UNIVERSITY
³³ It was established on September 24, 1960 at
Washington DC. ³³ The United Nations University established in 1973.
³³ Its main object is to help the underdeveloped countries ³³ It is the academic and research arm of the United
in raising their living standards by providing soft loans Nations.
for long periods. ³³ It’s headquarter located in Tokyo, Japan.

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

³³ Since 2010, United Nations University has been ³³ The topmost decision-making body of the WTO is the
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

authorized by the UN General Assembly to grant Ministerial Conference, which has to meet at least
degrees. every two years.
³³ It also provides a bridge between the UN and the ³³ The Ministerial conference can make decisions
international academic, policy-making and private on all matters under any of the multilateral trade
sector communities. agreements.
UNITED NATIONS OFFICE FOR DISASTER RISK BRICS
REDUCTION ³³ BRICS is the acronym for an association of five major
³³ It is established in December 1999. emerging national economies : Brazil, Russia, India,
³³ Its headquarter located in Geneva, Switzerland. China and South Africa.
³³ It was established to ensure the implementation of the ³³ BRIC grouping’s first formal summit held in
International strategy for Disaster Reduction. Yekaterinburg. Russia in June 2009.
³³ In 2010, South Africa joined the BRIC grouping and
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND changed acronym as BRICS.
DEVELOPMENT
³³ The grouping has held annual summits since 2009,
³³ The UNCTAD was established in 1964 as a permanent with member countries taking turns to host.
inter-governmental body. ³³ Prior to South Africa’s admission, two BRIC summits
³³ Currently UNCTAD has 194 member states and its were held, in 2009 and 2010. The first five member
headquarter located in Geneva, Switzerland. BRICS summit was held in 2011.
³³ The organizations goals are to: “Maximize the ³³ BRICS summit held first time in India in 2012. It was
trade, investment and development opportunities of 4th BRICS summit.
developing countries. ³³ The BRICS members are all leading developing
UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME or newly industrialized countries, but they are
distinguished by their large, sometimes fast growing
³³ UNODC is a United Nations office that was established
economies and significant influence on regional affairs,
in 1997 as the office for Drug Control and Crime
all five are G-20 members.
Prevention.
³³ Its headquarter is located in Vienna, Austria. NEW DEVELOPMENT BANK
³³ It is a member of the United Nations Development ³³ The New Development Bank (NDB), formerly referred
Group. to as the BRICS Development Bank is a multilateral
MAJOR INTERNATIONAL development bank established by the BRICS states.
³³ It is established in July 2015 (Treaty were signed in
ORGANISATIONS July 2014).
ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK (ADB) ³³ It’s headquarter is located in Shanghai, China.
³³ It was initially sponsored by the ECAFE and started ³³ The bank aims to contribute to development
functioning in 1966. plans established nationally through projects that
³³ I n J u n e 1 9 7 4 , A D B l a u n c h e d t h e A S I A N are socially, environmentally and economically
DEVELOPMENT FUND (ADF) with a view to providing sustainable.
concessional credits to needy members. ³³ Promote infrastructure and sustainable development
Headquarters : Manila (Philippines) projects with a significant development impact in
member countries.
WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO)
³³ The bank have starting capital $ 50 bln, with capital
³³ The WTO is an intergovernmental organization which increased to $ 100 bln over time. Brazil, Russia, India,
regulates international trade. China and South Africa initially contributed $ 10bln
³³ The WTO officially commenced on 1 January, 1995 each to bring the total to $ 50 bln.
under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 123
³³ The bank will allow new members to join but the
nations on 15 April, 1994, replacing the General
BRICS capital share can not fall below 55%.
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which
commenced in 1948. ³³ K.V. Kamath from India is the first elected president
of the New Development Bank.
³³ Its headquarter located in Geneva, Switzerland.
³³ English, French and spanish are official languages ASIAN INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENT BANK
of WTO. ³³ The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) is
³³ The WTO deals with regulation of trade between an international financial institution that aims to
participating countries by providing a framework support the building of infrastructure in the Asia-
for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute pacific region.
resolution process aimed at enforcing participants ³³ It is established in 16 January 2016. (Treaty were
adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by signed in December 2015).
representatives of member governments and ratified ³³ Its headquarter located in Beijing, China.
by their parliaments.

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 Update Traditional G.K.

³³ The bank has 57 member states and was proposed as of Russian, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
an initiative by the government of China. and Uzbekistan.
³³ India is founding member of Asian infrastructure ³³ Now, India and Pakistan is admitted to SCO as a
investment Bank. permanent members.
³³ The Authorized Capital stock of the bank is 100 billion ³³ Its headquarter is located in Beijing, China.
US Dollars. ³³ The council of Heads of State is the top decision
making body in the SCO. This council meets at the
BANK FOR INTERNATIONAL SETTLEMENTS (BIS)
sco summits, which are held each year in one of the
³³ The BIS is an international financial institution member states capital cities.
owned by central banks which “tosters international
monetary and financial cooperation and serves as a ORGANIZATION OF THE PETROLEUM EXPORTING
bank for central banks.” COUNTRIES (OPEC)
³³ It is established in May 1930. ³³ OPEC is an intergovernmental organization of 14
³³ Its headquarter located in Basel, Switzerland. nations, founded in 1960 in Baghdad.
³³ The BIS carries out its work through its meetings ³³ Its headquarter is located in Vienna, Austria.
programmes and through the Basel Process - hosting ³³ OPEC nations account for two-thirds of the world’s
international groups pursuing global financial oil reserves and 33.3% of the worlds oil production.
stability and facilitating their interaction.
³³ At present it has 14 members these are Algeria,
BAY OF BENGAL INITIATIVE FOR Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria,
Gabon, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Venezuela, Equatorial
MULTI-SECTORAL Guinea and Congo.
TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC COOPERATION BIMSTEC) ³³ The objective of OPEC is determination of the best
means for safeguarding the organisation’s interests,
³³ BIMSTEC is an international organisation involving a
individually and collectively.
group of countries in South Asia and South East Asia.
³³ The member countries are Bangladesh, India, ³³ It pursues ways and means of ensuring the stabilisation
Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Bhutan and Nepal. of prices in international oil markets with a view to
³³ On 6 June, 1997 a sub-regional grouping was formed eliminate harmful and unnecessary fluctuations.
in Bankok and given the name BIST-EC (Bangladesh, ³³ Qatar has withdrawn their membership from OPEC from
India, Sril Lanka and Thailand Economic cooperation). 1 January, 2019.
Myanmar joined the organization in December 1997,
G-20 (GROUP OF TWENTY)
upon which name of the grouping changed to BIMST-
EC. In February 2004, Nepal and Bhutan joined the ³³ The G-20 is an international forum for the governments
organization. and central bank governors from 20 major economies.
³³ In the first Summit on 31 July, 2004, leaders of ³³ It was founded in 1999 with the aim of studying,
group changed the name as BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal reviewing and promoting high-level discussion
Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic of policy issues pertaining to the promotion of
Cooperation). international financial slability.
³³ BIMSTEC’s headquarter is located in Dhaka, ³³ The members include 19 individual countries–
Bangladesh. Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France,
³³ The objective of BIMSTEC is technological and Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, South Korea,
economic cooperation among South Asia and south Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey,
east Asian. Countries along the coast of the bay of United Kingdom and United states– along with the
Bengal. European Union.
³³ The G-20 summits of heads of state or government
MEKONG - GANGA COOPERATION helds annually.
³³ The Mekong - Ganga Cooperation (MGC) was
G-4 NATIONS
established on November 10,2000 at Vientiane at the
First MGC Ministeral Meeting. ³³ The G-4 nations comprising Brazil, Germany, India
³³ It comprises six member countries namely India, and Japan are four countries which support each
Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. other’s bid for permanent seats on the United Nations
Security Council.
³³ MGC aimed to cooperation in tourism, culture,
education and transportation linkage in order to be ³³ G-4’s primary aim is the permanent member seats on
solid for future trade and investment cooperation in the Security Council.
the region. ³³ The economic and political influence of these countries
has grown significantly in the last decades, reaching
SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANISTION a scope comparable to the permanent members.
³³ The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a ³³ However, the G-4’s bids are often opposed by Uniting
Eurasian, political, economic and military organisation for Consensus movement, and particularly their
which was founded in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders economic competitors or political rivals.

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WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM ORGANIZATION FOR THE PROHIBITION OF CHEMICAL

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

³³ The World Economic Forum (WEF) is a swiss non- WEAPONS (OPCW)

profit foundation, based in Cologny, Geneva. ³³ OPCW is an intergovernmental organization,
³³ The Forum is best known for its annual winter meeting established in April 1997.
for five days in Davos, Switzerland. ³³ Its headquarter located in the Hague, Netherlands.
³³ The meeting brings together some 2,500 top business ³³ The organization promotes and verifies the adherence
to the Chemical Weapons Convention which prohibits
leaders, international political leaders, selected
the use of chemical weapons and requires their
intellectuals and journalists to discuss the most
destruction.
pressing issues facing the world.
³³ The World Economic Forum is established in 1971. INTERNATIONAL RED CROSS AND RED CRESCENT
MOVEMENT
³³ Its mission is cited as “committed to improving the
state of the world by engaging business, political, ³³ The International committee of the Red Cross is a
academic, and other leaders of society to shape global, private humanitarian institution founded in 1863 in
regional and industry agendas.” Geneva, Switzerland, by Henry Dunant and Gustave
Moynier.
INDIAN - OCEAN RIM ASSOCIATION (IORA) ³³ This movement was founded to protect human life and
³³ The IORA, formerly known as the Indian Ocean Rim health to ensure respect for all human beings, and to
Initiative and Indian Ocean Rim Association for prevent and alleviate human suffering.
Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC) is an international INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR MIGRATION
organization consisting of coastal states bordering (IOM)
the Indian Ocean.
³³ The IOM is an intergovernmental organization that
³³ It is established in March 1997. provides services and advice concerning migration
³³ Its headquarter is located in Ebene Cyber City, to governments and migrants, including internally
Mauritius. displaced persons, refugees, and migrant workers.
³³ The IORA comprises 21 member states and 7 dialogue ³³ IOM established in 1951.
partners. ³³ Its headquarter located in Geneva, Switzerland.
³³ It is based on the principles of Open Regionalism for ³³ As of December 2016, the International Organization
Strengthening Economic Cooperation particularly on for Migration has 165 member states.
Trade Facilitation and Investment, Promotion as well
as Social Development of the region. GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL
³³ G u l f C o o p e r a t i o n C o u n c i l i s a r e g i o n a l
COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
intergovernmental political and economic union
³³ The commonwealth of Nations is an intergovernmental
consisting of all Arab States of the Persian Gulf
organisation of 53 member states that were mostly
except Iraq.
territories of the former British Empire.
³³ The GCC established in May 1981.
³³ It was formally constituted by the London Declaration
³³ Its headquarter located in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
in 1949.
³³ It has 6 member countries which are Bahrain, Kuwait,
³³ It’s headquarter located in London, England.
Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab
³³ Commonwealths objectives are promotion of
Emirates.
representative democracy and individual liberaty,
³³ Its objectives are formulating similar regulations
the pursuit of equality and opposition to racism, the
in various fields such as religion, finance, trade,
fight against poverty, ignoronce and diseases and
customs, tourism, legislation and administration.
free trade.
³³ Member states have no legal obligation to one another ORGANIZATION OF THE BLACK SEA ECONOMIC
Instead they are united by language, history, culture COOPERATION (BSEC)
and their shared values of democracy, human rights ³³ The BSEC is a regional international organization
and the rule of law. focusing on multilateral and economic initiatives
aimed at fostering cooperation, peace, stability and
EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA) prosperity in the Black sea region.
³³ EFTA is a regional trade organization and Free trade ³³ It is established in June 1992.
area consisting of four European states : Iceland, ³³ Its headquarter located in Istanbul, Turkey.
Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.
³³ It has 12 member states.
³³ It is established in May 1960.
³³ Its headquarter located in Geneva, Switzerland. NORDIC COUNCIL
³³ The EFTA was established as an alternative trade bloc ³³ The Nordic Council is a geo-political inter-
for European states who were unwilling to join the parliamentary forum for co-operation between the
then European Economic Community. Nordic countries.

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³³ Nordic council established in 1952. ³³ Vietnam became the seventh ASEAN member on July

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
³³ Its headquarter located in copenhagen, Denmark. 28, 1995.
³³ It has five member countries, which are Denmark, ³³ RECEP (The Regional Comprehensive Economic
Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Partnership).
³³ The RCEP is a trade deal that was being negotiated
AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL
between 16 countries.
³³ A world-wide human rights organisation with ³³ They include the 10 ASEAN and the six countries
headquarters in London. with the bloc has free trade agreements (FTAs) -
³³ The organisation began on May 28, 1961 with India, Australia, China, South Korea, Japan and
a newspaper appeal by the British lawyer Peter New Zealand.
Berenson to fight for the basic human rights of people ³³ The RCEP is billed to be the “largest” regional trading
all over the world. agreement. The countries involved account for almost
³³ Its objectives are officially stated to include the half of the world’s population, contribute over a
following : quarter of world exports, and makeup around 30%
³³ “To secure the immediate and unconditional release of the global Gross Domestic Product.
of all prisoners of conscilince, ensure fair and prompt Note : Recently, India decided to opt -out of the
trial for all political prisoners and abolish torture and 16 nation regional comprehensive Eco partnership (RCEP)
execution.¨ trade deal. India held that it will not become part of RCEP
³³ The organisation enjoys the support of the UN and until “Significant outstanding issues” are resolved.
has more than 5,00,000 members in more than 150
countries.
THE INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT
ASSOCIATION (IATA)
³³ It won Nobel Prize for Peace in 1977.
³³ It was founded in 1945 to promote safe, regular and
ARAB LEAGUE economical air transport and to provide a forum for
³³ It is the outcome of a national awakening of the Arabs, collaboration.
following the fall of the Ottoman Empire in the First ³³ At present there are 40 international airlines (active
World War. members) and 19 domestic airlines (associate mem-
³³ It was formally instituted on March 22, 1945. bers).
³³ The Arab League consists of a Council, a Secretary- ³³ The Annual General Meeting is the ultimate authority
General and a few permanent committees.
in the Association.
³³ The League considers itself a regional organisation
³³ The Executive Committee consists of 18 elected
within the framework of the UN at which its Secretary-
General is an observer. members.
³³ Member Countries : Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, ³³ Headquarters : Montreal, Canada and Geneva,
Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Switzerland.
Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, INTERPOL
Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisla, UAE, Yamen (PDR
³³ 194-Nation Police Commission, established in 1923.
of Yamen + Yamen Arab Republic).
³³ To co–ordinate police activities of participating nations
³³ Secretariat : After the Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in
with headquarters in Paris.
August 1990, the venue was shifted to Cairo.
³³ After a terrorist bomb blast in May, 1986, the HQs.
ASEAN was shifted to Lyons.
³³ The Association of South-East Asian Nations was ³³ Kiribati and Vanuatu has joined interpol recently in
formed by the Governments of Indonesia, Malaysia, November, 2018.
the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand through the
Bangkok Declaration.
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANI-SATION (NATO)
³³ It was signed by the Foreign Ministers of ASEAN ³³ It sought to establish a military counter weight to a
countries on August 8, 1967. Soviet military presence in Europe.
³³ Brunei joined in 1984. ³³ In 1949 the foreign ministers of Belgium, France,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, UK, Canada, Denmark,
³³ It aims to promote active collaboration in matters
Iceland, Italy, Norway, Portughal and USA met in
of common interests in economic, social, cultural,
Washington and signed the North Atlantic Treaty.
technical, scientific and administrative fields.
³³ Greece and Turkey joined the Treaty in 1952.
³³ Each ASEAN capital has an ASEAN National
Secretarial. ³³ The Federal Republic of Germany in 1955 and Spain
in 1982.
³³ The central secretariat for ASEAN is located in
Jakarta, Indonesia, and is headed by the Secretary- ³³ NATO is an organisation made up of 13 European
General, a post that revolves among the member states states, two American states (Canada and USA) and
in alphabetical order every three years. an Asiatic state (Turkey).
³³ Bureau Directors and other officers of the ASEAN ³³ The Council is the supreme body of the NATO.
Secretariat remain in office for 3 years. ³³ It consists of the ministers of member states.

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³³ The Secretary-General is appointed by and responsible ³³ The supreme body in the OAU is the Conference of
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

to the council. Heads of States or Governments.

³³ Colombia to be first Latin American countries to join ³³ The official languages of the organisation are French
NATO in 2018 and English in addition to all the native African
³³ The Military Committee is the supreme military body languages.
of NATO. ³³ The organisation has 53 member-states.
³³ It consists of the Chiefs of Staff of member states. Headquarters : African Unity House, Addis Ababa,
³³ In 1966 France withdrew from the Military Committee Ethiopia.
while remaining a member of the Council.
³³ Colombia to be first Latin American countries to join ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC
NATO in 2018 CO-OPERATON AND DEVELOPMENT (OECD)
³³ The task for NATO is now three-fold :
³³ OECD was formed in 1961 to replace the Organisation
(i) To safeguard against excessive zeal in smoothing
for European Economic Co–operation (OEEC) which
the reunification process by making unilateral
was started immediately after the Second World War
military concessions or by acquiescing to political
for the reconstruction of war-ravaged European states.
limitations on Germany sovereignty.
³³ The OEEC was formed in response to an offer of aid
(ii) To resist the notion of “parallelism” between the from the US Secretary of State Marshall.
Soviet military presence in Eastern Europe and
³³ This aid since called the Marshall Aid, was to be used
the US military presence in Western Europe.
to rehabilitate the economies of European states
(iii) To avoid, in the process of lowering allied force ruined by the war.
levels emasculation of the triad of NATO’s ³³ A conference of European state was held in Paris in
deterrent-conventional theatre nuclear and 1948 to accept the proposal.
strategic nuclear forces.
³³ The OEEC changed its name in 1961 as OECD.
³³ In a bid to expand its fold, the 16-member western
Headquarters : Paris, France
military alliance NATO offered East Europeans, former
Soviet and neutral states military co–operation under G-15 (GROUP OF FIFTEEN)
a partnership for peace programme during its summit ³³ The G-15 or the Group of 15 developing Afro-Asian
in Brussels on January 10, 1994. Under the proposal, and Latin American (7 Latin American, 5 African
NATO would co–operate with East European nations
and 3 Asian) or Third World Nations was launched
in peacekeeping activities, joint military exercises and
in September, 1989 at the concluding session of
crisis management.
NAM Summit in Belgrade to enhance South-South
Headquarters : Brussels, Belgium Co-operation.
³³ Macedonia has become new state to join NATO in
³³ The objective of G-15 is two fold. One is to develop
Feb, 2019.
common perception and strategies on major issues
ORGANISATION OF AMERICAN STATES (OAS) relating to world economic situation and the other
³³ The Charter of the OAS was adopted in April 1948, at is to formulate and carry out concrete schemes for
the ninth international conference of American States South-South Co–operation.
at Bogota, Colombia. ³³ Members : Algeria, Brazil, Egypt, India, Indonesia,
³³ Thirty-five American countries are members of Jamaica, Malaysia, Argentina, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru,
the organisation, with equal rights, each country Senegal, Venezuela, Yugoslavia and Zimbabwe.
possessing one vote. ³³ Kenya was admitted to G-15 in 1998, making it the
Headquarters : Washington D.C. USA group of 16-members, though there is no change
ORGANISATION OF ARAB PETROLEUM EXPORTING in the nomenclature of Group. Sri Lanka is its new
COUNTRIES (OAPEC) member.
Headquarters : Geneva, Switzerland
³³ The organisation has 10 members including Egypt
which was readmitted in 1989. Other members; SAARC (SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR REGIONAL
Algeria, Bahrain, Qatar, Libya, Iraq, Kuwait, UAE, CO–OPERATION)
Syria, Saudi Arabia.
³³ SAARC came into being at the initiative of the
ORGANISATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU) Bangladesh President Zia-ur-Rahman in 1985.
³³ It came into being in May 1963, when the heads of ³³ Its members are Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
32 African States met at Addis Ababa and signed a Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan.
charter establishing a common organisation for all Its headquarters is in Kathmandu, Nepal.
African States. ³³ Objectives : To involve co-operation in solving the
³³ It chief objects unity and solidarity among African problems specific to the region, strengthen collective
States elimination of colonialism and defence of the self-reliance and accelerate economic, social and
independence of member states. cultural development of the countries of the region.

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Members : Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan,

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
Important Regional SAARC Centres are :
United Kingdom and United States.
S.N. Regional Centre City Country ³³ In 2014, the group of Eight Countries have suspended
1. SAARC Agricultural Dhaka Bangladesh Russia from elite club of world powers amid heightened
Centre (SAC) tensions over Ukraine and Russia‘s incursion on to
Orimea.
2. SAARC Meteorological Dhaka Bangladesh
Research ASIA–PACIFIC ECONOMIC CO–OPERATION (APEC)
Centre (SMRC) ³³ APEC was founded in November 1989, its members
3. SAARC Forestry Cen- Thimphu Bhutan aimed to devise programme of co–operation to be
tre (SFC) discussed at meetings between their trade and foreign
ministers.
4. SAARC Development Thimphu Bhutan
Fund (SDF) ³³ Institutionalised in June 1991, after a meeting in
Bangkok, it was at the Bogor (Indonesia) summit
5. SAARC Cultural Cen- Colombo Srilanka of November, 1994 that the group resolved to work
tre (SCC) towards establishment of a free trade zone by 2020.
6. SAARC Documenta- New Delhi India ³³ Member states : Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile,
tion Centre (SDC) China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea,
7. SAARC Disaster Man- New Delhi India Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea,
agement the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thialand and
the US.
Centre (SDMC)
8. SAARC Coastal Zone Male Maldives THE ASEAN FREE TRADE AREA (AFTA)
Management ³³ The Association of South East Asian Nations
Centre (SCZMC) (ASEAN) is a regional organisation formed by
the governments of Indonesia, Malaysia, the
9. SAARC Information Kathman- Nepal Philippines, Singpore and Thailand by the Bangkok
Centre (SIC) du Declaration, signed by their ministers in August,
10. SAARC Tuberculosis Kathman- Nepal 1967.
and HIV du ³³ Brunei, Vietnam, Cambodia, Loas, Papua New Guinea
AIDS Centre (STAC) were later given observer status.
³³ Subsequently in 1991, AFTA was set up by member
11. SAARC Human Re- I s l a m - Pakistan states with the aim of creating, a common market in 15
sources abad
years. ‘with a common tariff regime’ for manufactured
Development Centre and processed agricultural goods.
(SHRDC)
MERCA DO COMU DEL SUR (MERCOSUR)
12. SAARC Energy Centre I s l a m - Pakistan
(SEC) abad ³³ A customs union founded in March, 1991, by the
Treaty of Asuncion between Argentina, Brazil,
NAM (NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT) Paraguay and Uruguay.
³³ It is group of 118 countries, mostly developing. ³³ The treaty committed the signatories to progressive
³³ The principles of non–alignment were defined in reduction of effects culminating in the formation of a
the Bandung (Indonesia) Declaration of 1955 and common market by 1995.
reiterated in the Brioni (Yogoslavia) Declaration of ³³ This duly came in to effect as a free trade zone affecting
1956 by Jawaharlal Nehru, Josip Broz Tito, the then 90 per cent of commodities.
Yugoslavian President and Gamel Abdil Nasser of ³³ A common external tariff is also applicable.
Indonesia.
³³ The first non-aligned conference was held at Belgrade THE CENTRAL AMERICAN COMMON MARKET
in 1961 in which 25 countries participated. (CACM)
³³ This movement was based on the ideology of ³³ Initiated in 1960, the group reaffirmed its commitment
‘Panchsheel’, viz. the principle of mutual respect to regional integration in 1993 with a common
for each other’s territorial integrity, non-aggression, external tariff of 20 per cent.
non-interference in each other’s international affairs, ³³ Its members are Costa Rice, El Salvador, Guatemala,
equality and peaceful co-existence. Honduras, Nicargagua and Panama.
³³ The basic thrust of the movement is in favour of
peace, disarmament, development, independence, THE ANDEAN GROUP
eradication of poverty and illiteracy. ³³ It came into being after a May 1969 agreement was
signed by Bolivia, Chile, Columbia, Ecuador and Peru.
G-7 (GROUP OF SEVEN)
³³ Later Venezuela also joined it.
³³ It is an organisation of seven major industrial ³³ In May 1991 the group established a free trade zone,
democracies who meet periodically to discuss world with a common external tariff in four bands from the
economic and other issues. 5 per cent to 20.

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY (CARICOM) INTERNATIONAL DECADES

³³ Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tabago 1976-1985 : UN Decade for Women
formed this block at Trinidad in 1973. 1994-2004 : First International Decade of the World’s
³³ The aim was to achieve economic co-operation through Indigenous People
a common market along with an external tariff. 1997-2006 : First UN Decade for the Eradication of Poverty
Reports Published by International Organisations 2000-2010 : Second International Decade for the
Eradication of Colonialism
1. Global Financial System Report— Bank for
2001-2010 : International Decade for a Culture of Peace
International Settlements (BIS) and Non-violence for the children of the
2. Ease of Doing Business— World Bank IBRD. World.
3. World Development Report— World Bank IBRD 2003-2012 : UN Literacy Decade
4. Asian Development Outlook — Asian Development 2005-2014 : UN Decade on Education for Sustainable
Bank (ADB) Development
2005-2014 : Second International Decade of the World’s
5. Change the World List— Data Fortune
Indigenous People
6. Global Hunger Index Report—International Food Policy 2005-2015 : Water for Life Decade
Research Institute 2010-2020 : UN Decade for Deserts and the Fight against
7. World of Work Report — International Labour Desertification
Organization (ILO) 2014-2024 : Third International Decade for the Eradication
8. W o r l d E m p l o y m e n t a n d S o c i a l O u t l o o k — of colonialism, UN Decade on Biodiversity,
International Labour Organization (ILO) Decade of Action for Road Saftery
9. Global Financial Stability Report—International 2014-2024 : Decade of Energy for All
Monetary Fund (IMF) 2015-2024 : International Decode for People of African
Descent
10. World Economic Outlook— International Monetary
2016-2025 : United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition
Fund (IMF)
2018-2027 : Third United Nations Decade for the
11. World Energy Outlook—International Energy Agency. Eradiction of Poverty.
12. World Oil Outlook—Organization of the Petroleum 2018-2028 : International Decade for Action on water for
Exporting Countries (OPEC) sustainable Development
13. World Happiness Report — United Nations 2019-2028 : United Nations Decade of Family Farming
Sustainable Development Solutions Network. 2019-2028 : Nelson Mandela Decade of Peace
14. G l o b a l C o r r u p t i o n R e p o r t — T r a n s p a r e n c y 2021-2030 : International Decade of Ocean Science for
International Sustainable Development
2021-2030 : United Nations Decade on Ecosystem
15. World Investment Report—United Nations Conference
2021-2030 : United Nations Decade of Healthy Ageing
on Trade and Development.
2021-2030 : Second Decade of Action for Road Safety
16. Global Environment Outlook —United nations
2022-2032 : International Decade of Indigenous Languages
Environment Programme (UNEP)
17. Global Education Monitoring Report—UNESCO INTERNATIONAL YEARS OF THE UNITED
18. State of World Population — United Nations NATIONS
Population Fund (UNFPA)
2014 : International Year of crystallography,
19. The Global Report—United Nations High Commission International year of Family Farming.
for Refugees (UNHCR) 2015 : International Year of Light and Light-Based
20. The state of the World Children Report — UNICEF Technologies.
21. Industrial Development Report —United Nations 2015 : International Year of Soils.
Industrial Development Organization. 2016 : International Year of Pulses, International Year
of Camelids.
22. Global Assessment Report— United Nations Office for 2017 : International Year of sustainable tourism for
Disaster Risk Reduction. development.
23. Global Information Technology Report — World 2019 : International Year of Indigenous Languages.
Economic Forum (WEF) 2020 : International Year of Plant Health
24. Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report — World 2021 : International Year of Peace and Trust
2022 : International Year of Artisanal Fisheries and
Economic Forum (WEF)
Aquaculture & International Year of Glass
25. Global Competitiveness Report—World Economic 2023 : International Year of Millets
Forum (WEF) 2024 : International Year of camalids
ppp

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IMPORTANT AWARDS/HONOURS
Awards/ Honours Conferring Agency Particulars Instituted Amount
in the
year
Bharat Ratna Government of India Given for exceptional services towards 1954 No prize money
the advancement of art, science and
literature and in recognition of public
services of the highest order in any
field. (Highest National Award)
Padma Vibhushan Government of India 2nd Highest Civilian Honour Given for 1954 No prize money
exceptional and distinguished services
in any field including services rendered
by Government employees.
Padma Bhushan Government of India Third highest national award given for 1954 No prize money
distinguished services in any field
Padma Shri Government of India Fourth highest national award given 1954 No prize money
for distinguished services in any field.
Bharatiya Jnanpith Bharatiya Jnanpith Given to distinguished writer of 1965 Rs.11 lakhs
Award various modern Indian languages.
Moortidevi Award Bharatiya Jnanpith Given for depiction of value of human 1983 Rs. 4 lakh
life in various modern Indian languages
and in English
Sahitya Akedemi Sahitya Akademi For distinguished and outstanding 1955 Rs.1 lakh
Award literary contribution in 22 Indian
languages including English in past 5
years.
Saraswati Samman K.K. Birla Foundation For an outstanding literary work in 1991 Rs. 15 lakhs
any language included in the Eighth
Schedule of the Constitution of India
in the past 10 years. Recognised as
most prestigious literary honour in
the country.
Vachaspati Award K.K.Birla Foundation For distinguished and creative writing 1992 Rs. 1 lakh
in Sanskrit
Bharat Bharati Uttar Pradesh Hindi For creative writing and continued 1982 Rs. 5.2 lakhs
Award Sansthan service in Hindi literature
Booker Prize Booker Company & Highest literary award for 1969 Pound 60,000
British Publishers disinguished literary contribution
Association by Irish or other writers of
Commonwealth Nations
David Cohen Award British Art Council Highest literary award of Britain 1993 Pound 40,000
Common wealth Commonwealth Given to distinguished writers of 1987 Pound 10,000
Writer’s Award Foundation Commonwealth Nations of Eurasia
Gaunkoo Pre Award Gaunkoo Academy Highest literary award of France 1993 Franc 50
(France)
Arjuna Award Ministry of youth Outstanding contribution in the field 1961 Rs. 15 lakhs
Affairs & Sports of sports

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Dronacharya Award Ministry of youth For distinguished services by coaches 1985 Rs. 15 lakhs
Affairs & Sports of different games
Major Dyanchand Ministry of youth For outstanding performance in the 1992 & Rs. 25 lakhs
Khel Ratna Affairs & Sports field of sports / games (formerly 2021
called Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award
(1992-1920))
C.K. Naidu Award Board of Control for For extraordinary performance in 1994 Rs. 15 lakhs
(Lifetime) Cricket of India cricket (outside or inside ground)
Olympic Gold Order International Olympic For distinguished contribution for 1975 Gold Medal –
Committee promotion and enrichment of Olympic Rs. 12.5 lakhs
revolution Silver Medal –
10 lakh
Bronze Medal –
Rs. 7.5 lakhs
Nobel Prizes Conferring Agencies : Nobel Foundation, Sweden (Peace); 1901 10 million
Parliamentary Committee of Norway Swedish Academy Swedish
(Literature); Bank of Sweden (Economics); Nobel Assembly Kronar
of Carolinska Institute (Medicine); Royal Sweden Academy of
Sciences (Physics & Chemistry)
Particulars : Given annually on December 10 for outstanding
works in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology &
Medicine, Literature, Peace and Economics (established in
1967); Most prestigious award in the world.
Magsaysay Award Ramon Magsaysay Given annually on August 31, the 1957 Dollar 50,000
(Philippines) birth anniversary of Magsaysay, for Dollar
Foundation outstanding contribution to public
service, community leadership,
journalism, literature and creative arts
and inter national understanding. It is
equivalent to the Nobel Prize in Asia.
Right Livelihood Right Livelihood Given annually for practical and 1980 Dollar 2.5
Award Society based in exemplary solutions to real problem lakhs
British’s Isle of Man of today. Also called “Alternate Nobel
but with a Staff in Prize”.
Stockholm
Jawaharlal Council of Cultural Given to persons for outstanding 1965 Rs. 25 lakhs
Nehru Award Relations of India contributions to the promotion of
for International international understanding, goodwill
Understanding and friendship.
Indira Gandhi Indira Gandhi Given for outstanding contribution to 1986 Rs. 25 lakhs
Award for Memorial Fund disarmament and development.
International Peace,
Disarmament and
Development
UNESCO Peace UNESCO Often called the “Little Nobel Award”, 1989 $ 20, 000
Award given to individuals or groups for their
contribution to peace.
UN Human Rights UN Given every five years for individual 1966 Non-monetary
Award contribution to the establishment of in nature
Human Rights
Ambedkar Government of India Given for outstanding contribution 1993 Rs. 10 lakhs
International Award in the social & economic fields,
particularly for the upliftment of
downtrodden

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Rajiv Gandhi Rajiv Gandhi Given for outstanding contribution 1992 Rs. 10 lakhs
Sadbhavana Award Memorial Fund for promotion of peace and cordial
relations.
Mahatma Gandhi Government of India Instituted to mark the 125th 1995 Rs. 1 Crore
Peace Prize (Highest Award of anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, to
India) be conferred on an individual who
contributes important literaary and
artistic work to the cause. It is on the
lines of Nobel Prize.
Templeton Prize Templeton Named after John M. Templeton, a 1972 Rs 1.1 million
Foundation presbyterian of Nassau, Bahamas.
Conferred for progress in religion
Pulitzer Prize United State of Named after the US Publisher Joseph 1917 US $10,000
America Pulitzer. Conferred annually in the USA
for outstanding works in journalism,
literature and music
Dada Saheb Phalke Ministry of Highest award in the field of films, 1969 Rs. 10 lakh
Award Information & is given to a film personality for his/
Broadcasting, her outstanding contribution to the
Government of India growth and development of Indian
Cinema
Dada Kondke Award The Maharashtra Award for the best rural film in 1998 Rs. 25,000
Government memory of Marathi actor and film
maker, Dada Kondke
Kalidas Samman The Madhya Pradesh It is given annually for excellence in 1980 Rs. 2 lakhs
Government four different art forms alternatively :
Classical Music, Dance, Theatre and
Plastic arts
Saraswati Award Sri Kailashnath Conferred on individuals related to 1991 Rs. 15 lakhs
Trust, Nasik various fields-social service, arts and
ancient learnings.
Kalinga Award Kalinga Foundation It is conferred for popularisation of 1952 Rs. 5 lakhss
Trust, Odisha science by UNESCO
Maulana Abul Government of India, Conferred on Government of India 1956-57 Rs. 15 lakhs
Kalam Trophy
Ministry of Youth
Affairs & Sports
Department
Tulsi Samman Government of For Folk performance 1983 Rs. 2 lakhs
Madhya Pradesh,
Department of
Culture
Lata Manges hkar Government of For composing light music 1984 Rs.2 lakhs
Samman Madhya Pradesh,
Department of
Culture
Indira Gandhi Ministry of An award for significant scientific 1987 Rs. 5 lakhs
Paryavaran Environment and or field work for the protection of
Puraskar Forests, Government Environment
of India

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Some Recipients of Bharatiya Jnanpith Awards 27. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad* (Politician, 1992
First Mimnister of Education)
1. 2016 Shankh Ghosh Bengali 28. J. R. D. Tata (Industrialist) 1992
2. 2017 Krishna Sobti Hindi 29. Satyajit Roy (Filmmaker) 1992
30. Dr. A.P. J. Abdul Kalam 1997
3. 2018 Amitav Ghosh English
(Scientist, Aeronautical Engineer)
4. 2019 A k k i t h a m A c h u t h a n Malayalam 31. Gulzari Lal Nanda (Politician) 1997
Namboothiri 32. Smt. Aruna Asaf Ali* (Politician) 1997
33. M.S. Subbalakshmi ( 1998
Recipients of Bharat Ratna Carnatic Classical Singer)
Sl. No Name Year 34. C. Subramaniam (Politician) 1998
1. C. Rajagopalachari 1954 35. Jai Prakash Narayan* 1999
(Politician, Last Governor General) (Politician & Independence Activist)
2. Dr. C.V. Raman (Scientist) 1954 36. Pt. Ravi Shankar (Sitar Player) 1999
3. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 1954 37. Amartya Sen (Economist) 1999
(Philospher, First Vice President) 38. Late Gopinath Bardoloi* (Politician, C.M. 1999
4. Dr. Bhagwan Das (Independence Activist, 1955 of Assam)
Author) 39. Lata Mangeshkar (Playback Singer) 2001
5. Dr. M. Visvesvaraya 1955 40. Ustad Bismillah Khan 2001
(Scientist, Civil Engineer) (Hindustani Classical Shehnai Player)
6. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru 1955 41. Pandit Bhimsen Joshi 2008
(Politician, First Prime Minister) (Hindustani Classical Singer)
7. Govind Ballabh Pant (Politician) 1957 42. Sachin Tendulkar (Cricketer) 2014

8. Dr. D.K. Karve (Social Reformer) 1958 43. Prof. C.N.R. Rao (Scientist) 2014
44. Madan Mohan Malviya 2015
9. Dr. B.C.Roy 1961
(Educationist, Freedom fighter)
(Politician, Physician, C.M. of West Bengal)
45. Atal Bihari Vajpeyee (Politician) 2015
10. Purushottam Das Tandon 1961
(Politician, Educator) 46. Nanaji Deshmukh* (Social Activist) 2019
11. Dr. Rajendra Prasad 1962 47. Bhupen Hazarika* 2019
(Politician, First President) (Singer, Lyricist, Musician, Poet and
Filmmaker)
12. Dr. Zakir Hussain (Politician, Scholar) 1963
48. Pranab Mukherjee 2019
13. Dr. P. V. Kane 1963
(Indologist & Sanskrit Scholar) (Politician, 13th President of India)
14. Lal Bahadur Shastri* (Politician) 1966 *Posthumously
15. Mrs. Indira Gandhi (Politician) 1971
Recipients of Dada Saheb Phalke Award
16. V.V. Giri (Politician, Trade Unionist) 1975 Sl. Recipient Year
17. K. Kamraj* (Politician, C.M. of Tamil Nadu) 1976 No.
18. Mother Teresa 1980 1. Mrs. Devika Rani Roerich (First) 1969
(Social Activist, Catholic nun) 2. B.N. Sirkar 1970
19. Acharya Binoba Bhave* (Social Reformer) 1983 3. Prithviraj Kapoor (Posthumously) 1971
20. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan 1987 4. Soumitra Chatterjee 2011
(Social Activist, First Non-citizen) 5. Pran Kishan Sikand 2012
21. M.G. Ramachandran* 1988 6. Sampurn Singh Kalra ‘Gulzar’ 2013
(Politician, Film Actor)
7. Shashi Kapoor 2014
22. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar* (Politician) 1990 8. Manoj Kumar 2015
23. Dr. Nelson Mandela 1990 9. K. Vishwnath 2016
(Politician, Second Non-citizen)
10. Vinod Khanna 2017
24. Rajiv Gandhi* (Politician) 1991 11. Amitabh Bachchan 2018
25. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel* (Politician) 1991 12. Rajnikanth 2019 (given
26. Morarji Desai (Politician) 1991 in 2021)

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NOBEL PRIZE : IMPORTANT FACTS

The Nobel Prize is an international award given Marie Curie shared the 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics with
every year since 1902 for achievements in physics, her husband Pierre Curie. She later won the Nobel Prize
chemistry, medicine, literature and for peace. In 1968, for Chemistry in 1911.
the Bank of Sweden instituted the Prize in Economic Three Nobel Prizes : The International Committee
Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, founder of the of the Red Cross was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace
Nobel Prize. three times : 1917, 1944 and 1963.
The prizes, which include an amount (SEK 10 Twice Recipients of the Nobel Prize
million, around euro 1.1 million on US$ 1.3 million per Different Subjects
prize category shared equally among the Laureates), a Marie Curie Sklodowska : Physics (1903) & Chemistry
gold medal and a diploma, are presented on December (1911)
10, the anniversary of Nobel’s death in 1896. Linus Pauling : Chemistry (1954) & Peace (1962)
Year of institution : 1901 Same Subjects
Founder : Alfred Bernhard Nobel John Bardeen : Physics (1956 & 1972)
No. of disciplines awarded : Six Frederic Sanger : Chemistry (1958 & 1980)
1. Physics 2. Chemistry 3. Physiology or Medicine First Indian to receive the Nobel Prize :
4. Literature 5. Peace and 6. Economics (Established in Rabindranath Tagore was awarded the Prize for Literature
1967). in 1913 for his love lyrics ‘Gitanjali’.
Date on which it is awarded : December 10. First Indian Women to receive the Nobel Prize :
First Couple to Receive the Nobel Prize : Madame Mother Teresa won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1979.

2020, Nobel Prize Winner

S.
Disciplines Winner Contribution
No.
Roger Penrose
For the discovery that black hole formation is a robust
prediction of the general
theory of relativity.
1. Physics
Reinhard Genzel and Andrea For the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the
Ghez centre of our galaxy.

Emmanuelle Charpentier and

2. Chemistry For the development of a method for genome editing.
Jennifer A. Doudna
Physiology Harvey J. Alter, Michael Hough-
3. For the discovery of Hepatitis C virus.
or Medicine ton and Charles M. Rice
For her unmistakable poetic voice that with austere beauty
4. Literature Louise Gluck
makes individual existence universal.
For its efforts to combat hunger, for its contribution to
bettering conditions for peace in conflict-affected areas and
5. Peace World Food Programme (WFP)
for acting as a driving force in efforts to prevent the use of
hunger as a weapon of war and conflict.
Paul R. Milgrom and Robert B. For improvements to auction theory and inventions of new
6. Economics
Wilson auction formats.

NOBEL LAUREATES OF INDIA

Citizens of India
Citizens of British India (The following are the Nobel laureates who were citizens of British India at the time they
were awarded the Nobel Prize.)
Year Laureate Field Rationale
1913 Rabindranath Literature "Because of his profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse,
Tagore by which, with consummate skill, he has made his poetic
thought, expressed in his own English words, a part of the
literature of the West"
1930 C. V. Raman Physics "For his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of
the effect named after him"

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Citizens of the Republic of India (The following are the Nobel laureates who were citizens of the Republic of India at
the time they were awarded the Nobel Prize.)
Year Laureate Field Rationale
1979 Mother Teresa Peace "In recognition of [her] work in bringing help to suffering
humanity"
1998 Amartya Sen Economics "For his contributions to welfare economics"
2014 Kailash Satyarthi Peace "For their struggle against the suppression of children and
young people and for the right of all children to education"
Overseas citizens of Indian origin (The following are the Nobel laureates of Indian origin who were born in India
but subsequently non-citizens of India. However, they are still often included in the list of Indian Nobel laureates.)
Year Laureate Nationality Field Rationale
1968 Har G o b i n d United States (born Physiology or "For their interpretation of the genetic code and
Khorana in Raipur, British Medicine its function in protein synthesis"
India)
1983 S u b r a h m a n y a n United States (born Physics "For his theoretical studies of the physical
Chandrasekhar in Lahore, British processes of importance to the structure and
India) evolution of the stars"
2009 Venki U n i t e d K i n g d o m Chemistry "For Structure and function of the
Ramakrishnan United States (born ribosome,macromolecular crystallography"
in Chidambaram,
India)
2019 Abhijit Banerjee United States (born Economics "For their experimental approach to alleviating
in Calcutta, India) global poverty"
Birth-residents of British India
The following are the Nobel laureates of foreign origin who were either born in India or were residents in India when
they became recipients of the Nobel Prize but were not Indian citizens.
Year Laureate Country of residence Field Rationale
1902 Ronald Ross U n i t e d K i n g d o m Physiology or "For his work on malaria, by which he has
( b o r n i n A l m o r a , Medicine shown how it enters the organism and thereby
British India) has laid the foundation for successful research
on this disease and methods of combating it"
1907 Rudyard Kipling U n i t e d K i n g d o m Literature "In consideration of the power of observation,
(born in Bombay, originality of imagination, virility of ideas
British India) and remarkable talent for narration which
characterize the creations of this world-famous
author"
1989 14th Dalai Lama India (born i n Peace "For his consistent resistance to the use of
Taktser, Tibet) violence in his people’s struggle to regain their
liberty"

RECIPIENTS OF BOOKER PRIZES INDIAN RECIPIENTS OF BOOKER PRIZES

YEAR RECIPIENTS BOOK YEAR RECIPIENTS BOOK
2016 Paul Beatty The Sellout 1971 V.S. Naipaul In a Free state
2017 George Saunders Lincoln in the Bardo 1981 Salman Rushdie Midnight's Children
2018 Anna Bums Milkman 1984 Anita Bookner Hotel du Lac
2019 Margaret Atwood The Testaments 1997 Arundhati Roy The God of small things
B e r n a r d i n e Girl, Woman, other 2006 Kiran Desai The Inheritance of Loss
Evaristo
2008 Arvind Adiga The Winter Tiger
2020 Douglas Stuart Suggie Bain

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April 13 : Jallianwallah Bagh Massacre Day (1919)

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

IMPORTANT DATES April 14 : B.R. Ambedkar Remembrance Day, Fire Ex-
tinguishing Day
JANUARY
April 15 : Himachal Pradesh Day
Jan 1 : Army Medical Corps Establishment Day April 17 : World Haemophilia Day
Jan 8 : African National Congress Foundation Day April 18 : World Heritage Day
Jan 10 : World Laughter Day, World Hindi Day. April 20 : Birth anniversary of Hanniman (Father of
Jan 11 : Death anniversary of Lal Bahadur Shastri Homeopathy)
Jan 12 : National Youth Day (Birth day of Swami April 21 : The Civil Service Day
Vivekanand) April 22 : World Earth Day
Jan 15 : Army Day April 23 : World Books Day
Jan 23 : Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose’s birth anni- April 26 : World Chernobyl Day
versary
Jan 25 : International Custom Duty Day, Indian Tour- MAY
ism Day, National Voters Day. May 1 : International Labour Day (May Day)
Jan 26 : Republic Day May 3 : International Energy Day; World Press Free-
Jan 28 : Birth anniversary of Lala Lajpat Rai dom Day.
Jan 30 : (Martyr’s Day) Mahatma Gandhi’s Martyrdom May 4 : World Press Freedom Day
Day, World Leprosy Eradication Day May 8 : International Red Cross Day
Jan 31 : National Day of Nauru May 10 : Mother’s Day
May 11 : National Technology Day
FEBRUARY
May 15 : International Family Day
Feb 2 : World Wetlands Day
May 17 : World Telecom Day
Feb 5 : Kashmir Day (Organised by Pakistan)
May 21 : Anti Terrorism Day
Feb 13 : Sarojini Naidu’s Birth Anniversary
May 22 : World Biodiversity Day
Feb 14 : St. Valentine’s Day
May 24 : Commonwealth Day
Feb 16 : Delhi Police Day
May 30 : Journalism Day
Feb 20 : Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram Day
May 31 : World No Tobacco Day
Feb 24 : Central Exercise Day
Feb 28 : National Science Day JUNE
Feb 29 : National Narcotics Day, Birth anniversary of June 1 : Pulse Polio Vaccination Day
Morarji Desai June 5 : World Environment Day
MARCH June 9 : Death anniversary of Birsa Munda
June 12 : World Day Against Child Labour
March 3 : National Defence Day
June 17 : World day to combat Desertification & Drought
March 4 : National Security Day, National Safety Day
June 20 : Father’s Day, World Refugee Day
March 8 : International Women Day
June 21 : International Yoga Day, Antarctic Day
March 9 : CISF Raising Day
June 26 : International Day Against Drug Abuse
March 11: Andaman & Nicobar Day
June 27 : World Diabetes Day
March 12: Mauritius Day; Central Industrial Security
Force Day JULY
March 15: World Consumer Day July 1 : Doctors Day
March 16: National Vaccination Day July 4 : American Independence Day
March 18: Bi-centenary of Indian Ordinance Factory July 11 : World Population Day
March 19: World Disabled Day July 24 : Income Tax Day
March 20: Social Empowerment Memorial Day July 26 : Kargil Victory Day
March 21: World Forestry Day July 27 : CRPF Foundation Day
March 22: World Day for Water July 28 : Van Mahotsva Day
March 23: World Meteorological Day
AUGUST
March 24: World TB Day
March 26: Bangladesh Liberation Day August 1:
World Breast Feeding Day
March 28: National Shipping Day August 3:
Friendship Day (first Sunday of August)
March 30: Rajasthan Day August 4:
Heart Transplantation Day
August 6:
Hiroshima Day
APRIL August 8:
Sanskrit Day
April 1 : Odisha Day August 9:
Quit India Movement Day; International Day
April 5 : National Maritime Day of Indegenous People
April 7 : World Health Day August 12: International Youth Day
April 10 : Water Resources Day/National Survey Day August 14: Pakistan’s Independence Day
April 11 : National Janani Suraksha Day August 15: India’s Independence Day

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August 20: Sadbhavna Divas DECEMBER

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August 29: Sports Day Dec 1 : World Aids Day

SEPTEMBER Dec 3 : International Day for Handicapped People. Birth
Day of Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Sept 1 : Non-Aligned Day
Dec 4 : Navy Day
Sept 5 : Teacher’s Day
Dec 5 : Navy Day, Constitution Day, International
Sept 8 : International Literacy Day Volunteer Day.
Sept 14 : Hindi Day, World first Aid Day Dec 7 : Armed Forces Flag Day
Sept 15 : All India Flag Day Dec 8 : SAARC Day
Sept 16 : World Ozone Day Dec 9 : International Anti-Corruption Day (UN), Balika
Sept 21 : International Day of Peace; World Alzheimer’s Day Diwas
Sept 22 : National Rose Day, Welfare Day for Cancer Dec 10 : Human Rights Day
Patients Dec 11 : UNICEF Day
Sept 24 : World Heart Day Dec 12 : The Health Universal Coverage Day
Sept 25 : Social Justice Day Dec 14 : National Energy Conservation Day
Sept 27 : World Tourism Day Dec 16 : Vijay Diwas
Sept 29 : World Heart Day & world Deaf Day Dec 18 : Minorities Rights Day (India), International
OCTOBER Migrants Day
Dec 19 : Goa’s Liberation Day
Oct 1 : Internatioinal Day for the Elderly (UN)
Dec 20 : Arunachal Pradesh Day
Oct 2 : Gandhi Jayanti, International Day of Non-vi-
Dec 23 : Kisan Divas (Farmer’s Day)
olence.
Dec 24 : National Consumer Right Day
Oct 3 : World Nature Day
Dec 25 : X-mas Day, Birthday of Atal Bihari Vajpayee
Oct 4 : World Animal Day
Oct 5 : World Habitat Day, World Teachers Day
IMPORTANT ACTS AND ASSOCIATED
Oct 6 : World Wildlife Day
Oct 8 : Indian Airforce Day PERSONALITIES
Oct 9 : World Postal Day
Acts Personality
Oct 10 : World Mental Health Day, National Post Day
Oct 14 : World Standards Day Foundation of Buddhism Gautma Buddha
Oct 16 : World Food Day Foundation of Jainism Vardhmana Mahavira
Oct 17 : International Poverty Eradication Day
Oct 20 : National Solidarity Day (China attacked India
on that day). It was decided to observe 29th Foundation of Mughal Babar
October as the National Solidarity Day Dynasty
Oct 21 : Police Commemoration Day Paramdhan Ashram Vinoba Bhave
Oct 24 : United Nations Day
Forward Block Subhash Chandra Bose
Oct 30 : World Thrift Day
Oct 31 : National Integration Day (in memory of Indira Brihadesvara Temple Rajaraja Chola
Gandhi) Arya Samaj Movement Dayanand Saraswati
NOVEMBER Servants of India Socity G.K. Gokhale
Nov 1 : Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madya
Operation Flood Dr. Verghesh Kurien
Pradesh, Panjab, Haryana Day
Nov 7 : Infant Protection Day, World Cancer Aware- Banaras Hindu Madan Mohan Malviya
ness Day University
Nov 9 : Pravasi Bharatiya Divas/Legal Services Day
Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan K.M. Munshi
Nov 10 : Transport Day
Nov 11 : Birthday of Abul Kalam Azad Sikh Religion Guru Nanak
Nov 12 : National Public Transmission Day Swarajya Party Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das
Nov 14 : Children’s Day/World Diabetes Day
Nov 17 : Guru Nank Dev’s Birth Anniversary Swatantra Party C. Rajagopalachari
Nov 19 : Citizen’s Day All India Anna Dravida M.G. Ramchandran
Nov 23 : National Cadet Corps Day Munnetra Kazgham
Nov 25 : World Environment Conservation Day, Birth
Day of Guru Nanak Dev Raman effect C.V. Raman
Nov 30 : Flag Day Eiffel Tower Alexanderre Eiffel
Nov 26 : National Law Day
Modern Geometry Euclid
Nov 29 : International Day of Solidarity with the Pales-
tinian People Gregorian Calender Gregory XIII
Nov 29 : International Day of Solidarity with Palestinian
Brahmo Samaj Raja Ram Mohan Roy
People

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“Jaipur Foot” Dr. Pramod Karan Sethi Mitra Mela V. D. Savarkar
Mathematical Wizard Ms. Shakuntala Devi Temple Entry Movement Shri Narayan Guru
Bhoodan Movement Vinoba Bhave Red Shirts Garibald
Scouts and Guides Lord Baden Powell C o m m u n i s t P a r t y o f M. N. Roy
India
Telephone Alexander Graham Bell.
Asiatic Society Willian Jones
Utilitarian Philosophy Jereny Benthan
Theosophical Society Madam Blavatsky
Unification of Germany Bismarck
Indian Association Surendranath Banerjee
Modern Astronomy Nichalas Copernicus
Muslim League Salimullah Khan and Agah
Natural Selection Theory Charles Darwin
Khan
Leader of October Vladimir Lenin
Home Rule League Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Revolution (1917)
Scientific Society Sir Saiyyad Ahmed Khan
Abolition of Slavery in Abraham Lincoln
America Bhakti Movement Chaitanya
Foundation of Martin Luther Din-i-Illahi Akbar
Protestantism Prarthana Samaj Keshav Chandra Sen
Foundation of Islam Mohammed Saheb Saka era Kanishka (78 A.D.)
Foundation of St. Peter The Great Nyaya Philosophy Maharshi Gautama
Petersburg
Samkhya Philosophy Maharshi Kapil
Bharat Mata Society Ajit Singh
Yoga Philosophy Patanjali
Samaj Samata Sangha Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
Ramkrishna Mission Swami Vivekanada
Jamia MIllia Islamiya M.A. Ansari
Abolition of Sati William Bentick
Gandhi Seva Sangha Jamnalal Bajaj
Khalsa Guru Gobind Singh
National Conference Surendranath Banerjee
Ghadar Party Lala Hardayal
Central Hidu College Annie Besant
Indian National Congress A.O. Hume
Nav Jawan Bharat Sabha Bhagat Singh
Hind Association Sohan Singh Bhakna EMINENT PERSONALITIES AND THEIR
BIRTHDAYS
National Conference Anand Mohan Bose
Foundation of Anand Satyendranath Bose Personality Birthday
Math Satyendranath Bose (1894-1974) 1 January
Madras Mahajan Sabha P. Ananda Charlu Swami Vivekanada (1863-1902) 12 January
N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f Ashutosh Chaudhari
Subhash Chandra Bose (1897-1945) 23 January
Education
Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928) 28 February
Young Bengal Henry Vivian Derozio
Ramkrishna Paramhansa (1836- 20 February
Punarvivah Mandal Gopal Hari Deshmukh 1886)
Maniktala Party Barindra Kumar Ghosh Guru Ravidas 15 February
Krishak Praja Party A. K. Fazlul Haque Swami Dayananda Saraswati 24 February
Widow Remarriage Ishwar Chandra Vidya (1824-1883)
Sagar Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) 14 April
Windows Home D. K. Karve Sir Saiyyad Ahmed Khan (1817-1898) 17 April
K h u d a i K h i d m a t g a r Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan Moti Lal Nehru (1861-1931) 6 May
(Frontier Gandhi)
Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941) 7 May
M o h a m m a d a n A n g l o Saiyyad Ahmed Khan
Oriental College Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915) 8 May

Seva Sadan Behramji Malabari Chhatrapati Shivaji (1627-1680) 12 May

London India Society Dadabhai Nauroji V. D. Savarkar (1883-1966) 28 May

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Shyama Prasad Mukherjee 6 June PLACES ASSOICATED WITH IMPORTANT

(1901-1953) PERSONALITIES
Dr. V. C. Roy (1882-1963) 1 July (Doctor’s
Day) Place Personality

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920) 23 July Shanti Niketan Rabindranath Tagore

Munshi Premchand (1880-1937) 31 July Talwandi Guru Nanak

Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950) 15 August Corsica/ St. Helena Napoleon

Rajiv Gandhi (1944-1991) 20 August Jerusalem Jesus Christ

Lumbini, Bodhgaya, Kapil- Gautam Buddha
Dhyanchand (1905-1979) 29 August
vastu
Dadabhai Nauroji (1825-1917) 4 September
Shakti Sthal Indira Gandhi
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan (1888-1967) 5 September Vir Bhoomi Rajiv Gandhi
(Teacher’s Day)
Macedonia Alexander the Great
Vinoba Bhave (1895-1982) 11 September
Mecca/Medina Mohammad Saheb
Deendayal Upadhyaya (1916-1968) 25 September
Waterloo Napoleon
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) 2 October
Bardoli Sardar Patel
Jai Prakash Naryan (1902-1980) 11 October Chittorgarh/ Haldighati Maharana Pratap
Lala Hardayal 14 Ocotber Fatehpur Sikri Akbar
Vallabhbhai Patel (1875-1950) 31 October Porbander/ Sabarmati Mahatma Gandhi
Chitranjan Das (1870-1925) 5 November Jalianwala Bagh General Dyer
Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958) 11 November Bellur Ramkrishna Paramhansa
Jawahar Lal Nehru (1889-1964) 14 November Anand Van Baba Amte
(Childrens day) Phoenix Ashram Mahatma Gandhi
Indira Gandhi (1919-1984) 19 November Alfred Park Chandra Shekhar Azad
Dr. Rajendra Prasad 3 December Jhansi/Gwalior Rani Laxmibai
C. Rajgopalchari (1878-1972) 10 December Fyzabad Maulvi Ahmedullah
S. Ramanujam (1887-1920) 22 December Jagdishpur Kunwar Singh
Madan Mohan Malviya (1861-1946) 25 December Kanpur Nana Saheb
Gautama Buddha (563-483 B.C.) Baisakh Purn- Hindu College Henri Vivian Derozio
ima India House Shyamaji Krishna Verma
Vardhamana Mahavira (599-527 Chaitra Shukla Peshawar Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan
B.C.) Triyodesi
Aligarh Muslim Univesity Sir Saiyyad Ahmed Khan
Lord Rama Chaitra Shukla Kabul Raja Mahendra Pratap
Navami
Almora Govind Ballabh Pant
Lord Krishna Bhadrpad
Krishnashtami Sharda Sadan Pandita Ramabai
Genoa Mazzini
Guru Nanak (1469-1538) Kartik Purnima
Sardinia Cavour
Guru Govind Singh (1666-1708) Paus Shukla
Saptami Nice Garibaldi
Kalidas Kartik Shukla Prussia Bismarck
Ekadasi Georgia Stalin
Kabirdas Jyesth Purni- Austria Hitler
ma
Treves (Germany) Karl Marx
Surdas Vaisakh Shuk- Chittagong Surya Sen
la Panchami
Kolhapur Chhatrapati Shahu
Tulsidas Shravan Shuk-
la Saptami Pahartali Preetilate Waddedar

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Nadia Chaitanya Vijay Ghat* Lal Bahadur Shastri 1966
Ujjain Kalidas (President)

Kashmir Kalhana Ektha Sthal* G i a n i Z a i l S i n g h 1994

(President)
Nankana Sahib Guru Nanak
Nigambhodh Ghat Krishan Kant 2002
Sasaram/ Purana Qila Sher Shah Suri
(Vice President)
Mysore Tipu Sultan
Kisan Ghat* Choudhary Charan 1987
Missionaries of Charity Mother Teresa Singh (PM)
Tughlaqabad Ghiyassuddin Tughluq Narayan Ghat Gulzarilal Nanda (PM) 1998
Jahanpanah Muhammad Bin (Ahmedabad)
Nagar Tughluq Abhay Ghat (Ahmed- Morarji Desai (PM) 1995
Ajmer Muinuddin Chishti abad)

Rajapur Tulsidas Buddha Poornima P.V. Narasimha Rao 2004

Park (Hyderabad) (PM)
Paithan Eknath
Samata Sthal* Jagjivan Ram 1986
Fargana Babar
(Deputy PM)
Amarkot Akbar
Karma Bhumi* Shankar Dayal Shar- 1999
Shahjahanabad Shahjahan ma (President)
Shivner Shivaji Sangharsh Sthal* Devi Lal (Deputy PM) 2001
Dwarka Lord Krishna Jan Nayak Sthal* C h a n d r a S h e k h a r 2007
Auroville Aurobindo Ghosh (PM)
Anandpur Sahib Guru Tegh Bahadur Smiriti Sthal* I.K. Gujral (PM) 2012
Golden Temple Guru Ram Das Saidaiv Atal Atal Bihari Vajpayee 2018
Kalakshetra Rukmini Devi (PM)

Sanchi Stupa Ashoka Dr. APJ Abdul Ka- Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam 2015
lam Memorial (Pei (President)
Alai Darwaja Alauddin Khalji Karumbu, Tamil
Deer Park (Sarnath) Gautam Buddha Nadu)
Sher Mandal Humayun *New Delhi

SAMADHI STHAL OF FAMOUS PERSONALITIES (INDIA & WORLD)

INDIA'S FAMOUS PERSONALITIES Abul Fazal : was the celebrated Mughal court poet and
councillor of Akbar. Works : Akbar-nama; Ain-i-Akbari.
Resting Place Person Year of
Ahialyabai : was the famous Holkar queen. She was
(Samadhi Sthals) Death
widowed daughter-in-law of Malhar Rao Holkar, the virtual
Rajghat* Mahatma Gandhi (Fa- 1948 ruler of Malwa. After the death of Malhar Rao, Ahialyabai
ther of the Nation) ruled the state with great skill and understanding.
Akbar : (1556-1605) He was the greatest of the Mughal
Santivan* J a w a h a r l a l N e h r u 1964
Emperors in India. He founded a new religion Din-i-Elahi.
(PM)
He is known for reforms in land revenue administration,
C h a i t y a B h o o m i B.R. Ambedkar 1956 religious toleration, abolition of pilgrim tax and Jazia.
(Dadar Chowpatty, (Politician) Alberuni : was a celebrated historian who visited India
Mumbai) in company with the armies of Mahmud Ghazni.
Albuquerque : was the real founder of the Portuguese
Shaktisthal* Indira Gandhi (PM) 1984
Empire in the East. He conquered Goa in 1510 and made
Veerbhoomi* Rajiv Gandhi (PM) 1991 it his capital. He died in 1515.
Shanti Van* Sanjay Gadnhi 1980 Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.) : was king of
Macedon (Greece) who set out for mighty military exploits
Mahaprayan Ghat Dr. Rajendra Prasad 1963 and invaded India in 327 B.C. He reached up to the Beas
(Patna) (President) from where he retreated as his home-sick army refused
Uday Bhoomi* K.R. Narayanan 2005 to proceed further.
(President) Asvaghosh : Buddhist Philosopher and musician. He
was the spiritual adviser of the Kushan emperor Kanishka.

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Aurangzeb (1658-1707) : The Mughal emperor of Babar : He was founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

India, he was son of Shahjahan. He got power by acting He conquered the throne of Delhi after the first battle of
against his father and brothers. After his death, the Mu- Panipat (1526) and ruled for four years (1526-1530).
ghal empire broke up. Baden Powell (1857-1941) : was founder of the Boy
Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950) : Politician, philos- Scout movement in 1908 and Girl Guides in 1910.
opher, poet and yogi; passed I.C.S. 1890 first editor of Bahadur Shah II : was the last king of Mughal Em-
Bande Mataram established an ashram; in Pondicherry.
pire who took part in the Firs War of Indian Independence
Alexander Eiffel (1832-1932) : French Engineer who (so-called Sepoy Mutiny) in 1857. He was sent as a state
built the Eiffel Tower and the locks on the Panama Canal. prisoner to Rangoon (Burma) where he died in 1862.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) : German mathematical Bairam Khan : was the tutor and guardian of Akbar,
physicist and one of the greatest of all men of science. the Great. Akbar acquired the throne of Delhi mainly
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) : was a Greek philosopher, through his efforts. He was known as Khan-i-Khana.
artist, poet, and thinker. He was the founder of a famous
Banabhatta : was the most celebrated of the learned
school of philosophy.
men and court poet of Harshavardhana; author of
Aryabhatta (476-520 A.D.) after whom India’s first Harshacharita and Kadambari. He was the greatest master
scientific satellite has been named, was a great Indian of Sanskrit prose in his time.
astronomer and mathematician. Among his important
contributions are the recognition of the importance of the Banda Bairagi : (Also called Banda Bahadur)–was
movement of the earth round the sun, determination of a Rajput by caste and a native of Rajauri (Poonch). He
the physical parameters of various celestial bodies, such became bairagi in his youth but took up arms against the
as diameter of the earth and the moon. He laid the foun- Mughals on the advice of Guru Gobind Singh; captured
dation of algebra and was responsible for pointing out the in 1716 along with 800 companions and was tortured to
importance of “zero”. death.
Ashoka, the Great (273-236 B.C.) : Indian Emperor, Beethoven : one of the world’s greatest musicians and
grandson of Chandra Gupta. He denounced war, embraced composers. He became deaf at the age of 40 and despite
and preache Buddhism after the battle of Kalinga. this handicap, he wrote many memorable symphonies,
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) : Leader of the NAZI party, songs, sonatas and concertos. Died at the age of 56.
he led Germany into conquering much of Europe in 2nd Bhaskara I : He was the astronomer of the 7th century
World War, responsible for the genocide of 6 million Jews. and was a contemporary of Brahmagupta, another famous
In 1945, he committed suicide as Russians took Berlin. astronomer. India’s second satellite for earth observation,
Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) : Greek mathematician, Bhaskara, is associated with his name.
physicist and inventor made many discoveries in mechan- Bankim Chandra Chatterjee : Bengali novelist; wrote
ics and invented the Archimedean screw. Killed during Anand Math and composed Bande Mataram, Durgesh
siege of Syracuse by Romans. Nandini and Kapal Kundala.
Aristophanes (450-385 B.C.) : Greek comic drama- Benjamin Franklin (1706-1990); American States-
tist. man, philosopher and scientist; played an important part
Mrs. Annie Besant (1847-1933) : President of the in framing the constitution of the U.S.A. invented the
Theosophical Society, founder of the Home Rule League lightning conductor.
(1915-16) in India, was elected President of Indian National Bhava bhuti : The greatest writer of Sanskrit drama
Congress. after Kalidas. His three plays Mahavir-Charita. Malti Mad-
Amir Khusro : Urdu poet who laid the foundation hav and Uttar Ram Charita are famous.
of Urdu poetry, a contemporary of Ala-Ud-Din Khilji, his Benito Mussolini, (1883-1945), Fascist dictator of
750th birth anniversary was celebrated in 1975. Italy, 1922-1943.
Amrita Pritam : The noted Punjabi poetess and nov- Changez Khan : born in 1155 A.D. was a Mongol
elist is the recipient of the Bharatiya Janapith Award for Chief. He is said to be one of the mightiest conquerors
1981. the world has ever produced; notoriously known as the
Dr. Alfred Nobel (1833-96), Swedish inventor of ‘Scourge of God’. He was a military genius of the highest
dynamite : in his will he left money for the annual prizes order.
named after him (for work done the benefit of marking in Cleopatra ; (69-30 B.C.) famous Egyptian Queen
physics, chemistry, physiology and medicine, literature whose beauty fascinated Julius Caesar whom she ac-
and peace). companied to Rome. She is known for her romance with
Antony dramatised by ShakesPeare in his love tragedy.
B.R. Ambedkar (1893-1956) : A well known Indian
jurist, statesman, social reformer and scheduled castes Lord Clive, (1725-1774) came to India as a clerk
leader. He was the chairman of the Constitution Drafting in the East India Company. He showed such remarkable
military genius that he became Commander-in-Chief. He
Committee and played a significant role; in drafting the
defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah supported by the French in the
Indian Constitution after India attained Independence.
Battle of Plassey in 1757. Returned to England in 1760;
He was honoured posthumously with the highest civilian
his later years were marked by mental disturbance and
award of Bahrat Ratna on April 14, 1990.
ultimately he committed suicide.

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Chaitanya (1445-1533) : born at Nadia in Bengal. Dalhousie, Lord : was the British Governor–General

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

He was a pioneer of Bhakti movement. He was devoted to of India from 1848 to 1856. His period of office was known
Lord Krishna and preached the doctrine of love. for extensive annexations and as far as the consolidation
Chanakya : He was the Prime Minister of Chan- of British power in India is concerned, he ranks with
dragupta Maurya who founded the Maurya dynasty. He Wellesley and Hastings.
is the author of Artha Shastra, an authentic book on Dayanand Sarawati : Great Hindu reformer of the
statecraft. He is also known by the name of Kautilya. 19th century and founder of the Arya Samaj.
Chand Bibi : Daughter of the King of Ahmad Nagar. Darius I (548-485 B.C.) : King of Persia, landed a
She was married to Ali Shah, kind of Bijapur. She bravely fought force in Greece in 490 but was beaten at Marathon.
against the soldiers of Aurangzeb but lost her life in the battle. Disraeli : (1804-1881) English statesman and novel-
Charles Spencor Chaplin (1889-1977) : The most ist. Became Prime Minister in 1868. He contributed greatly
famous of all film comedians. to the building up of a great Empire.
Charlemage (1742-1814). Emperor of the Holy Ro- David (1038-970 B.C.). King who united Israelites in
man Empire, his dominions stretched from the Atlantic Canaan.
to the Danube and Tibet. Dhanvantari : A renowned Indian physician who
Charles V (1510-1558). Holy Roman Emperor who adorned the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
ruled Austria, the Netherlands and Spain. Dhyan Chand : The grand old man of Indian Hockey.
Claudius Ptolemy, (c.90-168). Greek astronomer and Edisn : American inventor. Born in Ohio, he became
geographer, born in Alexandria; according to the Ptolemaic first a newsboy and then a telegraph operator. He invented
system, the earth was the center of the universe and the an automatic repeater for telegraphic messages, phono-
heavenly bodies revolved around it. graph, incandescent lamp.
Christopher Columbus, (1451-1506). Italian explorer Einstein (1879-1955) : German-Swiss world famous
in Spanish Service; landed on main land of South America scientist known for his theory of relativity. In 1933, he was
in 1498 and discovered Trinidad in 1502. driven by the Nazis and took asylum in the U.S.A.
Eisenhower : (1890-1969) : 34th President of the
Confucius (c. 551-479). The most celebrated of the
U.S.A. Supreme Commander of all the Allied armies in
Chinese philosophers.
the west during the second world war. He introduced
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) : He was a brave “Eisenhower Doctrine” in 1957, a policy of giving aid to
emperor of Gupta dynasty. In his time Hindustan was re- Middle Eastern countries against international communist
juvenated, and art and literature flourished unobstructed. aggression.
Fa-hien, the first Chinese pilgrim visited India during his
Elizabeth I (1533-1603) : Queen of England;
region. daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Spanish Armaj
Charak : (Ist Century A.D.). Famous physician ac- was defeated during her reign. Her reign is famous for
quainted with all branches of medicine including surgery development in literature, colonisation and naval power.
during the reign of King Kanishka. Shakespeare lived in her time.
C.R. Das : Lawyer, poet, journalist and politician, Epicurus : (342-270 B.C.) Greek philosopher; founder
co-founder of Swarajya Party. of Epicurean philosophy which taught that virtues should
C. Rajagopalachari, (1878-1972) : Popularly known be followed because they led to happiness.
as Rajaji, he was the first and last Indian who became Erasmus (1466-1536) : Dutch scholar and philoso-
Governor-General. Earlier, he was Chief Minister of Ma- pher, one of the great figures of the Renaissance.
dras, a Union Minister and Governor of West Bengal. He Euclid (330-260 B.C.), Greek mathematician who
was founder of the Swatantra Party. laid the foundations of modern geometry.
Count Leo Tolstoy, (1828-1910). Great Russian Euripides (480-406 B.C.) : Great Athenian tragic
novelist: author of War and Peace, generally regarded as dramatist.
the greatest novel ever written. Fa-hien : The first Chinese pilgrim who came to India
Charles Darwin, (1809-82). English naturalist whose during the reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
Origin of the Species first set out the theory of evolution Fabius Maximus (‘Conctator’) (d.203 B.C.). The
by means of natural selection. Roman dictator who saved Rome from Hannibal by delib-
Calvin, (1509-64). French religious reformer who erately avoiding battle. From this policy comes the term
‘Fabian tactics’.
preached his severe doctrine (Calvinism). In Geneva, where
he created a Protestant republic. Fahrenheit (1686-1736) : German physicist, inventor
of the method of reading a thermometer which bears his
Dante : (1265-1321) the greatest of Italian poets.
name.
Author of Divina Commedia.
Faraday (1791-1867) : English physicist and chemist,
Dara Shikoh : eldest son of ShahJahan who was founder of the science of electro-magnetism.
hostile to Aruangzeb. Aurangzeb, the second son of Shah-
St. Gregroy (257-336) : Founder of the Armenian
Jahan, captured the throne by killing Dara Shikoh in a
Church; his festival is 9th March.
battle.

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Gregory XIII (1502-1585), Pope who introduced the Haroun-al-Rashid (763-809) : the most famous
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

Gregorian calendar. Khalipha of Baghdad; hero of the Arabian Nights.

Grenville, (1541-1591), Elizabethan sea-captain Ibnbatuta : A South African scholar and traveller who
who, with his one ship, the Revenge, fought a fleet of visited India during 1333 AD. He spent 8 years in India
Spanish warships in 1591 and died on the deck of the and has written about the reign of Mohammad Tughlaq.
San Pablo. Ilango Adigal : A Chera Prince who is the author of
Gautam Buddha : The founder of Buddhism, was born the 7th century Tamil epic called Silappadigaram-or the
as a Kshatriya prince to Suddhodana, king of Kapilvastu jewel anklet.
in Nepal. His birth place is stated to be Lumbini village. Innocent III (1160-116), Powerful Pope who initiated
He renounced his royal heritage, and turned away from the 4th Crusade.
his pretty wife and infant son to ponder of the problems Ivan the Terrible (1530-84), First Czar of Russia, who
of birth, death and disease. He attained enlightenment earned his name by his cruel treatment of his subjects.
under a Bodhi tree in Bodha Gaya in Bihar.
Jesus Christ (c.4B.C.-A.D. 30 or 33), the founder of
Gagarin : Yuri Gagarin was the Russian cosmonaut Christianity: born at Bethlehem, the first-born of His moth-
and the first spaceman of the world. He was launched er Mary. According to Mathew, His birth was miraculous
into space in Vostok-1 on April 12, 1961 and brought and Josepli was His foster-father. He learned his father’s
back safely after a flight in space. Died in plane crash on trade of carpentry at Nazareth, and began His mission
March 27, 1968. when he was about thirty. A summary of His teaching is
Galileo (1564-1642) : Italian scientist. He was profes- found in the Semmon on the Mount.
sor of mathematics. He is known for invention of telescope. Joan of Arc : (1412-31) the girl whose heroism in-
Guru Gobind Singh : the tenth and the last Guru of spired the French to drive the English out of Oreleans and
the Sikhsa real founder of Sikh power whose major part enabled Charles to be proclaimed king. She was burnt as
of life was spent in fighting with the Mughals. a heretic at Rouen.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale : The doyen of Indian states- Julius Caesar : (100-44 B.C.) Roman general known
men and the chief leader of the moderate section of Indian for invasion of Gaul and Britain. Defeated Pompey in the
National Congress, Gopal Krishna Gokhale was the great- Civil Gaul War. His assassination by his trusted friend
est parliamentarian known to India. Bruttus is considered the most famous classic betrayal.
Jayadeva : He wrote Gita Govinda in the 12th cen-
Garibaldi : (1807-1882) the famous Italian soldier
tury. The book is noble specimen of lyrical poetry and
and patriot who was condemned to death in 1834 for
describes the love of Lord Krishna and his beloved Radha,
being concerned in a plot to seize a Government vessel,
their separation and final union.
but escaped to South America. Later he returned to Italy
Jayprakash Narayan : Socialist leader and thinker,
and became head of a great volunteer army, intent upon
devoted himself to Sarvodaya movement. Arrested during
liberating Italy.
Emergency in June 1975. His death in October 1979 cre-
Herod the Great (73-4 B.C.) : King of Judea under ated a moral vacuum.
the Romans: to him is attributed the massacre of the in- J.L. Nehru (1889-1964) : The great Indian leader and
nocents. maker of modern India. He was the first Prime Minister
Herodotus (485-425 B.C.) : Greek historian, called of free India from 1947 and remained in the office till his
“the father of history”. death.
Herschel, (1738-1822), Discoverer of the planet J.F. Kennedy (1917-1963) : President of the United
Uranus and the satellites of Saturn. States from 1961 until his assassination at Dallas, Texas,
in November 1963.
Hippocrates (460–370 B.C.) : Greek physician; ‘The
father of medicine’. Rules of conduct for doctors are still Kabir : was one of the greatest exponents of Bhakti
based on his Hippocratic Oath. Movement– a socio religious movement spread in the Mid-
dle Ages which aimed at stopping conversions to Islam and
Harshavardhana (606-647 A.D.) : was the last great fighting the tyranny of the Brahmins in the social set-up of
Hindu King of northern India. the Hindus. He believed in the unity of God and equality
Heiun-Tsang : Chinese pilgrim who visited India of all religions.
during the reign of King Harsha (606-647 A.D.). He has Kalhana : was poet and historian of Kashmir. He lived
left interesting records of the conditions in India at that in the 11th century A.D. He is author of Rajatarangini, his
time. masterpiece.
Homer (850 B.C.) : famous Greek epic poet. Author Kalidasa : (between (3rd c. B.C. and and 450 A.D.)
of the classics the IIiad and the Odyssey. the greatest epic Snaksrit poet and dramatist. Works :
Hannibal (247-183 B.C.) : Carthaginian general Shakuntala; Raghuvansham; Kumar Samhava; Meghdut;
crossed the Alps into Italy where he is unbeaten for 15 Ritusamhara.
years. Kamal Ataturk : builder of modern Turkey. He was
a fine soldier. He defended the Dardanelles against the
Hardicanute (1019-42) : son of Canute the Great, and
British in 1915 and drove the Greeks out of Turkey in
the last Danish king of England; imposed the tax known
1922. He was President of the Turkish Republic and virtual
as Danegeld.
dictator 1923-1938.

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Kanishka : was the third and the greatest king of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351) : a very

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

Kushan dynasty (120 A.D. to 162 A.D.) He was a great learned man who possessed an uncommon intelligence
conqueror, became a patron of Buddhism and was the and remarkable memory but was an unsuccessful and
only ruler of India who had his territory even in Central unpopular emperor.
Asia beyond the Pamirs. Montessori Madam (1970-1952) : Italian educator
Kharavela : was the ruler of Kalinga. He reigned and originator of the method of education known as Mon-
during the first century B.C. and Kalinga rose to great tessori system.
fame under his rule. He was a Jain. Machiavelli : (1469-1527) : a Florentine historian
Kepler (1571-1630) : German astronomer who and diplomat. Author of “The Prince”.
worked out the laws of planetary motion. Magellan : Commanded the first expedition in 1519
Krishnadeva Raya : The most famous Raja of Vi- to soil round the world. Discovered passages to the Pacific
jayanagar kingdom, the last great Hindu ruler of Southern from the Atlantic through Straits later on named after him.
India (1509-1529). He was a very learned man, capable Mahavira (599-527 B.C.) : founder of Jainism-a
ruler and a great warrior, who often defeated the Muslims. religious sect of the Hindus.
Kumaril Bhatta : was a well-known preacher of Hin- Malviya, Madan Mohan : a great Indian nationalist.
duism during the eighth century. He had been long associated with Congress Party and
Lamarck (1744-1829) : French naturalist, author of a was thrice elected its President. Leader of the Hindu Ma-
theory of the evolution of animals, known as Lamarckism. hasabha; founder of the Banaras Hindu University.
Lavoisier (1743-1794). French chemist who gave Man Singh : was the adopted son of Raja Bhagwan
oxygen its name and was the first to establish that com- Das. He fought against Rana Pratap; in 1576 and won the
bustion is a form of chemical action; guillotined during battle of Gogunda. He was appointed by Akbar to govern
the French Revolution. Kabul. He died in the ninth year of Jehangir’s reign.
Lloyd George : He was Prime Minister of Britain Manu : famous Hindu law-giver; author of Manu
(1916-1922). His resource-fulness; and diving power Simriti.
brought about the defeat of Germany. He was one of those Mao Tse-Tung : Chairman of Communist China
primarily responsible for the Versailles peace settlement. (People’s Republic of China) who died at the age of 82 was
Louis XVI (1754-1793) : The king of France who was inspiration behind the great communist revolution that
transformed China and sent shock waves throughout the
executed in 1793 after the French Revolution which had
world.
taken place in 1789.
Marco Polo : (1256-1323) : famous Venetian traveller
Leonardo da Vinci : one of the greatest all-round ge-
and explorer; the first European to visit China; made
niuses the world has known; painter, architect, sculptor,
journeys through China, India and other Eastern countries
scientist, engineer and musician. Famed as painter of the
and published a record of his wanderings.
Last Supper, Mona Lisa and other great works.
Martin Luthar : (1483–1546), great German religious
Lenin : (Russian) Nikolai Lenin (1870-1924) was
reformer who lived to see the principles of Reformation
founder of Bolshevik communism and by far the greatest
widely established.
single driving force behind the Soviet revolution of Octo-
ber-November 1917. His father was a schoolmaster. Newton : Sir Issac Newton (1642-1727) English
physical scientist and mathematician is generally known
Marconi (1874-1937). Inventor of the first practical
as world’s greatest man of science. He achieved immortal
method of wireless telegraphy.
fame for his work on the nature of white light, the calculus
Maria Theresa (1717-1780) : Empress of Austria. and the law of gravitation.
Queen of Bohemia and Hungary.
Nek Chand : The creator of the world famous Rock
Marie Antoniette (1755-93), Daughter of Maria Garden in Chandigarh has been bestowed official recog-
Theresa, and wife of Louis XVI of France. nition by the Punjab Government and Chandigarh Ad-
Mazzini (1805-1872) : Italian patriot who was com- ministration. He has also been honoured by French, the
pelled to leave the country while endeavouring to secure Japanese and the people of the United States.
independence of Italy. He was back in Rome in 1848 and Napoleon Bonaparte (1766-1821) : great French
was elected dictator of the Roman Republic. He could not statesman and soldier who rose to be the Emperor of
hold the position for long and when France occupied Rome post-Revolution France. He won series of splendid victo-
he was again driven to England. He, however, lived to see ries against England, Russia and Austria in 1805 but was
a unified Italy. completely defeated in the battle of Waterloo in June, 1815
Megasthenes : was an ambassador to Chandragupta and exiled to St. Helena where he died six years later.
Maurya’s court sent by Seleucus. He lived in Patilputra for Pythagoras (582–507 B.C.) : Greek scientist and
five years (302 B.C. to 298 B.C.). The account written by mathematician : to him is attributed the discovery of the
him of India is a source of our knowledge of that period. multiplication table, the decimal system and the square
Michaelangelo : the renowned Italian artist, painter, on the hypotenuse.
sculptor, architect and poet; one of the greatest geniuses. Phidias : specially famous for his works in gold, ivory
Mohammad, the Prophet : Born in 570 A.D. was the and bronze. Known for the sculptures in the British Mu-
founder of Islam. seum : The Elgin Marbles.

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Philip of Macedonia (382-336 B.C.) : Father of Al- Rabindra Nath Tagore : Great Indian poet, novelist,
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

exander the Great and king of Macedonia. philosopher and thinker. Awarded Nobel Prize for Litera-
Picasso (1881-1973) : Spanish painter. His work is ture in 1913. Works : Gitanjali : the Crescent Moon: Fruit
to be found in public galleries and private collections all Gathering; Gora; The Wreck; Gardener; Sadhana; Mashi;
over the world. The Post Office (Dakghar); Hungry Stones.
Plato (427-347 B.C.) : The renowned Greek philoso- Razia Begum : Daughter of Eltutmish; she was the
pher. His Dialogues and Republic are among the greatest first and the only Muslim lady who ever sat on the throne
ancient works. He was Socrates disciple and Aristotle’s of Delhi.
teacher. Lord Rippon : Governor-General of India (1880-1884);
Prithvi Raj Chauhan : A legendary figure in Indian famous for repeal of Vernacular Press Act; the first Census
history. A great warrior of his time, valiant soldier and of India in 1881 was taken in his time; Factory Act; policy
able ruler. He waged many wars against his neighbours. of free trade.
In 1191 he defeated Mohammad Ghori but next year in Robespierre (1758-1794) : Enthusiastic leader of
1192 was defeated by the latter and put to death. the Jacobian party who took active part in the French
Pulakesin II (608-642) : The most powerful ruler of Revolution.
Chalukya dynasty in the Deccan. He extended his territory Roger Bacon (1214-1294) : Inventor of Gun Powder
in all directions and in doing so came into conflict with and founder of experimental science; man of remarkable
both Harsha in the north and with the Pallavas in the gifts and inventive power.
south. He was successful during most of his reign but was
finally defeated and slain in conflict with the Pallavas. Roosevelt : Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) was
the 32nd President of the U.S.A. He was a great Ameri-
Pushyamitra Shunga (183-161 B.C.) : Was the Com-
can statesman who served as President from 1933 till his
mander-in-Chief of the Maurya armies in the last days
death, being the first President to be elected for more than
of the Mauryas. In approximately 185 B.C. he murdered
his master and founded the Sunga dynasty (185-72 B.C.), two terms. “His war-time meetings with Churchill and
Pushyamitra’s reign was marked by a Brahminical revival Stalin, and his energetic prosecution of the second World
as a reaction against Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhism. War were considered as the most important features of
his foreign policy.
Premachand (1880-1937) : A well-known Indian
writer and novelist. His Urdu and Hindi novels an short Rousseau (1712-1778) : Famous for his two remark-
stories have earned international recognition. able works Confessions and Le Contrat Social which gave
French a new field of thought and laid down principles of
Rajaraja I the Great (985-1014) : Was a king of the
government and conduct which bore fruit in the French
Chola dynasty in the south of India. He was a great con-
queror. His conquests included the territories the Cheras, Revolution.
Pandyas, Vengi Kalinga, and even Ceylon and the Laccadive Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833) : Raja Ram Mo-
and Maldive Islands. Under him, the Chola power reached han Roy was one of the greatest reformers that India has
its zenith. He was responsible for the creation of the great produced. He was instrumental in eradicating social evils
Siva temple at Tanjore. like Sati, Purdah and child marriage, from the Indian soil.
Rajendra Prasad, Dr. (1884-1963) : He was the first He advocated widow remarriage and stood for women’s
President of the Indian Republic (1950-1962). In early life, education. He was a profound scholar of Arabic, Persian
he was a prominent member of the Youth Movement in and Sanskrit. He was also the founder of Brahmo Samaj.
Bihar. In 1917, he joined the Congress and took active Sigmund Freud, (1856-1939) : Was originator of
part in the Non-co-operation Movement of 1920. He was psychoanalysis. He was born of Jewish parents and from
Minister for food in 1947; President of the Indian Constit- 1860 lived at Vienna until, following the Nazi occupation
uent Assembly (1946-1949). in 1938, he migrated to London. Some of his famous works
Ramakrishna Paramhansa : Great religious saint and are : The Interpretation by Dreams, The Psychopathology
teacher of Bengal whose teachings led Swami Vivekananda of Everyday Life, The Ego and the Id.
of found the Rama Krishna Mission. Socrates (470-399 B.C.) : Greek philosopher, whose
Raman, C.V. (1988-1970) : Was an eminent Indian teachings are known from the writings of his pupils, Xe-
scientist F.R.S. National Professor of physics and founder nophon and Plato. He taught people to think carefully and
Director of Raman Research Institute, Bangalore. He was logically. Charged with corrupting the morals of the young,
awarded Nobel Prize of his discovery of ‘Raman Effect’ he was condemned to die by drinking hemlock.
(1930). His work on study of crystal structure is of unique Solomon (10th c.B.C.) : Son of David, ruler of Israel
importance. He died on November 20, 1970. and Judah.
Ramanujacharya : The great Vaishnava teacher of
Solon : (638-558 B.C.). Great Athenian law-giver.
Tamil Nadu; founder of Bhakti Movement.
Sophocles (495-406 B.C.) : Popular Anthenian dra-
Rana Pratap : The bravest and the most illustrious
matist author of Antigone. Electra, Oedipus.
figure in the history of Rajputs. A great patriot who refused
to submit to Akbar-the great Mughal Emperor. Shivaji (1627-1680) : The great Maratha leader who
fought the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb tooth and nail. Shi-
Rana Sanga : Rajput ruler of Mewar; a veteran warrior
vaji drew his inspiration from his mother Jijabai and Guru
who had lost one eye, one hand, one leg and had scars of
Ramdas. He vanquished the general sent by Aurangzeb
eighty wounds on his body. Defeated by Babar in 1527 at
and succeeded in establishing a Hindu State in Deccan.
the battle of Kanwaha.

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Surdas : A blind poet who worshipped Krishna and Vivekananda (1863-1902) : A great Hindu saint and

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

spread Krishna Bhakti cult. Sur Sagar and Shaitya Lahari religious leader; founder of the Ramakrishna Mission. He
are the collections of his poems. was born in Calcutta on January 12, 1863 and his original
Samudragupta (330-375 A.D.) : Son and successor name was Narendranath Dutta.
of Chandra Gupta I; one of the most powerful and the He led the Vedanta movement. His message influenced
ablest of the Hindu kings; a great military genius, a great many of India’s leaders in national awakening in the 20th
scholar, poet and musician; known as the Indian Napoleon century. He asked his countrymen to cultivate faith in
on account of his great conquests. themselves. He died on January 4, 1902, at the age of 39.
Stalin (1879-1953) : Soviet statesman. He was leader Voltaire (1694-1778) : One of the greatest of French
of the Russian People for nearly thirty years. He was an philosophers and writers. Author of Essays on the Morals;
active revolutionary from the age of 17 and took an im- Spirit of Nations.
portant part in civil war 1917 and became an outstanding
figure in Russia after the death of Lenin. He assumed V.D. Savarkar : Was an ardent Indian nationalist
military leadership against the German invasion, June who was in the front ranks of the freedom fighters in the
1941. After his death, he was severely criticised by the twenties. He was sentenced by the British to transportation
Russian leaders. for life his part in a conspiracy case. He remained President
Sun Yat-sen : The founder and the first President of of the Hindu Mahasabha for a long time. He wrote an
the Chinese Republic, 1912. In 1905, founded the China account of the happenings of 1857 under the title first
Revolutionary League in Europe and Japan and played a Indian War of Independence. He died in 1966.
prominent part in the 1911 revolution. Warren Hastings : He was the first Governor-General
Saiyyad Ahmed, Sir (1817-1898) : An educationist (1774-1785) in India during the British reign. His period
and reformer of the Muslim community in India. He estab- is known for Regulating Act, 1773; First Marhatta War
lished the M.A.O. College at Aligarh in 1875 which later (1775-1782) and Pitt’s India Act, 1784 to improve the
became Aligarh Muslim University. Indian administration.
Shri Narayana Guru : Was great social reformer, Walt Disney : American cartoonist; creater of Mickey
saint and philosopher of Kerala who has a place next to Mouse and other cartoons shown on the screen and ‘True
Adi Sankara. He flourished in the first half of the twentieth Life Adventures’.
century and worked for eradication of untouchability and Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) : American President
social equality based on caste. He was the first to propa- 1913-1921; famous for his fourteen points and largely
gate the idea of “one caste, one religion and one God” responsible for the setting up of the League of Nations.
for man.
Simuka : Was the founder of Satavahana dynasty. INDIA IN WORLD HERITAGE LIST
He is said to have destroyed the power of the Kanvas and
the remnants of the Sungas. 1983 Ajanta Caves
Timur : A notorious Muslim warrior from Central 1983 Ellora Caves
Asia. He is remembered for his invasion and sack of Delhi
1983 Agra Fort
where he ordered indiscriminate massacre and plunder.
His invasion had caused the end of Tughlaq dynasty. 1983 Taj Mahal
Tipu Sultan : Ruler of Mysore, who succeeded his 1984 Sun Temple, Konark
father Haider Ali. He allied himself with the French and
1985 Mahabalipuram monuments
declared war on the English. When the Marathas and the
Nizam combined together, he was defeated and killed in 1985 Kaziranga National Park
the battle of Srirangapttam. 1985 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary
Tegh Bahadur, Guru : Son of Hargobind whose ter- 1985 Keoladeo National Park
centenary of martyrdom was celebrated throughout the
country on the December 6, 1975 was the ninth Guru of 1986 Churches and Convents of Goa
Sikhs. He was ordered by Emperor Aurangzeb to embrace 1986 Khajuraho Group of monuments
Islam; he refused and was executed.
1986 Group of monuments at Hampi
Tansen (1506-1589) : Celebrated musician and one
of the Nav Ratnas in the court of Akbar. He was a great 1986 Fatehpur Sikri & Churchs and Convent of Goa
exponent of Indian classical music. 1987 Group of monuments of Pattadakal
Todarmal : One of the Nav Ratnas and Revenue Min- 1987 Elephanta Caves, Maharastra
ister in the Court of Akbar. Famous for reforms in Land
Revenue Administration. 1987 Brihadeshvara Temple, Thanjavur
Tolstoy, Leo : was a great Russian writer, Mahatma 1987 Sundarban National Park
Gandhi was greatly influenced by his works. 1988 Nanda Devi National Park
Varahmihira (505-587) : Was a distinguished Indian 1989 Buddhist monuments at Sanchi
astronomer, mathematician and philosopher. He was one
of the nine gems of the court of king Vikramaditya. 1993 Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi’

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1983 Qutub Minar and its monuments-Delhi ANSA Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Rome
1999 Darjeeling Himalayan Railway Associate

2002 Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya ANTARA Indonesian National News Jakarta
Agency
2003 Marble Rocks, Bhimbhetaka
2004 Brihadeshvar Temple of Gangaikondacholapu- AP Associated Press New York
ram APP Agence Parisienne de Paria
2004 Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram Presse
2004 Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park, APP Associated Press of Paki- Islamabad
Gujarat stan
2004 Chhatrapati Shivaji Railway Station, Mumbai AUP Australian United Press elbourne
2005 ‘Phoolon Kee Ghatee’ (Valley of flower), Ut-
BERNAMA Malayasian National News Kuala Lum-
taranchal
Agency pur
2007 ‘Red Fort’, Delhi
BSS Bangladesh Sangbad Dhaka
2008 Kalka–Shimla Railway Sangstha
2010 Jantar-Mantar, Jaipur
CANA Caribbean News Agency ridgetown
2012 Western Ghat
CNS China News Service Beijing
2013 Hill Forts of Rajasthan
CP Canadian Press Toronto
2014 Rani Ki Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan,
Gujarat CSTK Ceskoslovenska Tiskova Prague
2014 Great Himalayan National Park conservation Kancelar
Area DPA Deutsche Press Agentur Hamburg
2016 Archaeological site of Nalanda Mahavihara,
EXTEL Exchange and Telegraph London
Bihar
Company
2016 Khangchendzonga National park (Sikkim)
GNA Agence Guineennede Conakry
2016 Architectural work of Le Corbusier (Chandi- Press (Guinea)
garh).
GNA Ghana News Agency Accra
2017 Ahmedabad City, Gujarat
2018 Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of INA Iraqi News Agency Baghdad
Mumbai. IPS Inter Press Service Rome
2019 The Pink city of Jaipur IRNA Islamic Republic News Tehran
2021 Kakatia Rudreshwara, (Ramappa Temple), Agency
Telangana
ITIM Associated Israel Press TelAviv
2021 Dhaulavira (A Harappan City)m, Gujarat
KNA Kenya News Agency Nairobi
NEWS AGENCIES OF WORLD KUNA Kuwait News Agency Kuwait City

Agency Full Form Headquarters KYODO Kyodon Tsushin Tokyo

AA Anadol Ajansi Ankara MENA Middle East News Agency Cairo

AAP Australian Associated Sydney NOVOSTI Agentstvo Pechati Novosti Moscow

Press NPS Norsk Press Service Oslo
ADN Allgemeiner Deutscher Berlin NZPA New Zealand Press Agency Wellington
Nachrichtendienst
PANA Pan-African News Agency Dakar
AE Agence Europe Brussels
PNA Philippines News Agency Manila
AFP Agence France Presse Paris
PPI Pakistan Press Interna- Karachi
ANA Athenagence Athens tional
ANGOP Angola Agecia Naticiosa Luanda PTI Press Trust of India Mumbai
N’gola Press
REURT- Reuters London
ANP Algemeen Nederlands The Hague ERS
Persbureau

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SPA Saudi Press Agency Riyadh Japan Naicho
TANJUG Novinska Agencija Tanjug Belgrade Russia K.G.B. (Komitel Gosudarstvennoy
Bezopasnosty) or,
TASS Telegraph Agency of the Moscow
Sovereign States (Committee for State Security), G.R.U.,
FSB, SVR
UNI United News of India New Delhi
Canada Security Intelligence Service
UPI United Press International New York
South Africa B.O.S.S. (Bureau of State Security),
XINHUA Xinhua Beijing National Intelligence

LANKAP SriLanka News Agency Colombo Iran SAVAK (Sazamane Etelaat Va Amniate
-UVATH Kechvar)

NAMPA Namibia Press Agency Windhoek Iraq Al-Mukhabarat, General Security

Directorate
ZIANA Zimbabwe Inter-Africa Harare
News Agency Australia Australian Security and Intelligence
Organisation
HIGHEST HONOURS OF SOME COUNTRIES France D.G.S.E. (Direction General de Securite
Exterieur)
India Bharat Ratna Spain C.E.S.I.D.
Pakistan Nishan-e-Pakistan Cuba D.G.I.
Kuwait Mubarak-Al-Kabir Medal China Central External Liaison Department
Saudi Arabia Shah Abdul Aziz Medal
Major News Papers of the World
Argentina The Order of Sona Martin
Newspaper Country
Vietnam The Order of the Golden Star People’s Daily China
Hungary The Order of Banner Mainichi Daily News Japan

Britain Victoria Cross The New Zeland Herald New Zeland

The Press New Zeland
Japan Order of Moulovenice Sun
The Scotsman UK
Denmark Order of Diana Brog
The Guardian UK
France Legend of Honour
The Herald UK
USA Presidential Medal of Freedom The Courier UK
Germany Pore Lee Merit Iron Cross Merdeka Indonesia
The Netherlands Netherlands Lion Pravada Russia
The Hindu India
INTELLIGENCE AGENCIES OF SOME COUNTRIES The Sydeny Morning Australia
Country Intelligence Agency Herald

India Research & Analysis Wing (RAW), The Age Australia

Intelligence Bureau (I.B.), Central Globe and Mail Canada
Bureau of Investigation (CBI)
The Gazette Canada
Pakistan Inter Service Intelligence (I.S.I)
Le Monde Dawn Paris (France)
U.S.A. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Dawn Pakistan
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
Die Welt Germany
Britain (U.K.) Military Intelligence (M.I.) 5 and 6,
The Times Britain
Special Branch, Joint Intelligence
Organisation The Sun Britain

Israel Mosad New York Times USA

Washington Post USA
Egypt AL-Mukhabarat AL - Ammah

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PRINCIPAL TEN LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD Russia Liberal Democratic Party, Democratic
Language Total Speak- Areas Where Choice of Russia, United Russia Party
er of the Spoken
South Africa African National Congress, National Par-
Language (In
ty, Inkatha Freedom Party
Millions)
1. Mandarin 1.3 Billion China Sri Lanka United National Party, Freedom Party
2. Spanish 471 Spain, U.S.A., UK Conservative Party, Labour Party, Liber-
Cuba al Democratic Party
3. English 370 England, U.S.A.,
Australia USA Republican Party, Democratic Party
New Zealand,
Zimbabwe, Hong OFFICIAL HEADS OF THE STATES OF THE
Cong, S. Africa, WORLD
Canada, India Heads of the Official Residence Location
4. Hindi 342 India states
5. Arabic 315 Central East President of India Rashtrapati New Delhi
6. Portuguese 232 Portugal Bhawan

7. Bengali 229 India, Bangla- Prime Minister of 7 Lok Kalyan Marg New Delhi
desh India
8. Russian 154 Russia Prime Minister of 24 Sussex Drive Ottawa
9. Japanese 126 Japan Canada

10. Pubjabi 118 India, Canada, Prime Minister of 10 Downing Street London
Pakistan England
(United Kingdom)
POLITICAL PARTIES OF MAJOR COUNTRIES President of Italy Quirinal Palace Rome

Country Political Party President of USA White House Washington

President of Los Pinos Mexico City
Australia Liberal Party, Labour Party
Mexico
Bangladesh Bangladesh Nationalist Party, Awami President of Aras an Uachtarain Dublin
League, Jatiya Party Ireland
China Communist Party of China President of Spain Palacio de la Madrid
Moncloa
France Socialist Party, National Front. Union for
French Democracy Monarch of the Buckingham Palace London
United
India Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Bhartiya Kingdon (England)
Janta Party (BJP), Communist Party of
India (CPI), Communist Party of India Chancellor of Berlin Federal Berlin
(Marxist) (CPM), Indian National Con- Germany Chancellory
gress (INC), Nationalist Congress Party (Bundeskanzleramt)
(NCP), All India Trinamool Congress President of Istana Merdeka Jakarta
(AITC) etc.
Indonesia
Iraq Ba’ath Party President of Aiwan-e-Sadr Islamabad
Pakistan
Israel Labour Party, Likud Party, Hamas Party,
Shas Party President of Belem Palace Lisbon
Portugal
Nepal Nepali Communist Party, Nepali Con-
gress Party, Madhesi Jana Adhikar Prime Minister of The Lodge Canberra
Forum Australia

Pakistan Muslim League, Pakistan People Party Monarch of Chateau de Laeken Brussels
Belgium

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President of South Cheong Wa Dae Seoul OFFICIAL BOOKS OF MAJOR COUNTRIES
Korea (House with Blue Yellow Book French official book
Rooftiles)
White Paper An official paper of the Government of
South Africa Union Buildings Pretoria Britain and India on a particular issue
Srilanka President Temple Trees Colombo Joint Paper The joint report of two or more than two
(Official governments
Residence of the Blue Book An official report of the British Government
Prime Green Book An official publications of Italy and Iran
minister, Currently
Grey Book An official report of the Government of
used
Japan and Belgium
by the President)
O r a n g e An official publication of the Government
President of Nepal Sheetal Niwas Kathmandu Book of Netherlands
Prime Minister of Baluwatar Kathmandu White Book An official publication of China, Germany
Nepal and Portugal

First In India (Male)

First President of Indian Republic Dr. Rajendra Prasad
First Vice- President of Independent India Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
First Prime Minister of Independent India Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru
First Home Minister of Independent India Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel
First Education Minister of Independent India Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
First large-scale Atomic Reactor of India Apsara (1956)
First Governor of Bengal Lord Clive (1757 - 60)
Last Governor of Bengal Warren Hastings (1772 - 74)
First Governor General of Bengal Warren Hastings (1774 - 85)
First Governor General of India Lord William Bentic (1833 - 35)
Last Governor General and First Viceroy of India Lord Canning (I856-62)
First Commander-in-Chief of Free India General K.M. Cariappa
First Indian Nobel Laureate Rabindra Nath Tagore
First Indian Judge of the International Court of Justice Dr. Nagendra Singh
First Indian to get Bharat Ratna Award Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
First Field Marshal General S.F.J. Manekshaw
The President of Constituent Assembly Dr. Rajendra Prasad
First Indian to swim across the English Channel Mihir Sen
First Indian to get Jnanpeeth Award G. Shankar Kurup
First Muslim President of Indian Republic Dr Zakir Hussain
First Indian to win Palk-Strait Ocean Swimming Contest Baidyanath Nath
First Speaker of Lok Sabha G. V. Mavlankar (1952-57)
First person to make Printing Press popular in India James Hicky
First President of Indian National Congress W.C. Banerjee
First Indian Governor General of Independent India C. Rajgopalachari (21 June,1948 to 25 Jan.,1950)
First Indian to pass ICS Surendra Nath Banerjee
First Indian I.C.S. Officer Satyendra Nath Tagore
First Governor General of India (After Independence) Lord Louis Mountbatten
(15 Aug., 1947-20 June, 1948)
First Indian Cosmonaut (to go into space) Sqn. Ldr. Rakesh Sharma

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First temporary President of the Constitutent Assembly Dr. Sachchida Nand Sinha
First Chief of Air Staff Air Marshal Sir Thomas Elmhirst
First Indian Air Chief of India Air Marshal S. Mukherjee
First Chief of Army Staff General M. Rajendra Singh
First Chief of Naval Staff of India Vice-Admiral R.D. Katari
First Person to get Paramvir Chakra Major Somnath Sharma
First Atomic Submarine of India I.N.S. Chakra
First Indian Scientist to get Nobel Prize C.V. Raman (Physics)
First Indian Submarine I.N.S. Cauveri
First Scientist of Indian origin, to get Nobel Prize in the field of Dr. Hargovind Khurana
Medical Science
First British to visit India Hawkins
First Asian Games organised Delhi (in 1951)
India’s first Election Commissioner Sukumar Sen
First Muslim President of Indian National Congress Badruddin Tayab Ji
First Chief Justice of India Justice Hiralal J. Kania
First Person to submit the proposal of Indian Independence in a Hasrat Mohani
Congress Session
India’s first organised University Nalanda University
First Indian to climb Mt. Everest without Oxygen cylinder Sherpa Phu Dorji
First foreign recipient of Bharat Ratna Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan
First Indian recipient of Nobel Prize in Economics Dr. Amartya Sen
First Army Institute of Information Technology founded Hyderabad
First Aircraft Carrier Indian Ship I.N.S. Vikrant
First Chinese pilgrim to visit India Fa-hien
First Medium Range Missile Agni
First e-business News Paper of India Financial Express
First Scientist of Indian origin to win Nobel Prize in Physics Subrahmanium Chandrashekhar
First Indian Missile Prithvi
First Indian to win Stalin Award Saiffudin Kichlu
India’s first Nuclear Centre Tarapur
First Indian to win Magsaysay Award Acharya Vinoba Bhave (1958)
India’s first Open University Andhra Pradesh Open University
India’s first Lok Sabha Member to be elected with a record maximum P.V. Narasimha Rao
number of votes
India’s first minister to resign from Union Cabinet Shyama Prasad Mukherjee (1950)
First Deputy Prime Minister of India Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel
First Indian Prime Minister to resign from office Morarji Desai
First Indian Prime Minister to loose an Election Indira Gandhi
First President of India to die in office Dr. Zakir Hussain
First Man to climb Mt. Everest twice Nawang Combu Sherpa
First Indian to reach the South Pole Col. I.K. Bajaj
First Indian recipient of ‘Oscar Award’ Bhanu Athaiya
First American President to visit India Dwight David Eisenhower
First British Prime Minister to visit India Harold Mc Millon

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First Indian author to get Anderson Award Ruskin Bond
First Indian to win World Billiards Trophy Wilson Jones
First Indian Space Tourist Santosh George
First Test Tube Baby of India lndira (Baby Harsha)
First Indian Pilot J.R.D. Tata (1929)
First Indian to reach Antarctica Lt. Ram Charan (1960)
First Post-Office opened in India Kolkata (1727)

FIRST IN INDIA (FEMALE)

India’s first Woman President Smt. Pratibha Patil

India’s first Woman Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi
India’s first Woman Governor Sarojini Naidu
First Indian Woman President of I. N. Congress Sarojini Naidu (1925)
First Indian Woman to win the Booker Prize Arundhati Roy
First Woman Musician to get ‘Bharat Ratna’ M.S. Subbulakshmi
First Indian Woman to go into space Kalpana Chawla
First Woman Chief Minister of a state Sucheta Kripalani (U.P.)
First Woman Union Minister/First Union Health Minister Rajkumari Amrita Kaur
First Woman President of INC Annie Besant
First Woman Judge of the Suprime Court Meera Sahib Fatima Bibi
First Woman to get Ashok Chakra Nirja Bhanot
First Indian Woman Ambassador at United Nations Vijayalakshmi Pandit
India’s first Woman ruler (on Delhi’s throne) Razia Sultan
India’s first Woman I.P.S. officer Kiran Bedi
First Indian Woman to swim across English Channel Arati Saha (Gupta)
First Indian Woman to become ‘Miss Universe’ Sushmita Sen
First Indian Woman to get Bharat Ratna Smt. Indira Gandhi
First Woman to get Jnanpith Award Ashapurna Devi
First Indian Woman to win WTA Title Sania Mirza
First Indian Woman Airline Pilot Durga Banerjee
First Indian Woman to win a Gold in Asian Games Kamaljeet Sandhu
First Indian Woman to get the Noble Prize Mother Teresa (1979)
First Indian Woman to climb the Mt. Everest Bachendri Pal
First Indian Woman to become ‘Miss World’ Miss Reita Faria
First Indian Woman to climb the ‘Mt. Everest’ twice Santosh Yadav

FIRST IN WORLD (MALE & FEMALE)

First person to sail around the world Ferdinand Magellan
First country to send human to Moon United States of America
First country to launch satellite into space Russia (former USSR)
First country to host the modern Olympic games Greece
First President of the Republic of China Dr. Sun Yat-sen
First city to be attacked with Atom bomb Heroshima (Japan)

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First Radio Telescope Satellite was launched into space Japan

First man to reach North Pole Robert Peary
First man to reach South Pole Ronald Amundsen
First religion of the world Sanatan Dharma
First country to print books China
First Russian (Soviet) Prime Minister to visit India V.I. Bulganin
First University of the world Taxila University
First man to set foot on the Moon Neil Armstrong (U.S.A.)
First man to go into space Major Yuri Gagarin (USSR)
First Space Shuttle launched Columbia
First Space Ship landed on Mars Viking-I (July 1976)
First Woman Prime Minister of England Margaret Thacher
First Woman Prime Minister of any muslim country Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan)
First Woman Prime Minister of a country S. Bhandarnayake (Sri Lanka)
First Woman cosmonaut in space Valentina Tereshkova (USSR)
First country to issue paper currency China
First country to start Civil Services Competetion China
First President of United States of America George Washington
First Prime Minister of Great Britain Robert Walpole
First Secretary General of United Nations Trigve Li
First country to make education compulsory Prussia/Germany
First country to win the World Cup Football Uruguay (1930)
First country to make a constitution United State of America
Pakistan’s first Governor General Mohammed Ali Jinnah
First summit of NAM was organised in Belgrade (former Yugoslavia)
First European to visit China Marco Polo
First men to fly an aeroplane Wright Brothers (Wilbur and Orville Right)
First men to climb Mt. Everest Sherpa Tenzing Norgay & Sir Edmund Hillary (29th
May, 1953)
First Woman to climb Mt. Everest Junko Tabei (Japan)
First Woman President of UN General Assembly Smt. Vijayalakshmi Pandit (1953)
First European Invader of Indian soil Alexander, The Great
First Woman to reach the North Pole Ann Bancroft
First Woman to reach Antarctica Jackie Ronne
The oldest man to climb Mt. Everest Yuichiro Miura (Japan)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Literature Rene F.A. & Sulli Pradhom (France)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Peace Jin F. Dunant (Switzerland) & Frederic Peiry (France)
First man to draw the map of earth Anaxiemander (610-542 BC)
First man to compile Encyclopaedia Aspheosis (Athens)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Physics W.K. Roentgen (Germany)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Chemistry J.H. Wenthoff (Howlland)

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First man to win Nobel Prize for Medicine A.E Wonn Behrig (Germany)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Economics Rangar Fish (Norway) & John Tinbergen (Howland)
First Woman President of a country Maria Estela Peron (Argentina)
First Space Tourist (Male) Dennis Tito (U.S.A.)
First Space Tourist (Female) Mrs. Anousheh Ansari (Irani American)
First Asian to win Wimbledon Trophy Arthur Ashe (U.S.A.)
First deaf and dumb to cross the Srait of Gibralter Taranath Shenoy (India)

INDIA
(The Biggest, Highest, Largest, Longest, Smallest etc.)
The longest National Highway NH—44 (Srinagar to Kanyakumari)
The state with longest Coast line Gujarat
The highest Lake Tso Lhamo/Cholamu Lake (Sikkim)
The largest saline water Lake Chilka Lake (Odisha)
The largest fresh water Lake Kolleru Lake (Andhra Pradesh)
The Longest Natural Cave Krem Liat Prah (Meghalaya)
The longest river of southern India Godavari
The longest Dam Hirakud Dam (Odisha)
The highest Gallantry Award Param Vir Chakra
The highest Award Bharat Ratna
The largest Gurudwara Golden Temple, Amritsar
The biggest Church Calvary Temple, Hyderabad (Telangana)
The tallest TV Tower Fazilka (Punjab)
The southern Indian state with Longest Coast line Andhra Pradesh
The longest Sea Beach Marina Beach (Chennai)
The Highest Road Road at Khardung La, (in Leh-Manali Sector)
The longest River The Ganga
The largest Museum Indian Museum, Kolkata
The largest Dome Gol Gumbuz, Bijapur (in Karnataka)
The tallest Statue Statue of Unity (Gujarat)
The largest Public Sector Bank State Bank of India
The biggest canti lever Bridge Rabindra Setu or Howrah Bridge (Kolkata)
The Fastest Train of India Vande Bharat Express (180 kmph)
The Longest Train in India Shesh Naag Trian (2.8 km Long)
The Longest Railway Routes of India Vivek Express – Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari (4286 km)
The longest Canal Indira Gandhi Canal or Rajasthan Canal (Rajasthan)
The longest Railway platform Gorakhpur (U.P.) 1366.33 m
The longest Railway tunnel Pir Panjal Rly. Tunnel (J & K) 11.215km
The bigest Stadium Yuva Bharti (Salt Lake) Stadium Kolkata
The most populous City Mumbai (Maharashtra)
The largest Sea Bridge Bandra-Worli Sea link bridge/Rajiv Gandhi Sea link (Mumbai)
The longest Passenger Train Route Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari
The oldest Church St. Thomas Church at Palauya, Trichur (Kerala)
The largest Artificial Lake Dhebar/Jaisamand Lake, Udaipur (Rajasthan)
The deepest River Valley Bhagirathi and Alaknanda
The largest River without delta Narmada and Tapti
The highest battle field and the longest Glacier Siachen Glacier
The biggest river Island Majuli Bramhaputra river, (Assam)

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The largest Planetarium Birla Planetorium (Kolkata)

The Highest Airport Leh Airport (Ladakh),
The longest river Bridge Bhupen Hazarika Setu (9.15 km) (Dhola-Sadiya Bridge)
The largest animal Fair Sonepur (Bihar)
The largest Auditorium Sri Shanmukhanand Hall (Mumbai)
The largest Lake Wular Lake (J & K)
The highest Dam Tehri Dam, on Bhagirathi river (Uttarakhand)
The largest Desert Thar (Rajasthan)
The largest cave Temple Kailash Temple (Ellora, Maharashtra)
The largest Mosque Jama Masjid (Delhi)
The highest Peak Godwin Austen/K-2 (8611m)
The longest Tunnel Zojila tunnel (Asia's longest)
The largest Delta Sunderbans (W, Bengal)
The state with maximum forest area Madhya Pradesh
The longest Corridor Corridor of Ramnathswami Temple at Rameswaram (Tamil Nadu)
The highest Waterfall Jog or Garsoppa (Karnataka)
The longest Road Grand Trunk Road (Kolkata to Delhi)
The highest Gate way Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri (UP)

WORLD
(The Largest, Biggest, Smallest, Longest, Highest etc.)
Largest City (in population) Tokyo [(3,71,26,000), Est. population in 2011]
Largest Continent Asia
Smallest Continent Australia
Largest Country (in population) China
Largest Country (in area) Russia
Largest Coral Formation The Great Barrier Reef (Australia)
Largest Dam Grand Coulee - Concrete Dam (U.S.A)
Longest Day June 21 (in Northern Hemisphere)
Largest Bird Ostrich
Smallest Bird Bee Humming Bird
Longest Bridge (Railway) Dan Yang-Kunshan Grand Bridge, Beijing (China)
Tallest Building Burj Khalifa, Dubai (U.A.E.)
Tallest Residential Building 432, Park Avenue, New York (US)
Biggest Cinema House Roxy (New York)
Highest City Wen Zhuan (Tibet, China) 16,732 ft.
Biggest City (in area) Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia (43,310 sq. km.)
Shortest Day Dec. 22 (in Northern Hemisphere)
Deepest Lake Baikal (Siberia, Russia); depth 5314 feet (1,637m)
Highest Lake Titicaca (Bolivia) 12,645 ft. above sea level
Largest Delta Sundarbans, India (8000 sq. miles)
Largest Desert (world) Sahara, Africa (84,00,000 sq. km)
Largest Diamond The Cullinan (over 1½ Ib.)
Longest Epic The Mahabharata
Largest Island Greenland (renamed Kalaatdlit Nunaat)
Largest Lake (Artificial) Lake Volta (Ghana)

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Largest Lake (Fresh water) Lake Superior, U.S.A.
Largest Lake (Salt water) Caspian Sea (3,71,000 sq. km.)
Largest Mosque Masjid al-Haram, Mecca, Saudi Arabia (3,56,800 sq.m)
Biggest Library National Kiev Library, Moscow and Library of the Congress,
Washington
Highest Mountain Peak (world) Everest (Nepal) 29,035 ft. (8,850 m)
Highest Mountain Range Himalayas
Longest Mountain Range Andes (S. America) about 7,000 km in length
Biggest Museum British Museum (London)
Tallest Minaret (Free standing) Qutub Minar, Delhi 238 ft.
Tallest minaret Great Hassan Mosque, Casablanca, Morocco
Tallest Animal (on land) Giraffe
Biggest Bell Tsar Bell, Moscow
Fastest Bird Peregrine Falcon (322 km/hr)
Busiest Port Rotterdam (the Netherlands)
Longest Railway Trans-Siberian Railway (9,259 km long)
Longest River Nile (6690 km), Amazon (6570 km)
Longest River Dam Hirakud Dam (Odisha), India 15.8 miles
Largest Sea-bird Albatross
Largest Sea (inland) Caspian Sea (1,43,200 sq. miles)
Brightest Star Sirius (also called Dog Star)
Tallest Statue Statue of Unity, (Gujarat), 182 m (597 ft.)
Tallest Statue (bronze) Bronze Statue of Lrod Buddha, Tokyo (Japan)
Tallest Tower Burj Khalifa (UAE) 829.8 m (2722) ft.
Longest and Deepest Rail Tunnel Gotthard Tunell (Switzerland), (57 km)
Longest and Largest Canal Tunnel Le Rove Tunnel (South of France)
Longest Tunnel (Road) Laerdal, Norway
Highest Volcano Ojos del Salado, Andes, Argentine-Chile (6,885 m.)
Largest Volcano Mauna Loa (Hawaii)
Longest Wall Great Wall of China (1500 miles)
Highest Waterfall Salto Angel Falls (Venezuela)
Longest Strait Tartar Straits (Sakhalin Island and the Russian mainland)
Deepest And Biggest Ocean The Pacific
Largest Palace Imperial Palace (Gugong), Beijing (China)
Largest Park National Park, Greenland
Largest Peninsula Arabia (32,50,000 sq. km.)
Coldest Place or Region Vostok (Antarctica), Temperature–89.2°C
Driest Place Atacama Desert (South America)
Largest Planet Jupiter
Brightest and Hottest Planet (also nearest to Earth) Venus
Farthest Planet (from the sun) Neptune
Nearest Planet (to the sun) Mercury
Smallest Planet Mercury
Highest Plateau Pamir (Tibet)

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Longest Platform (Railway) Gorakhpur (U.P.) India (1366.33 m)

Largest Platform (Railway) Grand Central Terminal New York (U.S.A.)
Largest Port Europoort Port and Port of Rotterdam (together), Netherlands
Broadest Strait Davis Straits (Greenland and Baffin Island, Canada)
Narrowest Strait Chaliks-45 yards (Between the Greek mainland the island of
Euboea in the Aegean Sea)
Largest Gulf Gulf of Mexico, Shoreline 2100 miles
Largest Archipelago Malay Archipelago, Indonesia
Tallest Active Geyser Giant (geyser) Yellowstone Park U.S.A. 200 feet high
Largest Church Basilica, of St. Peter, Vatican City, Rome (Italy)
Largest Temple Angkor Vat (Combodia)
Largest Diamond Mine Kimbarley (S.Africa)
Largest River in Volume Amazon, Brazil
Longest Corridor Rameshwaram Temple’s Corridor (5000 feet)
Highest Straight Dam Bhakhra Dam (India)
Highest Capital City La Paz (Bolivia)
Largest Asian desert Gobi, Mongolia
Largest Democracy India
Longest Thoroughfare Verazano-Narrows, New York City Harbour
Largest Neck Animal Giraffe
Largest Animal of the Cat Family Lion
Most Intelligent Animal Chimpanzee
Bird, that never makes its nest Cuckoo
Wingless Bird Kiwi
Reptile which changes its colours Chameleon
Largest Mammal Whale
Largest River Basin Amazon basin -27,20,000 sq. miles
World’s Rainiest spot Cherrapunji (Mawsynram), India
Largest Gorge Grand Canyon, on the Colorado river, U.S.A.
Lightest Gas Hydrogen
Lightest Metal Lithium
Highest Melting Point Tungsten, 3410°C
Hardest Natural Substance Diamond
Longest Animal Blue whale, (recorded length 106 feet, weight - 195 tons)
Longest Life-span of an Animal 190 to 200 years, (Giant tortoise)
Largest Land Animal African Bush Elephant
Fastest Animal Cheetah (Leopard) 70 m.p.h.
Longest jump Animal Kangaroo
Longest wing spread bird Albatross
Slowest Animal Snail
Fastest Dog Persian Grey Hound (speed 43 m.p.h.)
Longest Poisonous Snake King Cobra
Biggest Flower Refflesia (Java)

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SOBRIQUETS William Gladstone Grand old Man of Brit-
ain
Personalities Sobriquets Duke of Wellington The Iron Duke
Sunil Gavaskar Sunny, Little Master Richard Cobden Apostle of Free Trade
Maharajah of Vizianaga- Vizzy Henry Kissinger Desert Camel
ram (cricketeer)
Mussolini Deuce
K.M. Munshi Kulapati
Earl of Warwick Kingmaker
J.B. Kripalani Acharya
M.A. Jinnah Quaid-e-Azam
Bal Gangadhar Tilak Lokamanya
Dr. Ho Chi Minh Uncle Ho
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan Frontier Gandhi, Bad-
shah Khan Geoffrey Chaucer Father of English Poetry

Tipu Sultan Mysore Tiger Sir Walter Scott Wizard of the North

Dadabhai Naoroji Grand Old Man of India Pearl S. Buck Liskwan

C. Rajagopalachari Rajaji Prof. T.H. Huxley Watchdog of Darwin

Jawaharlal Nehru Chacha Nehru, Panditji Gautama, the Buddha The Enlightened One

Subhas Chandra Bose Netaji K.V. Puttappa Kuvempu

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Iron Man of India M.S. Golwalkar Guruji

Madan Mohan Malviya Mahamana
SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD
Lal Bahadur Shastri Man of Peace
Sarojini Naidu Nightingale of India Ancient Period
T.Prakasam Andhra Kesari 1. The Colossus of Rhodes
Rabindranath Tagore Gurudev 2. The Pharos/Lighthouse of Alexandria
3. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Adolf Hitler Fuehrer
4. The Temple of Artemis/Diana at Ephesus
General Rommel Desert Fox 5. The Pyramids of Khufu
Queen Elizabeth I Maiden Queen 6. The Tomb of Mausolus at Hali Camassus
Margaret Thatcher Headmistress 7. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
Florence Nightingale Lady with the lamp Middle Ages
Pitt, the Younger Great Commoner 1. The Colosseum of Rome
Mother Teresa Saint of the gutters 2. The Catacombs of Alexandria
3. The Great Wall of China
Dwight D. Eisenhower Ike
4. The Pagoda (Porcelain Tower) of Nanking (China)
C.F. Andrews Din Bandhu 5. The Leaning Tower Pisa (Italy)
Maj. General Rajinder Singh Sparrow 6. Sancta (Hagia) Sophia of Constantinople
Milkha Singh Flying Sikh 7. Stonehenge
P.T. Usha Payyoli Express Modern Ages
C.R. Das Desh Bandhu 1. The Great Pyramid of Egypt with Sphinx of Gizeh
Jaya Prakash Narayan Lok Nayak 2. Hagia Sophia (Istanbul)
Lala Lajpat Rai Punjab Kesari 3. Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italy)
4. The Taj Mahal (Agra, India)
C.N. Annadurai Anna
5. The Washington Monument
M.K. Gandhi Bapu; Mahatma;Father
of the Nation 6. The Eiffel Tower (Paris, France)
7. The Empire State Building (New York)
Joan of Arc Maid of Orleans
Bismarck Man of Blood and Iron New Seven Wonders of the World
Napoleon Bonaparte Man of Destiny; Little 1. Chichen Itaza, Mexico
Corporal 2. Christ Redeemer, Brazil
William Shakespeare Bard of Avon 3. The Great Wall, China
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Banga Bandhu 4. Machu Picchu, Peru
5. The Petra, Jordan
Sheikh Md. Abdullah Sher-e–Kashmir (Lion of
Kashmir) 6. The Roman Colosseum, Italy
7. The Taj Mahal, India

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Miss Universe
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

FIRST IN SPACE
³³ Miss Universe is an annual international beauty
contest that is run by the Miss Universe Organisation. ³³ The first space rocket brought back to earth after orbiting
³³ The contest was founded in 1952, by California the moon : Zond-5
Clothing Company Pacific Mills. Its headquarters is ³³ First crew transfer between the orbiting space ships
at New York City (USA). : Soyuz T-15 with Mir Space Station
³³ The first mission of a link–up in space by manned
³³ This was the first time Finland has won the title of Miss
space ships of USA and Soviet Union : Apollo–Soyuz
Universe.
Test Project Mission (ASTP) (launched on July 15 and
³³ Sushmita Sen is the first Indian woman to win the Miss linked up in space on July 17, 1975)
Universe contest in 1994. ³³ The first man to fly into space belonging to a country
³³ Lara Dutta is the second Indian woman to win the Miss other than Russia or the USA : Remek (Czechoslovakia)
Universe 2000. ³³ The first country to send nuclear powered space craft
³³ Venezuela is the first country to win this beauty contests to explore Jupiter : USA
for two consecutive years 2008 & 2009. ³³ The first to launch earth satellite or artificial baby
moon : USSR
³³ USA has won this title maximum (8) times.
³³ The first spaceship in the world to sample moon’s crust
³³ The current Miss Universe is Andrea Meza of Mexico : Surveyor-3 (USA)
who was crowned on May 16, 2021 in Hollywood, ³³ The First space vehicle to softland on moon : Luna
Florida. 9 (USSR)
Miss World ³³ The first manned spaceship to perform the longest
³³ The Miss World pageant is the oldest surviving stay in space (11 days) : Apollo-7 (USA)
international beauty pageant. ³³ The first person in the world to land on the moon :
³³ It was created in the United Kingdom by Eric Morley
Neil Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin
in 1951. ³³ The first man to enter space : Major Yuri Gagarin
(Russian)
³³ Since his death in 2000, Morley’s wife, Julia Morley, co-
chairs the pageant. ³³ The First woman cosmonaut of the world : Velentina
Tereshkova
³³ Its headquarter is at London (UK).
³³ The first unmanned spaceship to have softlanded
³³ Reita Faria Powell became the first Indian to win the
and lifted off from the moon to return to the earth :
Miss World title in 1966 and others winner names are
Luna-16 (USSR) Sept. 21, 1970
Aishwarya Rai (1994), Diana Hayden (1997), Yukta
³³ The first space vehicle to land on the moon : Lunar
Mookhey (1999), Priyanka Chopra (2000).
Exploration Module (LEM) niek-named ‘Eagle’
³³ Manushi Chillar (2017)
³³ The first space ship which carried three American
³³ The Miss World (2019) – Toni-Ann Singh (Jamaica)
astronauts to land two of them on the moon : Apollo-11
³³ She is the fourth Jamaican to win Miss World.
³³ The first country to send man to the moon : USA
Miss Earth
NAMES : OLD AND NEW
³³ Miss Earth is an annual international beauty pageant
promoting environmental awareness. New Names Old Names
³³ Miss Earth is also one of the most publicised beauty
BANJUL Bathurst
contest in the world.
³³ It was formed in 2001 and its headquarters is at BEIJING Peking
Manila, Philippines. BELIZE British Honduras
³³ Catharina Svensson of Denmark is the first winner of
BENIN Dahomey
Miss Earth contest (2001).
BOTSWANA Bechuanaland
Miss India
BURKINA FASO Upper Volta
³³ Miss India or Femina Miss India is a national beauty
pageant in India. CAMBODIA Kampuchea; Khamer
³³ It is organised by Femina, a women’s magazine CHENNAI Madras
published by Bennett, Coleman and Co Ltd. DJIBOUTI French Somaliland, French
³³ Its headquarters is at Mumbai and it was formed in Territory
1963.
of Afars & Issas
³³ Miss India beauty contest started on 1947.
³³ Pramila was the first woman to win the Miss India contest ETHIPIA Abyssinia
in 1947. GHANA Gold Coast

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GUYANA British Guiana INSTITUTES OF NATIONAL IMPORTANCE
HANOI Kecho
National Institute of Water Goa
HARARE Salisbury Sports
HO CHI MINH CITY Saigon National Thermal Power New Delhi
INDONESIA Dutch East Indies Corporation

IRAN Persia National Remote Sensing Hyderabad

Agency
JAPAN Nippon
National Film Development Mumbai
MALAYSIA Malaya Corporation
MANCHURIA Manchukuo National Film Archives of India Pune
ANKARA Angora National Institute of New Delhi
DHAKA Dacca Criminology and
LORE SAE Last Timor National Forensic Science New Delhi
IRAQ Mesopotamia National Institute of Fashion New Delhi, Mumbai,
Technology Hyderabad,
ISTANBUL Constantinople, Byzantium Kolkata, Chennai,
JAKARTA Batavia Gandhinagar
KINSHASA Leopoldville National Institute of Ayurveda Jaipur
KOREA The Hermit Kingdom National Defence College New Delhi
LAOS Lanxang National Aerospace Bengaluru
(The land of a million elephants) Laboratories
LESOTHO Basutoland National Chemical Laboratories Pune
MALAWI Nyasaland National Metallurgical Jamshedpur
Laboratories
MALABO Santa Isable
(Cap, of Equa-Guinea) National Institute of Dona Paula, Goa
Oceanography
MUMBAI Bombay
National Physical Laboratory New Delhi
MYANMAR Burma
National Geophysical Research Hyderabad
NAMIBIA South West Africa Institute
NAURU Pleasant Island National Institute of Nutrition Hyderabad
NUR-SULTAN Astana National School of Mines Pune
OSLO Christiana National Institute of New Delhi
SRI LANKA Ceylon Communicable Diseases
VOLGOGRAD Stalingrad National Defence Academy Khadakvasla
ST. PETERSBURG Leningrad National Power Training Faridabad
Institute
SURINAM Dutch Guyana
National Institute of Virology Pune
TAIWAN Formosa
National Police Academy Hyderabad
TASMANIA Van Diemen’s Land
National Design Institute Ahmedabad
THAILAND Siam
National Centre for Cell Science Pune
TOGO Togoland
National Brain Research Centre New Delhi
TUVALU The Ellice Islands
National Bioresource New Delhi
VANUATU The New Hebrides
Development Board
YANGON Rangoon
National centre for Plant New Delhi
ZAIRE Congo Genome Research
ZAMBIA Northern Rhodesia National Open School New Delhi
ZIMBABWE Southern Rhodesia National Civil Defence College Nagpur

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National Institute of Financial New Delhi Indian Institute of Technology Chennai, Mumbai,
Management Kanpur, Kharagpur,
New Delhi,
National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee
Guwahati, Roorkee
National Institute of Ocean Chennai
Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad,
Technology
Bengaluru Kolkata,
National Council of Science Kolkata Lucknow, Indore,
Museums Kozhikode
National Archives of India New Delhi Indian Academy of Sciences Bengaluru
National Indian Institute of Mumbai Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru
Geomagnetism
Indian Institute of Chemical Kolkata
National Academy of Sciences Allahabad Biology
National Book Trust New Delhi Indian Institute of Horticulture Bengaluru
National Council of New Delhi Research
Educational Research and Indian Institute of Sugar Kanpur
Training Technology
National Bureau of Plant New Delhi Indian Military Academy Dehradun
Genetic Resources
Indian Council of Historical New Delhi
National Sample Survey New Delhi Research
Organisation
Indian Council of Philosophical New Delhi and
Indian Council for Cultural New Delhi Research Lucknow
Relation
Indian Council of Social New Delhi
Indian Council of Agricultural New Delhi Science Research
Research
Indian Bureau of Mines Nagpur
Indian Council of Medical New Delhi
Research Indian Agricultural Research New Delhi
Institute
Indian Institute of Foreign New Delhi
Trade V.V. Giri National Labour Noida
Institute
Indian Institute of Mass New Delhi
Communications Tata Institute of Fundamental Mumbai
Research
Indian Institute of Tourism New Delhi
and Travel Managament Uranium Corporation of India Jadugunda
Indian Institute of Skiing and Gulmarg Geological Survey of India Kolkata
Mountaineering
Council of Scientific and New Delhi
Indian National Satellite New Delhi Industrical Research
System
Raman Research Institute Bengaluru
Indian Space Research Bengaluru,
Central Institute of Higher Varanasi
Organisation Thiruvananthapuram
Tibetan Studies
Indian National Science Delhi
S.N. Bose National Centre for Kolkata
Academy
Basic Sciences
Rashtriya Indian Military Dehradun
Birbal-Sahni Institure of Lucknow
College
Palaeobotany
Indian Grassland and Fodder
Central Drug Research Lucknow
Research Institute Jhansi Institute
Indian Academy of Sciences Bengaluru Central Electronics and Pilani
Indian National Science New Delhi Electrical Engineering Research
Academy Institute
Indian National Academy of New Delhi Central Glass and Ceramic Jadavpur
Engineering Research Institute
Indian Institute of Tropical Pune Central Leather Research Chennai
Meteorology Institute

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Central Tibetan Schools New Delhi National Biological Laboratory Palampur, Kangra
Administration (in Planning) Distt. (Himachal
Pradesh)
Central Institute of English and Hyderabad
National Botanical Research Lucknow (U.P.)
Foreign Languages Institute
Central Potato Research Shimla National Chemical Laboratory Pune (Maharashtra)
Institute
National Environment Nagpur
Central Rice Research Institute Cuttack Engineering Institute
Central Road Research Delhi Regional Research Laboratory Bhubaneshwar
Institute (Orissa), Jorhat
(Assam), Jammu
Central Mining Research Dhanbad
(Jammu and
Institute
Kashmir) and
Central Building Research Roorkee Hyderabad
Institute (Telangana)
Central Institure of Indian Mysore Structural Engineering Roorkee
Languages Research Centre (Uttarakhand) and
Chennai (Tamil
Central Arid Zone Research Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Nadu)
Institute,
Visnvesnvaraiya Industrial and Bengaluru
Central Coconut Research Kasergod (Kerala) (Karnataka)
Institute
Technological Museum Indian Ranchi (Jharkhand)
Central Glass and Ceramic New Delhi Lac Research Institute
Research Institute
Institute of Microbial Hyderabad
Central Inland Fisheries Barracknpore Technology
Research Institute (West Bengal)
National Dairy Research Karnal (Haryana)
Central Institute of Fisheries Ernakulam (Kerala) Institute
Technology
National Environmental Nagpur
Central Jute Technological Kolkata Engineering Research Institute (Maharashtra)
Research Institute (West Bengal)
National Remote Sensing Shadnagar, Near
Central Marine Research Chennai Station Hyderabad
Station (Tamil Nadu)
National Sugar Research Kanpur (U.P.)
Central Mechanical Durgapur Institute
Engineering Research Institute (West Bengal)
Indian Institute of Chemical Kolkata (West
Central Mining Research Dhanbad Biology Bengal)
Station (Jharkhand)
Indian Institute of Petroleum Dehradun
Central Tobacco Research Rajahmundry (Uttarakhand)
Station (Andhra Pradesh)
Industrial Toxicology Research Lucknow (U.P.)
Centre for Cellular and Hyderabad Centre
Molecular Biology
National Cancer Institute Jhajjar (Haryana)
Council of Scientific and New Delhi
Industrial Research National Monuments of Major Countries

Central Electro-Chemical Pilani (Rajasthan) Monument Country

Research Institute Statue of unity India
Central Food Technological Mysore (Karnataka) The Great Wall of China China
Research Institute Kinder Disk Denmark
Central Fuel Research Institure Dhanbad Christ the Redeemer Brazil
(Jharkhand) Machu Picchu Peru
National Aeronautical Bengaluru Taj Mahal (Agra) India
Laboratory (Karnataka) Tugu Nagara (Kuala Lampur) Malaysia

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The Great Sphinx (Giza) Egypt Important Signals/Signs and their meaning
Pyramid (Giza) Egypt Signal/Sign Meaning
Statue of Liberty USA Red Triangle Family Planning
(New York) Red Cross Medical Help
Kremlin (Moscow) Russia Red Light Danger, ‘Stop’ for the move-
ment
Emperial Palace (Tokyo) Japan of vehicles
Eiffel Tower (Paris) France Green Light Go
Leaning Tower of Pisa Italy Olive Branch Peace
Opera House (Sydney) Australia Dove or Pigeon Peace
Black Strip on Arm Opposition
NATIONAL EMBLEMS OF IMPORTANT COUNTRIES
Black Strip on face Sign of mourning or protest
Country National Emblem Black Flag Opposition, Protest
America Golden Rod Red Flag Danger or Revolution
Australia Kangaroo White Flag Treaty or Surrender
Ireland Shamrock Yellow flag Vehicles with patients of conta
gious diseases
Italy White Lily
Two Bones across with Danger of electricity
Israel Candelabrum a Skull

Iran Rose Half mast flown Flag National mournning Sign of

civilization and culture
Canada White Lily Wheel (Chakra) Sign of Progress
Great Britain Rose Lotus Culture & Civilisation
Chile Candor and Huemul Pen Symbol of Culture & Civili-
sation
Germany Corn Flower
Japan Chrysanthemum Wedding Anniversaries
Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Bird Anniversaries Name
Denmark Beach Twenty-fifth Silver

Turkey Crescent and Star Fiftieth Golden

Sixtieth Diamond
Netherlands Lion
Seventieth Platinum
New Zealand Kiwi, Fern, Southern Cross
Hundred Centary
Norway Lion
Nepal Kukri DEFENCE SERVICES
Commissioned Ranks
Pakistan Crescent
Army Navy Air Force
Poland Eagle
General Admiral Air Chief Marshal
France Lily
Lieu- Vice-Admiral Air Marshal
Belgium Lion tenant-General

Bangladesh Water Lily Major-General Rear Admiral Air Vice-Marshal

Brigadier Commodore Air Commodore
Mongolia The Soyombo
Colonel Captain Group Captain
Russia Double headed Eagle
Lieutenant-Col- Commander Wing Commander
Lebanon Cedar Tree onel
Sudan Secretary Bird Major Lieutenant- Squadron Leader
Commander
Syria Eagle
Captain Lieutenent Flight Lieutenant
India Lioned Capital Lieutenant Sub-Lieutenant Flying Officer

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No Future Without Forgiveness Desmond Tutu

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

CHIEF OF DEFENCE STAFF (CDS) Sons and Lovers, Lady Chatterley’s Lover D.H. Lawrence
“A Rainbow in the Night-Nelson Mandela and the Tumultuous
³³ The PM has annaunced the establishment of the post of
Birth of South Africa” Dominque Lapierre
Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) for three services- the Indian
Thy Boy Kings of Taxas Domingo Martinez
Army, the Indian Navy and the Indian Air force.
Barack Obama : The Making of the Man Dould Maraniss
³³ It is formed on 24 December, 2019.
Moscow Rules Doniel Silva
³³ It is a single-point advisor to the government of India.
A Passage to India E.M. Forster
³³ It will Synergise long term planning, procurement,
“The World Bank in India—Undermining Sovereignty, Dis-
training and legistic of the three services, and ensure
torting Development”
better coordination between them.
Edited by Michele Kellery, Deepika D’ Souza
³³ The CDS is a high military office that oversees and
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empires Edward Gibbon
coordinates the working of the three Services, and offers
The Old Man and the Sea Emest Hemingway
seamless tri-service views and single-point advice to
The Idiot Fyodor Dostoevsky
the Executive (in India’s case, to the Prime Minister) on
Apple Cart GB Shaw
long-term defence planning and management, including
manpower, equipment and strategy, and above all, “joints Blood, Bones and Butter Gabrielle Hamilton
Decision Point Bush” (Autobiography) George Co Bush
manship” in operations.
Ninteen Eighty, Four George Orwell
Conditions: Faust Goethe
³³ He will be a Four-star General. Uncle Tom’s Cabin H.B. Stowe
³³ Not eligible to hold any Government office after demitting To the Point (Autobiography) Herschele Gibbs
the office of CDS. The Appointment Herta Muller
³³ No private employment without prior approval for a period Odyssey Homer
of five years after demitting the office of CDS. Princioa Mathematica Isaac Newton
Roles and functions: King Lear, All’s Well That Ends Well, Twelfth Night, Comedy
of Errors, Romeo and Juliet, Antony and Cleopatra, The
³³ CDS will provide “single-point military advice” to the Tempest, Macbeth, Julius Caesar, Othello
government, inject synergy in planning, procurements
William Shakespeare
and logistics in the armed forces.
A Tale of Two Cities, Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great
³³ It will ensure integration of land-air-sea operations
Expectations Charles Dickens
through the eventual setting up of theatre commands.
³³ The CDS will also function as the military advisor to the Back to Methuselah, Man of Destiny, Arms and the Man, Man
PM-led Nuclear Command Authority, as also have direct and Superman George Bernard Shaw
command of tri-Service organizations to handle the new Resurrection, War and Peace, Anna Karenina Leo Tolstoy
warfare domains of space and cyberspace. Dreams from My Father : A Story of Race and Inheritance,
The Audacity of Hope, Thoughts on Reclaiming the American
Tenure: Dream Barack Obama
³³ The government has modified the Service Rules of the Murder in the Cathedral, The Wasteland, and other poem
Army, Navy and Air Force to enable the appointment of T.S. Eliot
the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) and fix the upper age limit The War of the Worlds, The Time Machine, Invisible Man
at 65 if a service chief is appointed to the post of CDS. H.G. Wells
³³ The service (Army, Navy and Indian Air Force) chiefs, Mill on the Floss, Middle March George Eliot
when appointed, are usually given a tenure of three years Paradise Regained, Paradise Lost John Milton
or till they attain the age of 62 years, whichever is earlier. Through the Looking Glass, The Hunting of Snark
³³ However, the tenure of the CDS has not been fixed yet. Lewis Carroll
³³ General Bipin Rawat took over as the first CDS on 1 “My Life With the Taliban” Abdul Salam Zaeef
January, 2020. He will serve a full three years term till True Colour : My life (Autobiography) Adam Gilchrist
December 2022. CDS term length is three years or until Wealth of Nations Adam Smith
the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. “An Inconvenient Truth” Al Gore (former US Vice President)
Narendra Modi : A Political Biography Andy Marino
FAMOUS BOOKS AND AUTHORS Adventures of Sherlock Holmes Arthur Conan Doyle
Empireof the Stars Arthur Miller
FAMOUS BOOKS OF FOREIGN WRITERS Expanding Universe Arthur Stanley Eddington
Books Authors The Dry Glass of August Anna Jeon Mayhew
Night of the Republic Alan Shapiro The Red Sari Jaview Moro
Reconciliation : Islam Democracy and the West Das Capilal Karl Marx
Benazir Bhutto Mother India Katherine Mayo
The News Where you are Catherin O’ Flynn Lake of Dreams Kim Edwards
Descent of Man, Origin of Species Charles Darwin A Week with Gandhi L. Fischer
A View from Delhi Chester Bowles Freedom at Midnight Lapierre and Collins
The Lost Symbol Dan Brown Mountbatten and Independent India
Pakistan Crisis David Loshak Lary Collips Sdomininique lapierre

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Problems of The East Lord Curzon The Village, Seven Summers, Two Leaves and a Bud, Coolie
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

The Prince Machiavelli Mulk Raj Anand

Shades of Grey Jasper F Forde Kora Kagaz, Death of a City, Kagaz th Kanwas, The Revenue
Iron in the Soul Jean Paul Sartre Stamp Amrita Pritam
First Among Equals Jeffrey Archer Makers of Modern India, India after Gandhi : The History of
The Tales of Beedle the Barol J.K. Rowling the World’s Largest Democracy, Environmenta-lism : A Global
Nine Days Wonder John Masefield History, The States of Indian Cricket Ramachandra Guha
Unto this Past John Ruskin Bunch of Old Letters, Glimpses of World History, Letters from
Gulliver’s Travels Jonathan Swift a Father to his Daughter, The Discovery of India
Born Free Joy Adamson Jawaharlal Nehru
Around the World in 80 days Juls Verne The Sunset Club, Sahibs Who Loved India, Why I Supported
Paradise Jost, Paradise Regained John Milton the Emergency, Truth, Love and A Little Malice, We Indians,
The Conversations with Myself Nelson Mandela A Bride for the Sahib, Maharaja in Denims
She Stoops to Conquer Oliver Goldsmith Khushwant Singh
Importance of Being Earnest Oscar Wilde Guide, Dark Room, The Vendor Sweets R.K. Narayan
“In the Line of Fire” Parvez Musharraf One Night at the rate of the Call Centre, Revolution 2020-Love,
The Rainbow Pearl S Buck Corruption, Ambition What young India Wants Making India
The Good Man Jesus and The Scoundrel Christ Awesome, Half Girlfriend Chetan Bhagat
Philip Pullmen Devi Chaudharani, Anand Math
The Republic Plato Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
Blood Kin, A Savannah Story Robert T.S. Mickles Sr Saket, Yashodhara Maithili Sharan Gupt
Jungle Book Rudyard Kipling Prison Diary, To all Fighters of Freedom, Why Socialism?
Notes from a Small Room Ruskin Bond J.P. Narayan
The Naked Face Sydney Sheldon Devdas , Parineeta Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay
The Spirit of Islam Syyed Amir Ali The Golden Threshold, The Bird of Time Sarojini Naidu
Wild Child T.C. Boyle Rang Bhoomi, Godan Munshi Prem Chand
Utopia Thomas Moor Percepts of Jesus, A Gift to Monotheists Rammohan Roy
What Moves at the Margin : Selected Non-Fiction My Experiments with Truth, Hind Swaraj Mahatma Gandhi
Toni Morrison Development as Freedom, The Idea of Justice Amartya Sen
Gandhi at First Sight  Thomos Weber India Wins Freedom Abul Kalam Azad
A Journey Tony Blair Wonder That was India A.L. Basham
Goblin Secrets William Alexander The Immortals Amit Chaudhuri
Ivanhoe Walter Scott Wake up India Annie Besant
Gathering Storm Winston Churchil The Folded Earth Anuradha Roy
Gone with the Wind Margaret Mitchell The White Tiger Aravind Adiga
The Pregnant Widow Martin Amis Life Divine Aurobindo Ghosh
Sohrab and Rustum Mathew Arnold Naked Triangle Balwant Gargi
Mother Maxim Gorky Gita Rahasya B.G. Tilak
Moon Walk (Autobiography) Michael Jackson What Congress and Gandhi have done to Untouchables
No Limits : The Will to Succeed Michael Phelps B.R. Ambedkar
FAMOUS BOOKS OF INDIAN WRITERS Himalayan Blunder Brig John Dalvi
Poverty and Unbritish Rule in India Dadabhai Naoroji
Moti Mahal Gopinath Mohanty
The To-Let House Daisy Hason
Travelling Through Conflict Hamid Ansari
Neel Darpan Din Bandhu Mitra
Matters of Discretion (Autobiography) I.K. Gujral
Hindu View of Life Dr. Radha Krishnan
My Truth Indira Gandhi
India Divided Dr. Rajendra Prasad
All the Prime Minister’s Men Janardan Thakur
Indian War of Independence V.D. Savarkar
Jinnah—India, Partition Independence Jaswant Singh
The Congress and The Making of Indian Nation
Ghulam Giri and other Stories Jyotiba Phule
Edited by Pranab Mukherjee
One life is not enough ‘My China Diary’ K. Natwar Singh
Of a Certain Age : Twenty Life Sketches
Straight from the Heart Kapil Dev
Gopal Krishna Gandhi
I Witness– Partial Observation Kapil Sibal
Pakhtoon Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan The Rediscovery of India Meghnad Desai
I Follow the Mahatama K.M. Munshi Nehru : The Making of India M.J. Akbar
The Judgement Kuldip Nayar A Minister and his Responsibilities Morarji Desai
My Country My Life Lal Krishna Advani Patrons of the Poor : Caste Politics and Policy Making in India
Unhappy India Lata Lajpat Rai Narayan Lakshman
Yama Mahadevi Verma A Voice of Freedom Narayan Shehgal
Face of Everest Maj. HPS Ahluwalia “Convenient Action : Gujarat’s Response to Climate Change”
Ignited Minds : Unleashing the Power within India, You Are Narendra Modi
Born to Blossom, My Journey, India 2020-A vision for the Narendra Modi : The Man, The Times
New Millennium, Wings of Fire Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Nilanjan Mukhopadhyay

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An Unknown Indian Nirad C. Choudhary

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

A Better India A Better World NR Narayan Murthy LATEST BOOKS
The Kaiam Effect : My Years with the President PM Nayar
BOOKS AUTHORS
Defence Without Drift PVR Rao
The Burning Forest : Nandini Sundar
Chitra Rabindranath Tagore
“Timeless Inspirator—Reliving Gandhi” Raghunath Mashelkar The Spy : Paulo Coelho
The Good Boat Man : A Portrait of Gandhi Burn to Run : Bruce Springsten
Rajmohan Gandhi Globalisation : India’s Adjustment Experience
Rashmirathi Ramdhari Singh Dinkar —Biplab Dasgupta
An Inspirational Journey: Pratibha Devi Singh Patil; The First The Secret Man —Bob Woodward & Carl Bernstien
Women President of India Mangal Pandey : The True Story of an Indian Revolutionary
Rashika Chaube and Chhaya Mahajan —Amresh Mishra
Economic History of India Ramesh Chandra Dutta Dining the Terrorists —Phil Rees
My Music, My Life Ravi Shankar Shalimar the Clown —Salman Rushdie
My India S. Nihal Singh On Beauty —Zadie Smith
The Indian Struggle S.C. Bose This Thing of Darkness —Harry Thompson
The Elephant, the Tiger and the Cell Phone : Reflections on Harry Potter and the Half Blood Prince —J K Rowling
India in the 21st century India Shastra’, Pax Indica, The Small Island —Andrea Levy
Great Indian Novel, Show Business, India : From Midnight to Narendra Modi : A political Biography —Andy Marino
Millenium, India Shastra : Reflections on tht Nation in our time The Dew Breaker —Edwridge Danticat
Shashi Tharoor The Idea of Pakistan
Shadows Across the Playing Field : 60 years of India-Pak —Stephen P Cohen
Cricket Shashi Tharoor and Shaharyar Khan Young Husband-Troubled Campaign
Superstar India : From Incredible to Unstoppable Shobha De —Major General (Retd.) Shubi Sood
Causes of the Indian Mutiny Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan Build a Bridge —Gnana Moonesinghe
Ramacharit S.K. Nandi Joy of the Himalaya : A Pictorial Tribute to Indian Himalaya
Savitri Sri Aurobindo Ghosh —J Ramanan
“Electronic Voting Machines—Unconstitutional and Tamper- Istanbul —Ohran Pamuk
able” Subramaniam Swamy
Nine O Nine —Nandita Puri
Sunny Days Sunil Gavaskar
Confessions of Secular Fundamentalist
My Other Two Daughters Surjit Singh Barnala
—Mani Shankar Aiyar
Satyarth Prakash Swami Dayanand
Tokyo Cancelled —Rana Dasgupta
The Miracle ol Democracy : India’s Amazing Journey
T.S. Krishnanmurthy Coming Out of Partition : Refugee Women in Bengal
The Valley of Masks Tarun Tejpal —Gargi Chakravarthy
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India from Stone Age Windows on the World —Frederic Beigbedar
to the 12th Century Upinder Singh I Dare —Kiran Bedi
Voice of Conscience V. V. Giri Yours Sincerly Today —K. Natwar Singh
Unleashing India Veerappa Moily The Road —Cormac McCarthy
To the Las] Bullet Vinita Kamte The Looming Tower : Al-Qaeda and The Road to 9/11
Lucknow Boy (Autobiography) Vinod Mehta —Lawrence Wright
Global Crisis Recession and Uneven Recovery Y.V. Reddy The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao —Junot Diaz
Midnight Children, Shame, The Moor’s Last Sigh, Fury, The The Years of Extermination : Nazi Germany and The Jews,
Satanic Verses, Two years, at Month and Twenty-at Night 1939-1945 —Saul Frindlander
Salman Rushdie The Dead Hand : The Untold Story of The Cold War Arms Race
The Golden Gate, A Suitable Boy, An Equal Music, Summer and its Dangerous Legacy —David E Hoffman
Requiem, Two Lives Vikram Seth Tinkers —Paul Harding
The God of Small things, The Algebra at Infinite Justice A Visit from the Goon Squad —Jennifer Egan
Arundhati Roy The Emperor of All Maladies : A Biography of Cancer
A House for Mr Biswaas, India : a Wounded Civilization, An —Siddhartha Muknerjee
Area of Darkness, India : a Million Mutinies now, The Masque The Orphan Master’s Son (Fiction) —Adam Johnson
of Africa, A Bend in The River Y.S. Naipaul
Disgraced (Drama) —Ayad Akhtar
The Circle of Reason,River of Smoke, The Glass Palace, Shad-
3 Sections (Poetry) —Vijay Seshadri
ow Line, The Calcutta Chromosome, Flood of Fire, The Hungry
The Goldfinch (Fiction) —Donna Tartt
Tide, Sea of Poppies, In an Antique Land Amitav Ghosh
The Gathering —Anne Enright
The Namesake, The Interpreter of Maladies, The Unaccus-
tomed Earth Jhumpa Lahiri Wolf Hall —Hilary Mantel
The Inheritance of Loss Kiran Desai Troubles —J.G. Farrell

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

Bring up the Bodies —Hilary Mantel Bridgital Nation 

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

Hawa me Hastakshar —Kailash Vajpeyi — By N. Chandrasekaran and Roopa Purushothaman

Book of Rachel —Esther David The Third Pillar  — Raghu Ram Rajan
Mohan Das —Uday Prakash Not just in accountant : The Diary of the Nations conscience
India After Gandhi —Ramachandra Guha keeper  — By Vinod Rai
Rehan Per Ragghu (Novel) —Kashinath Singh A Gallery of Raskals  — Ruskin Bond
Pathar Fenk Rara Hoon (Poetry) —Chandrakant Devtale Coming Round the mountains  — Ruskin Bond
Miljul Man (Novel) —Mridula Garg The Augmentative Indian   — Amirtya Sen
Trying to Say Goodbye (Poetry) —Adil Jussawala The RSS : Roadmaps for the 21st Century 
Vinayak (Novel) —Ramesh Chandra Shal — Sunil Ambedkar
Aag ki Hansee —Ramdash Mishra "150 years of celebrating the Mahatama the South African
Kayakalap —Lakshmi Nandan Bora legacy  — Fakir Hassen
Mandra —S.L. Bhyrappa The Testaments — Margreat Etwood
The Road Home —Rose Rose Tremain Girl, women and other — Bernadin Evaristo
Home —Marilynne Robinson The courts of India : Past to present  
May We Be Forgiven —A.M. Homes — Vinay Thakur and Amogh Thakur
An American Dream — Norman Mailer Ten Studies in Kashmir : History and Politics
The City of Love — Rimi B Chatterjee — By Kashi Nath Pandit
Darkmans — Nicola Barker Mind Master : Winning lessons from a champion's life
Oprah Winfrey : A Biography — Helen S Garson — Autobiography of Viswanathan
Shades of Difference : Mac Maharaj and the Struggle for South Good Economics for Hard Times : Better answers to our biggest
Africa — Padraig O’ Malley problems   — By Abhijit U. Banerjee & Esther Duflo
Reinventing the United Nations India positive — Chetan Bhagat
— Ajit M Banerjee and Murari R Sharma Changing India — Manmohan Singh
The Enchantress of Florence — Salman Rushdie Unstoppable my life so far — Maria Sharapova
Sumthing of a Mocktale — Soma Das Operation Khurki — CDS General Bipin Rawat
Immigrant’s Dream — Anu Peshawaria Home in the World — Amartya Sen
Brushes With History — Krishna Kumar Birla Nehru, Tibet and China — Avtar Singh Bhasin
Revisiting 1857-Myth, Memory, History An Ordinary Life : Portrait of an Inidan Generation
— Sharmistha Gooptu and Boria Majumdar (Editors) — Ashok Lavasa
The 9 Emotions of Indian Cinema Hoardings Palleku Pattabhishekam — M. Venkaiah Naidu
— V. Geetha, Srisish Rao and M.P. Dhakshna The Light of Asia — Jairam Ramesh
Empower Yourself — Ajay Poddar The Nuttmege’s Curse — Amitav Ghosh
The Earth Spinner — Anuradha Roy
Satyagraha — Savita Singh
Into the Mirror : The Untold Story of Mukhtar Mai SOME FAMOUS AUTOBIOGRAPHIES
— Bronwyn Curran Autobiography of an Unknown- Nirad C. Chaudhuri
The Small House — Timeri N Murari Indian
My Life — Fidel Castro and Ignacio Ramonet The Fall of the Sparrow Salim Ali
Let’s Kill Gandhi ! A Chronicle of His Last Days, the Conspir- By God’s Decree Kapil Dev
acy, Murder, Investigation and Trial — Tushar A Gandhi Nice Guys Finish Second B.K. Nehru
Gandhian Way - Peace, Non-Violence and Empowerement In the Afternoon of Time H.R. Bachchan
— Anand Sharma (Editor) My Son’s Father Dom Moraes
Joseph Anton — Salman Rushdie A Touch of Tennis R. Krishnan
Nirbasan — Tasleema Nasreen In the Footsteps of the Mahatma G.D. Birla
Chain of Custody — Anita Nair The Story of My Life Helen Keller
Selection Day — Arvinda Adiga Freedom in Exile Dalai Lama
Old History, New Geography — Jairam Ramesh Cricket Crusaders Sir Gary Sobers
Jinnah Often Came to Out House   — Kiran Doshi
Long Walk to Freedom Nelson Mandela
Story of My Life Moshe Dayan
One Indian Girl   — Chetan Bhagat
Mein Kampf (My Struggle) Adolf Hitler
Island of Lost Girls   — Manjula Padmanabhan
My Early Life Winston Churchill
A Gujrat Here, A Gujrat There — Krishna Sobti
My Life and the Beautiful Game Pele
My Seditious Heart   — Arundhati Roy
Daughter of the East Benazir Bhutto
Chandra Shekhar-The last Icon of Ideological Polities  
Friends Not Masters Ayub Khan
— By Harivansh and Ravi Dutt Bajpai

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NDA : National Democratic Alliance

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

Friends and Foes Sheikh Mujibur Reh-
man RJD : Rashtriya Janata Dal
Men and Memoirs J.R. Jayawardhane RSS : Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
My Experiments with Truth Mahatma Gandhi SGPC : Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee
An Autobiography Jawaharlal Nehru SP : Samajwadi Party
My Life and Times V.V. Giri TDP : Telugu Desam Party
My Own Boswell M. Hidayatullah TERRORIST ORGANISATION
My Presidential years R. Venkataraman GNLF : Gorkha National Liberation Front
My Reminiscences R.N. Tagore HPLA : Hill People’s Liberation Army
My Days R.K. Narayan JKLF : Jammu & Kashmir Liberation Front
The Insider P.V. Narasimha Rao LeT : Lashkar-e-Toiba
My Struggles E.K. Nayanar LTTE : Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam
My Music, My Life Pt. Ravi Shankar MNF : Mizo National Front
Sunny Days Sunil Gavaskar NLF : National Liberation Front
Golden Girl P.T. Usha PLA : People’s Liberation Army (Manipur)
POTA : Prevention of Terrorism Act
A Nation in Making Surendranath Ba-
nerji PWG : People’s War Group
TULF : Tamil United Liberation Front
The Indian Struggle Subhas Chandra
Bose ECONOMY
India Wins Freedom Maulana Azad ADB Asian Development Bank
An Autobiography Rajendra Prasad APC Agriculture Prices Commission
APL Above Poverty Line
BOOKS BY JAWAHARLAL NEHRU APM Administered Price Mechanism
1. Soviet Russia ASSOCHAM Associated Chamber of Commerce and Indus-
2. Whither India ? try
3. Glimpses of World History 
4. An Autobiography BOP Balance of Payments
5. Letters from a Father to his Daughter BPL Below Poverty Line
6. India and the World 
7. The Question of Language CADP Command Area Development Programme
8. Eighteen Months in India CCIS Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme
9. Where are We ? CDSL Central Depository Services Limited
10. China, Spain and the War CIF Cost Insurance Freight
11. The Unity of India CPI Consumer Price Index
12. The Discovery of India CPI(AL) Consumer Price Index for Agricultural La-
boures
ABBREVIATIONS CP(IW) Consumer Price Index for Industrial Work-
POLITICAL ers
ADMK : Anna Dravid Munnetra Karagam CPSUs Central Public Sector Undertakings
CRR Cash Reserve Ratio
AIADMK : All India Anna Dravid Munnetra Karagam
CSO Central Statistical Organisation
AICC : All India Congress Committee
DEPB Duty Entitlement Pass Book
AISF : All India Student’s Federation
DIC District Industrial Centre
BKU : Bhartiya Kisan Union
DPAP Drought Prone Area Programme
BKKP : Bhartiya Kisan Kamgar Party
DWCRA Development of Women and Children in
BMS : Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh Rural Areas
BSP : Bahujan Samaj Party 
CITU : Centre of Indian Trade Unions EAS Employment
CPI : Communist Party of India Assurance Scheme
CPI (M) : Communist Party of India (Marxist) EC European Community
DMK : Dravid Munnetra Karagam EEU European Economic Union
INTUC : Indian National Trade Union Congress EOU Export Oriented Unit
ITUC : Indian Trade Union Congress EXIM Bank Export-Import Bank of India
IYC : Indian Youth Congress

FCI Food Corporation of India
JMM : Jharkhand Mukti Morcha
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
MCC : Maoist Communist Centre FEMA Foreign Exchange Management Act
MGP : Maharashtra Gomantak Party

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FERA Foreign Exchange Regulation Act NR(E)RA Non-Resident (External) Rupee Account
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

FICCI Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce NRIs Non-Resident Indians

and Industry NR(NR)RD Non-Resident (Non-Repatriable) Rupee Depos-
 its
GATT General Agreement on Tariff and Trade NSC National Seeds Corporation
GDP Gross Domestic Product NSDL National Securities Depository Limited
GNP Gross National Product NSEI National Stock Exchange of India
GIC General Insurance Corporation NSSO National Sample Survey Organisation
GST Goods and Services Tax 
 OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
HDI Human Development Index Development
HRD Human Resource Development ONGC Oil and Natural Gas Commission
HUDCO Housing and Urban Development Corporation OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Coun-
HYVP High Yielding Varieties Programme tries
 
IARI Indian Agricultural Research Institute PDS Pubic Distribution System
ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research PCI Per Capital Income
ICDS Integrated Child Development Programme PLR Prime Lending Rate
ICICI Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation PIO Persons of Indian Origin
of India PMRY Pradhan Mantri Rozgar Yojana
IFC International Finance Corporation PSBs Pubic Sector Banks
IFCI Industrial Finance Corporation of India
PSE Public Sector Enterprises
IFFCO Indian Farmers Fertilizers Cooperative Ltd.
PSU Public Sector Undertaking
IIP Index of Industrial Production

ILO International Labour Organisation
QRs Quantitative Restrictions
IRA Insurance Regulatory Authority
IRDP Integrated Rural Development Programme

R&D Research and Development

JVC Joint Venture Companies RBI Reserve Bank of India
 RRBs Regional Rural Banks
KVIC Khadi and Village Industries Commission 
KVKs Krishi Vigyan Kendras SAIL Steel Authority of India Ltd.
 SEBI Securities and Exchange Board of India
LIC Life Insurance Corporation SFC State Financial Corporation
LLB Legum Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Legal Letters) SIDBI Small Industries Development Bank of India
[Legum means lex, law] SIDF Small Industries Development Fund
 SIDO Small Industries Development Organisation
MAT Minimum Alternate Tax SLR Statutory Liquidity Ratio
MNC Multi National Corporation STC State Trading Corporation
MOU Memorandum of Understanding STEP Support to Training and Employment Pro-
MSY Mahila Samriddhi Yojana
gramme
 SWS Single Window Scheme
NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural De-
velopment

NAFED National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing TDS Tax Deduction at Source
Federation of India Ltd. TISCO Tata Iron and Steel Company
NBFC Non-Banking Financial Companies TRAI Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
NDC National Development Council 
NDP Net Domestic Product UNDP United Nations Development Programme
NFBS National Family Benefit Scheme UNO United Nations Organisation
NGO Non-Government Organisaton UTI Unit Trust of India
NHAI National Highway Authority of India 
NHB National Housing Bank VCF Venture Capital Fund
NI National Income VRS Voluntary Retirement Scheme
NLM National Literacy Mission 
NMBS National Maternity Benefit Scheme WEF World Economic Forum
NNI Net National Income WPI Wholesale Price Index
NNP Net National Product 
NOAPS National Old Age Pension Scheme ZIP Zonal Improvement Plan
NPAs Non-Performing Assets

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INTERNATIONAL UNCIP : United Nations Commission for India and

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

APEC : Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Pakistan
ASEAN : Association of South-East Asian Nations UNCSTD : United Nations Conference on Science and
Technology for Development
BIMSTEC : Bangladesh-India-Myanmar-Sri Lanka-
UNCTAD : United Nations Conference on Trade and
Thailand Economic Cooperation
Development
CIA : Central Intelligence Agency
UNEP : United Nations Environment Programme
CIS : Commonwealth of Independent States UNESCO : United Nations Educational, Scientific and
ECM : European Common Market Cultural Organisation
ECOSOC : Economic and Social Council (UN) UNFPA : United Nations Population Fund
EFTA : European Free Trade Association UNICEF : United Nations International Children’s
ESA : European Space Agency Emergency Fund
ESCAP : Economic and Social Commission for Asia UNIDO : United Nations Industrial Development
and the Pacific Organisation
EURATOM : European Atomic Community UNPROFOR: United Nations Protection Force
FAO : Food and Agricultural Organisation UNRRA : United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation
Administration
FBI : Federal Bureau of Investigation
UNU : United Nations University
GCC : Gulf Cooperation Council USAID : United States Agency for International De-
IAEA : International Atomic Energy Agency velopment
IATA : International Air Transport Association WFTU : World Federation of Trade Unions
IBCC : International Bureau of Chamber of Com- WHO : World Health Organisation
merce WMO : World Meteorological Organisation
IBRD : International Bank for Reconstruction and WTO : World Trade Organisation
Development YMCA : Young Men’s Christian Association
ICAO : International Civil Aviation Organisation
ICJ : International Court of Justice SCIENCE
ICPD : International Conference on Population and ABC : Atomic Biological and Chemical (Warfare);
Development Audit Bureau of Circulation
ICRC : International Committee of the Red Cross ABM : Anti-Ballistic Missile
IDA : International Development Agency ACD : Anti Collision Devices
ILO : International Labour Organisation AICTE : All India Council of Technical Education
IMF : International Monetary Fund AIDS : Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
INTERPOL : International Police AIIMS : All India Institute of Medical Science
IORARC : Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional ASCII : Alphabetic Code for Information Inter-
Cooperation change
IPU : Inter-Parliamentary Union ASLV : Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
IRA : Irish Republican Army ATS : Anti-Tetanus Serum
IRC : International Red Cross AVRC : Audio-Visual Research Centre
ITU : International Telecommunication Union BARC : Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
KGB : Komitet Gosudarst Vennony Bizo Pasnosti BCG : Bacillus Calmette Guerin (Anti-TB Vaccine)
(Russian Secret Police Organisation CAPES : Computer Aided Paperless Examination
USMCA : United States- Mexico-Canada Agreement System
NATO : North Atlantic Treaty Organisation CD : Compact Disc, Certificate of Deposit
NSG : Nuclear Supplier Group CFC : Chloro-Fluoro Carbon
OAPEC : Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting CHECMATE: Compact High Energy Capacitor Module
Countries Advanced Technology Experiment
OAS : Organisation of American States CISC : Complex Instruction Set Computing
OAU : Organisation of African Unity COSMAT : Communications Satellite Corporation
OECD : Organisation of Economic Cooperation and CVR : Cockpit Voice Recorder
Development DDT : Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane
OSCE : Organisation for Security and Cooperation DIAS : DoT’s Internet Access Service
OXFAM : Oxford Committee for Famine Relief DNA : Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid
SAEC : South Asian Economic Community DOS : Desk Operating System
SAFTA : South Asian Free Trade Area (Agreement) DOTS : Directly Observed Treatment Short-Course
SAPTA : South Asian Preferential Trade Agreement DPT : Diptheria, Pertussis and Tetanus (Vaccine)
SAARC : South Asian Association for Regional DSB : Digital Satellite Broadcasting
Co-operation DSP : Digital Signal Processing
UNCED : United Nations Conference on Environment DTP : Desk Top Publishing
and Development E-mail : Electronic Mailing

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ECR : Electron Cyclotron Resonance FIFA : International Football Federation (Federa-

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

EDMS : Electronic Document Management System tion International de Football Association)

EEG : Electro-Encephalogram FIH : Federation of International Hockey
EL : Electro-Luminescent IBM : International Badminton Association
ELINT : Electronic Intelligence ICC : International Cricket Council
ELISA : Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay IOA : Indian Olympic Association
ENIAC : Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calcu- IOC : International Olympic Committee
lator MCC : Melbourne Cricket Club
ESP : Extra-Sensory Perception NIS : National Institute of Sports
ESR : Electron Spin Resonance SAI : Sports Authority of India
ETT : Embryo Transfer Technology
MISCELLANEOUS
EVM : Electronic Voting Machine
AD : Anno Domini (Latin)
EVR : Electro Video Recording
AM : Ante-Meridiem (Latin)
FBTR : Fast Breeder Test Recorder
BC : Before Christ
FIRE : Fully Integrated Robotised Engine BHEL : Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
FM : Frequency Modulation BPE : Bureau of Public Enterprises
GBP : Geosphere Biosphere Programme BREAD : Basic Research, Education and Develop-
GEMS : Gateway Electronic Mail Services ment (Society)
GIAS : Gateway Internet Access Services CBI : Central Bureau of Investigation
GMRT : Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope CBSE : Central Board of Secondary Education
GMT : Greenwich Mean Time CID : Criminal Investigation Department
GPSS : Gateway Packet Switching System CISF : Central Industrial Security Force
GSLV : Geo-Synchronus Satellite Launch Vehicle CLASS : Computer Literacy and Studies in School
HAL : Hindustan Aeronautics Limited CMDRO : Central Marine Design Research Organisa-
HBV : Hepatitis B Virus tion
HEV : Hepatitis E Virus CMEA : Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
HF : High Frequency COFMOW : Central Organisation for Modernisation of
Workshops
HFD : High Frequency Doppler
CSIR : Council of Scientific and Industrial Re-
HIV : Human Immuno Deficiency Virus
search
HMT : Hindustan Machine Tools DIG : Deputy Inspector General
HRPT : High Resolution Picture Transmission ERDA : Energy Resarch and Development Admin-
HTR : High Temperature Reactor istration
ICBM : Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile ESIS : Employees State Insurance Scheme
IDE : Integrated Device Electronics ESMA : Essential Services Maintenance Act
IMAP : Internet Mail Access Protocol FTII : Film and Television Institute of India
INSAT : Indian National Satellite GSI : Geological Survey of India
HMI : Himalayan Mountaineering Institute
INTELSAT : International Telecommunication Satellite
IA : Indian Airlines
IRBM : Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile
IAAI : International Airport Authority of India
ISDN : Integrated Services Digital Network IARI : Indian Agricultural Research Institute
IUCD : Intra -Uterine Contraceptive Device ICAR : Indian Council of Agricultural Research
IVF : In Vitro Fertilisation ICCR : Indian Council of Cultural Relations
IVM : In Vitro Maturation ICMR : Indian Council of Medical Research
IVRS : Interactive Voice Response System ICSSR : Indian Council of Scientific and Social Re-
KVPY : Krishi Vigyanki Protsahan Yojana search
IDPL : Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited
METSAT : Metereological Satellite
IDSA : Institute of Defence Studies and Analysis
NEVA : Naked Eye Vision Agglutination
IIAR : Indian Institute of Agricultural Research
SITA : Studies in Information Technology Applica- INTACH : Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural
tions Heritage
SPORTS IPC : Indian Penal Code
AAAA : Asian Amateur Athletics Association ITDC : Indian Tourism Development Corporation
AAFI : Amateur Athletics Federation of India MCOCA : Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime
Act
AGF : Asian Games Federation
NCERT : National Council of Educational Research
AIFA : All India Football Association
and Training
AKFI : Amateur Kabaddi Federation of India NDDB : National Dairy Development Board
BCCI : Board of Control for Cricket in India NEEM : National Elementary Education Mission

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 Update Traditional G.K.

NFDC : National Film Development Corporation CIN : Corporate Identity Number

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

NIFT : National Institute of Fashion Technology CITA : Centre for International Trade in Agricul-
OIL : Oil India Limited ture and Agro-based Industries
OT : Operation Theatre CNG : Compressed Natural Gas
PAC : Public Accounts Committee COCA : Control of Organised Crime Act
PCI : Press Council of India CPI : Corruption Perception Index
PDA : Preventive Detention Act CSE : Centre for Science and Environment
PDS : Public Distribution System CVD : Counter-Vailing Duty
PIB : Press Information Bureau DIA : Defence Intelligence Agency
DMRCL : Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited
PM : Post Meridiem
DOTS : Directly Observed Treatment Short Course
PTI : Press Trust of India
DPB : Defence Procurement Board
PVC : Param Veer Chakra
ECB : European Central Bank
PVSM : Param Vishishta Seva Medal EDCIL : Educational Consultant India Ltd.
RAW : Research and Analysis Wing FICA : Federal of International Cricketers's Asso-
RLO : Returned Letter Office ciation
RMS : Railway Mail Service FMD : Foot and Mouth Disease
SAIL : Steel Authority of India Limited GMO : Genetically Modified Organism
TELCO : Tata Engineering and Locomotive Company GMUNET : Global Mega University Network
UGC : University Grant Commission GSM : Global System for Mobile Communication
UNI : United News of India GTO : Geo-Synchronous Transfer Orbit
UPSC : Union Public Service Commission HHS : Health and Human Services
VIP : Very Important Person HRW : Human Rights Watch
VPP : Value Payable Post IAHV : International Association for Human Value
VVF : Village Volunteer Force IAVI : International AIDS Vaccine Initiative
FRCS : Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons IBAM : Indian Board of Alternative Medicines
FRGS : Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society ICC : International Criminal Court
GATT : General Agreement on Tariff and Trade ICODE : International Council for Open and Dis-
GEF : Global Environment Fund tance Education
GPS : Global Positioning System INCB : International Narcotics Control Board
IOPT : International Organisation to Promote Tourism
GSP : Generalised System Preference
ISMA : Indian Sugar Mills Association
TRIMS : Trade Related Investment Measures
ISS : International Space Station
TRIPS : Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights
METSAT : Meteorological Satellite
UNITA : Union for the Total Independence of Angola
MGC : Mekong-Ganga Cooperation
WAY : World Assembly of Youth MRLA : The Media Right License Agreement
WWW : World Wide Web; World Weather Watch MRTS : Mass Rapid Transport System
ZOPFAN : Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality NABCONS : NABARD Consultancy Services Ltd.
LATEST ABBREVIATIONS NASSCOM : National Association of Software Services
Companies
AAD : Academic for Action and Development
NAV : Net Asset Value
AICI : Agricultural Insurance Corporation of India
NCA : Nuclear Command Authority
AIEEE : All India Engineering Entrance Examina-
NCCB : National Council for Cement and Building
tion
Material
AREA : All India Rice Exporters Association
NCDM : National Centre for Disaster Management
ASCI : Advertising Standards Council of India
NCF : National Cultural Fund
AUV : Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
NCFSE : National Curriculum Framework of Second-
AVUT : Association of Victims of Uphar Tragedy
ary Education
BALCO : Bharat Aluminium Company Limited
NCLT : National Company Law Tribunal
BDR : Bangla Desh Rifles
NCST : National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
BII : Bottled in India
NCSC : National Commission for Scheduled Castes
BISMTEC : Bay of Bengal initiative For Multi-Sectoral
NEAMA : National Environment Assessment and
Technical and Economic Cooperation
monitoring Auithority
BIO : Bottled in Origin
NEERI : National Environment Engineering Re-
BSNL : Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
search Institute
BIMSTEC : Bay of Bengal Initiative For Multi-Sectoral
NID : National Identity Card
Technical and Economic Cooperation
NINI : National Inland Navigation Institute
CBM : Confidence Building Measures
NFCR : National Fund for Calamity Relief
CCEA : Cabinet Committee for Economic Affairs
NMD : National Missile Defence
CCI : Consumer Confidence Index
NSAB : National Security Advisory Board
CDMA : Code Division Multiple Access
NTFO : National Technical Facilities Organisation
CDS : Chief of Defence Staff
OPECNA : OPEC News Agency
CEA : Central Electricity Authority

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PFI : Peteroleum Federation of India NAVAL TRAINING CENTRES

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

PGA : Peoples’ Guerilla Army ³³ INS Chilka, Bhubaneshwar

PLAN : Peoples’ Liberation Army Navy ³³ INS Circars, Vishakhapatnam
PMNRF : Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund
³³ INS Hamla, Malad, Mumbai
POTO : Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance
³³ INS Shivaji, Lonavala (Maharashtra)
POTA : Prevention of Terrorism Act
³³ INS Valsura, Jamnagar (Gujarat)
PUCC : Pollution Under Control Certificate
RBA : Royal Bhutan Army ³³ INS Venduruthy, Kochi
RIDF : Rural Infrastructure Developmenct Fund ³³ Indian Naval Academy, Kochi
SARS : Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ³³ Navy Shipwright School, Vishakhapatnam
SASEC : South Asian Sub-regional Economic Coop- ³³ Sailors’ Training Establishment, Dabolim (Goa).
eration
AIR FORCE TRAINING CENTRES
SEWA : Self-Employed Women’s Association
SIL : Sterlite Industries Limited ³³ Air Force Administrative College, Coimbatore
SIS : Secret Intelligence Services ³³ Air Force Flying College, Jodhpur
SMS : Short Messaging Service ³³ Air Force Technical College, Jalahalli (Bangalore)
SSN : Social Security Number ³³ Air Force School, Jalahalli (Bangalore)
TIFAC : Technology Information Forecasting and ³³ Air Force School, Tarambaram
Assessment Council
³³ Net Training Wings and Transport Training Wing
TIN : Tax Payer's Identification Number Hakimpet and Begmet (Hyderabad)
TIN : Tax Information Network
³³ School of Aviation Medicine, Bangalore
TWI : Trans World International
UNFCCC : United Nations Framework Convention on ³³ Air Force Paratroopers Training School, Agra
Climate Change LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES
UMIOR : Universal Mobility in the Indian Ocean Region
³³ Police : The Police Force in the country is entrusted
UNMEE : United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and
with the responsibilities of maintenance of public
Eritrea
order, prevention and detection of crimes. Public order
VACA : Voluntary Adoption Coordinating Agency
and police being state subject under the constitution,
VOIP : Voice State Domestic Product
police is maintained and controlled by states.
WBTI : World Breast Feeding Trends Initiative
³³ Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) : The Central
WCAR : World Conference Against Racism
Bureau of Investigation was created in April 1963.
WDC : World Dam Commission
The CBI through its Special Police Establishment
WWW : World Wide Web
Division is the principal investigating agency of the
Central Government.
DEFENCE INSTITUTIONS OF INDIA ³³ Indo-Tibetan Border Force (ITBP) : The Indo-Tibetan
Border Force was raised on October 24, 1962. In 1975
MILITARY TRAINING CENTRES
the primary task of the ITBP was re-defined as security
³³ National Defence Academy, Khadakwasla of northern borders, to check illegal immigration and
³³ Indian Military Academy, Dehradun trans-border crimes. From 1995, the ITBP began
³³ Rashtriya Indian Military College, Dehradun to be inducted in a big way in counter insurgency
³³ National Defence College, New Delhi operations in the Kashmir Valley.
³³ Defence Services Staff College, Wellington ³³ Border Security Force (BSF) : The Border Security
³³ Armoured Corps Centre and School, Ahmednagar Force raised in 1965, is entrusted with the task
³³ Infantry School, Mhow of maintaining permanent vigilance of India’s
international borders. It has 157 battalions.
³³ College of Military Engineering, Pune
³³ Assam Rifles : The Assam Rifles was raised as
³³ College of Defence Management, Secunderabad
Cacher Levy in 1835. The force has 38 battalions.
³³ High Altitude Warfare School, Gulmarg Its contribution towards assimilation of the people
³³ Army Education Corps Training College and Centre, of north-east into the national mainstream is truly
Pachmarhi monumental.
³³ Army School of Physical Training, Pune ³³ Reserve Police Force (CRPF) : This force was raised
³³ Army Airborne Training School, Agra in 1939 as the Crown Representative’s Police and
³³ Counter Insurgency and Jungle Warfare School, was renamed as CRPF in 1949. It has 154 battalions.
Valrengate ³³ Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) : It was
³³ Institute of National Integration, Pune. established in 1969 to provide security to industrial
³³ Junior Leaders Academy, Ramgarh undertakings of the Government.
³³ Army Air Defence College, Gopalpur-on-Sea ³³ National Security Guards (NSG) : It has been set up
³³ School of Artillery, Deolali in 1984 for handling terrorists, kidnappers, saboteurs,
anti-hijacking operations, recovery of hostages, VIP
³³ Education Corps Training College and Centre, Bhopal
security, etc. For the first time in the country, a unit
³³ Military School at Ajmer, Bangalore, Belgaum, Chail
of women ‘Black Cat’ commandos was created on
and Dholpur October 15, 2005 in the elite NSG.

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UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

SPORTS

CUPS AND TERMINOLOGY line, Grass Court, Hard court, Clay Fault, Grip, Ground
stroke, Refree, Linesman, in, Out, Match Point, Tie break,
Cricket : World Cup, Asia Cup, ICC Trophy, Raji
Set point, Half volley, Smash, pace, Top spin, Wrong foot,
Trophy, Duleep Trophy, Irani Trophy, Deodhar Trophy,
Love, Seed, Break point, Change of ends, Over head, Lob,
Rohington Baria Trophy, Cooch Bihar Trophy, Vijay
Passing shot, Kill etc.
Hazare Trophy, Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy (T-20), Indian
Premier League (IPL) (T-20), C.K. Naidu Trophy, Women’s Grand Slam Tournaments
T-20, ICC Twenty–20 Cricket World Cup, ICC Women’s
Tourna- Date Location Surface First
World Twenty–20 etc. ment Held
Swing, Cut, Overdrive, Pull, Hook, Chinaman, Short Australian January Melbourne Hard 1905
Pitch, Googly, Wide, Throw, Mid off, Mid on, Long off, Open (Plexi-
Long on, Hook, Long leg, Short leg, Fine leg, Forward cushion)
short leg, Mid wicket, Third man, Slip, Point, Thirty yard French May-June Paris Clay 1925
circle, Crease, Flight, Bouncer, Round the wicket, Over Open
the wicket, Leg before wicket, Follow on, Protection guard, Wimbledon June-July London Grass 1877
Abdominal guard, Bails, Retired hurt, Third Umpire, US Open Aug.- New York Hard 1881
Opener, First down, Line and length, Seam, Off cutter, Sep. City (Decco
Leg cutter, Off break, Leg spin, Bowler, Batsman, Wicket Turf)
keeper, Helmet, Pad, Extra, No ball, Chucker, Dead Ball, Hockey : Mumbai gold Cup, DhyanChand Trophy,
Beamer, Reverse swing, Full toss, Bowled, Hit wicket, Jawahar Lal Nehru Cup, Surjeet Singh Cup, Agha Khan
Played on, Run out, Caught Behind, Catch, Over throw, Cup, Scindhia Gold Cup, Him Gold Cup, Ceasers Clark
Shooter, Run, Innings, Gloves, Runner DRS (Decision Cup, Murugappa Gold Cup, Cuppuswamy Cup, Mahara-
Review System), Back Foot Contact, Duckworth-Lewis ja Ranjit Singh Gold Cup, Roop Singh Gold Cup, Khan
method, Free hit, Front Foot Contact, Yorker, Duck, Hat- Abdul Ghaffar Khan Trophy, K.D. Singh Babu Trophy,
Trick, etc. D.C.M. Sriram trophy, Challenge Cup, Rene Frank trophy
Football : FIFA Cup (World Cup), UFA Cup, F.A. (World championship), Champions trophy, Stand Cup,
Cup, European Championship, Winners Cup, Presidents B.M.W. Trophy, Azlan Shah Cup, Indira Gandhi Inter-
Cup, African Nations Cup, Kings Cup, Mardeka Cup, national Gold Cup, Rangaswamy Cup (National men’s
Asian Cup, Kankecafe Gold Cup, Santosh Trophy (Na- championship), Lady Ratan Tata Trophy (National wom-
tional Championship), Jawahar Lal Nehru International en’s championship), Beighton Cup, Obedullah gold Cup,
Gold Cup, Rajiv Gandhi International Cup, Durand Cup, Federation Cup etc.
Rovers Cup, I.F.A. Shelid, DCM Trophy, Federation Cup,
Infringement, Sideline, Tie breaker, Sudden death,
Subroto Cup, B.C. Roy Trophy, Mir Iqbal Hussain torphy,
Hatrick, Stick, Under cutting, Circle, Bulley, Rollin, Push-
Stafford Cup, Caesers Cup, Vithal Cup, Baradoloi Trophy,
in, Shooting circle, Polley, Right and left back, Outside
Nagaji trophy, Airlines gold Cup, Bandodkar Gold Cup,
right, Inside right, Centre forward, Inside left, Outside
Ashutosh Trophy, Begum Hazrat Mahal Trophy etc.
left, Centre half, Line, Corner, Short corner, long corner,
Mid field, Centre pass, Back pass, Goal keeper, For-
Penalty stroke, Flick, Reverse flick, Scoop, Umpire, Lines-
ward, Direct kick, Striker, Indirect kick, Comer, Free kick,
man, Half volley, Pad, Gloves etc.
Dribble, Penalty kick, Extra time, Scisson kick, Foul,
Goal, Refree, Linesman, Sweeper, Back, Throw in, Volley, Badminton : Chaddha Cup (national women’s team
Touch line, Send off, Net winger, Tie breaker, flag, fist, championship), Vikas Topiwala Challenge Cup (National
First half, Second, half, Sudden death, Winger, Tackle, men’s singles), Olympian Challenger Cup (National women
Far post, Sliding tackle, Off side, Hatrick, handball, Chip, singles), Amrit Diwan Cup, Aggarwal Cup, S.R. Rula Cup,
Lob, Fair charge, Booking, Cross, Kick off, Goal kick, Sofia kitkara Cup, Hiralal Cup, Thomas Cup (World men),
Marking, Through ball, Abbey etc. Uber Cup (world women), All England championship, sudi-
Lawn Tennis : Grand slam (Wimbledon, French raman Cup, Yonnex Cup, Abdul Rahman Cup, European
Open, Australlian Open, U.S. open), Davis Cup, Cup etc.
Whiteman Cup, Federation Cup, Hopman Cup, ATP Refree, Linesman, Let drop, flight, Skirt, Innings, Net
championship, Evert Cup, Virginia slims championship, shot, Low service, High service, Lift, Pen handle push,
Itallian open, Canadian open, Japan open, Indian satel- setting service break, Match point, Set point, Smash etc.
lite open, Dr Rajendra Prasad Cup, German open, WTA Volleyball : Federation Cup, India Cup, Shivanti
championship etc. Gold Cup, Shiva Subramaniyaum Cup (National Women
Deuce, Volley, Service, Back hand, Stroke, Forehand, Championship), V.C.C. Cup, Mannarkat M.M Joseph
Singles, Doubles, Racket, Net ball, Service break, Straight Trophy (National Men’s Championship), and Poornima
set, Service line, Return, Side umpire, Baseline, Centre Trophy etc.

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Hock serve, Tennis serve, Refree, Linesman, Double Squash : Angle, Board court, Cutline, Drive, Foot-
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

fault, Fore arm pass, Set up, Block, Aerial smash, Ro- fault, Half court line, Hammer, Hand in,
tation, Double hit, Volley pass, Dig pass, Switch, Over- Kill, Nick, Penalty point, Rally, Service
tapping, Booster, Love, Dig, Net Fault, Net ball, Floater, box, Set, Short line, Volley, Wells
Service, Power serve etc.
Boxing : Ring master, Jab, Reach, Cover up, Clinch, OLYMPIC MOTTO, EMBLEM, FLAG,
In fighting, Bell, Back header, Barrage, Volvo punch, CREED AND OATH
Upper cut, Lower cut, Below the belt, Back peddle, Bout,
Bunting, Kidney punch, Lead, Neutral corner, Right Motto “Citius, Altius, Fortius”. These are Latin
cross, Swing, Seconds out, Not out, Knockout, Belt block, words, which mean ‘Swifter, Higher and
Blow, Bounce of ropes, Hook, Guard, Hang on, Hill, Pivot Stronger’. They were composed in 1897 by
punch, Round, Wag, Pench ball, Punch drunk, Sash, Rev. Father Didon, a friends of Baron Pierre
Ring craft etc. de Coubertin, and introduced in the 1920
World Cup Championship Presidents Cup, Meyers games for the first time.
Cup, Kings Cup, Virginia long corn trophy, WBA title,
Emblem Is composed of five interwined rings, each
WBC crown etc.
of different colour, representing five conti-
Golden eagle trophy, National Championship, Euro-
nents of the world, placed at the centre of
pean Championship, Federation Cup, America Cup, Asia
the Olympic Flag.
Cup, V.C. Gupta Trophy, William Jones Cup etc.
Basketball : Assist, Dribbling Duck, Goal tending, Colour of Ring Countinent Represented
Jump ball, Head ball, Lay up, Pivot, Post screening, Steal, Blue ring Europe
Tap, Throw, Three point, Play, Tip in, Turn over etc.
Yellow ring Asia
TERMINOLOGY OF OTHER IMPORTANT Black ring Africa
SPORTS
Red ring America
Snooker/ : Bridge, Cue, Cue ball, Object balls etc.
Green ring Oceania
Billiards
Golf : Bogey, Foursome, Tee, Put, Hole, Nivlick,
Caddy, Link, Putting, Vrily, Birdic etc. Flag The Olympic flag is white in colour (originally
Athletics : Alley, Apron, Baton, Bend, Blindpass, Box, made of cotton) 3m × 2m. The emblem placed
Circle, Clearance, Crossbar, Heats, False in the middle is 206 cm % 60 cm. The flag
start, Flop style, Foul, Hurdles, Lane, Lap, was designed by Coubertin himself in 1913
Decathion, Heptathion, Marathon, Penta- and it was first hosted in 1920 at the Antwerp
thion, Scratch, Shotput, Sprint, Starting Games and the motto was then added to it.
blocks, Steeplechase, Straddle, Stride, Tie, Creed “The most important thing in the Olympic
Zone. Games is not to win but to take part, just
Baseball : Arm-thrower, Around the Horn, Balk, Ball, as the most important thing in the not the
Ball hawk, Base open, Base runner, Bat, triumph but the struggle. The essential
Batter, Battery, Blank, Block, Bobble, thing is not to have conquered but to have
Catcher, Cocked arm, Crossfire, Downer, fought well.”
Home, Hot Corner, Infield fly, Keystone,
Sack, Letup, Peg, Pinch, Hitter, Poppy, Oath An athlete of the host country recites the
Punch, Rubber, Run-up, Sinker, Slider, following at the opening ceremony. “In the
Threefoot lines. name of all competitors I promise that we will
Cycling : Ankling, Break, Bunch, Handicap, Honk, take part in these Olympic Games, repecting
Madison relay, Musette, Pursuit. and abiding by the rules which govern them,
Rowing : Aweigh all, Beat, Bow, Canvass, Catch, in the spirit of sportsmanship for the glory
Coxswain or Cox, Double, Eight, Paddle, of sport and the honour of our terms.” Both
Puddle, Recovery, Rigging, Row, Sculls, the oath and the creed were composed by
Single, Slide, Sweep, Swivel. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of
Rugby : Blocking back, Button-hook, Centre, modern Olympics.
Clipping, Crossbar, Cutback, Dead ball Olympic The Olympic flame symbolizes the continuity
line, Drop kick, Fade, Faircatch, Flanker, Torch between the ancient and the modern Olym-
Flat pass, Fumble, Goal, Huddle, Kickoff, pics. The Olympic flame was lighted for the
Looping line, Off-side, Pack, Punt, Push- first time in 1928 at the Amsterdam stadium
ing the passer, Safety man, Screen pass, and since then the practice has countinued.
Slugging, Tackle, Throw-in, Time out,
The torch used to kindle the flame is first lit by
Trap, Try.
the sun’s rays at the shrine of Zeus (Greece). It
Shooting : Airgun, Barrel, Bore diameter, Bull, Cal-
is then carried overland by a relay of runners
ibre, Canting, Drag, Firearm, Grip, Long
to the site of the games and placed in bowl
riffle, Muzzle velocity, Rifle, Sighters,
where is burns during the period of the Games.
Snap, Stock.

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The The practice of Torch Relay from Olympia 2012 Wenlock & Mandeville London Great Brit-
Olympic (It also represents ain
friendship)
Torch (Greece) to the venue of the Games was first
Relay introudced by German Olympic Committee 2016 Vinicius (It is a mix of R i o d e Brazil
for the Berlin Games in 1936 and has since different Brazilian Janeiro
become part of the Olympic Games. animals)
2020 .................................... Tokyo Japan
The It was introuced in 1972 at the 20th Olym-
......................
Olympic pics
Mascot Games hald at Munich and since then an The Olympic Awards and Certificates : Originally the
Olympic Mascot is slected for a particular meat of the sacrificed animal was offered as a prize to
year and venue. the winners; which was subsequently replaced by a
crown of olive branches. However, in modern Olympics
Year Mascot Venue Host winners are awarded medals and certificates. There are
Country three medals for the top three positions.
1896 — Athens Greece First Prize Gold Medal
1900 — Paris France Second Prize Silver Medal
1904 — St. Louis France Third Prize Bronze Medal
For the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth po-
1906 — Athens Greece
sitions only certificates are given.
1908 — London Great Medals : The medal is about 60 mm in diameter
Britain and 3 mm in thickness. The gold and silver medals are
1912 — S t o c k - Sweden both made of 92.5 per cent pure silver. However, the
holm gold medal is plated with 6gm of pure gold. The third
1972 Waldi (Dachshund) Munich W Germany position medal is made of bronze.
In addition to prizes given to athletes, there are
1976 Amik (Beaver) Montreal Canada certain awards and trophies that are awarded to those
1980 Misha (Bear) Moscow Russia who promote the cause of Olympics. On July 2, 2003
during a press conference held in Prague, the Athens
1984 Sam (Eagle) Los USA
Angeles
2004 Olympic Games, President, Gianna Angelopoulos,
presented the new medals of Olympic Games 2004 to
1988 Hodori (Tiger Cub) Seoul South Ko- the IOC. The design of the Olympic medals for the
rea Olympic Games changed for the first time since 1928,
1992 Cobi (spain) Barcelona Spain incorporating exclusive Greek elements. The creator of
the medals is Elena Votsi.
1996 Izzy (derived from what Atlanta USA
The Olympic Order : Instituted in 1974, the Olympic
is it?)
Order in gold, silver or bronze decoration is awarded
2000 ‘Ollie’ - a Kooka-burra, Sydney Australia to a person who has rendered outstanding services or
‘Syd’ - a displayed the Olympic ideals.
Playtypus; and ‘Milli’- Mrs. Indira Gandhi was awarded this order in 1983
an Echidna, are three by the IOC for her contribution to the organisation of
native animals of Aus- the New Delhi Asiad (1982).
tralia which represent The Olympic Cup : Instituted in 1906 by Couber-
the earth, air and water tin, its reproduction is awarded to an institution that
2004 ‘Phevos’ and ‘Athena’ Athens Greece contributed to the development of sports in general and
Two bell- the Olympic movement in particular. The original cup
shaped cartoons in- remains at the Chateau de Vivy in France.
spired by ancient Greek
dolls. They are brother
WINTER OLYMPICS
and sister and named The Winter Olympics commenced in 1924 when the
after two Greek Gods. first games were held in Chamonix, France. Since then
2008 Like the five Olympic Beijing China these games are held at an interval of four years in the
rings from which they same calendar year as the Summer Olympic games.
draw their colour and in- The winter Games include : Ice hockey, Skating, Speed
spiration, Fuwa will serve sketing Alpine Skiing and biathlon.
as the official Mascots
of Beijing 2008 Olympic Winter Olympics : Where and When
games, carrying Year Place
a message of friendship
2014 Sochi, Russia
and peace and good wish-
es from China to children 2018 Pyeong Chang, South Korea
all over the world. 2022 Beijing, China

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India in Olympics

Venue Year Winner/Event Medal

Paris 1900 200 M Hurdles (N.G. Pritchard) Silver

Amsterdam 1928 Hockey Gold
Los Angeles 1932 Hockey Gold
Berlin 1936 Hockey Gold
London 1948 Hockey Gold
Helsinki 1952 Hockey Gold
Helsinki 1952 57 Kg Free Style Wrestling (K.D. Jadhav) Bronze
Melbourne 1956 Hockey Gold
Rome 1960 Hockey Silver
Tokyo 1964 Hockey Gold
Mexico 1968 Hockey Bronze
Munich 1972 Hockey Bronze
Moscow 1980 Hockey Gold
Atlanta 1996 Tennis (Leander Paes) Bronze
Sydney 2000 Weight Lifting (K. Malleswari) Bronze
Athens 2004 Double Trape Shooting (R.V.S. Rathore) Silver
Beijing 2008 10 mtr. Rifle shooting (Abhinav Bindra) Gold
66 Kg. Freestyle Wrestling (Shushil Kumar) Bronze
75 Kg. Middleweight Boxing (Vijendra Kumar) Bronze
London 2012 Vijay Kumar (Men's 25 m Rapid Fire Pistal, Shooting Silver
(Sushil Kumar)
(Men's 66 kg Freestyle Wrestling) Silver
Saina Nehwal (Women’s Singles) Badminton Bronze
M.C. Mary Com (51 kg Women Flywait Boxing) Bronze
Gagan Narang (Men's 10 m Air Rifle, Shooting) Bronze
Yogeshwar Datta (Men's 60 kg Freestyle Wrestling) Bronze
Rio de Janeiro 2016 P.V. Sindhu (Badminton) Silver
Sakshi Malik (Wrestling Freestyle 58 kg) Bronze

Tokyo 2020 Neeraj Chopra (Athletics, Men’s Javelin Throw) Gold

Saikhom Mirabai Chanu (Weightlifting, women’s 49 kg) Silver

Ravi Kumar Dahiya (Wrestling, men’s Freestyle 57 kg) Silver

P.V. Sindhu Badminton, Women’s singles Bronze

Lovlina Borgohain (Boxing, women’s welterweight) Bronze

Bajrang Punia (Wrestling, men’s freestyle 65 kg) Bronze

Hockey National Team (Field Hockey, men’s tournament) Bronze

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World Cup Cricket
Year Name of Cup Venue No. of Winner Runner Man of the Match
Nations

1975 Prudential Cup England 8 West Indies Australia Clive Lloyd

1979 Prudential Cup England 8 West Indies England Viv Richards

1983 Prudential Cup England 8 India West Indies M. Amarnath

1987 Reliance Cup India & Pakistan 8 Australia England David Boon

1992 Benson & Hedges Cup Australia & New Zealand 9 Pakistan England W. Akram

1996 Wills Cup India, Pakistan & Sri Lanka 12 Sri Lanka Australia A. Desilva

1999 ICC Cup England 12 Australia Pakistan Shane Warne

2003 ICC Cup S. Africa, Kenya, Zimbabwe 14 Australia India Ricky Ponting

2007 ICC Cup W.Indies 16 Australia Sri Lanka A. Gilcrist

2011 ICC Cup Bangladesh, India and 14 India Sri Lanka M.S.Dhoni
Sri Lanka

2015 ICC Cup Australia & N. Zealand 14 Australia New Zeland James Faulkner
2019 ICC England 10 England New Zealand Ben Stokes

2023 ICC India — — — —

World Cup : 20 - 20 Cricket S.No. Country National Sports/Games

Year Venue Winner Runner
5. Japan Ju-Jitsu
2007 South Africa India Pakistan
2009 England Pakistan Sri Lanka 6. Russia Chess
2010 West Indies England Australia
7. Scotland Rugby Football
2012 Sri Lanka West Indies Sri Lanka
2014 Bangladesh Sri Lanka India 8. Spain Bull Fighting
2016 India West Indies England 9. USA Baseball
2020 (21) UAE/Oman — —
10. Pakistan Hockey
2022 Australia — —

ICC World Test Championship SAF Games

Year Venue Winner Runner Year Place Country
2019-21 Southampton New Zealand India 1987 Kolkata India

National Sports of Some Countries 1995 Chennai India

S.No. Country National Sports/Games 2013 Delhi India
1. Australia Cricket 2016 Guwahati & Shilong India
2. Canada Cricket
2019 Kathmandu Nepal
3. England Cricket & Rugby Football
2021 Lahore Pakistan
4. India Hoockey & Kabbadi (Unof-
ficially there are national Asian Games
games of India but “the gov-
Year Venue
ernment has not declared
any sports/games as the 1951 New Delhi (India)
Indian National Game, as the
1982 New Delhi (India)
objective of the government
is to encourage/promote all 2010 Guangzhu (China)
popular sports disciplines”)
(Source : TOI, RTI query field 2018 Jakarta (Indonesia)
by Mayuresh agarwal) 2022 Huangzhu (China)

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Commonwealth Games since 1930

Year Places Countries Sports First India’s Medals

1930 Hamilton (Canada) 11 6 England N.P.

2010 Delhi (India) 71 17 Australia G–74, S–55, B–48 (2nd)

2014 Glassgow (Scottland) 71 17 England G-15, S-30, B-19 (5th)

2018 Gold Coast (Australia) 71 19 Australia G-26, S-20, B-20 (3rd)

2022 Birmingham (England) — — — —

Famous Stadiums

Stadium Sports Venue

National Stadium Hockey & others Mumbai

Wankhede Stadium Cricket Mumbai

Braboune Stadium Cricket Mumbai

Indraprastha Stadium Indoor games Delhi

J.L. Nehru Stadium Athletics Delhi

Firoz Shah Kotla Cricket Delhi

Ambedkar Stadium Football Delhi

National Stadium Hockey & others Delhi

Talkotora Stadium Swimming Delhi

Eden Garden Cricket Kolkata

Ranjit Stadium Football Kolkata

Salt Lake Stadium Football Kolkata

Green Park Stadium Cricket Kanpur

Keenan Stadium Cricket Jamshedpur

Chepauk Stadium Cricket Chennai

Epsom Derby Britain

Black heath Rugby & Football London

Headingly, Manchester Cricket Britain

Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Britain

Flushing Meadow Lawn Tennis U.S.

Brookland Football Britain

Timbukhum Rugby Britainw

Wembley Football Britain

Narendra Modi Stadium Cricket India (Ahemadabad)

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World Cup Soccer Tournaments World Cup Hockey
Year Place Winner Runners India’s
Year Winner Final Opponent Venue
up position
1930 Uruguay Argentina Uruguay 1971 Barcelona Pakistan Spain Third
2014 Germany Argentina Brazil 2014 The Hegue Australia Nether- Ninth
lands
2018 France Croatia Russia
2018 Bhubneshwar Belgium Nether- Sixth
2022 — — Qatar (India) lands

Famous Cricket Stadium of The World

S. No. Stadium Place
1. Sydney Cricket Ground Sydney (Australia)
2. Western Australia Cricket Association Stadium (WACA) Perth (Australia)
3. Melbourne Cricket Ground Melbourn (Australia)
4. Adelaide Oval Adelaide (Australia)
5. Lord’s Cricket Ground London (England)
6. Brisbane Cricket Ground (The Gabba) Brisbane (Australia)
7. The Oval Cricket Ground London (England)
8. Kensington Oval Bridgetown (West Indies)
9. Queen’s Park Oval Ports of Spain (West Indies)
10. Sher-e-Bangla Cricket Stadium Dhaka (Bangladesh)
11. Bagh-e-Jinnah (Lorence Garden) Lahore (Pakistan)
12. Harare Sports Club Harare (Zimbabwe)
13. Super Sport Park Centurion (S.Africa)
14. Old Trafford Manchester (England)
15. Trent Bridge Nottingham (England)
16. St. George’s Park Port Elizabeth (S.Africa)
17. Headingley Leeds (England)
18. Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium Colombo (Sri Lanka)
19. R. Premadasa Stadium Colombo (Sri Lanka)
20. Karachi National Stadium Karachi (Pakistan)
21. Jinnah Stadium Sialkot (Pakistan)
22. Gaddafi Stadium Lahore (Pakistan)
23. Iqbal Stadium Faisalabad (Pakistan)
24. Westpac Stadium Wellington (New Zealand)
25. Eden Park Auckland (New Zealand)
26. Seddon Park Hamilton (New Zealand)
27. New Wanderes Stadium Johannesburg (South Africa)
28. Sharjah Cricket Association Stadium (SCA) Sharjah (United Arab Emirates)
29. Dubai International Cricket Stadium Dubai (United Arab Emirates)
30. Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates)
31. Sabina Park Kingston (Jamaica, West Indies)
32. Narendra Modi Stadium Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
ppp

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UNION GOVERNORS AND CHIEF MINISTERS OF 28 STATES AND

8 UNION TERRITORIES SINCE INDEPENDENCE

ANDHRA PRADESH Establishment – 1 November, 1956*

1 October, 1953 Andhra Part A State created from part of Madras

1 November, 1956 Andhra Pradesh
28 December, 2009 till date ESL Narsimham
GOVERNORS
1 October, 1953 – 1 August, 1957 Sir Chandulal Madhavlal Trivedi
1 August, 1957 – 8 September, 1962 Bhim Sen Sachar
8 September, 1962 – 4 May 1964 Satyavant Mallannah Srinagesh
4 May, 1964 – 11 April 1968 Pattom Thanu Pillai
11 April 1968 – 25 January, 1975 Khandubhai Kasanji Desai
25 January, 1975 – 10 January, 1976 S. Obul Reddy
10 January, 1976 – 16 June, 1976 Mohan Lal Sukhadia
16 June, 1976 – 17 February, 1977 R.D. Bhandare
17 February, 1977 – 5 May, 1977 B.J. Diwan
5 May, 1977 – 15 August, 1978 Sharada Mukherjee
15 August, 1978 – 15 August, 1983 Kochakkan Chacko Abraham
15 August, 1983 – 29 August, 1984 Thakur Ram Lal
29 August, 1984 – 26 November, 1985 Shankar Dayal Shrama
26 November, 1985 – 7 February, 1990 Kumudben Joshi
7 February, 1999 – 22 August, 1997 Krishan Kant
22 August, 1997 – 24 Novembber 1997 Gopala Ramanujam
24 November, 1997 – 3 January 2003 Chakravarti Rangarajan
3 January, 2003, – 4 November, 2004 Surjit Singh Barnala
4 November, 2004 – 29 January, 2006 Sushil Kumar Shinde
29 January, 2006 – 22 August, 2007 Rameshwar Thakur (Addl. Charge)
22 August, 2007 – 27 December, 2009 Narayan Dutt Tiwari
28 December, 2009 – 23 July, 2019 ESL Narasimhan
24 July, 2019 – till date Biswabhusan Harichandan
CHIEF MINISTERS
1 October, 1953 – 15 November, 1954 Tanguturi Prakasam
15 November, 1954– 28 March, 1955 President’s Rule
28 March, 1955 – 1 November, 1956 Bezawada Gopala Reddy
1 November, 1956 – 11 January, 1960 N. Sanjiva Reddy
11 January, 1960 – 12 March, 1962 Damodaram Sanjivayya
12 March, 1962 – 29 February, 1964 N. Sanjiva Reddy
29 February, 1964 – 30 September,1971 Kasu Brahmananda Reddy
30 September, 1971 – 10 January, 1973 P.V. Narsimha Rao
10 January 1973 – 10 December, 1973 President’s Rule
* Date of Formation : 1 October, 1953, Andhra State Created from Madras State and 1 November, 1956 Andhra Pradesh
State formed.
10 December, 1973 – 6 March, 1978 Jalagam Vengala Rao
6 March, 1978 – 11 October, 1980 Marri Channa Reddy
11 October, 1980 – 24 February, 1982 Tanguturi Anjaiah
24 February, 1982 – 20, Sept., 1982 Bhavanam Venkatram Reddy
20 September, 1982 – 9 January, 1983 Kotla Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy
9 January, 1983 – 16 August 1984 N.T. Rama Rao
16 August, 1984 – 16 September 1984 N. Bhaskara Rao
16 September, 1984 – 3 December 1989 N.T. Rama Rao

OLE - 584
 Update Traditional G.K.

3 December, 1989 – 17 December, 1990 Marri Channa Reddy

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

17 December, 1990 – 9 October, 1992 N. Janardhan Reddy
9 October, 1992 – 12 December, 1994 Kotla Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy
12 December, 1994 – 1 September, 1995 N. T. Rama Rao
1 September, 1995 – 14 May, 2004 Nara Chandrababu Naidu
14 May, 2004 – 2 September, 2009 Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy
2 September, 2009 – 25 November 2010 Konijeti Rosaiah
25 November 2010 – 1 March 2014 Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy
1 March, 2014 – 8 June, 2014 President’s Rule
8 June, 2014 – 29 May, 2019 N. Chandrababu Naidu
30 May, 2019 – till date Jaganmohan Reddy

HYDERABAD
CHIEF MINISTERS
26 January, 1950 – 6 March, 1952 M.K. Vellodi
6 March, 1952 – 31 October, 1956 Burgula Ramakrishna Rao

ARUNACHAL PRADESH Establishment – 20 February, 1987

21 January, 1972 Union territory created from part of Assam
20 February, 1987 State
LIEUTENANT GOVERNORS
15 August, 1975 – 18 January, 1979 K.A.A. Raja
18 January, 1979 – 23 July, 1981 R.N. Haldipur
23 July 1981 – 10 August, 1983 H.S. Dubey
10 August, 1983 – 21 November, 1985 Thanjavelu Rajeshwar
21 November, 1985 – 20 February, 1987 Shiva Swroop
GOVERNORS
20 February, 1987 – 18 March, 1987 Bhishma Narain Singh (acting)
18 March, 1987 – 16 March, 1990 R.D. Pradhan
16 March, 1990 – 8 May 1990 Gopal Singh (acting)
8 May 1990 – 16 March 1991 D.D. Thakur (acting)
16 March 1991 – 25 March, 1991 Loknath Mishra (acting)
25 March 1991 – 4 July, 1993 Surendra Nath Dwivedi
4 July, 1993 – 20 October, 1993 Madhukar Dighe (acting)
20 October, 1993 – 16 May, 1999 Mata Prasad
16 May, 1999 – 1 August, 1999 S.K. Sinha
1 August, 1999 – 12 June, 2003 Arvind Dave
12 June, 2003 – 15 December, 2004 Vinod Chandra Pande
15 December, 2004 – 3 September, 2007 S.K. Singh
3 September, 2007 – 26 January,2008 K. Shankar Narayan
26 January, 2008 – 28 May, 2013 J.J. Singh
28 May, 2013 – 12 may, 2015 Nirbhay Sharma
12 May, 2015 – 14 September, 2016 Jyoti Prasad Rajkhowa
14 September, 2016 – 27 January, 2017 V. Shanmuganathan
28 January, 2017 – 2 October, 2017 Padmanabha Acharya
3 October, 2017 – till date B.D. Mishra
CHIEF MINISTERS
13 August, 1975 – 18 September, 1979 Prem Khandu Thungon
18 September, 1979 – 3 November, 1979 Tomo Riba
3 November, 1979 – 18 January, 1980 President’s Rule
18 January, 1980 – 19 January, 1999 Gegong Apang
19 January, 1999 – 3 August, 2003 Mukut Mithi

OLE - 585
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

3 August, 2003 – 9 April, 2007 Gegong Apang

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

9 April, 2007 – 4 May, 2011 Doroji Khandu

5 May, 2011 – 1 November, 2011 Jarbom Gamlin
1 November, 2011 – 26 January, 2016 Nabam Tuki (2nd Term)
26 January, 2016 – 19 February, 2016 President’s Rule
19 February, 13 July, 2016 Kalikho Pul
13 July 2016 – 17 July, 2016 Nabam Tuki
17 July, 2016 – till date Pema Khandu

ASSAM Establishment – 26 January, 1950

15 August, 1947 Province
26 January, 1950 State (until 1956 : Part A)
GOVERNORS
15 August, 1947 – 28 December, 1948 Sir Akbar Hydari
30 December, 1948 – 16 February, 1949 Sir Ronald Francis Lodge (acting)
16 February, 1949 – 27 May, 1950 Sri Prakasa
27 May, 1950 – 15 May, 1956 Jairamdas Daulatram
15 May, 1956 – 22 August, 1959 Sir Saiyid Fazl Ali
23 August, 1959 – 14 October, 1959 Chandreswar Prasad
14 October, 1959 – 12 November, 1960 Satyavant Mallannah Srinagesh
12 November, 1960 – 13 January, 1961 Vishnu Sahay
13 January, 1961 – 7 September, 1962 Satyavant Mallannah Srinagesh
7 September, 1962 – 17 April, 1968 Vishnu Sahay
17 April, 1968 – 19 September, 1973 Braj Kumar Nehru
19 September, 1973 – 10 August, 1981 Lallan Prasad Singh
10 August, 1981 – 28 March, 1984 Prakash Chndra Mehrotra
28 March, 1984 – 15 April, 1984 T.S. Mishra
15 April, 1985 – 10 May, 1989 Bhishma Narain Singh
10 May, 1989 – 21 July, 1989 Harideo Joshi
21 July, 1989 – 2 May, 1990 Anisetti Roghuvir
2 May, 1990 – 17 March, 1991 D.D. Thakur
17 March, 1991 – 1 September, 1997 Loknath Mishra
1 September, 1997 – 21 April, 2003 S.K. Sinha
21 April, 2003 – 5 June, 2003 Arvind Dave
5 June, 2003 – 25 July, 2008 Ajai Singh
25 July, 2008 – 25 June, 2009 Shivcharan Mathur
26 June, 2009 – 18 July, 2009 K. Sankaranarayanan (acting)
18 July, 2009 – 9 December, 2009 Saiyad Sibtey Razi
10 December, 2009 – 11 December, 2014 J. B. Patnayak
12 December, 2014 – 17 August, 2016 Padmanabha Balkrishna Acharya (acting)
22 August, 2016 – 10 October, 2017 Banwarilal Purohit
10 October, 2017 – till date Jagdish Mukhi
CHIEF MINISTERS
15 August, 1947 – 6 August, 1950 Gopinath Bardoloi
9 August, 1950 – 28 December, 1957 Bishnuram Medhi
28 December, 1957 – 6 November, 1970 Bimali Prasad Chaliha
11 November, 1970 – 31 January, 1972 Mahendra Mohan Choudhury
31 January, 1972 – 12 March, 1978 Sarat Chandra Sinha
12 March, 1978 – 4 September, 1979 Golap Borbora
9 September, 1979 – 11 December, 1979 Jogendra Nath Hazarika
11 December, 1979 – 12 December, 1980 President’s Rule
12 December, 1980 – 29 June, 1981 Anwara Taimur
29 June, 1981 –13 January, 1982 President’s Rule

OLE - 586
 Update Traditional G.K.

13 January, 1982 – 19 March, 1982 Keshav Chandra Gogoi

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

27 February, 1983 – 24 December, 1985 Hiteswar Saikia
24 December, 1985 – 27 November, 1990 Prafulla Kumar Mahanta
27 November , 1990 – 30 June, 1991 President’s Rule
30 June, 1991 – 22 April, 1996 Hiteshwar Saikia
22 April, 1996 – 15 May, 1996 Bhumidhar Barman
15 May, 1996 – 17 May, 2001 Prafulla Kumar Mahanta
17 May, 2001 – 24 May, 2016 Tarun Gogoi (Third Term)
24 May, 2016 – 10 May, 2021 Sarbananda Sonowal
10 May, 2021 – Till date Himanta Biswa Sarma

BIHAR Establishment – 26 January, 1950

15 August, 1947 Province
26 January, 1950 State (until 1956 : Part A)
GOVERNORS
15 August, 1947 – 11 January, 1948 Jairamdas Daultram
12 January, 1948 – 16 June, 1952 Madhavrao Srihari Aney
15 June, 1952 – 15 July,1957 Ranganath Ramachandra Diwakar
6 July,1957 – 11 May, 1962 Zakir Husain
12 May, 1962 – 6 December, 1967 M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar
7 December, 1967 – 20 January, 1971 Nityanand Kanungo
21 January, 1971– 31 January, 1971 Ujjwal Narayan Sinha (Acting)
1 February, 1971 – 4 February, 1975 Dev Kanta Borooah
4 February,1975 – 15 June, 1976 R.D. Bhandare
16 June 1976 – 27 May, 1978 Jagannath Kaushal
27 May, 1978 – 26 June, 1978 K.B.N Singh (Acting)
26 June, 1978 – 31 January, 1979 Jagannath Kaushal
31 January, 1979 – 9 September,1979 K.B.N Singh (Acting)
10 September, 1979 – 15 March, 1985 A.R. Kidwai
15 March,1985 – 25 February 1988 Pendekanti Venkatasubbaiah
26 February, 1988 – 23 January, 1989 Govind Narayan Singh
24 January, 1989 – 28 January, 1989 Deepak Kumar Sen
29 January, 1989 – 2 March, 1989 R.J. President
3 March, 1989 – 21 September, 1989 Jagannath Pahadia
22 September, 1989 – 5 February, 1990 T.V Rajeshwar
6 February, 1990 – 13 February, 1991 Mohammad Yunus Saleem
14 February, 1991 – 19 March, 1991 B. Satyanarayan Reddy
19 March, 1991 – 15 July, 1993 Mohammed Shafi Qureshi
15 July, 1993 – 21 April, 1998 A.R. Kidwai
22 April, 1998 – 3 October, 1999 Sunder Singh Bhandari
15 March 1999 – 6 October 1999 Brij Mohan Lal (acting)
3 October, 1999 – 18 November, 1999 Suraj Bhan
19 November, 1999 – 12 June, 2003 Vinod Chandra Pande
12 June, 2003 – 31 October, 2004 M. Rama Jois
4 November, 2004 – 22 June, 2006 Shri Buta Singh
22 June, 2006 – 10 July, 2008 R.S. Gavai
10 July, 2008 – 29 June, 2009 R.L. Bhatia
29 June, 2009 – 22 March, 2013 Devanand Kunwar
22 March, 2013 – 26 November, 2014 D. Y. Patil
27 November, 2014 – 15 August, 2015 Keshari Nath Tripathi (acting)
16 August, 2015 – 20 June, 2017 Ram Nath Kovind
20 June, 2017– 29 September, 2017 Keshari Nath Tripathi (acting)
30 September, 2017 – 23 August, 2018 Satyapal Malik
23 August, 2018 – 28 July, 2019 Lalji Tondon
29 July, 2019 – till date Phagu Chauhan

OLE - 587
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

CHIEF MINISTERS
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

2 January, 1946 – 31 January, 1961 Srikrishna Sinha

1 February, 1961 – 18 February, 1961 Deep Narayan Singh
18 February 1961 – 1 October, 1963 Binodanand Jha
2 October, 1963 – 5 March, 1967 Krishna Ballabh Sahay
5 March, 1967 – 28 January, 1968 Mahamaya Prasad Sinha
28 January, 1968 – 1 February, 1968 Satish Prasad Singh
1 February, 1968 – 22 March, 1968 Bindeshwari Prasad Mandal
22 March, 1968 – 29 June 1968 Bhola Paswan Shastri
29 June 1968 – 29 February 1969 President’s Rule
29 February, 1969 – 22 June 1969 Harihar Prasad Singh
22 June, 1969 – 4 July 1969 Bhola Paswan Shastri
4 July, 1969 – 16 February 1970 President’s Rule
16 February, 1970 – 22 Dec., 1970 Daroga Prasad Rai
22 December, 1970 – 2 June, 1971 Karpoori Thakur
2 June, 1971 – 9 January, 1972 Bhola Paswan Shastri
9 January 1972 – 9 March, 1972 President’s Rule
9 March, 1972 – 2 July, 1973 Kedar Pandey
2 July 1973 – 11 April, 1975 Abdul Ghafoor
11 April, 1975 – 30 April, 1977 Jagannath Mishra
30 April, 1977– 24 June, 1977 President’s Rule
24 June 1977 – 21 April, 1979 Karpoori Thakur
21 April, 1979 – 17 February, 1980 Ram Sundar Das
17 February, 1980 – 8 June, 1980 President’s Rule
8 June, 1980 – 14 August, 1983 Jagannath Mishra
14 August, 1983 – 25 March, 1985 Chandra Shekhar Singh
12 March, 1985 – 14 February, 1988 Bindeshwari Dubey
14 February, 1988 – 10 March, 1989 Bhagwat Jha Azad
11 March, 1989 – 5 December, 1989 Satyendra Narain Sinha
6 December, 1989 – 10 March, 1990 Jagannath Mishra
10 March, 1990 – 31 March, 1995 Laloo Prasad Yadav
31 Martch 1995 – 4 April, 1995 President’s Rule
4 April, 1995 – 25 July, 1997 Laloo Prasad Yadav
25 July, 1997 – 12 February, 1999 Rabri Devi
12 February, 1999 – 9 March, 1999 President’s Rule
9 March, 1999 – 3 March, 2000 Rabri Devi
3 March 2000 – 11 March, 2000 Nitish Kumar
11 March, 2000 – 8 March, 2005 Rabri Devi
8 March, 2005 – 24 November, 2005 President’s Rule
24 November, 2005 – 20 May, 2014 Nitish Kumar
20 May, 2014 – 22 February, 2015 Jitan Ram Manjhi
22 February, 2015 – 20 November, 2015 Nitish Kumar
20 November, 2015 – till date Nitish Kumar

CHHATTISGARH Establishment – 1 November, 2000

15 August, 1947 Province
1 January, 1948 Part of Central Provinces and Berar (Later Madhya Pradesh)
1 November, 2000 State
CHIEF COMMISSIONER
1947 – 1 January, 1948 S.N. Mehta
GOVERNORS
1 November, 2000 – 1 June, 2003 Dinesh Nandan Sahay
2 June, 2003 – 25 January, 2007 Krishna Mohan Seth

OLE - 588
 Update Traditional G.K.

25 January, 2007 – 23 January, 2010 E.S.L. Narsimhan

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

23 January, 2010 – 19 June, 2014 Shekhar Dutt
19 June, 2014 – 14 July, 2014 Ramnaresh Yadav (Acting)
18 July, 2014 – 14 August, 2018 Balram Das Tandon
15 August, 2018 – 28 July, 2019 Anandiben Patel (acting)
29 July, 2019 – till date Anusuiya Uikey
Chief Ministers
9 November, 2000 – 7 December, 2003 Ajit Jogi
7 December, 2003 – 16 December, 2018 Raman Singh (Third Term)
17 December, 2018 – till date Bhupesh Baghel

GOA Establishment – 30 May, 1987

16, March, 1962 Goa, Daman and Diu union territory
(formerly Portuguese India)
30 May, 1987 Split into Goa state and Daman and Diu Union territory
LIEUTENANT GOVERNORS
7 June, 1962 – 2 September, 1963 Tumkur Sivasankar
2 September, 1963 – 8 December, 1964 M.R. Sachdev
12 December, 1964 – 24 February, 1965 Hari Sharma
24 February, 1965 – 18 April, 1967 Kashinath Raghunath Damle
18 April, 1967 – 16 November, 1972 Nakul Sen
16 November, 1972 – 16 November, 1977 S.K. Banerjee
16 November, 1977 – 31 March, 1981 Pratap Singh Gill
31 March, 1981 – 30 August, 1982 Jagmohan
30 August, 1982 – 24 Feburay, 1983 Idris Hasan Latif
24 February, 1983 – 4 July, 1984 Kershasp Tehmurasp Satarawala
4 July, 1984 – 24 September, 1984 Idrish Hasan Latif (acting)
24 September, 1984 – 29 May, 1987 Gopal Singh
GOVERNORS
30 May, 1987 – 18 July, 1989 Gopal Singh
18 July, 1989 – 18 March, 1991 Khurshed Alam Khan
18 March, 1991 – 4 April 1994 Bhanu Prakash Singh
4 April, 1994 – 4 August, 1994 B. Rachaiah
4 August, 1994 – 16 June, 1995 Gopala Ramanujam
16 June, 1995 – 19 July, 1996 Romesh Bhandari
19 July, 1996 – 16 January, 1998 P.C. Alexander
16 January, 1998 – 19 April 1998 Tumkur Ramaiya Satish Chandran
19 April, 1998 – 26 November, 1999 J.F.R. Jacob
26 November, 1999 – 26 October, 2002 Mohammed Fazal
26 October, 2002 – 2 July, 2004 Kedar Nath Sahani
2 July, 2004 – 17 July, 2004 Mohammed Fazal
17 July 2004 – 21 July, 2008 S.C. Jamir
21 July, 2008 – 26 August, 2011 Shivinder Singh Sidhu
26 August, 2011 – 3 May, 2012 K. Shankarnarayanan
4 May, 2012 – 4 July, 2014 B.V. Wanchoo
12 Juyly, 2014 – 5 August, 2014 Margret Alva
6 August, 2014 – 25 August, 2014 Om Prakash Kohli
26 August, 2014 – 2 November, 2019 Mridula Sinha
3 November, 2019 – 18 August, 2020 Satyapal Malik
18 August, 2020 – 6 July, 2021 Bhagat Singh Koshyari (acting)
7 July, 2021 – till date P.S. Sreedharan Pillai
CHIEF MINISTERS
8 June, 1962 – 2 December, 1966 Dayanand B. Bandodkar
2 December, 1966 – 5 April, 1967 President’s Rule

OLE - 589
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

5 April, 1967 – 12 August, 1973 Dayanand B. Bandodkar

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

12 August, 1973 – 27 March, 1979 Shashikala G. Kakodkar

27 March 1979 – 16 January 1980 President’s Rule
16 January, 1980 – 27 March, 1990 Pratapsing Rane
27 March, 1990 – 14 April, 1990 Churchill Braz Alemao
14 April, 1990 – 14 December, 1990 Luis Proto Barbosa
14 December 1990 – 25 January 1991 President’s Rule
25 January, 1991 – 18 May, 1993 Ravi Naik
18 May, 1993 – 2 April, 1994 Wilfred D’Souza
2 April, 1994 – 8 April, 1994 Ravi Naik
8 April, 1994 – 16 December, 1994 Wilfred D’Souza
16 December, 1994 – 30 July, 1998 Pratapsingh Rane
30 July, 1998 – 26 November, 1998 Wilfred D’Souza
26 November, 1998 – 9 February, 1999 Luizinho Faleiro
9 February 1999 – 9 June 1999 President’s Rule
9 June, 1999 – 24 November, 1999 Luizinho Faleiro
24 November, 1999 – 24 October, 2000 Francisco Sardinha
24 October, 2000 – 2 February, 2005 Manohar Parrikar
2 February, 2005 – 4 March, 2005 Pratapsing Rane
4 March 2005 – 7 June 2005 President’s Rule
7 June, 2005 – 8 June, 2007 Pratapsing Rane
8 June, 2007 – 8 March, 2012 Digamber V. Kamat
9 March, 2012 – 8 November, 2014 Manohar Parrikar
8 November, 2014 – 11 March, 2017 Laxmikant Parsekar
14 March, 2017 – 17 March, 2019 Manohar Parrikar
19 March, 2019 – till date Pramod Sawant

GUJARAT Establishment – 1 May, 1960

1 May, 1960 State created from part of Bombay (see Maharashtra)
GOVERNORS
1 May, 1960 – 1 August, 1965 Mehdi Nawaz Jung
1 August, 1965 – 7 December, 1967 Nityanand Kanungo
7 December, 1967 – 26 December, 1967 P.N. Bhagwati (acting)
26 December, 1967 – 17 March, 1973 Shriman Narayan
17 March, 1973 – 4 April, 1973 P.N. Bhagwati (acting)
4 April, 1973 – 14 August, 1978 Kambanthodath Kunhan Vishwanatham
14 August, 1978 – 6 August, 1983 Sharada Mukherjee
6 August, 1983 – 26 April, 1984 Kizhekethil Mathew Chandy
26 April, 1984 – 26 February, 1986 Braj Kumar Nehru
26 February, 1986 – 2 May 1990 Ram Krishna Trivedi
2 May, 1990 – 21 December, 1990 Mahipal Shastri
21 Decemer, 1990 – 1 July, 1995 Sarup Singh
1 July, 1995 – 1 March, 1996 Naresh Chandra
1 March, 1996 – 25 April, 1998 Krishna Pal Singh
25 April, 1998 – 16 January, 1999 Anshuman Singh
16 January, 1999 – 18 March, 1999 K.G. Balakrishnan (acting)
18 March, 1999 – 7 May, 2003 Sunder Singh Bhandari
7 May, 2003 – 2 July, 2004 Kailashpati Mishra
2 July, 2004 – 24 July, 2004 Balram Jakhar
24 July, 2004 – 18 July, 2009 Nawal Kishore Sharma
30 July 2009 – 27 November 2009 S. C. Zameer (Acting)
27 November, 2009 – 6 July, 2014 Mrs. Kamla Beniwal
7 July, 2014 – 15 July, 2014 Margaret Alva
16 July, 2014 – 21 July, 2019 Om Prakash Kohli
22 July, 2019 – till date Acharya Devvrat

OLE - 590
 Update Traditional G.K.

CHIEF MINISTERS

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

1 May, 1960 – 18 September, 1963 Jivraj Mehta
18 September, 1963 – 19 September 1965 Balwantrai Mehta
19 September, 1965 – 1 October, 1965 President’s Rule
1 October, 1965 – 13 May, 1971 Hitendra Kaniyalal Desai
13 May, 1971 – 17 August, 1972 President’s Rule
17 August, 1972 – 20 July, 1973 Ghanshyam Ojha
20 July, 1973 – 9 February, 1974 Chimanbhai Patel
9 February, 1974 – 18 June, 1975 President’s Rule
18 June, 1975 – 12 March, 1976 Babubhai Jashbhai Patel
12 March, 1976 – 24 December, 1976 President’s Rule
24 December, 1976 – 11 April, 1977 Madhav Singh Solanki
11 April, 1977 – 17 February, 1980 Babubhai Jashbhai Patel
17 February 1980 – 7 June 1980 President’s Rule
7 June, 1980 – 6 August, 1985 Madhav Singh Solanki
6 August, 1985 – 10 December, 1989 Amar Singh Chaudhary
10 December, 1989 – 4 March, 1990 Madhav Singh Solanki
4 March, 1990 – 17 Febuary, 1994 Chimanbhai Patel
17 February, 1994 – 14 March, 1995 Chhabildas Mehta
14 March, 1995 – 21 October, 1995 Keshubhai Patel
21 October, 1995 – 19 September, 1996 Suresh Chandra Mehta
19 September, 1996 – 28 October, 1996 President’s Rule
28 October, 1996 – 28 October, 1997 Shanker Singh Vaghela
28 October, 1997 – 4 March, 1998 Dilip Parikh
4 March, 1998 – 7 October, 2001 Keshubhai Patel
7 October, 2001 – 21 May, 2014 Narendra Modi (Fourth Term)
22 May, 2014 – 7 August, 2016 Anandiben Patel
7 August, 2016– 13 September, 2021 Vijay Rupani
13 September, 2021– till date Bhupendra Patel
CHIEF MINISTERS (SAURASHTRA)
1948 – 1954 Uchharangray Navalshankar Dhebar
10 December, 1954 – 1956 Rashiklal Umedchand Parikh

HARYANA Establishment – 1 November, 1966

1 November, 1966 State created from part of Punjab
GOVERNORS
1 November, 1966 – 15 September, 1967 Dharma Vira
15 September, 1967 – 27 March, 1976 Birendra Narayan Chhakravarti
27 March, 1976 – 14 August, 1976 Ranjit Singh Narula
14 August, 1976 – 24 September, 1977 Jaisukh Lal Hathi
24 September, 1977 – 10 December, 1979 Harcharan Singh Brar
10 December, 1979 – 28 February, 1980 S.S. Sandhawalia
28 February, 1980 – 14 June, 1984 Ganpatrao Devji Tapase
14 June, 1984 – 22 February, 1988 S.M.H. Burney
22 February, 1988 – 7 February, 1990 Hara Anand Barari
7 February, 1990 – 14 June, 1995 Dhanik Lal Mandal
14 June, 1995 – 19 June, 2000 Mahabir Prasad
19 June, 2000 – 2 July, 2004 Babu Parmanand
2 July 2004 – 7 July, 2004 Om Prakash Verma
7 July, 2004 – 27 July, 2009 A.R. Kidwai
27 July, 2009 – 26 July, 2014 Jagannath Pahadia
27 July, 2014 – 25 August, 2018 Kaptan Singh Solanki
25 August, 2018 – 6 July, 2021 Satyadev Narayan Arya
7 July, 2021 – till date Bandaru Dattatreya

OLE - 591
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

CHIEF MINISTERS
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

1 November, 1966 – 24 March, 1967 Bhagwat Dayal Sharma

24 March, 1967 – 21 November, 1967 Rao Birendra Singh
21 November, 1967 – 21 May, 1968 President’s Rule
21 May, 1968 – 7 December, 1975 Bansi Lal
7 December, 1975 – 21 May, 1977 Banarsi Das Gupta
21 May, 1977 – 28 June, 1979 Devi Lal
28 June, 1979 – 5 July, 1985 Bhajan Lal
5 July, 1985 – 19 June, 1987 Bansi Lal
19 June, 1987 – 17 July, 1987 President’s Rule
17 July 1987 – 2 December, 1989 Devi Lal
2 December, 1989 – 22 May, 1990 Om Prakash Chautala
22 May, 1990 – 12 July, 1990 Banarsi Das Gupta
12 July, 1990 – 17 July, 1990 Om Prakash Chautala
17 July, 1990 – 22 March, 1991 Hukam Singh
22 March, 1991 – 6 April, 1991 Om Prakash Chautala
6 April, 1991 – 23 July, 1991 President’s Rule
23 July, 1991 – 11 May, 1996 Bhajan Lal
11 May, 1996 – 24 July, 1999 Bansi Lal
24 July, 1999 – 5 March, 2005 Om Prakash chautala
5 March, 2005 – 19 October, 2014 Bhupinder Singh Hooda
19 October, 2014 – till date Manohar Lal Khattar (Second Term)

HIMACHAL PRADESH Establishment – 25 January, 1971

15 April, 1948 Province
26 January, 1950 Part C state
1 November, 1956 Union territory
25 January, 1971 State
CHIEF COMMISSIONERS
April, 1948 – 1951 E.P. Menon
1951 – 1952 Bhagwan Sahay
LIEUTENANT GOVERNORS
1 March, 1952 – 1 January, 1955 M.S. Himmatsinhji
1 January, 1955 – 14 August, 1963 Bajrang Bahadur Singh Bhadri
14 August, 1963 – 26 February, 1966 Bhagwan Sahay
26 February, 1966 – 7 May 1967 Venkata Vishwanathan
7 May, 1967 – 16 May, 1967 Om Prakash
16 May, 1967 – 25 January, 1971 Kanwar Bahadur Singh
GOVERNORS
25 January, 1971 – 17 February, 1977 Subramaniam Chhakravarti
17 February, 1977 – 26 August, 1981 Aminuddin Ahmad Khan
26 August, 1981 – 16 April, 1983 Asoka Nath Banerji
16 April, 1983 – 8 March, 1986 Hokishe Sema
8 March, 1986 – 17 April, 1986 Prabodh dinkarrao Desai (acting)
17 April, 1986 – 16 February, 1990 Rustom Khusro shampoorjee Gandhi
16 February, 1990 – 20 December, 1990 B. Rachaiah
20 December, 1990 – 30 January, 1993 Virendra Verma
30 January, 1993 – 11 February, 1993 Surendra Nath
11 February, 1993 – 30 June, 1993 Bali Ram Bhagat
30 June, 1993 – 27 November, 1993 Gulsher Ahmed
27 November, 1993 – 10 July, 1994 Surendra Nath
10 July, 1994 – 30 July, 1994 Viswanathan Ratnam

OLE - 592
 Update Traditional G.K.

30 July, 1994 – 18 September, 1995 Sudhakarrao Naik

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

18 September, 1995 – 17 November, 1995 Mahabir Prasad
17 November, 1995 – 23 April, 1996 Sheila Kaul
23 April, 1996 – 26 July, 1997 Mahabir Prasad
26 July, 1997 – 2 December, 1999 V.S. Rama Devi
2 December, 1999 – 24 November, 2000 Vishnu Kant Shastri
24 November, 2000 – 8 May, 2003 Suraj Bhan
8 May, 2003 – 19 July, 2008 Vishnu Sadashiv Kokje
19 July, 2008 – 25 January, 2010 Mrs. Prabha Rao
25 January, 2010 – 24 January, 2015 Mrs. Urmila Singh
28 January, 2015 – 12 August, 2015 Kalyan Singh (Acting)
12 August, 2015 – 21 July, 2019 Acharya Dev Vrat
22 July, 2019 – 10 September, 2019 Kalraj Mishra
11 September, 2019 – 13 July, 2021 Bandaru Dattatreya
13 July, 2021 – till date Rajendra Vishwanath Arlekar
CHIEF MINISTERS
8 March, 1952 – 31 October 1956 Yashwant Singh Parmar
21 October, 1956 – 1 July, 1963 President’s Rule
1 July, 1963 – 28 January, 1977 Yahswnat Singh Parmar
28 January, 1977 – 22 June, 1977 Ram Lal Chauhan
22 June, 1977 – 14 February, 1980 Shanta Kumar
14 February, 1980 – 8 April, 1983 Thakur Ram Lal
8 April, 1983 – 5 March, 1990 Virbhadra Singh
5 March, 1990 – 3 December, 1993 Shanta Kumar
3 December, 1993 – 24 March, 1998 Virbhadra Singh
24 March, 1998 – 6 March, 2003 Prem Kumar Dhumal
6 March, 2003 – 29 December, 2007 Virbhadra Singh
30 December, 2007 – 25 December, 2012 Prem Kumar Dhumal
25 December 2012 – 27 December, 2017 Virbhadra Singh
27 December 2017 – till date Jai Ram Thakur

JAMMU & KASHMIR Establishment – 26 October, 1947

[Note : An act passed in August 2019 reorganised the state of Jammu and Kashmir into two Union territories : (1)
Jammu and Kashmir (2) Ladakh on 31 October, 2019. Provision contained within the act created the positions of Lieutenant
Governor of Jammu and Kashmir and Lieutenant Governor of Ladakh]
GOVERNORS
30 March, 1965 – 15 May, 1967 Karan Singh
15 May, 1967 – 3 July, 1973 Bhagwan Sahay
3 July, 1973 – 22 February, 1981 Lakshmi Kant Jha
22 February, 1981 – 26 April, 1984 Braj Kumar Nehru
26 April, 1984 – July, 1989 Jagmohan
July, 1989 – 19 January, 1990 K.V. Krishna Rao
19 January, 1990 – 26 May, 1990 Jagmohan
26 May, 1990 – 12 March, 1993 Girish Chandra Saxena
12 March, 1993 – 2 May, 1998 K.V.Krishna Rao
2 May, 1998 – 4 June, 2003 Girish Chandra Saxena
4 June, 2003 – 25 June, 2008 S.K. Sinha
25 June, 2008 – 23 August, 2018 N.N. Vohra
23 August, 2018 – 30 October, 2019 Satyapal Malik
PRIME MINISTERS
11 August, 1947 – 15 October, 1947 Janak Singh (acting)
15 October, 1947 – 5 March, 1948 Meher Chand Mahajan
5 March, 1948 – 9 August, 1953 Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah
9 August, 1953 – 12 October, 1963 Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad
12 October, 1963 – 29 February, 1964 Khwaja Shams-ud-Din
29 February, 1964 – 30 March, 1965 Ghulam Mohammad Sadiq

OLE - 593
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

CHIEF MINISTERS
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

30 March, 1965 – 12 December, 1971 Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq

12 December, 1971 – 25 February, 1975 Syed Mir Qasim
25 February, 1975 – 26 March, 1977 Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah
26 March, 1977 – 9 July, 1977 President’s Rule
9 July, 1977 – 8 September, 1982 Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah
8 September, 1982 – 2 July, 1984 Farooq Abdullah
2 July, 1984 – 6 March, 1986 Ghulam Mohammed Shah
6 March, 1988 – 7 November, 1986 President’s Rule
7 November, 1986 – 19 January, 1990 Farooq Abdullah
19 January, 1990 – 9 October, 1996 President’s Rule
9 October, 1996 – 18 October, 2002 Farooq Abdullah
18 October, 2002 – 2 November, 2002 President’s Rule
2 November, 2002 – 2 November, 2005 Mufti Mohammad Sayeed
2 November, 2005 – 7 July, 2008 Gulam Nabi Azad
5 January, 2009 – 8 January, 2015 Omar Abdulla
8 January, 2015 – 1 March, 2015 President’s Rule
1 March, 2015 – 7 January, 2016 Mufti Mohammad Sayeed
7 January, 2016 – 4 April, 2016 President’s Rule
4 April, 2016 – 20 June, 2018 Mehbooba Mufti
20 June, 2018 – 30 October, 2019 Governor’s Rule

JHARKHAND Establishment – 15 November, 2000

15 November, 2000 State created from part of Bihar
GOVERNORS
15 November, 2000 – 1 February, 2002 Prabhat Kumar
1 February, 2002 – 15 July, 2002 Vinod Chandra Pande
15 July, 2002 – 12 June, 2003 M. Rama Jois
12 June, 2003 – 10 December, 2004 Ved Marwah
10 December, 2004 – 26 July, 2009 Syed Sibtey Razi
26 July, 2009 – 22 January, 2010 K. Sankarnarayanan
22 January, 2010 – 4 September, 2011 M.O.H. Farooq
4 September, 2011 – 17 May, 2015 Syed Ahmed
18 May, 2015 – 6 July, 2021 Draupadi Murmu
7 July, 2021 – till date Ramesh Bais
CHIEF MINISTERS
15 November, 2000 – 18 March, 2003 Babulal Marandi
18 March, 2003 – 2 March, 2005 Arjun Munda
2 March, 2005 – 12 March, 2005 Shibu Soren
12 March, 2005 – 14 September, 2006 Arjun Munda
18 September, 2006 – 27 August, 2008 Madhu Koda
27 August, 2008 – 19 January, 2009 Shibu Soren
19 January, 2009 – 30 December, 2009 President’s Rule
30 December, 2009 – 30 May, 2010 Shibu Soren
1 June, 2010 – 11 September, 2010 President’s Rule
11 September, 2010 – 18 January, 2013 Arjun Munda
18 January, 2013 – 13 July, 2013 President’s Rule
13 July, 2013 – 28 December, 2014 Hemant Soren
28 December, 2014 – 29 December, 2019 Raghuvar Das
29 December, 2019 – till date Hemant Soren

OLE - 594
 Update Traditional G.K.

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

KARNATAKA Establishment – 1 November, 1956
15 August, 1947 Mysore state (1950 – 56 : part B)
1 November, 1973 Renamed Karnataka
RAJPRAMUKH
1947 – 1 November, 1956 Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar
GOVERNORS
1 November, 1956 – 4 May, 1964 Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar
4 May, 1964 – 2 April, 1965 Satyavant Mallannah Srinagesh
2 April, 1965 – 13 May, 1967 Varahagiri Venkata Giri
13 May 1967 – 30 August, 1969 Gopal Swarup Pathak
23 October, 1969 –1 February, 1972 Dharma Vira
1 February, 1972 – 10 January, 1976 Mohan Lal sukhadia
10 January, 1976 – 2 August, 1977 Uma Shankar Dikshit
2 August, 1977 – 15 April, 1983 Govind Narain Singh
16 April, 1983 – 25 Feb 1988 Ashoka Nath Banerji
26 February, 1988 – 5 February, 1990 Pendekanti Venkata Subbaiah
8 May, 1990 – 6 January, 1991 Bhanu Pratap Singh
6 January, 1991 – 2 December, 1999 Khurshed Alam Khan
2 December, 1999 – 21 August, 1999 V.S. Rama Devi
21 August, 2002 – 20 August, 2007 T.N. Chaturvedi
21 August, 2007 – 24 June, 2009 Rameshwar Thakur
24 June, 2009 – 29 June, 2014 Hansraj Bhardwaj
29 June, 2014 – 31 August, 2014 Konijeti Rosaiah (acting)
1 September, 2014 – 10 July, 2021 Vajubhai Rudabhai Vala
11 July, 2021 – till date Thawar Chand Gehlot
CHIEF MINISTERS
1946 – 25 October, 1947 Arcot Ramaswami Mudaliar
25 October, 1947 – 30 March, 1952 Kysasambally Chengalaraya Reddy
30 March, 1952 – 19 August, 1956 Kengal Hanumanthaiah
19 August, 1956 – 1 November, 1956 Kadidal Manjappa
1 November, 1956 – 16 May, 1958 Siddhavvanahalli Nijalingappa
16 May, 1958 – 9 March, 1962 Basappa Danappa Jatti
9 March, 1962 – 14 March, 1962 President’s Rule
14 March, 1962 – 21 June, 1962 Shivalingappa Rudrappa Kanthi
21 June, 1962 – 3 March, 1967 Siddhavvanahalli Nijalingappa
3 March, 1967 – 29 March, 1968 President’s Rule
29 May, 1968 – 27 March, 1971 Veerendra Patil
27 March, 1971 – 20 March, 1972 President’s Rule
20 March, 1972 – 31 December, 1977 Deveraj Urs
31 December, 1977 – 28 February, 1978 President’s Rule
28 February, 1978 – 12 Junuary, 1980 Deveraj Urs
12 January, 1980 – 10 January, 1983 R. Gundu Rao
10 January, 1983 – 13 August, 1988 Ramakrishna Hegde
13 August, 1988 – 21 April, 1989 Somappa R. Bommai
21 April, 1989 – 30 November, 1989 President’s Rule
30 November, 1989 – 10 October, 1990 Veerendra Patil
10 October 1990 – 17 October 1990 President’s Rule
17 October, 1990 – 20 November, 1992 S. Bangarappa
20 November, 1992 – 11 December, 1994 M. Veerappa Moily
11 December, 1994 – 31 May, 1996 H.D. Deve Gowda
31 May, 1996 – 11 October, 1999 Jayadeveappa Halappa Patel
11 October, 1999 – 28 May, 2004 S.M. Krishna
28 May, 2004 – 27 January, 2006 Dharam Singh

OLE - 595
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

3 February, 2006 – 9 October, 2007 H.D. Kumaraswamy

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

9 October, 2007 – 12 November, 2007 President’s Rule

12 November, 2007 – 20 November, 2007 B.S. Yediyurappa
20 November 2007 – 30 May 2008 President’s Rule
30 May, 2008 – 31 July, 2011 B.S. Yediyurappa
4 August, 2011– 12 July, 2012 D. V. Sadnand
12 July, 2012 – 13 May, 2013 Jadgish Shertur
13 May, 2013 – 15 May, 2018 K. Siddaramaiah
17 May, 2018 – 19 May, 2018 B.S. Yediyurappa
23 May, 2018 – 23 July, 2019 H.D. Kumaraswamy
26 July, 2019 – till date B.S. Yediyurappa

KERALA Establishment – 1 November, 1956

1 July, 1949 Travancore-Cochin state formed (for 1950 : Part B)
1 November, 1956 Kerala state
RAJPRAMUKH
1 July, 1949 – 31, October, 1956 Sir Bala Rama Varma II
GOVERNORS
22 November, 1956 – 1 July, 1960 Burgula Ramakrishna Rao
1 July, 1960 – 2 April, 1965 Varahagiri Venkata Giri
2 April, 1956 – 6 February, 1966 Ajit Prasad Jain
6 February, 1966 – 15 May, 1967 Bhagwan Sahay
15 May, 1967 – 1 April, 1973 Venkata Vishwanathan
1 April, 1973 – 14 October, 1977 Niranja Nath Wanchoo
14 October, 1977 – 27 October, 1982 Jyoti Venkatachalam
27 October, 1982 – 23 February, 1988 Parthasarathy Ramachandran
23 February, 1988 – 12 February, 1990 Ram Dulari Sinha
12 February, 1990 – 20 December, 1990 Sarup Singh
20 December, 1990 – 12 November, 1995 B. Rachaiah
12 November, 1995 – 4 May, 1996 P. Shiv Shanker
4 May, 1996 – 25 January, 1997 Khurshed Alam Khan
25 January, 1997 – 18 April, 2002 Sukhdev Singh Kang
18 April, 2002 – 23 February, 2004 Sikander Bakht
25 February, 2004 – 23 June, 2004 T.N. Chaturvedi
23 June, 2004 – 10 July, 2008 Raghunandan Lal Bhatia
10 July, 2008 – 26 August, 2011 R.S. Gavai
8 September, 2011– 26 January, 2012 M.O.H. Farooq
26 January, 2012 – 23 March, 2013 Hansaraj Bhardwaj (Acting)
23 March, 2013 – 5 March, 2014 Nikhil Kumar
5 March, 2014 – 26 August, 2014 Sheila Dikshit
5 September, 2014 – 6 September, 2019 P. Sathasivam
6 September, 2019 – till date Arif Mohammad Khan
CHIEF MINISTERS
(of Travancore to 1 July, 1949)
24 March, 1948 – 20 October, 1948 Pattom Thanu Pillai
20 October, 1948 – January 1951 T.K. Narayan Pillai
January, 1951 – 12 March, 1952 C. Kesavan
12 March, 1952 – 16 March, 1954 Anapparambul Joseph John
16 March, 1954 – 10 February, 1955 Pattom Thanu Pillai
10 February, 1955 – 23 March, 1956 Panampilly Govinda Menon
23 March 1956 – 5 April 1957 President’s Rule
5 April, 1957 – 31 July, 1959 E.M. Sankaran Namboodiripad
31 July, 1959 – 22 February, 1960 President’s Rule

OLE - 596
 Update Traditional G.K.

22 February, 1960, 25 September, 1962 Pattom Thanu Pillai

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

25 September, 1962 – 9 September, 1964 R. Sankar
5 March, 1967 – 1 November, 1969 E.M. Sankaran Namboodiripad
1 November, 1969 – 4 August, 1970 C. Achutha Menon
4 August, 1970 – 4 October, 1970 President’s Rule
4 October, 1970 – 11 April, 1977 C. Achutha Menon
11 April, 1977 – 25 April, 1977 K. Karunakaran
25 April, 1977 – 29 October, 1978 A.K. Antony
29 October, 1978 – 12 October, 1979 P.K. Vasudevan Nair
12 October, 1979 – 5 December, 1979 C.H. Mohammed Koya
5 December, 1979 – 25 January, 1980 President’s Rule
25 January, 1980 – 20 October, 1981 E.K. Nayanar
20 October, 1981 – 28 December 1981 President’s Rule
28 December, 1981 – 17 March, 1982 K. Karunakaran
17 March, 1982 – 24 March, 1982 President’s Rule
24 May, 1982 – 25 March, 1987 K. Karunakaran
25 March, 1987 – 24 June, 1991 E.K. Nayanar
24 June, 1991 – 22 March, 1995 K. Karunakaran
22 March 1995 – 20 May, 1996 A.K. Antony
20 May, 1996 – 18 May, 2001 E.K. Nayanar
18 May, 2001 – 31 August, 2004 A.K. Antony
31 August, 2004 – 12 May, 2006 Oommen Chandy
18 May, 2006 – 14 May, 2011 V.S. Achyutanandan
18 May, 2011 – 20 May, 2016 Oommen Chandy
25 May, 2016– till date Pinarayi Vijayan (Second Term)

MADHYA PRADESH Establishment – 1 November, 1956

15 August, 1947 Central Province and Berar
26 January, 1950 Madhya Pradesh state (until 1956 : part A)
GOVERNORS
1947 – 1952 Mangaldas Mancharam Pakvasa
1952 – 14 June, 1957 B. Pattabhi sitaramayya
14 June, 1957 – 11 February, 1965 Hari Vinayaha Pataskar
11 February, 1965 – 8 March, 1971 Kysasambally Chengalaraya Reddy
8 March, 1971 – 14 October, 1977 Satya Narayan Sinha
14 October, 1977 – 17 August, 1978 Niranja Nath Wanchoo
17 August, 1978 – 30 April, 1980 Cheppudira Muthana Poonacha
30 April, 1980 – 15 May 1984 Bhagwat Dayal Sharma
15 May 1984 – 31 March, 1989 Kizhekethil Mathew Chandy
31 March, 1989 – 6 February, 1990 Serla Grewal
6 February, 1990 – 24 June, 1993 Kunwar Mahmood Ali Khan
24 June, 1993 – 22 April, 1998 Mohammed Shafi Qureshi
22 April, 1998 – 7 May, 2003 Bhai Mahavir
7 May 2003 – 1 May 2004 Ram Prakash Gupta
2 May 2004 – 30 June, 2004 Krishna Mohan Seth
30 June, 2004 – 30 June, 2009 Balram Jakhar
30 June, 2009 – 8 September, 2011 Rameshwar Thakur
8 September, 2011 – 7 September, 2016 Ram Naresh Yadav
8 September, 2016 – 23 January, 2018 Om Prakash Kohli (Acting)
23 January, 2018 – 29 July, 2019 Anandiben Patel
29 July, 2019 – 30 June, 2020 Lalji Tandon
30 June, 2020 – 6 July, 2021 Anandiben Patel (Acting)
8 July, 2021 – till date Mangubhai C. Patel

OLE - 597
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

CHIEF MINISTERS
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

15 August, 1947 – 31 December, 1956 Ravi Shankar Shukla

1 January, 1957 – 31 January, 1957 Bhagwantrao Mandloi
31 January, 1957 – 11 March, 1962 Kailash Nathi Katju
11 March, 1962 – 30 September, 1963 Bhagwantrao Mandloi
30 September, 1963 – 30 July, 1967 Dwarka Prasad Mishra
30 July, 1967 – 13 March, 1969 Govind Narayan Singh
13 March, 1969 – 26 March, 1969 Raja Naresh Chandra Singh
26 March, 1969 – 29 January, 1972 Shayama Charan Shukla
29 January, 1972 – 23 December, 1975 Prakash Chandra Sethi
23 December, 1975 – 29 April, 1977 Shyama charan shukla
29 April 1977 – 26 June 1977 President’s Rule
26 June, 1977 – 18 January, 1978 Kailash Chandra Joshi
18 January, 1978 – 20 January, 1980 Virendra Kumar Saklecha
20 January, 1980 – 17 February, 1980 Sunderlal Patwa
17 February 1980 – 9 June 1980 President’s Rule
9 June, 1980 – 14 March, 1985 Arjun Singh
14 March, 1985 – 14 February, 1988 Motilal Vora
14 February, 1988 – 25 January, 1989 Arjun singh
25 Jan 1989 – 9 December, 1989 Motial Vora
9 December, 1989 – 5 March, 1990 Shyama Charan shukla
5 March, 1990 – 15 December, 1992 Sunderlal Patwa
15 December, 1992 – 7 December, 1993 President’s Rule
7 December, 1993 – 8 December, 2003 Digvijay Singh
8 December, 2003 – 23 August, 2004 Uma Bharti
23 August, 2004 – 29 November, 2005 Babulal Gaur
29 November, 2005 – 16 December, 2018 Shivraj Singh Chauhan (IIIrd Term)
17 December, 2018 – 23 March, 2020 Kamal Nath
23 March, 2020 – till date Shivraj Singh Chauhan
MADHYA BHARAT
Chief Ministers
January, 1948 – May 1949 Lilasthar Joshi
May 1949 – 18 Oct 1950 Gopalkrishnan Vijayavargiya
18 October, 1950 – 3 March, 1952 Takhatmal Jain
3 March, 1952 – 16 April, 1955 Mishrilal Gangwal
16 April, 1955 – 31 October, 1956 Takhatmal Jain
Bhopal
Chief Ministers
April, 1948 – January, 1949 Qudh narain Baisatya
January, 1949 – 1952 Pandit Chatur Narain Malviya
1952 – 1956 Shankar Dayal Sharma
Vindhya Pradesh
Chief Ministers
1948 – 1949 Awadesh Pratap Singh
13 March, 1952 – 31 October, 1956 Shambhunath Shukla

MAHARASHTRA Establishment – 1 May, 1960

15 August, 1947 Bombay province
26 January, 1950 State (unitl 1956 : Part A)
1 May 1960 Divided into Maharshtra and Gujarat

OLE - 598
 Update Traditional G.K.

GOVERNORS

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

15 August, 1947 – 6 January, 1948 David John Colville, Baron Clydesmuir
6 January, 1948 – 30 May, 1952 Raja Maharaj Singh
30 May, 1952 – 5 December, 1954 Sir Girja Shankar Bajpai
5 December, 1954 – 1 March, 1955 Mangaldas Mancharam Pakvasa
1 March, 1955 – 14 October, 1956 Harekrushna Mahatab
14 October, 1956 – 10 December, 1956 Mohomedali Currim Chagla
10 December, 1956 – 16 April, 1962 Sri Prakash
16 April, 1962 – 6 October, 1962 P. Subbarayan
6 October, 1962 – 5 December, 1962 H.K. Chainani
5 December, 1962 – 5 September, 1963 Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
5 September, 1963 – 18 December, 1963 H.K. Chainani
18 December, 1963 – 8 October, 1964 Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
8 October, 1964 – 14 November, 1964 Mangaldas Mancharam Pakvasa
14 November, 1964 – 9 November, 1969 P.V. Cherian
9 November, 1969 – 26 February, 1970 S.P. Kotval
26 February, 1970 – 11 December 1976 Ali Yavar Jung Bahadur
12 December, 1976 – 30 April, 1977 R.M. Kantawala
30 April, 1977 – 3 November, 1980 Sadiq Ali
3 November, 1980 – 5 February, 1982 Om prakash Mehra
6 March, 1982 – 18 April, 1985 Idris Hasan Latif
18 April, 1985 – 30 May, 1985 K. Madhava Reddy
30 May, 1985 – 3 April, 1986 Kona Prabhakara Rao
3 April, 1986 – 3 September, 1987 Shankar Dayal Sharma
3 September, 1987 – 6 November, 1987 S.K. Desai
6 November, 1987 – 20 February, 1988 Chittatosh Mookerjee
20 February, 1988 – 15 February, 1989 Kasu Brahmananda Reddy
15 February, 1989 – 12 January, 1993 Chidambaram Subramaniam
12 January, 1993 – 13 July, 2002 P.C. Alexander
13 July, 2002 – 10 October, 2002 C.K. Thakkar (acting)
10 October, 2002 – 6 December, 2004 Mohammed Fazal
6 December, 2004 – 9 March, 2008 S.M. Krishna
9 March,2008 – 8 July, 2008 S.C. Jamir (acting)
8 July, 2008 – 22 January, 2010 S.C. Jamir
22 January, 2010 – 24 August, 2014 K. Sankaranarayanan
30 August, 2014 – 4 September, 2019 C. Vidyasagar Rao
5 September, 2019 – till date Bhagat Singh Koshyari
CHIEF MINISTERS
15 August, 1947 – 21 April, 1952 Bal Gangadhar Kher
21 April, 1952 – 1 November, 1956 Morarji Desai
1 November, 1956 – 19 November, 1962 Yashwantrao Halwantrao Chavan
19 November, 1962 – 25 November, 1963 Marotrao Sambashio Kannamwar
5 December, 1963 – 20 February, 1975 Vasantrao Phulsing Naik
20 February, 1975 – 1 April, 1977 Shankarrao Chavan
1 April, 1977 – 18 July, 1978 Vasantrao Patil
18 July, 1978 – 9 June, 1980 Sharad Pawar
9 June, 1980 – 20 January, 1982 Abdul Rahman Antulay
20 January, 1982 – 2 February, 1983 Babasaheb Bhosale
2 February, 1983 – 2 June, 1985 Vasantrao Patil
2 June, 1985 – 12 March, 1986 Shivajirao Patil Nilangekar
13 March, 1986 – 24 June, 1988 Shankarrao Chavan
25 June, 1988 – 25 June, 1991 Sharad Pawar
25 June, 1991 – 3 March, 1993 Sudhakarrao Naik
3 March, 1993 – 14 March, 1995 Sharad Pawar

OLE - 599
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

14 March, 1995 – 1 February, 1999 Manohar Joshi

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

1 February, 1999 – 18 October 1999 Narayan Rane

18 October, 1999 – 18 January, 2003 Vilasrao Deshmukh
18 January, 2003 – 1 November, 2004 Sushil Kumar Shinde
1 November, 2004 – 8 December, 2008 Vilasrao Deshmukh
8 December, 2008 – 11 November, 2010 Ashok Chavhan
11 November, 2010 – 26 September, 2014 Prithviraj Chavan
26 September, 2014 – 31 October, 2014 President’s Rule
31 October, 2014 – 8 November, 2019 Devendra Fadnavis
12 November, 2019 – 23 November, 2019 President’s Rule
23 November, 2019 – 26 November, 2019 Devendra Fadnavis
28 November, 2019 – till date Uddhav Thackeray

MANIPUR Establishment – 21 January, 1972

15 October, 1949 State (from 1950 : Part C)
1 November, 1956 Union territory
21 January, 1972 State
CHIEF COMMISSIONERS (FROM 19 DECEMBER, 1969, LIEUTENANT GOVERNORS)
15 October, 1949 – 18 October, 1949 Rawal Amar Singh
18 October, 1949 – December, 1950 Himmat Singh K.Maheswari
January, 1951 – 22 Setember, 1952 E.P. Moon Jan,
22 September, 1952 – 3 January, 1955 Rameshwar Prasad Bharagava
3 January, 1955 – 25 April, 1958 P.C. Mathew
26 April, 1958 – 23 November, 1963 Jagat Mohan Raina
23 November, 1963 – January, 1970 Baleshwar Prasad
January, 1970 – 21 January, 1972 Dalip Rai Kohli
GOVERNORS
21 January, 1972 – 21 September, 1973 Braj Kumar Nehru
21 September, 1973 – 12 August, 1981 Lallan Prasad Singh
12 August, 1981 – 12 June, 1984 S.M.H. Burney
12 June, 1984 – 10 July, 1989 K.V. Krishna Rao
10 July, 1989 – 20 March, 1993 Chintamani Panigrahi
20 March, 1993 – 31 August, 1993 K.V. Reghunatha Reddy
31 August, 1993 – 23 December, 1994 V.K. Nayar
23 December, 1994 – 2 December, 1999 Oudh Narain Shrivastava
2 December, 1999 – 12 June, 2003 Ved Marwah
12 June, 2003 –6 August, 2004 Arvind Dave
6 August, 2004 – 23 July, 2008 Shivinder Singh Sidhu
23 July, 2008 – 29 July, 2013 Gurubachan Singh Jagat
29 July, 2013 – 31 December, 2013 Ashwani Kumar
31 December, 2013 – 28 August, 2014 Vinod Duggal
16 September, 2014 – 15 May, 2015 Krishan Kant Paul (acting)
16 May, 2015 – 27 September, 2015 Syed Ahmed
30 September, 2015 – 17 August, 2016 V. Shanmuganathan (acting)
21 August, 2016 – 26 June, 2019 Najma A. Heptulla
27 June, 2019 – 23 July, 2019 Padmanabha Acharya (acting)
24 July, 2019 – till date Najma A. Heptulla
CHIEF MINISTERS
1July, 1963 – 12 January, 1967 M. Koireng Singh
12 January, 1967 – 20 March, 1967 President’s Rule
20 March, 1967 – 4 October, 1967 M. Koireng Singh
13 October, 1967 – 25 October, 1967 Long jam Thambou Singh
25 October, 1967 – 19 February, 1968 President’s Rule

OLE - 600
 Update Traditional G.K.

19 February, 1968 – 17 October, 1969 M. Koireng Singh

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

17 October, 1969 – 23 March, 1972 President’s Rule
23 March, 1972 – 28 March, 1973 Mohammed Alimuddin
28 March, 1973 – 4 March, 1974 President’s Rule
4 March, 1974 – 10 July, 1974 Mohammed Alimuddin
10 July, 1974 – 6 December, 1974 Yangmasho shaiza
6 December, 1974 – 16 May, 1977 R.K. Dorendra Singh
16 May, 1977 – 29 June, 1977 President’s Rule
29 June, 1977 – 14 November, 1979 Yangmasho Shaiza
14 November, 1979 – 14 January, 1980 President’s Rule
14 January, 1980 – 27 November, 1980 R.K. Dorendra Singh
27 November, 1980 – 28 February, 1981 Rishang Keishing
28 February, 1981 – 19 June, 1981 President’s Rule
19 June, 1981 – 4 March, 1988 Rishang Keishing
4 March, 1988 – 23 February, 1990 R.K. Jaichandra Singh
23 Febrauary, 1990 – 7 January, 1992 Raj Kumar Ranbir Singh
7 January, 1992 – 8 April, 1992 President’s Rule
8 April, 1992 – 11 April, 1993 R.K. Dorendra Singh
11 April, 1993 – 31 December, 1993 Dasarath Deb
31 December, 1993 – 14 December, 1994 President’s Rule
14 December, 1994 – 16 December, 1997 Rishang Keishing
16 December, 1997 – 15 February, 2001 W. Nipamacha Singh
15 February, 2001 – 2 June, 2001 Radhabinod Koijam
2 June, 2001 – 7 March, 2002 President’s Rule
7 March, 2002 – 14 March, 2017 Okram lbobi Singh (Third Term)
15 March, 2017 – till date Nongthombam Biren Singh

MEGHALAYA Establishment – 21 January, 1972

2 Arpil, 1970 State within Assam
21 January, 1972 Separate State
GOVERNORS
2 April, 1970 – September, 1973 Braj Kumar Nehru
September, 1973 – 11 August, 1981 Lallan Prasad Singh
11 August, 1981 – 29 March, 1984 Prakash Chandra Mehotra
29 March, 1984 – 16 April, 1984 Triveni Sahai Mishra
16 April, 1984 – 11 May, 1989 Bhishma Narain Singh
11 May, 1989 – 27 July, 1989 Harideo Joshi
27 July, 1989 – 9 May, 1990 Abubakar Abdul Rahim
9 May, 1990 – 19 June, 1995 Madhukar Dighe
19 June, 1995 – 12 April, 2007 M.M. Jacob
12 April, 2007 – 29 October, 2007 B.L. Joshi
29 October, 2007 – 1 July, 2008 Shivinder Singh Sidhu
1 July, 2008 – 8 July, 2013 Ranjeet Shekhar Mushahari
8 July, 2013 – 6 January, 2015 Krishan Kant Paul
6 January, 2015 – 19 May, 2015 Keshari Nath Tripathi
20 May, 2015 – 27 January, 2017 V. Shanmuganathan
27 January, 2017 – 5 October, 2017 Banwarilal Purohit
5 October, 2017 – 25 August, 2019 Ganga Prasad
25 August, 2018 – 18 December, 2019 Tathagata Roy
18 December, 2019 – 26, January 2020 R.N. Ravi (Acting)
27, January 2020 – 18 August, 2020 Tathagat Roy
18, August 2020 – till date Satya Pal Malik

OLE - 601
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

CHIEF MINISTERS
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

2 April, 1970 – 10 March, 1978 Williamson A. Sangma

10 March, 1978 – 7 March, 1979 Darwin Diengdoh Pugh
7 May, 1979 – 7 May, 1981 Brington Buhai Lyngdoh
7 May, 1981 – 2 March, 1983 Williiamson A. Sangma
2 March, 1983 – 2 April, 1983 Brington Buhai Lyngdoh
2 April, 1983 – 6 February, 1988 Williamson A. Sangma
6 February, 1988 – 26 March, 1990 Purno Agitok Sangma
26 March, 1990 – 11 October, 1991 Brington Buhai Lyngdoh
11 October, 1991 – 5 February, 1992 President’s Rule
5 February, 1992 – 19 February, 1993 D.D. Lapang
19 February, 1993 – 10 March, 1998 Salseng C. Marak
10 March, 1998 – 8 March, 2000 Brington Buhai Lyngdoh
8 March, 2000 – 8 December, 2001 E.K. Mawlong
8 December, 2001 – 4 March, 2003 Flinder Anderson Khonglam
4 March, 2003 – 14 June, 2006 D.D. Lapang
15 June, 2006 – 10 March, 2007 J.D. Rymbai
10 March, 2007– 19 March, 2008 D.D. Lapang
19 March, 2008 – 19 March, 2009 Donkupar Roy
19 March, 2009 – 13 May, 2009 President’s Rule
13 May, 2009 – 19 April, 2010 D.D. Lapang
20 April, 2010 – 6 March, 2018 Mukul Sangma (IInd Term)
6 March, 2018 – till date Conrad Sangma

MIZORAM Establishment – 20 February, 1987

21 January, 1972 Union territory created form part of Assam
20 February, 1987 State
CHIEF COMMISIONER
21 January, 1972 – 24 April, 1972 S.J. Das
LIEUTENANT GOVERNORS
24 April, 1972 – 13 June, 1974 Shanti Priya Mukherjee
13 June, 1974 – 27 September, 1977 S.K. Chhibbar
27 September, 1977 – 1980 Mohan Prakash Mathur
1980 – 16 April, 1981 K.A.A. Raja
16 April, 1981 – 10 August, 1983 S.N. Kohli
10 August, 1983 – 11 December, 1986 Mari Shankar Dhube
11 December, 1986 – 20 February, 1987 Hiteshwar Saikia
GOVERNORS
20 February, 1987 – 30 April, 1989 Hiteshwar Saikia
1 July, 1989 – 8 February, 1990 Williamson A. Sangma
8 February, 1990 February, 1993 Swaraj Kaushal
10 February, 1993 – 29 January, 1998 Paty Ripple Kyndiah
29 January, 1998 – 2 May 1998 Arun Prasad Mukherjee
2 May, 1998 – 22 November, 2000 Anandam Padmanabhan
22 November, 2000 – 18 May, 2001 Ved Marwah
18 May, 2001 – 24 July, 2006 Amolak Rattan Kohli
25 July, 2006 – 2 September, 2011 M.M. Lakhera
2 September, 2011 – 6 July, 2014 Vokkom Purushottam
6 July, 2014 – 6 August, 2014 Kamla Beniwal
8 August, 2014 – 16 September, 2014 Vinod Duggal (acting)
16 September, 2014 – 8 January, 2014 Krishan Kant Paul (acting)
9 January, 2015 – 28 March, 2015 Aziz Qureshi
4 April, 2015 – 25 May, 2015 Keshari Nath Tripathi (Acting)

OLE - 602
 Update Traditional G.K.

26 May, 2015 – 28 May, 2018 Lt. Gen. (Retd.) Nirbhay Sharma

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

29 May, 2018 – 8 March, 2019 Kummanam Rajasekharan
9 March, 2019 – 25 October, 2019 Jagdish Mukhi (acting)
25 October, 2019 – 6 July, 2021 P.S. Sreedharan
7 July, 2021 – till date Kambhampati Hari Babu
CHIEF MINISTERS
3 May, 1972 – 10 May, 1977 L. Chal Chhunga
10 May, 1977 – 2 June, 1978 President’s Rule
2 June, 1978 – 10 November, 1978 Thenphunga Sailo
10 November, 1978 – 5 May, 1979 President’s Rule
8 May, 1979 – 4 May, 1984 Thenphunga Sailo
5 May, 1984 – 20 August, 1986 Lal Thanhawla
21 August, 1986 – 7 September, 1988 Laldenga
7 September, 1988 – 24 January, 1989 President’s Rule
24 January, 1989 – 3 December, 1998 Lal Thanhawla
3 December, 1998 – 11 December, 2008 Zoramthanga
11 December, 2008 – 14 December, 2018 Lal Thanhawla (IInd Term)
15 December, 2018 – till date Zoramthanga

NAGALAND Establishment – 1 December, 1963

1 December, 1963 State created form part of Assam
GOVERNORS
1 December, 1963 – 17 April, 1968 Vishnu Sahay
17 April, 1968 – 19 September, 1973 Braj Kumar Nehru
19 Septemer 1973 – 10 August, 1981 Lallan Prasad Singh
10 August, 1981 – 13 June, 1984 S.M.H. Burney
13 June, 1984 – 20 July, 1989 K.V. Krishna Rao
20 July, 1989 – 4 May, 1990 Gopal Singh
4 March, 1990 – 9 May, 1990 Chintamani Panigrahi
9 May, 1990 – 13 April, 1992 M.M. Thomas
13 April, 1992 – 2 October, 1993 Loknath Mishra
2 October, 1993 – 5 August, 1994 V.K. Nayar
5 August, 1994 – 12 November, 1996 Oudh Narain Shrivastava
12 November, 1996 – 28 January, 2002 Om Prakash sharma
28 January, 2002 – 2 February, 2007 Shyamal Datta
3 February, 2007 – 22 July, 2009 K. Shanker Narayanan
22 July, 2009 – 14 October, 2009 Gurubachan Singh Jagat
15 October, 2009 – 21 March, 2013 Nikhil Kumar
21 March, 2013 – 27 June, 2014 Ashwani Kumar
2 July, 2014 – 19 July, 2014 Krishan Kant Paul (acting)
19 July, 2014 – 31 July, 2019 Padmanabha Acharya
1 August, 2019 – 11 September, 2021 R. N. Ravi
11 September, 2021 – till date Jagdish Mukhi (acting)
CHEIF MINISTERS
1 December, 1963 – 14 August, 1966 Shilu Ao
14 August, 1966 – 22 February, 1969 T.N. Angami
22 February, 1969 – 26 February, 1974 Hokishe Sema
26 February, 1974 – 10 March, 1975 Vizol
10 March, 1975 – 22 March, 1975 John Bosco Jasokie
22 March 1975 – 25 November 1977 President’s Rule
25 November, 1977 – 18 January, 1980 Vizol
18 January, 1980 – 18 April, 1980 George A. Pang
18 April, 1980 – 5 June, 1980 S.C. Jamir
5 June, 1980 – 18 November, 1982 John Bosco Jasokie
18 November, 1982 – 29 October, 1986 S.C. Jamir

OLE - 603
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

29 October, 1986 – 7 August, 1988 Hokishe Sema

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

7 August, 1988 – 25 January, 1989 President’s Rule

25 January, 1989 – 15 May, 1990 S.C. Jamir
15 May, 1990 – 19 June, 1990 K.L. Chishi
19 June, 1990 – 2 April, 1992 Vamuzo Phesao
2 April, 1992 – 22 February, 1993 President’s Rule
22 February, 1993 – 6 March, 2003 S.C. Jamir
6 March, 2003 – 3 January, 2008 Neiphiu Rio
3 January, 2008 – 12 March, 2008 President’s Rule
12 March, 2008 – 24 May, 2014 Neiphiu Rio
24 May, 2014 – 22 February, 2017 T.R. Zeliang
22 February, 2017 – 19 July, 2017 Shurhozelie Lieziestsu
19 July, 2017 – 8 March, 2018 T.R. Zeliang
8 March, 2018 – till date Neiphiu Rio

ODISHA Establishment – 26 January 1950

15 August, 1947 Province
26 January, 1950 State (unitl 1956 : Part A)
GOVERNORS
15 August, 1947 – 20 June, 1948 Kailash Nathi Katju
21 June, 1948 – 6 June, 1952 Janab M. Asaf Ali
7 June, 1952 – 9 February, 1954 Sir Saiyid Fazl Ali
10 February, 1954 – 11 September, 1956 Poosapati S. Kumaraswamy Raja
12 September, 1956 – 31 July, 1957 Bhim Sen Sachar
31 July, 1957 – 15 September, 1962 Yeshwant Narayan Sukthankar
16 September, 1962 – 30 January, 1968 Ajudhia Nath Khosla
31 January, 1968 – 20 Setpember, 1971 Shaukatullah Shah Ansari
20 September, 1971 – 30 June, 1972 Sardar Jogendra Singh
1 July, 1972 – 8 November, 1972 Gatikrisina Misra (acting)
8 November, 1972 – 20 August, 1974 Basappa Danappa Jatti
21 August, 1974 – 25 October, 1974 Gatikrishina Misra (acting)
25 October, 1974 – 17 April, 1976 Akbar Ali Khan
17 April, 1976 – 7 February, 1977 Shiva narayin Sankar (acting)
7 February, 1977 – 22 September, 1977 Harcharan Singh Brar
23 September, 1977 – 30 April, 1980 Bhagwat Dayal Sharma
30 April, 1980 – 17 August, 1983 Cheppudira Muthana Poonacha
17 August, 1983 – 20 November, 1988 Bishambhar Nath Pande
20 November, 1988 – 6 February, 1990 Nurul Hasan
7 February, 1990 – 1 February, 1993 Yagya Dutt Sharma
1 February, 1993 – 31 May 1993 Nurul Hasan
1 June, 1993 – 17 June, 1995 B. Satyanarayan Reddy
18 June, 1995 – 27 April, 1998 Gopala Ramanujam
27 April, 1998 – 14 November, 1999 Chakravarti Rangarajan
15 November, 1999 – 17 November, 2004 M.M.Rajendran
17 November, 2004 – 21 August, 2007 Rameshwar Thakur
21 August, 2007 – 9 March, 2013 Murilidhar Bhandare
21 March, 2013 – 20 March, 2018 S.C. Jamir
21 March, 2018 – 28 May, 2018 Satya Pal Malik (acting)
29 May, 2018 – till date Prof. Ganeshi Lal
CHIEF MINISTERS
15 August, 1947 – 12 May 1950 Harekrushna Mahatab
12 May, 1950 – 15 October, 1956 Nabakrushna Choudhary
15 October, 1956 – 25 February, 1961 Harekrushna Mahatab

OLE - 604
 Update Traditional G.K.

25 February, 1961 – 16 June, 1961 President’s Rule

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

16 June, 1961 – 2 October, 1963 Bijayananda Patnai
2 October, 1963 – 21 February, 1965 Biren Mitra
21 February, 1965 – 8 March, 1967 Sadasiva Tripathy
8 March, 1967 – 11 January, 1971 Rajendra Narayana Singh Deo
11 January, 1971 – 3 April, 1971 President’s Rule
3 April, 1971 – 14 June, 1972 Biswanath Das
14 June, 1972 – 3 March, 1973 Nandini Satpathy
3 March, 1973– 6 March, 1974 President’s Rule
6 March, 1974 – 16 December, 1976 Nandini Satpathy
16 December, 1976 – 29 December, 1976 President’s Rule
29 December 1976– 25 June 1977 Binayak Acharaya
25 June, 1977 – 17 February, 1980 Nilamani Routray
17 February, 1980 – 9 June, 1980 President’s Rule
9 June, 1980 – 7 December, 1989 Janaki Ballabha Patnaik
7 December, 1989 – 5 March, 1990 Hemananda Biswal
5 March, 1990 – 15 March, 1995 Bijayananda Patnaik
15 March, 1995 – 15 February, 1999 Janaki Ballabh Patnaik
15 February, 1999 – 6 December, 1999 Giridhar Gomango
6 December, 1999 – 5 March, 2000 Hemananda Biswal
5 March, 2000 – till date Naveen Patnaik (Fourth Term)

PUNJAB Establishment – 26 January, 1950

15 August, 1947 Province
26 January, 1950 State (Until 1956 : part A)
GOVERNORS
15 August, 1947 – 11 March, 1953 Sir Chandulal Madhavlal Trivedi
11 March, 1953 – 15 September, 1958 C.P.N. Singh
15 September, 1958 – 1 October, 1962 Narhar Vishnu Gadgil
1 October, 1962 – 4 May, 1964 Pattom Thanu Pillai
4 May, 1964 – 1 September, 1965 Hafiz Muhammad lbrahim
1 September, 1965 – 26 June, 1966 Sardar Ujjwal Singh
27 June, 1966 – 1 June, 1967 Dharma Vira
1 June, 1967 – 16 October, 1967 Mehar Singh
16 October, 1967 – 21 May, 1973 Dadasaheb Chitanani Pavate
21 May, 1973 – 1 September, 1977 Mahendra Mohan Choudhury
1 September, 1977 – 24 September, 1977 Ranjit Singh Narula
24 September, 1977 – 26 August, 1981 Jaisukh Lal Hathi
26 August, 1981 – 21 April, 1982 Aminuddin Ahmad Khan
21 April, 1982 – 7 February, 1983 Marri Channa Reddy
7 February, 1983 – 21 February, 1983 S.S. Sandhawalia
21 February, 1983 – 10 October, 1983 Anant prasad Sharma
10 October, 1983 – 3 July, 1984 Bhairab Dutt Pande
3 July, 1984 – 14 March, 1985 Kershasp Tehmurasp Satarawala
14 March, 1985 – 14 November, 1985 Arjun Singh
14 November, 1985 – 26 November, 1985 Hokishe Sema
26 November, 1985 – 2 April, 1986 Shankar Dayal Sharma
2 April, 1986 – 8 December, 1989 Siddharta shankar Ray
8 December, 1989 – 14 June, 1990 Nirmal Mukarji
14 June, 1990 – 18 December, 1990 Vikrendra Verma
18 December, 1990 – 7 August, 1991 Om Prakash Malhotra
7 August, 1991 – 9 July, 1994 Surendra Nath
10 July, 1994 – 18 September, 1994 Sudhakar Panditrao Kurdukar
18 September, 1994 – 18 November, 1999 B.K.N. Chhibber

OLE - 605
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

27 November, 1999 – 8 May, 2003 J.F.R. Jacob

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

8 May, 2003 – 3 November, 2004 Om Prakash Verma

3 November, 2004 – 16 November, 2004 A.R. Kidwai
16 November, 2004 – 22 January, 2010 S.F. Rodrigues
22 January, 2010 – 22 January, 2015 Shivraj Patil
22 January, 2015 – 22 August, 2016 Kaptan Singh Solanki
22 August, 2016 – 30 August, 2021 V.P. Singh Badnore
31 August, 2021 – till date Banwarilal Purohit
CHIEF MINISTERS
15 August, 1947 – 13 April, 1949 Gopichand Bharagava
13 April, 1949 – 18 October, 1949 Bhim Sen Sachar
18 October, 1949 – 20 June, 1951 Gopichand Bhargava
20 June, 1951 – 17 April, 1952 President’s Rule
17 April, 1952 – 23 January, 1956 Bhim Sen Sachar
23 January, 1956 – 21 June, 1964 Sardar Paratap Singh Kairon
21 June, 1964 – 6 July, 1964 Gopichand Bhargava
6 July, 1964 – 5 July, 1966 Ram Kishan
5 July, 1966 – 1 November, 1966 President’s Rule
1 November, 1966 – 8 March, 1967 Gurumukh Singh Musafir
8 March, 1967 – 25 November, 1967 Sardar Gurnam Singh
25 November, 1967 – 23 August, 1968 Sardar Lachhman Singh Gill
23 August, 1968 – 17 February, 1969 President’s Rule
17 February, 1969 – 27 March, 1970 Sardar Gurnam Singh
27 March, 1970 – 14 June, 1971 Prakash Singh Badal
14 June, 1971 – 17 March, 1972 President’s Rule
17 March, 1972 – 30 April, 1977 Zail Singh
30 April, 1977 – 20 June, 1977 President’s Rule
20 June, 1977 – 17 February, 1980 Parkash Singh Badal
17 February, 1980 – 6 June, 1980 President’s Rule
6 June, 1980 – 6 October, 1983 Darbara Singh
6 October, 1983 – 29 September, 1983 President’s Rule
29 September, 1985 – 11 May, 1987 Surjit Singh Barnala
11 May, 1987 – 25 February, 1992 President’s Rule
25 February, 1992 – 31 August, 1995 Beant Singh
31 August, 1995 – 21 November, 1996 Harcharan Singh Brar
21 November, 1996 – 12 February, 1997 Rajinder Kaur Bhattal
12 February, 1997 – 26 February, 2002 Prakash Singh Badal
26 February, 2002 – 1 March, 2007 Amarinder Singh
1 March, 2007 – 16 March, 2017 Prakash Singh Badal (2nd Term)
16, March, 2017 – till date Amarinder Singh
PATIALA AND EAST PUNJAB STATES UNION
CHIEF MINISTERS
22 April, 1952 – 2 March, 1953 Sardar Gian Singh Rarewala
8 March, 1954 – 7 January, 1955 Sardar Raghbir Singh
12 January, 1955 – 31 October, 1956 Brish Bhan

RAJASTHAN Establishment – 1 November, 1956

25 March, 1948 Rajasthan Union
18 April, 1948 United States of Rajasthan
30 April, 1949 United States of Greater Rajasthan (form 1950 : Part B)
1 November, 1956 Rajastan
RAJPRAMUKHS
25 March, 1948 – I 8 April, 1948 Bhim Singh II
18 April, 1948 – 4 July, 1955 Sir Bhopal Singh
(from 1 April, 1949, maharajpramukh)

OLE - 606
 Update Traditional G.K.

GOVERNORS

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

1 November, 1956 – 16 April, 1962 Gurumukh Nihal Singh
16 April, 1962 – 16 April, 1967 Sampurnanand
16 April, 1967 – 1 July, 1972 Sardar Hukam Singh
1 July, 1972 – 15 February, 1977 Sardar Jogendra Singh
15 February, 1977 – 11 May 1977 Vedpal Tyagi (acting)
17 May, 1977 – 8 August, 1981 Raghukul Tilak
8 August, 1981 – 6 March, 1982 K.D. Sharma (acting)
6 March, 1982 – 4 January, 1985 Om Prakash Mehra
20 November, 1985 – 15 October, 1987 Vasantrao Patil
20 February, 1988 – 3 February, 1990 Sukhdev Prasad
3 February, 1990 – 14 February, 1990 Milap Chand Jain (acting)
14 February, 1990 – 26 August, 1991 Debi Prasad Chattopadhyaya
26 August, 1991 – 5 February, 1992 Swarup Singh (acting)
5 February, 1992 – 31 May, 1993 Marri Channa Reddy
31 May, 1993 – 30 June, 1993 Dhanik Lal Mandal (acting)
30 June, 1993 – 1 May, 1998 Bali Ram Bhagat
1 May, 1998 – 24 May, 1998 Darbara Singh
25 May, 1998 – 16 January, 1999 Navrang Lal Tibrewal (acting)
16 January, 1999 – 14 May, 2003 Anshuman Singh
14 May, 2003 – 22 September, 2003 Niramal Chandra Jain
22 September, 2003 – 14 January, 2004 Kailashpati Mishra
14 January, 2004 – 1 November, 2004 Madan Lal Khurana
1 November, 2004 – 8 November, 2004 Thanjavelu Rajeshwar
8 November, 2004 – 23 June, 2007 Pratibha Patil
23 June, 2007 – 6 September, 2007 A.R. Kidwai (acting)
6 September, 2007 – 01 December, 2009 Shilendra Kumar Singh
3 December, 2009 – 26 April, 2010 Mrs. Prabha Rao
26 April, 2010 – 12 May, 2012 Shivraj Patil (acting)
12 May, 2012 – 7 August, 2014 Margret Alva
8 August, 2014 – 3 September, 2014 Ram Naik (acting)
4 September, 2014 – 8 September, 2019 Kalyan Singh
9 September, 2019 – till date Kalraj Mishra
CHIEF MINISTERS
25 March,1948 – 18 April, 1948 Gokul Lal Asawa
18 April, 1948 – 7 April, 1949 Manikya Lal Verma
7 April, 1949 – 5 January, 1951 Hiralal Shastri
6 January, 1951 – 26 April, 1951 Cadambi Seshachar Venkatachari (acting)
26 April, 1951 – 3 March, 1952 Jai Narayan Vyas
3 March, 1952 – 1 November, 1952 Tikaram Pailliwal
1 November, 1952 – 13 November, 1954 Jai Narayan Vyas
13 November, 1954 – 13 March, 1967 Mohan Lal Sukhadia
13 March, 1967 – 26 April, 1967 Mohan Lal Sukhadia
26 April, 1967 – 9 July, 1971 Mohan Lal Sukhadia
9 July, 1971 – 11 October, 1973 Barkatuallah
11 October, 1973 – 23 October, 1973 President’s Rule
23 October, 1973 – 22 June, 1977 Harideo Joshi
22 June, 1977 – 16 February, 1980 Bhairon Singh Shekhawat
16 February, 1980 –6 June, 1980 President’s Rule
6 June, 1980 – 12 July, 1981 Jagannath Pahadia
14 July, 1981 – 23 February, 1985 Shiv Charan Mathur
23 February, 1985 – 10 March, 1985 Heera Lal Devpura
10 March, 1985 – 18 January, 1998 Harideo Joshi
20 January, 1988 – 29 November, 1989 Shiv Charan Mathur

OLE - 607
 One Liner Approach General knowledge

4 Decemebr, 1989 – 4 March, 1990 Harideo Joshi

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

4 March, 1990 – 15 Decemeber, 1992 Bhairon Singh Shekhawat

15 December, 1992 – 4 December, 1993 President’s Rule
4 Decemeber, 1993 – 1 Decemeber, 1998 Bhairon Singh Shekhawat
1 Decemeber, 1998 – 8 Decemeber, 2003 Ashok Gehlot
8 Decemeber, 2003 – 12 December, 2008 Vasundhara Raje
13 December, 2008 – 13 December, 2013 Ashok Gahlot
13 December, 2013 – 16 December, 2018 Vasundhara Raje
17 December, 2018 – till date Ashok Gehlot
MATSYA
Matsya Union formed by merger of former princely states of Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur, and Karauli
CHIEF MINISTER
18 March, 1948 – 15 May 1949 Shobha Ram Ajmer
CHIEF MINISTER
24 March, 1952 – 1956 Hari Bhau Upadhyay

SIKKIM Establishment – 16 May, 1975

16 May 1975 State
GOVERNORS
16 May, 1975 – 10 January, 1981 Bipin Bihari Lal
10 January, 1981 – 16 June, 1984 Homi J.H. Taleyarkhan
16 June, 1984 – 31 May, 1985 Kona Parabhakara
31 May, 1985 – 21 November, 1985 Bhishma Narain Singh
21 Novemeber, 1985 – 2 March, 1989 Thanjavelu Rajeshwar
2 March, 1989 – 8 February, 1990 S.K. Bhatnagar
8 February, 1990 – 21 September, 1994 R.L. Tahiliani
21 September, 1994 – 12 November, 1995 P. Shiv Shanker
12 November, 1995 – 10 March, 1996 K.V. Raghunatha Reddy
10 March, 1996 – 18 May, 2001 Chaudhury Randhir Singh
18 May, 2001 – 25 October, 2002 Kedar Nath Sahani
25 October, 2002 – 25 October, 2007 V.Rama Rao
25 October, 2007 – 9 July, 2008 Sudarshan Agarwal
9 July, 2008 – 30 June, 2013 Balmiki Prasad Singh
1 July, 2013 – 26 August, 2018 Shriniwas Dadasaheb Patil
26 August, 2018 – till date Ganga Prasad
CHIEF MINISTERS
16 May, 1975 – 18 August, 1979 Kazi Lhendup Dorji
18 August, 1979 – 18 October, 1979 President’s Rule
18 October, 1979 – 11 May, 1984 Nar Bahadur Bhandari
11 May, 1984 – 25 May, 1984 B.B. Gurung
25 May, 1984 – 8 March, 1985 President’s Rule
8 March, 1985 – 18 May, 1994 Nar Bahadur Bhandari
18 May, 1994 – 12 December, 1994 Sanchaman Limboo
12 December, 1994 – 27 May, 2019 Pawan Kumar Chamling (Fifth Term)
27 May, 2019 – till date Prem Singh Tamang

TAMIL NADU Establishment – 26 January, 1950

15 August, 1947 Madras province
26 January, 1950 State (until 1956 : Part A)
14 January, 1969 Renamed Tamil Nadu

OLE - 608
 Update Traditional G.K.

GOVERNORS

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

15 August, 1947 – 7 Septemeber, 1948 Sir Archibald Edward Nye
7 Septemeber, 1948 – 12 March, 1952 Sir Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavsinhji
12 March, 1952 – 10 December, 1956 Sri Prakasa
10 December, 1956 – 30 September, 1957 Anapparambul Joseph John
24 January, 1958 – 4 May 1964 Bishnuram Medhi
4 May, 1964 – 26 June, 1966 Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar
26 June, 1966 – 27 May 1971 Sardar Ujjwal Singh
27 May, 1971 – 16 June, 1976 Kodardas Kalidas Shah
16 June, 1976 – 8 April, 1977 Mohan Lal Sukhadia
8 April, 1977 – 27 April, 1977 C.P.N. Singh (acting)
27 April, 1977 – 4 November, 1980 Prabhudas balubhai Patwari
4 November, 1980 – 3 September, 1982 Sadiq Ali
3 September, 1982 – 17 February, 1988 Sundar Lal Khurana
17 February, 1988 – 24 May, 1990 P.C. Alexander
24 May, 1990 – 15 February, 1991 Surjit Singh Barnala
15 February, 1991 – 31 May, 1993 Bhishma Narain Singh
31 May, 1993 – 2 December, 1996 Marri Channa Reddy
2 December, 1996 –25 January, 1997 Krishan Kant
25 January, 1997 – 3 July, 2001 Fathima Beevi
3 July, 2001 – 18 January, 2002 Chakravarti Rangarajan
18 January, 2002 – 3 November, 2004 P.S. Ramamohan Rao
3 November, 2004 – 31 August, 2011 Surjit Singh Barnala
31 August, 2011 – 30 August, 2016 K. Rosaiah
2 September, 2016– 6 October, 2017 C. Vidyasagar Rao (Acting)
6 October, 2017 – 16 September, 2021 Banwarilal Purohit
17 September, 2021 – till date R. N. Ravi
CHIEF MINISTERS
15 August, 1947 – 6 April, 1949 Amandur Ramaswami Reddiar
6 April, 1949 – 10 April, 1952 Poosapati S. Kumaraswamy Raja
10 April, 1952 – 13 April, 1954 Chakravarti Rajagopalachari
13 April, 1954 – 2 October, 1963 Kumaraswami Kamaraj
2 October, 1963 – 4 March, 1967 M. Bhaktavatsalam
4 March, 1967 – 3 February, 1969 C.N. Annadurai
10 February, 1969 – 31 January, 1976 Kalaignar Muthuvel Karunanidhi
31 January, 1976 – 30 June, 1977 President’s Rule
30 June, 1977 – 17 February, 1980 Marudur Gopala Ramachandran
17 February, 1980 – 9 June, 1980 President’s Rule
9 June, 1980 – 24 December, 1987 Marudur Gopala Ramachandran
7 January, 1988 – 30 January, 1988 Janaki Ramachandran
30 January, 1988 – 27 January, 1989 President’s Rule
27 January, 1989 – 30 January, 1999 Kalaignar Muthuvel Karunanidhi
30 January, 1991 – 24 June, 1991 President’s Rule
24 June 1991 – 13 May 1996 Jayaram Jayalalitha
13 May, 1996 – 14 May, 2001 Kalaignar Muthuvel Karunanidhi
14 May, 2001 – 21 September, 2001 Jayaram Jayalalitha
21 September, 2001 – 2 March, 2002 O. Paneerselvam
2 March, 2002 – 11 May, 2006 Jayaram Jayalalitha
13 May, 2006 – 16 May, 2011 M. Karunanidhi
16 May, 2011 – 27 September, 2014 Jayaram Jayalailitha
29 September, 2014 – 22 May, 2015 O. Panneer Selvam
23 May, 2015 – 23 May 2016 J.Jayalalitha
23 May, 2016 – 5 December, 2016 J.Jayalalitha
6 December, 2016 – 15 February, 2017 O. Panneer Selvam
16 February, 2017 – 6 May, 2021 Edappadi K. Palaniswami
7 May, 2021 – till date M.K. Stalin

OLE - 609
 One Liner Approach General knowledge
UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

TELANGANA Establishment – 2 June, 2014

GOVERNORS
2 June, 2014 – 7 September, 2019 ESL Narasimhan (First Governor)
8 September, 2019 – till date Tamilisai Soundrarajan (Second Term)
CHIEF MINISTERS
2 June, 2014 – till date Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar (Second Term)

TRIPURA Establishment – 21 January, 1972

15 October, 1949 Province
26 January, 1950 Part C State
1 November, 1956 Union territory
21 January, 1972 State
CHIEF COMMISSIONERS
15 October, 1949 – 1951 R.K. Ray
1951 – 1955 Venkatasubrami Nanjappa
1955 – 1956 H.L. Atal
1956 – 1958 Kalka Prasad Bhargawa
1958 – 1962 N.M. Patnaik
15 November, 1962 – 17 January, 1967 Shanti Priya Mukherjee
17 January, 1967 – 5 November, 1967 U.N. Sharma
5 November, 1967 – 31 January, 1970 D.K. Bhattacharya
31 January, 1970 – 8 August, 1971 Anthony Lancelot Dias
8 August, 1971 – 21 January, 1972 Baleshwar Prasad
GOVERNORS
21 January, 1972 – 22 September, 1973 Baraj Kumar Nehru
22 September, 1973 – 10 August, 1980 Lallan Prasad Singh
10 August, 1980 – 14 August, 1981 Prakash Chandra Mehotra
14 August, 1981 – 14 June, 1984 S.M.H. Burney
14 June, 1984 – 12 July, 1989 K.V. Krishna Rao
12 July, 1989 – 12 February, 1990 Sultan Singh
12 February, 1990 – 15 August, 1993 K.V. Raghunatha Reddy
15 August, 1993 – 16 June, 1995 Romesh Bhandari
16 June, 1995 – 23 June, 2000 siddheswar Prasad
23 June, 2000 – 2 June, 2003 Krishna Mohan Seth
2 June, 2003 – 15 October, 2009 Dinesh Nandan Sahay
15 October, 2009 – 26 November, 2009 Dr. Kamla Beniwal
27 November, 2009 – 8 March, 2012 D.Y. Patil
9 March, 2012 – 28 June, 2014 Devanand Konwar
30 June, 2014 – 14 July, 2014 Vokkom Purushottam
21 July, 2014 – 19 May, 2015 Padmanabha Acharya
20 May, 2015 – 25 August,, 2018 Tathagata Roy
25 August, 2018 – 28 July, 2019 Kaptan Singh Solanki
29 July, 2019 – 6 July, 2021 Ramesh Bais
7 July, 2021 – till date Satyadev Narayan Arya
CHIEF MINISTERS
1 July, 1963 – 1 November, 1971 Sachindra Lal Singh
1 November 1979 – 27 March 1972 President’s Rule
20 March, 1972 – 1 April, 1977 Sukhamoy Sen Gupta
1 April, 1977 – 26 July, 1977 Prafullah Kuma Das
26 July, 1977 – 5 November, 1977 Radhika Ranjan Gupta
5 November, 1977 – 5 January, 1978 President’s Rule
5 January, 1978 – 5 February, 1988 Nripen Chakraborty

OLE - 610
 Update Traditional G.K.

5 February, 1988 – 19 February, 1992 Sudhir Ranjan Majumdar

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

19 February, 1992 – 11 March, 1993 Samir Ranjan Barman
11 March, 1993 – 10 April, 1993 President’s Rule
10 April, 1993 – 11 March, 1998 Dasarath Deb
11 March, 1998 – 9 March, 2018 Manik Sarkar (Fourth Term)
9 March, 2018 – till date Biplab Kumar Deb

UTTAR PRADESH Establishment – 26 January, 1950

15 August, 1947 United Province
26 January, 1950 Uttar Pradesh state (until 1956 : Part A)
GOVERNORS
15 August, 1947 – 2 March, 1949 Sarojini Naidu
3 March, 1949 – 2 May, 1949 Bidhubhusan Malik (acting)
2 May, 1949 – 2 June, 1952 Sir Hormasji Peroshaw Mody
2 June, 1952 – 10 June, 1957 Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi
10 June, 1957 – 1 July, 1960 Varahagiri Venkata Giri
1 July, 1960 – 16 April, 1962 Burgula Ramakrishna Rao
16 April, 1962 – 1 May, 1967 Biswanath Das
1 May, 1967 – 1 July, 1972 Bezawada Gopala Reddy
1 July, 1972 – 14 November, 1972 Shashi Kanta Verma (acting)
14 November, 1972 – 25 October, 1974 Akbar Ali Khan
25 October, 1974 – 2 October, 1977 Marri Channa Reddy
2 October, 1977 – 28 February, 1980 Ganpatrao Devji Tapase
28 February, 1980 – 31 March, 1985 C.P.N. Singh
31 March, 1985 – 11 February, 1990 Mohammed Usman Arif
12 February, 1990 – 24 May, 1993 B. Satyanarayan Reddy
25 May, 1993 – 2 May, 1996 Motilal Vora
3 May, 1996 – 19 July, 1996 Mohammed Shafi Qureshi
19 July, 1996 – 17 March, 1998 Romesh Bhandari
17 March, 1998 – 19 April, 1998 Mohammed Shafi Qureshi
20 April, 1998 – 23 November, 2000 Suraj Bhan
24 November, 2000 – 2 July, 2004 Vishnu Kant Shastri
2 July, 2004 – 8 July, 2004 Sudarshan Agarwal
8 July, 2004 – 18 July, 2009 Thanjavelu Rajeshwar
18 July, 2009 – 18 June, 2014 B.L. Joshi
17 June, 2014 – 21 July, 2014 Aziz Quaraishi (acting)
22 July, 2014 – 28 July, 2019 Ram Naik
29 July, 2019 – till date Anandiben Patel
CHIEF MINISTERS
1April, 1947 – 28 December, 1954 Govind Ballabh Pant
28 December, 1954 – 7 December, 1960 Sampurnanand
7 December, 1960 – 1 October, 1963 Chandra Bhanu Gupta
2 October 1963 – 14 March, 1967 Sucheta Kriplani
14 March, 1967 – 23 April, 1967 Chandra Bhanu Gupta
3 April, 1967 – 17 February, 1968 Charan Singh
17 February 1968 – 26 February 1969 President’s Rule
26 February, 1969 – 17 February, 1970 Chandra Bhanu Gupta
18 February, 1970 – 2 October, 1970 Charan Singh
2 October 1970 – 18 October 1970 President’s Rule
18 October, 1970 – 3 April, 1971 Tribhuvan Narain Singh
4 April, 1971 – 12 June, 1973 Kamlapati Tripathi
13 June 1973 – 8 November 1973 President’s Rule
8 November, 1973 – 30 November, 1975 Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna

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 One Liner Approach General knowledge

30 November, 1975 – 21 January, 1976 President’s Rule

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

21 January, 1976 – 30 April, 1977 Narain Dutt Tiwari

30 April, 1977 – 23 June, 1977 President’s Rule
23 June, 1977 – 27 February, 1979 Ram Naresh Yadav
28 February, 1979 – 17 February, 1980 Banarsi Das
17 February, 1980 – 9 June, 1980 President’s Rule
9 June, 1980 – 25 June, 1982 Vishwanath Pratap Singh
26 June, 1982 – 2 August, 1984 Sripati Mishra
3 August, 1984 – 23 September, 1985 Narain Dutt Tiwari
24 September, 1985 – 24 June, 1988 Bir Bahadur Singh
25 June, 1988 – 4 December, 1989 Narain Dutt Tiwari
5 December, 1989 – 23 June, 1991 Mulayam Singh Yadav
24 June, 1991 – 6 December, 1992 Kalyan Singh
6 December, 1992 – 4 December, 1993 President’s Rule
4 December, 1993 – 2 June, 1995 Mulayam singh Yadav
3 June, 1995 – 18 October, 1995 Mayawati
18 October, 1995 – 21 March, 1997 President’s Rule
21 March, 1997 – 19 September, 1997 Mayawati
20 September, 1997 – 20 September, 1997 Jagadambika Pal
21 September, 1997 – 11 November, 1999 Kalyan Singh
12 November, 1999 – 27 October, 2000 Ram Prakash Gupta
28 October, 2000 – 25 February, 2002 Rajnath Singh
8 March, 2002– 3 May, 2002 President’s Rule
3 May, 2002 – 29 August, 2003 Mayawati
29 August, 2003 – 13 May, 2007 Mulayam Singh Yadav
13 May, 2007 – 7 March, 2012 Mayawati
15 March, 2012 – 19 March, 2017 Akhilesh Yadav
19 March, 2017 – till date Yogi Adityanath

UTTARAKHAND Establishment – 9 November, 2000

9 November, 2000 State created form part of Uttar Pradesh
GOVERNORS
9 November, 2008 – 8 January 2003 Surjit Singh Barnala
8 January, 2003 – 29 October, 2007 Sudarshan Agarwal
29 October, 2007 – 6 August, 2009 B.L. Joshi
19 July, 2009 – 28 April, 2012 Margrate Alva
28 April, 2012 – 8 January, 2015 Aziz Quaraishi
8 January, 2015 – 25 August, 2018 Krishan Kant Paul
26 August, 2018 – 14 September, 2021 Baby Rani Maurya
15 September, 2021 – till date Gurmit Singh
CHIEF MINISTERS
9 November, 2000 – 30 October, 2001 Nityanand Swamy
30 October, 2001 – 2 March, 2002 Bhagat Singh Koshiyari
2 March, 2002 – 8 March, 2007 Narain Dutt Tiwari
8 March, 2007 – 23 June, 2009 B.C. Khanduri
24 June, 2009 – 10 September, 2011 Ramesh Pokhariyal Nishank
11 September, 2011 – 13 March, 2012 B.C. Khanduri
13 March, 2012 – 31 January, 2014 Vijay Bahuguna
1 February, 2014 – 27 March, 2016 Harish Rawat
27 March, 2016 – 21 April, 2016 President’s Rule
21 April, 2016 – 22 April, 2016 Harish Rawat
22 April, 2016 – 11 May, 2016 President’s Rule
11 May, 2016 – 18 March, 2017 Harish Rawat
18 March, 2017 – 10 March, 2021 Trivendra Singh Rawat
10 March, 2021 – 4 July, 2021 Tirath Singh Rawat
4 July, 2021 – till date Pushkar Singh Dhami

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 Update Traditional G.K.

UPDATE TRADITIONAL G.K.

WEST BENGAL Establishment – 26 January, 1950
15 August, 1947 Province
26 January, 1950 State (until 1956 : Part A)
GOVERNORS
15 August, 1947 – 21 June, 1948 Chakravarti Rjagopalachari
21 June, 1948 – 1 November, 1951 Kailash Nath Katju
1 Novemebr, 1951 – 8 August, 1956 Harendra Coomar Mookerjee
8 August, 1956 – 3 November, 1956 Phani Bhusan Chakraborty
3 Novmeber, 1956 – 1 June, 1967 Padmaja Naidu
1 June, 1967 – 1 April, 1969 Dharma Vira
1 April, 1969 – 19 September, 1969 Deep Narayan Sinha
19 Spetember, 1969 – 21 August, 1971 Shanti Swaroop Dhavan
21 August, 1971 – 6 November, 1977 Anthony Lancelot Dias
6 November, 1977 – 12 September, 1981 Tribhuvana Narayana Singh
12 September, 1981 – 10 October, 1983 Bhairab Dutt Pande
10 October, 1983 – 16 August, 1984 Anant Prasad Sharma
16 August, 1984 – 1 October, 1984 Satish Chandra
1 October, 1984 – 12 August, 1986 Uma Shankar Dikshit
12 August, 1986 – 20 March, 1989 Nurul Hasan
20 March, 1989 – 7 February, 1990 Thanjavelu Rajeshwar
7 February, 1990 – 12 July, 1993 Nurul Hasan
13 July, 1993 – 14 August, 1993 B. Satyanarayan Reddy
14 August, 1993 – 27 April, 1998 K.V. Raghunatha Reddy
27 April, 1998 – 18 May, 1999 A.R. Kidwai
18 May, 1999 – 4 December, 1999 Shyamal Kumar Sen
4 December, 1999 – 14 December, 2004 Viren J. Shah
14 December, 2004 – 24 January, 2010 Gopalkrishna Gandhi
24 January, 2010 – 30, June, 2014 M K Narayanan
3 July, 2014 – 17 July, 2014 D.Y. Patil (acting)
24 July, 2014 – 29 July, 2019 Keshari Nath Tripathi
30 July, 2019 – till date Jagdeep Dhankar
CHIEF MINISTERS
15 August, 1947 – 14 January, 1948 Prafulla Ghosh
14 January, 1948 – 1 July, 1962 Bidhan Chandra Roy
1 July, 1962 – 8 July, 1962 President’s Rule
8 July, 1962 – 15 March, 1967 Prafulla Sen
15 March, 1967 – 2 November, 1967 Ajoy Kumar Mukherjee
2 November, 1967 – 20 February, 1968 Prafulla Ghosh
20 February 1968 – 25 February 1969 President’s Rule
25 February, 1969 – 19 March, 1970 Ajoy Kumar Mukherjee
19 March, 1970 – 2 April, 1971 President’s Rule
2 April, 1971 – 28 June, 1971 Prafulla Ghosh
28 June, 1971 – 19 March, 1972 President’s Rule
19 March, 1972 – 21 June, 1977 Siddharta Shankar Ray
21 June, 1977 – 6 November, 2000 Jyoti Basu
6 November, 2000 – 20 May, 2011 Buddhadev Bhattacharya
20 May, 2011 – till date Mamta Banerjee (Third Term)

DELHI Establishment – 1 November, 1956

(Union Territory) and 1 February, 1992 (NCT)
15 August, 1947 Province
26 January, 1950 Part C State
1 November, 1956 Union territory
1 February, 1992 National Capital Territory of Delhi

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