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 TION
NG,
UIPMENT,
ETHODS

• ROBERT L. PEURIFOY I CLIFFORD J. SCHEXNAYDER

ROBERT L. SCHMITT I AVIAD SHAPIRA
 About The Authors vii

International (Association for the Advancement of Cost Methods (2006, 2011), which was also translated to Chinese
Engineering), and educational member of the local and Portuguese. His research in construction engineering
chapter of Associated General Contractors of America. and management has focused on equipment planning,
selection, operation, productivity, and safety. He is the
Aviad Shapira is a Professor of Construction co-developer of an innovative crane-mounted video
Engineering and Management in the Faculty of Civil camera system that serves as an operator aid; this system
and Environmental Engineering at the Technion-Israel has been used on most of the high-rise building projects
Institute of Technology. He received his BSc, MSc, and built in Israel since 1998. Dr. Shapira has conducted
DSc degrees in Civil Engineering from the Technion. He his research in Israel, the United States, and Germany;
spent one year as a post-doctoral fellow at the University he is an avid visitor of construction sites all over the
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign under a grant from the world, where he likes to engage in discussions about
US Air Force. Over the years he was also a Visiting Pro- local construction equipment cultures. He is a Fellow
fessor at the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque of the American Society of Civil Engineers, an active
and at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Dr. Shapira member of Committee 347 Formwork for Concrete of
accrued his practical experience as a project engineer the American Concrete Institute, and the Chair of the
and project manager in a general contracting firm prior various formwork standardization committees of the
to pursuing an academic career. He has taught construc- Standard Institution of Israel. Dr. Shapira is the recipi-
tion equipment and formwork design in Israel and the ent of both the ASCE Construction Management Award
United States since 1985, and authored or co-authored and the ASCE Journal of Construction Engineering and
various texts addressing these subjects, including Management Best Paper Award. In 2009 he was recog-
Peurifoy's Construction Planning, Equipment, and nized by ENR as a Top-25 Newsmaker.
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Mass Diagram 77

Machines Make It Possible 1 Using the Mass Diagram 78
Structural Excavation 85
A New Construction Environment 1
Pricing Earthwork Operations 88
The History of Construction Equipment 3
Summary 91
The Construction Industry 10
Problems 91
Safety 11
Resources 94
The Contracting Environment 13
Website Resources 95
Planning Equipment Utilization 14
Summary 16
CHAPTER 4
Problems 16
Resources 17 Soil and Rock 96
Website Resources 17 Introduction 96
Glossary of Terms 97
CHAPTER 2 Soil and Rock Properties 97
Equipment Economics 19 COMPACTION SPECIFICATION AND

Important Questions 19 CONTROL 108

Equipment Records 20 Compaction Tests 109
The Rent Paid for the Use of Money 21 Soil Processing 114
Cost of Capital 27 Summary 119
Evaluating Investment Alternatives 28 Problems 119
Elements of Ownership Cost 30 Resources 121
Elements of Operating Cost 37 Website Resources 121
Cost for Bidding 42
Replacement Decisions 50
CHAPTER 5
Rent and Lease Considerations 51 Compaction and Stabilization
Summary 56 Equipment 122
Problems 57 Compaction of Soil and Rock 122
Resources 60 Glossary of Terms 123
Website Resources 60 Compacting Methods 124
Types of Compacting Equipment 125
CHAPTER 3 Intelligent Compaction 137
Planning for Earthwork Roller Production Estimating 138
Construction 61 Soil Stabilization 139
Planning 61 Stabilization of Soils with
Graphical Presentation of Earthwork 66 Lime 141
Earthwork Quantities 69 Stabilization of Soils with Cement 143

ix
X Contents

Summary 146 CHAPTER 8

Problems 147 Scrapers 224
Resources 148 General Information 224
Website Resources 148 Scraper Types 225
Scraper Operation 230
CHAPTER 6 Scraper Performance Charts 231
Mobile Equipment Power Scraper Production Cycle 234
Requirements 150 Scraper Production Estimating Format 235
General Information 150 Operational Considerations 248
Required Power 152 Scraper Safety 250
Available Power 158 Summary 250
Usable Power 164 Problems 251
Performance Charts 168 Resources 253
Summary 174 Website Resources 254
Problems 175
Resources 178 CHAPTER 9
Website Resources 178 Excavators 255
Hydraulic Excavators 255
CHAPTER 7 FRONT SHOVELS 259
Dozers and Graders 179 General Information 259
Introduction 179 HOES 266
PUSHING MATERIAL 185 General Information 266
General Information 185 LOADERS 275
Project Employment 190 General Information 275
Dozer Production Estimating 192 DRAGLINES AND CLAMSHELLS 285
Dozer Safety 199 General Information: Draglines
RIPPING ROCK 199 and Clamshells 285
Rippers 199 Draglines 285
Ripper Attachments 205 Clamshell Excavators 291
Ripping Production Estimates 207 ANCILLARY ExcA v A TORS 294
Graders 210 Backhoe-Loaders 294
General Information 210 Trench Safety 295
Grader Operations 214 GRADALLS 297
Time Estimates 216 General Information 297
Fine Grading Production 218 Safety 298
Grader GPS Control 218 Summary 298
Grader Safety 219 Problems 298
Summary 220 Resources 301
Problems 220 Website Resources 302
Resources 223
Website Resources 223
 Contents xi

CHAPTER 10 Commercial Explosives 376

Trucks and Hauling Equipment 303 ANFO 380
Trucks 303 Primers and Boosters 382
Rigid-Frame Rear-Dump Trucks 305 Initiating Systems 384
Articulated Rear-Dump Trucks 306 Rock Fragmentation 386
Tractors with Bottom-Dump or Side-Dump Blast Design 387
Trailers 307 Powder Factor 400
Capacities of Trucks and Hauling Trench Rock 402
Equipment 308 Breakage Control Techniques 402
Truck Size Affects Productivity 310 Vibration 405
Calculating Truck Productivity 311 Safety 407
Production Issues 318 Summary 409
Tires 319 Problems 409
Truck Performance Calculations 321 Resources 412
Truck Safety 327 Website Resources 413
Summary 328
Problems 328 CHAPTER 13
Resources 330 Aggregate Production 414
Website Resources 331 Introduction 414
PARTICLE SIZE REDUCTION 416
CHAPTER 11 General Information 416
Drilling Rock and Earth 332 Jaw Crushers 419
Introduction 332 Gyratory Crushers 424
Glossary of Drilling Terms 334 Roll Crushers 430
Drill Bits 336 Impact Crushers 433
Rock Drills 337 Special Aggregate Processing Units 437
Drilling Methods and Production 343 Feeders 437
Estimating Drilling Production 348 Surge Piles 439
Drilling Soil 356 Crushing Equipment Selection 441
Removal of Cuttings 358 SEPARATION INTO PARTICLE SIZE
Trenchless Technology 359 RANGES 443
Drilling Design and Guidance Systems 365 Scalping Crushed Stone 443
Safety 367 Screening Aggregate 445
Summary 368 OTHER AGGREGATE PROCESSING ISSUES 451
Problems 369 Belts 451
Resources 371 Log Washers 451
Website Resources 372 Segregation 452
Safety 454
CHAPTER 12 Summary 455
Blasting Rock 373 Problems 455
Resources 457
Blasting 373
Website Resources 458
Glossary of Blasting Terms 375
xii Contents

CHAPTER 14 Manual or Motor-Propelled Buggies 533

Asphalt Mix Production Chutes and Drop Pipes 533
and Placement 459 Belt Conveyors 533
Concrete Pumps 534
Introduction 459
CONSOLIDATING AND FINISHING 545
Glossary of Asphalt Terms 460
Consolidating Concrete 545
Structure of Asphalt Pavements 462
Finishing and Curing Concrete 547
Flexible Pavements 464
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS 550
Asphalt Concrete 471
Slipform Paving 550
ASPHALT PLANTS 472
Paving Production 558
General Operation 472
ADDITIONAL APPLICATIONS AND
Batch Plants 472
CONSIDERATIONS 560
Drum Mix Plants 479
Placing Concrete in Cold Weather 560
Dust Collectors 482
Placing Concrete in Hot Weather 561
Asphalt Storage and Heating 483
SAFETY 562
Reclaiming and Recycling 484
Pumping Concrete 562
PA YING EQUIPMENT 486
Summary 563
Sweeper 486
Problems 564
Asphalt Distributors 487
Resources 566
Haul Trucks 490
Website Resources 567
Asphalt Pavers 492
Compaction Equipment 499
CHAPTER 16
Safety 505
Trimmers 506 Cranes 569
Summary 507 Major Crane Types 569
Problems 508 MOBILE CRANES 571
Resources 510 Lattice-Boom Crawler Cranes 571
Website Resources 510 Telescoping-Boom Truck Cranes 573
Lattice-Boom Truck Cranes 574
CHAPTER 15 Rough-Terrain Cranes 575
Concrete and Concrete All-Terrain Cranes 576
Equipment 512 Other Mobile Crane Types 577
Lifting Capacities of Cranes 583
Introduction 512
Rated Loads for Lattice- and Telescoping-Boom
CONCRETE 514
Cranes 585
Fresh Concrete 514
Working Ranges of Cranes 588
Batching Concrete Materials 515
TOWER CRANES 589
MIXING CONCRETE 520
Classification 589
Concrete Mixing Techniques 520
Operation 593
Ready-Mixed Concrete 526
Tower Crane Selection 603
Central-Mixed Concrete 529
Rated Loads for Tower Cranes 605
PLACING CONCRETE 531
RIGGING 608
Buckets 531
Rigging Basics 608
 Contents xiii

Slings 611 Gas Laws 662

SAFETY 613 Glossary of Air Compressor Terms 663
Crane Accidents 613 Air Compressors 664
Safety Plans and Programs 615 Compressed-Air Distribution System 666
Zones of Responsibility 616 Diversity Factor 672
Summary 617 Safety 673
Problems 618 EQUIPMENT FOR PUMPING WATER 675
Resources 619 Introduction 675
Website Resources 621 Glossary of Pumping Terms 675
Classification of Pumps 676
CHAPTER 17 Centrifugal Pumps 677
Piles and Pile-Driving Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipe 683
Equipment 622 Rubber Hose 684
Introduction 622 Selecting a Pump 685
Glossary of Terms 622 Wellpoint Systems 687
PILE TYPES 624 Deep Wells 689
Classifications of Piles 624 Summary 690
Timber Piles 625 Problems 691
Concrete Piles 626 Resources 693
Steel Piles 631 Website Resources 694
Sheet Piles 633
DRIVING PILES 636
CHAPTER 19
The Resistance of Piles to Penetration 636 Planning for Building
Site Investigation and Test Pile Program 638 Construction 695
Pile Hammers 639 Introduction 695
Supporting and Positioning Piles During Site Layout 698
Driving 649 Delivery of Structural Components 704
Jetting Piles 651 Steel Erection 705
Spudding and Preaugering 651 Tilt-Up Construction 707
Hammer Selection 652 LIFTING AND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT 709
Pile-Driving Safety 655 Cranes 709
Summary 656 Aerial Lift Platforms 712
Problems 656 Integrated Tool Carriers 715
Resources 657 Telescopic Handlers/Forklifts 716
Website Resources 657 Generators 718
Portable Light Towers 720
CHAPTER 18 Portable Welding Equipment 720
Air Compressors and Pumps 658 CONTROL OF CONSTRUCTION NUISANCES 724
Support Equipment 658 Construction Noise 725
COMPRESSED AIR 659 Noise Mitigation 726
Introduction 659 Lighting 729
Glossary of Gas Law Terms 660 Dust 730
xiv Contents

Vibration 731 APPENDIX A

Summary 731 Alphabetical List of Units
Problems 732 with Their SI Names and
Resources 733 Conversion Factors 783
Website Resources 735
APPENDIX B
CHAPTER 20
Selected English-to-SI Conversion
Forming Systems 736 Factors 785
Classification 736
Formwork and The Project Engineer 738
Formwork Design 739
APPENDIX C
Formwork Economics 743 Selected U.S. Customary (English)
Vertical Systems 750 Unit Equivalents 787
Horizontal Systems 762
Combined Vertical and Horizontal Systems 766 APPENDIX D
Shoring Towers 770 Selected Metric Unit
Safety 777 Equivalents 789
Summary 778
Problems 779
Resources 780 Index 791
Website Resources 781

Web resources to accompany the book can be downloaded from www.mhprofessional.com/

peurifoy9E.
 PREFACE

Technologies used across all phases of the constructed complete the tasks identified during project planning.
project life cycle continue to evolve at an ever increas- This text describes the methods used to investigate
ing rate. Existing and emerging technologies can assist equipment productivity and it provides equipment
with overall project planning, design, construction, application understanding. Proficiency in analysis and
and maintenance activities by providing efficient data familiarity with appropriate applications are critically
retrieval and information in visual formats. Construc- important to those wishing to compete in the acceler-
tion equipment telematics now provide operators and ated project environment.
managers with real-time equipment positioning, pres- A machine is economical only if used in the
sure sensing, fuel rate consumption, automated path proper manner and in the environment in which it has
guidance, alerts, and other specific measures to opti- the mechanical capabilities to function effectively.
mize machine performance. Technology planning tools greatly enhance our ability
Owners play a vital role in seeking new ways to to formulate equipment planning and construction deci-
accelerate project delivery and this edition of the text sions, but to use the tools to an advantage, an equip-
addresses the key to successful execution of an accel- ment planner must have an understanding of individual
eration effort-planning. The Critical Path Method machine capabilities and how to properly apply those
(CPM) and the Project Evaluation and Review Tech- capabilities to construction challenges.
nique (PERT), planning tools developed in the late This ninth edition follows in the tradition estab-
1950s, are still the mainstays for project scheduling. lished by Robert L. Peurifoy over 60 years ago, and like
Building Information Modeling (BIM), an idea dat- the previous eight editions, provides the reader with
ing from the 1970s, did not receive wide acceptance the fundamentals of machine selection and production
until 2002 but is now commonly used to support estimating in a logical, simple, and concise format.
both building and infrastructure construction. CPM With a grounding in these fundamentals, the engineer/
and PERT are scheduling algorithms while BIM is a constructor is better prepared to evaluate economic
digital representation of the building process. Lidar equipment application options.
(light and radar) sensing technology, sometimes written Significant changes have been made to this edition.
LIDAR or LiDAR, now allows the engineer to rapidly The construction market place has experienced a shift
create a DTM (Digital Terrain Model) of a project in project types, with more work involving reconstruc-
site. This model of the existing site can be overlaid tion of aging infrastructure and more projects being
with the proposed project grading. Together, the DTM executed in congested urban environments. Equipment
and the design drawing provide another planning manufacturers have responded to these market dynam-
support tool. There is still one other new piece of ics with new machines and with changes to existing
equipment to support planning, or more specifically machines. Contracts for projects in urban environments
surveying and machine guidance, the Unmanned continue to require more intense planning in order
Aerial Vehicle (UAV) or what is commonly called to accommodate restrictive regulations concerning
a drone. UAVs have the potential to become tools construction nuisances particularly vibrations, light,
as important as individual pieces of yellow iron and noise. Additionally, new government regulations
because they can provide the engineer accurate data designed to protect the environment, particularly emis-
or imaging almost instantaneously. They can be used sion rules, have caused equipment manufacturers to
to inventory jobsite materials and equipment, and to develop a new generation of engines and seek ways to
monitor site safety. reduce fuel usage. While energy savings yield fuel cost
In spite of the aforementioned technologies, it is savings, the effect of these engine modifications on
still necessary to understand machine capability and to maintenance costs is still a question. Because of these
compute the most economical grouping of machines to market changes this text includes additional material

xv
xvi Preface

about small machines used on urban projects and for at CONEXPO-CON/AGG sponsored by the Associa-
building construction. tion of Equipment Manufacturers in Las Vegas and at
All chapters have undergone revision, ranging from the BAUMA in Germany. Previous editions of the text
simple clarification to major modifications, depending are now available in English, Chinese, and Portuguese.
on the need to improve organization and presentation of While the book is structured primarily as a text-
concepts. Many photographs in the chapters have been book for a college-level construction equipment course,
updated to illustrate the latest equipment and methods, it continues to enjoy wide use as a practical reference
and more pictures of operating equipment have been by construction professionals. The use of examples
used in this edition. Safety discussions are again pre- to reinforce the concepts through application has
sented in each of the chapters dealing with machine or been continued. Based on professional practice, we
formwork use. have tried to present standard formats for analyz-
This new text has 20 chapters. Chapter 11 "Finish ing production. Many companies use such formats
Equipment" of the eighth edition has been eliminated to avoid errors when estimating production during
with the essential material moved to other chapters. The the fast-paced efforts required for bid preparation.
grader information is in the "Dozers and Graders" chap- We are deeply grateful to the many individuals and
ter, gradalls are discussed in the "Excavators" chapter, firms who have supplied information and illustrations.
and trimmers moved to the "Asphalt Mix Production and Mr. Scott Sanders at Manitowoc Cranes has always
Placement" chapter. While dozers are still used as high made himself available to discuss crane developments
production machines on some projects, it is more common and we owe him a special thanks for his guidance. To
to find them in support roles. Therefore, the "Dozers and Mr. Aaron Cohen, CPC, AGC Lecturer, in the Del E.
Graders" chapter has been modified accordingly. Many of Webb School of Construction at Arizona State Univer-
the details concerning dragline and clamshell excavators sity we offer our sincere thanks for his insightful com-
have been condensed because of the specialized nature of ments. His help with the development and testing of the
their employment. To reduce environmental harm utility chapter problems in his construction equipment classes
providers have begun building wind farms. The erection has added to the quality of this text. However, we take
of large wind turbines for generation of electricity has full responsibility for all content.
initiated new models of lifting equipment. Such machine Most importantly we express our sincere appre-
advances are discussed in the "Cranes" chapter. ciation and love for our wives, Judy, Lisa, and Reuma,
Equipment manufacturers are making greater use of who proofread too many manuscript pages, kept us
the Internet as a means of making machine data and gen- healthy, and who otherwise got pushed farther into the
eral information available. Therefore, this text follows exciting world of construction equipment than they
the practice of the eighth edition by calling attention to probably wanted. Without their support this text would
Web resources. Problems at the end of each chapter rein- not be a reality.
force the concepts and an electronic solution for most We solicit comments on the edition.
problems has been developed in spreadsheet format. Cliff Schexnayder
These solutions and individual chapter Powerpoint™ Del E. Webb School of Construction
presentations are available as Web-based supplements. Tempe, Arizana
Videos of select equipment in both English audio and
Spanish subtitle have been exclusively developed to Robert Schmitt
enhance delivery of textbook content. University of Wisconsin-Platteville
Construction equipment is manufactured and used Platteville, Wisconsin
globally, and we continue to search worldwide for the A viad Shapira
latest ideas and trends in machine application and tech- Technion-Israel Institute of Technology
nology. Every three years the authors are participants Haifa, Israel
 Construction Planning,
Equipment, and Methods
This page intentionally left blank
 List of Abbreviations
AAI average annual investment CII Construction Industry Institute
AASHTO American Association of State CPB Contractors Pump Bureau
Highway and Transportation Officials CPMB Concrete Plant Manufacturers Bureau
AC alternating current cy cubic yards
AC and AR asphalt grade designations dB decibel
ACI American Concrete Institute dBA A-weighted decibels
ACPA American Concrete Pumping DRI drilling rate index
Association
EVW empty vehicle weight
ADT articulated dump truck
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
AED Associated Equipment Distributors,
FOG fuel, oil, grease
Inc.
fpm feet per minute
AEM Association of Equipment
Manufacturers fps feet per second
AGC Associated General Contractors of ft feet
America, The ft-lb foot-pound
AISC American Institute of Steel fwhp flywheel horsepower
Construction fwhp-hr flywheel horsepower hour
ANFO ammonium nitrate and fuel oil mixture g acceleration of gravity
ANSI American National Standards Institute GA grade assistance
ASA American Shotcrete Association GC General Contractor
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers glee grams per cubic centimeter
ASME American Society of Mechanical gph gallons per hour
Engineers
gpm gallons per minute
ASSE American Society of Safety Engineers
GPS global positioning system
ASTM ASTM International (formerly
American Society for Testing and GR grade resistance
Materials) GVW gross vehicle weight
AWPA American Wood Protection hr hours
Association Hz hertz
bey bank cubic yards I.D. inside diameter
bhp belt or brake horsepower IME Institute of Makers of Explosives, The
BV book value in. Hg inches of mercury
ccy compacted cubic yards ISEE International Society of Explosives
CECE Committee on European Construction Engineers, The
Equipment ISO International Organization for
cf cubic feet Standardization
cfm cubic feet per minute kip 1,000 lb
kN kilonewton RAP reclaimed asphalt pavement
kPa kilopascals RCC roller-compacted concrete
ksi kips per square inch rev. revolutions
lb/sy-in pounds per square yard-inch ROPS rollover protective structure
LCD liquid crystal device (standards)
Icy loose cubic yard RR rolling resistance
If linear foot SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
LGP low ground pressure sec second
LL liquid limit sf square foot
MARR minimum attractive rate of return SG specific gravity
mph miles per hour SG, specific gravity of explosive
ms millisecond SG, specific gravity of rock
NAPA National Asphalt Pavement SPCAF single payment compound amount
Association factor
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational sqm square meter
Safety and Health SR stiffness ratio
NIST National Institute of Standards sta. station
NPW net present worth sta.-yd station-yards
NRMCA National Ready Mixed Concrete s½, relative bulk strength compared to
Association ANFO = 100
NVW net vehicle weight sy square yards
O&O ownership and operating (cost) TMPH ton-miles per hour
O.D. outside diameter TNT trinitroluene or trinitrotoluol
OMC optimum moisture content tph tons per hour
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Act TR total resistance
(Administration) TRB Transportation Research Board
PCA Portland Cement Association USCAF uniform series, compound amount
pcf pounds per cubic foot factor
PCI Prestressed Concrete Institute USCRF uniform series, capital recovery
PCSA Power Crane and Shovel Association factor
pen penetration grade measurement unit USPWF uniform series, present worth factor
PETN pentaerythritol tetranitrate USSFF uniform series, sinking fund factor
PI plasticity index VHN Vickers hardness number
PL plastic limit VHNR Vickers hardness number rock
PPV peak particle velocity vpm vibrations per minute
psf pounds per square foot of pressure WF wide flange
psi pounds per square inch of pressure XL extralong
PWCAF present worth compound amount yd yard
factor yr year
 C H A T E R

Machines Make
It Possible
Construction is the transformation of a design into a useful structure. This
transformation is accomplished by men and women directing the employment of
machines. The proper application of machines can prudently convert an
engineer's plan into reality. Machines continually evolve to meet project
requirements. Today, projects have become more constricted and as a result it is
necessary to make machine application decisions only after visualizing what may
not be apparent without careful attention to the environment. This book describes
the fundamental concepts of machine utilization. It explains how to economically
match machine capability to specific project conditions. With the expanded array
of useful machines, it is important to have both a knowledge of construction
methods and equipment economics.

A NEW CONSTRUCTION ENVIRONMENT

There is an ongoing change in project delivery methods, with owners seek-
ing ways to accelerate project deliver while shifting risk and financing to the
contractor. This is especially true in the case of large/complex infrastructure
projects. While the majority of projects are still let using the Design-Bid-
Build (DBB) method, owners are letting their large projects using Design-
Build (DB) or Public-Private Partnership (P3s or PPP) methods. As a result
the Design-Build Institute of America (DBIA) was formed in 1993. By 2010
the design-build contracting method was used on about 40% of non-residential
construction projects in the United States. In 2014 alone public-private financ-
ing for transportation, energy, and water infrastructure projects in emerging
economies around the world amounted to $107.5 billion.
These changes in contracting methods are forcing project planners to be supe-
rior critical thinkers. Critical thinking about planning is the key element leading to
successful project execution. Planning must include detailed analyses of equipment
utilization with consideration for the physical constraints of a project site, impacts

1
2 Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods

to the surrounding community, sustainability requirements, and the skill level

of available labor. Additionally, backup plans must exist for possible disruptive
events-weather or accidents. Success in the execution of construction endeavors
requires imagination and a knowledge of equipment productivity with an ability to
think deeply in an age of information overload.
This text introduces the engineering fundamentals for machine plan-
ning, selection, and utilization. It can help you analyze operational prob-
lems and arrive at practical solutions for effectively completing construc-
tion tasks. The focus is on the application of engineering fundamentals and
analysis to construction activities merged with an economic comparison of
machine options.
A construction contractor's ability to win contracts and execute work at a
profit is determined by two vital assets: people and equipment. To be economi-
cally competitive, a contractor's equipment must be superior both mechani-
cally and technologically. An older machine in need of costly repairs cannot
compete successfully with new equipment's lower repair costs and higher pro-
duction rates.
In most cases, a piece of equipment does not work as a stand-alone
unit. Machines normally work in a linked production system. An excava-
tor will load a fleet of haul trucks for moving material to a fill location. At
the location where the trucks dump the material a dozer or other machine
will be employed to spread the material the trucks dumped into piles.
After spreading, a roller compacts the material to the required density.
Therefore, a group of machines-in this example an excavator, trucks, a
dozer, and a roller-constitutes what is commonly referred to as an equip-
ment spread.
Optimization in the management of an equipment spread is critical,
both in achieving a competitive pricing position and in accumulating the
corporate operating capital required to finance the expansion of project
performance capability. The basic operational characteristics of the major
construction equipment types are explained and the fundamental con-
cepts of machine utilization are presented in detail. An understanding of
machine capability matched with an ability to calculate production allows
the planner to economically match machine capability to specific project
requirements.
There are no unique solutions to the question of selecting a machine
to work on a particular project or task. All machine selection questions
are influenced by external environmental conditions. The noise and vibra-
tions caused by construction operations and a machine's impact on those
adjacent to the project are additional factors effecting machine selection.
Nearby residents complain about noise and the glare from temporary
lighting systems, and city codes may restrict operations. Therefore, while
selecting a machine for a project involves an understanding of the physical
environment of the project in terms of soil type and moisture conditions,
it also requires planners to think in terms of the surrounding environment
impacted by the construction operations.
 Chapter 1 Machines Make It Possible 3

THE HISTORY OF CONSTRUCTION

EQUIPMENT
Machines are mechanical/electrical systems used to amplify human energy and
improve our level of control. Today many machines have on board computers.
These instantaneously process information and automate many operational func-
tions of the machine. The modem machine is a vital resource necessary for the
rapid accomplishment of most construction projects (Figure 1.1 ). One of the most
obvious problems in constructing a project is how to transport heavy materials.
Machines provide the solution. The proof of how well the planner understands the
work and selects appropriate machines is revealed by counting the money when
the contract is completed. Did the company make a profit or sustain a loss?
From the time the first man decided to build a simple structure for pro-
tection from the elements and to improve his ability to grow food through to
the construction of the Egyptian pyramids, the 25,000 mile Inca road system,
and continuing into the mid-nineteenth century, work was accomplished by the
muscle of man and beast-ponder the legendary John Henry with his ham-
mer. The development of construction equipment followed major changes in
transportation modes. Where travel and commerce took place via water sys-
tems, builders dreamed of machines with the ability to dredge ports, rivers, and

FIGURE 1.1 Construction equipment

4 Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods

FIGURE 1.2 The Otis steam shovel; this machine was mounted on steel wheels that
ran on rails 1

canals. As early as 1420, the Venetian Giovanni Fontana was dreaming of and
diagramming dredging machines. Leonardo da Vinci designed such a machine
in 1503, and at least one of his machines was actually built, but the power
source was a lonely runner on a treadmill.
In 1793 a group of men in Massachusetts came together to build the Mid-
dlesex canal, a 27 mile ditch from the Merrimack River to Boston. Finally in
December 1803 water flowed the length of the canal. Then on July 4, 1817,
at a site near Rome, New York, ground was broken for the 363-mile-long
Erie Canal. It was another long ditch excavated by local laborers and Irish
immigrants-human labor. However, by the 1830s, construction in the United
States was changing from canal building to railroad construction. The eco-
nomic life of the Middlesex Canal was only 32 years as it came to an end
in 1835 when the Boston & Lowell Railroad, one of the earliest railroads in
the United States, opened for service. Nevertheless, construction, be it building
canals or railroads, was still achieved by the brawn of man and beast.

Steam Power Machines

William S. Otis (1813-1839), a civil engineer with the Philadelphia contracting
firm of Carmichael & Fairbanks, built the first practical power-shovel excavat-
ing machine in 1837 (Figure 1.2). The first "Yankee Geologist," as his machines
were called, was put to work in 1838 on a railroad project in Massachusetts. The
May 10, 1838, issue of the Springfield Republican reported, "Upon the road in

1"Steam Excavating Machine," London Journal of Arts and Science, Vol. 22, 1843.
Another random document with
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month or six weeks without food. Nassau, New Providence, the
capital is chiefly supplied from these islands with the guana.
There are several varieties of this reptile in Australia, but that which
is most common is from four to six feet in length, and from about a
foot and a half to two feet across the broadest part of the back, with
a rough dark skin, enlivened by yellow spots. Although perfectly
harmless, as far as the human race are concerned, this huge lizard
is a terrible foe to the smaller quadrupeds—opossums, bandicoots,
kangaroo-rats, &c.,—on which it preys. It is very destructive also
among hen roosts, and often takes up its quarters in the vicinity of a
farm-house for the convenience of supping on the hens and their
eggs.
The guana is much sought for and esteemed by the blacks as an
article of food, and is frequently presented as a great delicacy to the
young ‘gins.’ By the settlers it is not often eaten, owing to the natural
feeling of dislike which is created by its form and habits. Those,
however, who do not entertain these feelings, or are able to
overcome them, find the flesh of the creature really excellent. It is not
unlike that of a rabbit, to which, in flavour, it is fully equal, and eats
best when stewed or curried.
The guana usually lives in trees, and, on the approach of man, it
invariably makes off with great alacrity, scrambling rapidly up the
nearest trunk; but it is easily brought down by a shot.
Captain Keppel tells us, ‘that while out on a shooting excursion at
Port Essington, he observed a native plucking the feathers off a
goose; while so employed his eye caught the tip-end of the tail of an
iguana, an animal of the lizard kind, about four feet long, which was
creeping up the opposite side of a tree; he tossed the goose, without
further preparation, on to the fire, and ascended the tree as easily as
Jack would run up the well-rattled rigging of a man-of-war. He almost
immediately returned with the poor animal struggling in his scientific
grasp. It was the work of a minute to secure it to a stick of about the
same length as itself to prevent its running away, when it was made
to change places with the goose, which, being warm through, was
considered to be sufficiently done. The whole goose he devoured,
making no bones, but spitting out the feathers. Then came the
iguana’s turn, which, although less tender, was not the less relished.
It appeared to require great muscular strength to detach the flesh
from the skin. The operation being finished, he lay down to sleep.
His wife, having sprinkled him with dirt to keep the flies off, was
proceeding to eat the skin of the iguana, when the arrival of some
more geese offered her a more satisfactory repast.’
The iguana is, I believe, the Talagowa of the natives of Ceylon—le
Monitor terrestre d’Egypte of M. Cuvier. The Indian monitor (Monitor
dracæna, Gray) is found in great abundance in all the maritime
provinces of Ceylon. The natives are partial to its flesh. Dr. Kelaart
states that he once tasted some excellent soup made from a tender
guana, which was not unlike hare soup. At Trincomalee they are
hunted down by dogs, and sold in the market for 6d. each. They feed
on the smaller reptiles and insects, and measure, when large, four
feet five inches. Despite its repulsive appearance, the iguana is
eagerly hunted for food by the natives of Africa, Australia, America,
and Asia.
The eggs of the guana are another article deserving the attention of
gourmands. One of these lizards sometimes contains as many as
four-score eggs. These are about the size of a pigeon’s egg, with a
very soft shell, which contains only a very small quantity of the
albumen. The yolk, unlike that of other eggs, does not become hard
and dry when boiled, but is soft and melting as marrow.
It would be a refreshing sight to see Alderman A., or Sheriff B., or
any other civic dignitary who has gone the round of all the dishes
which native and foreign skill have been able to produce, and to
whom a new combination would convey as much delight as a black
tulip or a blue dahlia would to a horticulturist, partaking for the first
time of pâté de foie gras de l’hiccatee, or a dish of the eggs of the
iguana garnished with anchovies. The inhabitants of some of the
Pacific islands esteem the large oval eggs of the lizards as food.
The meat of the Amblyrynchus subcristatus, another lizard, when
cooked, is white, and by those whose stomachs rise above all
prejudices it is relished as very good. Humboldt has remarked, that
in intertropical South America, all lizards which inhabit dry regions
are esteemed delicacies for the table.
There are an almost innumerable variety of lizards, properly so
called, in all parts of the colony of New South Wales, and the whole
of the larger kinds are used for food by the blacks, although but very
rarely eaten by the settlers. Those who have eaten them, state that
their flesh resembles that of a fowl. The dragon lizard, or as it is
sometimes called, the frilled lizard, is the most remarkable, being
provided with a large frill, which it has the power of extending
suddenly, and in a rather startling manner, when attacked or
alarmed; it is usually about a foot and a half or two feet long. The
Jew lizards are dark coloured, with a dewlapped and puffy
appearance about the throat and neck, varying in size, but seldom
exceeding two feet in length. The scaly lizards are fierce looking,
although harmless, reptiles, with a spotted scaly hide, generally
about a foot long, and remarkable for having small round club-
shaped tails. They are easily domesticated, but as their appearance
is far from attractive, they are seldom made pets of. The large spiny-
backed rock lizard resembles a guana, the only material points of
difference being that it has a heavy dewlap beneath its chin, and a
row of spines along the back from the head to the tail. The flat-tailed
lizard, called by the natives the Rock Scorpion, is imagined by them
to be venomous, although in reality it is perfectly harmless; it is
nocturnal in its habits, and possesses to a peculiar extent the
singular power, which is more or less vested in all the lizard family, of
leaving its tail in the hands of any one who attempts to capture it by
laying hold of that appendage, and of making off apparently
scatheless. The sleeping lizard is in body, as well as in its sluggish
habits, exactly like the terrible death adder, from which it is only to be
distinguished by its short feet.
Many of the lizard family are believed by the settlers to be
venomous, but such is not the case; I believe in fact that no four-
footed reptile has yet been discovered which is possessed of venom.
A remarkable power possessed by the guana, and perhaps by
others of the lizard family, is its power of resisting the poison,
ordinarily most destructive to animal life,—prussic acid. A middling
sized guana took a small bottle of prussic acid, and seemed rather to
have been exhilarated by it than otherwise; it was killed, however, by
a dose of arsenic and spirits of wine.
There is a large, ugly, amphibious lizard, about three feet long, met
with in Guiana, known as the Salempenta, or El Matêo, which is
thought (particularly by the Indians) good eating, the flesh being
white and tender. It is, however, much more ugly in appearance than
the guana.
Occasionally large lizards of other kinds, two or three feet in length,
are brought to the Rio market, and they are said to be excellent
eating.
In the reign of Cheops, as an Egyptian gentleman curious in poultry,
and famous even there for his success in producing strange birds,
was walking by the river Nile, he met with an egg, which, from its
appearance, he thought promised results out of the common way;
so, picking it up, he took it home, and gave directions for hatching it.
But some time after, on visiting his poultry yard, he found that all his
pets had disappeared, a few feathers only lying scattered about,
whilst a fearful animal rushed upon him open-mouthed. The fact
was, he had hatched a crocodile.
Mr. Joseph, in his History of Trinidad, tells us, that he has eaten the
eggs of the cayman or alligator, (without knowing what eggs they
were), and found them good. In form and taste they much resemble
the eggs of the domestic hen.
Dr. Buckland, the distinguished geologist, one day gave a dinner,
after dissecting a Mississippi alligator, having asked a good many of
the most distinguished of his classes to dine with him. His house and
his establishment were in good style and taste. His guests
congregated. The dinner-table looked splendid, with glass, china,
and plate, and the meal commenced with excellent soup. ‘How do
you like the soup?’ asked the doctor, after having finished his own
plate, addressing a famous gourmand of the day. ‘Very good,
indeed,’ answered the other; ‘turtle, is it not? I only ask because I do
not find any green fat.’ The doctor shook his head. ‘I think it has
something of a musky taste,’ said another; ‘not unpleasant, but
peculiar.’ ‘All alligators have,’ replied Buckland; ‘the cayman
particularly so. The fellow whom I dissected this morning——’ At this
stage there was a general rout of the whole guests. Every one
turned pale. Half-a-dozen started up from the table; two or three ran
out of the room; and only those who had stout stomachs remained to
the close of an excellent entertainment. ‘See what imagination is!’
said Buckland. ‘If I had told them it was turtle, or tarrapen, or
birdsnest soup, salt-water amphibia or fresh, or the gluten of a fish,
or the maw of a sea bird, they would have pronounced it excellent,
and their digestion been none the worse. Such is prejudice.’ ‘But was
it really an alligator?’ asked a lady. ‘As good a calf’s head as ever
wore a coronet,’ answered Buckland.
The Australian crocodile is more closely allied to the gavial of India
(Gavialis gangeticus), but is now often termed, like the American
species, an alligator. It is large and formidable; one captured by
Captain Stokes, in the Victoria River, and described in his published
journal, was fifteen feet long, and some have been taken still larger
than this. Like all animals of its class, the Australian crocodile is a
much more formidable enemy in the water than on shore; but even in
the latter position, it is by no means to be despised, for it progresses
with tolerable speed; and, although it seldom or never attacks a man
openly when out of its own proper element, still it is believed to have
a strong liking for human flesh, when that delicacy can safely be
obtained. One of these creatures paid a visit to a seaman, who was
asleep in his hammock on shore after a hard day’s labour, and being
unable to get conveniently at the man, it managed to drag off and
carry away the blanket which covered him; the sailor at first charged
his comrade with having made him the subject of a practical joke, but
the foot-prints of the huge reptile, and the discovery of the abstracted
blanket in the water, soon showed him the real character of his
nocturnal visitant.
The flesh of the crocodile is white and delicate, resembling veal. It
was a favourite dish among the Port Essington settlers, and among
the seamen employed in the surveys of the northern coast and rivers
of Australia. It is frequently pursued and killed for food by the
aborigines of that part of the country: the plan which they adopt is to
hunt it into some blind creek, when the reptile, finding itself closely
pressed, and no water near, usually forces its head, and perhaps the
upper part of its body in some sand-hole, fancying that it has, by so
doing, concealed itself from its pursuers. In this position it is
despatched with comparative ease. The crocodile makes a terrible
noise by snapping its jaws, particularly when in pain, or when it is
annoyed by the buzzing about its mouth and eyes of the mosquitoes
or other insects, which are found in myriads among the swamps,
creeks, and shallow waters, where it abides; this snapping noise is
often a startling sound to explorers encamping near waters
frequented by the monster.
The aboriginal tribes far to the southward of the localities in which
the crocodile has its habitation, have an imperfect knowledge of the
animal; stories of its voracity and fierceness have probably been
recounted at the friendly meetings of the tribes, and these stories
have in the same manner passed across the continent, changed and
magnified with each new relation, until on reaching the coast tribes
of the south, the crocodile became a nondescript animal of most
terrible form, frightening the blacks and puzzling the whites under the
name of the Bunyip.
In Dongola, at the present day, the crocodile is caught for the sake of
its flesh, which is regarded as a delicacy. The flesh and fat are eaten
by the Berbers, who consider them excellent. Both parts, however,
have a smell of musk so strong that few strangers can eat
crocodiles’ flesh without violent sickness following.
The Rev. Mr. Haensel, in his Letters on the Nicobar Islands, tells us
that ‘part of the flesh of the crocodile, or cayman, is good and
wholesome when well cooked. It tastes somewhat like pork, for
which I took it, and ate it with much relish, when I first came to
Nancauwery, till, on inquiry, finding it to be the flesh of a beast so
disgusting and horrible in its appearance and habits, I felt a loathing,
which I could never overcome; but it is eaten by both natives and
Europeans.’ The aboriginal natives of Trinidad considered a broiled
slice of alligator as a dainty morsel; and Mr. Joseph, the historian,
records having tasted it, and found it very palatable. Tastes in this,
as in other matters, differ.
Mr. Henry Koster, in his Travels in Brazil, says—‘I have been much
blamed by my friends for not having eaten of the flesh of the
alligator, and, indeed, I felt a little ashamed of my squeamishness
when I was shown by one friend a passage in a French writer, whose
name I forget, in which he speaks favourably of this flesh. However,
if the advocate for experimental eating had seen an alligator cut into
slices, he would, I think, have turned from the sight as quickly as I
did.’ The Indians of South America eat these creatures, but none of
the negroes will touch them.
Dr. Madden, in his Travels in Egypt, appears to have
experimentalized on the saurians as food—
‘I got’ (he says) ‘a small portion of a young crocodile, six feet long,
broiled, to ascertain its taste. The flavour a good deal resembles that
of a lobster, and, though somewhat tough, it might certainly be
considered very excellent food.’
The spectacled cayman (Alligator sclerops) is known under the
name of yacaré, or jacquare, in South America. Azara, the naturalist,
tells us that the eggs of this animal are white, rough, and as large as
those of a goose; they are deposited, to the number of sixty, in the
sand, and covered with dried grass. The Indians of Paraguay, and
other districts, esteem them as food, and also relish the white and
savoury flesh of this alligator, although it is dry and coarse. Cayman
is the Spanish word for alligator, and, according to Walker, alligator is
the name chiefly used for the crocodile in America.
Mr. Wallace thus describes an alligator hunt, as pursued on the lakes
in Mexiana, an island lying off the mouth of the Amazon:—‘A number
of negroes went into the water with long poles, driving the animals to
the side, where others awaited them with harpoons and lassos.
Sometimes, the lasso was at once thrown over their heads, or, if first
harpooned, a lasso was then secured to them, either over the head
or the tail, and they were easily dragged to the shore by the united
force of ten or twelve men. Another lasso was fixed, if necessary, so
as to fasten them at both ends; and, on being pulled out of the water,
a negro cautiously approached with an axe, and cut a deep gash
across the root of the tail, rendering this formidable weapon useless;
another blow across the neck disabled the head; and the animal was
then left, and pursuit of another commenced, which was speedily
reduced to the same condition.
‘Sometimes the cord would break, or the harpoon get loose, and the
negroes had often to wade into the water among the ferocious
animals in a very hazardous manner. They were from ten to eighteen
feet long, sometimes even twenty, with enormous mis-shapen heads
and fearful rows of long, sharp teeth. When a number were out on
the land, dead or dying, they were cut open, and the fat, which
accumulates in considerable quantities about the intestines, was
taken out, and made up into packets in the skins of the smaller ones,
taken off for the purpose. After killing twelve or fifteen, the overseer
and his party went off to another lake at a short distance, where the
alligators were more plentiful, and by night had killed nearly fifty. The
next day they killed twenty or thirty more, and got out the fat from the
others. In some of these lakes 100 alligators have been killed in a
few days; in the Amazon or Para rivers it would be difficult to kill as
many in a year. The fat is boiled down into oil and burned in lamps. It
has rather a disagreeable smell, but not worse than train-oil.’
The flesh of the land alligator, as it is termed by the Malays (the
Hydrosaurus salvator), which occasionally attains the length of five
or six feet, makes, it is said, good eating, and is much esteemed by
the natives for its supposed restorative and invigorating properties.
At Manila, these creatures are regularly sold in the markets, and
fetch a good price; the dried skin is readily bought by the Chinese,
who use it in some of their indescribable messes of gelatinous soup.
Another species eaten is the Hydrosaurus giganteus. Like that of the
Iguanæ of the New World, the flesh of these saurians is delicate
eating, and has been compared to that of a very young sucking pig.
The eggs of all the different kinds of alligators, and there are three or
four distinct species abounding in the Amazon and its tributary
streams, are eaten by the natives, though they have a very strong
musky odour. The largest species of alligator (Jacare nigra), reaches
a length of 15 or rarely 20 feet.
Mr. Wallace, in his Travels, records, that on one occasion, the
Indians on the Rio Negro supped off a young alligator they had
caught in a brook near, ‘but the musty odour was so strong that I
could not stomach it, and after getting down a bit of the tail, finished
my supper with mingau, or gruel of mandioc.’
Alligators are killed in great numbers in parts of the river Amazon, for
their fat, which is made into oil.
Hernandez states, that the flesh of the Axolotl, an aquatic reptile, is
very agreeable and wholesome. It is the Siren pisciformis of Shaw;
the Menobranchus pisciformis, Harl. It is commonly sold in the
markets of Mexico. When dressed after the manner of stewed eels,
and served up, with a stimulating sauce, it is esteemed a great
luxury. The flesh of the sauve-garde or common Teguixin of Brazil
(Teguixin monitor of Gray, Teius Teguixin) is eaten, and is said to be
excellent.
The flesh of the common ada of Mr. Gray is accounted excellent by
the natives of Guiana, who compare it to a fowl; its eggs are also in
great request. It is the Thorictes dracæna, Bibron; La grande
dragonne, Cuvier, and attains the length of four to six feet.
Some species of lizards are used as food in Burmah. One of these
especially, called pada, is stated not to be inferior to a fowl,—this is
probably the iguana. Nearly every species of serpent is eaten there,
after the head has been cut off. All have a fishy taste. Some few
kinds, however, although the teeth are carefully removed, cannot be
used, as the flesh appears to be poisonous.
The flesh of snakes is eaten by many in Dominica, particularly by the
French, some of whom are very fond of it; but it is reckoned
unwholesome, and to occasion the leprosy.
A snake called, by the natives of Western Australia wango, is
particularly liked by them as food.
There is a very venomous yellow-bellied snake, from five to six feet
long, called locally dubyt, which is much dreaded; but that is also
eaten by them.
The formidable lance-headed viper, of the Leeward Islands
(Trigonocephalus lanceolatus), feeds chiefly on birds, lizards, and
rats. After swallowing their prey, these snakes exhale a disgusting
odour; this does not prevent the negroes from eating their flesh,
which they find, it is said, free from any unpleasant flavour.
Mr. Buckland, in his interesting volume, Curiosities of Natural
History, says, he once had the opportunity of tasting a boa-
constrictor, that had been killed by an accident, and came into his
possession.
‘I tried the experiment,’ he observes, ‘and cooked a bit of him; it
tasted very like veal, the flesh being exceedingly white and firm. If I
had had nothing else, and could have forgotten what I was eating, I
could easily have made a dinner of it.’
The flesh of serpents was held in high repute by the ancients,
medicinally; and, when properly prepared, seems to have made a
very agreeable article of diet, corresponding with the turtle soup of
the present day. Even now, in the French tariff, vipers are subject to
a duty of 4s. the cwt.
In Guatemala, there is a popular belief, that lizards eaten alive cure
the cancer. The Indians are said to have made this important
discovery; and in 1780, the subject was investigated by European
physicians. I do not find the remedy in the modern pharmacopœias,
nevertheless, the inhabitants of Amatitlan, the town where the
discovery was first made, still adhere to their belief in its efficacy. The
man who first eat a live oyster or clam, was certainly a venturous
fellow, but the eccentric individual who allowed a live lizard to run
down his throat, was infinitely more so. There is no accounting for
taste.
Probably some of our learned physiologists and medical men may
be able to explain the therapeutic effects.
Some of the tribes of Southern Guinea, eat the boa-constrictor, or
python, and consider it delicate food. The more informed among
them, however, regard the practice as peculiarly heathenish. In
Ceylon, the flesh of the anaconda, which is said to devour travellers,
is much esteemed as food by some of the natives.
Who shall determine what is good eating? When we have gone over
so many delicacies, we must not be surprised at men’s eating
rattlesnakes, and pronouncing them capital food. An English writer,
who has recently published a work entitled A Ride over the Rocky
Mountains to Oregon and California, in describing the journey across
the great desert, says:—
‘12th July.—Shot two prairie dogs. Jem killed a hare and rattlesnake.
They were all capital eating, not excepting the snake, which the
parson cooked, and thought it as good as eel!’
The Australian aborigines, and some of the Kafir tribes, commonly
eat snakes roasted in the fire—and stewed snakes may, for aught I
know, be as good as stewed eels.
The Italians regale themselves with a jelly made of stewed vipers.
The Bushman of Africa catches serpents, not only as an article of
food, but to procure poison for his arrows.
Various reliable accounts before me prove that rattlesnakes are not
unfit for food, and may be placed among the multifarious articles
regarded by man as delicacies of the table. The negroes eat the
flesh of the rattlesnake, as well as that of other serpents. When the
skin and intestines are removed, no bad odour remains. A
correspondent of the Penny Magazine thus describes his experience
of fried rattlesnakes, at a tavern in Kaskaskia, a small town on the
Mississippi. He finds there a party of four or five travellers, who had
been on an exploring expedition:—
‘After a brief interview, they politely invited me to partake of the
supper they had already bespoken, informing me, at the same time,
that they considered themselves peculiarly fortunate in having
procured an excellent dish,—in fact, a great delicacy—in a place
where they expected to meet with but indifferent fare. What this great
delicacy was, they did not attempt to explain; and, having without
hesitation accepted of their invitation, I felt no inclination to make any
farther inquiries.
‘When the hour of supper arrived, the principal dish—and, indeed,
almost the only one upon the table—appeared to me to be a dish of
good-sized eels fried. I being the guest of my new acquaintances,
had the honor of being the first served with a plate of what the
person who presided called ‘Musical Jack.’ ‘Musical Jack,’ thought I,
is some species of eel peculiar to the Mississippi and its tributary
waters; and taking it for granted that it was all right, I forthwith began
to ply my knife and fork. ‘Stop,’ said the individual that occupied the
bottom of the table, before I had swallowed two mouthfuls. ‘You, sir,
have no idea, I presume, what you are eating; and since you are our
guest for the time being, I think it but right that you should have no
cause hereafter to think yourself imposed upon. The dish before you,
which we familiarly call ‘Musical Jack,’ is composed of rattlesnakes,
which the hunter who accompanies us in our tour of exploration was
so fortunate to procure for us this afternoon. It is far from the first
time that we have fared thus; and, although our own hunter skinned,
decapitated, and dressed the creatures, it was only through dint of
coaxing that our hostess was prevailed upon to lend her frying-pan
for so vile a purpose.’
‘Although curiosity had on many occasions prompted me to taste
strange and unsavoury dishes, I must confess that never before did I
feel such a loathing and disgust as I did towards the victuals before
me. I was scarcely able to listen to the conclusion of this short
address, ere I found it prudent to hurry out of the room; nor did I
return till supper was over, and ‘Musical Jack’ had either been
devoured or dismissed their presence.
‘As far as I recollect the circumstance, there was nothing peculiar or
disagreeable in the flavour of the small quantity I ate; and when the
subject was calmly discussed on the following day, one of the party
assured me he was really partial to the meat of the rattlesnake,
although some of the other members of his party had not been fully
able to conquer their early-conceived antipathies towards this snake;
but that during their long journey they had been occasionally
prevailed upon to make trial of a small quantity of the flesh, and were
willing to own that had they, been ignorant of its nature, they should
have pronounced it of a quality passably good.
‘Ever afterwards in my visits to Kaskaskia, I narrowly examined
every dish of a dubious character that was placed before me, in
order to satisfy myself that it was not ‘Musical Jack.’’
Dr. Lang, in one of his works, gives us an account of snake cooking
in Australia:—
‘One of the black fellows took the snake, and placing it on the branch
of a tree, and striking it on the back of the head repeatedly with a
piece of wood, threw it into the fire. The animal was not quite dead,
for it wriggled for a minute or two in the fire, and then became very
stiff and swollen, apparently from the expansion of the gases
imprisoned in its body. The black fellow then drew it out of the fire,
and with a knife cut through the skin longitudinally on both sides of
the animal, from the head to the tail. He then coiled it up as a sailor
does a rope, and laid it again upon the fire, turning it over again and
again with a stick till he thought it sufficiently done on all sides, and
superintending the process of cooking with all the interest
imaginable. When he thought it sufficiently roasted, he thrust a stick
into the coil, and laid it on the grass to cool, and when cool enough
to admit of handling, he took it up again, wrung off its head and tail,
which he threw away, and then broke the rest of the animal by the
joints of the vertebræ into several pieces, one of which he threw to
the other black fellow, and another he began eating himself with
much apparent relish. Neither Mr. Wade nor myself having ever
previously had the good fortune to witness the dressing of a snake
for dinner by the black natives, we were much interested with the
whole operation; and as the steam from the roasting snake was by
no means unsavoury, and the flesh delicately white, we were each
induced to try a bit of it. It was not unpalatable by any means,
although rather fibrous and stringy like ling-fish. Mr. Wade observed,
that it reminded him of the taste of eels; but as there was a strong
prejudice against the use of eels as an article of food in the west of
Scotland, in my boyhood, I had never tasted an eel, and was
therefore unable to testify to the correctness of this observation.
There was doubtless an equally strong prejudice to get over in the
case of a snake, and for an hour or two after I had partaken of it, my
stomach was ever and anon on the point of insurrection at the very
idea of the thing; but, thinking it unmanly to yield to such a feeling, I
managed to keep it down.’
In a paper which I published in the Journal of the Society of Arts, in
October 1856, (vol. 4, p. 872,) I entered very fully into a description
of the various snakes which are met with in different countries,
poisonous or harmless, and to that paper I would refer those who
wish to obtain descriptive details—scientific or general—not bearing
on the subject of food, at present under our consideration.
The consumption of frogs is not, as is very often supposed, confined
to the French. It is now also indulged in, to a considerable extent, by
Americans; and frogs appear to command a high price in the New
York market. An enthusiastic writer tries to convince us, that the only
objection to frogs as an article of diet is a mere prejudice on the part
of those who have never eaten them. ‘In what respect are they
worse than eels? The frog who swallows young birds and ducklings
is surely as clean a feeder as the snake-like creature that dines on
dead dogs, and makes the celebrity of the ait at Twickenham. Or is a
frog less savoury than a rat? And yet what a price was paid for rats
at the siege of Kars! If the garrison could only have been supplied
with lots of frogs—literal or metaphorical—the Russians would never
have taken the place. Again, does a snail—the large escargot, which
people are so fond of in Paris—appear more tempting than a frog?
Or that animal picked out of its shell with a pin, and called, in vulgar
parlance, a winkle. ‘Away, then,’ as indignant orators say, ‘away,
then, with this cant of false delicacy and squeamishness, and the
very first opportunity you have, O lector fastidioso! order A Dish of
Frogs. They are quite as good as whitebait, when assisted by a flask
of Rhenish.’
The Athenæum, also, recently came out in favour of frogs. ‘There is
no reason,’ it remarks, ‘why we should eschew frogs and relish turtle;
still less is there for our eating one or two of the numerous edible
funguses, which our island produces, and condemning all the rest.’
The green or edible frog (Rana esculenta) is a native of Europe,
some parts of Asia, and also of Northern Africa. It is in high request
on the Continent for its flesh, the meat of the hind quarters, which is
alone used, being delicate and well tasted. In Vienna, where the
consumption of these frogs is very considerable, they are preserved
alive, and fattened in froggeries (grenouillières) constructed for the
express purpose.
In America, the flesh of the huge bull-frog (R. pipiens, Harl.; R.
mugiens, Catesby,) is tender, white, and affords excellent eating.
Some bull-frogs weigh as much as half-a-pound, but the hind legs
are the only parts used as food. They make excellent bait for the
larger cat-fish.
In the Antilles, another huge bull-frog is reared in a state of
domestication for the table. It is the Rana ocellata, Linn; R. gigas of
Spix; Cystignathus ocellatus, Wagler.
Toads seem also to be eaten by the French, though unwittingly.
Professor Dumeril used to relate, in his lectures at the Jardin des
Plantes, that the frogs brought to the markets in Paris are caught in
the stagnant waters round Montmorenci, in the Bois de Vincennes,
Bois de Boulogne, &c. The people employed in this traffic separate
the hind quarters and legs of the frogs from the body, denude them
of their skin, arrange them on skewers, as larks are done in this
country, and then bring them in that state to market. In seeking for
frogs, these dealers often meet with toads, which they do not reject,
but prepare them in the same way as they would frogs; and, as it is
impossible to determine whether the hind quarters of these
creatures, after the skin is stripped off, belong to frogs or toads, it
continually happen that great numbers of the supposed frogs sold in
Paris for food are actually toads.[18]
This account of the mode of bringing the frogs to market, in Paris,
does not tally with that given by my friend, Mr. F. T. Buckland, in his
Curiosities of Natural History; he says:—
‘In France, frogs are considered a luxury, as any bon vivant ordering
a dish of them at the Trois Frères, at Paris, may, by the long price,
speedily ascertain. Not wishing to try such an expensive experiment
in gastronomy, I went to the large market in the Faubourg St.
Germain, and enquired for frogs. I was referred to a stately-looking
dame at a fish-stall, who produced a box nearly full of them, huddling
and crawling about, and occasionally croaking as though aware of
the fate to which they were destined. The price fixed was two a
penny, and having ordered a dish to be prepared, the Dame de la
Halle dived her hand in among them, and having secured her victim
by the hind legs, she severed him in twain with a sharp knife; the
legs, minus skin, still struggling, were placed on a dish; and the
head, with the fore-legs affixed, retained life and motion, and
performed such motions that the operation became painful to look at.
These legs were afterwards cooked at the restaurateur’s, being
served up fried in bread crumbs, as larks are in England; and most
excellent eating they were, tasting more like the delicate flesh of the
rabbit than anything else I can think of. I afterwards tried a dish of
the common English frog, but his flesh is not so white nor so tender
as that of his French brother.’
The Chinese seem also to appreciate frogs, for Mr. Fortune, in
describing a Chinese market, says—
‘Frogs seemed much in demand. They are brought to market in tubs
and baskets, and the vender employs himself in skinning them as he
sits making sales. He is extremely expert at this part of his business.
He takes up the frog in his left hand, and with a knife, which he holds
in his right, chops off the fore part of its head. The skin is then drawn
back over the body and down to the feet, which are chopped off and
thrown away. The poor frog, still alive, but headless, skinless, and
feetless, is then thrown into another tub, and the operation is
repeated on the rest in the same way. Every now and then the artist
lays down his knife, and takes up his scales to weigh these animals
for his customers, and make his sales. Everything in this civilised
country, whether it be gold or silver, geese or frogs, is sold by
weight.’
According to Seba and Madame Merian, the negroes eat the flesh of
the Surinam toad (Pipa Surinamensis).
Frogs or toads of an enormous size (Crapaux) are very numerous in
Dominica, and much esteemed as an article of food; the flesh, when
fricasseed, being preferred by the English, as well as French, to
chickens; and, when made into soup, recommended for the sick,
especially in consumptive cases.
Wallace, in his Travels on the Amazon, tells us, ‘his Indians went
several times early in the morning to the gapo to catch frogs, which
they obtained in great numbers, stringing them on a sipo, and boiling
them entire, entrails and all, and devoured them with much gusto.
The frogs are mottled of various colours, have dilated toes, and are
called jui.’
The eating of frogs seems to be indulged in in the Philippines, for a
traveller tells us that—
‘After the rains there may generally be procured, by those who like
them, frogs, which are taken from the ditch round the walls in great
numbers, and are then fat and in good condition for eating, making a
very favourite curry of some of the Europeans, their flesh being very
tender.’[19]
 FISH.
More than two-thirds of our globe being covered by the waters of the
ocean, and of the remaining third a great part being washed by
extensive rivers, or occupied by lakes, ponds, or marshes, these
watery realms, teeming with life, furnish man with a great variety of
food. Some of these have already passed under consideration in the
reptilia, and others in the great class mammalia, as seals, morses,
and manatees, which can remain at no great distance from the sea,
together with whales, which never leave it, though constantly
obliged, by the nature of their respiration, to seek its surface.
Mollusca, crustacea, annelides, and zoophytes are almost peculiar
to this element, having but few scattered representatives on earth;
but, amidst all its varied inhabitants, there are none more exclusively
confined to its realms, none that rule them with such absolute sway,
none more remarkable for number, variety of form, beauty of colour,
and, above all, for the infinite advantages which they yield to man,
than the great class of fishes. In fact, their evident superiority has
caused their name to pass as a general appellation to all the
inhabitants of the deep. Whales are called fish, crabs are called
shell-fish, and the same term is used to denote oysters; though the
first are mammalia, the second articulata, and the third mollusca.
Milton has well described the abundance of fish—

——‘Each creek and bay,

With fry innumerable swarm and shoals
Of fish, that with their fins and shining scales,
Glide under the green waves; * * *
* * * part single, or with mate
Graze the sea-weed, their pasture, and through groves
Of coral stray; or sporting, with quick glance,
Show to the sun their way’d coats dropp’d with gold.’
The modes of preserving fish are various; they are salted and dried,
smoked and potted, baked or marinated, preserved in oil, and
pounded in a dry mass.
Several savage nations possess the art of preparing fish in a great
variety of ways, even as a kind of flour, bread, &c.
Dr. Davy, commenting upon the remarkable facts respecting the
exemption of fish-eating persons from certain diseases, suggests
that there is undoubtedly something in the composition of fish which
is not common to other articles of food, whether vegetable or animal.
He believes this consists of iodine. He says, that in all instances in
which he sought for this substance in sea fish he has found it; and
also traces of it in migratory fish, but not in fresh-water fish.
The trials he made were limited to red gurnard, mackerel, haddock,
common cod, whiting, sole, ling, herring, pilchard, salmon, sea-trout,
smelt, and trout.
The experiment was as follows.—He dried and charred, lixiviated,
reduced to ashes, and again washed from a quarter of a pound to a
pound of fish.
A good deal of limy matter was afforded from the washings of the
charcoal of the sea fish.
The saline matter was principally common salt, had a pretty strong
alkaline reaction, and by the blue hue produced by starch and aqua
regia, afforded a clear proof of the presence of iodine. Only a slight
trace was detected in the fresh-water salmon, sea-trout, and smelt.
In the spent salmon descending to the sea, only just a perceptible
trace was observable, and no trace in either parr or trout.
Dr. Davy states further, that he has detected it in an unmistakable
manner in the common shrimp; also in the cockle, mussel, oyster,
crab, &c.; nor is this remarkable, considering that it enters into the
greater part of the food of fishes.
He observes, also, that cod liver oil is well established as an
alterative or cure of pulmonary consumption, and as this oil contains
iodine, the inference is, that sea fish, generally, may be alike
beneficial. The practical application of this inquiry is obvious. A
suggestion is also made as to the efficacy of drying fish, even
without salt, the drying being complete to the exclusion of even
hydroscopic water, for the use of the explorer and traveller.
The inference as to the salutary effects of fish depending on the
presence of iodine, in the prevention of tubercular disease, might be
extended to goitre, which it is known has already yielded to iodine.
This formidable complaint appears to be completely unknown to the
inhabitants of sea-ports and sea-coasts. Respecting another and
concluding question, viz., the different parts of fish, it is to be
remarked that, so far as experiments have gone, the effects will not
be the same from all parts of the fish, because the inorganic
elements are not the same. The examples chosen are the liver,
muscle, roe, or melt. In the ash of the liver and muscle of sea-fish,
Dr. Davy always found a large proportion of saline matter, common
salt, abounding, with a minute portion of iodine, rather more in the
liver than the muscle, and free alkali, or alkali in a state to occasion
an alkaline reaction, as denoted by test-paper; whilst in the roe or
melt there has been detected very little saline matter, no trace of
iodine, nor of free alkali; on the contrary, a free acid, viz.,
phosphorus, analogous to what occurs in the yolk of an egg, and in
consequence of which it is very difficult to digest either the roe or
melt of a fish, or the yolk of an egg. The same conclusion on the
same ground is applicable to fresh-water fish, viz., the absence of
iodine.
A very common North American dish is chowder, which is thus
prepared:—
Fry brown several slices of pork; cut each fish into five or six pieces;
flour, and place a layer of them in your pork fat; sprinkle on a little
pepper and salt; add cloves, mace, and sliced onions; if liked, lay on
bits of the fried pork, and crackers soaked in cold water. Repeat this
till you put in all the fish; turn on water just sufficient to cover them,
and put on a heated bake pan lid. After stewing about 20 minutes,
take up the fish, and mix two teaspoonfuls of flour with a little water,
and stir it into the gravy, adding a little pepper and butter. A tumbler
of wine, catsup, and spices will improve it. Cod and bass make the