CHAPTER 8

Mountain Province Heritage

Authors
WILLOW F. PANGKET
CLAIRE KAPLAAN P. LAFADCHAN
JONNELLE D. FAGSAO
RHODA B. GALANGCO
JULIE GRACE M. DOCALLAS
 UNIT 1
HISTORICAL / SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES
Overview
This unit consists of four (4) lessons that cover the Imontanyosas' vision of the terrain
they inhabit, their cultural regions, their development as an ethnolinguistic group, their idea
of functional institutions of education and society, and their sociocultural arts and literature.
This workbook provides you with a quick information on what is required of you in
each session, the reference materials you will use, and how to navigate them. It also
underlines the significance of the evaluations. Each course has thorough information on the
delivery method.
Lesson objectives are always stated at the start of a lesson in order to accomplish the
goals mentioned above. Before beginning the lesson, read them. Later on, as you're studying
it, you might want to refer back to them to see how you're doing. Lesson objectives should
always be reviewed after each lesson. You can be more confident that you have followed the
lesson's instructions if you do it this way.

LESSON 1
SETTLEMENTS AND TERRITORIES
I. Introduction
This is to introduce you to the historical and socio-cultural features of the province's
political birth occurred in the 1960s where Benguet, Ifugao, Bontoc, Kalinga, and Apayao
were all part of the former Mountain Province. This lesson also discusses the settlement and
territories of Mountain Province and explain how this province came to be. This lesson also
teaches you about the province which is made up of the municipalities of Barlig, Natonin,
and Paracelis on the eastern front, which border the provinces of Ifugao and Isabela;
Sadanga on the northern front, which borders Kalinga province; Bontoc in the center, which
borders Ilocus Sur; and Bauko and Sabangan on the southern front, which border Ifugao
and Benguet.
Thus, your understanding of the Imontanysas and culture will equip you, not only to
have a sound knowledge of Mountain Province, but also to teach other tribes within this
province too.

Following petitions and several bills introduced in Congress for its subdivision on June
18, 1966, under Republic Act 4695, signed by President Ferdinand Marcos, the former
Mountain Province included Benguet, Ifugao, Bontoc, Kalinga, and Apayao while maintaining
Bontoc as its capital until former President Fidel V. Ramos signed Proclamation No. 144 on
February 28, 1993, designating the 7th of April as Mountain Province Foundation Day. The
old Mountain Province, founded by American forces in 1907, once included the sub-
provinces of Bontoc, Lepanto, Amburayan, Ifugao, Kalinga, Benguet, and Apayao. At the
time, the capital was Bontoc, which later merged with BIBAK. Bill No. 4600, which was put
out by former Congressmen Alfredo G. Lamen and Luis Hora in 1962 and passed, failed to
divide the province into the five sub-provinces that already existed. In 1965, House Bill No.
1526 was sponsored and passed by Congressman Juan Duyan, who represented the first
district of Kalinga-Apayao and a portion of Bontoc. On June 18, 1966, the late President
Marcos signed into law the bill (RA 4695), which formed the provinces of Kalinga-Apayao
with 14 municipalities, Mountain Province with ten towns, Benguet with 11 municipalities,
and Ifugao with seven municipalities. Abra and Apayao provinces were established in
accordance with different legislation.
You can click on the link http://mountainprovince.gov.ph/geography/ for further
information regarding Mountain Province.

THE MUNICIPALITIES OF MOUNTAIN PROVINCE

The location and economic background of Mountain Province's ten municipalities—
Barlig, Bauko, Besao, Bontoc, Natonin, Paracelis, Sabangan, Sadanga, Sagada, and Tadian—
are briefly covered in the table below.
Table 1. Location and Economic Source of the Municipalities of Mountain Province

Municipality Location Economic source

1. Barlig Barlig is a 5th class municipality on Since Barlig is surrounded by thick forests,
the eastern side of Mountain people also gather forest products as their
Province with 11 barangays under other source of livelihood.
three cluster areas: Barlig, Lias, and
Kadaclan.
2. Bauko It is located in the province's The municipality is considered as a major
southwestern corner. It is vegetable producer of the province. Commercial
surrounded to the north by the vegetables are produced in large quantities and
municipality of Sagada, to the south are sold at nearby municipalities and are also
by the municipality of Hungduan, sold in Benguet.
Ifugao, to the east by Sabangan, and
to the west by Tadian.
3. Besao It is flanked on the north by Tubo, Farming is also the main economic activity of i-
Abra, on the south by Tadian, on the Besao.
east by Sagada, and on the west by
Quirino, Ilocus, Sur. It's 28
kilometers from Bontoc and may be
reached by the Besao-Sagada and
Besao-Tadian roads.
4. Bontoc It is the historical capital of The Bontoks produce rice, and it is usually for
Mountain Province situated in the home consumption.
central part of the province.
5. Natonin It is situated in the North-eastern Just like in other municipalities, farming is a
part of Mountain Province which is dominant economic activity in Natonin.
closest to the city of Tabuk in
Kalinga Province.
6. Paracelis It is situated approximately in the Paracelis is also a top commercial producer of
Northeastern part of Mountain crops in the province. The municipality is
Province which is closest to the city known for its corn production, but it also
of Santiago in Isabela province, produces vegetables, oranges and timber.
Aguinaldo in Ifugao and Tabuk city
in Kalinga.
7. Sabangan The municipality of Sabangan lies in Sabangan also produces rice and high valued
the southeastern side of Mountain vegetables.
Province
8. Sadanga It is flanked to the east by Barlig, to Rice is the main agricultural product of
the north by Tinglayan, Kalinga, to Sadanga, it is also known to produce legumes
the west by Tubo, Abra, and to the and sugarcane. Since sugarcane is also their
south by Bontoc. traditional crop, they are known to produce
muscovado, inti, basi and fvayash or alcoholic
drinks for household/ community
consumption.

9. Sagada Sagada is delimited on the north by Sagada is a popular tourist attraction in

Abra province, on the south by Mountain Province. Hence, tourism is one of
Sabanga, on the east by Bontoc, and the major economic sources of the people.
on the west by Besao However, farming is still the major economic
activity of the i-Sagada.
10. Tadian Tadian is 39 kilometres (24 mi) from Tadian is also an agricultural community.
provincial capital Bontoc and 398
kilometres (247 mi) from Manila.

For further information click on this links https://cmci.dti.gov.ph/lgu-profile.php?lgu

and https://www.philatlas.com/luzon/car/mountain-province/tadian.html
LESSON 2
PEOPLING AND ETHNO-LINGUISTIC GROUP
I. Introduction
The emphasis in this lesson is mainly on exploring the people and culture of Mountain
Province that make for an interesting and engaging topic of classroom conversation. It is not
the aim of this lesson to focus on the physical description of each ethno-linguistic group in
Mountain Province, although many of the points will soon raise in this lesson that will have a
bearing on who the indigenous tribes that inhabit Mountain Province. Rather, a number of
thoughts and ideas will be raised for reflection and discussion that focus more on the
Kankanaeys, Ifuntoks, Balangaos, Applyas, Kadaklans, and other inhabitants of Mountain
Province. Some of these thoughts and ideas should help us in making more principled and
coherent classroom discussions and decisions about the ethno-linguistic groups of Mountain
Province in our Mountain Province cultural lessons.

Five different tribal groups are found in Mountain Province, according to the
National Commission on Indigenous Peoples. These include the tribes of a) the Applays
and the Kankanaeys who dominate in the municipalities of Sabangan, Bauko, Tadian,
Besao, Sagada; b) the Bontoks, who control the municipalities of Sadanga and Bontoc; c)
Balangaos are found in Natonin and Barlig's other regions; and, d) the Baliwons/
Gaddangs, in Paracelis; and, e) Saliok and Maducayan, Natonin, are home to the
Madukayong. These tribes are much more subdivided into many ethnolinguistic
communities.
The Ha'ki in Natonin, for example, prefer to be identified separately from the
Balangao; the Kadaclan residents of Barlig, on the other hand, prefer the name
Kachakran over Balangao; the residents of the Lias community, prefer the name
iLias/iChangyasan over Balangao; and the residents of Barlig proper, prefer the name
Fialikia. Some Aplay people have also started to look into who they are in order to
discover why they are different from the Kankanaey tribe despite being almost identical.

LESSON 3
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
I. Introduction
Everybody are all familiar with the term family, especially in the Cordillera, where
family ties are usually very strong. Families develop when two members of the opposite sex
known as husband and wife go into a partnership referred to as marriage, a bond that binds,
not just the two persons getting married, but also their families. In this lesson, you will be
looking into the educational and social institutions which consists of a group of people who
have come together for a common purpose. I hope that whatever major concepts chosen for
this lesson will spur you to do further study in the related links included in the context.

A social institution consists of a group of people who have come together for a
common purpose. They are a part of the social order of society, and they govern the
behavior and expectations of individuals.
Hinfiaruy/Sinbaey (Family). The senior family members in Barlig and the Aplays in
Sagada and Besao are required to teach the children the customary laws of the ili (place),
especially to make them aware of what is right and wrong, the punishments to be
incurred when a specific crime is committed, how properties are acquired, inherited, or
sold, as well as other regulations and standards of the ili, although some of these are
learned by the child through his interactions with other people and in public.
Hinpangapu or Sinpangapo. This consists of two or more families that are connected to
one another by consanguinity. However, it was difficult to determine the precise makeup
since as a family grows, it separates from its initial kinship group and establishes its
own. In other words, as children and grandkids are born into a family, the membership of
the kinship group changes.
Sasag-un/Sagogong: This refers to the direct neighbors.
Henpangili/Sinpangili. This refers to the whole community composed of different
families and clans.
They can also be categorized based on the type of settlement: in Tadian,
afong/inafong, dap-ay, and ebgan. The Ato, in Bontoc, also known as Dap-ay in the
western part of the province, strongly influences the sociopolitical landscape in other
localities, with the exception of the municipalities of Natonin, Barlig, and Paracelis. An
ato is a place where male community members sleep and where traditional rituals are
performed. As a social term, it designates a structured neighborhood association
connected by shared values and social responsibilities. However, it refers to the
institution where issues and concerns are discussed and choices are made in politics.
The council of elders makes legislation and intertribal agreements there as well.
 LESSON 4
MUSIC, GAMES, ORAL LITERATURE, SPORTS, AND DANCES
I. Introduction
One of the principal aspects of studying one’s cultural heritage is exploring the
indigenous music, games oral literature, sports, and dances. It is so important that in some
cases the culture of the people is identified by its indigenous arts and culture and named as
such. For instance, the ethno-linguistic groups in Mountain Province discussed in the
previous lesson are identified and named by their language, arts, and culture. In this unit,
we shall be looking at the role of the indigenous arts and culture of Mountain Province in
cultural formation and transmission.

In recent years, indigenous music and arts have continued to draw more attention
than it did before. Because of the many uses for indigenous music and the arts and the
capacity of musical and artistic elements to be adapted from one culture to another
thanks to advancements in production and transmission technologies, there is a greater
understanding of and tolerance for music and the arts from other cultural contexts.
According to the varied musical views, different people and individuals may have distinct
meanings for different indigenous musical genres.
In musical settings, musical instruments provide acoustic support for singing as well
as rhythmic cues for dancing or other movement. Additionally, some musical instruments
mimic spoken words with their rhythms or tones, acting as speech substitutes.
Indigenous games on the other hand, that have been handed down through the
centuries and are often played with natural objects or instruments are known as
indigenous games in Mountain Province.
The indigenous literature of Mountain Province is typically thought of as a method of
expression where concepts of regional and global interests are addressed. Poetry,
romance, history, biographies, essays, and other types of writing are used to present it. It
designates a piece of writing that addresses a specific topic.

UNIT 2
Worldview

Overview
The people of Mountain Province have sets of philosophies and moral principles that
keep them united. These philosophies are based on their worldviews and their interactions
with nature. The practices are passed from one generation to another, making it live and
sound until today. Exploring the philosophies and moral principles of Mountain Province
help connect younger generations with their cultural heritage. These principles serve as a
powerful tool for promoting unity and cooperation among indigenous communities of the
province. Furthermore, these principles promote a sense of respect and reverence for the
elders and traditional knowledge.

Lesson 1
Cosmology, Values, and Spirituality, Healing, Rituals

I. Introduction
Just like other ethnolinguistic groups in the Cordillera, the people of Mountain
Province have a rich culture and a strong sense of communalism. They share a deep
connection with their community. Through their cultural practices, we can better
understand how they value this togetherness. In this lesson, students will learn about
cosmology, the values that everyone in Mountain Province shares, spirituality, general ways
of healing and dealing with death, and the rituals that are done at different times.

Cosmology
 The mountaineers are using cosmology as reference to the activities they are doing,
especially in agriculture. Among the activities that are aligned to lunar and solar events are
presented as follows:
Planting Season. The agricultural cycle in Mountain Province is ranged in the phase
of the moon. For the Bontok people, they believe that planting of rice should be done when
the moon is small (waxing crescent). The same as through with the putting of fertilizers on
the planted rice, it should be during the waning crescent so that the plant will produce a god
harvest.
In Barangay Gueday in the municipality of Besao, the farmers prepare their fields for
the planting season if the sun beam is parallel to their stone calendar called Amboan-Bato.
The stone calendar is located at the Dap-ay Awaw. This phenomenon happens on the 3oth of
September of the year that signals the season to sow the rice. As part of the celebration, the
community members pound glutenous rice and cook Linapet, an indigenous rice cake shared
to friends and neighbors. For additional information, you can read the article below:
Additional Reading: http://macrocosm-magbook.blogspot.com/2009/06/secrets-of-
calendar-stone-of-besao.html
Sapata. Sapata is a ritual performed for the accused persons in a crime or violation
will take oath exposing their innocence. This activity is usually done during sunrise when
the sun is about to cast beams into the land where the sapata is taking place.

Values
Mountain Province, as a cultural community, is rich with values and moral principles.
Among the prominent values are the observance of Inayan or Lawa, the concept of Nga-ag,
and Binnadang or Og-ogfo.

1. Inayan or Lawa, Paniyew, Laton. There is no equivalent term of Inayan or Lawa in

the English language but it generally connotes taboo or something that is
forbidden. Mountaineers from the Western part of Mountain Province say Inayan or
Paniyew while the Bontoc people say Lawa. Nonetheless, the terms refer to holding
back or stopping someone from acting in an unpleasant manner toward other
people or things, living or not. Bengwayan (2019) posited that inayan embodies all
virtues and morals of tribal members-humility, truthfulness, fidelity, honesty, and
commitment among others. This implies that the terminologies convey a discourse
of deep ideas about the indigenous people's moral context, which is to uphold
goodness and do good to others.
William Henry Scott’s publication of A Vocabulary of the Sagada Igorot Dialect (1957)
registered two meanings for the word inayan, namely:
i. to hold somebody back, prevent from doing, dissuade;
ii. a mild expression like “shucks”
The two meanings present the word as an ordinary verb and an exclamation. However,
a deeper investigation of the presence of the word in the Kankanaey language reveals
that it is an essential signifier of a deeply-seated ethical concept in Kankanaey culture,
namely the fear of a supreme deity, called Kabunian, or God, which forewarns or
dissuades one from doing anything or harmful to others.

2. Concept of Nga-ag (good discernment). Nga-ag is a more specific aspect of Inayan or

Lawa. It is more used to guide people to discern, to speak good of others and to
choose to act properly. One would usually say “Nga-ag man” which literally means
‘That is bad/wrong’. Holding to this concept would allow respect to prevail over a
brewing negative intention, whether it is to be done or said yet.
3. Binnadang or Og-ogfo. This refers to the concept of cooperation in helping one
another in the locality. Binnadang or Og-ogfo has been widely used to define the
value of working together to achieve something or to accomplish a task. Today, this
concept is usually observed when the flooring of a house is being concreted.
Neighbors, friends and relatives gather together to help in cooking food, carrying of
aggregates and cements, and in mixing and pouring of the concrete. This practice is
also evident during the planting and harvesting of rice when neighbors come to help
 a household in their fieldwork and the group will help another family in the coming
days.

Spirituality
People of Mountain Province recognize that there is something greater than the self
and that there is a connection of all things to the spirits and the soul. They often consult
Lumawig, a supreme deity who taught the people of the practices which became traditions
and beliefs. The anito, or spirits of the deceased, are also believed to exist and must be
constantly comforted according to the Bontoc. Anyone can call on the anito, but when a
person is ill due to evil spirits, a seer (insup-ok) intervenes.
Until today, if one is still sick despite hospital check-ups, the family members consult
the elders on the possible practice to be performed to heal the sick person. A ritual is
performed where a chicken or pig is cooked and shared. Among the distinct practice for the
sick is walik. This is performed by an elderly woman who would go to the mountain to pray
and call for the spirits of the ancestors of the sick. The pictures below show the things
needed during the walik.

Common Practices
Even with modern medicine, rituals to cure illness are still being practiced by those
who still believe in the old tradition especially if medicines do not seem to cure the illness of
the person.

Common practices and beliefs in Mountain Provinces to heal the sick

From the practices of the people of Mountain province, it reflects their strong belief of
supernatural beings and the existence of a supreme being.
The sumusup-ok or man-ila. This is common in all municipalities. In English
translation, these are the “seers or mediums”, who will see and talk to the anitos of the
family of the sick person by doing some rituals.
Mangmang/pik-pik. It is a common practice in the municipalities of Mountain
Province, but they have different terms. This is usually observed for different occasions from
house blessings to celebrations, or to heal the sick or death. Other terms are used to refer to
the purpose of the mangmang (i.e. sangfo/ sangbo, dao-es/ chao-es, begnas/ fegnas/
vegnas).

Common practices and beliefs in Mountain Province on death of a person

Different rituals and practices are performed by the family members of the dead person
depending on the cause of death, social status, and age. The number of days of the wake
also vary in different municipalities depending on the practice of the community. Songs and
chants to be performed during the wake also depends on the age and social status. The
animal to be butchered may also vary from chicken, to pig, to carabao, or dog. As for the dog,
this may depend on the cause of death.
 Rituals

In each municipality of Mountain Province, the advice of elders is sought regarding the
rituals and practices that ensures the safety, peace and prosperity in the community. Among
are the following:

Rest day. This is common to some municipalities of Mountain Province

1. Tengaw (Rest Day). A rest day is observed in the community for cleansing, protection, to
give thanks or to give respect to the dead. For the Bontoc people, the rest day is termed as
tengaw while Sadanga people call it te-er.

Tengaw. Literally, tengaw is understood among the Bontok people as a rest day but it
is practiced according to purpose. Tengaw refers to the sacredness of the ritual carried out
by the elders, whether as a result of the interment of the deceased, adherence to the
agricultural calendar, or the simple fact that it is illegal for anyone to enter the fields,
according to Lafadchan (2019). A puchong (knotted leaves) is placed at the gates and exits of
the community to carry out this custom. Tengaw is typically performed to beg the gods for a
prosperous harvest and good health.
Te-er (rest day). The most significant Sadanga tradition is the enforcement of the te-er
(day of rest) and the village's closure to visitors. The ritual begins with the gathering of the
town's elders in the town square. The council negotiates with its members on whether or not
and when to close the community. Once a truce has been reached, the elders will drink their
traditional wine and one of them will make a public announcement that may be heard across
the entire village valley.
The tradition is made so that for a period of time, the Sadanga townsfolk can rest from
their traditional work, and can manage to converse and strengthen their bonds with each
other through public engagement with their neighbors. The next step after the
announcement is made is to establish the fayafuy (long tree stalks) at both sides of the road
entrance of the town. The establishment of the fayafuy directly puts the town closure in
effect, and thus, negates all visitors from visiting the town. The council of elders put a guard
at the town’s entrance and the fayafuy to protect the town from unwanted visitors. The
fayafuy is also the main symbol of the Sinadanga’s te-er. On the imposition of the fayafuy,
the people are usually seen within the place of public engagement. The fayafuy is
disestablished on a certain day and time as agreed upon by the council of elders.

2. Pa-ang (Ritual to ward-off negativity). Bontoc people perform pa-ang because they think it
keeps colds and flu out of the community. After a ritual at the ato, this is done in the form of
tengaw. Elders pierce the skull of a killed dog, like the Tocucan people do, and hang it at the
entrance of their barangay. This tells people not to go in or out of the community, so they
don't bring bad luck or take away good luck. Pa-ang is more of a tradition, but the dog's
skull is a sign of what is going on and warns people about it. In some barangays, the elders
don't kill a dog, but a chicken or pig instead. The goal is the same, though. People shouldn't
ignore how holy pa-ang is, because if they do, they will get hurt.

UNIT 3. TECHNOLOGICAL FEATURES

Overview
In this unit, the traditional technologies used in agriculture, crafts and resource
management are presented in Lesson 1. However, the other lessons exhibit discussions on
land, biodiversity and natural resources; and engineering and architecture in the olden
times.

Lesson 1. Symbols and Textiles, Arts and Crafts

I. Introduction
This lesson gives insights on the symbols and textiles, arts and crafts that exist
in Mountain Province. The designs used in weaving and tattooing are discussed in this
lesson. Several technologies used in agriculture and industries are also presented to
 provide learners on the materials being used by the people of Mountain Province in
growing their crops and in producing crafts.

Symbols and Textiles

Weaving Symbols
Just like other indigenous communities, the ethnolinguistic tribes in Mountain
Province are rich in textile designs. Napanoy (2019) posited in his research that matmata,
tiktiko, pagpag, tagtagkho, tufay, kalasag, and uweg are all patterns often used in Bontoc
backstrap weaving, especially the traditional lufid also known as pitay. The Bontoc people's
way of life, customs, and surroundings are all shown in these designs. You can refer to the
articles provided as additional readings for you the better understand the relation of symbols
in the textiles used in Mountain Province.
Additional readings:
Napanoy, J. (2019). Geometric Patterns in the Backstrap Weaving of Bontoc, Mountain
Province. International Journal of Advanced Research in IT and Engineering. Available
at https://garph.co.uk/IJARIE/June2019/G-2579.pdf
Gayagay, G. (2021). Geometric Designs in the Indigenous Attires of the Bontoc Tribe: An
Evidence of the “Ethnomathematics”. Available at
https://www.ijrdo.org/index.php/m/article/view/4114.
Tattoo Symbols
Tattooing is also a practice in Mountain Province. In the study of Kisofen (2022), there
are three classifications of the Bontoc fatek (tattoo) namely chaklag, pong-o and faytong. He
further discussed that the chaklag was a sign of power for a young man because it meant
he had passed the test to become an adult and was ready to be given his political, social,
economic, and religious rights in the community. It also represented bravery and manliness,
as tribal combat was a test of the Bontok man's bravery and virility. Only one man in Bontoc
is permitted to have this tattoo, as it is exclusive to the recipient of the award.
On the other hand, faytong refers to any facial tattoo and was a component of the
chaklag, but it was not a prevalent practice. It is also important to note that the faytong
tattoo closely resembles the moko face tattoo worn by Maori warriors (Aborigines of New
Zealand).
Finally, the pong-o refers to the tattoos for women that proves their femininity at the
time of puberty. It was also a type of cosmetics or body modification, as ladies with tattoos
were deemed attractive. Therefore, women received tattoos to improve their looks. Women got
tattoos on their arms so that they would have something lovely to show off when dancing the
sagni at feasts hosted by the ato.
Additional reading: Kisofen, A. (2022). Fatek (Tattoo): An Ethnic Bontoc Marker in the Northern
Philippines. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Sciences. Volume
VI, Issue VII. Available at https://www.rsisinternational.org/journals/ijriss/Digital-
Library/volume-6-issue-7/329-334.pdf.

Arts and Crafts

Agriculture is the main source of living in Mountain Province but they are also
creative and artistic as seen in their weaving and various crafts such as the jars, baskets and
other household items. The following discussions present the tools developed and used by
the people of Mountain Province.
Lingling-o. Used as an earing or necklace, this pendant or amulet is a sign of fertility with
out of gold or bronze. In the olden times, the kadangyan/kachangyan families are the ones
who use the lingling-o.
Sangi/Pasiking. Most of the municipalities of Mountain Province maximize the use of rattan.
They have their own design of the sangi/pasiking, known as a backpack with lid. It has
shoulder straps made of woven rattan too, allowing the user to carry a heavier load. Usually,
men use this kind of bag.
Khiyag. Made of rattan as well, the khiyag is a small square-shaped, basket-like craft
commonly used as a plate during the olden times. Until today, the khiyag is an important
possession for every family because it is used during rituals such as mang-mang.
Ullawan. Weaving is considered a craft. The ullawan is among the traditional tools used in
weaving and in craftworks. This is the frame which acts as a reel where the thread is wound
before it is starched. In the olden times, cooked rice was used to starch the thread. Upon
drying, the thread is again wound into a thread ball and is then loomed.
Rakem/Rekem/Lakem. Either way, this refers to a tool used to cut the grain stalks of rice
during harvest. It is known as the transverse knife or finger-bladed knife that is also used in
other parts of Southeast Asia for many centuries but this tool is still widely used in
Mountain Province up to date.
Sakhad. This is a farming tool used to further break the mud or soil during the plowing. It is
usually used by men to evenly spread the mud or soil and flatten the field bed before females
will plant rice seedlings into it. Sakhad or sagad are the names used to call this tool. This
tool is usually a long log with teeth that break chunks of mud. Today, people are using steel
material since it is lighter in weight than the log or wood.
Tsaneg. This is a flexible bamboo strip prepared by farmers before the harvest season. It is
used to tie the harvested rice into bundles. The procedure of preparing the tsaneg is called
uwas wherein a small curved knife is used to remove some parts of the bamboo until the
desired thinness of the bamboo fiber is achieved.
Parsi-it. The parsi-it is used to help farmers tighten the bamboo strip used in bundling the
rice harvested. This is simply made out of two pieces of wood with a snout that looks like a
plier. One end of the bamboo strip is held by the snout of the parsi-it while the other end is
held by the farmer’s hand.

It’s your turn!

Activity 1. Show and tell.
Instruction: Present to class your own drawing of one weaving design that is commonly used
in the textiles or woven artifacts produced in your place and give its description. Each
student is given a maximum of 2 minutes to present. In the description, mention the specific
municipality that uses the design and explain what the design represents. (10 points) Refer
to the scoring guide below:
a. Drawing (5 points) b. Ability to explain (5 points)
Note: The drawing can be posted on the wall of the classroom for all of the students to see
and appreciate. It can be removed during the next meeting period.
Activity 2. Index Pass (10 points)
Instruction: Ask the students to form a big circle and provide them with index cards. Ask
them to write one technology used in craftsmanship, farming, gardening or forestry
management. Ask the students to pass the index card following a clockwise direction in 5 or
10 counts. Then, the students will explain the use of the technology mentioned in the index
card they received. Refer to the scoring guide below:
a. Ability to explain (5 points) b. Relevance (5 points)

Lesson 2: Land and Biodiversity and Natural Resource Management

I. Introduction
In this lesson, the common practices on land use and management in
Mountain Province are discussed along with the indigenous biodiversity conservation
practices. Also, the communal land ownership and corporate land ownership practices
are presented to give students ideas on how ownership of land is acquired following
 the tradition. The traditional water management practices are also tackled in this
lesson to allow students to gain insights on the traditional means of
June Prill Brett (1997) identifies two classifications of land tenure system in the
Cordilleras. One is the communal land which is owned by the community and the
indigenous corporate land owned by a descent group. However, the plants and animals in
these lands are preserved through several indigenous practices.

Land Use and Management

Communal land ownership
Mendoza and Brett (n.d.) define communal ownership as “a property system exercised
by indigenous corporate groups such as clans or by the ili over swidden lands, forests, and
pasteur lands. The communal lands are typically situated far from the ili (settlements) but
within the village boundary. It is a common forest land where community or ato members
may get lumber, firewood, and wild game in accordance to customary laws. Fines are
imposed when the resources taken from the forest are sold or brought out of the community.
Different places in Mountain Province have different terms for the communal land. The
Cordillera Green Network (2007) notes that in Western Mountain Province, the people use
the terms lakon, saguday, and batangan. Lakon is a land exclusively owned by a clan, ato, or
the community and have permanent boundaries. Saguday is the forest in open land,
kaingin, or unproductive crop land. Saguday is synonymously used with lakon at the early
stage of ownership and becomes saguday when passed on to collective heirs. Batangan
refers to the pine forests that are naturally made or created by man. Among the iBesao, the
batangan is a source of wood, water, and food for the entire village. Timbers for the
construction of a house or granary may be obtained from the batangan but on a limited
amount, such as two or three pine trees. The batangan is also the source of firewoods for
family use, and especially for rituals such as marriages deaths, and other significant
activities (Tauli, 2019).

Corporate land ownership

The classification of land tenure system in the Cordillera identified by June Prill Brett
(1997) is the corporate lawn ownership or the tayan system. The process of communal land
ownership, according to Goda (2001), involves determining the lineal descent (sinpangapo).
Water Resources Management
Water security is a necessity in all communities. In Mountain Province, the Chico
River is a source of water for irrigation and domestic use for municipalities like Bontoc,
Sabangan and Sadanga. Apart from the rivers, the streams, creeks and falls are also sources
of water. The following are some of the sources of water for domestic and agricultural use:
Tuchey/ Inudey/ Tudey. The tuchey as called by the Bontok people or referred to as
inudey by the people in Tadian or tudey as called by other Mountain Province communities,
are communal water sources. In the olden times, people fetch water from the inudey, tuchey
or tudey for household use. Individuals bring their own containers to the water source to
fetch. They can also wash dishes and take baths there. These streams require rituals to
ensure that water will be supplied consistently.
Ubbog. In other parts of Mountain Province, they get water from the ubbog which is a
shallow well that is dug to collect water from an underground spring. If the ubbog is small,
people cover it with banana leaves in order to keep the dirt from falling into the water. The
water is usually used for drinking or cooking.
Manbala. This is a natural spring from underground. They are usually found at the
foot or side of a mountain. If the manbala is at the foot of the mountain, people dig around it
to form a sort of a well so that water will be collected. Then stones are put around the well as
markers. If the manbala is at the side of the mountain, a bamboo is used for the water to
pass through. Water from the manbala is clean thus, people drink directly from it.
 The people of Mountain Province also have management styles in managing the water
sources. Among them are the following:
Oblis System. For irrigations, the Bontok people observe the oblis system where field
owners take turns in watching over the flow of water until all fields are watered well. The
water source for irrigation is usually coming from the river through the lenged (a small dam
at the river side which is considered as the mouth of the irrigation) or the streams if the
fields are near the mountain.
Waned. This refers to the activity where residents will gather to check on damaged
pipelines used for household water use. More often, waned is the activity done to repair
damaged pipelines.
Mananom. This activity is done by farmers to clean the irrigation for the water to flow
into the fields. It can be done individually or by group called oblis system. This activity is
done to ensure water supply for the fields.
Payas. This is a water irrigation system done by the people in the barangays of
Tadian. They manually construct narrow paths for the water from the ketang or ginawang
(creek or river) to irrigate the rice fields. Since the payas is a temporary solution to irrigate
the fields, they have to be checked regularly since they could be damaged by the flowing
water. Thus, the farmers use uknit (clay) and stones to ensure that the flowing water will not
damage it. During the rainy seasons, however, the payas is usually damaged because of the
volume of water flowing through it.
Indigenous Biodiversity Conservation Practices
The organization responsible for preserving and guaranteeing the longevity of forest
resources in the lakon, saguday, or batangan system is known as the dap-ay. To control
activities relating to the application of the law of the forest, the imposition of fines for
violations, and the ownership, exploitation, and management of forests, it enacts customary
laws, including indigenous forest codes.
In Bontoc, the cutting of saplings is not allowed. If one goes to the mountains to
gather firewood, he should spare the young trees and cut the branches of old trees instead.
The saplings are call fer-fer in Bontoc.
On the other hand, a person who burns the mountain, whether intentional or
accidental, is penalized in the community. Usually, the penalty for burning the mountain is a
pig which is to be used in a ritual at the ato.

It’s your turn!

Activity 1. Short reflection (15 points)
Instruction: Instruct the students to interview elders about indigenous practices in
conserving biodiversity. During the next meeting, ask the students to read to the class their
learnings and realizations from their interview. Refer to the scoring guide below:
a. Relevance of the topic (5 points) b. Content (5 points) c. Delivery (5
points)

Lesson 3: Engineering and Architecture

Indigenous House
The traditional Bontoc house was made of wood or cogon grass. The roof had A-
shaped or pyramid-shaped with only one bedroom. Casumpang (2017) explained that the
traditional Bontoc house was a one-room with a small rectangular bedroom on one corner of
the house barely enough for a couple and a baby to sleep huddled tightly with each other.
Besides, the establishment of formal schools by American missionaries led the boys to
abandon the ato since formal education is now accessible through public and private
schools.
Additional reading: https://www.slideshare.net/CarlaFaner/architecture-in-bontoc?
from_action=save
Other architectural landmarks
Ato/Dap-ay. The dap-ay was a renowned formal institution of scholarship, leadership,
law, and justice in earlier times. It served as the location of the government and the
ceremonies that protected the people's spirituality, identity, and harmony. There are still
Dap-ays that function in this way. Although the rituals, conversations, and decisions made
during the dap-ay are the more significant elements, the circular arrangement of the stones
is sometimes seen as the symbol of the dap-ay.
Riprap construction. Season is considered in the construction of riprap in Mountain
Province. Indigenous people in the olden times mostly consider the season for riprapping to
contribute in the attainment of a good quality output. In the Western and Eastern part of
Mountain Province, riprap construction is best suited during wet season. Indeed, moderate
wet earth meets its maximum limit of compactness when pounded which is necessary in
riprap construction.
In the Municipality of Sabangan, best riprap construction is done during or after rainy
season. Moreover, one indigenous way for them to come up with a good quality of work is
that they usually construct a riprap which is not more than 1 meter in height and then they
continue after 3 or more months to harden the earth or they will continue it when the next
rainy season approaches.
Another technique that is applied in Barlig and Natonin is to construct a riprap in dry
season if the site of foundation for riprap is a waterbed. The respondents from these
particular municipalities said that the earth already contains the minimum amount of
moisture needed for construction. Also, the western part stressed that construction begins
between summer and the rainy season. During this season, the soil can be compressed in its
maximum limit

UNIT 4
Political Feature
Overview
The political features of any indigenous community have unique political structures
that reflect their history, cultures, and values. The political structures involve and recognize
the traditional leaders, elders, and spiritual authorities in decision-making. In Mountain
Province, all municipalities still involve traditional leaders and elders since they provide
important insights into the decision-making process. Also, most activities involve ceremonies
and other rituals that help to build consensus and address conflicts. As observed in
Mountain Province, like in other indigenous communities, they prioritize collective well-being
and decision-making over individual rights and freedoms, which leads to a greater emphasis
on communal ownership of land and resources and a stronger commitment to promoting the
common good. This practice helps preserve cultural traditions and knowledge, reflecting the
community’s history and values.

Lesson 1
POLITICAL FEATURE
I. Introduction
Like other provinces of the Cordillera Administrative Region, Mountain Province still
retains the presence of the Council of Elders up to this time. Hence, it could be said that the
communities in Mountain Province are governed by the law and traditional institutions, as
well. They submit themselves to the rule of law while respecting the wisdom of the Council of
Elders.
Indigenous Governance and Laws
The socio-political institutions of Mountain Province do not align with Western
concepts of democracy and citizenship. However, underlying these local institutions and
practices are comparable indigenous values that shape their functioning. For instance, the
dap-ay (western part of Mountain Province) or ato/ator (ward) (Bontoc and Sadanga) and the
amam-a/panglakayen/tongtong (council of elders) incorporate democratic principles such as
consultation, participatory decision-making, consensus-building, representative government,
and a commitment to the common good. Similarly, concepts like simpangbon (in the case of
Sagada) (Carino, 1996) and umili and umato (in the case of Bontoc) embody the idea of
citizenship.
It should be noted that the indigenous elders are village or tribal leaders who are
regarded as the personification of the identity of specific indigenous peoples because they are
the moral guardians and repositories of knowledge of the community’s culture (CPA & AIPP,
2012). They comprise the Council of Elders.
The Council of Elders, also called Lupon di umili in some municipalities, make and
amend customary laws as they see fit, plan and declare the dates of agricultural activities,
and implements customary laws like the sapata (Cawed, 1972). They could restore peace in
the community, contribute to the healing of damaged relationships, and enhance the
governance and decision-making of the indigenous communities (Killip, 2021).
Additionally, oral tradition and customary law play a crucial role in establishing rules
for acceptable behavior, guiding the operation of the dap-ay, ato/ator, and decision-making
by the amam-a. These institutions coexist alongside local government structures that have
not been fully indigenized to operate within the context of customary laws. In the case of
Sagada, while the formal democratic and representative government may not be present and
a formal conception of citizenship may be absent, the village democracy demonstrated by the
dap-ay, and amam-a, along with the indigenous concept of citizenship exemplified by
simpangbon, has persisted for centuries. These institutions, though less bureaucratic and
structured than formal democracy, have effectively sustained village life and contributed to
peace and social justice.

The Dap-ay/Ator/Ator
The dap-ay/ato/ator is a ward which is typically a large, open-air structure built with
indigenous materials such as wood and thatch. It often occupies a central location within the
community and serves as a focal point for various communal activities, including
ceremonies, rituals, meetings, discussions, and social gatherings.
In terms of governance, the ward plays a crucial role in facilitating community
decision-making processes. It serves as a venue where community members, including the
council of elders, come together to discuss important matters, resolve disputes, and make
collective decisions. The principles of consultation, participation, consensus-building, and a
commitment to the common good are often upheld within the dap-ay.
Furthermore, the ward also serves as a space for imparting traditional knowledge,
cultural practices, and oral history from elders to the younger generations. It is a place
where customs, values, and traditions are shared and preserved, contributing to the cultural
identity and cohesion of the community.
Overall, the dap-ay is a significant institution in Mountain Province, embodying the
social, political, and cultural life of indigenous communities. It serves as a space for
governance, community gatherings, and the transmission of cultural heritage, playing a vital
role in preserving the traditions and values of the people.
In this ward, the roles of men and women can vary depending on the specific cultural
practices and customs:
Council of Elders and Decision-Making: In many indigenous communities, the
council of elders, which predominantly consists of older men, plays a significant role
in this decision-making process. They provide guidance, wisdom, and expertise based
on their experiences. However, the involvement of women as respected elders and
 advisors can also be observed in some communities, highlighting their valuable
contributions to the decision-making process.
Ceremonial Roles: Both men and women have important roles in traditional
ceremonies and rituals conducted within the ward. For instance, men may lead
certain rituals or perform specific dances, representing aspects of masculinity,
strength, and protection. At the same time, women often have roles that emphasize
their nurturing and spiritual significance, such as participating in sacred chants,
offering prayers, or performing dances that depict femininity, fertility, and ancestral
connections.
Cultural Transmission: The ward serves as a space for cultural transmission,
where knowledge, traditions, and customs are passed down from generation to
generation. Both men and women play crucial roles in preserving and transmitting
their respective cultural heritage. They contribute to the preservation of oral history,
storytelling, traditional practices, and artistic expressions that reflect the cultural
identity of the community.
Community Engagement and Participation: Men and women actively engage in
communal activities and gatherings. They participate in discussions, share their
perspectives, and contribute to decision-making processes. While specific roles and
responsibilities may differ, the overall goal is to ensure inclusivity, respect, and
collective participation.

Administration of Justice
The people of Mountain Province subscribe to the modern way of administering justice
where the intervention of the court and the rule of law are followed. However, some
communities have vestiges of traditional ways of administering justice. These are resorted to
ensure that the people will be conscious of their actions.
The Pechen or Peden system is a traditional peace pact system in Mountain Province
and holds significance in relation to its modern political landscape. While the modern
administrative structure has been established, the traditional political features, including the
Pechen or Peden system, continue to influence local governance and community dynamics.
This peace pact system is rooted in the cultural traditions and values of the ili. Based
on our participation, we observed that such a system reflects the desire for peaceful
coexistence, conflict resolution, and the preservation of cultural heritage. In the modern
political landscape, there is a growing recognition of the importance of cultural preservation
and autonomy. Efforts are made to integrate indigenous governance systems and practices
into local decision-making processes, allowing indigenous communities to maintain their
cultural identity while participating in the broader political framework.
Further, the Pechen or Peden system serves as a mechanism for resolving conflicts
and maintaining harmony within and between communities. In the modern political
landscape, where conflicts can arise from various sources such as resource management,
land disputes, or governance issues, the principles embedded in the traditional peace pact
system hold relevance. Local governments and authorities recognize the value of community-
based conflict resolution mechanisms and often work towards incorporating these traditional
practices alongside the legal framework.
For cases that are not settled the traditional way, they may be brought to the court by
the offended party. In the olden times, the suspects were maibatog (brought to the dap-ay or
ato or batog, a communal gathering place), and the community people were allowed to
witness the proceedings. The purpose of the gathering was to discuss the case and resolve it
in a manner where the parties involved are satisfied. At present, the victim may ibarangay
the suspect. Ibarangay refers to the act of bringing the case to the attention of the barangay
officials.
The Elders, also called panglakayen or amam-a, play a pivotal role in the community's
resolution and disposition of cases. They form the Council of Elders or lupon di umili. They
are chosen primarily for their knowledge of the culture of their place. Age is an advantage
but not the primary consideration. In the olden times, the final decision on cases rests on
them. This time, there are some communities that include the Indigenous People’s Member
Representative (IPMR), apart from the Council of Elders, when settling matters at the
barangay level.

REFERENCES AND LINKS

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