(eBook PDF) Twenty Lessons in

Environmental Sociology 2nd

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/ebook-pdf-twenty-lessons-in-environmental-sociol
ogy-2nd/
 Contents / vii

17 Labor and the Environment 283

Brian K. Obach

18 Environmental Movements in the Global South 300

Tammy L. Lewis

19 Indigenous Cultures: Environmental Knowledge,

Practice, and Rights 315
Bahram Tavakolian

20 The Paradoxes of Sustainable Development:

Focus on Ecotourism 330
Kenneth A. Gould and Tammy L. Lewis

Conclusion: Unanswered Questions and the Future

of Environmental Sociology 353
Kenneth A. Gould and Tammy L. Lewis

Appendix A: Twenty Questions in Environmental

Sociology 361

Index/Glossary 363
This book was artisanally crafted in Brooklyn, NY
Annotated Table of Contents

An Introduction to Environmental Sociology 1

Kenneth A. Gould and Tammy L. Lewis
This introduction outlines the boundaries, content, and institu-
tional history of environmental sociology. The study of how
social systems interact with ecosystems, the project of environ-
mental sociology, was long ignored by scholars and institutions
keen to maintain the division between the social and natural sci-
ences. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, however, the emergence
and public prominence of the broad-based ecology movement
helped to spur institutional support of the subdiscipline. Envi-
ronmental sociology was officially recognized by the American
Sociological Association in 1976 and is now an increasingly
robust area of inquiry. The introduction also sketches out the
text’s basic organization, its approach, and the ideas that resulted
in the work’s creation.

Part 1 Theory

1. The Social Construction of Nature: Of Computers,

Butterflies, Dogs, and Trucks 13
Stella M. Čapek
This lesson draws on several theories from environmental
sociology to illustrate the wide range of interests and levels of
analysis that are characteristic of the field. Included are a micro-
level concept, “naturework,” that comes out of symbolic interaction-
ist theory, as well as macro-level theories of globalization and
modernization that explore how space and time are being expe-
rienced in new ways by human beings. The context for these
micro- and macro-level structures is a global capitalist system
shaped by a “treadmill” logic of economic competition. To illus-
trate and apply theories of environmental sociology, three “snap-
shot” scenes are included that invite us to imagine real people in
actual situations: a person throwing a can out of the window of
a speeding truck; a person sitting at the keyboard of a computer,

ix
x / TWENTY LESSONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY

making a fast connection on the Internet; and a person physi-

cally dismantling a computer that has been “thrown away” in
the United States and exported to an “e-waste processing center”
in another country. Although these snapshots are only three out
of many possibilities, they offer an excellent opportunity to con-
nect structures across time and space and to learn about the in-
sights and creative uses of theory in environmental sociology.

2. Theories in Environmental Sociology 28

Luiz C. Barbosa
This lesson explains the development and content of major
theoretical approaches in the field of environmental sociology.
It begins by providing a working definition of theory and an
explanation of the utility of theoretical models. It continues by
addressing the lack of emphasis on the environment in early
sociological theories. It then traces the beginnings of environ-
mental sociology to concerns about the state of the environment,
developments in ecology, and the rise of environmentalism
in the 1960s and 1970s. Sociologists responded to these with
calls for adoption of a “new ecological paradigm” in the disci-
pline. This led to attempts to revise existing theories and to the
development of new ones based specifically on the relationship
between human societies and the environment. This lesson in-
cludes theories of opposing political or ideological persuasions
in the field including treadmill of production, world-system,
ecological modernization, green capitalism, second modernity,
and risk society.

Part 2 Systemic Causes of Environmental Disruption

3. The State and Policy: Imperialism, Exclusion,

and Ecological Violence as State Policy 53
David Naguib Pellow
This lesson considers the historical and ongoing actions of the
U.S. nation-state as imperial practices that routinely produce
environmental harm and social inequality. In other words, rather
than looking at environmental policy as an add-on to the busi-
ness of the state, this lesson considers the more fundamental
orientation, role, function, ideology, and goals of the state as
policy and how that leads to troubling environmental outcomes.
Doing so allows us to make important connections across vari-
ous dimensions of state practices and guards against narrow
interpretations of environmental policy. This lesson also pres-
ents a critical consideration of the concept of pluralism as a way
of characterizing the dominant mode of state policymaking. Spe-
cifically, it argues that, in practice, the United States is generally
 Annotated Table of Contents / xi

less pluralist than one might hope. Offering a sampling of theo-

ries of environment–society relationships, social inequality, and
state formation, it proposes that to better understand how con-
temporary U.S. policies result in environmental racism and in-
equality, one must consider the historical, legal, economic, and
cultural roots and evolution of the U.S. nation-state itself. Such
an exploration suggests that the United States remains an impe-
rial presence in the Americas and globally, and this has dire
consequences for any effort to produce social and environmen-
tal justice here or elsewhere. In this way, we might locate the
deeper origins of the environmental state and, in turn, think
through a different set of questions that might achieve reform or
transformation of those practices. It concludes by offering thoughts
for how individuals and groups might address these challenges,
drawing on recent and ongoing cases in North America.

4. Labor Productivity and the Environment 67

Allan Schnaiberg
Increasing labor productivity has come to be viewed by political,
economic, and academic elites as a panacea for economic prog-
ress. Yet this perspective represents only one view of increasing
production by workers. The mechanisms by which labor produc-
tivity is achieved typically include substantial labor reduction,
involving downsizing and shifts of the benefits of productivity
away from workers and consumers and toward investors and
senior management. Moreover, because replacing human labor
with mechanical, chemical, and electronic technologies often
requires heightened use of energy and water and increased dis-
posal of wastes into natural systems, ecological disruption is
typically associated with growing labor productivity through
changes in production technology.

5. Corporate Power: The Role of the Global Media

in Shaping What We Know About the
Environment 77
Elizabeth H. Campbell
Transnational corporations (TNCs) are the most dominant and
powerful social actors in the global political economy. Their
main goal is to access markets, cheap labor, and resources to
maximize their profit margin and returns to shareholders. They
have been successful in eroding or delaying local, national,
regional, and global environmental and public health protection
mechanisms through powerful special interest groups that lobby
governments and global institutions. The largest TNCs have
more political and economic power than many developing coun-
tries. In the absence of strong state regulations, TNCs’ power
in the 21st century has served to undermine social welfare ben-
efits, job security, public health, and environmental standards.
xii / TWENTY LESSONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY

This has not been widely reported in the global news media
since the media are increasingly controlled by these same TNCs.
It is not in the interests of TNCs to critique the social and envi-
ronmental consequences of their growing influence in the
global economy. Corporate control over news and information
strongly shapes what the public knows and does not know
about key social and environmental issues. The control of news,
media, and information is a critical form of power in environ-
mental conflicts.

6. The Science of Nature and the Nature of Science 95

Richard York
Concerns about science are central to the field of environmental
sociology because it relies on scientific knowledge of the natural
world to identify and understand environmental problems and
because science, particularly in its link to technological devel-
opment, has generated and expanded many of the ecological
crises of the modern world. Here, the author distinguishes
between the logic of science, which is based on the combination
of rationalist and empiricist philosophies of knowledge, and the
establishment of science, the social institutions that actually
carry out scientific work. Environmental sociology appropri-
ately relies on the logic of science to understand the human–
environment interaction, but it is critical of the establishment of
science, which is in many ways controlled by the ruling class
and has frequently contributed to social and environmental
problems rather than helping to alleviate them. Thus, environ-
mental sociologists study how scientific claims about the envi-
ronment are influenced by social forces and contested by
various interests as well as how the risks associated with new
technologies are assessed.

7. Technological Change and the Environment 105

Kenneth A. Gould
A key factor in the way that societies establish their interactions
with ecosystems is the choice of technologies they use and the
ways they use them. Throughout human history, technological
change has led to significant, sometimes dramatic, changes in
the relationship between social systems and ecosystems. Because
of the importance of technological change and technological
choice in establishing patterns of social system–ecosystem rela-
tionships, we need to understand how technological innovation
alters social systems and ecosystems and how and why societ-
ies develop and implement new technologies. This lesson
looks back at major epochs in the technological transformation
of society–environment dynamics and explores the interests of
the social institutions that most affect the future direction of
technological change.
 Annotated Table of Contents / xiii

8. Population, Demography, and the Environment 118

Diane C. Bates
Demography is the discipline dedicated to studying how human
population changes over time. The relationship between human
population and the environment is complex and is not related
simply to the number of people alive at any given time. Malthus
described the relationship between human population growth
and the environment as negative; he believed that increasing
numbers of people would create pressures on the food supply.
In turn, this would lead to famine, war, and disease that would
bring human populations back into balance with the food
supply. Malthus’s narrow focus on food supply failed to take
into account that human technologies could increase the amount
of food available. The Green Revolution in agriculture did this,
by using biotechnology and chemical inputs to raise productiv-
ity, albeit with negative environmental consequences. Malthus
also failed to account for changing norms about family size; in
many places, higher standards of living have led to slower rates
of population growth, a process described as a demographic
transition. Neo-Malthusians have attempted to account for these
processes, most notably through Paul Ehrlich’s I 5 PAT equation,
which predicts environmental impact (I) as a product of pop-
ulation (P), affluence (A), and technology (T). Neo-Malthusian
models have been widely criticized for latent racism and clas-
sism, particularly given the lack of attention to equitable distri-
bution of environmental goods and bads (including food). The
relationship between population and environment is examined
in detail with reference to deforestation patterns in Ecuador.
Simple analysis of forest loss over time would suggest that
population growth has a linear and negative relationship with
forest cover. However, more detailed analysis indicates that
forests in this country are divided among coastal, Andean, and
Amazonian forests, each with different human population pres-
sures. This case demonstrates the importance of understanding
how people interact with their environment rather than assum-
ing that population growth invariably causes degradation.

9. Energy, Society, and the Environment 137

Shannon Elizabeth Bell
This lesson examines the interactions between energy, society,
and the environment, with particular attention given to the
hidden costs of energy production. The lesson begins with an
overview of global energy consumption patterns and then
discusses the social, environmental, and public health costs of
each of the major sources of energy. There are tremendous prob-
lems associated with oil, coal, natural gas, and nuclear energy
production throughout the entire lifecycle of each of these
energy sources. Extraction of fossil fuels poses great risks to
xiv / TWENTY LESSONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY

water resources and causes widespread ecosystem destruction,

as does the mining of uranium for nuclear energy production.
Oil, coal, and natural gas all release carbon dioxide, one of the
primary contributors to global warming, when they are burned.
In addition, nuclear energy and all three of the fossil fuels create
enormous quantities of toxic waste that pose tremendous health
risks to nearby communities. While renewable energy sources,
such as solar, wind, and hydroelectricity, provide improve-
ments over fossil fuels and nuclear energy in a number of ways,
they are not without their own costs to society and the natural
world. Our energy-related social, environmental, and public
health problems will not be solved by simply moving to renew-
able energy sources. The root of the problem is that we live in an
over-powered world, and we continue to expand both the amount
of energy we produce and the amount of energy we consume.
We must shift national and international policy discussions
away from trying to find ways to reduce carbon emissions with-
out reducing our levels of energy consumption to finding ways
to reduce our overall energy demand. The lesson concludes with
some ideas for how to begin this change and invites the reader to
think about ways that life could actually be improved if we were
to reduce the amount of energy we consume on a daily basis.

Part 3 Some Social Consequences of Environmental

Disruption

10. Environmental Inequality and Environmental

Justice 161
Michael Mascarenhas
This lesson introduces the environmental justice framework as
a theoretical and methodological approach to examining the
uneven ways in which pollution and other environmental haz-
ards are distributed among particular social groups, communi-
ties, and regions. The lesson pays close attention to the history
of the environmental justice movement and debates within this
burgeoning social science discipline. Lastly, this lesson exam-
ines the impacts of recent environmental reforms and asks in
what ways recent policy changes to environmental laws, regula-
tions, and policies influence environmental inequity and justice.

11. The Sociology of Environmental Health 179

Sabrina McCormick
This lesson presents the field of environmental health and the
obstacles that impede better means of addressing it. This includes
conflicts between the biomedical model and broader public
 Annotated Table of Contents / xv

health paradigms. It reviews several landmark cases that have

shaped our understanding of environmental illness and re-
views how tragedies and chronic mishaps reveal the way that
toxins in our environment cause illness. To illustrate some of
the obstacles to understanding and dealing with environmental
illness, this lesson describes illnesses caused by heat waves—
a critical issue that exemplifies how environmental conditions
affect human health. Ultimately, the cases discussed demon-
strate how those who suffer environmental illness often first
make connections between health and the environment. For
them to gain compensation for their losses and to stop these
exposures, public officials must also accept their claims. These
instances reflect power differences based on race, class, and
gender, as well as macro-level structures in society.

12. Producing and Consuming Food: Justice

and Sustainability in a Globalized World? 191
Jason Konefal and Maki Hatanaka
Most of the food people eat today arrives on their plates through
a food and agriculture system that is globalized, corporatized,
and industrialized. The first part of this lesson outlines how
such a food and agriculture system came to be and what it
means to say that food is globalized, corporatized, and industri-
alized. The second part of the lesson examines the social and
environmental implications of food and agriculture today. This
includes the significant environmental degradation resulting
from intensive resource use and high chemical use, the dangers
of farm work, and the persistence of hunger and the rise of obe-
sity. The effects of food and agriculture on development are also
analyzed, including the depopulation of rural areas, the privati-
zation and commodification of formerly public goods, and the
rise of slums in the Global South. The last part of the lesson
examines efforts to make food and agriculture more sustain-
able, just, and healthy—that is, what is commonly referred to as
alternative food and agriculture movements. In particular, the
focus is on the increasing use of market-based approaches, and
whether people can shop their way to a just and sustainable
food and agriculture system.

13. From Farms to Factories: The Social

and Environmental Consequences of Industrial
Swine Production in North Carolina 209
Adam Driscoll and Bob Edwards
Farms do not leap to mind as significant polluters. Yet, pollution
from agriculture and especially livestock operations may now
be the largest contaminant of America’s waterways. This lesson
uses the transformation of eastern North Carolina’s pork indus-
try as a case study to explain how industrialized agriculture has
xvi / TWENTY LESSONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY

become a leading polluter. The lesson describes the recent

growth and restructuring of that industry and its widespread
adoption of confined animal feeding operation technologies.
The concept of “externalities of scale” is introduced, which en-
compasses the various economic, social, and environmental
harms associated with large-scale production and absent in
smaller operations. The lesson then describes how this industry
has negative impacts on the health, quality of life, and economic
well-being of surrounding communities. Exploring the issue
further, the authors describe how this industry has affected the
ecology of eastern North Carolina, an environment particularly
vulnerable to this form of production. They also detail the
political struggle surrounding the industry, highlighting the
roles of various stakeholders in both promoting and opposing
these changes. The authors conclude that the transformation of
hog production in eastern North Carolina and the associated
negative consequences are illustrative of broader trends in how
animals are being raised throughout industrialized nations.

14. Understanding Disaster Vulnerability: Floods and

Hurricanes 231
Nicole Youngman
Human communities may be vulnerable to floods and hurri-
canes for a variety of intersecting reasons. While coastal areas and
low-lying floodplains have a natural physical vulnerability based
on their geography, many of the components of flood and hurri-
cane vulnerability are caused by human activities. These include
overdevelopment and unsafe building practices in flood-prone
areas, flood insurance and other recovery programs that encour-
age rebuilding in hazard zones, a stubborn refusal to acknowledge
the extent of a community’s risk, and perhaps most importantly,
social inequalities based on sex, race, ethnicity, income, and age.
The impacts of Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy, though they oc-
curred in very different parts of the country, provide strikingly
similar examples of these difficulties and disparities, and of the
problems involved in choosing mitigation strategies that both di-
minish disaster risk and respect social justice concerns.

15. Normalizing the Unthinkable: Climate Denial and

Everyday Life 246
Kari Marie Norgaard
Global warming is the most significant environmental issue of
our time, yet public response in Western nations has been meager.
Why have so few taken any action? This lesson draws upon inter-
views and ethnographic data from a community in western
Norway during an unusually warm winter to describe how
knowledge of climate change is experienced in everyday life.
That winter the first snowfall was two months later than usual;
 Annotated Table of Contents / xvii

ice fishing was impossible; and the ski industry had to invest in
artificial snow-making. Stories in local and national newspapers
linked the warm winter to global warming. Yet residents did
not write letters to the editor, pressure politicians, or cut down
on use of fossil fuels. This lesson describes the emotions of guilt,
helplessness, and fear of the future that arose when people were
confronted with the idea of climate change. The lesson presents
a model of socially organized denial to describe how people
normalized these disturbing emotions by deploying conversa-
tion norms and discourses that served as “tools of social order.”
Most studies of public response to climate change have focused
on information deficit approaches. Many in the general public
or environmental community have also presumed that the fail-
ure to engage is a function of lack of concern. Instead, this re-
search describes how for the highly educated and politically
savvy residents global warming was both common knowledge
and unimaginable. “The social organization of climate denial”
is described through multiple levels, from emotions to cultural
norms to political economy. The research from Norway is sup-
plemented by comparisons to the United States, telling a larger
story behind the public paralysis in the face of today’s alarming
predictions from climate scientists. The lesson describes the
lack of response as an active process the author calls “socially
organized denial.” As a result, information about climate science
is known in the abstract but disconnected from political, social,
and private life.

Part 4 Some Social Responses to Environmental

Disruption

16. U.S. Environmental Movements 263

Robert J. Brulle
The U.S. environmental movement is perhaps the largest,
longest-lived, and most complex social movement in the United
States. To understand this movement from a sociological view-
point requires an analysis of the different belief systems or “dis-
cursive frames” that define the different communities that make
up this movement. This lesson starts with a description of these
discursive frames. Using this perspective, it then describes the
historical development of the different communities and their
relative levels of economic resource mobilization.

17. Labor and the Environment 283

Brian K. Obach
Beliefs about the need for environmental protection are influ-
enced by many factors, including one’s economic position.
xviii / TWENTY LESSONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY

Workers may feel that environmental policies either advance or

threaten their economic interests. Many people are employed in
fields related to environmental protection or otherwise benefit
from environmental policies. Some political leaders have sup-
ported environmental regulation and financial assistance for
“clean industries,” arguing that this type of development will
ensure a healthy and sustainable economy. But not everyone
agrees that environmental measures are beneficial economi-
cally. Some sectors of the economy are threatened by environ-
mental policies that could curtail their operations. Conservative
political leaders often oppose pro-environmental policies on the
grounds that such measures impose burdensome costs on em-
ployers and weaken the economy, resulting in job loss. Workers
in these occupations, often encouraged by employers who see
environmental regulation as a threat to profits, may mobilize
politically to oppose policies supported by environmentalists,
setting off so-called “jobs versus the environment” conflicts.
Labor unions can play an important role in shaping how work-
ers perceive environmental issues, and they are positioned to
help build a broad movement for a just and sustainable econ-
omy. However, labor unions have been in decline for decades
due to technological developments, economic globalization, and
a general assault on organized labor by employers. The structure
of the labor relations system and the history of unionism in the
United States have yielded a mixed record on environmental
issues. At times unions have allied with environmental advo-
cates and provided key support for environmental policies, but
in other instances unions have sided with employers in opposi-
tion to environmental measures. Increasingly, unions have
joined with environmentalists in support of policies that prom-
ise both environmental and economic benefits. Environmental
measures are not likely to succeed unless workers believe that
their economic fate is tied to a healthy environment.

18. Environmental Movements in the Global South 300

Tammy L. Lewis
Environmentalism in the Global North differs from that in the
Global South in terms of their historical roots. In the Global
North, early environmentalism began as an affluent movement
to protect recreational spaces, whereas in the Global South, poor
people’s livelihood struggles are at the roots of environmental-
ism. Cases from India, Nigeria, and Bolivia illustrate key compo-
nents of Southern movements. Additional cases from Brazil and
Ecuador show the complicated relationship between globaliza-
tion and environmentalism. Livelihood struggles in the Global
South share characteristics of environmental justice struggles in
North America. Organizations in environmental movements in
 Annotated Table of Contents / xix

the Global South are becoming increasingly professionalized.

Alternatives to the established global environmentalism para-
digm and global development model are emerging in the Global
South and contesting dominant conceptions of “good living.”

19. Indigenous Cultures: Environmental Knowledge,

Practice, and Rights 315
Bahram Tavakolian
This lesson presents an anthropological approach, consisting of
a comparative, holistic, intersubjective, and processual perspec-
tive, to the study of the environmental relations of indigenous
peoples. The author questions the dichotomy and domination
generally assumed by members of Western cultures to exist
between people and nature and contends that more reciprocal
material and ideational relations with the environment are
also conducive to greater development and sustainability of
benign environmental conditions. Whether or not people are
“closer to nature” in their ideologies, the lesson proposes that
environmental practices that contribute to resilience and possi-
bilities for replenishment are also dependent upon types of envi-
ronmental knowledge that emphasize balance, connectedness,
interdependence, responsibility, and continuity. Not only do many
forms of environmental relationships found among contemporary
indigenous peoples deserve greater respect and legal status, but
the author contends that the forms of “ecological wisdom” they
practice should become a common element of Western envi-
ronmental thought and practice for decision makers and public
citizens.

20. The Paradoxes of Sustainable Development:

Focus on Ecotourism 330
Kenneth A. Gould and Tammy L. Lewis
This lesson begins with a discussion of the always multiple,
sometimes vague, and often-conflicting definitions of “sustain-
able development.” The authors connect this profusion of view-
points to the inevitable tensions between the three basic goals of
sustainable development: economic growth, environmental pro-
tection, and social equity. The lesson then uses two detailed ex-
amples of ecotourism development in Belize to illustrate these
trade-offs and highlight how and by whom decisions regarding
the goals of sustainable development are made. Three primary
critical perspectives on sustainable development—free market
environmentalism, policy/reformist, and critical structural—are
also described and applied to the state of ecotourism in Belize.
Finally, the conditions under which ecotourism can form the
basis of a sustainable development trajectory are assessed.
xx / TWENTY LESSONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY

Conclusion: Unanswered Questions and the Future

of Environmental Sociology 353
Kenneth A. Gould and Tammy L. Lewis
In the conclusion, interlinking themes from throughout the
book are briefly highlighted and analyzed. Those themes are
brought to bear on the question of how we can/should act on the
socioenvironmental knowledge that we have, with reference to
the frameworks provided by the founding thinkers in environ-
mental sociology. The authors then suggest areas of research
that need to be pursued by environmental sociologists in the
future and address concerns about what can practically be ac-
complished in the present. Students are encouraged to continue
both their study of environmental sociology and their participa-
tion in the contemporary social, political, and environmental
worlds. The lesson concludes by suggesting that the subfield of
environmental sociology would benefit from the creation of
structures to increase North–South intellectual exchange.
 Acknowledgments

We thank the people of Akwesasne for grounding us in the reality of what it

means to be engaged in the struggle for physical, social, cultural, and envi-
ronmental health.
Thanks also to our colleagues Jeff Broadbent, Stella Čapek, and Mike
Mascarenhas for convincing us of the need for a book such as this. We thank
our colleagues who used the first edition of the book, and especially those
who provided us with suggestions for the second edition. A big thanks, too,
to the contributors of both editions for their commitment to clearly commu-
nicating environmental sociology to the next generation.
Over the years, our students at the University of California-Davis, North-
western University, Denison University, Muhlenberg College, St. Lawrence
University, and Brooklyn College of the City University of New York have
inspired us to create effective means to communicate the importance of soci-
ology in understanding environmental issues.
For ongoing encouragement, enthusiasm, and cheese, we thank our editor
at Oxford University Press, Sherith Pankratz.
Finally, for their ongoing support, we thank our family.

xxi
 About the Contributors

Luiz Barbosa is a Professor of sociology at San Francisco State. He is also

affiliated with the Environmental Studies Program at the same institution.
He is the author of several journal articles on the Brazilian Amazon rain-
forest, focusing on the effects of globalization, development, and environ-
mental mobilization on preservation of the forest. He is also the author of the
book The Brazilian Amazon Rainforest: Global Ecopolitics, Development, and
Democracy. He is working on a second book manuscript on the situation in
Brazilian Amazonia.

Diane C. Bates is an Associate Professor of Sociology at The College of New

Jersey. Her research on land use change in the Ecuadorian Amazon has been
published in journals such as Latin American Research Review, Rural Sociology,
Latin American Perspectives, Human Organization, and Ecuador Debate. This re-
search documents the complexity of the process through which small pro-
ducers make decisions about their agricultural land based on economic
opportunities within the household unit. In addition, she has researched a
variety of environmental controversies in the United States, including defor-
estation in the San Jacinto (Texas) watershed, flooding along the Delaware
River, New Jersey’s controversial bear hunt, and the human ecology of
smaller industrial cities.

Shannon Elizabeth Bell is an Assistant Professor of sociology at the University

of Kentucky. Her research falls at the intersection of environmental sociol-
ogy, gender, and social movements, with a particular focus on understand-
ing the ways in which environmentally destructive industries acquire and
maintain their power and discovering strategies for increasing the political
participation of communities most affected by environmental injustices. She
is author of Our Roots Run Deep as Ironweed: Appalachian Women and the Fight
for Environmental Justice (University of Illinois Press, 2013) and is the 2013
recipient of the Practice and Outreach Award and the Robert Boguslaw
Award for Technology and Humanism, both from the Environment & Tech-
nology Section of the American Sociological Association. In 2011 she
received the Best Article Award from the Rural Sociological Society and
Honorable Mention for the Allan Schnaiberg Outstanding Publication

xxii
 About the Contributors / xxiii

Award from the Environment & Technology Section of the American Socio-
logical Association.

Robert J. Brulle is a Professor of Sociology and Environmental Science in the

Department of Culture and Communications, and an affiliate Professor of
Public Heath in the School of Public Health at Drexel University in Philadel-
phia, Pennsylvania. He has a B.S. degree in Marine Engineering from the
U.S. Coast Guard Academy, an M.A. in Sociology from the New School for
Social Research, an M.S. in Natural Resources from the University of Michi-
gan, and a Ph.D. in Sociology from George Washington University. His re-
search focuses on the U.S. environmental movement, critical theory, and
public participation in environmental policymaking. He is the author of over
70 articles in these areas and is the author of Agency, Democracy and the Envi-
ronment: The U.S. Environmental Movement from the Perspective of Critical
Theory, as well as co-editor, with David Pellow, of Power, Justice and the Envi-
ronment. Prior to his employment in the academic field, Dr. Brulle served as
a commissioned officer in the U.S. Coast Guard for 24 years, where his area
of expertise was in the field of environmental response and pollution
prevention.

Elizabeth H. Campbell received her Ph.D. from Binghamton University. Her

dissertation focused on urban refugee protection, livelihoods, and possibili-
ties for local integration in Kenya. She has published her findings in various
journals and edited book collections. Her second area of focus is environ-
mental sociology. As a graduate student, she designed and developed several
courses on political economy, development and ecology, and human rights.
As a Fulbright Scholar, she was based at the office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees in Nairobi. She also worked on two separate
occasions in Kakuma Refugee Camp in Kenya. Prior to that she worked for a
monthly news magazine at the Alternative Information Center in Jerusalem.
She has served as Director of Refugee Council USA, a coalition of 23 nongov-
ernmental organizations focused on refugee policy, and Senior Advocate for
Refugees International, where she focused on the Middle East and the Horn of
Africa. She is now working as a Senior Humanitarian Advisor in the Bureau
of International Organization Affairs at the Department of State.

Stella M. Čapek is Professor of Sociology in the Department of Sociology/

Anthropology at Hendrix College. She has a B.A. from Boston University
and an M.A. and Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Texas at Austin.
She teaches courses on Environmental Sociology, Social Change/Social
Movements, Medical Sociology, Urban/Community Sociology, Images of the
City, Gender and Family, Food, Culture, and Nature, and Sociological Theory.
She is especially interested in interdisciplinary environmental studies, envi-
ronmental justice, ecological identity, social constructions of nature, and sus-
tainable community design. She has published articles on environmental
justice, tenants’ rights, urban/community issues, local interactions with
xxiv / TWENTY LESSONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY

wildlife, green design, and health and environment. She has taught about
sustainability and ecotourism in Costa Rica and in the U.S. Southwest. She
has co-authored two books, Community Versus Commodity: Tenants and the
American City (1992) and Come Lovely and Soothing Death: The Right To Die
Movement in the United States (1999). She has also published environmentally
themed creative nonfiction.

Adam Driscoll is a doctoral candidate in sociology at North Carolina State

University in Raleigh, NC. He received his M.A. in sociology from East Caro-
lina University and his B.S. in biology from Drexel University. His research
in environmental sociology explores the various ways in which the structure
of human social relations and the natural world mutually shape one another,
particularly in the realm of agriculture. He also conducts research within the
scholarship of teaching and learning, examining online pedagogical prac-
tices and the efficacy of online education. His work has appeared in Teaching
Sociology and the Journal of World-Systems Research.

Bob Edwards is a Professor of sociology at East Carolina University in

Greenville, NC. He received his Ph.D. in sociology in 1995 from The Catholic
University of America in Washington, DC. A longstanding interest in under-
standing the social organization of inequalities integrates his research on
social movements, organizations, social capital, and civil society with his
work on environmentalism, environmental justice, and the social impact of
natural disasters. He has published over 60 refereed articles and chapters
appearing in American Sociological Review, Annual Review of Sociology, Social
Problems, Social Forces, Mobilization, Teaching Sociology, Journal of Democracy,
Journal of Public Policy, and Natural Hazards Review. He is co-editor of Beyond
Tocqueville: Civil Society and the Social Capital Debate in Comparative Perspective
and of four thematic issues of American Behavioral Scientist.

Kenneth A. Gould is Professor of Sociology at Brooklyn College of the City

University of New York, and Professor of Sociology, and Earth and Environ-
mental Sciences at the CUNY Graduate Center. His work focuses on the
political economy of environment, technology, and development and is best
known for its contribution to the development of the “treadmill of produc-
tion” model of socioenvironmental dynamics. Gould’s research examines
the responses of communities to environmental problems, technology and
social change, the role of inequality in environmental conflicts, and the im-
pacts of economic globalization on efforts to achieve ecologically and so-
cially sustainable development trajectories. He is co-author of Environment
and Society: The Enduring Conflict (1994), Local Environmental Struggles: Citizen
Activism in the Treadmill of Production (1996), and The Treadmill of Production:
Injustice and Unsustainability in the Global Economy (2008) and co-editor, with
Tammy L. Lewis, of Thirty Readings in Introductory Sociology (2013), and Ten
Lessons in Introductory Sociology (2014). His recent work examines ecotourism,
nanotechnology, and green gentrification.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
profound constitutional disturbance, and of the more characteristic
local symptoms of these which are seldom altogether awanting,
though often greatly modified.
Lesions. Beside the thick covering of mucopurulent and alimentary
matters, the pharyngeal mucosa, when washed, shows redness,
ramified or reticulated, more or less swelling amounting at times to
œdema, a soft friable consistency, which like the œdema may in bad
cases extend into the submucous tissue, granular elevations, and raw
abrasions caused by the destruction and removal of the epithelium.
In some instances the ulcers may become quite extensive.
In the more specific inflammations (tubercle, glanders, rabies,
aphthous fever, contagious pneumonia, anthrax, actinomycosis), the
lesions will vary according to the specific nature of the disease.
Prevention. Avoid the various thermal, chemical, mechanical, and
unhygienic causes already referred to, and the exposure to such
infectious diseases as are liable to localize themselves in the throat.
Treatment. A piece of blanket or sheepskin placed round the
throat with the wool turned inward, a moderately warm stall with
pure air, and a diet composed of soft, warm or tepid mashes, (all
hard or fibrous food, oats, hay, etc. being withheld) are important
conditions.
If costiveness exists a dose of Glauber salts for the larger animals,
and of jalap for the small, may be useful. Or pilocarpine or eserine
may be given hypodermically. Following this, mild saline diuretics
will serve at once to eliminate offensive products of the disease and
lower the general temperature.
The most important resorts however, are the local applications of
dilute acids, astringents and antiseptics to the pharyngeal mucosa,
mouth and nostrils. In severe cases benefit may be derived from
inhalation of water vapor, but this is rendered far more effective by
the addition of vinegar, carbolic acid, creolin, camphor, tar, or
sulphurous acid. The last may be obtained by the frequent burning of
a carefully graduated quantity of sulphur in the stall, the others by
mixing them with hot water, saturating cloths hung in the stall, or
sprinkling them on sand laid on the floor.
Chlorate of potash or borax may be dissolved in the drinking
water, care being taken not to exceed the physiological dose.
Mercuric chloride (1:2000) may be used to wash the lips and
nostrils, but cannot be safely injected into mouth or nose. Powdered
alum or tannic acid may be used by insufflation.
As a mouth wash and general medicament a saturated solution of
chlorate of potash in tincture of muriate of iron, diluted by adding
thirty drops to the ounce of water, may be given every hour or two.
Or a solution of chlorine water diluted so as to be non-irritating, may
be substituted with somewhat less effect. Even a weak solution of
hydrochloric acid may be employed.
Borax may be used in a solution of 2 per cent., or carbolic acid in
one of 1 per cent., or bisulphite of soda in the proportion of ½ oz. to
the pint, or salicylate of soda ½ oz. to the pint of water. The same
agents may be made into electuaries with honey or molasses and
smeared every hour or two on the tongue or cheek. In such cases the
addition of powdered liquorice, and, if the suffering is acute, of
extract of belladonna will serve an excellent purpose.
The danger of infection of the stomach and bowels may be met by
combining with the above or administering separately salol in doses
of 2 to 3 drachms or naphthol in doses of 4 to 5 drachms to the larger
animals. For sheep or swine one-fourth of these doses may be given,
and for a shepherd’s dog one-sixteenth to a twentieth.
As alternate antiseptics may be named, boric acid, permanganate
of potash and salicylate of bismuth. These from their comparative
absence of taste are especially useful in carnivora.
Counter-irritants to the throat are useful. For the horse, sheep, dog
and cat, use equal parts of strong aqua ammonia and olive oil. For
the solipeds a cantharides blister. For cattle or swine equal parts of
strong aqua ammonia and oil of turpentine with a few drops of
croton oil, or grains of tartar emetic.
Finally during convalescence a course of iron and bitters may be
useful, especially in debilitated subjects.
 PHLEGMONOUS PHARYNGITIS.
Submucous inflammation and abscess. Solipeds especially. Specific, or due to
microbian pus infection. Traumatism; from foreign bodies in tonsillar and mucous
follicles, from rough, fibrous food, instruments, etc.
As a sequel of catarrhal pharyngitis. Symptoms; as in catarrhal form, with more
swelling and tenderness, glandular swelling, dyspnœa, and difficulty in
swallowing; local induration followed by fluctuation and pointing. Complications;
asphyxia, laryngeal œdema, purulent or inhalation pneumonia, pharyngeal fistula,
palsy of vagus, secondary abscesses, septicæmia. Lesions, local, general.
Treatment; General and local, fomentation—hot or cold and antiseptic.
Embrocations. Lancing. Tracheotomy.
As distinguished from catarrhal pharyngitis this is inflammation of
the submucous tissue and adjacent lymph glands, tending to abscess.
It is especially common in solipeds and rather rare in other classes
of domestic animals. As a specific infectious disease it has its type in
strangles (infectious adenitis), also in cattle in the complicated
infection of purulent tubercle, but apart from such it is often the
result of the penetration of the pus microbes from a catarrhal
pharynx into the lymph plexuses and lymph glands. Traumatism
may play an important part in causation as when vegetable barbs,
awns, chaff or seeds, or strong hairs or bristles enter the open
mouths of the mucous follicles, or the tonsillar cavities. Similarly
trouble may arise from scratches by tough, fibrous fodder, from
pricks by pointed or cutting instruments, by fractures of the hyoid, or
by bruises by probangs, or tooth rasps. An overgrowth of the last
molar, and a resulting wound and ulcer of the soft palate, and the
presence of local deposits like those of glanders and actinomycosis,
are other occasions of the entrance of the pus organisms. It will be
recognized that this affection is not necessarily due to a difference in
the infecting organism, but rather of the tissue involved, the
microbes gaining the submucous tissues and expending their
violence on these instead of confining their ravages to the surface
layers of the mucosa. For this reason the deeper or phlegmonous
affection may supervene on a catarrhal inflammation which may
have already persisted for several days.
 Symptoms. Beside the general phenomena of catarrhal
pharyngitis, this form of the malady is characterized by a greater
swelling and tenderness of the throat, extending from ear to ear, and
from the trachea forward in the intermaxillary space; by nodular and
painful swellings of the pharyngeal lymph glands, by the greater
difficulty of deglutition, the muscular tissue being involved; by
wheezing breathing amounting at times to violent roaring and
threatened asphyxia. Perspiration on the throat, the ear, the side of
the head or neck, of the fore arm, or of the dorsal region is not
uncommon, and has been attributed to the compression of the vagus,
or of the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic by the
swelling. Fever usually runs higher than in simple catarrhal
pharyngitis, which may be partly accounted for by the implication of
the deeper and important structures but also in no small degree by
the entrance into the circulation of the ptomaines and toxins, which
in the catarrhal affection escape largely from the inflamed surface.
The resulting abscess is usually in or near a gland or group of
lymph glands. The part passes through the usual succession of
changes, of soft pitting swelling; firm, tense, painful condition in
which the exuded lymph has coagulated; and softening and
fluctuation which progresses from the centre toward the
circumference. The abscess points variously according to its seat. If
in the intermaxillary space it opens externally. If sub-parotidean or
peripharyngeal it may burst inwardly into the pharynx or outwardly
through the skin. If supra-pharyngeal (retro-pharyngeal), it may be
so thickly encapsulated in unyielding walls that it may remain long
indolent and inactive becoming a cold or chronic abscess. When an
abscess opens into the pharynx, there is a sudden and copious flow of
pus by the nose, and it may be by the mouth and a simultaneous
subsidence of the inflammation.
Among the complications of the affection are asphyxia, œdema
glottidis; abscess of the guttural pouch; rupture of an abscess into
the larynx, and the descent of pus into the lungs; the entrance of
saliva and alimentary matters into the lungs; gangrenous
pneumonia; pharyngeal fistula; pressure on the vagus and paralysis
of the pharynx or larynx; secondary abscesses; septicæmia.
Lesions. Besides the general inflammatory lesions some rather
remarkable ones have been observed. Fractured hyoid, dissection of
the mucous from the muscular coat, by aliments, for nearly the whole
length of the œsophagus (Brückmüller), purulent infiltration of the
supra-pharyngeal muscles (Wakefield), ulceration of the pharyngeal
or guttural sac mucosa, or even gangrene, purulent effusion in the
tonsils, around the hypoglossal nerve, the lingual branch of the fifth,
or the vagus, embolic inflammations, suppurations or gangrene of
the bronchia, and implication of the lung tissue and pleura. Catarrhal
enteritis and fatty liver and kidney are common.
Treatment. Beside the general measures advised for catarrhal
pharyngitis, this type demands especially measures to moderate the
intensity of the suffering, and when abscess appears inevitable to
hasten its maturation. The first demand is met by hot fomentations
persistently applied to the throat. This may be done by spongio-
piline, or simply by well washed wool or cotton bound upon the
throat and wet at frequent intervals with water rather hotter than the
hand can bear. The addition of a little carbolic acid will secure at
once some local anæsthesia and a measure of antisepsis. In warm
weather the substitution of cold water has been resorted to with
apparently good effect. If adopted it should be frequently removed so
as to keep up the constant action of cold and moisture. These have
been especially recommended in dogs injured by a tight or ill-fitting
collar.
When suppuration appears imminent as shown by the dense, hard,
circumscribed phlegmon, stimulating embrocations may be used to
hasten its progress. Camphorated spirit is suitable for carnivora and
sheep. It may be combined with tincture of cantharides for horses.
For cattle and swine, oil of turpentine may be added, the three being
used in equal proportions. A liniment of ammonia and oil may be
used more or less frequently and energetically according to the
relative thickness and insensibility of the skin of the animal affected.
When matter has formed and fluctuates, it should be at once
evacuated and the cavity treated by antiseptic dressings. In this way
secondary abscesses, septic infections, molecular ulcerations and
other injurious sequelæ may be largely obviated.
In case of threatened asphyxia the dernier resort of tracheotomy is
always available, and this often acts very favorably in improving the
æration of the blood, in restoring the flagging vital functions which
depend on hæmatosis, and in removing the friction and irritation
consequent on the passage of air through the narrowed and tender
passages.
 SUPRA-PHARYNGEAL (RETRO-
PHARYNGEAL) ABSCESS.

A sequel of phlegmonous pharyngitis. Symptoms; masked by its depth;

pharyngeal wheezing or roaring with little local swelling; difficult swallowing;
resisting tissues tend to chronicity. Results; pharyngeal fistula, burrowing along
œsophagus, rupture into chest or blood-vessels, lymphadenitis, compression of
vagus, or jugulars, permanent infected cavity with small orifice. Diagnosis from
pus in guttural pouches. Treatment; external opening; antisepsis.

This is a natural result of phlegmonous pharyngitis, but it is

possessed of so great importance alike in its chronicity and its results
that it seems to deserve a special article. Like its initial morbid
condition it is especially common in the soliped, and like that may be
traceable to strangles, influenza, and local traumatism.
The symptoms are at first those of phlegmonous pharyngitis, and,
if the local swelling, induration and tenderness are less marked than
in other cases, it is due to the location of the inflammatory lesion
deeply between the pharynx and the atlas and occiput. Indeed the
moderate aspect of the external swelling, conjoined with the noisy
wheezing or violent roaring, may be taken as important diagnostic
indications. The supra-pharyngeal region is so closely confined on its
lateral aspects, by the union of the fascia of the sternomaxillaris and
mastoido-humeral muscles, that the swelling is confined in the early
stages just as the pus is later. As this resistant fascia prevents any
relief by lateral expansion, the engorged tissues press downward on
the softer and less resistant upper wall of the pharynx and seriously
impair both respiration and deglutition. Similarly when pus has
formed, these lateral fibrous barriers, reënforced by organized
lymph, stand in the way of the advance of the pus toward the skin,
and lead it to dissect its way downward toward the pharynx. Even
here the thickening of the tissues by the organized products of the
lymph will often interpose a serious bar, and the pus remains pent
up indefinitely, a source of wheezing, roaring and impaired
deglutition, and a constant threat of secondary abscess or septic
infection. Even the dense fibroid tissues may soften and degenerate
and the pus may make its way spontaneously to the pharynx, or less
frequently through the skin of the parotid, or intermaxillary region,
or into the œsophagus or larynx. A fistula of the pharynx opening
externally and allowing the escape of alimentary matters has been
often noticed. These are especially liable to follow puncture of the
abscess.
Among the less common sequelæ are fistula of the œsophagus;
purulent pneumonia in connection with the purulent dissection of
the œsophagean walls and rupture into the chest (Fichet, Schneider);
ulceration of the blood vessels in the cow (Jonge); adenitis and
lymphangitis of the neck, and the thoracic glands, followed by
pericarditis and pleurisy (Cadeac); multiple embolic abscesses of
internal organs (Dieckerhoff); compression and degeneration of the
vagus nerve, with consequent respiratory and digestive troubles
(Baudon); and compression and obstruction of the jugulars with
passive congestion of the brain and vertigo. (Delamotte, Debrade).
Even when the abscess opens into the pharynx the orifice is usually
small, the pus escapes imperfectly, and food materials enter and the
fistula may thus persist for a length of time. The same imperfect
discharge is liable to take place with an external orifice and the pent
up pus becomes inspissated, caseated and even calcified.
Diagnosis. Supra-pharyngeal abscess is to be distinguished from
pus in the guttural pouches, by the lack of coincidence of the
discharge with the dependence of the head in grazing, eating roots or
drinking from a bucket; by the absence of the intermission when the
head is elevated; and by the fact that the discharge is less frequently
limited to the one nostril. The hearing too is less likely to be affected.
Treatment. As soon as the presence of pus can be recognized it
should be evacuated. This is often attempted through the roof of the
pharynx, but with such an opening there is always danger from the
entrance and decomposition of alimentary matters. If fluctuation can
be felt externally, it is better to be opened through the skin. The
integument may be incised with a lancet, and the tissues further
penetrated by manipulations with the finger nail, a grooved sound or
the point of closed scissors. In this way the vessels and nerves are
pushed aside and the dangers of hemorrhage, fistula and paralysis
avoided. The cavity must be irrigated with an antiseptic solution
(carbolic acid 3:100; or acetate of aluminum 1:20).
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS (CROUPOUS)
PHARYNGITIS.
False membranes not due to a common microbian cause. Accessory causes in
solipeds; caustics, smoke infection. Lesions: Congestion, necrosis; croupous
exudate, extending to patches on bowels and bronchia; kidney infarctions; blood
altered. Symptoms: fever, dyspnœa, mucous rattle in throat, swelling, painful,
difficult deglutition, yellow or cyanotic mucosæ, pinched face, weakness,
prostration. Duration. Diagnosis. Treatment, as for catarrhal pharyngitis with
antiseptics by inhalation and electuary. Iron.
Pharyngites attended by the formation of false membranes are met
with in all the domestic animals and may be grouped together as a
special class. The collection of these in one group, however, must not
be taken to imply that all of these, as met with in the different
animals have the same pathology, and are due to one invariable
cause. Above all it must not be inferred that they are identical with
the malignant diphtheria of the human being. The bacillus
diphtheriæ hominis isolated by Klebs in 1883, and proved
pathogenic by Löffler in 1884, has not been successfully inoculated
upon any of the larger domestic animals, and has not been found in
any of the casual pseudomembranous pharyngitis of these animals.
The common feature of the group is to be found in the formation of
the false membrane, and the fact that a given disease is placed in the
group must not be held to apply to any special character, of
microbian origin, nor communicability by infection.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS PHARYNGITIS IN
SOLIPEDS.

Cases of pharnygitis with false membranes have been seen in

horses by Delafond, Targue, Rey, Bouley, Riss, Sonin, Robertson,
Dieckerhoff and Schneidemühl.
They have been attributed to various causes, as caustic alkalies and
acids, the smoke of a burning building (Bouley, Rey, Riss), to an
infection which operated on dogs and horses (Robertson), to bacteria
and other irritants.
Lesions. The mucous membrane of the mouth, pharynx and even
the nares presents active inflammation with branching redness,
petechiæ, circumscribed foci of necroses, and false membranes of a
grayish, yellowish, reddish, greenish or blackish color. These are
formed of a pellicle consisting mainly of fibrine and epithelium, pus
globules and numerous cocci, and ovoid bacteria. The false
membranes have been found on other parts of the intestinal canal
(colon, cæcum); and broncho-pneumonia and pulmonary dropsy
have been concomitants. The effect of the toxic products is seen in
hæmorrhagic inflammation and infarctions of the kidneys, and in a
black color of the somewhat diffluent blood.
Symptoms. Besides the usual phenomena of pharyngitis, there is
intense hyperthermia (105°–106°), hurried breathing threatening
suffocation, painful cough roused by the slightest pressure on the
swollen throat and often causing the discharge from the nose of
shreds of false membrane. Auscultation of the pharynx gives a loud
gurgling sound. Deglutition is very difficult and painful, liquids and
even solids being rejected through the nose. The face is pinched and
anxious and the mouth is often held open and the tongue pendant.
Weakness and prostration are marked symptoms from the first, and
the walk may be unsteady and swaying. The visible mucous
membranes are congested and usually have a more or less deep tinge
of yellow. The disease makes rapid progress and may prove fatal
under six days. When it takes a favorable turn, recovery and
convalescence may be equally prompt.
Unless the expectoration of false membrane is detected, such cases
are difficult of diagnosis, though a fair inference may be deduced
from the extreme severity of the symptoms, and the unusual degree
of prostration which is present. When a pharyngeal speculum,
passing through the nose, can be availed of, it may become possible
to reach a more definite conclusion.
Treatment. Beside the measures advised for catarrhal pharyngitis
(poultice, counter-irritants, laxatives, antithermics, alkalies, etc.), the
main reliance must be placed on antiseptics. Persistent inhalations of
warm water vapor with carbolic acid, creolin, tar, lysol, camphor or
sulphurous acid are in order: also a mixture of one or other of these
agents or of boric acid, bisulphite of soda, or salicylic acid in honey
or molasses to be frequently smeared on the teeth. One of the best
agents is the saturated solution of chlorate of potash in tincture of
muriate of iron, of which a drachm may be added to three ounces of
water and given every hour or two. Calomel may be injected through
the nose during inspiration, by means of an insufflator, care being
taken not to exceed the physiological dose.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS PHARYNGITIS IN
CATTLE.
Most common in calves. Inoculations successful on rabbits, mice and sheep.
Bacillus: its cultural characteristics. Predisposing causes. Symptoms: nasal mucosa
congested; false membranes; snuffling, wheezing breathing; painful, rattling
cough; agonized expression; salivation; bowel disorder. Course. Duration. Lesions;
intense congestion and false membranes. Treatment: as for horse; special
antiseptics; solvents; anodynes; tracheotomy.
This has appeared especially in calves, and though apparently
readily transmissible among the young, it rarely attacks aged cattle.
Cadeac and others inoculated it on guinea pigs and rabbits without
success. Dammann, on the other hand, had his inoculated rabbits die
in twenty-four hours with hemorrhages in the seat of inoculation.
Löffler inoculated it hypodermically on mice and produced extensive
infiltration of the entire walls of the abdomen, and often of the
peritoneum including the surface of the liver, kidneys and intestines,
on which was formed a thick, yellowish exudate containing the
microbe. Damman claimed to have successfully inoculated the sheep
as well.
Causes: Microbe. Löffler found in the deeper layers of the exudate
a long delicate bacillus, five or six times as long as broad, and about
half the thickness of the bacillus of malignant œdema. Several bacilli
were usually joined so as to form long filaments. These failed to grow
in nutrient gelatine, or sheep blood serum, but grew readily in the
blood serum of the calf.
Beside the specific microbe Cadeac enumerates as predisposing
causes: sudden chills, rapid changes of temperature, suppression of
perspiration, inhalation of irritant gases, swallowing of irritant
liquids, and traumatic injuries.
Symptoms. The nasal mucosa is violently congested, reddened,
thickened, and covered at intervals by false membranes which block
the normally narrow passages and produce snuffling, wheezing, and
difficult breathing. The throat is swollen, and tender, the slightest
touch producing a painful gurgling cough which leads to the
discharge of mucopurulent matter, shreds of false membrane and
even blood. These membranes may be seen on the nose or mouth.
There is high fever, rapid, small pulse, cyanosed mucous
membranes, pinched countenance, and usually open mouth, pendant
tongue and drivelling saliva. There may be either constipation or
diarrhœa.
The course of the malady is rapid, death sometimes supervening in
24 to 48 hours. Recovery and convalescence may be prompt, or the
disease may last for weeks.
Lesions. The congestion is intense and may invade the mouth,
nose, pharynx, larynx and bronchia, with at intervals the patches of
yellowish white false membranes. These may be soft and diffluent
when recent, and tough and resistant when of longer standing. The
deeper layers are often bloodstained. Preitsch has seen them extend
to the gullet, paunch and manifolds, and attended with considerable
ulceration of the subjacent mucous membrane.
Treatment. This does not differ materially from that
recommended for the horse. Among the additional antiseptics
employed have been, iodoform, oil of turpentine, sulphide of
calcium, silver nitrate and coal tar. To loosen and detach the false
membranes ipecacuan and sulphates of soda and magnesia have
been largely resorted to. Papayin and pepsin might be tried. Also as
anodynes digitalis, morphia, aconite and belladonna. Finally
tracheotomy has been employed when asphyxia seemed imminent.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS PHARYNGITIS IN
SHEEP.
Cause; infected dust on susceptible subject; inoculation. Symptoms; movement
of jaws; frothy lips; salivation; viscid nasal discharge; difficult swallowing and
breathing; swollen tender throat; extended head; anorexia; cyanosis; open mouth;
cough expels shreds of false membrane; asphyxia. Lesions. Treatment; Glauber
salts or muriatic acid in water; antiseptic fumigation and drinking water;
antisepsis of the pharynx.
Roche-Lubin speaks of this disease as common in flocks, as the
result of moving them around for twenty-four hours in a narrow
enclosure covered with dust which is raised in a cloud and settles in
the fleece so as to increase its weight. The fever and excitement
caused by the constant driving and the local action of the infected
dust on the respiratory mucous membrane is said to bring about the
intense exudative inflammation. It has been seen especially in the
spring in young lambs shortly after weaning. Damman claims that he
transmitted the disease to sheep by inoculating the diphtheritic
exudate of the calf.
Symptoms. There were constant movements of the jaws, with the
accumulation of frothy saliva round the lips or the drivelling of this
secretion from the mouth, the discharge of a viscid white material
from the nose, difficulty of deglutition, hurried, panting, snuffling
breathing, swelling and tenderness of the throat, and the occurrence
of cough and the discharge of mucopurulent matter whenever it was
pressed. The head and neck are held rigidly extended, the eyes are
dull or glazed, the appetite is completely lost, the mucosæ red and
cyanotic and the animal weak and unsteady upon its limbs. By the
third or fourth day respiration has become so difficult that the mouth
is held constantly open, the tongue protruded and the painful
convulsive cough leads to the expulsion by the nose and mouth of
shreds of false membrane. Careful examination of the nose or of the
fauces may detect the grayish or yellowish patches of false membrane
at an earlier stage. Death by asphyxia is common.
Lesions do not differ materially from those seen in the calf. The
inflammation and pseudomembranous exudate may extend as far as
the trachea and bronchia in which case the indications of death by
asphyxia are clearly marked.
Treatment is the same as for the calf. Tepid drinks slightly
acidified with muriatic acid, or the addition to the drinking water of
one pound of sulphate of soda to every fifty sheep has been especially
recommended. Fumigation with sulphurous acid or chlorine is easy
of application in flocks. As alternatives for addition to the water may
be named hyposulphite or bisulphite of soda, borax, carbolic acid, or
spirits of turpentine. For treatment individually swabbing the throat
with antiseptics and dilute caustics, electuaries, and hot poultices to
the throat may be tried.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS PHARYNGITIS IN
SWINE.
Prevalence in herds, in close pens, and in young. Relation to swine plague and
hog cholera. Symptoms: sore throat, prostration, hoarse cough, yellowish
discharge with shreds of false membrane, pellicles on mouth, fauces, tonsils.
Diagnosis from swine plague. Treatment: Isolation, disinfection, antisepsis to
throat, febrifuges.
This has long been recognized as a contagious affection, occurring
especially where the animals were kept in herds and too often in
close and filthy pens. These are more liable in youth than in
maturity, partly no doubt because the older animals have already
suffered and attained to an immunity. Modern observation has
shown that pharyngitis with formation of false membranes is
especially common in swine plague, and the present tendency is to
refer all such cases to that category. It is however altogether probable
that the occurrence of local irritation with the addition of an irritant
or septic microbe altogether distinct from those of swine plague or
hog cholera, gives rise at times to this exudative angina. Certain it is
that septic poisoning with the food is not at all uncommon in the
hog, in the absence of these infectious diseases.
The symptoms are those of severe sore throat with profound
prostration, a hoarse, painful cough, a yellowish discharge from nose
and mouth, and great muscular weakness. The base of the tongue,
tonsils and soft palate are red and tumid with here and there grayish
or yellowish patches of false membranes. The identification of swine
plague may be made by the history of the outbreak, the number of
animals affected, the tendency to pulmonary inflammation, the
enlarged lymph glands, the presence of the non-motile bacillus
which does not generate gas in saccharine media, and which readily
kills rabbits and Guinea-pigs with pure cultures of the germ.
Treatment will depend largely on the nature of the attack—swine
plague or simple pseudomembranous infection. Isolation, cleansing
and disinfection will be demanded in both cases. In swine plague all
additional precautions to prevent its spread must be resorted to. In
the simpler exudative inflammations the antiseptic local treatment
and general febrifuge measures will be demanded.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS PHARYNGITIS IN
DOGS.
Relation to diphtheria in man and horse. Symptoms; fever, prostration; swollen
throat; cough; vomiting; false membranes on fauces and tonsils; cyanosis.
Treatment: local antisepsis; febrifuges.
Rossi and Nicholski claim that dogs contract diphtheria by
swallowing the excrements of diphtheritic infants, but these
observations lack confirmation, and the infrequency of such an
occurrence argues against it. Robertson records cases of canine
angina with false membranes occurring at the same time as a similar
affection in the horse. The victims were puppies and the mortality
was high. Exact observations are, however, lacking.
The symptoms were dullness, prostration, anorexia, a hard cough,
swollen throat, vomiting, diarrhœa, and the presence of grayish or
yellowish false membranes on the fauces and tonsils. The breathing
was difficult and painful and the mucosæ cyanotic.
Treatment has been essentially local, consisting of swabbing with
solution of boric acid (1:200), chlorate of potassa, perchloride of
iron, or nitrate of silver.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS STOMATITIS OF
PIGEONS AND CHICKENS.

Contagious and destructive nature of the disease. Mode of extension from the
mouth and pharynx. Causes: bacillus diphtheriæ columbarum; its characters:
pathogenesis to birds, mice, rabbits, Guinea pigs; dogs, rats, and cattle immune;
diagnosis from bacillus diphtheriæ. American disease. Incubation. Symptoms:
prostration; wheezing breathing; sneezing; difficult deglutition; false membrane on
fauces; necrotic changes in mucosa; perforations; lesions of internal organs; blood
infection; nostrils stuffed; bill gapes; lesions on eye, tongue, gullet, crop, intestine;
diarrhœa; vomiting. Skin lesions. Course, acute, chronic. Paralysis. Mortality.
Prognosis. Diagnosis from coccidiosis, from croupous angina of Rivolta, from
aspergillus disease. Treatment: isolation; destruction of carcasses; hatching;
destruction of dead wild birds and rabbits; exclusion of living; quarantine of new
birds; disinfection; locally, antiseptics by inhalation, swabbing, and internally, iron
in water.

This affection prevails in certain countries and causes heavy losses

among young pigeons, so that it might with great propriety be
included among animal plagues, which should be dealt with by the
State. The malady is a local inflammation leading to the formation of
false membranes and its usual course is to progress from the mouth
and pharynx, to the nasal passages, lachrymal ducts and sacs, the
larynx, trachea, bronchia, intestines and skin.
Causes. The essential cause of the disease is held by Löeffler to be
the bacillus dipththeriæ columbarum, which is a short bacillus with
rounded ends, a little longer than the bacillus of fowl cholera and not
quite so broad. It is usually found in irregular clusters, especially in
the interior of the hepatic capillaries. It is ærobic, non-motile, non-
liquifying, and grows on nutrient gelatine, blood serum or potato. In
gelatine it forms a white surface layer, and spherical colonies along
the line of puncture, which show a yellowish brown tint under the