SHS

Practical Research 1
Quarter 4: Week 5 to 6
Module 3: Strategies for Data
Collection
Practical Research 1
Grade 11/12 Quarter 4: Week 5 to 6 - Module 3: Strategies for Data
Collection.
First Edition, 2021

Copyright © 2021
La Union Schools Division
Region I

All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced in any form
without written permission from the copyright owners.

Development Team of the Module

Author: Maria Teresa Esperanza H Badon, Teacher III

Editor: SDO La Union, Learning Resource Quality Assurance Team

Illustrator: Ernesto F. Ramos Jr, PII

Management Team:

ATTY. Donato D. Balderas, Jr.

Schools Division Superintendent

Vivian Luz S. Pagatpatan, Ph.D

Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

German E. Flora, Ph.D, CID Chief

Virgilio C. Boado, Ph.D, EPS in Charge of LRMS

Rominel S. Sobremonte, Ed.D, EPS in Charge of Science

Michael Jason D. Morales, PDO II

Claire P. Toluyen, Librarian II
 Practical Research 1
Quarter 4: Week 5 to 6
Module 3: Strategies for Data
Collection
 TARGET

Qualitative research methodology is considered to be suitable when the researcher

or the investigator either investigates new field of study or intends to ascertain and
theorize prominent issues. There are many qualitative methods which are
developed to have an in depth and extensive understanding of the issues by means
of their textual interpretation and the most common types are interviewing and
observation.

The field of qualitative research is broad and not only “crosscuts disciplines, fields,
and subject matters” but also utilizes a myriad of means to collect data.

What you are expected to learn?

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Collects data through observation and interviews. CS_RS11IVd-f-1
2. Infers and explain patterns and themes from data. CS_RS11IVd-f-2
3. Relates the findings with pertinent literature. CS_RS11IVd-f-3

Are you now set to perform the activity, answer the questions, and read the
texts? If so, then you may get your ball pen and notebook as I will request you to
answer the questions included herein.

Good luck enjoy reading and doing the activity. God bless.

Before going on, check how much you know about this topic. Answer
the pretest on the next page in a separate sheet of paper.
 PRE-TEST

Direction: Answer the question that follows. Choose the best answer from among
the given choices. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1] A distinction between exploratory and descriptive interviewing would be that:

A] Exploratory is looking for insights; descriptive is looking for
quantification.
B] Exploratory is looking for quantification of findings; descriptive is looking
for insights.
C] Exploratory typically would involve conducting more interviews than
descriptive.
D] There is no distinction - they would both be conducted the same way.

2] In group interview there are ________.

A] one interviewer and one interviewee
B] One interviewer and more than one interviewee
C] More than one interviewer and one interviewee
D] More than one interviewer and more than one interviewee.

3] The major advantage of interviews is ___________________________.

A] the response rate is high.
B] they are not time consuming.
C] that the researcher can ask more detailed questions.
D] that people are more likely to be honest.

4] In participant observation research, the role of the "complete participant" forces

the researcher to be
A] discreet about his/her research.
B] open and honest about his/her intentions.
C] taking copious notes.
D] with the group for months and sometimes years.

5]. Which of the following steps in the research process occurs AFTER the data is
collected?
A] Conduct a literature review.
B] Consider theories relevant to your project.
C] Formulate the hypothesis.
D] Make decisions in terms of past research and theory.

6] Which of the following statements is true?

A] Researcher’s bias is never an issue in observation.
B] Interview is a better data collection method than observation.
C] Observation is a better data collection method than interview.
D] Interview can be done to gather supplemental data obtained from
 observation.
7] What is the role of the observer when s/he participates in the activities in the
group under study but the participants are not aware that they are being
observed?
A] Complete Observer B] Complete Participant
C] Participant as Observer D] Observer as Participant

8] Which of the statements is true about unstructured interview?

A] The interviewee answers the questions from a list of options.
B] The interviewer asks a set of questions that arranged chronologically.
C] The interviewer has predetermined questions which s/he would ask
during the interview.
D] The interviewer, with no predetermined questions and list of options,
asks questions on the context of the study.

9] Which of the following statements illustrates a direct observation?

A] The researcher actively participates in the activities of the group under
study.
B] The researcher asks questions to the participants to gather the data that
s/he needs.
C] The researcher does not participate in the activities of the group under
study and remains to be a passive observer.
D] The researcher establishes good rapport with the group under study in
order to collect the data that s/he needs in the research setting.

10] Which of the following is used when a researcher wishes to obtain a deeper
understanding of a phenomenon?
A] Interview B] Observation C] Questionnaire D] Survey

11] Which of the following is true about deductive approach in thematic analysis?
A] It is like the emergent code where the codes/themes are determined
beforehand.
B] It is like the present code where the codes/themes are determined
beforehand.
C] It is like the preset code where the data is the one that determine the
codes/themes.
D] It is like the emergent code where the data is the one that determine the
codes/themes.

12] Which of the following is true about inductive approach in thematic analysis?
A] It is like the emergent code where the codes/themes are determined
beforehand.
B] It is like the present code where the codes/themes are determined
beforehand.
C] It is like the preset code where the data is the one that determine the
codes/themes.
D] It is like the emergent code where the data is the one that determine the
 codes/themes.

13] It is a way of bringing the codes together before forming the themes for the data
gathered.
A] Coding B] Collating C. Summarizing D] Synthesizing

14] Qualitative data analysis focuses in examining ___________.

A] concepts B] numbers C] visions D] words

15] The research activity preceding collating is ____________.

A] categorizing C] coding
B] summarizing D] synthesizing.

Lesson 1: Collecting Data Through Observation

and Interviews

JUMPSTART

As an individual, you are curious about many things in life. Your curiosity is
marked by queries you have in mind. Oftentimes, you have questions that may be
answered by others. Sometimes, you might just personally observe to get answers.
In research, interview and observation allow you to gather information that will
help you answer your research questions.

DISCOVER

Read closely the discussion about interview and observation.

OBSERVATION AS A METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA

Observation is one of the means of collecting data in qualitative research. As a

method, data can be obtained by watching and listening purposively to people’s
behavior (Almeida et al. 2016, 96). According to Kawulich (2012), observation is a
primary tool that helps you document what is happening in a particular research
setting. Further, she noted that the researcher’s position in the research setting is
taken into consideration as this will affect the quality of data that will be collected,
the researcher’s relationship with the participants and the validity of the study.

The two major types of observation are:

1) Participant Observation. This type of observation is characterized by the
researcher’s interaction or participation with participants and become part of
their community (Driscoll 2011, 160). The researcher acts as observer and
participant at the same time (Kawulich 2012).
2) Direct Observation. In this kind of observation, the researcher does not
participate with the activities of the group under study. S/He acts as a passive
observer (Almeida et al. 2016, 96) and records the participants’ behavior.

Observational research is a “successful” instrument to the extent that it satisfies

the research objectives by capturing relevant events and participants along with the
constructs of interest. There are two tools used in conducting the observation– the
observation guide and the observation grid. These tools serve to keep the observer
on track towards these objectives and generally facilitate the ethnographic data
gathering process.

Types of Observational Tools

1) Observation Guide
It helps to maintain the observer’s focus while also giving the observer scope to
reflect on the context associated with each site. The purpose of this observation
tool is to:
o reminds the observer of the key points of observation as well as the topics
of interest associated with each; and
o acts as the motivation for a reflexive exercise in which the observer can
reflect on his/her own relationship and contribution to the observed at
any moment in time (e.g., how the observer was affected by the
observations) (Roller and Lavrakas 2015).

Field Day Evaluation

Location: ______________________
Date: _________________________
1) Number of people who stopped and looked at exhibit (make a mark for each)
_________________________________
2) Number of people who asked a question to agent supervising exhibit _____________
3) Number of people who took brochures _______________
4) Number of people who actively used the interactive materials ____________
5) Did people seen to struggle to see the exhibit?
yes no
6) Were staff always available?
yes no
7) Comments made or questions asked: ___________________________________

Sample of Structured Observation Guide

Source: Collecting evaluation data: Direct observations, http://learningstore.uwex.edu/pdf/G3658-05.pdf
Sample of Unstructured Observation Guide

Father-Child Workshop
Location: ____________________
Date: ________________________
(Instructions to observe: Write down actions you see and comments you hear under the
following headings:)
1. Disciplinary actions fathers have with the child.
____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Physical contacts fathers have with a child.
____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. Ways in which fathers praise their children.
____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

Source: Collecting evaluation data: Direct observations, http://learningstore.uwex.edu/pdf/G3658-05.pdf

2) Observation Grid
The grid is like the guide in that, it helps remind the observer of the events and
issues of most import; however, unlike the guide, the observation grid is a
spreadsheet or log of sorts that enables the observer to record (and record his
reflections of) observable events in relationship to the constructs of interest. The
grid might show, for instance, the relevant constructs or research issues as
column headings and the specific foci of observation as rows.

Observation Grid: Train Travelers

Site Location: Date: Start time: Stop time:
Research Issue
Area of Observation Walking Delays Boarding
Behavior (what, by
whom, where)
Conversation (what,
by whom, where)
Context (what else
is going on? What is
the weather? Is it a
holiday?
Type of traveler
(alone, families,
Business
companions)
General mood
(what, how
conveyed, by whom)
Other areas of
observation.
Reflexive comments

Adapted from: Roller & Lavrakas, 2015. Applied Qualitative Research Design: A total Quality Framework
Approach. New York: Gutford Press
When conducting observation in the research setting, a researcher may play the
one of the following:
1) Complete Participant. As the term denotes, the researcher is part of the group
under study and participates in the group members’ activities. However, the
participants are not aware that they are being observed and studied.
2) Participant as Observer. Here, the researcher is still part of the group under
study and participates in the group members’ activities. The participants are
fully aware that they are being observed and studied.
3) Observer as Participant. The researcher is not part of the group under study but
still participates in the group members’ activities. The participants under study
are aware of the research and its objectives.
4) Complete Observer. Here, the researcher is not part of the group under study
and does not take part of their activities. The participants are not also aware
that they are being observed and studied.

Advantages of Observation
1) It enables a researcher to access things in the research setting that may not
seen by the general public (Kawulich 2012).
2) It allows the researcher to give rich and detailed description of the social setting
by means of the field notes (Kawulich 2012).
3) It is one of the simplest ways to collect data and does not require too much
technical knowledge (Bhasin 2020).
4) It can be done with or without the participants’ knowledge.

Disadvantages of Observation
1) There is a chance of higher observer bias (Bhasin 2020).
2) Participants’ behavior may change because of the presence of the researcher,
thus affecting the data to be obtained (Educational Research Techniques 2015).
3) It requires longer time frame to obtain deeper understanding of the research
participants.
4) There may be an issue of non-conformity to informed consent.
5) Guidelines in Observation

Here are some guidelines that will help you when doing observation:
1) Be ready with your observation guide and research tools such as audio-video
recorder, camera, and notebook.
2) Focus your observation on the research problems that you are trying to answer.
3) Take notes or pictures so that you can use them in giving detailed analysis.
4) Allot ample time in your observation to have a deeper understanding of the
subjects you are observing.
5) Observe keenly. What you think about what you observe may be opposite to
what is really happening.
6) Ask informal questions from the participants for further clarification.
Becoming a skilled observer includes…
 Learning to pay attention, see what there is to see, and hear what there is to
hear.
 Practice in writing descriptively.
 Acquiring discipline in recording notes.
 Knowing how to separate detail from trivia.
 Using rigorous methods to validate and triangulate observations.
 Reporting the strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective.

EXPLORE

ACTIVITY 3.1.1 Let’s Do It!

Direction: Fill out the observation grid below with details of any topic that interest
you. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

Observation Grid:
Site Location: Date: Start time: Stop time:
Research Issue:
Area of Observation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Reflexive comments
 Deepen

Activity 3.1.2: OBSERVE …OBSERVE!

Suggest two situations where participant observation would be desirable/necessary
and two situations where direct observation would be desirable/necessary. Follow
the table format given below.
Type of Observation Situation 1 Situation 2
Participant Observation

Direct Observation

Interview

The research interview has been defined as ‘a two-person conversation initiated by

the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information
and content specified by research objectives of systematic description, prediction,
or explanation. It involves the gathering of data through direct verbal interaction
between individuals. It is questioning in the verbal form.

As a research tool, interview is different from general interviewing in regard to

preparation, construction and execution. It is controlled by the researcher to avoid
any biasness and distortion. In the research interview, the interviewer asks specific
questions pertaining to research objectives and the respondent answers
appropriately.

There are three main kinds of interview that may be used specifically as research
tools:
1) Structured Interview. The structured interview is one in which the content
and procedures are organized in advance. This means that the sequence and
wording of the questions are determined by means of a schedule and the
interviewer is left little freedom to make modifications. The interviewer asks a
predetermined set of questions which are arranged in chronological order. The
interviewee answers each question from a list of options.
2) Semi-structured Interview. Here, the interviewer asks a predetermined set of
questions. There is no list of options. The interviewee can answer the
 questions in his/her own words. Follow-up questions can be asked by the
interviewer for clarifications.
3) Unstructured Interview. The unstructured interview is an open situation,
having greater flexibility and freedom. The research purposes govern the
questions asked, their content, sequence and wording are entirely in the
hands of the interviewer. There is no predetermined set of questions, no list of
options, no specific procedures. The interviewer asks questions on the context
of the study. The interviewee can answer freely and spontaneously. The
interviewer can ask follow-up questions for clarification and for more in-depth
information.

Purposes of the interview

As a distinctive research technique, the interview may serve three purposes.

1) First, it may be used as the principal means of gathering information having
direct bearing on the research objectives.
2) Second, it may be used to test hypotheses or to suggest new ones; or as an
explanatory device to help identify variables and relationships.
3) Third, the interview may be used in conjunction with other methods in a
research undertaking. In this connection, Kerlinger (1970) suggests that it
might be used to follow up unexpected results, for example, or to validate
other methods, or to go deeper into the motivations of respondents and their
reasons for responding as they do.
Advantages of Interview

1) The researcher has the opportunity to ask questions directly to the

participants of the study.
2) It can provide more in-depth information as the researcher is able to raise
follow-up questions to clarify or explore a point.
3) It can supplement information gained from observation, especially those that
are non-verbal in nature.
4) The researcher can explain the questions to the participants.
5) It has a wider application since in can be done with younger to older type of
population.

Disadvantages of Interview

1) It can be time consuming for the researcher and the interviewee.

2) It requires the researcher to arrange the time and place of interview.
3) A limited number of people can be interviewed due to time restrictions.
4) The data obtained from limited number of participants may not reflect the
views of a wider population.
Interview Protocol

An interview protocol is more than a list of interview questions; it also extends to

the procedural level of interviewing and includes a script of what you will say before
the interview, script for what you will say at the conclusion of the interview,
prompts for the interviewer to collect informed consent, and prompts to remind the
interviewer the information that she or he is interested in collecting. Interview
protocols become not only a set of questions, but also a procedural guide for
directing a new qualitative researcher through the interview process.

Writing Successful Interview Protocols

1) Pick a topic that is interesting to you.
2) Research should guide your questions.
3) Use a script for the beginning and end of your interview.
4) Questions should be open ended.
5) Start with the basics.
6) Begin with easy to answer questions and move towards ones that are more
difficult or controversial.
7) The phrase “tell me about…”is great way to start a question.
8) Write big, expansive questions.
9) Use prompts.
10) Be willing to make “on the spot” revisions to your interview protocol.
11) Do not make the interview too long.
12) Practice with a friend.
13) Make sure that you have set up a second shorter interview to help you
clarify
14) If needed, clear your project with your school’s Institutional Research Board
(IRB).
Tips for the Interview
1) Start with your script. You developed the script so that you do not inadvertently
neglect sharing important information with your interviewee. While you do not
need to read the script word for word, it is important that you have it in front of
you and you follow it carefully.
2) Collect consent. Collecting consent should be a part of your beginning script. Do
not proceed with your interview without collecting it. Give your participant
plenty of time to read through the form and ask as many questions about
consent as she or he needs to ask.
3) Use some type of recording device and only take brief notes so you can maintain
eye contact with your interviewee.
4) Arrange to interview your respondent in a quiet, semi-private place.
5) Be sure that both you and the interviewee block off plenty of uninterrupted time
for the interview.
6) Have genuine care, concern, and interest for the person you are interviewing.
7) Use basic counseling skills to help your interviewees feel heard.
8) Keep it focused.
9) LISTEN! LISTEN! LISTEN! Seriously, close your mouth and listen!
10) End with your script.
Conducting qualitative research can be exciting for both the seasoned researcher
and the new researcher alike. When others open up their lives for us to investigate,
it is a gift for both the speaker who is heard and for the listener who learns
something from the investigation. As qualitative researchers who conduct
interviews, we are privileged to be able to do research by talking to others.

EXPLORE

Activity 3.1.3:
After what you have learned on collecting data through observation and interview,
you are now ready to do the following tasks. Write your answers in a separate sheet
of paper.

1) When should you use observation as a method of data collection? When should
you use interview?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2) Given the different types of observation and interview, which of them would you
use to gather data for a research project? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3) You are tasked to conduct a study on COVID-19 and how it changes the lives of
people. What method are you going to use to gather data about this –
observation or interview? What specific type of observation or interview will you
use? Why do you think is your chosen method appropriate for the study?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Deepen

Activity 3.1.4
Direction: Identify the key takeaways that you have learned in today’s lesson. Copy
this organizer in your answer sheet. You may add more box/es if you wish.
 Lesson 2: Inferring Patterns and Themes from
Data in Research

JUMPSTART

After gaining knowledge on the ways on how to collect the data in qualitative
research, the next step is to know how to analyze those data. This lesson aims to
teach you how to analyze collected data and to help you to describe themes and
patterns from the data collected.

Additionally, this module provides a discussion on the technique in analyzing data

from patterns and themes from the interview and other sources that will help you
in research writing.

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. explain how themes are generated from the collected data; and
2. infer patterns and themes from the given data.

DIRECTIONS: In the previous lesson, we discussed about the process of collecting

data through observation and interview. In line with that, complete the table below
that with the key words that shows guidelines that will help you in conducting
observation. Place your answers in a separate sheet of paper.

In conducting an observation… In conducting an interview…

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
 DISCOVER

Qualitative data analysis is a time-consuming process; it makes you deal with data
coming from wide source of information. It is good if all the data you collected
coming from varied sources of knowledge work favorably for your research study,
but, ironically, some of these may have not strong relation to your research
questions.

The method that we will give focus to is the Thematic Analysis. This method in
qualitative research is based on initial coding and collating and then patterns and
themes. Let us dive deeper on these processes.

What is Coding?
Coding is the process of analyzing the data and searching for essential information
that answers the research questions. Another definition of coding says that it is a
process of filtering the data. These essential words are marked or labeled or coded.
They are considered essential if they occur or have been mentioned several times by
the informants.

Two types of codes in qualitative research:

1) PRESET are codes that have been identified prior to analysis. It is also called the
deductive approach wherein the codes/themes were determined beforehand,
either from related theories or existing knowledge
2) EMERGENT CODES are those that show up during analysis. It is also referred to
as inductive approach where the data is the one that determine the
codes/themes.

Qualitative researchers use codes to easily identify meanings and group similar
patterns or themes that occur or transpire in the interview transcript of each
participant. By using codes, the researcher can easily make an inference.

What is collating?
Collating on the other hand is, your way of bringing together the coded data. Giving
the data an orderly appearance is putting them in a graph, specifically a table of
responses.

PATTERNS AND THEMES

Patterns and themes are words or phrases that collectively describe the experience
or thoughts of every participant. These words and phrases become themes because
they appear on several occasions and are mentioned by many participants. They
represent broad categories of information.
In order to identify themes, qualitative researchers use codes. Just like what is
written above, these codes are simply “labels” that help qualitative researchers
identify similar experiences or thoughts.

Codes that are grouped together are themes. These are the words or phrases that
will manifest in the interview transcript and researchers during analysis.
Qualitative researchers should be able to identify and locate them. Hence, these
words or phrases that describe participants’ experiences and thoughts should be
coded accordingly for easy reference and classification when interpreting the
results.

This ‘theme’ may be labeled by a word or expression taken directly from the data or
by one created by the researcher because it seems to best characterize the essence
of what is being said.

Below are the 5-step process to analyze your data:

1) Prepare and organize your data. Make sure that you have the transcript with
you, collect all the notes you have taken, documents and other materials
needed. Do not forget the sources.
2) Review and explore the data. Read and understand each of those documents
and notes.
3) Create initial codes. While you are at the reading mode, this would also be the
time to generate codes.
4) Review those codes and revise or combine into themes. After reading and coding
all the materials, identify recurring themes, language, opinions, and beliefs.
5) Present themes in a cohesive manner. Lay these themes consistently and taking
into consideration the audience, and the goals of your research. The findings
should address each theme in turn and refer to your statement of the problem.

Techniques on How to Identify Themes in Qualitative Data

Generating themes from a qualitative data can be a bit tricky but the more articles
you read the more themes can be produced. Literatures and the personal
experience on the subject matter is also important. This means that if you really
know your study or topic, then, it would be easier to create themes.

Here are some techniques in identifying themes:

1) Word Repetitions - The researcher should understand what people are talking
about by looking at the words they use. Word repetitions can be analyzed by
informal mode by simply reading the text and note words or synonyms that
people use a lot. And formal analysis of word frequencies that can be done by
generating a list of all the unique words in a text and counting the number of
times each occurs.
2) Indigenous categories – It is a way of finding themes by looking for a local term
that sounds unfamiliar or used in unfamiliar ways. It also refers as "indigenous
categories."
3) Key-words-in-context (KWIC) - is a technique that is based on a simple
observation by understanding a concept and looking at how it is used.
Researchers identify key words and then systematically search the body of text
to find all instances of the word or phrase. Themes get identified by physically
sorting the examples into piles of similar meaning through finding the word and
copying its immediate context.
4) Compare and Contrast - Compare approach are based on the idea that themes
represent the ways in which texts are either similar or different from each other
from the words "constant comparison method.”
5) Social Science Queries – It refers to the interests in understanding how textual
data illuminate questions of importance to social science.

THEMATIC ANALYSIS

Thematic analysis is a method for identifying and analyzing patterns and themes
within qualitative data and it is also defined as a form of pattern recognition within
the data.

Six Phases of Thematic Analysis:

Phase 1. Familiarization with the data: It involves deeper understanding of the

data gathered by reading it multiple times. In doing so will help you to gain
familiarity of the content.

Phase 2. Coding: It involves generating concise labels or codes. You have to code
the whole dataset and make sure that the codes are relevant to your topic then
collate them.

Phase 3. Searching for themes: This is now the phase where you will be
generating themes from the codes. You may want to go through your codes multiple
times just to be sure that you are collating relative codes.

Phase 4. Reviewing themes: From the initial generation of themes, you may still
see some irrelevant themes when you try to connect it with your topic. To prevent
this, you have to review the generated themes and then compare it to the dataset
and then to your topic.

Phase 5. Defining and naming themes: Once you are done with your final
themes, you now have to make a detailed analysis of each. There should be a
“story” behind those themes since it will be further discussed in the results and
discussion part. Aside from that, this phase also involves deciding on an
informative name for each theme.

Phase 6. Writing up: This final stage involves knitting together the analytic
narrative explanation from each generated theme, data extracts, and
contextualizing the analysis in relation to existing literature.
 EXPLORE

Activity 3.2.1:
DIRECTIONS: Below is a sample of a transcript interview. Write the questions and
its focus on the left table. Copy and underline the codes you identified on the
verbatim response or answer. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

Interviewee So, let’s go right into it and tell me how did you start as a
Basketball player?

Athlete: That has been something that I was always a fun of various league by
already as a kid. Technically, I would suppose I started by learning the basic
skills at the age of five, forcefully somewhat. First, I didn’t like it, but I always
appreciated how skills and game was put together. So, I spent than just a lot of
time doing movement exploration and manipulation and just finding my way. It
was kind of a passion that it got me deeper and deeper into it, just by chance.
So, yeah that’s kind of the start of my passion in playing the sports.

Interviewee: And did you consider yourself a competitive player in the beginning
or was it just an organic slow process of becoming one?

Athlete: You know, I honestly never considered myself as a basketball player. I

just considered myself a person that was interested in this. I guess you can call
me a basketball team member, but a competitive athlete for me is somebody
who has some training in this and a lot of what I do is self-taught.

Areas of Focus Verbatim response/Answer

Question 1

Question 2

Activity 3.2.2: Directions: From the codes you identified above, list down the
common themes list and write it in your answer sheet.
Codes/Categories Common Themes

Activity 3.2.3: Directions: From the themes you identified above, write a brief
explanation for each. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Common Themes Explanation
 DEEPEN

Activity 3.2.4:
Identify the key takeaways that you have learned in today’s lesson. Copy this
organizer in your answer sheet. You may add more box/es if you wish.
 Lesson 3: Relating Pertinent Findings with the
Literature in Research

JUMPSTART

After creating the themes from the collected data, the next step is to analyze them
and connect them to the literatures you’ve found in your review. This lesson aims
to teach you how to analyze the collected data. It will help you to relate pertinent
themes and patterns from the data collected. The lesson also provides a discussion
on the technique in analyzing data coming from the interview that will help you in
research writing.

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. discuss how patterns and themes are explained in connection to research
problem.
2. explain the created patterns and themes from the given data; and
3. relate findings and the literature from the data collected.

DIRECTIONS: In the previous lesson, we discussed about the technique in

analyzing data from patterns and themes from the interview and other sources. In
line with that, arrange according to its sequence the key words that shows the
steps in analyzing data collected. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
_______ Review those codes and revise or combine into themes.
_______ Review and explore the data.
_______ Present themes in a cohesive manner.
_______ Prepare and organize your data.
_______ Create initial codes.
 DISCOVER

Discussion of Research Findings

DISCUSSION is the HEART of the research paper.

The discussion section is essentially written for the sake of explaining your
findings.
 In very simple terms, what you did to answer the research questions and
why you did it that way.
 It explains the results of your study and connects the results to each
research question.

Importance of a Good Discussion

This section is often considered the most important part of a research paper:

1) it most effectively demonstrates your ability as a researcher to think

critically about an issue, to develop creative solutions to problems based on
the findings, and to formulate a deeper, more profound understanding of the
research problem you are studying.
2) it is where you explore the underlying meaning of your research, its possible
implications in other areas of study, and the possible improvements that can
be made in order to further develop the concerns of your research.
3) It is the section where you need to present the importance of your study and
how it may be able to contribute to and/or fill existing gaps in the field.
4) it is also where you state how the findings from your study revealed new
gaps in the literature that had not been previously exposed or adequately
described.

A good discussion section relates:

o Current findings
o Existing knowledge reflected in Literature.
o Researcher’s own position and interpretation of the situation
o It should/may expose further knowledge gaps for further research.
o It should clearly point to conclusions and recommendations.

APPROACHES TO WRITING YOUR DISCUSSION SECTION

1) Explain your findings
2) Compare the findings
3) Evaluate the findings
4) Infer from the findings
APPROACHES TO WRITING YOUR DISCUSSION SECTION

APPROACH 1: EXPLAIN YOUR FINDINGS

APPROACH 2: COMPARE THE FINDINGS

APPROACH 3: EVALUATE THE FINDINGS

APPROACH 4: INFER THE FINDINGS

Important Features of Discussion in Doing Research:

1) Placing or relating the findings of research in relation to research questions

as well as in the context of existing knowledge.
2) Opportunities to discuss comprehensively what exactly you know about your
research topic by discussing the meaningful results of your study.
3) Discussion of the research findings should be well-organized and broad in
scope as you relate these findings to pertinent literature.
4) The discussion of your research findings should not only tackle the
summary of the results but it should also depict novelty or original thinking.
5) Discussion of the research findings should be well-organized and broad in
scope as you relate these findings to pertinent literature.

Interpreting Your Results: The Role of the Literature Review

Interpreting your findings is about seeing whether what you found confirms or does
not confirm the findings of previous studies in your literature review. Your findings
may also offer novel insights or information.

For qualitative studies, organize this section around your themes. For each
question or theme, go back to your literature review and look at the major findings
of previous studies. Relate your findings to the findings of those previous studies
and indicate where your findings aligned and where they did not align. Offer
possible explanations as to why your findings corroborated or contradicted the
findings of previous studies.

SUGGESTED STEPS IN DISCUSSION

1) Summarize and discuss important findings.
o Reiterate results in a straightforward manner.
o Use easily understood language.
2) Describe “WHY”.
o How meaningful
o How does it cover the research area
3) Link findings
o Make connections to similar research as stated in literature review
o Explain why it is different or similar.
4) Limitations
o Discuss limitations but not every single one
o Think like a critic.
5) Future research
o What are some questions that remained unanswered
o Make positive and practical suggestions/recommendations

The skill in writing a successful discussion is in moving backwards and forwards

between others' research and your own research, making it clear:
 which has been done by other people.
 which has been done by you.
  and how they complement each other.

Tip
Remember that you are dealing with three different issues and the three
must be clearly differentiated for the reader.

Some suggestions to differentiate your own research from previous research in your
writing:

Use the first person to describe your findings. My data shows...

Consistently use ‘this’ to refer to your own This study...

research and refer to previous research by name, The findings of this research...
place or time. Smith and Geva found that...
A previous study in Belgrade...

Make reference to similarities or differences in Similar research carried out in the 1980s
approach or findings. showed that...

Use the present perfect tense to highlight the This study has shown a prevalence rate of
recent relevance of your research in comparison 2.5 which is greater than that found by
with earlier research, referring to it in the simple Smith and Geva in their Belgrade study...
past.

Using cautious language

Discussing results and drawing conclusions involves making claims about

interpretation, significance and applicability. This is done within a research
tradition where existing knowledge is always being modified in the light of new
results. As a researcher, you are expected to distinguish carefully between:

 knowledge you are sure of because you have reliable evidence for it.
 other knowledge you are less sure of.
 other knowledge you think is only within the realms of possibility.

Words/Phrases that can be used in your discussion:

A. Background Information
o As mentioned in the literature review…
o Prior studies showed that students….
o Other research in … concluded that….
o This study set out with the aim of assessing the importance of…
o Very little was found in the literature on the question of…

B) Explanation of Results
o This result may be explained by …/a number of different factors …
o It may be that these students benefited from…
o There are several possible explanations for this result.
 o A possible explanation for this might be …
o Another possible explanation for this is that…
o It is difficult to explain this result, but it might be related to…
o It seems possible that these results are due to …
o The reason for this is not clear but it may be due to ….
o This inconsistency/discrepancy may be due to….
o There are, however, other possible explanations.

C) Reference to Previous Research

Positive/Support
o This result of this study seems to confirm the findings of a study by Nonan
(2018) in this field.
o These findings of this research are consistent with those of Dumo et al.
(2017) who found…
o These findings supported the previous research….
o These findings confirmed the result of other research that…
o These findings agree with Diaz’s (2020) findings which showed…
o There are similarities between the attitudes expressed by….
o This study corroborates the earlier findings about…
o These results are consistent with those of the other studies which found…
o The present findings seem to be consistent with other research that…

Negative/Contradict.
o These findings did not support previous research …
o The present findings did not seem to be consistent with other research
that…
o In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of… was discovered.
o This study has been unable to demonstrate that…
o However, the findings of the current study do not support the study
conducted by Corpuz (2018).
o However, this result has not been previously described in other studies.

D) Suggesting General Hypotheses and Implications

o These findings suggest that…
o The findings show that there exists a weak link between…
o It is possible that…
o It is therefore likely that such connections exist between…
o It can thus be suggested that…
o It is possible to hypothesize that these conditions are less likely to occur in…
o From the above discussion, it can be concluded that…
o It can therefore be assumed that the…
o The findings of this study suggest that…
o It is possible to hypothesize that these conditions are less likely to occur in…
o From the above discussion, it can be concluded that…
o It can therefore be assumed that the…
o The findings of this study suggest that…
Checklist Discussion

You can monitor the progress of your work by ticking the corresponding tasks.
Task Checklist Y/N
I have concisely summarized the most important findings.
I have discussed and interpreted the results in relation to my research
questions.
I have cited relevant literature to show how my results fit in.
I have clearly explained the significance of my results.
If relevant, I have considered alternative explanations of the results.
I have stated the practical and/or theoretical implications of my results.
I have acknowledged and evaluated the limitations of my research.
I have made relevant recommendations for further research or action.

EXPLORE

Activity 3.3.1: Let’s Do It!

1) Write about your data for 5 minutes. You don't have to show what you write
to anyone.
2) Now read over what you've written. Have you learnt anything? Is there
anything there you want to develop further? You could try highlighting key
words or identifying any points that need further investigation.

DEEPEN

Activity 3.3.2: Write Me Down

1) Write down all the things you know now that you didn't know when you
started the research. Use a single sentence for each item.
2) Sort the sentences into groups. Give each group a heading. Now check the
headings against your research question(s). Do all the headings relate to the
research question(s)? Do the questions need refining?
3) Use these groups and headings to make a plan of the points you want to
make in your discussion.
 Gauge

Direction: Answer the question that follows. Choose the best answer from among
the given choices. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1] Which of the following refers to the way of collecting data by watching and
listening to an interaction or a phenomenon?
A] Interview B] Observation C] Questionnaire D] Survey

2] Which of the following denotes a person-to-person interaction between two or

more individuals with a particular purpose?
A] Interview B] Observation C] Questionnaire D] Survey

3] Which of the following statements characterizes a participant observation?

A] The researcher serves as an observer in the research setting.
B] The researcher observes without the knowledge of the participants.
C] The researcher acts as an observer and a participant in the research
setting.
D] The researcher observes without interaction with the participants of the
study.

4] Which statement is true about structured interview?

A] The researcher prepares a list of options for each question.
B] The researcher can ask questions without following the interview guide.
C] The researcher is completely free to use words, context and structure of
the interview.
D] The researcher follows a predetermined set of questions in the interview
guide for uniformity of information.

5] Which is the best approach to use when the researcher is more interested in
behavior rather than perception of people?
A] Interview B] Observation C] Questionnaire D] Survey

6] What is the other way to find themes where you have to look for local terms that
may sound unfamiliar or are used in unfamiliar ways.
A] Compare and Contrast B] Indigenous Terms
C] Social Science Queries D] Word Repetitions

7] It is a technique in identifying the data that is based on the idea that themes
represent the ways in which texts are either similar or different from each other.
A] Compare and Contrast B] Social Science Queries
C] Key-words-in-context D] Word Repetitions
8] It refers to the technique in identifying data that can be analyzed formally and
informally.
A] Indigenous Terms B] Social Science Queries
C] Compare and Contrast D] Word Repetitions

9] This phase involves generating brief labels that identify important features of the
data that might be relevant to answering the research question.
A] Coding B] Reviewing for themes.
C] Familiarization with Data D] Searching for themes.

10. It is the final phase involves weaving together the analytic narrative and data
extracts and contextualizing the analysis in relation to existing literature.
A] Familiarization with Data. B] Searching for themes.
C] Reviewing for themes. D] Writing – up.

11. It is a technique of identifying themes where searching interviews for evidence

of social conflict, cultural contradictions, informal methods of social control,
things that people do in managing impersonal social relationships, methods by
which people acquire and maintain achieved and ascribed status, and
information about how people solve problems.
A] Compare and Contrast B] Indigenous Categories
C] Social Science Queries D] Word Repetitions

12. It refers to the technique of identifying themes that is based on a simple

observation. If you want to understand a concept, then look at how it is used.
In this technique, researchers identify key words and then systematically
search the corpus of text to find all instances of the word or phrase.
A] Compare and Contrast B] Indigenous Categories
C] Key-words-in-context D] Social Science Queries

13. It is the phase that involves reading and re-reading the data, to become
immersed and intimately familiar with its content.
A] Defining and naming themes B] Familiarization with the data
C] Searching for themes D] Writing up

14. The phase involves developing a detailed analysis of each theme, working out
the
scope and focus of each theme, determining the ‘story’ of each. It also involves
deciding on an informative name for each theme.
A] Defining and naming themes B] Searching for themes
C] Familiarization with the data D] Writing up

15. In this phase, themes are typically refined, which sometimes involves them
being split, combined, or discarded.
A] Defining and naming themes B] Familiarization with the data
C] Reviewing themes D] Writing up
PRE-TEST
1. A
2. B
3. A
4. A
5. D
6. D
7. B
8. D
9. C
10.A
11.B
12.D
13.A
14.D
15.B
GAUGE
1. B
2. A
3. C
4. D
5. A
6. B
7. A
8. D
9. A
10.D
11.C
12.C
13.B
14.A
15.C
ANSWER KEY
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