IB Physics 7e Answers

PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: WORKBOOK
Exam−style questions and sample answers have been written by the author. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.
Workbook answers
Chapter 1
Exercise 1.1 8 a Using Pythagoras: displacement =
_________________
√  
( 5 − 1)  2  + ( 5 −− 1)  2   = 7.2 = 7 cm (1 s.f.)
1 a Distance: scalar quantity, magnitude only.
Displacement: vector quantity, magnitude b v ave =   distance travelled
_____________
     =  __7 = 1.75 =
time taken 4
and direction. 2 cms−1(1 s.f.)
b Speed: scalar quantity, is the rate of change c Displacement of ball = ( (5 − 1), ( 5 − − 1))
of position. Velocity: vector quantity, is the = (4, 6)
rate of change of displacement.
So angle to the x-axis is tan  −1(__
  6 ) = 56° =
200 × 10   = 37 ms−1(2 s.f.) 4
i v = _ st  =  ________
3
2 a 60° (1 s.f.)
90 × 60
ii The car may have changed its speed d Velocity is 2 cms  −1at an angle of 60° to
during its journey. the x-axis.
1.5 × 1 
v =  _st  =  _______
b 0  = 330 ms−1(2 s.f.)
3
4.5
Exercise 1.2
c s
_ 6000
_____________
v =  t  =     × 10  3  = 14 ms−1(2 s.f.)
5 × 24 × 60 × 60 1 a s=ut
3  117 ×  
t =  _vs  = ________ 10  3 = 1206 s = 20 minutes
97 b
4 3.78 × 10  16= 1.26 × 108s
a t = _ vs  =  ________ v
3 × 10  8
Velocity/ms–1
(= ________
  1.26 × 10  8  = 4 years
) s = 12 at2
3.15 × 10  7
b Proxima Centauri is 4 light-years u
from the Earth. s = ut
5  v −t 
a = ____
a 1.2 −  0.6 = 0.01ms  −2
u =  _______ 0
60 0 t
2 × 10  7− 0.0
Time/s
 v −t 
a = ____
b u =  __________   = 5 × 10  15 ms  −2
4.0 × 10  −9 change in velocity
c ______________
a =   
    v −t 
  = ____ u
 v −t 
a = ____
c 30 − 90  = −0.05 ms  −2
u =  ______ time
20 × 60
d Area of triangular section =
6 Acceleration is defined as the rate of change (v − u) 2 __
of velocity and velocity is a vector quantity.   1  ( v − u) t = __
__   1  _____
  t  t  =   1  at  2
2 2 2
The athlete changes direction going around e
See the triangular section on the figure in
the bend in the track, so his velocity changed; part b above.
hence he accelerated.
f s = ut +  __1 at  2
7 a Using Pythagoras: displacement = 2
_
  28.8 × 10   = 8.0 ms  −1
3
√
3  2+ 4  2  = 5 cm 2 a 28.8 km hour  −1 = _________
60 × 60
5 × 10    = 500 ms  −1
v = _ st  =  ________
b
−2
And v = u + at = 8 + 2 × 10 = 28 ms −1
100 × 10 
−6
c Direction = tan  −1(__

  4 )= 53° = 50° (1 s. f.) b   1 at  2= 8 × 10 + __
s = ut + __  1 × 2 × 10  2 =
3 2 2
to the horizontal 180 m
d 500 ms  −1at 50° to the horizontal
1 Physics for the IB Diploma – Farrington © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023
3 a c Speed is the gradient of the graph.

17.3 (In this question, the direction of motion
is not important.)
Velocity/ms–1
See the figure in part a.

s = 15 m d The maximum speed is the maximum
gradient—drawn from the bottom of
0
0 1.73 the error bar on the point at t = 0 s to the
Time/s top of the error bar on the point at t = 6 s.
___ ______
The minimum speed is the minimum
b Using s = __
2
  2s
  1 gt  2, t = __ 2 × 15
______
√
g   =   10   = √ gradient—drawn from the top of the error
1.73 s
bar on the point at t = 0 s to the bottom
c v = gt = 10 × 1.73 = 17.3 ms −1 of the error bar on the point at t = 6 s.
4 a   v−−gu = ______
v = u − gt ⇒ t = _____  0 − 30 = 3 s See the figure in part a.
− 10
s = ut −  __1 gt  2= 30 × 3 − __
b  1 × 10 × 3  2 = e ½ the range of speeds = ½ (2.3 – 1.7) =
2 2
45 m 0.3 cms  −1
 v  − u 
  =  _______
36   =
2 2
5 Using v  2 = u  2 + 2gs, s = ______ So speed = 2.0 ± 0.3 cms −1
2g 2 × 9.8
1.8 m
3 a The gradient of the graph shows the
6 acceleration of the projectile.
v  50
This is a = (−) __ = (−) 10 ms  −2 = g
speed
5
b Distance travelled = area under graph
t1 t2 t3   1 × 50 × 5 = 125 m

s = __
2
time c 60
Velocity / ms–1
Using the area under the graphs: 50

40
  1 vt1  = 200, v(t  2 − t  1)+ __
v(t3  − t1  )+ __   1 vt  1 = 100 30
2 2 20
1
__ 1
__
∴ vt  3−   vt 1 = 200 and vt2  −   vt1  = 100 10
2 2 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
∴ v = ______   t  100 =   100
___________ = 10.4 ms  −1
( 3 − t2  ) ( 19.19 − 9.58) Time / s
4 a
Exercise 1.3 18
16
14
Speed / ms–1
12
1 a   distance travelled =  __
i v  average = _____________
   12 = 10
time taken 12 8
6
1.0 ms  −1 4
2
0
ii   12 = 1.5 ms  −1
v = _  st = __ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
8 Time / s
b i Acceleration
b Distance travelled = area under graph =
ii Displacement   1 (17 – 9)× 4 = 97 m
(9 × 9) + __
2
2 a Speed = Gradient c   1 at accel  2= 9 × 9+ __
total+ __
s = ut   1 × 2 × 4  2 =
=
12
= 2.0 cms–1 2 2
14
6
97 m
12 Max. Speed = Max. Gradient
Displacement / cm
= 14 = 2.3 cms–1
10 6 (Note that because the speedboat had been
8
6 travelling at a constant speed before it began
Min. Speed = Min. Gradient
4
2 =
10
= 1.7 cms–1
to accelerate, the two “t’s” in the SUVAT
6
0 equation are not the same.)
–2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time / s
b See the figure in part a.
5 a The toy is moving forwards at t = 0 at a b 45

40
speed of 5 cms  −1. The toy slows down at
Velocity / ms–1
35
a constant rate until it is momentarily 30
25
stationary and then speeds up in the 20
15
opposite direction at the same, 10
5
constant, rate until its velocity is 0
7.5 cms  −1 backwards. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time / s
b Acceleration is the gradient of the graph. c Using the sketch: displacement = area
  − 7.5 − 5 = − 0.625 cms  −2
a = _______ under graph =
20
c Total displacement = area under graph = ( __
  1 × 40 × 20) + ( 40 × 10)
2
 __1 × (5 × 8) + __

  1 × ( − 7.5 × 12) = − 25 cm = 800 m
2 2
d i
Actual distance travelled = Alternative method: use the SUVAT
 __1 × ( 5 × 8) + __
  1 × ( 7.5 × 12)= 65 cm   1 at  2 and replace u
equation s = ut+ __
2 2 2
with vfinal
  .
ii Displacement and distance are
not the same. In this case, the   1 at  2 = ( 40 × 10) +
Then, s = v final t + __
2
displacement means how far the toy
was (at t = 20 s) from where it had (   1 × 2 × 20  2) = 800 m
__
2
been (at t = 0 s.) Note that the two “t”s are not the same.
6 a 7
Exercise 1.4
Velocity / ms–1
6
5
4
3 1 a
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time / s
b Total displacement = area under graph =
(__
  1 × 6 × 30) + ( 6 × 30) + b The path is parabolic, because the
2
horizontal component of the velocity
(  1 × 6 × 20)
__
2 does not change (since there are no forces
= 330 m acting horizontally on the marble) and
the vertical component of the velocity
c Acceleration = gradient of graph = increases (because of the force of gravity
6 = 0.2 ms  −2
 __ acting vertically) until the marble hits
30 the floor.
d 7
__ _____
  2s
t = __ √ √
2 × 1   = 0.45 s
____
Max. Accel = = 0.23 ms–2
30
c g   =  
6 10
5
d s = vt = 1 × 0.45 = 0.45 m
Velocity / ms–1
4
3 ____ __________
2
Min. Accel =
5
= 0.17 ms–2
2 a i
v=√ 2gs  = √
2 × 10 × 80 =
1 30
0
40 ms 
−1
–1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ________
Time / s ii v total = √
40  2+ 70  2  = 81 ms  −1 (2 s.f.)
In a direction of tan  −1(__
  40 ) = 30°
7 a
Change of velocity = area under graph
from t = 0 to t = 20 s 70
from the horizontal
= 2 × 20
b The plane will be directly overhead when
= 40 ms  −1 the crate hits the ground. (Both the plane
and the crate have continued to travel
with the same horizontal velocity
and so will have travelled the same
horizontal distance.)
s 
3 a t = ______
  vhorizontal
    75 = 0.5 s
  = ___ d i and ii
horizontal 150 A
b In the vertical direction: u = 0, and so D
B
velocity
v  2
s =  __
2g
C
v vertical = gt = 10 × 0.5 = 5 ms −1
  5  = 1.25 m
2
So, s = _____
2 × 10
c v horizontal = 150, vvertical
  = 5 time
__ ______
So total vector has a magnitude of v total =
________
8 a √
  2s
t = __ g   =   √
2 × 2.5   = 0.707 s
______
10
√150  2+ 5  2  = 150.1 ms  −1 (4 s.f.)
b   18.2 = 25.7 ms  −1
v = _  st = _____
At an angle of θ = tan  −1(___
  5 )= 1.9° from
0.707
150
the horizontal. c   11.9 = 0.46 s
t =  _vs = ____
25.7
4 In the vertical direction: v v= 20sin 30° = d In 0.46 s, the ball will have fallen a vertical
10 ms  −1 distance of s =  __1 gt  2 = __
  1 × 10 ×
2 2
  v −g u = _______
So the time of flight, t = ____   10 − −10 = 2 s 0.46  = 1.06 m.
2
10
In this time, Mercurio will travel a horizontal So the height of the ball will be 2.5 − 1.06 =
distance, s = v h t 1.44 m. This is above the height of the net
(0.91 m). Therefore the tennis ball passes
vh  = 20 cos 30° = 17.3 ms  −1so s = 17.3 × 2 = over the net.
34.6 m = 35 m (2 s.f.)
  230 × 10  = 63.9 ms  −1
3
e v = _______
60 × 60
5 a v v = v sin 40° = 10 × 0.64 = 6.4 ms −1
f   18.2 = 0.285 s
t = _  vs = ____
63.9
b v = u – gt
g No.
  0 − 6.4 = 0.65 s
  v−−gu = ______
So, t = ____
− 9.81 h Differences might be:
c __ 1 2
 1 × 9.81 ×
s = ut −   gt  = 6.4 × 0.65 − __
2 2 • The tennis ball is not hit horizontally
0.652 = 2.1 m
from the racket.
d In the absence of air friction, x =
• Air friction will act on the tennis ball.
2 × 0.65 × 10 cos 40° = 10 m (2 s.f.)
s  • Spin imparted by the tennis racket
6 vh  = __   200 = 25 ms  −1
  th = ___
8.0 may change the assumed trajectory of
  1 gt  2
sv  + __
  1 gt  2 ⇒ vv  = ______
sv  = vv  t− __   t2 = the tennis ball.
2
150 + __  1 × 10 × 8  2 Effects of these might be:
_____________
 
   2
= 58.75 ms  −1
8
___________ • If the tennis ball is hit with an initial
  = √
So, vtotal 25  2 + 58.75  2  = 64 ms  −1at an angle vertical velocity component, it will
of tan  −1(_____
  58.75 )= 67° from the horizontal. require less time to fall the 2.5 m from
25
the top of the serve to the ground.
7 a Since gradient = g, it should be 10 ms 
−2. This may allow the ball to land in
the correct place on the other side
b As the object’s velocity increases, the
of the net.
effect of the fluid resistance increases.
This effect reduces the acceleration of the • Air friction will slow down the
object, thus reducing the gradient of ball, perhaps then allowing the ball
the curve. sufficient time to fall the 2.5 m.
c When the force of resistance equals the
force of gravity, the object will fall with
a constant velocity (Newton’s first law.).
This constant velocity is called terminal
velocity or terminal speed.
• Spin will change the trajectory of the b 60

tennis ball so that its vertical velocity
component changes at a different rate 50
Stopping distance / m
to that caused only by the effect of
40
gravity. Such a “topspin” serve will
cause the tennis ball to dip sharply 30
as it passes over the net, reducing
its horizontal velocity component 20
and increasing its vertical velocity
10
component, thus allowing the
ball to land in the correct place. 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Exam-style questions Initial speed / ms–1 [2]
c ≈ 17.5 → 18 ms  −1
[1]
Multiple-choice questions
11 a Highest point is when ball comes
1 D [1]
to a stop: at t = 0.5, v = 0 [1]
2 D [1]
b Area under the graph between t = 0
3 A [1] and t = 0.5 gives displacement [1]
4 C [1]   1 × 5 × 0.5 = 1.25 m
= __ [1]
2
5 C [1] c total area = area first 0.5 s + area for
second 0.5 s. [1]
6 D [1]
These two areas are equal in magnitude,
7 C [1] but area between 0.5 s and 1.0 s is
8 D [1] negative. So, overall area = 0. Therefore,
displacement = 0. [1]
Short-answer questions
12 a
9 a   ∆v =  ______
α = __ 80 − 0 = 2 × 10  5 ms  −2 [1]
∆t 4 × 10 
−4
1   1 × 2 × 10  5 ×

s =   at  = __
__
Velocity
b 2
2 2
( 4 × 10  −4)  2 = 1.6 cm [1] Time
c
During the golf club's contact with the
golf ball, the head of the club travels a
[1]
distance of 1.6 cm. The average radius
of a golf ball is about 2.1 cm. So the b Max. height = (   1  gt 22  ) =
 __1  at 12  + __
2 2
  × 20 × 3  +(   × 9.81 × (_____   20 × 3 )  ) = [1]
club head travels less distance than the __ 1 2 1
__
2
radius of the ball. This suggests that 2 2 9.81

during the club head's travel of 1.6 cm, 273 m = 270 m (2 s.f.) [1]
the golf ball becomes squashed. [1]
10 a Initial speed / ms  −1 Thinking Braking Stopping

distance / m distance / m distance / m
0 0 0 0 [½]
5 2.5 2.5 5 [½]
10 5.0 10 15 [½]
15 7.5 22.5 30 [½]
20 10 40 50 [½]
c Total travel time = time to reach 16 a Acceleration = gradient of graph between

max height + time to fall to ground [1] t = 30 mins and t = 80 mins.
______
=(  3 × 20 ) + (
3 + _____   2 × 273  )= 16.57 s =
√
______ 0−1
= ________________
     = −3.3 × 10  −4 ms  −2 [1]
9.81 9.81 ( ) ( ) 80 × 60 − 30 × 60
17 s (2 s.f.) [1] (for minus sign) [1]
__ _____
13 a √  2s
t = __ √ 2 × 50
_____
g   =   9.81   = 3.2 s [1] b Total displacement = area under
graph
b Horizontal distance = ut =
40 × 3.2 = 128 m [1] = ( 1 × 30 × 60) + (   1 × 1 × 50 × 60) −
__
2
c Vertical component of v = gt = (__
  1 × 1 × 50 × 60) − ( 1 × 50 × 60)
2
−1
9.81 × 3.2 = 31.4 ms 
= − 1200 m [2]
Horizontal component of v = 40 ms  −1 [1] Total displacement
_________ c Average velocity =   ______________
  
time
Magnitude of v = √ 31.4  2+ 40  2  = −
_______
=   1200 = −0.1 ms  −1 [1]
51 ms  (2 s.f.)
−1
[1] 200 × 60
17 a Using SUVAT: s = __   1 at  2 = __
  1 ×
Direction of v = tan  −1(____
  31.4 ) = 38° 2 2
40 −4 × 52 = −50 m [1]
from the horizontal. [1]
14 a a =  __   16 − 8 = 1 ms  −2
∆v = ______ [1] b 15
∆t 20 − 12 10
Velocity / ms–1
5
b Displacement = area under graph = 0
–5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
(8 × 25) + (   1 × 8 × 8) + ( 8 × 5) =
__ –10 Time / s
2
–15
272 m [2] –20
total displacement ___ –25 [2]
   =   272 =
c v  ave =   _____________
time 25
10.9 ms  −1 = 11 ms  −1 (2 s.f.) [1] c Using the graph:
15 a In section A, the object starts from Total displacement = Area under graph =
rest and accelerates for 10 s. [1]
−(__
  1 × 20 × 5) − ( 20 × 10) −
2
In section B, the object moves with
(  × 20 × 10) + (
1
__   1 × 10 × 5)=
__
a constant velocity for 10 s. [1] 2 2
− 325 m [2]
In section C, the object decelerates
for 10 s until it comes to a stop. [1] 18 a Maximum acceleration = maximum
gradient
b Velocity = gradient of graph =
30 − 10 = 2 ms  −1 ≈  __15 = 0.2 ms  −2(0.15 < a < 0.25) [2]
 ______ [1]
20 − 10
Total displacement
______________ = b 0 m [1]
c Average velocity =      time
  40 = 1.3 ms  −1 (2 s.f.)
__ [1] c The object is oscillating [1] about a
30
fixed point.
Chapter 2
Exercise 2.1 b
The vertical components of the two forces
add up to zero, but there is no horizontal
1 a F  H= 6.0 cos 40o = 4.6 N (2 s.f.) component of the weight of the mass,
leaving the horizontal component of the
b F  V= 6.0 sin 40o = 3.9 N (2 s.f.) tension in the string unbalanced.
______ Hence the mass cannot be in equilibrium.
2 a Magnitude = √
5  2 + 4  2  = 6.4 N
6 a
b Angle = tan−1(__
  45 ) = 38.7°
Tension Tension
3 a For the net force to be zero, the vectors in string in string
must make a closed polygon
Weight
H b Weight, W = 2 × 60 cos 35° = 98 N (2 s.f.)

7 a 7.5 = T sin 40
F   7.5  = 11.7 = 12 N (2 s.f.)
∴ T = ____
sin 40
b W = T cos 40 = 8.96 = 9.0 N (2 s.f.)
b Adding horizontal componets: 8 a It is a straight line showing that the
5 + −3 + −2 = 0 extension is proportional to the
Adding vertical components: stretching force.
3 + 4 + −7 = 0 b 2 cm
So, net vector is (0, 0). c Spring constant = _______   50 = 6.25 =
  1   = __
gradient 8
4 a Magnitude
______
of the unspecified force = 6.3 Ncm  −1 (2 s.f.)
√6  2 + 3  2  = 6.7 N.
9 a Along the slope: F = W sin θ
b Direction of the unspecified force = Perpendicular to the slope: N = W cos θ
tan−1(__
  6 )= 63.4° below the right-to-left
3  __   W sin ϑ   ⇒ F = N tan θ
F   = ______
N W cos ϑ
horizontal axis.
b μ s = tan θ when the book is not slipping
5 a
along the slope.
c As θ increases, W sin θ increases. When W
Tension in string sin θ > μ s N, the book will begin to slip.
10 For θ = 30° the component of weight down
Weight the slope is W sin 30° = 0.5 W.
The static frictional force is F = μ s N = μ s
W cos 30° = 0.45 × 0.866 × W = 0.39 W, less
than the component of weight down the slope,
so the container slides down the slope.
11 The box is in equilibrium (moving at a 14 a For an object that is partly or fully

constant velocity); the vertical and the submerged in a fluid, the buoyancy force
horizontal forces must balance. acting on the object is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the object.
Vertically, 150 sin 40° + N = mg ⇒
N = mg − 150 sin 40° = 25 × 9.81 − 150 × b i o + ρgh
P = P
0.64 = 149 N.
ii Upwards force on the underside of
Horizontally, 150 cos 40° = μ d × N ⇒ the cylinder is F = P A =
  150 cos 
μd  = ________ 40 = 0.77. A(Po + ρgh).
149
12 a Hooke’s law: the extension of a spring, e, iii Downwards force from atmospheric
is proportional to the force, F, applied to oA.
pressure = P
stretch it, providing that the elastic limit is iv Net force upwards = buoyancy force =
not exceeded. A(Po + ρgh) − P
oA = Aρgh.
b i F = kx = 25 × 0.3 = 7.5 N v Weight of liquid displaced by the
ii
F = kx = 0.3 × 2.5 × 10  −3 cylinder = Ahρ × g = Aρgh. This
= 7.5 × 10  −4 N verifies Archimedes’ principle.
c In series, a force stretching the springs vi Its density must be the same as that
makes each spring stretch by the same of the liquid around it.
amount, so the overall extension will be c   mass   =
i Volume of the block = ______
three times as much as for one spring. density
So, the spring constant for one spring   100 3   = 9.1 × 10  −2 m  3
________
1.1 × 10 
−1.
must be 3 × 12 = 36 Nm  Weight of the water it displaces is
d In parallel, each spring stretches only half W = 9.1 × 10  −2× 1000 × 9.81 = 893 N.
of what it would on its own. So, the spring Weight of block itself = 100 × 9.81 =
constant for one spring is 981 N
½ × 50 = 25 Nm −1.
So, net force on the block = 981 − 893
13 a F = kx = 5 × 10  3 × 1 × 10  −2= 50 N = 88 N downwards.
b F
a =  __ 50
_______
m  − g =     − 10 = 1990 ms  −2
25 × 10 
−3 ii Sink
c The graph of a against t will be a 15 a
straight line starting at a = 1990 ms  −2 at
t = 0 and finishing at a = 0 ms  −2 at Viscous Archimedes’
drag force bouyancy force
t = 4.5 × 10  −3s. The area under this graph
will be the change in velocity of the toy.
So Dv = __   1  at  = 0t = __
  1 × 1990 × 4.5 × 10  −3 =
2 2
4.48 ms  −1
  4.48   = 1.0 m
  u    = _____
2 2
d v  2 = u  2 + 2gs so s = __ Weight
2g 2 × 10
b  __4 πρlead   4 πρwater

  r  3 g = 6πηrv + __   r  3 g • are designed without the need
3 3
 __4 πρlead  4 πρwater
  r  3 g − __   r  3 g
for high degrees of streamlining
∴ v =    
  __________________
3 3 to reduce turbulence and so have
6πηr
2r  2 g(ρlead
  − ρwater
  ) fairly large values of drag coefficient,
_____________
=      
9η also making the frictional drag
( −3) 2
× 9.81 × ( 1.14 × 10  4 − 1.0 × 10  3) force large.
c   2 × 1.5 × 10       
v = ____________________________________
      
9 × 1.0 × 1 0 −3
= 51 ms 
−1
e he design of these type of cars is to reduce
T
all frictional force and increase driving force.
d It is because of turbulence. Stokes’ law
This is effected by
does not take into account the effect of
turbulence on the movement of a sphere • large high-performance engines to
through a viscous liquid. Such an effect increase the driving force from the engine.
is to increase the drag force acting on
the sphere. • small cross-sectional areas to decrease the
frictional drag force.
e The sphere would fall with a faster
terminal velocity. This is because at a • streamlined design to decrease the drag
higher temperature, the viscosity of coefficient and so decrease the frictional
water decreases. drag force.
16 a i F k = μk  N and N = mg • using materials with a high strength-to-

mass ratio in order to reduce the dynamic
∴ Fk  = μk  mg = 0.02 × 1.2 × 10 
3
friction force.
× 9.81 = 235 N
ii F kis constant; it isn’t affected by the Exercise 2.2
speed of the car.
1 a A body will continue to move with a
b  __1 CAρv  2 = 235 constant velocity, or remain at rest, unless
2
__________ it is acted on by an unbalanced force.
∴ v = __________
√ 0.3 × 2 × 1.3
  2 × 235    = 24.5 ms  −1
b When the net force on a body is zero, the
c For a constant speed, driving force = body is said to be in equilibrium.
2 × 235 = 470 N.
c Yes, providing the motion is of
d Although the dynamic frictional force constant velocity.
remains constant (and this depends on the
mass of the car), the frictional drag force 2 a Yes
increases with v  2, so at higher speeds, this b Yes
force becomes very large—requiring the
driving force from the engine to be very c No
large too. Family cars d Yes
• have engines that are not designed to 3 a The net force on a body of constant mass
deliver very high driving force. is equal to the product of the body’s mass
• are designed to accommodate several and its acceleration: F = ma
people inside (and in a reasonable (where F is the net force, m is the mass
degree of comfort)—and so have of the object and a is its subsequent
• large mass—making the dynamic acceleration).
frictional force large. b One Newton is the net force required to
• cross-sectional areas that are accelerate a 1 kg mass by 1 ms −2 in the
quite large, making the frictional direction of the force.
drag force large.
c deformation of the electron clouds

Net Mass / Acceleration / that surround the atoms of the book
force / N kg ms  −2 and the table.
120 50 2.4
iii Yes, these are a Newton’s third law
900 200 4.5 pair. The two forces are caused by the
1.5 6 0.25 oppositely charged nature of
the two particles; they are equal
4  1500 − 
F = ma = 0.05 × _______ 0 = 750 N in magnitude and opposite
0.1
in direction.
5 a Net force on paper cone = 0.12 − 0.08 =
0.04 N iv Yes, these are a Newton’s third law
F _____ 0.04 pair. The force of the raindrop on the
So, a =  __
m  =  0.012  = 3.3 ms 
−2
ground pushes the ground (and may
b make a small dent), and the force of
3.3 the ground on the raindrop causes the
Accelaration / ms–2
raindrop to decelerate and come to

a stop.
7 a Using Newton’s laws of motion, the
sum of the forces acting on the person
must equal the mass × acceleration of
the person.
0 So, 60g + N = 0 ⇒ N = −60g =
0 Time / s −60 × 9.81 = 590 N upwards =
reading on weighing scales.
c At the start, the forces acting on the cone
are not balanced (weight > air friction b i Using Newton’s laws of motion,
force), so the cone accelerates. Increasing 60g + N = 60a ⇒ N = 60a − 60g =
the speed of the cone increases the 60 × 0.25 × 9.81 − 60 × 9.81 =
air friction force acting upwards. −440 N.
The resultant force on the cone decreases,
ii It makes the person feel lighter.
and so, using Newton’s second law, the
acceleration of the cone decreases. When c i Using Newton’s laws of motion,
air friction force and weight are balanced, 60g + N = −60a ⇒ N = −60a − 60g =
the resultant force on the cone is zero, and −60 × 0.2 × 9.81 − 60 × 9.81 =
the cone travels at a constant velocity. −710 N.
6 a If body A exerts a force on body B, then ii It makes the person feel heavier.
body B exerts an equal and opposite force
on body A. 8 a and b Philosophically (and, in this case,
epistemologically), this is a very difficult
b i Yes, these are a Newton’s third law question to answer easily! The formal
pair. The two forces are equal in definition accepted by many of what
magnitude and opposite knowledge is follows the “justified, true belief ”
in direction. line of thinking. In the natural sciences, we
gather information by making observations.
ii No, these are not a Newton’s third
These observations lead to us making a
law pair. The weight of the book
hypothesis, which then allows us to make
(i.e. the gravitational force of
predictions. These predictions are then tested
the Earth on the book) and the
by performing experiments. The results of
gravitational force of the book on
these experiments then either support or
the Earth are a pair. The force of the
refute the prediction. Repeating this series of
book on the table and the normal
procedures can suggest strongly (although
force of the table on the book are
never prove) that our hypothesis is correct.
a pair; these two forces are of an
(If the results do not support our hypothesis,
electrostatic nature caused by the
then we have to make a new hypothesis.)
This then leads to us defining our hypothesis c The centripetal force

as a law. It is what we believe to be true,
  mrv  , where m is the mass of the object
2
and our justification of it is that repeated F = ___

d
observations of the same phenomena show moving in the circular path, v is the linear
the same thing. It is only when an experiment speed at which the mass is moving and r is
is repeated and something different is the radius of the circular path.
observed that we can show that our hypothesis 3 a i ai a
is incorrect—and our law has to be amended
or replaced with a better one. The natural
sciences try to produce the best way of
understanding what we observe.
c No. The best we can do is to show
consistently that what we observe is in mm
agreement with what our law claims. ii iia a
d Einstein’s work on relativity (see the
questions in Chapter 6) showed that
Newton’s laws of motion have to be
amended slightly under the special
conditions of extremely high speed.
For most cases, Newton’s laws of motion vv
continue to provide an accurate set of iiiiii aa
‘rules’, which we can use to
explore kinematics.
Exercise 2.3
1 a i   2π
ω = __ T
 
rr
ii   T1  , ω = 2πf.
Since f = __
b i Fi F
b i 2π  =  ________
ω =  __ 2π  
T 3.15 × 10  7
= 1.99 × 10 −7 radians s  −1
ii 2π  = 0.10 radians s  −1
ω =  __
60
ω =   13 × 2π 7 
iii ________ mm
3.15 × 10 
ii iiF F
= 2.6 × 10  −6 radians s  −1
c i   1   = 5.6 × 10  −4 Hz
f = ______
30 × 60
ω = 2πf = 2 × π × 5.6 × 10  −4
ii
= 3.5 × 10  −3 radians s  −1
iii −3
v = rω = 75 × 3.5 × 10  vv
= 0.26 ms  −1 iiiiii FF
2 a A body moving in a circular path is

changing its direction of motion.
This means that its velocity is changing,
so it must be accelerating.
b Towards the centre of the circle rr
4 a The Earth’s gravitational force on b i The ball on the end of the string has
the Moon mass. The tension in the string must
have a component that balances the
b Electrical attractive force on electron weight of the mass. This component
c Magnetic force due to the proton moving must be in the vertical plane, so the
in a magnetic field string cannot be horizontal.
d Friction between the car’s tyres and ii

the road T
e Tension in the string
_____________________
√
  mrv   ⇒ v = 8.23   5.29 × 10 −31  
2 −11
5 F = ___    × 10  −7 × _________
9.1 × 10 
= 6.9 × 10  6 ms  −1
6 a i
F = μN, where μ is the coefficient of w = mg
static friction (as long as the car is
not skidding), and N = mg, so c Larger
F = μmg, then F ∝ m.
____
d The horizontal component
mv  
ii  ___
2

r = μN = μmg ⇒ v = √
μrg , which is
e The vertical component is balancing the
independent of mass, m.
weight of the mass.
iii When the road is wet or icy, the value
of μ will be smaller—the friction is 8 a
N
less—and so the value for v must be θ
smaller. If the car exceeds this speed,
there will not be sufficient friction
force and the car will not be able to
move in a circular path: it will skid.
b i The maximum speed on the circular w = mg
θ
part of the road depends on the
square root of the coefficient of
friction between the tyres and the N cos θ = w = mg and
b
N sin θ =  ___ sin θ   = ___
mv  2 ⇒ mg  ____   mrv  
2
road, the radius of the circular arc r cos θ
Therefore, θ = tan  −1(__ )
and the value of g. This value will v   
2
  gr
be smaller than the motorway speed
limit because the radius of the curve c We would expect an Olympic cyclist to
is a relatively small value. cycle faster than an amateur. So, if v is
____ ______________ larger, the equation for θ shows that θ is
v = √
ii μrg  = √0.75
   × 80 × 9.81 
larger: the banking is steeper.
= 24.3 ms  −1
9 a
c If m is halved,
__ then v will change by a B
__
1
__
factor of    √2
   = 0.707 (or 1/√2 ).
7 a i
v = rω = 2πrf = 2π × 0.6 × 2.5
= 9.4 ms  −1 centre
ii
T = mrω  2 = 4mrπ  2f  2 of circle
= 4π  2 × 0.1 × 0.6 × 2.5  2
= 14.8 N T
w = mg
b The tension must balance the weight, so 12 a 5 = 20 cm,

F  =  __
F = kx ⇒ x =  __ [1]
k 25
the centripetal force must be the sum of so total length = 20 + 4 = 24 cm. [1]
 mrv   = T − mg ⇒
2
these two vectors: ___
  mrv   + mg.
T = ___
2
b Four springs in series will have
a spring constant = __  25 ,
4
c Now, the centripetal force must equal the F 5
so  __  =  ___  = 80 cm. [1]
sum of the tension and the weight forces: k 25
 __ 
4
mv   = T + mg ⇒ T =  ___
2
mv   − mg. 2 8  = 400, so 16
F  =  ____
c Using k =  __
 ___
r r x 0.02
springs will be required. [1]
d The tension in the string is maximum
at the bottom of the vertical circle and 13
becomes less as the mass moves towards Motion of elevator Reading on
the top of the circle. weighing
scales / N
Exam-style questions Stationary 40 [1]
Moving upwards at 40 [1]
Multiple-choice questions 2.5 ms  −1
1 C [1] Moving downwards 40 [1]
2 A [1] at 2.5 ms  −1
Accelerating 50 [1]
3 B [1] upwards at 2.5 ms  −2
4 C [1] Accelerating 30 [1]
downwards at
5 C [1]
2.5 ms  −2
6 B [1] mg
14 a T cos 20 = mg ⇒ T = _____     =
cos 20
7 C [1] 0.12
_________ × 9.81
    = 1.25 N [2]
0.94
8 D [1]
b a = __   m   1.25 sin 
F   = _______ 20 = 3.6 ms  −2 (2 s.f.) [1]
0.12
9 D [1]
c The amulet and necklace would
10 D [1] now hang in the opposite direction
(i.e. forwards) at an angle of
Short-answer questions tan  −1 (_________
  0.12 × 5  ) = 27º. [2]
  sin 50
T 0.12 × 9.81
11 a T A sin 50 = TB  sin 40 ∴ TB  = ___________
  A   = 15 a   ∆v
F = ma = m __ ___40 [2]
sin 40 t  = 0.125 ×  0.2 = 25 N
4000
__________
  × 0.766
 = 4765 = 4800 N (2 s.f.) [2]
0.643 b 25 N [1]
b At constant speed, frictional drag c Newton’s second law ⇒ time is larger,
force = 4000 cos 50 + 4765 cos 40 = so the deceleration of the ball is
6221 = 6200 N (2 s.f.) [1] smaller ⇒ the force required
c i The tension in the two ropes is smaller. [1]
would have to be smaller. [1] Newton’s third law ⇒ force on
ii In warmer water the coefficient fielder’s hands is smaller
of viscosity will be smaller, (so hurts less!) [1]
leading to a smaller frictional
drag force at the same speed.
16 a normal reaction 18 a   2π

ω = __________ 
friction 24 × 60 × 60
= 7.3 × 10  −5 radians s  −1 [1]
b
v = rω = 4.23 × 10  7 × 7.3 × 10  −5
= 3.1 kms  −1 [1]
( )2
  3100   7 
  vr    = g = ________
2
a = __
c
25º 4.23 × 10 
= 0.23 Nkg  −1 (2.s.f.) [2]
19 a Static friction force between the
weight [2] road and the tyres of the car. [1]
____ _____________
b μ s= tan 25 = 0.47 [1] b v= √
μs  gr  = √ 0.7
   × 9.81 × 45 = 17.6
c Yes, μs  is independent of the mass = 18 ms  (2 s.f.)
−1
[2]
(and area of contact) of the block, c 18 ms  −1
[1]
so the friction force up the slope would
double (because the normal reaction 20 a Since the vertical component of
force doubles), the component of the the tension must balance the weight
weight down the slope would double, of the skater,
and so these two forces would still
  60 × 9.81
T sin 30° = 60g ⇒ T = _______  
be balanced. [1] sin 30
= 1177 N (1200 N to 2 s.f.). [2]
w = mg =  __4  πr  3 ρg
17 a _______
3
__________ √ m r
=  __4  × π × (3 × 10  −3)   3 × 920 × 9.81 b
T cos 30° =
mrω  2
  T cos   
⇒ ω = _______ 30
3
= 1.0 × 10  −3 N [1] √  1177 × 0.866
= __________    = 2.8 radians s  −1
60 × 2.2
  w  
b 6πηrv = w ⇒ v = ____ [2]
6πηr
1.0 × 10  −3
_____________________
=          c
v = rω = 2.2 × 2.8 = 6.2 ms −1 (2 s.f.) [1]
6 × π × 1.8 × 10  −5× 3 × 10 −3
= 980 ms  −1(2 s.f.) [2]
c i Higher speed [1]
ii Since the weight remains the
same, the ratio of speeds is
inversely proportional to the
ratio of radii. Since water is
more dense, the raindrop will
have a smaller radius and
hence a higher speed. [1]
Chapter 3
Exercise 3.1 •
change shape: crumpling up a piece
of paper (deforming something
1 a A Joule is defined as the amount of work requires energy).
done when a force of 1 N moves through
•
heat up (gain internal energy):
a distance of 1 m (in the direction of
squashing a squash ball.
the force).
•
gain elastic potential energy:
b The principle of conservation of energy
stretching a spring.
states that energy can be transferred from
one form into another (or several), but it •
gain gravitational potential energy:
cannot be destroyed. picking up an object from the floor.
c i P.
Yes. The book has gained E  b Whatever happens to the body, the work
done on the body must be equal to the
ii Yes, the pupil picking up the book
total energy gained by the body.
has applied a force upwards on the
book and the book has moved a 6 a The net work done on a system is equal to
distance upwards, so the pupil has the change in kinetic energy of the system
done work. The pupil must have ‘lost’
some energy. b net work done = change on
  1  m(vfinal
EK  = __   2  −
vinitial
  2 ) =    × 25 × (20  − 10  )
__1 2 2
iii Some of the energy used by the pupil 2 2
may have transformed into other = 3.75 kJ
forms (such as thermal energy), so the c The size of the force and the time for
energy ‘lost’ by the pupil will be more which the force acted are not known.
than the energy gained by the book. So it’s not possible to know whether a
2 a 2πr = 2 × π × 1.2= 7.5 m large force acted for a short time or a
small force acted for a long time.
b 0 J; The centripetal force is perpendicular
to the displacement of the mass at all 7   1  mv  2 = __
a E K = __   1  × 9.1 × 10  −31 × ( 4 × 10  6)  2
2 2
times during its path around the circle, = 7.3 ×10  −18 J
so the work done must be zero.
b Work done = change in E K = __   1  m (v  2− u  2)
2
3 work done = area under graph = = 3 × EKinitial
  = 2.2 ×10  −17 J
(__
  1 × 60 × 2 × 1 0−3) + ( 60 × 3 × 1 0−3) =
2 8   1  × 0.75 × 1.5  2
a work done = E K lost = __
0.24 J 2
= 0.84 J
4 In stopping the car, the E Kof the car is 0.84
transformed into thermal energy in the b F =   work done =  ____
________   = 0.1 N
distance 8
brakes. So we can use the idea that work done
(= energy transformed) = average force × 9 a a = __
i   m   36  = 3 ms−2
F   = __
12
distance moved (in direction of force).
  1  mv  2
__ ii
v = u + at = 0 + 3 × 5= 15 s−1
  1  mv2= F s ⇒ s =   F 
So, __ _____
2
2   1  at  2 =
iii Distance travelled = __
2
  1  × 1400 × 20  2
__
____________
=   
  2
  = 31 m  __1  × 3 × 5  2= 37.5 m
3
9 × 10  2
5 a The force could make the body Work done = Force ×Distance =
36 ×37.5 = 1350 J
•
change the direction in which it
is moving: pushing your friend   1  mv  2 = __
iv E K = __   1  × 12 × 15  2= 1350 J
2 2
sideways when she is running. b The work done on the box by the force
•
speed up (gain kinetic energy): has been transferred into kinetic energy of
pushing a toy car along a surface. the box.
10 a   140 × 1000
v = _________  = 39 ms−1 c Some of the work done on the block has
60 × 60
been transformed into other forms, such
b Work done = EK  lost as thermal energy caused by the friction
  1  × 160 × 10  −3 × 39  2
= 0.15 × __ between the block and the slope.
2
= −18 J (2 s.f.) The block has also moved laterally.
18 = 1.2 N (2 s.f.)
c F =  __ 5 a he gravitational force on the cup is
T
15 W = mg = 0.45 × 9.81 = 4.4 N (2 s.f.)
Exercise 3.2 So, Work Done = F × s = 4.4 × 1.5 = 6.6 J.
1 a   1  mv  2 = __
EK  = __   1  × 0.058 × 25  2= 18 J (2 s.f.) b Using SUVAT,_ the speed of the cup is
___________
2 2
2gs  = √
given by v = √   
2 × 9.81 × 1.5 
b E P = mgh = 0.040 × 10 × 15= 6 J = 5.4 ms−1.
c   1  Fx = __
EP  = __   1 × 3.5 × 0.015= 26 mJ (2 s.f.)   1  mv  2 = __
So, EK  = __   1  × 0.45 x 5.4  2 = 6.56
2 2
2 2
2   1  mv  2 = __
a E K = __   1  × 5 × 2  2= 10 J E P = 0 = 6.6 J, as in part a.
2 2
  = 10 J.
So, Etotal c E P lost = mgh = 0.45 ×9.81 ×1.5 = 6.6 J.
This lost E P is transferred into EK  of
b EP  = mgh = 4 × 9.81 × 2 = 78.5 J the cup.
(80 J to 1 s.f.) EK = 0
d Since energy has to be transferred into
So, Etotal = 80 J. other forms:
  1  mv  2 = __
c EK  = __   1  × 3 × 4  2= 24 J, EP  → EK  → Energy to break apart the cup +
2 2
EP  = mgh = 3 × 9.81 × 5 = 147 J internal energy (of floor and cup pieces) +
sound energy
  = 24 + 147 = 171 J. (200 J to 1 s.f.)
So, Etotal
6 a E total = EK  + EH + EP 
d   1  kx  2 = __
EH  = __   1  x 18 × 0.08  2= 0.058 J (2 s.f.), = 0 +  __1  × 5 × 10  3 × ( 1 × 10  −2)  2+ 0
2 2 2
EP  = 0, EK  = 0 = 0.25 J
_______
  = 0.058 J.
So, Etotal
2 √ 25 × 10 
  2 × 0.25−3  
b  __1  mv  2+ 0 + 0 = 0.25 ⇒ v = _______

= 4.47 ms−1
e EH  = __  12  Fx = __  12 × 5 × 0.6= 1.5 J,
  4.47   = 1.0 m OR mgh = 0.25
u    = _____
2 2
c s =  __
  1  mv  2 = __
EK  = __   1  × 0.02 × 2  2= 0.04 J 2g2 × 10
2 2 0.25
E P = mgh = 0.02 × 9.81 × 1.8 ⇒ h =  ___________  = 1.0 m
25 × 10  −3 × 10
= 0.35 J (2 s.f.) 7 Using the conservation of mechanical energy,

So, Etotal = 1.5 + 0.04 + 0.35 = 1.89 (EP  + EK  + EH)  at top of bounce =
= 1.9 J. (2 s.f.) (EP  + EK  + EH)  when trampoline bed is compressed
3 a E P = mgh = 0.1 × 10 × 6= 6 J. (60 × 10 × 8) + 0 + 0
__ ____
= (60 ×10 × –0.7 ) + 0 + (   1  × k × 0.7  2)
__
b i   2s
t = __ √ 2×6
___
√
g   =   10  = 1.1 s (2 s.f.) 2
ii
v = gt = 10 × 1.1 = 11 ms −1  4800
1
__
+ 420
⇒ k = _________   = 2.1 × 10  4 Nm−1
    × 0.49
_ _ 2 _
  1  mv  2 ⇒ v = √
c mgh = __ 2gh  = √
2 × 10 × 6  8 a   1  mv  2 ⇒ v = √
i mg∆ h = __ 2gh 
2 2
_
−1
= 11 ms (2 s.f.)
= √2 × 10 × 20  = 20 ms −1
4 a ork done = force × distance moved in
w
ii  ∆ gv =  __
t = __ 20  = 2 s
direction of force = 8.6 × 10 4× 15 = 10
1.3 × 10  6 J
b E P gained = m g Δh = 3 × 10  3× 9.81 ×
15 sin 20° = 1.5 × 10 
5 J
  20      0.34 60

− 0.20 × _________
  0.20 + 
0.34
2
b i v  2= u  2+ 2as ⇒ a = _____ 7 P = Fv = mav = 0.02 × _________
2 × 54 __
  2
= 3.7 ms upwards
−2
72
__ _____ = 0.9 mW
t = √
ii   2s
__ √
2 × 54
_____
a   =   3.7  = 5.4 s. So, total 8 Useful work done = mgh = 400 × 10 × 45
time to come to a stop = 2 + 5.4 = 180 kJ
= 7.4 s. Useful work done
______________
Total energy required =       
c
During stretching, the average tension in efficiency
180 kJ  = 514 kJ
=   _____
the cord is F = ma = 70 × ( 10 + 3.7) 0.35
= 959 N. Total energy required
_________________
Time taken =     power  =
So, k =  __ 2 × 959
F  =  ______
  = 36 Nm
−1.
x 54   514
______ kJ  = 234 s About 4 minutes.
2.2 kW
9   420   = 28 kg
420 = mgh ⇒ m = _______ _
10 × 1.5 9 a mgh =  __1  mv  2 ⇒ v = √ 2gh  =
2
Assumptions: All the E  Pof the falling mass is ______________
√  
2 × 10 × 33 × 10  3  = 812 ms −1
available to the spike, g = 10 Nkg−1, no energy
is lost during the work done by the spike—and mgh
  work done  =  ____
b P = _________ t 
the student can pick up a mass of 28 kg! time taken
= 1.36 × 10  9 × 10 × 33.0 × 10  3
Exercise 3.3 = 4.49 × 10  14 W
1 a
work done = E 
P gained = mgΔh c 4.49 × 10    = 2.41 × 10  5times as much
i  ________
14
1.86 × 10 
9
= 40 × 9.81 × 30 = 1.2 × 104J
4.49 × 10   = 3.9 times as much
ii  ______________
  
  
14
 work done  =  _______

1.2 ×  
10  4
output power = ________
b 1.86 × 10  × 62500
9
time taken 12
= 1.0 kW
power
Exercise 3.4
2 Power = F v ⇒ F =  _____ 15 × 1 
_______ 0  = 750 N 3
v  =   20 1 a chemical energy → EK  + internal energy +

3 Anton is the most powerful (3.61 W). sound energy
energy transformed mgΔh E K → EP 
4 a power = ________________
  
       = _____
  t 
time taken
65 × 9.81
__________ × 5 = 530 W b chemical energy → light energy + internal
=     energy + sound energy + E K of ‘sparkles’
6
useful energy transformed
_____________________
b E =           c i E P = mgh = 0.05 × 10 × 150 = 75 J.
efficiency
65 × 9.81 × 5 = 16 kJ So, the rocket must have stored a
=  __________  
0.2 minimum of 75 J of chemical energy
mgh
5 a number of chocolate bars = _________   εE 
chocolate bar
ii Some of the chemical energy is
75 ×
____________
=    10 × 1085
    6  = 3 chocolate bars required to be transferred into light
0.25 × 1.1 × 10 
energy, EK  of the ‘sparkles’ and sound
b A lot of energy will be required to walk energy (and any additional E P the
along the 5-km track to the summit; it parts of the exploding rocket might
isn’t only a vertical climb. have gained).
P =  __
c t   75 × 10 × 1085
E  = ___________
    = 45 W 2 a chemical energy → EK  → internal
5 × 60 × 60
energy + sound energy
6 a i   useful work done
P = ______________
    
time taken b Since the block is moving at a constant
=   20
   × 70 × 10
______________× 0.25 = 78 W
  speed, the ‘push’ force from the worker
45
must be equal to the frictional force
  useful work done
ii P = ______________
     between the block and the ground.
time taken
=   12 x 70 × 10 
______________
   × 0.35 = 147 W
20
b Since Anatoly’s power output is almost
double that of Garry’s, it’s most likely that
Anatoly would be the one out of breath.
c It’s unlikely that the force would have 8 EP  of water → EK  of water → rotational E K
been applied purely in the horizontal of turbines → electromagnetic energy in
direction. There would, therefore, have generators → electrical energy of output
been a component of the actual force current. Each of these transfers will also
applied in the vertical direction, making be accompanied by energy transferred into
the actual applied force larger than the internal energy.
frictional force between the block and
9 a Yes. So far, scientists have not been able
the ground.
to show an example of the principle
3 a E P → EK  → EP  → EK  → EP  of conservation of energy not being
obeyed. This doesn’t mean that there
b As the string becomes more vertically
cannot be such an example; it just means
orientated, the tension in the string will
that our current understanding and our
increase. This will stretch the string a
observations have not been able to falsify
little, transferring some of the E P into
the conservation of energy rule.
elastic potential energy as well as E K.
b This is a difficult question to answer,
As the angle between the string and the
and it may be that such a question could
vertical increases, the tension in the string
form the basis for substantial discussion
decreases, allowing some of the stored
in class or in groups. Certainly, one
elastic potential energy to be transferred
line of thinking would suggest that if
into EK  —and so to EP  .
the conservation of energy really isn’t
4 As the comet approaches the Sun, it speeds falsifiable, then all energy, whether E P,
up. Gravitational potential energy is being EK  , EH and so on, is just transferred
transferred into kinetic energy. As the comet from one to another. The implication
recedes from the Sun, kinetic energy is is, therefore, that energy cannot be
transferred into gravitational potential energy. generated—it can only be transformed—
and so the total energy in the universe
5 Chemical energy (from the car’s fuel) →
must be constant. So far, it has not been
kinetic energy (of moving parts of engine,
possible to test this hypothesis, although
wheels and the car itself) + internal energy
as our ability to make better and better
(the engine—and its parts—get hot) + sound
observations of the universe continues to
energy. Rotational kinetic energy in wheels →
improve, it may allow us to observe energy
kinetic energy of moving gravel + internal
transformations hitherto unknown.
energy (of gravel and tyres) + sound energy.
If such observations were made, they
Kinetic energy of car itself → EP  .
would only show us that the total energy
6 As the alpha particles approach the gold of the universe was more than we had
nuclei, they slow down. E K is being transferred previously thought, not that the total
into electrical potential energy. As they move energy of the universe is not constant.
away from the gold nuclei, the opposite c i Yes, it does seem to suggest this.
happens: electrical potential energy is The laws of thermodynamics would
transferred into kinetic energy. seem to agree with this too—and this
7 a E P (in springs) → EK  → EH has led to the so-called heat death of
the universe hypothesis.
b E P → EK  + EH as the mass moves
from its highest position towards ii There is substantial evidence to
the equilibrium position. Then, show that since the beginning of the
EK  + EP  → EH as the mass moves to universe, some 13.7 billion years ago,
its lowest position. On the way up, the universe as a whole has continued
EH → EK  + EP  as it moves towards to cool down. We must be careful here
the equilibrium position. Then, however, because terms such as cool
EK  + EH → EP  as it nears its down are associated with temperature
highest position again. and this is associated with the
average, or typical, kinetic energy of
atoms. Perhaps one argument might
be something like as atoms continue
to share their energy there will come Short-answer questions

a time when all atoms have the same
amount of energy and no more   1  mv  2 = __
11 a E k_lost = __   1  × 1.6 × 2  2= 3.2 J [2]
2 2
sharing will occur. This would seem
b   3.2 −2  = 270 N
F = ________ [2]
to be in agreement with the 1.2 × 10 
heat-death idea.   1  mv  2 = __
12 a E K = __   1  × 5 × 6  2= 90 J [2]
2 2
iii The two answers are not necessarily b 200 − 90 = 110 J [1]
contradictory. Both processes can
occur, but the net effect must be what   1  × 5 × ( v  2  − 6  2) ⇒
c 110 = __
2 ______________
we observe. Since our observations
appear to be in agreement with the (__
v =     25  × 110)+ 36 = 8.9 ms−1
√ [2]
cooling of the universe over time, 13 a The graph shows that F is
then, perhaps, the sharing of energy proportional to x, which is what
by atoms is a more dominant process Hooke’s law states. [1]
(i.e. has a greater effect) than the
transformation of kinetic energy into b  Fx  = ___
i k = __   3   = 30 Nm  −1 [2]
0.1
internal energy.
E = __
ii   1  F x = __   1 × 3 × 0.1
2 2
iv It would seem that these arguments = 0.15 J [2]
suggest that the universe would
eventually reach a constant 14 a mgh = 0.15 × 9.81 × 1.2= 1.766 J
temperature thoughout, whether this ≈ 1.8 J [1]
is warmer than is currently the case b 1.8 J [1]
or cooler. More observations will ______
continue to direct our thinking. c √
  2 × 1.8   = 4.9 ms −1
v = _____
0.15
[1]
v It may not imply anything, but it So, yes, the glass is likely to break. [1]
will continue to ‘allow’ energy to be
transferred or transformed. 15 a   1  kx  2 = __
EH = __   1  × 270 × 0.12  2
2 2
= 1.94 J [1]
Answers for Exam-style questions b   1  mv  2 = __
EK = __   1  × 0.030 × 8  2
2 2
Multiple-choice questions = 0.96 J [1]
1 B [1]   useful work done  = ____
ε = ______________
c      0.96  = 49%
total energy used 1.94
2 A [1] d E Kof the bow and string (it will vibrate),
internal energy in the bow (it will
3 B [1]
warm up), sound energy (a little) [2]
4 B [1] 16 a Energy required for 1 book = Wh =
5 A [1] 19.0 ×1.4 = 26.6 J
6 B [1]  798   =

So, the number of books = ____
26.6
30 books [2]
7 C [1]
  useful work done
b P = ______________
   798   =
  =  _____
8 C [1] time taken 8 × 60
1.7 W (2 s.f.) [1]
9 C [1]
c She is not 100% efficient; some power
10 D [1] is required for bodily functions; she
will get hot. [2]
17 a Power is the rate of doing work; 19 a Remy does the most work.
  work done .
P = _________ [1] Name Work done / kg Power / W
time taken
  4.5  =
b P = Fv = mg  _st  = 50 × 10 × ___ George 75 × 10 × 4.5 = 3375 ÷ 8.0 =
12 3375 J 422 W
190 W (2 s.f.) [2]
Remy 68 × 10 × 5.5 = 3740 ÷ 9.0 =
mgh
  Useful work done
c E = ______________
     = ____
  ε  = 3740 J 416 W
efficiency
50 x 10 x 
4.5 = 9 kJ
Andreas 82 × 10 × 4.0 = 3280 ÷ 7.0 =
 __________ [2] 3280 J 469 W
0.25 [3]
18 a The student should b Andreas is the most powerful. [1]
•
connect springs in parallel
between two pieces of
stiff board. [1]
•
use a ruler to measure how
far the springs compress
when he stands on one of
the boards. [1]
•
use the equation F = kx, with the
appropriate value of k, to find F
(his weight). [1]
b Using F = kx, if x = 5.0 cm then
65 × 9.81   = 12753 Nm  −1
k =  _______ [1]
5.0 × 10 
−2
So the student will require a minimum

  12753 = 51 springs
of _____ [1]
250
Chapter 4
Exercise 4.1 9 a In 1 s, the length of the column of water
that will hit the wall is v.
1 a In the absence of an external force, linear
momentum, p, is the product of the mass So the volume is V = Av.
of a body and its velocity; p = mv.
So the mass is m = ρV = ρAv.
b kgms  ≡ kgms  s And since kgms  are
−1 −2 −2
∆p ρAv × v
b F = ___
  t = ______
    = ρAv  2
the base units for force (N), kgms −1 ≡ N s. 1
ρAv  2in the direction of the original
c
c i
p = mv = 50 × 6 = 300 kgms −1
water jet
westwards
( −3) 2
d F = ρAv  2= 1000 ×    π × 1.5 × 
____________ 10   
×
ii
p = mv = 9.1 × 10  −31 × 2 × 10  7 = ( 100.0)  2 = 17.7 N.
4
1.82 × 10  −23 = 1.8 × 10  −23 kgms  −1
(2 s.f.) towards the anode e P = __ F   = ___________
  A 17.7
 π × ( 1.5   = 1.0 × 10  7 Pa
× 10  −3)   2
____________
  
   
4
iii
p = mv = 0.11 × 60 = 6.6 kgms −1 This is 100 atmospheres.
towards the goal
10 a No. of photons
2 a p  total= (3.2 × 2.5) – (5.0 × 1.5) received power
= 0.5 kgms  −1 northwards
______________
s  −1 =   
  
    1000 −19  =
  = ________
energy of 1 photon 2.5 × 10 
__________________
4 × 10  21 photons s  −1
b p  total = √
(  
0.4 × 3)  2  + ( 0.25 × 4)  2  = 1.56
N∆p
 4 × 10    × 1.3 × 10  =
21 −27
= 1.6 kgms  −1 (2 s.f.) F = ____
b   t  ________________
=     
1
in a direction t an  −1(________
  (0.25 × 4) )= 40°
( ) 5.2 × 10  Nm 
−6 −2
0.4 × 3
above the horizontal c F total = 5.2 × 10  −6 × 12 = 6.2 × 10  −5 N
3 a ∆ v = vfinal
  − vinitial
  = 0 − 2.5 = −2.5 ms −1 d The total force on the roof from the
sunlight is 6.2 × 10  −5 × 10 = 6.2 × 10  −4 N.
b a =  __ − 2.5
∆ v =  ____
  = −0.5 ms  −2
t 5 This is a very small force compared to the
c F = ma = 4.0 × (−0.5) = −2.0 N weight of the solar panels themselves.
No need for concern about the force
d The negative sign shows that the direction from the sunlight; perhaps a need to
of the force was in the opposite direction be concerned about the weight of the
to the original velocity. solar panels!
4 a The average net force on a system is equal Exercise 4.2
to the rate of change of the system’s
∆p 1 a Impulse means a change of momentum.
momentum. F = ___    
∆t
∆p
mv −  mu =  _______ m(v − u) b kgms  −1or N s
F = ___
b   t =  _______
t t  = ma
5 a ∆ p = pfinal
  − pinitial
  = 0 − 4 × 2.5 = 2 a   − pinitial
J = ∆ p = pfinal   = 6.5 − 4.0 =
2.5 kgms  −1 vertically upwards
−10 kgms  −1
∆p b   − pinitial
J = ∆ p = p final   = − 2.0 − 3.0 =
b F = ___  −510
  t = ____  = −2.0 N
−5.0 kgms  −1 vertically downwards
6  Ft
m ∆ v = Ft ⇒ ∆ v = __ 180 ×  
2.5 = 37.5 ms  −1
_______
m  =   12 (Note that the negative sign in the answer
7 m ∆ v = Ft ⇒ t =   F =   × 1.5
m
____∆ v 0.6
_______ = 5 ms shows the direction is downwards.)
180
8 Ft = m ∆ v ⇒ m = __ Ft 5200 ×
    =  _______ 5  = 1300 kg
∆ v ( 30 − 10)
c 12 J = area under graph = __

b  1 × 3.2 × 8.0
2
= 12.8 = 13 N s (2 s.f.)
J
v =  __
c 12.8
____
m  =     = 21.3 = 21 ms  (2 s.f.)
−1
0.6
9 7 a Impulse = area under graph
15
53º = 1⁄2× 50 × 20 = 500 kgms −1
b
Velocity/ m s–1
  − pinitial
J = ∆ p = pfinal   = 15 kgms  −1 in a
direction 53° from the vertical
3 a J = Ft = 60 × 12 × 10 −3= 0.72 N s
p
b v = __  0.72  = 3.6 ms  −1
 m  = ____ 0
0.2
_ _ 0 20
4 a Speed of woman = √
2gh = √
2 × 10 × 3 = Time/s
7.7 ms  −1
Since the force acting on the object
So J = 0 − mv = − 60 × 7.7 = 462 N s increases, its acceleration increases, so
(upwards) the gradient of the graph of v against
b  Jt  = ___
F = __   ___
s   1.5462
J   = _______   = 1.2 × 10  5 N
× 10  −2
t increases.
  v    ________
  7.7  
ave ⁄2 500
c Δp = 500 Therefore, v =  ___  = 200 ms  −1.
3
(Note that it isn’t necessary to consider the (1 s.f.)
weight of the woman in this calculation,
because her weight is negligible compared Exercise 4.3
to the size of the force exerted by the
1 a The principle of conservation of linear
ground on her feet and legs.)
momentum: in any interaction involving
F =  __Jt  = ___
c   50 462
J   = ______
  ___   = 3.6 × 10  3 N no external forces, the total momentum
s × 10  −2
  v   
ave
 _______
 
⁄2
7.7 before the interaction is equal to the total
(This is 3% of part b.) momentum after the interaction.
d The force calculated in part b is sufficient b As far as we know, the principle of
to break a bone in the woman’s leg. conservation of linear momentum is a
When she bends her legs, the force is universal law (in other words, it applies to
considerably reduced (because the all interactions).
time of the collision with the ground 2 Total momentum before = total momentum
is increased)—and so is the chance of after
her doing herself an injury.
∴ 25 × 10  −3× 120 = ( 25 × 10  −3× 85) +
5 Crumple zones extend the time during which (1.5 × v)
a crash occurs. This means that the impulse
25 × 10  × 120 − 85
_________________ −3 ( )
(the change in momentum of the car and its ∴ v =       = 0.58 ms  −1
1.5
passengers) occurs over a longer time, making
3 Total momentum before = total momentum
the force experienced by the passengers
after
smaller. This reduces the chance of injury.
∴ 4.5 × 4.0 = (4.5 + 1.5)v
6 a 3.5
3 4.5 × 4.0   = 3.0 ms  −1
∴ v =  ________
( )
4.5 + 1.5
2.5
Force / N
2 4 3.2 × 10  3× 15.0 = ( 3.2 × 10  3 − 800)v

1.5
1   
  3.2 × 10  × 15.0   = 20 ms  −1
∴ v =  _____________
3
( )
3.2 × 10  − 800
3
0.5
0 5 (450 × 3.0)+ 0 = 0 + ( m × 5.0)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time / s  4505× 
∴ m = ______ 3 = 270 g
___ _____________
mg
√
  5.0 √
× 10  × 9.81   = −3
6 mg = ρAv  2 ⇒ v = ___ _____________
  ρA   =     
   2 pbefore
    Therefore, 3 × 4 = ( 3 + 1) × v ⇒
= pafter
1.3 × 1.6 × 1 0 −3
4.9 ms 
−1
3 × 4  = 3 ms  −1
v =  ____
3+1
7 Total momentum before = total momentum
3 a p = mv = 0.4 × 8 = 3.2 kgms −1
after
b p = mv = 0.4 × −5 = −2.0 kgms 
−1

∴ ( 3.0 × 5.0) − (2.5 × 4.0) = (3.0 + 2.5)v
15 − 10 c he ball has changed its momentum by
T
∴ v =  ______
  = 0.9 ms  −1in the direction mass
5.5 −2.0 − 3.2 = −5.2 kgms −1.
A had been moving.
So, the Earth must have gained
8 Assume: average mass of Chinese person = momentum of 5.2 kgms  −1.
70 kg, g = 10 Nkg  −1, Earth is stationary
___________ Since the mass of the Earth is large
Velocity on landing = √
(2 × 10 × 1)  = 4.5 ms  −1 ( M  Earth = 6 × 10  24 kg), the speed at which
the Earth moves will be  ______ 5.2   =
Momentum of population just before landing = 6 × 10  24
1.4 × 10  9× 70 × 4.5 = 4.4 × 10 
11 N s 8.7 × 10  −25 ms  −1.
∴ Speed of Earth (+ Chinese population) = This speed is too small for us to notice/
measure, but that is what the Earth
  4.4 × 10 24  = 7.3 × 10  −14 ms  −1
11
________
6 × 10  is doing!
This change of speed of the Earth is
4 a J = ∆ p = m (vfinal
  − vinitial
  ) = 4.8 × 10  −26 ×
not noticeable.
( − 500 − 500) = − 4.8 × 10  −23N s
Social media chat on this idea is poor physics!!
(Here, the negative sign is showing that
9 Conservation Before After the impulse is in the opposite direction to
law collision Collision the molecule’s initial velocity.)
momentum mu mv 1 + 12mv 2 b 4.8 × 10  −23N s (positive because of
1  mu  2 Newton’s third law)
EK   _   1  mv1  2  + _
_   1  12mv2  2 
2 2 2
 J A
F   = ____ tN  4.8 × 10  × 1 
× 2.1 × 10  =
−23 27
c P =  __
A
 = ____________________
  
1
u = v 1  + 12v2  and u  2 = v1  2  + 12v2  2  1.0 × 10  5 Pa
So, v1  2  + 24v1  v2  + 144v 22  = v1  2  + 12v2  2  5 a p = mv = 0.25 × 450 = 112.5 kgms −1
132  v  = − 5.5v  ( = 110 kgms  −1to 2 s.f.)
⇒ v 1  = −  _
242 2
 112.5  =
p = 112.5 = (70 + 0.25)v ⇒ v = _____
b
⇒ u = − 5.5v 2 + 12v2  = 7.5v2  1.6 ms 
−1
70.25
v 
5.5 = 0.73
⇒ __
  u1  =  ___
7.5 F = ___
c
∆p
 70 × 1.6
  t = _______ = 1120 N =
0.1
So about 27% of its speed is lost in (1100 N to 2 s.f.)
each collision.
d The hay bale will be pushed at a speed of
Exercise 4.4 1.6 ms  −1in the direction of the bullet.
_____ ___________
p  2
1   1  mv  2 = ____
a E k = __
2
 
( mv)  2 ___
2m
 =    
2m 6 v = _____
a √ 2 × E  √
2 × 8.0 × 10     =
  m  k = ___________
   
   −27
6.64 × 10 
−13

p  2
  12   = 24 J
2
b i E k = ___     = ____ 1.6 × 10  7 ms  −1
2m 2 × 3
p  2 (5.4 × 10  −24)  2 b
J = ∆ p = 2 × 1.6 × 10 7 × 6.64 × 10  −27 =
ii E k = ___     =  ____________
     =
2m 2 × 9.11 × 10 −31 2.1 × 10  −19 N s
1.6 × 10  −17 J J 2.1 × 10    = 6.4 × 10  5 ms  −1
−19
_ ___________ v =  __
c _________
m  =  
3.29 × 10  −25
c i
p = √2m Ek    = √
2 × 0.6 × 30 =
6.0 kgms  −1 d kinetic energy =  __1  mv  2 = __
  1  × 3.29 × 10  −25 ×
2 2
_ ______________ (6.4 × 10  5)  2 = 6.7 × 10  −14 J
ii
p=√ 2m Ek    = √
2  
× 0.058 × 26.1 =
1.74 = 1.7 kgms  −1 (2 s.f.)
e In an elastic collision, E K  is conserved. In c E K before = (   1  × 3.9 × 7.5  2) +
__
2
(   1  × 1.8 × 3.0  2)= 118 J
the collision between the alpha-particle __
and the gold nucleus, the calculations have 2
shown that the EK  after the collision will   1  × 5.7 × 5.2  2= 77.1 J
E K after = __
2
be greater than the E K  before the collision
(because the gold nucleus has gained EK  .) E K after < EK  before, so the collision
So, if the alpha-particle really did collide was inelastic.
elastically with the gold nucleus, it must
10 a Using conservation of momentum,
have done so at a smaller speed.
(See Chapter 19 for further insight   after ⇒ 0 = ( 2.970 − 0.032) ×
p total before = ptotal
into this phenomenon.) v + (0.032 × 500)
7 a   = mu + m × 0 = mu
Before: p total (
−  0.032 × 500 )
∴ v =  ____________
  
  )  = − 5.45 ms  −1.
( 2.970 − 0.032
  = mv1  + mv2 
After: ptotal
(The negative sign is showing that the rifle
So, applying conservation of linear moves in the opposite direction to
momentum: mu = mv1  + mv2  . the bullet.)
b
Before: EKtotal
    1  mu  2+ 0 = __
= __  1  mu  2 b Chemical Energy  min = EK  rifle + EK  bullet
2 2

After: EKtotal
    1  mv1  2  +  __1  mv2  2 
= __
2 2
= (__
  1  × 2.938 × 5.45  2) +
2
(
  1  × 0.032 × 500  2)
__
So, applying conservation of EK  : __   1  mu  2 = 2
2
1 1
 __  mv1    +  __  mv2    .
2 2
2 2 = 4044 J
c From parts a and b: u = v1  + v2  and Exam-style questions
u  2 = v1  2  + v2  2  .
Now, u  2 = ( v1  + v2  )  2 = v1  2  + 2 v1  v2  +
v2  2  = v1  2  + v2  2  1 C [1]
Therefore, 2 v1  v2  = 0. 2 A [1]
There are two possible solutions to this: 3 C [1]

v 1 = 0 and v2  = u or v2  = 0 and v1  = u that 4 D [1]
is, the first ball stops and the second ball
moves on at the speed u, or the second ball 5 C [1]
does not move and the first ball continues
6 C [1]
on at the same speed as before. This
suggests that the second ball did not exist! 7 A [1]
∆ (mv)
8 F = ____   ∆ m ×
  t  = ______  v = 1250 × 3.0 × 10 4 = 8 C [1]
1
3.8 × 10 
N (2 s.f.)
7
9 D [1]
9 a Total momentum before collision = 10 B [1]
( meagle
  veagle
  ) eastwards +
( mseagull
  vseagull
  ) southwards Short-answer questions
= (3.9 × 7.5) eastwards ∆p
1200 × 18  = 72 ms
t = ___
11 a  F =  ________ [2]
3.0 × 10  5
+ (1.8 × 3.0) southwards
____________ b s = vt = 18 × 72 × 10 −3= 1.3 m [1]
= √  
29.2 5  2+ 5 . 4  2  = 29.7 kgms  −1
p c 1.3 m is sufficient for the passenger
∴ v = __
 ( 29.7 )  = 5.2 ms  −1
 m  = ________ to hit the windscreen of the car.
3.9 + 1.8
Wearing a seatbelt prevents this—
b angle = tan  −1(_____
  5.4  ) = 10.5  0south of east and so would most probably save
29.25
the passenger’s life. [1]
12 a Before the collision, p = mv = 16 a

J = area under graph
6 × 6 = 36 kgms −1 = 250 × 5 × 10 −3= 1.25 N s [2]
After the collision, p = (m 1 + m2  )v = b v = __
 m  1.25   = 22 ms  −1
J   = _____
0.058
( 6 + 3)v
c Looser strings means that the
 ( 36 )  = 4 ms  −1
So, v = _____ [2] time of contact between the racket
6 + 3
and the tennis ball will be longer. [1]
∆ p
b F = ___  3 × 4 = 60 N
  t = ____ [1]
0.2 For the same maximum force,
c Before the collision, this will create a larger impulse and
EK  = 1 ⁄2 × 6 × 6  2= 108 J. so a faster speed of the tennis ball. [1]
After the collision, 17 a
J = area under graph
EK  = 1 ⁄2 × 9 × 4  2= 72 J. [1] = ( 2 × 20) + (   1 × 2 × 10)= 50 N s [2]
__
2
There is less EK  after the collision, J
v =  __
b 50
___ [1]
m  =     = 23 ms  (2 s.f.)
−1
so the collision is inelastic. [1] 2.2
c Power average = Faverage
  × vaverage
  =
13 a The two forces are the same in
magnitude and opposite in 2.5 × 11.5 = 29 W (2 s.f.) [2]
direction: Newton’s third law. [1] 18 a  ∆ mv
F = ____ 30 ×  
2 . 5 = 75 N
  =  _______ [1]
t 1
b Before the collision, b
P = Fv = 75 × 2.5 = 187.5 =
p = 60 × 2 M − 60 × M = 60 M. 190 W (2 s.f.) [2]
After the collision, p = 3 Mv. (Penalise answer of 187.5 W for
60 M  = 20 kmhr  −1
Therefore, v =  ____ [2] incorrect no. of s.f.)
3M
  m ∆    30 ×  
v  = _______ 2.5  = 93.75 =
2 2
c Before the collision, E

K  = 1 ⁄2 × c ∆ Ek  = _____
2 2
94 W (2 s.f.) [1]
2 M × 60  2 + 1 ⁄2 × M × 60  2 =
∆p
  3  × M × 3600 = 5400 M.
__ F =  ___
19 a ____
t =   t   4.0 × 
∆ mv = _______ 250 = 1000 N [1]
2 1
After the collision, a = __
b  m  1000   = 0.08 ms  −2
F   = _____ [1]
12500
EK  = 1 ⁄2 × 3 M × 20  2 = 600 M. [1]
c 4N s
J = Ft = 1000 × 20 = 2 × 10  [1]
K  before
This is less than the E 2 × 10    = 1.6 ms  −1
J   =  ______ 4
the collision, so the collision d ∆ v = __

 m [1]
12500
was inelastic. [1] _
p = √
20 a 9.2  2+ 5.3  2  × 10  −23
14 a Force = gradient of graph. = 10.62 × 10  −23
∆ p 15
F = ___
  t  = __
    = 0.75 N [2] = 1.1 × 10  −22N s (2 s.f.) [2]
20
b ΔE k = ___
p   2
  15    = 37.5 J
    = _____
2
In a direction of tan  −1(___
  9.2 )= 150°
2m 2×3 5.3
(38 J to 2 s.f.) [2] to the positron’s velocity [1]
p 1.062 × 10  −22 = 270 ms  −1
15 a 4 × 1.6 × 10  7= 237 v ⇒ v =  __
b __________
m  =   3.9 × 10  −25  [1]

 4 × 1.6 × 
v = __________ 10 7 = 2.7 × 10  5 ms  −1 [2] p   2 ( −22) 2
237
c E K = ___     
1.062 × 10   
    = ____________
     =
2m 2 × 3.9 × 10 
−25
E   __1 × 4 × (1.6 × 10  7)  2
b  ____Kα
  = ________________
  
  __   2
 = 59. [2] 1.4 × 10  −20 J [1]
E 
KNp   1 × 237 × (2.7 × 10  5)  2
2
So, the alpha particle has 59
times more EK  than the Np nucleus.
Chapter 5
Workbook answers
Exercise 5.1 ii θ = ω i t + ½ αt  2= 40 × 6 + ½ ×
5 × 6  2= 240 + 90 = 330 radians
1 a i The angle through which something So, number of rotations =
Chapter 1
has rotated 330 = 52.5.
 ___
2π
ii The rate at which something is
(___________
24.47 × 86400 )
Test Your Understanding Modern scientific   controversies
2π include:
rotating – or the angle through which ωS  ___________
___ 1
_____
•5 the
a  idea
ω  =that
 
   increasing
2π
=concentrations
 
(_____ )
= 4.08 × of
10  −2
24.47
• You shouldsomething
be familiar rotates
withinsome
one second
of the E  
86400
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are causing
structures seen in cells from work done at
b i ω = _  θt = __
  2π = 0.10 radians s  −1 globalv
 
b  __ warming
S
= ____
 

r  
S
ω
 
S

  6.96 × 10  × 4.08 × 10  −2 =
  = ________
5
GCSE. Figures 1.4 60 and 1.5 will refresh your v  E rE  ωE  6.37 × 10  3
memory (2ofdecimal
cell structure. places) • the controversy
4.46 about whether the measles,
mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine can
• The ii ω = _  θt of
functions = ______
  the 2πmain structures
= 1.7 × 10  −3 are 6   15
a α = ______ − 20 = −1.25 radians s  −2
60 × 60 increase the4 risk of autism (but scientists are
found in the sections ‘Features that animal
radians s  −1(2 significant figures) now agreed
∆ω
___ that
600
___ there is no link between the
and plant cells have in common’ and b t =   α =   = 40 s
MMR vaccine 15and autism).
iii _   θt = __________
ω = between
‘Differences   2π
animal =and1.5plant cells’
× 10  −4 ω f2  − ωi  2 
60 × 60 × 12
  40  questions
− 15  = 2 2
on pp 0–0.
radians s  −1(2 significant figures) c θ =  ______ = _______
Self-assessment 2α 2×2
• As well as Figures 1.4 and 1.5, you will 344 radians (3 s. f.)
c i
find relevant ω = 2.5 × 10 in−2the
v = rinformation × 0.1
section = 1
2.5 mm s   −1

‘Differences between animal and plant cells’   10.0 = 25.0 radians s  −1
7 a ω  = _  vr = _____
Structuresi that animal
0.400 and plant cells have in
on pp 0–0.
ii v = r ω = 2.0 × 10  −2 × 1.7 × 10  −3 = common:
b number of rotations =
• Yes. There3.4are × 1organisms
0  −2 mms  −1other
than animals •   distance travelled and
_________________
nucleus
  
   with nucleolus 50.0 = 19.9.
= _______
  chromatin
circumference of wheel 0.40 × 2π
and plants. They are classified in different
iii v = r ω = 1.5 × 10  −2 × 1.5 × 10  −4 = • cytoplasm ω f2  containing
− ωi  2  mitochondria, Golgi
kingdoms which−1you will learn about later. c α =   ______   0small
= __________ − 25.0  2 =
2.3 μms  apparatus and 2θ other structures
2 × 2π × 19.9
Other types of organism include fungi, a
• 2.50 radians
cell surface membrane. s
  −2

2 group
a ω=   10
of______ × 2π =unicellular
mainly 0.21 rads  −1organisms
called
ω f − ωi 
5 × 60
protoctists, bacteria and viruses. ______
d t =found
Structures   α only   0 in
− 25.0 = 10.0 s
= _______ plant cells:
b i v = r ω = 2.5 × 0.21 = 0.53 ms  −1 2.50
Science in context •
8 chloroplasts
a α = gradient of graph =  _______ 4.5 × 10  = 4
ii v = r ω = 4.5 × 0.21 = 0.95 ms  −1 3

large,1.5 × 10  radscentral
 
4 −2
Two obvious examples are: • permanent vacuole
3 a Angular acceleration is the rate at which • b Revs =  ________
cell wall with middle
 lamella
=   
 
total angle
_____________
and  =
Area under graph
a Darwin and Wallace’s
the angular velocity theory of evolution
is changing: α = ___   dω . 2π 2π
plasmodesmata.
by natural selection was highly controversial dt 1((   × 4.5 × 3)+ 4.5 × 2 ) × 10 
__ ( ) 4
2
_________________________
b i ω 
because it iappeared   300 × 2πto
= _______ =be 31.4
in radians with
conflict s  −1 the   found
Structure      = 2.5 × 10  4
only in
2πanimal cells:
60
religious belief that
× 2πGod created all species of revolutions
ii ω f =   120
_______ = 12.6 radians s  −1 • centriole
living things and60that humans were a special 9 a i α = gradient of graph:
  12.6 −5 31.4 = −3.76 radians s  −2
iii α = _________
creation. 2
16
• use a sharp14pencil
velocity / rads–1
b
4 Galileo was–1placed under house arrest for the
a
/radss 12 Gradient = 14 = 1.3 rad s–2
rest of his life after putting forward the idea
Angular
• don’t use shading/don’t

10 draw the nucleus as a
11
that Earth and the other planets orbited the solid blob 68
Sun rather70 than the Earth being at the centre
• don’t cross 42label lines
of the solar system. Again, this appeared to 0
contradict40 the religious beliefs of the time. • don’t use arrow
0 heads
2 4on label
6 8lines
10 12 14
Other examples include: • use a ruler to draw label lines
Time / s
0
• Einstein’s theory 0 of general relativity 6 t/seconds
(which • make outline of cells less sketchy - lines should
challenged our ideas of the link between space ii Total angle
be continuous, not broken = area under graph =
and i ω 
time) = ω  + αt = 40 + 5 × 6 = 15 rectangles @ 4 rad = 60 radians
b f i
• write labels horizontally, not at the same angle
• Wegener’s70theory ofs  −1
radians continental
drift (which as
∴ verage angular velocity = __
the labelAline  60 =
12
was controversial because scientists could not • 5 radiss  seen.
interpret what
−1
For example, outlines
explain how continents could move). are not very accurate (too rounded)
b i  ___   4π t = 1.3 rads  −2

dω = __ 4 a i Net force = 0
dt 60
ii ∫0      t  2dt = [ ___
  2π t  3]    = 60 radians
12
12 __ 2π ii Net torque = 0
60 180 0
∴ Average angular velocity = __  60 = b i W is the weight of the ladder
12
5 rads 
−1
(Note that it acts from the centre
of mass of the ladder.)
Exercise 5.2
N 1is the normal reaction force from
1 a Torque is the product of the perpendicular the wall
force and the distance from the axis of
rotation where it is applied: τ = Fd sin θ, N 2is the normal reaction force from
where F is the force applied, d is the distance the ground
from the axis of rotation and θ is the angle
F is the static friction force between
between the force and the line joining where the foot of the ladder and the ground
the force is applied to the axis of rotation.
ii N 1 + F = 0 and W + N 2 = 0
b Nm (not Joules).
c N 2 = 500 N ⇒ F = N 1= 0.25 × 500
c i τ = 250 × 0.6 = 150 N m = 125 N
ii τ = 400 × 3 × sin 30° = 600 N m 500 × 4 cos θ = 125 × 8 sin θ
2 a A couple is a pair of forces of the ⇒ θ = tan  −1(____
  2000 ) = 63°
same magnitude acting in opposite 1000
directions; they are not collinear, so d F × 4 sin θ + N1  × 4 sin θ = N2  × 4 cos θ
they cause a rotation of the object they
125 × 4 sin θ + 125 × 4 sin θ =
are applied to.
500 × 4 cos θ
b The two forces act in opposite directions;
⇒ θ = tan  −1(____
  2000 ) = 63°
they combine to give zero resultant 1000
translational force. The two forces e F × 8 sin θ + W × 4 cos θ = N2  × 8 cos θ
contribute an equal torque, so the
resultant torque is not zero and is not in 125 × 8 sin θ + 500 × 4 cos θ =
rotational equilibrium. 500 × 8 cos θ
c A constant couple will produce a constant ⇒ θ = tan  −1(____

  2000 ) = 63°
1000
angular acceleration. f It doesn’t matter which point is taken
3 a The lid will require a couple that is equal to be the axis of rotation; all points give
to (or greater than) 15 N m. So, each force the same answer. Note that this suggests
  τ =
must be at least F = __ that if you take the axis of rotation to be
2r the point at which more forces act than
  15
___________ = 214 N = 210 N. (2 s.f.)
2 × 3.5 × 10 
−2 any other point, the calculation may be
b The handles of the gadget increase the simpler to perform.
distance from the axis of rotation, so 5 I=∑
a i  mi  ri  2  , where m is the mass of
τ =
the force required now is F =  __
2r a small part of an object and r is its
_______________
     15 = 40.5 N = distance from the axis of rotation.
2 × ( 3.5 + 15) × 10  −2
When all contributions from all parts
41 N. (2 s.f.)
of an object are summed, this gives the
c Someone may not be able to apply a force moment of inertia.
of 214 N to open the jar with their hands.
b Mass is the property of a body that resists
The gadget reduces the required force to
being accelerated. The moment of inertia,
41 N.
I, of a body is the property of a body that
resists a body’s angular acceleration.
c τ = I α
6 a I = m r  2 = 0.20 × 0.40  2 = 3.2 × 10  −2 kgm  2 3 L = Iω =  __25 mr  2ω = __
a   25 × 6.0 × 10  24 ×
  2π
( 6.4 × 10  6)   2× __________ =
b
I = 2 × m r  2 = 2 × 0.20 × 0.40  2 = 24 × 60 × 60
6.4 × 10  −2 kgm  2 7.1 × 10  33 kgm  2s  −1
c
I = 2 × m r  2 = 2 × 0.20 × 0.80  2 = F = _ rτ = ___
b   ∆L = ___   2mr  ∆ω =
  I∆ω = ______
2
25.6 × 10  −2 = 0.256 kgm  2 r∆t r∆t 5r∆t

2 × 6.0 × 10 24 × ( 6.4 × 10  6)   2× 2π
______________________________
    
    =
d i I∝m 5 × 6.4 × 10 6× 24 × 60 × 60 × 3.15 × 10 7
3.5 × 10  19 N
ii I ∝ r  2, so doubling r makes I four
times larger. 4 a ∆L = Area under graph = __  1 (0.06 × 3) ×
2
2 = 0.18 kgm  s 
2 −1
7   1 MR  2 = __
I = __
a   1 × 0.300 × 0.2  2 =
2 2 ∆L = _____
b ∆L = I∆ω ⇒ ∆ω =  ___   __1 ∆L 2 =
6.0 × 10  −3 kgm  2 I   MR 
2
2 ×
______________ 0.18
So, α = _  τI = ________
  20 × 0.2−3 = 667 radians s −2     
4.0 × (3.0 × 10  )  
−2 2
= 1.0 × 1
0  2 ⇒ ω =
6.0 × 10 
b Now the moment of inertia is 15 + 100 = 115 kgm 
s 
2 −1
I = 6.0 × 10  −3 + 0.12 × 0.12  2 =   1 Iω  2 = __

c E  K_rot = __   1 × __
  1 × 4 × ( 3.0 × 10  −2)   2 ×
7.7 × 10  −3 kgm  2. 2 2 2
(115)  2 = 12 J
So, the new angular acceleration is α = _  τI =
5   1 MR  2ω = __
L = Iω = __
a   1 × 2.5 × 0.12  2 ×
  20 × 0.2−3 = 519 radians s  −2.
________ 2 2
7.7 × 10  2π × 3 = 0.34 kgm  2s  −1
8 τt = _____
ω = αt  __   __1 FRt 2 = ____   2 × 4.0 × 8.0 =
  2Ft = __________
I   MR  MR
2
6 × 0.3 b τ =  ___   0.34 = 0.23 Nm
∆L = ____
∆t 1.5
35.6 radians s  −1
c Conservation of angular momentum ⇒ ω
= ___ 0.34
  IL  = _________________
  __   = 6.7 rads  −1
Exercise 5.3 new
1   × ( 2.5 + 4.5) × 0.12 
2
2
1 a i angular momentum, L = Iω, where I   6.7 = 1.1 revs s  −1
∴ No. of revs s  −1 = ___
2π
is the moment of inertia and ω is the 6   1 Mv  2
a E  K = __
angular velocity. 2
  1 Iω  2
b E  K_rot = __
ii kgm  2s  −1 2
  1 ( Mv  2+ Iω  2)
c E  K_Total = __
b i Angular impulse, ∆L, is the change in 2
=  __1 (Mv  2 + __   Rv )  ) = __
  25 MR  2(__   1 Mv  2(1+ __
  25 )
2
angular momentum. 2 2
ii kgm  s 
2 −1 = __   7 Mv  2
10
c i τ netis the net torque acting on a body, =   7 × 163 × 10  −3 × 4.0  2
__
10
∆L is the angular impulse and ∆t
= 1.83 J
the time during which the angular
momentum changes. 7 a 2st = __
v = at =  ___   2s 2 × 1.5 = 0.5 ms  −1
______
2 t =  
t  6.0
Iω  final − Iω initial
  ∆L = ___________
ii τ net = ___     I∆ω = Iα
= ___ b ω =  __   0.5 −2 = 14.3 radians s  −1
v = ________
∆t ∆t ∆t R 3.5 × 10 
iii F = ma c   1 (Mv  2 + Iω  2) =
Mgh = __
2
2 L = Iω = mr  ω = 0.45 × 1.5  × 2π × 2 =
a 2 2   (Mv  + __
__ 1 2
  Rv )  2) = __
  25 MR  2 (__   7 Mv  2
2 10
12.7 = 13 kgm  2s  −1
∴ gh = __   7 v  2
10
L = Iω =  __25 mr  2ω = __
b   25 × 0.25 × ( 3 × 10  −2)   2 ×
  7  __
v  2 = _______  7 × 0.5  = 1.8 cm.
2
d h = __
10 g 10 × 9.81
2π × 50 = 0.28 kgm 2s  −1
L = Iω =  __1 mr  2ω = __
c   1 × 4.0 ×
2 2
( 4.0 × 10  −2)  2 × 2π × 20 = 0.40 kgm 
s 
2 −1
vequator
    ωspin
rEarth   6.37 × 10  × 7.2 × 10 
  1 (Mv  2+ Iω  2) =
6 −5
8 Mgh = __
a b  _____ _______ _________________
v  =   r  ω  =    
  
2 orbit orbit orbit 1.5 × 10  × 2.0 × 10 
11 −7
  1 (Mv  2+ __

__  1  MR  2 (__   Rv  )  2) = = 0.015 [2]
2 2
 __1 M(   1 v  2)= __
v  2 + __   3 Mv  2 12 a   20 = _______
2πrf = 20 ⇒ f = ___   20 = 10.6
2πr 2π × 0.3
2 2 4
______ ___
∴ ω = 2πf = 2π × 10.6 = 67 rads −1 [2]
So, v = __ M√3
  4  ____
Mgh
  = ___
    √ 4gh
3
  v  = ___
  400
2
b s = __ 5
= 80 m
Since the mass, M, and the radius, R, do 2a
not appear in this expression, the final  80 =
∴ No. of revolutions = ___
2πr
speed of the cylinder is independent of the 80 = 42
 _______ [1]
mass and radius of the cylinder, so both 2π × 0.3
cylinders will arrive at the bottom of the c ∆ω = ___
α =  ___   67 = 8.4 rads  −2 [1]
t   20
___
sloping
___
surface with the same linear speed. 2.5
____________
b v = ___ √3 √
4gh
    =   4 × 9.81 × 0.20   = 1.6 ms  −1
____________
   
3
13 a α = _  τI = ___
  30 = 35 mrads  −2
850
[1]
c This is reminiscent of the story of Galileo ω = αt = 35 × 10  −3× 300 = 10.5 ⇒
b
dropping objects of different masses from   10.5 = 1.7 revs s
revs s  −1 = ____ −1 [2]
the Leaning Tower of Pisa and showing 2π
that they hit the ground at the same v = rω = 0.4 × 10.5 = 4.2 ms −1
c [1]
time—implying that they were travelling
at the same speed.   2π ⇒ ω final = _____
14 a ω average = __   2 × 2π ⇒
3 3
d The larger mass cylinder has a larger   ∆ω
α = ___ t
  2 × 2π = 1.4 rads  −2
= _____ [1]
3×3
moment of inertia. When it rolls down b   ατ = __
I = __   Fr
α =  
0.5 × 0.25 = 0.09 kgm  2
________ [2]
the slope, more of its energy is transferred 1.4
c 2I
__
m =   2 =   2 ×
_______ 0.09 = 2.9 kg [1]
into rotational kinetic energy, allowing its r  0.25  2
translational kinetic energy to be the same
as the smaller cylinder’s. 15 a
GPE lost = mgh = 0.02 × 9.81 ×
0.3 sin 15 = 15 mJ [1]
Exam-style questions   1 mv  2 + __
b 15 mJ = __
2
  1 Iω  2 =
2
  (mv  +   5 mr  (  r )  ) = __
1 2 v   7 mv  2
__ __ 2 _ 2
Multiple-choice questions 2
2
10
[2]
_________
1 A [1] ∴ v =   √
10 ×
_________ 15
7 × 0.02
mJ   = 1.0 ms  −1 [1]
2 D [1] c t =  _____ s   = ___ 0.3 [1]
vaverage
    0.5 = 0.6 s
3 A [1]
16 a 2ω = 1.5 × 0.6  2× 30 =
L = Iω = mr 
4 B [1] 16.2 = 16 kgm  2s  −1 (2 s.f.) [2]
5 D [1] KE =  __1 Iω  2 = __
b   1 × 0.54 × 900 = 243
2 2
6 D [1] = 240 J (2 s.f.) [1]
7 C [1] c τ =  ___   16.2 = 3.6 N m
∆L = ____ [1]
∆t 4.5
8 D [1] 17 a i ω =   × 300 = 31.4 radians s  −1
2π
_______ [1]
60
9 B [1] ii angular momentum, L = Iω =
2π × 300 =
 __25 × 20.0 × 0.40  2 ×  _______
10 A [1] 60
40.2 kgm  2s  −1 [1]
2π b The principle of conservation of
11 a ω = __________
i   =
24 × 60 × 60 angular momentum states that, when
7.2 × 10  −5 rads  −1 [1] the overall torque acting on a body is
2π zero, its angular momentum
ω = ______________
ii      = remains constant. [1]
365 × 24 × 60 × 60
2.0 × 10  −7 rads  −1 [1]
c The new moment of inertia is 19 a In the absence of a net torque, angular
  25 MR  2 + mR  2 = __
__   25 × 20.0 × 0.40  2 + momentum is conserved.
4.0 × 0.40  2 = 1.92 kgm  2. [1] So, L = Iω = 1100 × 1.5 = 1650 kgm 2s  −1
∴ ωnew 1650
  IL  = ______________
  = ___      =
 40.2 =
So, the new angular velocity = ____ ( 2)
1100 + 65 × 3.5 
1.92 new
20.9 radians s  .
−1
0.87 rads  −1 [2]
So, number of rotations per minute = b   1 Iω  2 = __
KE = __
i   1 × 1100 × 1.5  2 =
2 2
  20.9 × 60 = 200.
____ [1]
2π 1200 J (2 s.f.) [1]
18 a There is no net torque involved in the
  1 Iω  2 =
KE = __
ii
skater pulling her arms inwards 2
(whatever force is required to do this has 1
__
  × 1100 + (65 × 3.5  2) ) × 0.87  2 =
(
2
no component that is perpendicular 720 J (2 s.f.) [2]
to the radius of the circle she is rotating
around). So, angular momentum
is conserved. [1]
L = I ω = constant. So if I decreases,
b
then ω must increase. [1]
c L before = Iω = 4.5 × 0.8 × 2π = 22.6 =
Lafter   22.6 = 28 rads  −1
  ⇒ ω = ____ [1]
0.8
  1 Iω  2 = __
d E K_before = __   1 × 4.5 × ( 0.8 × 2π)  2
2 2
= 56.86 J
E K_after =  __1 Iω  2 = __
  1 × 0.8 × (28)  2 = 313.6 J
2 2
∴ ∆EK  = 313.6 − 56.86 = 260 J (2 s.f.) [2]
Chapter 6
Workbook answers
Exercise 6.1 3 a i A frame of reference is a coordinate
system and a means of measuring
1 a i
v = v car − v truck = 18 − 12 = 6 ms  −1 in time that can provide a value for
Chapter 1 the same direction as the velocity of the position and time for a particle,
the truck. anywhere and at any time.
Test Your Understanding Modern scientific controversies include:
ii v = v truck − vcar
  = 12 − 18 = −6 ms  −1 ii An inertial frame of reference is a
• the idea that
frame increasing concentrations
of reference of
in which Newton’s
• You should be direction
in the familiar with opposite someto
ofthat
the of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
first law of motion is obeyed. are causing
structures seen
the car. in cells from work done at
global warming
GCSE. Figures 1.4 and 1.5 will refresh your
b i vof= cell
v nitrogen − v oxygen = 500 − − 438 = b controversy
• the 6 ms  −1 about whether the measles,
memory structure.
938 mof s  −1thein amaindirection upwards. mumps
c No.and rubella
In the frame(MMR) vaccine
of reference of can
the
• The functions structures are
increase the bus,
moving risk of autism
Ellie (and (but scientists
the two boys) are
ii v = v  − v  = −438 − 500 = noware
agreed that there
stationary. is would
This no linkbebetween
the casethe
and plant cellsoxygen
have innitrogen common’ and
− 938 between
ms  inanimal
−1
a direction downwards. MMR vaccinethe
whatever and autism).
speed of the bus is.
‘Differences and plant cells’
2 on
a pp 0–0. moveable mirror Self-assessment questions
d Oscar sees the bus travelling forwards at
• As well as Figures 1.4 and 1.5, you will 15 ms  −1and the chocolate bar travelling
half-silvered
find relevant information in the section 1 forwards at 15 + 6 = 21 ms  −1.
mirror
‘Differences between animal and plant cells’ Structures that animal and plant cells have in
on pp 0–0. e Yes. The bus is moving relative to Oscar
common:
in his frame of reference. So, the speed of
• Yes. There are organisms other than animals • nucleus withwill
the bus nucleolus and fast
affect how chromatin
Oscar sees the
and plants.
light They are classified in different chocolate bar moving.
• cytoplasm containing mitochondria, Golgi
kingdoms
source which you will learn about later.
apparatus
f 3 m. and other small structures
group of mainly unicellular organisms called • cell surface membrane.
fixed g t = _  vs = __   3 = 0.5 s
protoctists, bacteria and viruses. mirror Structures found6 only in plant cells:
h s = v  bus t + v choc t = ( 15 + 6)× 0.5 =
Science in context • chloroplasts
observer 21 × 0.5 = 10.5 m.
Two obvious examples are: • large, permanent central vacuole
b If the aether existed, then a rotation of • i Yes. with
cell wall Because middleOscar and Ellie
lamella and measure the
a Darwin and Wallace’s theory of evolution same time for the event to occur, their
the apparatus would introduce a change plasmodesmata.
by natural selection was highly controversial laws of physics explain their observations
in the speed of light from one direction
because it appeared to be in conflict with the Structureinfound
the same onlyway. in animal cells:
to another. This change in speed would
religious belief that God created all species of • centriole
produce a shift in the interference j Newton said that whatever the frame of
living things and that humans were a special
pattern observed.
creation. 2 reference is, an observer must see the same
c The moveable mirror would introduce a event occurring in the universe as any
b Galileo was placed under house arrest for the • use aother
sharpobserver. pencil
change in the path length of one of the
rest of his life after putting forward the idea • don’t use shading/don’t draw the nucleus as a
rays of light. This would result in a shift k
that Earth and the other planets orbited the
in the interference pattern. solidThe
bloblaws of physics are the same for all
Sun rather than the Earth being at the centre inertial frames of reference.
• don’t cross label lines
of
d the solarwas
There system. Again,
no shift this
in the appeared to
interference 4 a i x′ = γ (x − vt)
contradict
pattern.the religious beliefs of the time. • don’t use arrow heads on label lines
Other examples • use aii ruler x =toγ draw (x′ + label
vt) lines
e Becauseinclude:
there was no shift in the
interference
• Einstein’s theorypattern, Michelson
of general relativityand
(which • makeiiioutline (t −
t′ = γof  vx2 )less
__
cells sketchy - lines should
c 
Morleyourconcluded
ideas ofthat therebetween
was no space be continuous, not __ broken
iv t = γ(t′ +   2 )
challenged the link vx′
and aether
time) (or that the aether had no effect on • write labels horizontally, c  not at the same angle
the speed of light). This was in agreement b When the
as the label line clocks in both frames of
• Wegener’s theory of continental drift (which
with what Maxwell and Einstein had reference show zero, (i.e. t = t′ = 0) the
was controversial because scientists could not • interpret what is seen. For example, outlines
predicted: that the speed of light was origins of the two frames of reference
independent of any motion of the source coincide (i.e. x = x′ = 0).
of light or of the observer.
5 a x 1′ = γ ( x1  − vt 1) and x2  ′ = γ ( x2  − vt 2) ii
Proper length is the length of an
object measured by an observer in a
b Δx′ = x 2′ − x 1′ = γ ( x2  − vt 2) − γ ( x1  − vt 1) = frame of reference in which the object
γ(Δx − v(t2  − t1  )) = γ ( Δx − vΔt) is at rest with respect to the observer.
6 a t 1′ = γ( t1  − __
  v2 x1  ) and t2  ′ = γ( t2  − __
  v2 x2  ) iii
Proper time is the time interval
c  c 
between two events occurring in a
b Δt′ = t2  ′ − t 1′ = γ( t2  − __
  v2  x2  ) − γ( t1  − __
  v2 x1  ) frame of reference in which the two
c  c 
events occur in the same position.
= γ( (t2  − t1  ) −  __ 1)) (  v2 ∆x)
v   x    − x  = γ ∆t − __
c  2( 2 c 
2 a i  H
t = __c
7 a u =  _____   0.7c0.7c
v + u′   = __________+ 0.3c   = ____
  c = 0.83c ii Yes. The container and both
 vu′2  1 + ________
1 + ___   ×2 0.3c 1.21
c  c 
observers are in the same frame
  v + ___
u = _____
b   0.7c
u′   = ________ + c = ____
  1.7c = c which is of reference.
vu′ 0.7c × c
1 +   2  1+ ______
  1.7
c  2
c 
what the second postulate says: the speed b i Yes. The observer inside the container
of light is the same for all observers in all is in the same frame of reference as
inertial frames of reference. the light source, so this observer still
measures the time for the light beam
8   0.7c0.7c
v + u′   = __________
u =  _____ + 0.6c   = ____
  1.3c  = 0.92c to reach the top of the container as
vu′
___
1 +   2  × 0.6c  1.42
1 + ________
  H .
c  2
c  t =  __
c
Exercise 6.2 ii (distance travelled)  2 = (ct)  2 + (vt′)  2

  t′   c   − 
2( 2 2)
v 
1 a Invariant: a quantity is the same for iii (ct′ )  2 = ( ct)  2 + ( vt′ )  2 ⇒ ________ =
c  2
  t  v  2

2
all observers in all inertial frames t   2 ⇒ t′  2= _____
of reference. 1 − __
  2
c 
So, t′ = γ t.
b s  2 = ( cΔt)  2 − Δx  2 ⇒ ∆s =
i Δ___________
c It is called time dilation because the time
√( c∆t  2)− ∆x  2 
t′ is longer than the time t, since γ > 1.
cΔt = c(t  2 − t  1) = c(γ(t2  ′ +  ___22 ) −
vx  ′ 
ii
c  3 a = x 
L 2 − x1  = γ( x2  ′  + vt′) − γ( x1  ′ + vt′) =
γ(t1    +   2 )) = γ( c∆t′ +   c ) γ( x2    + vt′ − x1  ′  − vt′) = γ( x2  ′  − x1  ′  )
x 1′ 
v___ v∆x′
____ ′
′
c 
So, (cΔt)  2 = γ  2(c∆t′ + ____ )  . ( x2  ′  − x1  ′  ) = L′ so L′ =   γ .
2
b L
__
 v∆x′
c  
And, Δx = ( x2  − x1  ) = ( γ ( x2  ′  + vt 2′  ) −
c This is called length contraction because
L′ is shorter than L, since γ > 1.
(γ (x1  ′   + vt 1′   )) = (γ ( ∆x′ + v∆t′).
4 u =  _____   0.5c0.5c
v + u′   = __________+ 0.5c   = ____
  c   = 0.8c
x  2 = Δ  2 (∆x′ + v∆t′)  2.
So, Δ vu′
___
1 +   2  × 0.5c 1.25
1 + ________
 
c  2
c 
Therefore, Δs  = (cΔt)  − Δx  = 2 2 2

5 γ = _____ 1 = _________
  _____ 1
  __________ = 1.9
√   v  2  √1 − 0.7225 
2
1− __
γ  (c∆t′ + ____ c )  − γ  (∆x′ + v∆t′)  .
2
  v∆x′
2 2 2 c 
So, the observer in the fast car measures the
= γ  2 (c  2∆t′  2 + 2c∆t′   ____ ′  _____
v∆x  v  2∆x′  2 −
c +   c  2    100 = 53 m (2 s.f.).
length of the building to be ___

__________ 1.9
∆x′  2 − 2∆x′ vt′ − v  2∆t′  2) 6 L
L′ =   γ = 12.5 × 1− _______
__ (
√
c 
)2
  0.852 c    = 6.6 km (2 s.f.)
= γ  ((c  − v  ∆t′     − (1− __
  v  2 )∆x′  2)
2
2 2 2) 2
7 t′ = γt = _________ 20
  _________ = 46 ns
c 
= ( c∆t′ )  2− ∆x ′2 √
1 − _____
(
  0.9c2    
c 
)2
s′  2
= ∆ 8 a Two identical twins age by different
amounts because they move at a relative
So, the spacetime interval is invariant. speed to each other. One twin travels to a
c i
Rest mass is the mass of an object or distant place at a relativistic speed, whilst
particle that is stationary in its frame the other twin stays at home on Earth.
of reference. Because each twin sees their sibling as
moving relative to themselves, both twins
should exhibit the same time dilation,
and so each twin should consider their 2 a Gradient of the worldline for s is 1/c, so s
sibling to be younger than they are. is travelling at speed c.
That is why this is called a paradox.
b The gradient of the worldline for r
b The twin that stays at home on the Earth. suggests that r would be travelling faster
than c. This is not possible.
c The twin that stays at home on Earth has
remained in the same frame of reference 3 a The speed of the photon is c. So, x = ct.
for the whole of the other twin’s journey.   ct
Gradient = __ ct = 1.
For the twin that has made the journey,
on arrival at the distant place, the twin b The speed of B is v. So, x = vt.
Therefore, θ = tan  −1(__ ) (  ct ) =
has changed their frame of reference x = tan  −1 __
  ct vt
because they have changed their velocity tan  (  c ).
−1 _ v
(which requires an acceleration and
hence unbalanced force). This change of c Since tan θ =  _vc , this allows us to find v
reference frame breaks the symmetry of in units of c.
the observations of the two twins and so d θ  max= 45° because this is the angle that
allows both twins to agree that it is the gives a value of v as c. Any larger value of
twin who stays at home that ages v (i.e. any value of tan θ greater than one)
the most. is not possible because it would mean that
9 a γ = _____1 = _________
  _____ 1
  __________  = 4.11 v > c.
√   v  2   √1 − 0.94 
2
1− __
c  4 a–d θ – = tan–1(0.8) = 38.7° θ + = tan–1(0.3) = 16.7°
So, t __ 1′  = γt __ 1 = 4.11 × 3.1 × 10  −6 =
ct
Q– Q+
2 2
1.28 × 10  −5 s P –

P+
b Distance travelled = vt = 0.97 × 3 × 10 8 × θ– θ+
1.28 × 10  −5= 3.72 km
c In the muon’s frame of reference, the
distance they travel is less, but the time
x
is also less.
t __ 1 = 3.1 × 10  −6 s, and s = __
  3720 =
  s′γ = ____
2 4.11 5 a θ = tan  −1(  v_c )
905 −6 = 0.97c.
  ts 1 = ________
905 m, giving v = __
__
  3.1 × 10  b i ct
2
ct9
d Number of half-lives = ____   15 = 4.0
3.72
θ
e After 4.0 half-lives, the number of muons M
reaching the Earth’s surface will be x9
(   1 )  = __
4
__   1 of the number produced. Since
2 16
the number produced is very high, there
will be significant numbers of muons
reaching the surface. x
 1 of the
(In fact, there will be fewer than __ ii ct
ct9
16
number produced, because some of the
muons will interact with atoms along their θ
M
path through the atmosphere and never x9
get as far as the Earth’s surface.)
Exercise 6.3
1 a p is stationary. x
b q is travelling at a constant speed. c i x′ = γ x
c w is accelerating. ii ct′ = γ ct
6 a i A and B 8 a ct ct9
ii A and B cannot occur simultaneously
in S′ because they do not lie on a line E2
that is parallel to the x′-axis
b i B and E time
time measured x9
measured
ii B and E cannot occur in the same in S9
in S
place in S′ because they do not lie on
a line that is parallel to the E1
ct′-axis. x
c i B and C b The time in S′ is longer than it is in S.

ii B and C cannot occur simultaneously 10 ly
9 a t =  _vs = ____
  = 11.1 years
in S because they do not lie on a line 0.9c
that is parallel to the x-axis. b γ = _____ 1 = ________
  _____ 1
  ________ = 2.29
√
v  
√ 1 − 0.81 
2
__
1−    
c   2
d i E and D
 11.1 = 4.85 years.
So, Som has aged ____
2.29
ii E and D cannot occur in the same
place in S because they do not lie on a c Som’s clock shows 4.85 years, but she sees
line that is parallel to the ct-axis.  4.85
Minky to have aged ____ ____4.85
γ =   2.29 =
2.12 years.
e i Between E and B in S, and between E
and D in S′, it is possible to measure d When Som turns around at Fazer, she
a proper time. This is because E and changes her frame of reference because
B occur in the same place in S and E she has changed her relative motion
and D occur in the same place in S′. to Minky.
ii Between A and B in S and between B e t
and C in S′, it is possible to measure a Som returns to

Minky. Som measures
proper length. This is because A and Minky measures
that she has aged that she has aged
B occur at the same time in S and B 22.2 years by 9.7 years
When Som turns
and C occur at the same time in S′. around she sees the
t0
Earth clocks
7 a ct ct9 measuring
worldline for 20.1 years Som arrives at Fazer
t9 = 4.85 years
stationary car in S Minky measures
time of Som’s
arrival at Fazer t9 x0
t = 11.1 years
length of x9
car in S9 x9 Som thinks

Minky has
10 m aged
2.12 years x
5m f Som sees that the Earth clocks now show

5m 10 m x a time of 2.12 + (22.2 − 2 × 2.12) =
20.1 years.
b The length of the car in S′ is shorter than g Minky is older by 22.2 − 9.7 = 12.5 years
it is in S.
c Because of relativistic length contraction,
the scale of the axes for S and S′ have to
be different. Relative to S, the scale for S′
is different by a factor of γ.
Exam-style questions 14 a Taking S to be the frame of reference

of the observer on the ground and S′
Multiple-choice questions to be the frame of reference of the
1 A [1]   400 8 =
observer on the train, Δt′ = ______
3 × 10 
1.3 × 10  s.
−6
[1]
2 D [1]
b Δx = γ( Δx′ + v Δt′) = 1.25
3 A [1] (400 + 0.6 × 3 × 10 8 × 1.3 × 10  −6) =
790 m (2 s.f.) [2]
4 A [1]
c Δt = γ(Δt′ + __
 v2 ∆x′) = 1.25
5 B [1] c 
(   0.6 ×( 3 × 10 8) × )
1.3 × 10  −6 +   ______________ 8
400 =
6 D [1] 3 × 10    2
2.6 × 10  −6 s [2]
7 A [1]
Alternatively, having found the length
8 C [1] of the train in S, and knowing the
9 A [1] second postulate, the time taken for the
light to reach the front of the train must
10 C [1]
  ∆x
be Δt = ___ c =  
790 = 2.6 × 10  −6 s.
______ [2]
8
3 × 10 
Short-answer questions 15 a The distance to Proxima Centauri is
11 a Since the Earth–Mars separation is a 4.0 × 3 × 10  8 × 3.15 × 10  7 =
proper length, 3.78 × 10  16 m.
  3.78 × 10  8 =
Therefore, t = _  vs = __________
16
∆t = __ 2.4 × 10  = 840 s (2 s.f.).

  Lv =  ___________
11
[1] 0.9 × 3 × 10 
0.95 × 3 × 1 0 
8
1.4 × 10  8s (= 4.44 years). [2]
b 0.95c [1] 1 = ________
1
b γ = _____
  _____   ________ = 2.29
  2.4_____
  Lγ = ________ × 10  11 = ________
2.4 × 10  11 =
√   v  2  1 − 0.81 
√
2
L′ = __
c 1
  _________
1
1− __
c 
  _____   __________
2
√   v  2 
1− __
c 
2
√
1− ______
(
  0.95c
2
 
 
c 
)
So, distance to Proxima Centauri as
  3.78 × 10  =
measured by Anand = _  γs = ________
16
2.4 × 10  11= 7.5 × 10  10 m
 ________ [2]
3.20 2.29
1.65 × 10  16 m.
d ∆t = ___   ∆t′ 840
____
γ =   3.20 = 260 s [1]
  1.65 × 10  8 =
  s′v = __________
16
Therefore, t = __
1 = ________ 1 0.9 × 3 × 10 
12 a γ =  _____
_____   ________ = 1.51 [2] 6.1 × 10  7s (= 1.94 years). [2]
√
  v    √ 1− 0.75  2 
2
1− __
c  2
b x′ = γ (x − vt) = 1.51
i c Anand’s measurement is a proper
8× 3.0) =
(500 − 0.75 × 3 × 10  time because he is measuring both
−1.0 × 10  9 m leaving the Earth and arriving at
Proxima Centauri at the same place:
ii t′ = γ( t − __
  vx2 ) = his rocket ship. [1]
c  
1.51(3.0− _______________
  0.75 × 3 × 1 0 16× 500 )= 4.5 s
8
   [2] 16 a The student measures the two events,
9 × 10 
the kettle at the start and the kettle
13 a It is a proper length because both
when it has boiled, at the same point
the Earth and the star are stationary
in space in the student’s inertial frame
in the frame of reference of the
of reference. So, the time measured is
observer on the Earth. [1]
a proper time interval. [1]
b   4.244 = 6.5292 =
L = _____
γ =  __ 1   = ________
1
L′ 0.65 b γ = _____
  _____   _________   = 1.67 [2]
√   v  2   √1 − ( 0.8)   
2 2
6.53 (3 s.f.) [2] 1− __
_____ 2 
γ × proper time = 1.67 × 2 minutes =
1 ⇒ _
γ =  _____
c _____
2
√   v  2 
1− __
  12   =
  vc = 1− __ √ γ 
c
3.3 minutes [2]
c 
_________
√   1 2   = 0.988
1− ______
6.5292 
[2]
17 a γ = _____1 = _______
  _____ 1
  _______   = 31.60 [1] 19 a γ = _____1 = ____________
  _____ 1
  _____________  = 3.20 [1]
√   v  2  √1 − 0.9995   
√   v  2  √1 − 0.9025 
2 2 2
1− __ 1− __
c  c 
4.00 ly b ∆t = γ∆t′ = 3.2 × 26 = 83 ns [2]
b ∆t = _  vs = ______
  = 4.002 years √
0.9995c
4.002 c 8 ×
s = v∆t = 0.95 × 3 × 10 
  ∆t
c ∆t′ = _ _____
γ  =   31.6 = 0.127 years [2]
83 × 10  = 24 m
−9
[2]
18 a i A [1]
ii B [1]
b i C [1]
ii A [1]
Chapter 7
Exercise 7.1 b They are relative to us. In order for us to
22.5 claim that something is hot, we need to
1 a  m
ρ=_V
=  ______________
     = 7800 kgm  −3 have something else with which we can
0.3 × 0.12 × 0.08
m = ρV = 19300 × 15730 × 10 −6 =
b make a comparison. Hotter and colder are
303.6 kg easier terms to use because our sensory
perception really tells us that something
So a pure gold bar of the given volume is hotter or colder than we are. Only
would have a mass that is greater than the through considerable experience are we
advertised 250.000 kg. This suggests that then able to estimate how hot or cold
some of the content of the gold bar has a something is.
density that is less than that of pure gold.
c In our everyday lives we do think of
c  m
V=_ 5   = 7.6 × 10  −3 m  3
_
ρ =   660 temperature as a measure of hotness—
or coldness. And yet, it isn’t easy to
So the volume of the potatoes is equal
explain what we mean by hotness or
to the volume available in the shopping
coldness because these terms are relative
bag. However, since the potatoes are
to something else—usually us. If we
of irregular shape, they will require a
accept that hotness is some kind of
larger volume because of the air gaps
measure of how much energy something
between them. So, yes, Arun is right
has, then it is reasonable to replace the
to be concerned; they will not fit in his
word hotness with temperature—and we
shopping bag!
are beginning to sound much more like
2 a  m
ρ=_ 3m   = ___________
=  _ 3 × 2 × 10    =
    
30
a physicist.
V 3
4πr  ( 8) 3
4π × 7 × 10   
1.4 × 10  3 kgm  −3 d The sensation of something feeling hot
is the brain’s way of deducing, from the
b The Sun is gaseous, so the density at its
stimuli it recieves, that there is a net flow
centre will be greater than the average and
of thermal energy from the hot(ter) object
the density at its surface will be less than
to us.
the average.
3m   = _____________
m =  _ 3 × 6 × 10    = 24 e The sensation of something feeling cold is
c ρ Earth =  _     
V 4πr 
3 ( 6) 3
4π × 6.4 × 10    the brain’s way of deducing that there is a
5.5 × 10  3kgm  −3 net flow of thermal energy from us to the
cold(er) object.
So the density of the Earth is about
4 times the density of the Sun. f We use our experience. Because it is likely
that we have touched many things that
3 Language: someone else tells us, using
a
are hotter—or colder—than we are and
words we think we understand.
may have learned what their temperature
Sense perception: we touch something and
is, we remember and recall. For example,
our brain deciphers the signals from the if we touch an ice cube, we will know that
sense receptors. Sometimes we can see – its temperature has to be 0 °C or less.
or smell – that something is hot. Our sense of touch is not very good at
putting an exact figure to the temperature
Experience/memory: we may have
of something; it is good at deducing
experienced something before and whether something is hotter or colder
have remembered. than we are.
g No. It is well known that a burn from 5 a Sample C. The total inter-molecular
steam is worse than a burn from an potential energy is greater in the water
equal amount of boiling water. They feel vapour than in the liquid or solid phase,
different not because they are at different because the bonds holding the molecules
temperatures, but because they contain together have been broken. The total
different amounts of energy that can be random kinetic energy of the molecules is
transferred to us when we touch them. the same in all three samples.
The steam contains more energy, so it
feels hotter. b Sample A. Because the inter-molecular
bonds effectively act as a negative amount
h Yes, our sense of touch is not absolute. of potential energy, and the total kinetic
What we feel depends on the temperature energy of the molecules is the same as for
of what we feel with. Generally it isn’t sample B and C, the total internal energy
necessary for us to be able to give an is least in sample A.
accurate value to the temperature of what
we touch, only that what we touch is 6 a No. There will be a range of energies.
hotter, or colder, than we are. So, no, we b No.
don’t need to be concerned with our sense
of touch. c Kinetic energy and potential energy
i If we touch something with our fingers d The kinetic energy of the atoms, or
that is hotter than we are, our brain tells molecules, will increase. The potential
us that it is hot. A physicist would say energy of the atoms, or molecules, will
that our sense of touch is telling us that stay the same.
there is a net flow of thermal energy from ‾ = _
N
e  KE 1   ∑  _
  N 1  mv  2 
i=12
i
the hotter object to our fingers. Touching
something colder results in a net flow of _
√
N
f c=_ 1   ∑ v  2   
  N
thermal energy from our fingers to the i
i=1
colder object.
‾ = _
N N
g  KE 1   ∑  _
  N 1  mv  2  and c  2 = _ 1   ∑ v  2 
  N
j Yes, the two models are very similar. 2 i=1
i
i=1
i
‾ = _
A difference in temperature forces the
so  KE   1  mc  2
flow of thermal energy. A difference in 2
electrical potential forces a net flow of 7 a 0 K means that the average random
electrical energy—that is, a current. kinetic energy of the atoms, or molecules,
is zero. (Note this implies that they are
k Two objects at the same temperature
not moving.)
exchange thermal energy at the same rate,
so there is no net flow of thermal energy b No. You cannot have negative kinetic
between them. energy.
4 a Internal energy is the sum of the total c −273.15 °C (usually, −273 is sufficient)
random kinetic energy and the total
inter-atomic, or inter-molecular, potential d Yes, the two scales have the same
energy of the atoms, or molecules, incremental values.
of the sample. e
T( °C) = T(K) + 273
b By changing the total random kinetic
energy of the atoms, or molecules, Exercise 7.2
(i.e. by adding thermal energy—heating)
1 Specific heat capacity: the energy required
or by doing work on the sample (which
to heat up 1 kg of a substance by 1 K.
may change the kinetic energy and/
Heat capacity: the energy required to heat up
or the potential energy of the atoms
a sample/body by 1 K.
or molecules).
energy change
2 a heat capacity = _________________ = c 90
change in temperature
300 = 600 JK −1
_ 80
Temperature / °C
0.5 70
energy 3600 = 8 K 60
b ΔT = ___________ = _ 50
heat capacity 450
40
c Object A, since heat capacity is the energy 30
20 dT –80
required to warm up a body by 1 K, and = = –1 °C s–1
10 dt 80
the object with the smallest heat capacity 0
will be the one to heat up the most. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time / s
d E = m c ΔT = 5 × 10 3 × 420 × dE = mc _
dT = 2 × 680 × (− 1) =
d _
(1540 − 15) = 3.2 × 10 9 J dt dt
E 2.5 × 10 3 1360 Js −1 = 1400 Js −1 (2 s.f.)
e ΔT = _
m×c =
____________ = 31.25
50 × 10 × 1600
−3
6 a Energy lost by aluminium = m c ΔT =

Therefore,Tfinal = 31.25 + 15 = 46 °C.
m c (Tinitial − Tfinal) =
3 a i changing from liquid to vapor/gas 0.4 × 900 × (800 − Tfinal)
with no change in temperature
b Energy gained by water = m c ΔT = m c
ii changing from vapor/gas to liquid (Tfinal − Tinitial) = 2.5 × 4200 × (Tfinal − 20)
with no change in temperature
c 0.4 × 900 × (800 − Tfinal) = 2.5 × 4200 ×
iii changing from liquid to solid with no (Tfinal − 20)
⇒ ((2.5 × 4200) + (0.4 × 900)) × Tfinal =
iv changing from solid to liquid with no (0.4 × 900 × 800) + (2.5 × 4200 × 20)
Therefore, Tfinal =
b Change of EK EP (0.4 × 900 × 800) + (2.5 × 4200 × 20)
____________________________
phase (2.5 × 4200) + (0.4 × 900)
=
melting stays the increases 2.88 × 10 5 + 2.1 × 10 4 = 46 °C (2 s.f.)
__________________
same 10 500 + 360
d No energy has been lost to the
vaporising stays the increases
surroundings.
same
soldifying stays the decreases 7 E = (m s DT) + (m L) = (1.5 × 4200 ×
same (100 − 15)) + (1.5 × 2.3 × 10 6)
condensing stays the decreases = 5.355 × 10 5 + 3.45 × 10 6 = 3.99 × 10 6 J

same 3.99 × 10 = 2.7 × 10 3 s
E=_ 6
So, t = _
P 3
1.5 × 10
4 E = m × L = 1.5 × 2.3 × 10 6 = 3.5 × 10 6 J (= 45 minutes).
(2 s.f.)
8 Energy gained by ice = m cice ΔT + m L +
5 a The graph shows a decreasing gradient. m cwater ΔT = m cice ΔT + m L + m c (Tfinal) =
So, for a constant specific heat capacity
(which we assume), the rate at which (0.05 × 2100 × 18) + (0.05 × 3.3 × 10 5) +
energy is being lost is decreasing (0.05 × 4200 × Tfinal)
with time. Energy lost by water = m c ΔT = 0.25 × 4200 ×
b 40 °C (Tfinal − 12)
(0.05 × 2100 × 18) + (0.05 × 3.3 × 10 5) +
(0.05 × 4200 × Tfinal) = 0.25 × 4200 ×
(Tfinal − 12)
((0.05 × 4200)− (0.25 × 4200)) Tfinal

  = h i Conduction, generally, is most
( 0.25 × 4200 × 12) − ( ( 0.05 × 2100 × 18)+ effective in solid materials. This is
(0.05 × 3.3 × 10 5) ) because the atoms are close together
and so their vibrations can pass on
  = _______________________________
So, Tfinal (0.25 × 4200 × 12)− ( (0.05 × 2100 × 18)+ ( 0.05 × 3.3 × 10  ))
   
(   
( 0.05 × 4200)− ( 0.25 × 4200)) 
5
energy to the atoms next to them

= 7 °C (1 s.f.). fairly easily. Also the free electron
density will contribute to the transfer
Exercise 7.3 of energy through the conductor.
ii Conduction, generally, is least
1 a All the atoms will be vibrating about a
effective in gases. This is because
fixed position with a range of random
the atoms and molecules of gas are
kinetic energies in random directions.
widely spaced apart making the
b They will start to vibrate more violently collisions of one atom to the next less
(because they will have gained energy). frequent. Also, there may be no free
electrons to contribute to the transfer
c These further atoms will also start to of energy through the material.
vibrate more violently. In turn, they will
then collide with more atoms and so on iii There are two factors acting here:
along the object. the material itself, wool, is a poor
conductor (it has a very low thermal
d There is a very large number of atoms conductivity, about 0.04 Js  −1 °C  −1m  −1;
between the left-hand edge of the object the thermal conductivity of human skin
and the right-hand edge. Collisions from is about 5 times larger than this), and
one atom to the next take a small time the wool traps air in the spaces between
to occur, but since there are many atoms, the strands. Air has a very low thermal
there will be many collisions. This will conductivity, about half that of wool.
take some time to happen.
2 a The fabric seat will feel neither hot nor
e Conduction is a slow process (which cold. The material of the fabric is a poor
explains why it takes a long time for the conductor—or a good insulator—so the
handle of a spoon in a cup of hot tea to transfer of thermal energy between your
become hot). fingers and the seat does not happen
f The free electrons will collide with the easily. Hence, what you ‘feel’ is that the
vibrating atoms, gain energy and move fabric seat is neither hot nor cold.
about with an increased speed. Since b The metal legs of the chair are good
they are free to move anywhere, they conductors, so when you touch them they
will move in all directions—including to will ‘feel’ cold. This is because your fingers
the right—at a fast speed. When these are at a higher temperature than the metal
fast-moving electrons collide with atoms, legs and so there is a net thermal energy
they will transfer a little of their energy to transfer, by the process of conduction,
the atoms. from your fingers to the metal chair
g The fast-moving electrons transfer energy legs. Because the metal legs are good
more quickly than the vibrating atoms conductors, this thermal energy transfer
transfer energy, because they are free to occurs easily, making you feel that the legs
move anywhere. This allows the atoms at of the chair are cold.
the right-hand edge of the metal object to 3 a Some factors might include
gain energy relatively quickly compared to
atoms in a non-metal. We say, therefore, • the mass of atoms.
that metals are better conductors than
• the spacing of atoms.
non-metals.
• the density of free electrons in
the material.
• the strength of the atomic bonds
between atoms.
ΔQ
b i  _ ∝  _1 b Energy can only be lost by the
Δt l
ΔQ
_ evaporation of water from the surface
ii   ∝ A of the skin: sweating. This evaporation
Δt
ΔQ
_ causes cooling. So, the runners have to
iii   ∝ k
Δt
ΔQ keep well hydrated throughout the race.
_
iv   ∝ ΔT
Δt
7 a radiated power = σ𝜖AT  4
ΔQ ΔT
c   = kA  _
_
Δt l b power = σ𝜖AT  4 = 5.67 × 10  −8× 1 ×
4
ΔQ ΔT = 200 × 8 × 10 −4× 2 =
a  _ = kA  _ 4π × (6.96 × 10  8)   2 × 5770  4 =
Δt l 3.83 × 10  26 W
0.32 W solar power
c  _ 3.83 × 10 
  = _______________
  
       =
26
ΔQ ΔQ _
ΔT ⇒ A =  _
l  _ =   0.65   × (
2
m  11) 2
b  _ = kA  _ 4π × 1.496 × 10   
Δt l kΔT Δt 420 × 40 1360 Wm  −2
52 = 2.0 × 10  −3 m  2 (or 20 cm  2) ΔQ
8 a  _ = σ𝜖A(Tradiator
  4 − Troom ) =
  4 
ΔQ ΔQ Δt
ΔT ⇒  _
c  _ = kA  _ ΔT =  _
1  _ =
Δt l l kA Δt 5 .67 × 10  −8× 0.55 × 1 × 0.5 ×
1
___________
   × 3.5 = 35 °Cm −1 ( ( 273 + 60)  4 − (273 + 20)  4) =
40 × 25 × 10  −4
ΔQ ΔT ⇒ k =  _ ΔQ
l  _
77 W (2 s.f.)
d  _ = kA  _ =
Δt l AΔT Δt
4 × 1

_________________ 0  −3
b Radiators are painted white because they
      × 600 = look nice! (Actually, in Victorian Britain,
2 × 1.6 × ( 30.9 − 30)
0.83 Js  −1°C  −1m  −1 cast iron radiators were painted black—
and so were more efficient at radiating
5 a The warm air from the convection heater energy into a room. Such radiators were
is less dense and so rises, displacing often hidden behind screens, because they
the cooler air above it and forming a were considered an eyesore!)
convection current. Since the molecules
of air move at a fast speed, the transfer 9 a 800 nm is in the infrared part of the
of thermal energy to the room if effected electromagnetic spectrum.
quickly, thus warming up the room in a 2.9 × 10    = 3600 K (2 s.f.)
−3
fairly short time. b T =  _
800 × 10 
−9
b The chill factor is created from the motion c From Wien’s displacement law, if T
of cold air (i.e. wind). Warm bodies will increases, λmax decreases.
transfer thermal energy to the air around
them (by conduction and radiation), and Exam-style questions
this air is then blown away quickly by
the wind, keeping a large temperature
difference between the warm body and the 1 B
air around it. This temperature difference
continues to drive the transfer of heat from 2 D
the warm body to the air. Because the air 3 C
around the warm body is continually being
blown away—by this forced convection— 4 B
the air ‘feels’ colder than it actually is. 5 C
6 a The human body’s working temperature 6 C
is lower than the temperature of its
surroundings. As the runner produces 7 D
more energy, it cannot be transferred
8 D
away by the usual methods of conduction,
convection or radiation. 9 C
10 A
Short-answer questions c Once the temperature of the

aluminium block is greater than
11 a E Plost = mg Δh = the ambient temperature, the
0.6 × 10 × 0.8 = 4.8 J [1] aluminium block will start to share
b E P → EK  → Internal energy [1] its energy with the surroundings.
This causes the rate of temperature
internal energy gained
c ΔT = ________________
    
     = increase to slow down. A constant
heat capacity
rate of 3.3 °Cmin  −1would produce a
  50 × 4.8
_  = 2.5 K [2]
96 temperature of 103 °C, but the rate
So, T = 20 + 2.5 = 22.5 °C. [1] is not constant; it is decreasing [2]
12 a The molecules of water have a 14 a mass × slhf = power × time ⇒

range of values of energy [1] m × slhf 0.5 × 3.3  
× 10  = 5
t=_
  power  =  ____________
  
Those molecules with the largest 100
energies are able to break free of 1650 s (27.5 minutes) [2]
the water surface and become b mass × shc × ΔT = power × t ⇒
water vapour. [1] m × shc × 
power   0.5 × 4200 
ΔT = _____________
t =  ___________    × 100 =
100
b The temperature of the water is a 2100 s (35 minutes) [2]
measure of the average kinetic
energy of the water molecules. c mass × slhv = power × t ⇒
The molecules that evaporate are   0.5 × 2.26 
m × slhv  = _____________
t =  _    × 10  = 6
power 100
those with the largest energies [1]
so when these are ‘lost’, the average 11 300 s (3.1 hours) [1]
kinetic energy decreases. The 15 a 60 °C [1]
temperature decreases and ΔQ ΔQ
ΔT ⇒ c = _
b  _ = mc  _   1ΔT   _
  =
the water cools. [1]
( Δt )
Δt Δt m   Δt
_
13 a Energy from the heater passes 1

____________
      × 100 =
through the aluminium by 0.6 × (_
  60 − 20 )
10 × 60
conduction [1] (the passing of energy 2500 Jkg  −1 °C  −1 [2]
from one atom to the next). This
Q 100 × 30 × 60
takes a long time because there Q = mL ⇒ L = _
c  m = ___________
    =
0.6
are so many atoms between the 3.0 × 10  5 Jkg  −1 [2]
heater and the thermometer. So, the
thermometer does not record an 16 a The gradient shows the rate at
increase for a couple of minutes. [1] which the temperature is changing.
This rate depends on the
b In one minute, the energy supplied difference between the temperature
to the aluminium is 60 × 50 = 3000 J. of the water and the temperature
During this time the temperature of the room [1]. As the water cools,
of the aluminium rises by 3.3 °C. the difference between the
So, using the energy equation: temperature of the water and the
temperature of the room decreases,
energy supplied
shc = ____________
  
    3000   =
  = _ therefore the rate at which
mass × ΔT 1 × 3.3
the water cools also decreases,
909 ≈ 900 Jkg  °C 
−1 −1
[2]
hence the decreasing gradient
of the graph. [1]
b 45 18 a Q = m c ΔT = 1 × 4200 ×
Temperature / °C 40 ( 100 − 20)= 336 kJ [1]
35
30 336 kJ = 336 s = 5.6 minutes
∴ t =  _ [1]
25 1000 W
20
15 b No energy lost/all energy from
10 heater goes into heating water
5 OR constant energy transfer
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 from heater [1]
Time / minutes
c Powder radiated = σ𝜖AT  4 =
( ) 5.67 × 10  −8 × 1 × 10  −3 × 373  4= 1.1 W [2]
 _  − 27.5 −  
dE = 0.2 × 4200 × ____________ 11.5
= power radiated
dt 120 ___________ = σ𝜖T  4 =
19 a     A
−110 Jmin  −1(2 s.f.) [2]
5.67 × 10  −8 × 1 × 2000  4 =
c The black-coloured cup would 90.7 × 10  4 = 0.91 MWm  −2 [2]
lose energy by radiation at a 0.23 = 0.25
faster rate. So, the graph b 𝜖 =  _ [1]
0.91
would have a steeper gradient. c
P = 0.23 × 4π 0.04  2 × 3  4 =
That is it would take less time 0.37 MW [2]
for the water to cool to the
same temperature of the room. [1] 20 a Using Wien’s displacement law:
  2.9 × 10   = 1.16 = 1.2 μm
−3
ΔQ π × 0. 
ΔT = 75 ×  _ 12  × 2   = _
λmax
17 a  _ = kA  _ 2500
Δt l 4
100
(2 s.f.) [2]
_
   = 169.7 = 170 W [2]
0.5
b 1.2 μm is in the infrared part of the
ΔQ 390 × 0.5 = 442 =
b  _= 170 ×  _ 75
electromagnetic spectrum. [1]
Δt
440 W [1] c  2.9 × 10 −9  = 5.8 × 10  4 K
T=_
−3
[1]
50 × 10 
c The rate of thermal energy transfer
through each of the bars must be the
same. So for the copper bar:
_ ΔQ 100 − T
  = 390 × A ×  _  .
Δt 1
ΔQ T −  .
0
for the iron bar:   = 75 × A ×  _
_
Δt 0.5
So, 390 × A × ( 100 − T)= 150 × A × T
39 000
∴ T =  _  = 72 °C. [2]
540
Chapter 8
Exercise 8.1 ii Wien’s displacement law.
  2.9 ×T10  , where λpeak
−3
  = _
λpeak   is the
1 a Radiation wavelength at which maximum
b Temperature, surface area, emissivity, intensity occurs and T is the
Stefan–Boltzmann constant absolute temperature.
c P = σεAT  4, where Pis the radiated power, iii It doesn’t! There is no emissivity term
σis the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, ε is in Wien’s law.
the emissivity of the surface and Tis the  2.9 × 10  −9 = 4462 = 4500 K (2 s.f.)
T=_
c
−3
absolute temperature. 650 × 10 

  2.9 × 10   = 670 nm (2 s.f.)
−3
d i λ peak = _
d i A black body is a body that absorbs 4300
all radiation incident on it. ii With the peak in the spectrum at this
wavelength (almost right at the far
ii Real bodies reflect some of the red end of the visible spectrum), there
radiation incident on them. will be a large amount of energy at
iii Emissivity, ε, is defined as the ratio of wavelengths that are too long to be
the power radiated by a body to that visible. These infrared wavelengths
radiated by a black body of the same will add to the visible part of the
size and at the same temperature: emission to make the luminosity
(the total emitted power) larger than
ε = _______________________________________
   
    
 
power
power radiated by a body
radiated by a black body of the same size and at the same temperature one would expect by considering the
visible wavelengths only.
2 a P radiated = σεAT  4 = 5.7 × 10  −8 ×
  2.9 × 10  −3  = 2.7 K
−3
0.75 × 4π × 0.12  2 × ( 150 + 273)  4 = T = ___________
e
1.063 × 10 
248 W = 250 W (2 s.f.)
4 a Using Wien’s displacement law:
b P absorbed = −σεAT  4 = −5.7 × 10  −8× 0.75 × 2.9 × 10   = 7250 = 7300 K (2 s.f.)
T =  _
−3
4π × 0.12  2 × ( 20 + 273)  4 = −57 W (2 s.f.) 400 × 10 

−9
_ ______________
√ 4πb √ 4π × 2.8 × 10 
  7.2 × 10  −10   =
  L   = ______________
27
c Net exchange of energy per second = b d = _   

248 − 57 = 191 W _1.43 × 1
0  18

1.43 × 10  m =  
18
 = 151 ly
9.46 × 10  15
3 a Spica 5 a i Albedo is the ratio of the power
reflected from a surface to the total
power incident on the surface:
Betelgeuse
power reflected by surface
α = ______________________
  
   
   .
Intensity
total power incident on surface

ii Albedo has no units; it is a
factor only.
b The processes of conduction and
convection both require the presence
Wavelength of atoms and molecules to facilitate
the transfer of thermal energy. Around
b i The hotter star will have its peak planets and stars there are no atoms and
intensity at a smaller wavelength molecules (so very few that it is reasonable
to assume there are none), so conduction
and convection cannot occur.
c i A high emissivity means a low
albedo—and vice versa.
α + ε = 1
ii
Exercise 8.2 iii At T = 288 K, the Earth is radiating

5.7 × 10  −8 × 288  4 = 392 Wm  −2.
1 a The Earth has an atmosphere; the
Moon does not. The Earth’s atmosphere So, it will have to absorb 392 − 245 =
is responsible for the higher 147 Wm  −2 extra.
surface temperature. iv The extra power is being radiated
b The atmosphere of the Earth has the back to the surface by the
bigest effect on the albedo of the Earth. atmosphere.
c One reason is that the cloud cover in the v This is the greenhouse effect.
atmosphere varies both over short and   2.9 × 10   = 510 nm
−3
3 a i λ max = _
5700
long periods of time, from hours to days
to seasons during the year. ii This is in the visible part of the
E.M. spectrum.
Another reason is that the terrain of the
Earth’s surface varies considerably, from b i Ultraviolet is in the approximate
polar ice caps to deep oceans to dense range of 100–400 nm.
jungle and forestry to urban areas. ii Visible light is in the range of
d i Polar regions have very high albedos. 400–700 nm.
ii Since a large proportion of the iii Infrared is in the approximate range

incident radiation is reflected—and of 700 nm–1 mm.
therefore cannot be absorbed—it c Yes.
follows that the surface temperature
of such areas will remain Ultraviolet: because it tans our skin
d
fairly constant. (and excesses of ultraviolet light cause
skin cancer)
e i The surface of the oceans,
particularly where the ocean depth is Visible: because we can see light from

substantial, have low albedos. the Sun
ii Although these areas absorb solar Infrared: because it warms our bodies

radiation readily, their specific heat when we go outside in the sunshine
capacity (i.e. that of water) is a high
e i Ozone is a molecule of oxygen
value. This suggests that only small
consisting of three oxygen atoms, O 3.
changes in surface temperature
would occur. ii The energy of a short-wavelength
ultraviolet photon is sufficient for it
f More reflected solar radiation would
to break the atomic bond between
result in a lower surface temperature.
two of the oxygen atoms. So, if
2 a   P 2 
S=_ the photon is absorbed, two of
4πd 
the oxygen atoms will break apart,
b Incident power = πR  2S dissociating the molecule.
c πR  S  =  _
Incident power m  −2 =  _
2
S 
4πR 
2 4 iii Since the ultraviolet photons are
α ( )
d   S 1 − 
Mean power absorbed m  −2 = _ being absorbed by the O 3, less
4
α ( ) ultraviolet radiation reaches the
e   S 1 − 
i Power absorbed m  −2 = _ = Earth’s surface.
4
(
1400 × 1 − 0.3 )
 _____________
     = 245 Wm  −2 iv Ultraviolet radiation—particularly
4
So, to be in thermal equilibrium, the shorter wavelengths—is harmful
the Earth would have to radiate to life on Earth. So, the absorption of
245 Wm  −2. ultraviolet radiation by O  3 prevents
_ _ life on the Earth from harm.
√ 5.7 × 10 
4
ii √_
T =   
σ   245 −8   = 256 K
P   = 4 _

v Less ozone means less absorption. atmospheric molecules, meaning that

This means that more ultraviolet the atmosphere cannot be transparent
radiation would reach the surface and to infrared radiation.
create harmful effects to life on
c Power absorbed from the Sun m  −2 =
the Earth.
245 Wm  −2
vi Over the Antarctic
Power radiated by the Earth’s surface m −2
vii Countries in the southern hemisphere into space = 0.62 × σ × T
  4
________________
close to the Antarctic, such as
√ 0.62 × 5.7 × 10 
245
_______________
4
So, T =   
     =
Australia, New Zealand, South −8
Africa, Argentina and Chile 288.6 ≈ 288 K, as observed.

viii Scientists have shown that 5 a In the troposphere
ozone can be destroyed by
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and b Evaporation from oceans, seas,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), lakes, rivers
which had been used in refrigeration c Farming (e.g. rice fields) and irrigation
systems and as propellants in aerosol of grassed areas, evaporation from
cans. The Montreal Protocol of 1989 man-made reservoirs, canals and lakes,
persuaded world leaders to reduce petroleum and fossil fuel burning
the production and use of CFCs
and HCFCs. d ondensation and the formation of
C
precipitation (rain, mostly, as well as sleet
4 a At a temperature of 15 °C (288 K), the and snow)
peak in the intensity of radiated energy
2.9 × 1 
occurs at a wavelength of λ  peak =  _ 0  −3 = e An increase in water vapour
288 concentrations would likely increase the
1 × 10  −5m (10 μm).
albedo of the Earth. This would result in
This is in the infrared region of the a decrease in the surface temperature.
electromagnetic spectrum.
6 a Microbial action in soils under natural
b i molecule will be able to vibrate in
A vegetation, oceans and seas, oxidisation of
several different ways. For example, ammonia in the atmosphere
one atom in the molecule may
oscillate in a radial direction, whilst b Agriculture and cultivation of soils,
another may oscillate perpendicularly biomass burning, manure from animal
to the bond between it and another farming, fossil fuel combustion, cars
atom. These different oscillation and other transport, man-made fertiliser
modes will require different quantised production, synthetic material production
amounts of energy, so for any given and sewage treatment plants
molecule there will be a set of discrete
c Nitrogen fixation by plants and
energy states available in which its
photo-dissociation in the atmosphere
atoms can oscillate.
d Increased amounts of nitrous oxide would
ii Wavelengths larger than visible light
increase the greenhouse effect, making the
will be in the infrared region of the
surface temperature increase.
electromagnetic spectrum.
e Because most man-made nitrous oxide
iii Atmospheric molecules will be able
comes from food production: farming and
to absorb those infrared wavelengths
agriculture. The demand for more and
that enable them to change their
more food has made it difficult to find
oscillation modes. With a large
other ways of producing food that don’t
variety of molecules, there will
also produce nitrous oxide.
be a large number of wavelengths
that can be absorbed. This means
that much of the range of infrared
wavelengths will be absorbed by the
7 a Permafrost, ice cores, and glaciers; 9 a Increased amounts of man-made

wetlands, forest fires, plants, seepage greenhouse gases, particularly carbon
from coal and natural gas deposits, ocean dioxide, have created extra heating of the
floors, microbial actions in freshwater Earth’s surface by the greenhouse effect.
ecosystems, termites This has added to the natural greenhouse
effect to cause global warming since
b Rice farming, animal farming, decaying the industrial revolution of the
organic matter in landfills, waste-water eighteenth century.
treatment plants, transportation and use
of fossil fuels b Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide
c Global warming will cause permafrost c Further enhancement of the greenhouse
in the arctic regions, such as Siberia, to effect will cause significantly more
melt. This will release large amounts of global warming.
methane into the atmosphere causing a
kind of positive feedback effect, warming d The Paris Agreement of 2015 has made
the Earth’s surface even more. governments take action to reduce the
amount of man-made greenhouse gases
d ydroxyl and chlorine radicals present in
H in an attempt to reduce the effect of
the troposphere react with methane and the enhanced greenhouse effect and so
remove it from the atmosphere. reduce global warming. Some industrial
companies continue to propose chemical
e An increase in methane in the atmosphere methods for the removal of greenhouse
will enhance the greenhouse effect. gases from the atmosphere.
8 a Decomposition of organic material,
volcanic activity, wildfires, respiration Exam-style questions
by animals, outgassing from oceans, seas
lakes and rivers, weathering of Multiple-choice questions
carbonated rocks 1 B [1]
b Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, 2 B [1]
cement production
3 C [1]
c The biggest change has been the
reduction in the burning of certain 4 D [1]
fossil fuels, for example high-tar coal. 5 B [1]
Governments worldwide have met
frequently to propose measures for the 6 B [1]
further reduction in man-made carbon
7 D [1]
dioxide, such as the Paris Agreement of
December 2015. 8 B [1]
d Photosynthesis by plants, trees and 9 A [1]
vegetation, direct absorption by oceans,
seas, lakes and rivers, natural production 10 B [1]
of soil and peat Short-answer questions
  2.9 × 10   = 483 nm
−3
e An increase in atmospheric carbon 11 a i λ max = _
6000
dioxide will enhance the greenhouse effect
≈ 480 nm [2]
further, causing further global warming.
ii Visible region [1]
 40 × 14 
0  =  ________________
40 × 10 
6 6
ε=_
b      = 0.54 [2]
σ T  5.7 × 10  × 6000 
−8 4
12 a P net = σA(Troom     4)

    4  − Tjoint 15 a Gases in the Earth’s atmosphere
(such as carbon dioxide, methane,
= 5.7 × 10  −8× 0.01 × ( 277  4 − 300  4)
water vapour and nitrous oxide)
= −1.26 W [2] absorb some of the radiation
emitted by the Earth and re-radiate
b Since the meat is losing energy to the
it back to the surface. [1]
room (which we may assume remains
This means that the surface
at a constant temperature of 4 °C),
temperature is warmer than it
its temperature is decreasing. This is
would be in the absence of the
decreasing the power being radiated. [1]
greenhouse gases. [1]
c 30
b Any from carbon dioxide,
Temperature / °C
25 methane, nitrous oxide [2]

20
15 c n increase in the water vapour
A
10 content of the atmosphere would
54 increase the Earth’s albedo. [1]
0 This means more solar radiation
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 would be reflected, leaving less to
Time be absorbed by the Earth, hence a
Any curve showing a decreasing cooler temperature. [1]
gradient [1]   2.9 × 10   = 509 nm ≈ 510 nm
16 a λ max = _
−3
[2]
5700
Levelling off at 4 °C [1] b i Ozone in the stratosphere
( 4πdVenus
    )
  L 2 
_ absorbs solar ultraviolet
b   d     2
13 a  _
Venus
  = _
    =  _
Earth
  1 2  = 2.0
  = _ [2] radiation. [1]
( 4πdEarth
    2)
bEarth
 
L 2
_
    dVenus
    0. 7 
ii The energy of visible light
b The atmosphere of Venus has a photons is too great to be
more pronounced greenhouse absorbed by molecules in
effect than that of the Earth. [1] order for them to change their
vibrational states and it is
c Any from carbon dioxide,
too small to be absorbed by
sulfur dioxide (and sulfuric acid
ozone. So visible light passes
droplets), carbon monoxide [2]
through the atmosphere
14 a s = vt = 3 × 10 8 × 500 = 1.5 × 10  11 m [1] without significant absorption. [1]
b S = _ 3.83 × 10   

  L 2  = _______________
    
26
iii The energy of infrared photons
( 4πd  11) 2
4π × 1.5 × 10   
is the right amount for molecules
= 1354 ≈ 1.4 kWm  −2 [2] to increase their vibrational states
c S is spread over an area of πR  2. and so infrared photons are
But the surface area of the Earth readily absorbed by molecules
is 4πR  2. So the average solar in the atmosphere. [1]
  πR  S2  =  _
S .
2
power m  −2 is _ [1] 17 a i In the troposphere [1]
4πR  4
d Some of the solar radiation is reflected ii In the stratosphere [1]
by the atmosphere (about 30%).
b Ozone can be dissociated (i.e.
So 0.7 × _ 1400
  S  = 0.7 ×  _ = 245 Wm  −2 [1]
4 4
broken down into O  2 and O) when
it absorbs ultraviolet radiation. [1]
Since ultraviolet radiation is
potentially harmful to life on the
Earth, the ozone removes a large
amount of it before it can reach the
Earth’s surface, thus protecting the
Earth and its inhabitants. [1]
c CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) or 20 a L = 4πd  2 S = 4π × ( 1.5 × 10  11)  2 ×

HCFCs (hydrochlorofluoro- 1.36 × 10  3 = 3.8 × 10  26 W [2]
carbons) [1] _
√___________________________
  L 2  
b T = _
4
18 a L = σAT  = 5.7 × 10  × 4π ×
4 −8
4πR  σ
(7 × 10  6)  2 × (2 × 10  4)  4 =
√ 4π × 6.96 × 10    × 5.7 × 10 
3.8 × 10  26
4 ___________________________
5.6 × 10  24 W [2] =    
    ( 8) 2
  
−8

  2.9 × 10   = 1.45 × 10  −7 m =
−3
b λ max = _ = 5752 = 5700 K (2 s.f.) [2]
20000
150 nm (2 s.f.) [1]
5.6 × 10  24  = 19.8 =
L   = _______________ c There may be. The peak intensity
c b =  _     
4πd  2 4π × (1.5 × 10  11)  2 radiated by the Sun is at a
20 Wm  −2 (2 s.f.) [2]   2.9 × 10   =
  = _
wavelength of λmax
−3
5700
19 a The ratio of reflected radiation 509 nm ≈ 510 nm, which is in the
to the total incident radiation [1] middle of the visible region of the
b Variations in cloud cover; electromagnetic spectrum. [1]
different terrain [2] (Calculation or just stated
wavelength is sufficient.)
c A nuclear war would produce
large amounts of particulate
and gaseous pollutants. These
pollutants would enter the
atmosphere and increase the
albedo of the Earth. [1]
An increase in albedo would
decrease the amount of solar
radiation absorbed by the Earth’s
surface, upsetting the energy
balance and decreasing the
surface temperature. [1]
Chapter 9
Exercise 9.1 5 a Number of similar worlds =
N 
  6.02 × 10 9  = 7.6 × 10  13
23
 ______________
   A
= __________
1 a A mole is defined as the amount of a Earth’s population 7.9 × 10 
substance that has the same number of
b No. Current estimates suggest that our
particles as there are atoms in 12 grammes
galaxy could have up to 6 × 10 9 planets
of 12
  6 C.
similar to the Earth, capable of sustaining
b
Molar mass means the mass, in grammes, life. So, not enough!
of 1 mole of a substance.
c Yes. Current estimates suggest there may
c 20  × 6.02 × 10  23 =
i N =  ___ be of the order of 10 11 galaxies other
56
2.15 × 10  23 atoms than our own. If all of these galaxies
could contain a similar number of
 20   × 6.02 × 10  23 =
ii N = _______ possible planets, then there would be
235
5.1 × 10  22 atoms 10  11 × 6 × 10  9 = 6 × 10  20 possible other
worlds. This would be enough for
iii Number of molecules = ____  20  × 7.9 million moles of people!
18
6.02 × 10  = 6.7 × 10 
23 23
2
6 a V = 4πR  2d = 4π × ( 6.4 × 10  6)  × 3000=
So, number of atoms = 6.7 × 10  × 3 = 23
1.2 × 10  18 m  3
2.0 × 10  24atoms (2 s.f.).
b M = ρV = 1000 × 1.2 × 10 18 =
2 a One atom of   12C has a mass of
  1   of the
1.2 × 10  21 kg. This is about ____
12 × 10    = 2 × 10  −26 kg.
−3 5000
 ________ Earth’s mass.
6.02 × 10  23
 2 × 10   = 1.66 × 10  −27 kg

−26
u = ________
b c Molar mass of water = 18 g =
12
1.8 × 10  −2 kg
3 a mass = molar mass × number of moles =
65.4 g × 8 = 523.2 g = 523 g (3 s.f.)
 1.2 × 10  –2  =
21
So, number of moles = __________
1.8 × 10 
b number of atoms = number of moles × 6.7 × 10  22 moles.
NA  = 8 × 6.02 × 10  23 = 4.82 × 10  24 atoms
The known universe is estimated to
mass of sample
c mass of 1 atom =  _______
  
    = contain about 1 × 10  21stars. So the
number of atoms
number of moles of water in the
  523 × 10  24  = 1.09 × 10  −25 kg
−3
__________
4.82 × 10  Earth’s oceans is about 67 times
OR the number of stars in the
65.4 × 10    = known universe.
mass of 1 atom =  molar mass −3
_________   =  __________
NA  6.02 × 10  23
1.09 × 10  kg
−25
d N = nNA= 6.7 × 10  22 × 6 × 10  23=
4 a An atom of hydrogen comprises 1 proton 4 × 10  46 molecules
and 1 electron. 7 a i Mass of N  2= 0.77 × 1.3 = 1.001 kg =
molar mass = mass of 1 atom 1.0 kg (2 s.f.)
(≈ mass of proton) × NA  =
  1.001  =
ii Number of moles of N  2 = _
0.028
1.673 × 10  −27
× 6.02 × 10  =23
35.75 moles = 36 moles (2 s.f.)
1.0 × 10  −3kg = 1.0 g iii Mass of atom of N  2 =
  1  
b The mass of the electron is about ____ 1.001
__________________
      = 2.2 × 10  −26 kg
1840 35.75 × 2 × 6.02 × 10 23
of the mass of the proton, so, to 2 s.f.,
adding the mass of the electron will not
make a significant difference.
b i Mass of O  2= 0.23 × 1.3 = 0.299 kg = • has a density sufficiently low that the vast
0.30 kg (2 s.f.) majority of collisions are with the walls of
the container, not with each other; and
  0.299  =
ii Number of moles of O  2 = _
0.032
9.34 moles = 9.3 moles (2 s.f.) • has no potential energy—this means
that an ideal gas cannot be composed
iii Mass of atom of O  2 = of molecules.
     0.299
_________________   = 2.66 × 10  −26 kg =
9.34 × 2 × 6.02 × 1 0 23 b For a real gas to approximate an ideal gas,
2.7 × 10  −26 kg it should
8 a 19300  =
i Number of moles of gold =  _ • have a low pressure/density,
0.197
9.8 × 10  moles
4
• not liquefy or solidify and
ii Volume of 1 atom of gold =
• have a fairly high temperature.
     1
_________________   = 1.7 × 10  −29 m  3
9.8 × 10  × 6.02 × 10 
4 23
This usually implies that
b 8960   =
i Number of moles of copper =  _
0.0635 • molecules are small compared with
1.4 × 10  moles
5
the volume they occupy,
ii Volume of 1 atom of copper =
1
_________________ • there are no forces between
       = 1.2 × 10  −29 m  3
1.4 × 10  × 6.02 × 10 
5 23
_ molecules and
√
3 1.7
c The ratio of their sizes is _
     = 1.12. So, • molecules collide elastically.
1.2
despite their masses being different by
a factor of over 3, their ‘sizes’ are only c Gases exert pressure because
about 12% different. • large numbers of particles, moving
d Since most of the mass of an atom is quickly, collide with the walls of
located in the nucleus and the nucleus their container;
takes up a very small part of the space of • each collision exerts a force on the
an atom, a larger mass in a larger nucleus container wall; and
doesn’t have to mean a larger atom.
• the sum of all the forces from all the
9 a Mass of gin = 940 × 44 × 10 −6= 41 g collisions divided by the area of the
b Number of moles = _  41  = 0.095 moles container walls gives the pressure.
430
(Gin is a very complex molecule!!) 2 a Boyle’s law: P ∝ _ 1  when the temperature
  V
is constant.
c Number of atoms = 53 × 0.095 ×
6.02 × 10  23 = 3.0 × 10  24 atoms. b Example: a syringe of gas
pressure
Exercise 9.2 gauage
1 a An ideal gas
• obeys each of the three empirical gas laws
under all conditions: Boyle’s law, Charles’
law and the pressure law;
• consists of particles whose volume is plunger syringe scale for
negligible compared to the volume of volume of gas
space the gas occupies;

Equipment: Syringe with a volume scale,
• consists of particles that pressure gauge fitted to end of syringe
collide elastically;

Measurements: Volume of air in syringe,
using scale on side of syringe, pressure of
air inside syringe, using pressure gauge

Method: Change the volume of the air p/atm 20
inside the syringe by slowly moving the
plunger inwards and outwards. This is 15
the independent variable. Measure the
10
resulting pressure. This is the dependent
variable. For each value of volume, record 5
the volume and pressure of the air. Then,
plot a graph of pressure against volume.
This should show that P ∝ _ 1  .
  V −300−250−200−150−100 −50 0 50 100
T/°C
c P 1 × V1  = P2  × V2 
P  V  Note: Immersing the container of gas in a
Therefore, P2  = _   100 × 
  V1     1 = _ 20 = 500 kPa.
pot of liquid nitrogen provides a useful extra
2
4
3 Assuming that the temperature remains measurement for the graph at a temperature
constant, as the air bubble rises through of −196 °C. This extra point ‘anchors’ the
the water, the pressure around the bubble straight-line graph and makes the value
decreases. Boyle’s law states that P 1 × V1  = extrapolated for absolute zero more accurate.
P2  × V2  so, if the pressure reduces, the volume 5 At 0 K, atoms do not have any kinetic energy;
of the air bubble must increase. they do not move around. This means they
4 a Pressure law: if the volume of a sample of cannot exert forces on the walls that give rise
an ideal gas is constant, then the pressure to pressure.
of the gas is proportional to its absolute _ P  P2  P1  × T2 
6   T1    = _
  T    Therefore, P2  =  _   =
temperature: P ∝ T. 1 2
T1 
(
1.01 × 10  × 273 − 60
5 )
b  __________________
     
( )
  = 8 × 10  4Pa (1 s.f.).
273 + 10
pressure thermometer 7 a Charles’s law: if the pressure of a sample

gauge of ideal gas is constant then the volume
of the gas is proportional to its absolute
temperature; V ∝ T.
air b
thermometer
water ruler
thin tube
thread of
sulfuric acid
heating water
trapped
A fixed volume container of gas is
dry air
attached to a pressure gauge. The
temperature of the gas can be varied by
heating the beaker of water in which it is heating
immersed. The temperature of the water
(and hence the temperature of the gas) A small amount of liquid in a thin,
is measured with a thermometer. The uniform capillary tube traps a volume
pressure of the gas is measured with a of air beneath it. If the top end of the
pressure gauge. Values of temperature capillary tube is open, atmospheric
and pressure are recorded in a table. pressure keeps the pressure of the
A graph of pressure (on the y-axis) trapped volume of air constant.
against temperature (on the x-axis) should
produce a straight line. Extrapolating the
graph backwards to where the pressure is
zero leads to a value of absolute zero.
The capillary tube is attached to a ruler Exercise 9.3

so that the length of the trapped volume
of air can be measured; in a uniform tube, 1 a No.
this volume is proportional to the length.
b No.
The capillary tube and ruler are then
immersed in a beaker of water, which can c and d
No. of molecules
be heated. The temperature of the water c
with speed, v
(and hence the air in the capillary tube)
d
is measured with a thermometer. Values
of the temperature of the trapped air (the
independent variable) and volume of the
trapped air (the dependent variable) are
recorded in a table. A graph of volume Molecular speed, v
against temperature in °C should produce
a straight line. If another graph of volume e Maxwell–Boltzmann distributions
against temperature in Kelvin is drawn, a 2 a In a gas consisting of many molecules, the
straight line passing through the origin molecules will have a range of velocities.
occurs, showing that V ∝ T. Simply finding the average of these will
8 Extrapolate the graph of volume against almost certainly produce an answer
temperature in °C backwards (i.e. to negative of zero—because velocity is a vector
values of T in °C). Where the straight line quantity. So, by squaring all the velocities,
meets the Temperature axis, at a value of 0 then finding their mean and then
for the Volume, will be a value for absolute square-rooting the mean, we will get a
zero. Note: if liquid nitrogen is available, value for the ‘average’ speed, which we
measuring the volume of the trapped air at call the root-mean-square speed.
_ 3
a temperature of −196 °C will ‘anchor’ the b For 1 mole of gas,  _1 NA  mv  2 = _
   NA  kT
2 2
graph and produce a more accurate value for
absolute zero. =   3 RT,
_
2
9 a Since V ∝ T, the absolute temperature but NA  m = Mthe molar mass.
quadruples. _ 3RT _
b Absolute temperature is a measure of

So, v  2 = _   = _
  M  ⇒ vrms √
  3RT
M
  .
_ _________________
the average kinetic energy (  1  m c  2)
EK  = __ √   3RT
c v rms = _ √
3 × 8.31 × ( 273 + 25)
   = ________________
   
        
2 M 32 × 10 
−3
of the molecules. If the temperature is
= 482 ms  −1
quadrupled, then the average speed of the
molecules must have doubled.
V  V 
10 For constant pressure,  _1
T 
  =  _ 2
T 
 .
1 2
V  × T1  _____________
300 × ( 273 + 20)
So, T2  = _
  2 V   
1
=      = 586 K =
150
(586 − 273)°C = 313 °C (300 °C to 1 s.f.).
3 a 5
5 + 4 + 8 + 7 + 5 + 6 + 6 + 5 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 9 +     
8 + 6 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 9 + 10 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 7 + 8 + 5
b  ______________________________________________________________________
       
25
= 6.24
___________________________________________
c _ √ 25
1  × (9 + 32 + 175 + 180 + 196 + 192 + 162 + 100) 
      
= 6.46
d rms > mean > mode
e i y
ii z
iii x
4 a
p = − mv c An atom of hydrogen has less mass than
an atom of oxygen. If they are to have the
b
p = mv same kinetic energy, then the hydrogen
c Δp = 2mv atom will have to be travelling faster than
the oxygen atom so that
 2l
d Δt = _ v   _1  m hydrogenvhydrogen
 2 =  _1  moxygen
  voxygen
  2 .
Δp 2mv _ 2 2
  2l   =   mv  
2
e F =  _  = _
Δt
(   v )
_ l
N 
f  _ 7 U =  _3 NkT = _
 3  × 6.02 × 10  23 × 1.38 × 10  −23×
2 2
 N (∑   ) _
3   N 
_
  =   1 (_
l )
3 mvi  2  _ c  2 (273 + 100)= 4.6 kJ.
g F = _   Nm 
3 i=1 l 3
h
A = l  2   2 N(
 1 Nmc  2 = _   mc  )    N(   kT) =
  = _
2 3
2
8 a PV = _ _ _
  1 (_
l )
_   Nm 
c  2 3 3 2 3 2
F   =     =  _1 ( _ )
c 
Nm 
3 2
P =  _
i _ NkT
A l 
2 3 3
l 
N , we can write PV = nN  kT.
b Since n =  __
j
V = l  3
N  A
A
k P =  _1 (_
  Nm )    (  V 
c  = _
1 _
)
Nmc  ⇒ PV =
2 2
  c
PV = nNA  kT = nRT
3 3
l  3
  1  Nmc  2
_ A  k = 6.02 × 10 23 × 1.38 × 10  −23 =
R = N
3
8.31 JK  −1 mole  −1
5 a
M = Nm
  1.013 × 1  
0  × 2.24
PV  = ___________________ × 10  = 273 K
5 −2
Nm  ⇒ P = _ d T =  _     
b  M
ρ=_ V
  =  _V
 1  ρc  2 nR 1 × 8.31
____________ 3
or 0 °C
c 3P
_
√
c =   ρ   =   3 × 1.01
√
×
___________
1.3
1 0 5 = 480 ms  −1
  
9  3 NkTand PV =NkT ∴ U = _
a U = _  3 PV
2 2
6 a For an ideal gas, the internal energy
consists only of kinetic energy. If each b  _3 NkT = _
 3  × 6.02 × 10  23 × 1.38 × 10  −23 ×
2 2
atom/molecule has an average E K 273 = 3.4 × 10  3J
of _   3  kT, then for N atoms/
  1 mc 2 = _  _3 PV = _
 3  × 1.013 × 10  5 × 22.4 × 10  −3 =
2 2
2 2
molecules, the total internal energy
3.4 × 10  3 J
must be U =_  3 NkT.
2
c i a little
b The implication is that a given number
of atoms/molecules of any ideal gas, ii a lot
whatever kind of atoms or molecules they
consist of, will have the same internal iii not at all
energy at any given absolute temperature. iv a lot
v a lot
 volume ofNcontainer   3 × 10  23   =

−3
Exam-style questions c V = ______________

     = _
4.3 × 10 
7 × 10  −27 m  3 [1]
d Volume of a gas atom ~ 10 −30 m  3.
1 C [1]
This is, to the nearest order of
2 A [1] magnitude, 10  −4of the volume it
occupies. So the assumpition is valid. [2]
3 B [1]
12 a n=_ PV  =   
 RT 1.5 × 10  × 0.1  = 60 moles
______________
    
6
[2]
4 C [1] 8.31 × (273 + 27)
5 C [1] b M = n × molar mass = 60 × 0.029 =

1.74 = 1.7 kg (2 s.f.) [1]
6 C [1]
c 20% of 60 moles = 12 moles. Therefore,
7 B [1] there are 12 × 6.02 × 10 23× 2 atoms =
1.4 × 10  25oxygen atoms present. [2]
8 B [1] _ ___________
9 B [1]
 1  ρc  2 ⇒ c =   3P
13 a P = _
3 ρ √ √
  3 × 100 ×
_   = ____________ 10 3 =
  
1.2
500 ms  −1
Short-answer questions _
b c ∝ √
T So if c is halved, then T must
10 a Any [2] from the following: change by a factor of _   1_ .
 2
√
• Obeys each of the three empirical gas _ 1
So, new T =    × 313= 221 =
_
laws under all conditions: Boyle’s law,  2
√
Charles’ law and the pressure law 220 K (2 s.f.). [2]
• Consists of particles whose volume is   molar mass of bromine

14 a m =  _1  ×    
_________________________
  
N 
molecules
2 A
negligible compared to the volume of 0.16   = 1.33 × 10  −25 kg.
  1  ×  _
=_ [1]
space the gas occupies 2 6.02 × 10
23
• Consists of particles that collide  3 RT = _

b KE = _  3 × 8.31 × 400=
2 2
elastically 5 kJ (1 s.f.) [2]
_ ________________
• Has a density sufficiently low that the
vast majority of collisions are with c c = √_
  3kT 3 ×  
m   =    
   √
1.38 × 10 −23× 400
________________    =
1.33 × 2 × 10 
−25
the walls of the container, not with 250 ms  −1 (2 s.f.) [2]
each other
 PV   1 × 10  × 0.2
4
15 a T = _ nR
  = _  = 480 K (2 s.f.) [2]
• Has no potential energy 0.5 × 8.31
b The gas is at a low density and
V  Vf  V  650  =
b _
  Ti    =  _
Tf 
  ⇒ Vf  = Tf  _
  Ti    = 303 ×  _ a moderately high temperature. [1]
i i
293
672 = 670 cm  3 (2 s.f.) [2] c P ∝ Tfor a fixed volume, so new
T = 480 × 2 = 960 K [1]
c The gas has increased its volume.
This means that some of the energy it 16 a N = nNA  = 2 × 6.02 × 10 23 =
had gained has been used as work to 1.2 × 10  24 atoms (2 s.f.) [1]
expand the container. Q – work done
b k = _
 NT 2×
   
  10  5 × 2.5 × 10  
PV  = _______________ −2
=
on container = ∆U [1] 1.2 × 10  24× 302
1.38 × 10  −23 JK  −1 [2]
 PV   6.0 ×  
10  × 3 × 
10  =
6 −3
11 a n = _
RT
  = _______________
  
8.31 × 300
7.2 moles [1] c R = kNA  = 1.38 × 10 −23 × 6.02 × 10  23 =
8.31 JK  −1 mole  −1 [1]
b N = nNA  = 7.2 × 6.02 × 1 0 23 =
4.3 × 10  24 gas atoms [1]
17 a Pressure / kPa 18 a Using Boyle’s law: P 1V1  = P2  V2  ⇒ P2  =

160 P  V 
  1.0 ×__1 10  = 2.0 × 10  5 Pa
5
140  _1 1
V 
  = _______ [2]
2  
120 2
100 b The gas is compressed slowly, so
80 there is time for the increase in internal
60
energy of the gas—because of the
40
20
work done on the gas—to be shared
0 with the surroundings. So, the
–300 –250 –200 –150 –100 –50 0 50 100 150 temperature of the gas does not
Temperature / °C increase (a necessary condition for
Boyle’s law). [1]
([1] for correctly plotted points; [1] for
c The pressure would be greater [1].
straight line)
If the compression occurs quickly, the
b Using liquid nitrogen is the only work done on the gas will increase the
way to achieve this temperature. temperature of the gas. The atoms of
Commercially available liquid gas will move faster and collide with the
nitrogen will boil as soon as it is syringe walls more frequently and with
released from its flask; boiling greater force. This makes the pressure
temperature of nitrogen is −196 °C. [1] inside the syringe greater than that
calculated in part a. [1]
c The student would have predicted
the value of absolute zero to be
between −270 °C and −275 °C. See
extrapolation on graph in part a. [1]
Chapter 10
Exercise 10.1 d The internal energy of the gas
has decreased.
1 a i Internal energy is the sum of all the
e Work has been done by the gas on
potential and the kinetic energies of
its surroundings—that is the gas
all the particles in the gas.
has expanded.
 3  nRT = _
ii U = _  3 × 3.0 × 8.31 × 300 =
2 2 f Work has been done on the gas by
11.2 kJ external forces—that is the gas has
iii Since the gas is ideal, there is no been compressed.
potential energy. So, in this case, U ∝T. 4 a U =  _3  NkT, but N = nNA  (where NA  is
2
If T is halved, then U is halved. Avogadro’s constant) and kNA  = R.
b i An open system is one that allows So, U = _  3  NkT = _
 3   nNA  kT = _
 3  nRT =
2 2 2
mass to enter or leave.
 _3  PV.
2
ii A closed system is a system that
 3  PΔV.
If P is constant, ΔU = _
prevents mass from entering 2
or leaving. b ΔU =  _3  PΔV = _
 3  × 2.0 × 10  6 ×
2 2
iii An isolated system is a system that
( 0.15 − 0.25) = −3.0 × 10  5 J
prevents any form of energy or mass c Work done = PΔV = 2.0 × 10 6 ×
from entering or leaving. ( 0.15 − 0.25)= −2.0 × 10  5 J
2 a i
N is the number of particles in the 5 a Isobaric process
system; k is Boltzmann’s constant; T is
  PV   3 × 10  × 2 × 1 
0  = 1800 K
6 −2
the absolute temperature of the system. b i T X = _ nR
  = _____________
  
4.0 × 8.31
U =  _3  NkT
ii (2 s.f.)
2
  PV   3 × 10  × 5 × 1 
0  = 4500 K
6 −2
 NR   
N = nNA  and k = _
ii T Y = _ nR
  = _____________
  
4.0 × 8.31
A
Substituting gives (2 s.f.)
 3  nNA  _
U=_
  NR    T c i ΔU =  _3  PΔV = _
 3  × 3.0 × 10  6 ×
2 2
2 A
3  nRT. ( 5 − 2) × 10  −2= 1.35 × 10  5 J
_
=  
2
ii Increased (This should be obvious
iii V = nRT, U =  _3  PV.
Since P
2 because the temperature
b From the equations for U, U can be has increased.)
changed by changing the
d W = PΔV = 3 × 10 6× ( 5 − 2) × 10  −2 =
• number of particles, N, in the system; 9 × 10  4 J
• temperature, T, of the system; e As the gas expands at a constant pressure,

it absorbs heat from the surroundings.
• pressure, P, of the system; and
6 a i A is an isobaric process: the pressure
• volume, V, of the system. is remaining constant.
3 a Thermal energy is being given to the gas. ii B is an isovolumetric process: the
volume is remaining constant.
b Thermal energy is being removed from
the gas. b i Work done = area under graph =
2 × 10  5× 15 × 10  −3= 3.0 kJ
c The internal energy of the gas
has increased.
ii At Z, the gas must be at a lower b i An adiabatic process is one in which
temperature. Points X and Z must lie no exchange of heat occurs.
on different isotherms, and because That is Q = 0.
Z will be on an isotherm that is
lower than X, it must be at a ii Quickly. If the process occurs
lower temperature. quickly there isn’t sufficient time for
heat to be exchanged between the
iii ΔU must be negative because its surroundings and the gas.
temperature has fallen. But, work has
been done on the gas, so W is also iii The gas has been compressed, so
negative. Therefore, Q = ΔU + W work has been done on the gas by
must be negative. This means that the surroundings.
heat has been lost to the surroundings iv The area under the curve (i.e. ∫PdV)
from the gas. is the work done (on the gas by
c i No. Work done = PΔV, and here, the surroundings).
ΔV = 0. So, process B does not v Conservation of energy implies that
involve any work being done on or the work done on the gas is equal in
by the gas. magnitude to the increase in internal
ii At point Z, the gas had lost internal energy of the gas.
energy compared to point X. At Y,
Since Q = 0 and the gas is being
it has the same internal energy as at compressed (W < 0), the internal
point X. So, during process B, the energy, U, of the gas must be
gas must have gained heat from increasing (ΔU > 0): the gas is
the surroundings. heating up. Work done on the gas
7 a i Work done = area under graph = is being transferred into the internal
5 × 10  5× 15 × 1 0  −3= 7.5 kJ energy of the gas.
ii Z is at a higher temperature than Y. 9 a Work done = area under graph from W to

X = 5 × 10  5 × 15 × 10  −3= 7.5 kJ
iii ΔU > 0 and work done is on the
surroundings by the gas; therefore, b No.
W > 0, so Q > 0. This means that heat c Work done = area under the graph from
must be absorbed by the gas from Y to Z = 2 × 10 5 × −15 × 10  −3= −3.0 kJ
the surroundings.
d Net work done = 7.5 − 3.0 = 4.5 kJ
b i No. There is no change in volume, so
there is no work done on or by the gas. e The area of the rectangle enclosed by the
four thermodynamic processes.
ii Since X must be at a lower
temperature than Z and no work is f There must be an input of energy from an
done, ΔU < 0, so Q < 0. This means external source. Such a source might be,
that heat is being lost by the gas to for example, the fuel in a car engine.
its surroundings. 10 a
Process Q U W
8 a i For an isothermal process,
PV = constant. From the graph, A added increases by the
gas
8 × 1 = 4 × 2 = 2.66 × 3 = 2 × 4So,
B removed decreases none
the process is isothermal.
C removed decreases on the
ii The gas has been compressed, so gas
work has been done on the gas by
D added increases none
the surroundings.
iii Conservation of energy implies that b The area enclosed by the thermodynamic
heat must have been transferred from cycle represents the net work done by
the gas to the surroundings. the gas.
Exercise 10.2 b i The gas has expanded, so W > 0.
1 a i Adding Q will increase the average ii Q>0

kinetic energy of the particles of gas. c When ΔU = 0, Q = W.
ii The internal energy of the gas 5 a Because the process is isothermal, ΔU = 0.
will increase.
b
Q = 0 + W, so Q = W. Therefore, the gas
iii No. The gas can only do work on the gains heat of 2.5 kJ from its surroundings.
surroundings if the volume of the
container increases. Since the volume 6 a
Q = ΔU + W. For an isothermal process,
remains constant, no mechanical ΔU = 0. So, Q = W = −4.5 kJ (the gas
work is done. loses heat to its surroundings).
b i The particles of gas hit the container b For an adiabatic process, Q = 0. So,
walls harder (and more often) so, if 0 = ΔU + W. Since work is being done
the pressure remains constant, the on the gas, the value of W is negative, so
area of the container walls must the value of ΔU must be positive.
increase. So, the volume of the This means that the gas will be gaining
container increases. internal energy; its temperature
must increase.
ii Pressure has units of Pa (or Nm −2),
  5 × 10  × 1  = 2.4 × 10  4 K
PV  = _ 5
volume has units of m  3, so the 7 a T =  _
i nR 2.5 × 8.31
product of P and V must have units  3  nRT = _
ii U = _  3 × 2.5 × 8.31 ×
of N m  −2 m  3= N m = J (Joules). 2 2
2.4 × 10  4 = 7.5 × 10  5 J
iii
W = PΔV
OR
c i
Q = ΔU + W
U =  _3  PV = _
 3  × 5 × 10  5× 1=
ii The first law of thermodynamics 2 2
7.5 × 10  5 J
2 a i There is no change in internal energy.
 PV   5 × 10  × 0.25
5
U depends on T. Since T is constant, b T=_

i nR
  = ___________   = 6.0 × 10  3 K
2.5 × 8.31
U must be constant too. 3  3 × 2.5 × 8.31 ×
ii U =     nRT = _
_
2 2
ii
Q = ΔU + W= 0 + 5.0 kJ = 5.0 kJ 6.0 × 10  3 = 1.9 × 10  5J (2 s.f.)
iii Q is gained by the gas. OR
b i Q=0 U =  _3  PV = _
 3  × 5 × 10  5× 0.25=
2 2
1.9 × 10  5J (2 s.f.)
ii ΔU = Q − W = 0 − (− 2.0 kJ)= 2.0 kJ
OR
iii The temperature of the gas increases.
ΔU ∝ ΔV, so if V is quartered, U is
3 a W = PΔV = 1.01 × 10 5× (18 − 12) = U 
  7.5 × 
10  =
5
6.06 × 10  5 J   = _
quartered ⇒ Unew   old  = _
4 4
b ΔU = Q − W = Q − PΔV = 4.5 MJ − 1.9 × 10  5J (2 s.f.).
6.06 × 10  5= 3.9 MJ (2 s.f.) iii W = PΔV = 5 × 1 0 5× ( 0.25 − 1.0) =
4  3  PV = _
a Initially, U = _  3  × 4.0 × 10  5 × −3.75 × 10  5J (The minus sign is
2 2 showing that the work is done on
6.0 × 10  −2 = 3.6 × 10  4 J. the gas.)
After change, U =  _3  PV = _
 3  × 3.0 × 10  5 × iv Q = ΔU + W = ( 1.9 − 7.5) × 10  5+
2 2
8.0 × 10  = 3.6 × 10  J
−2 4 (− 3.75 × 10  5) = −9.4 × 10  5 J
∴ ΔU = 0.

c i
Q is lost from the gas (indicated iv Q = ΔU + W = ( 1.125 − 0.225) × 10  5
by the minus sign in the + 0 = 9.0 × 10  4 J
previous answer.)
c i Q is gained, since the value of Q > 0.
ii The answers suggest that whenever
a gas is compressed with no change ii The answers suggest that whenever a
in pressure, its temperature falls (i.e gas undergoes an increase in pressure
T becomes smaller) and heat is lost with no change to its volume, its
from the gas (i.e. Q < 0). temperature increases and it gains
heat from the surroundings (Q > 0).
iii Since this is the opposite to
compressing the gas, T should iii Since this is opposite to part b vi, the
increase (and hence U will increase), gas will decrease in temperature—
and Q will become greater than 0 (i.e. and hence also decrease its internal
heat is gained from the surroundings energy—and will lose heat to the
allowing the gas to increase its surroundings.
temperature as well as to do work on 9 a i Since the gas expands, W > 0.
the surroundings).
ii Since Q = 0, ΔU < 0.
 PV   1.0 × 10  × 0.15
5
8 a i T = _ nR
  = _____________
    = 451.3 =
4.0 × 8.31 iii The temperature of the gas decreases.
450 K (2 s.f.)
b i Since the gas is compressed, W < 0.
 3  nRT = _
ii U = _  3 × 4.0 × 8.31 × 451.3=
2 2
2.25 × 10  4 J ii Since Q = 0, ΔU > 0.
or iii The temperature of the gas increases.

 3  PV = _
U=_
 3  × 1.0 × 10  5× 0.15= 10 a Q = m L = 1.0 × 2.26 × 1 0 6 = 2.26 × 10  6 =
2 2
2.25 × 10  4 J 2.26 MJ
b  PV
i T = _   5.0 × 10  × 0.15
  = _____________
  
5
 = 2256.5 = W = PΔV = 1.01 × 10 5 × ( 1.67 − 1 × 10  −3) =
b
nR 4.0 × 8.31 1.69 × 105 J
2.3 × 10  3K (2 s.f.)
c ΔU = Q − W = 2.26 × 10 6 − 1.69 × 10  5 =
or
2.09 × 10  6= 2.09 MJ
Since T ∝ Pat constant volume, if P
is changed by a factor of 5, so is T. Exercise 10.3
∴ Tnew
  = 5 × Told
  = 5 × 451.3 = 1 a  1  to be
i Each counter has a chance of _
6
2256.5 = 2.3 × 10  3 K (2 s.f.) exchanged, so N =  _1 × 60= 10.
6
ii  3  nRT = _
U=_   3 × 4.0 × 8.31 × 2256.5 = ii N =  _1 × 6= 1
2 2 6
1.125 × 10  5 J = 1.1 × 10  5 (2 s.f.)
iii Amaya now has 51, and Andrew now
or has 15.
 3  PV = _
U=_
 3  × 5 × 10  5× 0.15= iv Amaya’s body has cooled a little, and
2 2
5J (2 s.f.)
1.1 × 10  Andrew’s body has warmed a little.
or b i   1 × 51= 8
N=_
6
ΔU ∝ ΔP, so if P changes by a factor ii   1 × 15= 2
N=_
of 5, U is also changed by a factor of 5 6
iii Amaya now has 45, and Andrew now
⇒ Unew
  = 2.25 × 10  4 × 5 = 1.1 × 10  5 J has 21.
(2 s.f.).
iv Amaya’s body has cooled a little
iii Since there is no change in the volume more, and Andrew’s body has
of the gas, W = 0. warmed a little more.
c i One would expect Amaya and ii

S has increased by a relatively
Andrew to have the same number large amount
of counters.
iii The net change to S is positive.
ii Amaya’s temperature has decreased That is S has increased.
and Andrew’s temperature has
increased until their two temperatures iv S always increases.
are the same. 3 a Entropy decreases. Reason: water
d i Yes, statistically each player would molecules in frozen ice are more regularly
arranged and so have fewer microstates.
exchange N = _   1 × 33= 5 counters on
6
each turn. or
ii Their two bodies are in thermal Water loses heat as it freezes. Since the
equilibrium because they are change in entropy is porportional to heat
exchanging energy at the same rate. input, entropy must decrease.
e i The probability of energy being b Entropy increases. Reason: increased
transferred from the hotter body number of microstates; there are more
to the colder body is much greater ways in which the gas molecules can be
than the probability of energy being arranged within the volume they occupy.
transferred from the colder body to
or
the hotter body.
An isothermal expansion must be
ii The probability of this happening is
accompanied by a net input of heat. Since
too small for it to occur. Since the
the change in entropy is proportional to
game progresses with ‘turns’ a ‘one-
heat input, entropy must increase.
off’ highly unlikely event (e.g. the
colder body produces one or more c Entropy increases. Reason: the pieces of
sixes and the hotter produces no sixes) the glass are now less ordered; they have a
will soon be overcome by the next turn greater number of microstates.
or turns, resulting in the net transfer
or
of energy from the hotter body to the
colder body—and not the other way The EP  the glass had on the table has been
around. This is why hotter bodies cool converted into heat (and energy to break
and colder bodies warm up, because the glass.) Since the change in entropy is
the chance of that happening is far porportional to heat input, entropy
greater than the reverse. must increase.
2 a 2 4 a 50 °C
b i 6 b i Q = mcΔT = 2.0 × 4200 × (80 − 50) =
ii S has increased by a factor of 2.6. 2.52 × 10  5 J
c i 24 ii 2.52 × 10  5 J
ii
S has increased by a factor of c i T ave − cold = 35 °C
1.8 (2 s.f.). ii T ave − hot = 65 °C
c i 120 −Q
  −( 2.52 × 10 )  =
5
d   = _
i ΔShot   T    = _
ave−hot 273 + 65
ii
S has increased by a factor of −746 JK  −1
1.5 (2 s.f.). Q
  (2.52 × 10 )  = 818 JK  −1
5
  = _
ii ΔScold   T    = _
273 + 35
d i Ω increases at an increasing rate. ave−hot
iii ΔStotal
  = ΔShot
  + ΔScold
  = −746 + 818 =
ii S increases at a decreasing rate. 72 JK  , which is >0.
−1
e i
S has decreased by a relatively
small amount
5 a gravitational potential → kinetic → ii The internal energy of the gas is the

thermal same in states A and B.
Q40 × 10 ×  
3 = 4.1 JK  −1
b ΔS = _
 T  =  _ b i Work done = area under the curve
20 + 273
from A to B
6 a i The cooling tea produces a negative
entropy change. The warming = 1.33 × (2 × 10  −2 × 2 × 10  5) = 5.3 kJ
surroundings produced a positive
entropy change. The temperature of ii 5.3 kJ
the tea is warmer than that of the ΔQ 5.3 kJ
iii ΔS =  _
T
  =  _   = 22 JK  −1
241
surroundings, so the magnitude of the
entropy change for the tea is smaller c The loss of entropy from the surroundings
than that of the surroundings. So, the must be less than the gain in entropy of
net entropy change is positive. the gas. This is possible if the temperature
of the surroundings is greater than the
ii The atoms of sodium and chlorine temperature of the gas.
are losing energy (atomic bonds
  6 × 10  × 4 × 
PV  = _____________ 10  = 2.9 × 10  3 K
5 −2
are being created) so the entropy 8 T =  _
a nR
  
1 × 8.31
change for the crystal is negative. b Since T ∝ PV, for Z, 6 × 10  5 × 2 × 10  −2 =
The energy lost by these atoms is 12 × 10  3 and, for Y, 3 × 10  5 × 4 × 10  −2 =
gained by the surroundings, making 12 × 10  3
the entropy change of the surroundings
positive. This entropy change of the So, Y and Z are at the same temperature.
surroundings is greater than that of
c i Its temperature decreases.
the crystal (because the number of
microstates in the surroundings is ii Its internal energy decreases.
much greater than the number of
microstates in the crystal), making the iii Its entropy decreases. This suggests
net entropy change positive. that the entropy of the surroundings
must increase implying that thermal
iii During sweating, the most energetic energy is transferred from the gas to
atoms of sweat break free of the the surroundings. This is consistent
atoms around them (evaporating). with an isovolumetric cooling of the
The average energy of the atoms left sample of gas.
behind is lower—hence the cooling.
This will create a negative entropy d i Its temperature decreases.
change. However, the addition ii Its internal energy decreases.
of those high energy atoms into
the surroundings creates a greater iii Its entropy decreases. The gas has
positive entropy change. This been compressed isobarically, so the
allows the net entropy change to be surroundings have done work on the
positive, following the second law of gas. But, since the gas has undergone
thermodynamics. a decrease in its internal energy
−Q Q (its temperature has decreased), it
b ΔSnet
  = ΔShot   = _
  + ΔScold   T    + _   −2kJ  +
  T    = _ must have transferred some thermal
hot cold
700
  2kJ  = 3.8 JK  −1
_ energy to the surroundings so that
300
the first law is obeyed. For the second
  PV   4 × 10  × 2 × 
10  =
5 −2
7 a i T A = _   = _____________
   law to be obeyed (and it must be!), the
nR 4 × 8.31
gain in entropy of the surroundings
241 K (3 s.f.)
must be greater than the loss of
  PV   2 × 10  × 4 × 
10  = 241 K
5 −2
T B = _   = _____________
   entropy of the gas. The transfer of
nR 4 × 8.31
thermal energy from the gas to the
(3 s.f.)
surroundings must be greater than it
So, states A and B are at the same would be for an isovolumetric cooling
temperature. of the gas. This also means a greater
change in entropy of the surroundings
than the loss of entropy of the gas.
9 a Q = mcΔT = 0.25 × 4200 × ( 30 − 85) = 2 a The car engine takes chemical energy, in
−5.78 × 10  4 J the form of fuel, and, by combustion,
tranforms it into thermal energy. This
  30 + 
b T ave = _ 85 = 57.5 °C
thermal energy is then transformed into
2
  − 5.78 × 10    = −175 JK  −1
4
  = _
c ΔScoffee useful mechanical work—kinetic energy.
57.5 + 273
  + 5.78 × 10   = 197 JK  −1
4
d ΔSclassroom
  = _ b Energy from the fuel is ‘wasted’ in the
20 + 273
forms of
e ΔStotal
  = ΔScoffee
  + ΔSclassroom
  = −175 + 197 =
• hot exhaust gases,
22 JK  −1
• mechanical vibration of the
10 a The ice cube melts quickly because
engine parts,
the metal plate is a good conductor
of thermal energy, allowing heat to be • unwanted thermal energy in the hot
exchanged with the metal plate at a engine and
high rate.
• other energy-requiring aspects of the
b The loss of energy from the surroundings car: lights, air conditioning, and so on.
causes a negative entropy change. But the
gain of energy by the ice cube causes a c Hot exhaust gases, unwanted thermal
larger positive entropy change (because energy of the hot engine
the value of Q is the same for both d  QW   
η=_
i
processes, but T is lower for the ice cube). hot
So, the net entropy change is greater   W   =  

  ⇒ η = _
ii Q hot = W + Qcold
than zero. Q  hot
_   − Qcold
Qhot   Q 
Q 10 × 10  −3 × 334 × 10  3  = 1 − _
  cold 
c ΔS = _
 T  =  _______________
     = 12.2 JK  −1 Qhot
  Qhot
 
273
iii In practice, there is also wasted
Exercise 10.4 energy in other forms of energy,
not just thermal. This makes the
The questions in this section will help you apply efficiency of the engine smaller than
what you have learnt so far about thermodynamic the equation in part d i.
processes, the first law and the second law to
systems we use every day. e Yes. From the first law of thermodynamics,
Q=Δ U + W, and Δ U contributes to the
1 a A heat engine is a device that lost thermal and other forms of energy.
transfers thermal energy into useful Since the energy has been transformed
mechanical work. into forms that have a greater number
b Thermal energy, QH  , is removed from a of microstates than the fuel had had, the
hot reservoir (assumed to remain at a entropy of the engine and its surroundings
constant temperature, T H). Some of this must have increased, thus showing this
thermal energy is transferred into useful to be an example of the second law of
mechanical work, W, and the remainder thermodynamics in practice.
of the thermal energy, Q C, (i.e. QH  – W) is f Yes, this is reasonable—and it is
transferred to the heat sink (also assumed suggesting that the increased entropy is
to remain at a constant temperature). acting as a kind of thermal energy that is
c Efficiency, η, is defined as unavailable for doing useful work.
   
   useful work done  .
_______________
total energy supplied
g This is the Kelvin form of the second law
of thermodynamics.
W   = _ Q  − Q  Q 
So, η =  _
Q 
  H  
Q 
C
=1−_
  C .
Q 
H H H
T 
3 η=1−_
a  Tcold
 
  5 a Carnot cycle
hot
So, at higher values of T cold the efficiency b A and C are isothermic processes. B and
will be less. D are adiabatic processes.
T 
273 + 8   = 71% c A
b i η = 1 −  _ cold
T 
 = 1 −  _
273 + 700
hot
d i A
T  273 + 23   = 70%
η=1−_
ii  Tcold
 
 = 1 −  _ ii C
hot
273 + 700
c The change in electrical energy production e A

  6   = 13%.
is _ f See diagram from answer 4e.
46
The change in theoretical efficiency is Useful work done = W = Q H − QC 
only 1%.
The result was, perhaps, surprising, Total energy used = Q H
Q  − Q  Q 
since the change in theoretical efficiency So efficiency = η = _
  HQ    C
= 1 −  _C .
Q 
would predict only a 1% difference in Q 
H H
energy output. The performance of the g i ΔSH  = − _

  T H 
H
generators suggests that they do not   QH  − W
Q
operate as a Carnot heat engine and that ii ΔSC  = _
  T C  =  _
TC 
 
C
energy losses are substantial. Q  − W Q 
  = _
iii ΔSnet   HT   

−  _ H
T 
 
4 a Otto cycle C H
H  − W _
Q Q  QH  − W _ T 
b The area enclosed by the four processes. iv  _ TC 
  −   T H  ≥ 0 ⇒  _

Q  
  ≥   TC    ⇒

H H H
W   ≥ _ T  T 
c i D 1 −  _   W  − 1 ≤ − _
  TC    ⇒ _  TC   
QH  H
QH  H
ii B T 
∴_  W   = η ≤ 1 − _  TC   
QH 
d D TC 
H
h i η = 1 −  T    = 1 − _

_  273 + 27   =
e H
273 + 327
heat source 0.5 or 50%
T = TH
ii In a real power station, there are other
sources of energy loss, such as lost
QH heat in the processes of conduction,
convection and radiation or mechanical
useful work energy losses due to friction.
iii T Hcould be increased, or T C could
be decreased.
QC
iv The value of T  H is limited by
engineering and thermodynamic
issues. TC  is usually determined by the
heat sink temperature of the ambient conditions
T = TC (this is why it is usual to build nuclear
power stations near large masses of
f Some of the heat taken from the heat cold water, such as the sea).
source is given to the heat sink. So, not all T 
6 a η = 1 −  _ C
 273 + 250 = 0.364 = 36%
 = 1 − _
the heat from the heat source is available T  H
273 + 550
to produce useful work. (2 s.f.)
b Frictional losses and other thermal energy
losses to the surroundings will mean that
some of the useful mechanical work done
is transferred into non-useful energy.
7 a Process Q U W 6 B [1]
A removed none on the 7 D [1]

gas 8 B [1]
B none increases on the
gas 9 B [1]
C added none by the 10 A [1]
gas
D none decreases by the Short-answer questions
gas T ∝ PV(or equivalent)
11 a [1]
b Heat is being transferred to the hot gas At X: PV = 4 × 1 0 5 × 10 × 10  −3 =
during the isothermal compression (A) 4 × 10  3 J
and is gained from the cold gas during the
At Y: PV = 1 × 10 5 × 40 × 10  −3 =
isothermal expansion (C). To make this
4 × 10  3 J
possible, work is done on the cold gas (B)
to heat up the gas so that it can become So, the process is isothermal. [1]
hot enough to transfer thermal energy.
b Work done = area under graph. [1]
c This is how a refrigerator works.
≈ ( 30 × 10  −3 × 1 × 10  5) +
8 a Heat, QC  , is extracted from the heat sink (__
  1  × 3 × 10  5 × 10 × 10  −3) +
by the mechanical work done. Heat, Q H, is 2
then deposited into the heat source. In this (__
  1  × 1 × 10  5 × 20 × 10  −3) = 5.5 kJ [1]
2
case, conservation of energy gives
c It has done work on the surroundings,
QH  = QC  + W.
but its temperature has remained
b The Clausius form of the second law the same, so it must have received
of thermodynamics states that it is not heat from the surroundings. [1]
possible to exchange heat from a colder
12 a
Q is the amount of heat exchanged
body to a hotter body without the use of
by a system with its surroundings.
mechanical work. The heat pump shows
A positive Q means that heat is
that mechanical work is done on the gas
supplied to the gas from
in order to allow it to transfer thermal
the surroundings. [1]
energy from a cold body to a hot body.
Q  − Q  T  − T  Q  − 6.0 kJ ΔU is the change in the internal energy
9 a  _
H
 C =  _
H
 C ∴  _
H
  =
Q  H
T  H
Q  H of the gas. ΔU will be positive if the
( )
273 + 25 − 273 + 4
________________ ( ) internal energy of the gas increases—
        = 0.07
( )
273 + 25 that is its temperature increases. [1]
  6.0 kJ  =
∴ QH  (1 − 0.07)= 6.0 kJ ⇒ QH  = _
0.93
W is the work done by the gas on
6.45 kJ its surroundings. W is positive if
the gas expands, doing work on
b
W = QH  − QC  = 6.45 − 6.0 = 0.45 kJ
the surroundings. [1]
Exam-style questions b i Since the surroundings are

hotter, heat will be absorbed
Multiple-choice questions by the system, making Q positive.
1 A [1] The system then does work on
its surroundings, so W is
2 C [1] also positive.
3 B [1] ∴ 50 = ΔU + 30 ⇒ ΔU = 50 − 30 =

4 C [1] 20 J [1]
5 A [1]
ii The surroundings undergo an 15 a Isobaric expansion [1]

entropy decrease given by
b work done = area of rectangle =
 T50    .
ΔS = _ [1] 6 × 10  −2 × 3 × 10  5 = 1.8 × 10  4 J [2]
hot
But the gas undergoes an entropy c B [1]

 20T+  30
increase given by ΔS = _  . [1]
 3  Δ(PV) = _
d ΔU = _   3 × ( 8.0 − 2.0) × 10  3
cold
2 2
20 + 30
 _   −  _50  > 0, so the net
T  cold
T  hot
= 9 × 10  3J (Note that the
entropy increases. [1] change is positive, so the internal
energy of the gas has increased.) [1]
 3  PV = _
13 a U = _  3  × 8 × 10  4 × 3 × 10  −3 =
2 2
16 a Q = mcΔT = 0.3 × 4200 ×
360 J [2] ( 10 − 80) = 8.82 × 10  4 J [1]
  8 ×  
10  × 3 × 1 
PV  = _____________ 0  = 722 K =
4 −3
b T =  _    Q − 8.82 × 10  4   =
nR 0.04 × 8.31 b ΔS = _
 T    = ____________
    
720 K (2 s.f.) [1] ave   1 × ( 283 + 353)
_
2
−277 JK  −1 [2]
c Work done by gas, W = PΔV =
8 × 10  4× (9 − 3) × 10  −3= 480 J c The water loses entropy
ΔU =  _3  PΔV = _  3  × 8 × 10  4 × ( −277 JK  −1),
2 2
( 9 − 3) × 10  −3 = 720 J [1] but the heat sink gains entropy
( )
8.82 ×  
_
  10  4 = 312 JK  −1 , [1]
∴ Q = 480 + 720 = 1200J
[1] 283
so the net change in entropy is
14 a An isothermal process takes place
312 − 277 = 35 JK −1, which is >0.
at constant temperature. This
(So, the second law of
implies that there is no change in
thermodynamics is obeyed.) [1]
internal energy—that is ΔU = 0. [1]
An adiabatic process is one in 17 a The gas is heated ⇒ Q > 0; the
which there is no exchange of heat container is rigid ⇒ W = 0. [1]
with the surroundings – that is Q = 0. [1]
∴ ΔU > 0
[1]
b i W = PΔV = 1.5 × 10 5 ×
( 4 − 60) × 10  −3 = −8.4 × 10  −3 J b Gas will cool ⇒ ΔU < 0. [1]
(Note that the minus sign is Gas will be compressed ⇒ W < 0. [1]
showing that the work has
been done on the gas.) [1] ∴ Q < 0
[1]
ii Since PV ∝ Tand V has 18 a Compressing the gas rapidly
decreased, T must have does not give the gas enough
decreased. ∴
U has decreased. [1] time to exchange heat with the
surroundings. So, Q = 0. [1]
iii Q = ΔU + WSince both
ΔUand W are negative, Q But work has been done on the
must be negative. gas ∴
W < 0.
Therefore, the gas has lost thermal So ΔU > 0and hence the
energy to the surroundings. [1] temperature of the gas increases. [1]
b The gas is compressed, so W < 0 [1] b 500  = 22% (2 s.f.)

η =  _ [1]
2250
Since the compression occurs slowly, c ΔShot   2250  = −2.31 JK  −1
  = − _
973
there is sufficient time for the gas to _ 2250 −  
500 = 2.81
exchange heat with the surroundings.   =  
ΔScold
623
The work done on the gas causes the   = 2.81 – 2.31 = 0.5 JK  −1
∴ ΔStotal [2]
gas to transfer thermal energy to its
surroundings, so Q < 0. If Q = W,
then there is no change in the internal
energy. Therefore, the temperature
if the gas remains constant. [1]
19 a
Thot = 973 K
Qhot = 2250 J
W = 500 J
Qcold = 1750 J
Tcold = 623 K
[2]
Chapter 11
Exercise 11.1 b If the values in the definition are inserted
into the equation, the resulting force per
1 a The motion of the free electrons is unit length of conductor is 2 × 10 −7 N:
random There is no net flow of charge in I1  I2 
  F  = μo   _
_   1 × 1  
  = 4π × 10  −7 × _
any direction, so there is no current. l 2πr 2π × 1
= 2 × 10  −7 Nm  −1.
b If a current were flowing, there would
I  I  1 × 1  
have to be a net flow of charge in one c   F  = μo   _
_
i 1 2
  = 4π × 10  −7 ×  _
l 2πr 2π × 0.25
direction. This could be shown by adding
= 8 × 10  −7 Nm  −1
extra motion vector arrows, all in the
same direction, to all of the free electrons. ii The two conductors will be forced
together. If the currents are
c A better conductor might have more free
antiparallel, then the two conductors
electrons. So, the diagram would have to
will be forced apart.
have more small circles representing free
electrons. (There are other factors that 5 a i E P
would be involved, but, for the purpose of
this question, the number of free electrons ii E P transfers to EK  and then to thermal
is the main requirement.) energy (and some sound) when the
apple hits the ground.
2 a v
iii No. The apple/tree/Earth is not a
b nAv heat engine; thermal energy cannot
be transformed into E K, which then
c Q = nAve in 1 s
transforms into E P.
ΔQ
d I=_
    = nAve
Δt iv The apple falls to the ground because
e v = _
i I  
  nAe it moves from where it had greater
0.1
__________________________ potential energy to where it has less
=   
       
( 29) ( −6) ( −19)
1 × 10  × 1 × 10  × 1.6 × 10  potential energy.
= 6.25 × 10  −6 ms  −1
b i eletrical potential energy → kinetic
ii The free electrons drift very slowly energy → thermal energy
because there are so many of them.
ii The free electrons move from where
3 1000  =
a Number of moles per kg =  _ they had greater EPE to where they
63.5
15.7 moles kg 
−1 have less EPE. Yes, the two answers
are essentially the same.
b Number of atoms per kg = 15.7 × 6.02 ×
10  23 = 9.5 × 10  24 atoms kg  −1 c i Yes, there is a potential difference
between where the apple is on the tree
c Number of atoms per m  3 = 9.5 × 10  24 × and where the apple is on the ground.
8900 = 8.4 × 10  28 atoms m  −3
ii Yes, the gravitational potential
d
n = 2 × 8.4 × 10  28 = 1.6 × 10  29 free difference causes the apple to
electrons m 
−3
move from a place with greater
4 a An Amp is that constant current flowing gravitational potential to a place with
in two long, straight, parallel conductors less gravitational potential.
of negligible cross-sectional area, 1 m iii Yes, the electrons move because of an
apart in a vacuum, such that the force electrical potential difference; they
between the two conductors is 2 × 10 −7 N move from a place where the electrical
per metre length of conductor. potential is high to a place where the
electrical potential is less.
iv potential difference = energy 8 a i The free electrons bounce off, losing

W 
transferred per unit charge: V =  _ some of their kinetic energy and
Q
slowing down temporarily.
v Volt
ii E K → thermal energy
vi We create a potential difference by
introducing a cell or other source iii Yes. The free electrons move and
of emf. collide, slow down and move again
repeatedly. So, they never achieve a
6 a  W
V=_ 4   = 16 V
  =  _ fast speed.
Q 0.25
b W  =  _____________________
V =  _    2   = 10 V iv The atoms of the conductor gain
Q ( 18) ( −19)
1.25 × 10  × 1.6 × 10 
energy from the electrons and
c  W
V=_ Q
24   = 1 V
  =  _ vibrate more.
0.4 × 60
v This causes the conductor to heat
7 a work done = q × ΔV = 1.6 × 10  −19× 1 = up. Note that it also makes it more
1.6 × 10  −19 J difficult for the free electrons to drift
  6.4 × 10  −19 = 4 eV
−19
b i 6.4 × 10  −19 J = _ along, because the increased vibrations
1.6 × 10 
of the atoms take up more space and
  3.2 × 10  −19  =
−13
ii 3.2 × 10  −13 J = _ deprive the free electrons of the space
1.6 × 10 
2 × 10  6 eV = 2 MeV needed for them to move along.
  2 × 10  −19   =
iii 2 × 10  −15 J = _
−15 b i A greater current means a greater
1.6 × 10  movement of charge per second.
1.25 × 10  4 eV (10 keV 1 s.f.) This can be achieved by more
c i 3 eV = 3 × 1.6 × 10 −19 = 4.8 × 10  −19 J electrons drifting along and electrons
moving faster.
ii 200 keV = 200 × 10  3 × 1.6 × 10  −19 J =
3.2 × 10  −14 J Both of these will result in the atoms
of the conductor gaining more energy
iii 7.4 MeV = 7.4 × 10  6 × 1.6 × 10  −19 = from the collisions they have with
11.8 × 10  −13 = 1.2 × 10  −12 J the free electrons, thus increasing the
heating effect of the current.
9 a Some factors might be the following:
Factor Reason
Length of conductor A longer conductor will have more atoms with which the free
electrons can collide.
Cross-sectional area A thinner conductor will cause the free electrons to move faster.
of conductor Faster electrons will transfer more energy to the atoms when
they collide.
Free electron density Free electron density will determine how many free
electrons move.
Strength of Weaker bonds will allow the atoms to vibrate with a greater
atomic bonds amplitude. This will cause the vibrating atoms to take up more
space within the conductor.
Atomic spacing Smaller spaces between atoms will mean less space in which the
free electrons can move.
Mass of atoms Mass of atoms will contribute to how big they are (and so how
much space they take up inside the conductor) and the speed
at which they vibrate.
b i Long = more atoms to gain energy 11 a Resistivity: the resistance of a sample of

from the free electrons. And long = material that has a cross-sectional area of
bigger resistance, so greater 1 m  2and a length of 1 m.
heating effect. 1 × 10    = 2 × 10  −4 Ω
  Al   = 4 × 10  −8 ×  _
−2
b R = ρ_
2 × 10 
−6
ii Very thin = faster-moving free
electrons (because of conservation of c Length is 100 times shorter, and the cross-
charge.) Faster electrons collide with sectional area is 100 × 100 times smaller,
the atoms harder and more often, so resistance will be 100 times larger.
creating a greater heating effect. −8 = 1.7 × 10  −6 Ω
R = 100 × 1.7 × 10 
iii The main reason that the filament d i 10 km
is made of tungsten is that tungsten
has a very high melting temperature, ii Rod is 10  4times longer and has cross-
which allows the filament to get sectional area 10  4 times smaller.
white-hot without the problem of So, new resistance is R = 10  4 × 10  4 ×
it melting. 1.7 × 10  −8= 1.7 Ω.
10 a Resistance: the ratio of the voltage across A = (2.2 × 10  3) ×   
ρ = R  _
e ____________ (
  π × 1.2 × −2  
−3) 2
10   
a component to the current flowing l 2 × 10 
 VI , measured in ohms, Ω.
through it, R = _ = 0.5 Ω m
A = r  _
f 3 × 10  
l   = ( 4 × 10  −4) ×  _ −2
b Volts are J/C, so base units are kgm 2s  −2/ R 100

A s = kgm  2s  −3A  −1. = 1.2 × 10  −7 m  2
The base unit for current is A. 12 a B is  __1  as long and __
  1 of the cross-sectional
2 4
area, so its resistance will be
Therefore, base unit for resistance =
kgm  2s  −3A  −2.  __1 × 4 × 100 = 2 × 100 = 200 Ω.
2
c i   0.5 −3 = 2 Ω
 VI  = _
R=_ b   1 of the radius means __
__  1 of the cross-
250 × 10  2 4
sectional area. But this also means length
ii I
  5 −6  = 1 × 10  5 (100 kΩ)
V  = _
R =  _ is four times longer.
50 × 10 
iii R =  I  =   120 −3  = 4 × 10  3 (4 kΩ)
V
_ _ So, R = 4 × 4 × 100 = 1.6 kΩ.
30 × 10 
13 a At any point on the graph, the 15 a The light bulb will not stay at a constant
resistance is given, strictly, by the value temperature if the voltage across the
of the voltage divided by the value of bulb is varied. As the voltage across a
the current. light bulb is increased, the temperature
of the light bulb will increase (as more
Note: this is not the same as the gradient
current flows, more energy is transferred
of the graph! to thermal energy), meaning Ohm’s law
 VI  not R = _
Mathematically, R = _  dV . cannot be obeyed.
dI
b i R=_   5  = 25 Ω
 VI  = _ b V
0.20
ii  VI  = _
R=_   12  = 25 Ω
0.48
c At all points along the graph, the value
  VI  is the same. Another way of saying
of __
this is that at all points on the graph V ∝ I.
d Ohm’s law states that the voltage across I
a component is proportional to the c i As current increases, the resistance of
current flowing through it at a constant the light bulb increases.
temperature. This leads to the familiar
equation: V = IR. ii As the current increases, electrons
collide more frequently (and harder)
14 a i Potential difference, V with atoms of the filament. Each
collision transfers energy in the form
ii Temperature difference, ∆T
of thermal energy to the atoms,
b i R = ρ  _ l   making them vibrate more violently.
A
This makes it more difficult for the
ii R=_ 1   _
l  
A electrons to pass along the filament
k
of the light bulb. We measure this
I =     (     would be acceptable too)
_dq _ q
c i
dt t difficulty as the increase in resistance
ii I =  _ (_   t would be acceptable too)
dQ Q of the light bulb.
dt
dq V , an increase in
Since R is defined as  _
d V = IR = _     × ρ  _ l   I
dt A V does not produce a corresponding
dQ
e ΔT = _   ×  _1  _   l   similar increase in I, so the ratio
dt kA
of V to I increases, thus increasing
f the resistance.
Term Electrical Thermal
case case 16 a When the temperature increases, the
What makes V ∆T atoms of the thermistor vibrate more
current flow? violently. This more violent vibration is
Expression for dq sufficient to cause some of the bound
 _    dQ 
_
electrons to be shaken free, increasing the
current dt dt
free electron density. With more electrons
Expression for   l  
R = ρ _ 1   _
R =  _ l  
A kA to be able to move, there will be a larger
resistance
current for the same voltage, hence a
Overall ldq
  ldQ  
ΔT = _ decrease in resistance.
V = ρ  _  kAdt
equation Adt
17 a
resistance
light intensity
b Individual photons of light, incident on ii If no current flows through the

some of the bound electrons, will give the battery, then ε = V. (Note that this is
bound electrons enough energy to break directly from the definition of what
free of the atom. This will increase the emf is.)
free electron density and so decrease the
resistance of the LDR. An increased light 4 a Chemical energy is transformed into
intensity means an increased number of electrical energy.
photons per second. More photons mean b No. The laws of thermodynamics state
more bound electrons can be removed and that, in any energy transformation, some
so the decrease in resistance. As atoms energy is wasted as thermal energy. So, as
lose bound electrons, however, some free the cell transforms chemical energy into
electrons will start to be captured by the electrical energy, some is transformed into
relatively positively charged atoms, so thermal energy that heats up the cell.
further increases in light intensity will
not remove as many electrons, and so the 5 a In a resistor, electrical energy is
decrease in resistance continues but by less transformed into thermal energy.
and less. b Since some energy is transformed into
thermal energy when a cell is used in a
Exercise 11.2 circuit—much like the effect of a resistor –
it is sensible to consider that the cell itself
1 a V
has a resistance.
b I
6 a Once the stored energy in a primary
c P = IV cell has been used up, the cell is of no
use. It is not possible to ‘re-energise’ the
d i P = IV and V = IR so P = I  2R. primary cell. In a secondary cell, once
ii V  so P = _
P = IV and I =  _   VR   .
2
the energy has been used up, it is possible
R to re-energise the cell by rearranging the
2 E = VIt ⇒ I = _
a   Vt     0.8
E   = ___________   =
230 × 10 × 10 −3 distribution of charges within the cell –
0.35 A (2 s.f.) this is what happens when a rechargeable
b As the filament of the lamp heats up, its cell is attached to a charger. So, the
resistance increases. This will make the secondary cell can be used many times.
current flowing through it decrease. b 1200 mA-hours is really a measure of how
c P =  _
t   0.8 −3 = 80 W
E  = _ much charge can flow through the cell
10 × 10  before it has used up all of its energy. So,
3 a Chemical energy is transformed into 1200 mA-hours = 1200 × 10 −3× 60 × 60 =
electrical potential energy (usually 4.32 × 10  3 C.
we would just say electrical energy
rather than the full-term electrical With a constant current of 1.6 mA, the
 4.32 × 10 −3  = 2.7 × 10  6 s
3
potential energy). cell will last for _
1.6 × 10 
(750 hours).
b The label ‘1.5 V’ is the emf of the battery.
This means that the battery, when 7 a
connected into a circuit, will convert 1.5 J Resistance Current in Power
of chemical energy for every Coulomb of of variable circuit / A dissipated
charge that flows through it. resistor / Ω in variable
resistor / W
c i In normal operation, ε > V because 1.0 1.25 1.56
the transformation of chemical
energy to electrical energy always 2.0 1.00 2.00
wastes some energy in the form of 3.0 0.83 2.08
thermal energy in the battery itself. 4.0 0.71 2.04
5.0 0.63 1.95
b The power dissipated in the resistor is a v Where the free electrons have filled
maximum when the resistance is the same up the spaces of the holes, there
value as the internal resistance of the cell. will be no charge carriers of either
kind. The term depletion zone refers
8 a i A semiconductor is a component made to the absence of charge carriers in
out of a material, or a combination of this zone.
materials, that is usually an insulator,
but in certain circumstances can vi The upper layer has become relatively
become a conductor. positively charged because it has
lost electrons.
ii It is possible to change the insulating
property of the semiconductor into vii The lower layer has become relatively
a conducting property if charge negatively charged because it has
carriers, electrons or holes, can be gained electrons (and lost holes).
introduced or produced.
viii The electric field in the depletion zone
iii A p-type semiconductor is one that will be directed downwards from the
has an excess of positive charge upper layer towards the lower layer.
carriers, or holes. One could also think
of it as having insufficient electrons. d i The free electrons will be forced
upwards, and the holes will be
iv An n-type semiconductor is one that forced downwards.
has an excess of negative charge
carriers—or electrons. ii This will produce a potential
difference, or voltage between the
v A hole is a location within the atomic upper and lower layers of about 0.5
structure that is devoid of an electron or 0.6 V.
in an otherwise electron-filled space.
This gives the hole the property of iii The potential difference will cause a
being relatively positively charged current to flow.
compared to what is around it. e i Thin: because more light can
b i Doped means that different kinds of penetrate through it to the depletion
atoms have been introduced into the zone and create more electron–hole
atomic structure of the material. pairs. Heavily doped: to produce
more free electrons that can migrate
ii Because the phosphorous atoms to the depletion zone
have more valence electrons than
the silicon atoms, there is an excess ii Thick: to provide a larger depletion
of negative charge carriers, so the zone in which free electron–hole
phosphorous-doped layer has become pairs can be created. Lightly doped:
an n-type semiconductor. because the depletion zone is large
it isn’t necessary to have a large
c i Because the boron atoms have fewer proportion of boron atoms present.
valence electrons, there is an excess of So a light doping is sufficient.
holes, so the boron-doped layer has
become a p-type semiconductor. iii Since each cell produces a voltage
of about 1.5 or 1.6 V, many such
ii Any free electrons will migrate cells are required in series—since in
towards the relatively positively series voltages will add together—to
charged lower layer. produce a working voltage capable of
driving a substantial current.
iii This will leave the phosphorous atoms
short of electrons. iv Chains of cells in series are linked in
parallel to allow a substantial total
iv This will leave the boron atoms short current to flow, since in parallel the
of holes. currents will add together.
Exercise 11.3 So, ε = ∑   (IR)  i, which is Kirchhoff’s

second law.
1 a They will all read the same current, I.
b Conservation of charge gives that the
b i V1  = IR1  charge flowing into the junction must
ii
V2  = IR2  equal the charge flowing out of the
junction. If we consider the charge
iii
V3  = IR3  flowing out to be a negative flow and the
charge flowing in to be a positive flow
c   = V1  + V3  + V3 
Vtotal
then, added together, the total charge
d   = V1  + V3  + V3 
Vtotal flowing must be zero.
≡ IR1  + IR2  + IR3 

So, ∑
  I  i= 0, which is Kirchhoff’s first law.
= I(R1  + R2  + R3  ) = IRtotal
  5 a R total + R1  + R2  + R3  = 3.0 + 5.2 + 0.3 =
∴ Rtotal
  = R1  + R2  + R3  8.5 Ω
2 R = ρ  _
a   0.75 −6 
l   = 1.68 × 10  −8 × _ b  _ 1   = _
  1   + _
  1   = _
R  R  R 
  1  + _   3  = _
  1  = _   1 
3 6 6 2
A 1 × 10  total 1 2
= 0.013 Ω ∴R
total
  = 2 Ω
Since this value is likely to be much less c These are the possible combinations:
than the value of any resistors in a circuit,
it is acceptable to consider its resistance to 10 Ω one resistor on its own OR
be zero. two parallel sets of two
resistors in series
b No. If R = 0, then V = IR = I × 0 = 0.
20 Ω two of the resistors in series
c i–iii They are all the same, V.
30 Ω three of the resistors in series
d A  1 measures I1  = _ V  , A  measures I  = _
  R V  
  R
  1
2 2  
2
40 Ω all four resistors in series
and A  3 measures I3  = _ V  .
  R  
15 Ω one resistor in series with
3
two resistors in parallel
So, A  total measures Itotal
  = I1  + I2  + I3  =
13.3 Ω one resistor in series with
( R1  R2  R3  )
  1   + _
V _   1   + _
  1  
three resistors in parallel
( R1  R2  R3  ) V Rtotal

  1   + _
e I total = V _   1   + _
  1   ⇒  _   1    =
I   = _ 25 Ω two resistors in series with
two resistors in parallel
( R1  R2  R3  )
  1   + _
_   1   + _
  1   5Ω two resistors in parallel
l   3.3 Ω three resistors in parallel
3 a R = ρ  _
A 2.5 Ω all four resistors in parallel
b i No.
6 a  _ 1   = _
  ( 1   ( 1 )  = _
  + _   1  ⇒
ii Twice as long, 2l R 
total
)
12 + 8 + 4 2 + 4 + 2 6
2l  = 2R Rtotal
  = 6 Ω
iii   = ρ  _
Rtotal A
b I =  _ 6 = 1 A
V  =  _
iv
Rtotal nl = nR
  = ρ  _ R 6
A
c Total current in the circuit is 1 A.
c i Twice the area, 2A.
l   = _ Current flowing through 12 Ω/8 Ω/4 Ω
ii   = ρ  _
Rtotal   1  R
2A 2 resistors is 0.25 A.
iii   = ρ  _
Rtotal l   = _
  1  R
nA n So, power dissipated by 8 Ω resistor is
4 a V 1 = IR1  ; V2  = IR2  ; V3  = IR3  and P = I  2R = 0.25  2× 8 = 0.5 W.
  = V1  + V2  + V3  = ∑
Vtotal   ( IR)  i
Energy supplied to the circuit is from the
emf source only. So, conservation of energy
gives that energy supplied = energy used.
7 Suppose a current, flows into the cube. 3 a i The voltmeter is in parallel with
Using Kirchhoff’s first law: the 1 kΩ resistor, making the total
resistance of this combination of the
  I  flows through one of the three resistors at
_
two resistors 500 Ω.
3
  IR .
1  = _
the first junction. V
3
This 500 Ω is in series with the other
At the next junction, the current flowing 1 kΩ resistor.
through one of the resistors is  _I  , so V2  = _
  IR .
6 6 So, the voltage across the
  I  flows through the last resistor before the
_
combination is _  1 × 6 = 2 V.
3 3
  IR .
opposite corner, so V3  = _
3 ii Total resistance of the combination is
Using Kirchhoff’s second law,   1 × 100 = 0.99 kΩ.
R total = _
1 + 100
  IR  + _
V  total = V  1 + V  2 + V  3 = _   IR  + _   5IR ,
  IR  = _ So, the voltage across the combination
3 6 3 6
V  total _
5IR 5
_ _
R  total =   I  =     =     R.
6I 6
  0.99  × 6 V = 2.98 V.
is V = _
0.99 + 1
b An ideal voltmeter has such a high
Exercise 11.4 resistance that when it is placed in parallel
1 a i R total = R + R A with another resistor, the total resistance
of the combination is no different
ii Yes. The resistance has increased. from the resistance of the resistor.
This means that the current that will The voltmeter does not change the
now flow through this part of the circuit in which it has been put.
circuit will be smaller than it would
be without the ammeter. So, the c In the previous case, a ‘perfect’ voltmeter
ammeter would measure the current would read 3.00 V. The difference the
to be too small. voltmeter in part a ii has made is only
about 1%. So, as long as a voltmeter has a
iii R Ashould be as small as possible. resistance that is at least 100 times larger
(Ideal ammeters are usually taken than the resistor across which it is placed,
to have zero resistance, although in the value of the voltage it reads will be
practice this is impossible to achieve.) within 1% of what it ought to be.
RR  A larger ratio of resistances will reduce
b i R total = ____
  R + R 
A
 
A the difference further.
ii Yes. The resistance of this part of 4 a
emf means how many joules of energy are
the circuit is now smaller than it had transformed by the cell/battery for every
been without the ammeter. And, the coulomb of charge that flows through the
ammeter now provides a path parallel cell/battery.
to the path through the resistor for
the current to flow through. So the b The total resistance is now:
ammeter will now not be measuring R total= 0.4 + 5.6 = 6.0 Ω.
the current flowing through
ε   = _
So, the current is I =  _   1.5 = 0.25 A.
the resistor. R 6
c i Ammeters are placed in series. c The voltage across the internal resistance
will be V = Ir = 0.25 × 0.4 = 0.1 V.
ii An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
RR  So, the terminal voltage will be 1.5 − 0.1
2 a R total = ______
  R + R 
V
  = 1.4 V.
V
b Yes. The overall resistance is now less than d R totalis now 0.6 + 0.4 = 1 Ω. Terminal
it had been without the voltmeter. So, the voltage will be 0.6 × 1.5 V = 0.9 V.
voltmeter will now measure a value of
potential difference that is smaller than it
should be.
c Ideally, the resistance of the voltmeter
should be infinite.
5 a V  = _
iii Either: R =  _   3  = 5000 Ω
I 0.6 × 10  −3
Terminal voltage (5 kΩ)
or  _ 1   = _ 1   + _
 R  R1    = _
  1   + ____________
  1   =
Rtotal
  1  2
7500 7500 + 7500
  3   = _
_   1  
15 000 5000
∴ Rtotal
  = 5000 Ω.
Current b i The total resistance in the circuit is
3 × 6 = 3 Ω.
R = 1 +  _
b The equation for this graph is V = ε − ir, 3+6
where V is the terminal voltage, ε is the So, the current flowing through the
emf of the cell, i is the current in the   6 = 2 A.
V  = _
1 Ω resistor is I =  _
circuit and r is the internal resistance of R 3
the cell. The internal resistance of the cell, ii Either the voltage across the 6 Ω
r, is the gradient of the graph. resistor is V = 6 − ( 1 × 2) = 4 V,
V  = _
so I =  _   4 = 0.67 A,
c The value of V when i = 0 is ε. So, the R 6
terminal voltage when no current flows is
or
the emf of the cell.
2 A splits in the ratio 1:2 for the
6
 1 × 2 = 0.67 A for
resistors 6:3, so I = _
3
the 6 Ω resistor.
V iii Either the voltage across the 3 Ω

resistor is V = 6 − (1 × 2) = 4 V,
V  = _
so I =  _   4 = 1.33 A,
A R 3
or
Equipment required: cell, leads, variable 2 A splits in the ratio 1:2 for the
resistor, ammeter, voltmeter.  2 × 2 = 1.33 A for
resistors 6:3, so I = _
3
Method: measure the terminal voltage using the 3 Ω resistor.
the voltmeter. Measure the current flowing in 9 a i This is a Wheatstone bridge circuit –
the circuit using the ammeter. Vary the current a kind of bridge in which all the
in the circuit by changing the resistance of the components are resistors.
variable resistor. Make a table of values of R 
current and voltage. ii Voltage across R2  = E  _ 2
R  + R 
 
1 2
Plot a graph of terminal voltage (y-axis) R4 

iii Voltage across R4  = E  _
R3  + R4 
 
against current (x-axis.) The internal
resistance, r, can be found from the gradient iv If the ammeter reads zero, there is no
of the graph. The emf of the cell, ε, is the voltage across the ammeter. So,
y-axis intercept. R  R  R  R 
E  _ 2
R  + R 
  = E  _ 4
R  + R 
  ⇒  _ 1
  =  _3 .
R  R 
 Rε    = _
I=_   6  = 1 A
1 2 3 4 2 4
7 a
1+5 10 a 1Ω 3Ω
total
i2 i1
b V = IR = 1 × 5 = 5 V A
c P = I  2R= 1  2× 5 = 5 W

6V 5Ω 3V
8 a i V  = _
R =  _   3  = 7500 Ω (7.5 kΩ)
I 0.4 × 10 
−3
i3
ii A = 0.2 mA; B = 0.2 mA;
C = 0.6 mA; D = 0.6 mA
For the left-hand loop, 6 = i 2 + 5i3  ①

(Kirchhoff’s second law).
For the right-hand loop: 3 = 3i 1 + 5i3  . Short-answer questions

According to Kirchhoff’s first law, 10 a 6V
i1  = i3  − i2  .
So, 3 = 3i 3 − 3i2  + 5i3  = 8i3  − 3i2  . ②
3 ① + ② = 18 + 3 = 3i 2 + 15i3  + 8i3  − 3i2  = A
  21  A
23i3  = i3  = _
23
 21  =
And, from ①, i2  = 6 − 5i3  = 6 − 5 × _
23
  138 −  
_ 105 =  _
33 A (= 1.43 A)
23 23 V [2]
b i For the right-hand loop, let the
current flowing through the 3 Ω b The graph of V against I is a straight
resistor be i 1, the current flowing line that passes through the origin,
through the 1 Ω resistor be i 2 and showing that V ∝ I, so the resistor
the current flowing through the 2 Ω obeys Ohm’s law and is ohmic. [1]
resistor be i 3.
c Using the point on the graph at
Then, 2 = 3 i 1 + 2 i3  . I = 50 mA and V = 5 V,
R=_   5 −3 = 100 Ω. [2]
For the left-hand loop, 3 = i 2 + 2 i3  . 50 × 10 
i 2 = i3  − i1  .

And 11 a i 6V
So, 3 = i 3 − i1  + 2i3  and 2 = 2i3  + 3i1  .
9 = 9i 3 − 3i1  and 2 = 2i3  + 3i1 
11 = 11i 3 ⇒ i3  = 1 A
[1]
ii 2 = 3i 1 + 2 ⇒ i1  = 0
ii 6V
Exam-style questions
1 B [1]
2 C [1]
[1]
3 B [1]
4 A [1] iii 6V
5 C [1]
6 D [1]
7 A [1]
8 C [1]
9 C [1]
[1]
b The circuit in part a i has the highest So, a larger current will flow through
total resistance, so the smallest the bulb, OR the potential difference
current will flow. The cell will be able across the bulb will now be larger,
to provide this current for the longest and so IV is larger, making the
time of the three circuits. [2] bulb brighter. [1]
12 a At the point I = 1 A and V = 16 V, 16 a Since emf = constant, I ∝ P, so the
the two components have the graph of current against light intensity
same resistance. [1] will be the same shape as the graph of
power against light intensity. [1]
R=_   16 = 16 Ω
 VI  = _ [1]
1
b Only simple statements are required
bi Since the current is the same here. Any two from the following: [2]
through each component, [1]
the value of I for which • Light is incident on P–N junction.
VA  + VB  = 12 is 0.5 A.
• Photons produce electron–hole pairs
So the ammeter reads 0.5 A. [1]
in depletion zone.
ii  VI  = _
R=_   12  = 24 Ω [1]
0.5 • The electric field produced by P–N
  = RA  + RB  =
Alternatively, Rtotal junction forces freed electrons
8   + _
 _   4  = 24 Ω. and holes to opposite sides of
0.5 0.5
the junction.
13 a Q = It = 250 × 10 −3× 60 = 15 C [1]
• This produces a potential difference
b electrical potential energy → across P–N junction; p.d. causes
kinetic energy of electrons → current to flow.
thermal energy in resistor [2]
OR electrical potential energy → c i
thermal energy OR kinetic energy →
power output
thermal energy [1]

c
E = VQ = 6 × 15 = 90 J
(1.4 kJ 2 s.f.) [1]
d P=_   90 = 1.5 W
 Et  = __ [1]
60
14 a
Rtotal  60 × 30 = 50 Ω
  = 30 + _ [2] incident light intensity [1]
60 + 30
b  V
I=_
R
  6  = 0.12 A
  = _ [1] ii The more electron–hole pairs
50
c Power dissipated in X = I  2R = are produced (by the absorption
0.12  2× 30 = 0.43 W of incident light photons) thse
more difficult it becomes to
Power dissipated in Y = I  2R = produce even more. So, the rate
0.08  2× 30 = 0.19 W of production of electron–hole
P  pairs decreases until it reaches
So, _   0.43 = 2.3.
  PX    = _ [2]
Y
0.19 a maximum value. [1]
15 a i The same current flows through
the 8 Ω resistor, so Vresistor
  = At this value, no more electron–
IR = 0.375 × 8 = 3 V. [1] hole pairs can be produced and
the power output will become
So the potential difference across constant at its maximum value. [1]
the bulb must be 12 – 3 = 9 V. [1]
ii I
  9  = 24 Ω.
V  = _
R =  _ [1]
0.375
b The bulb is now in series with a
resistance that is half of what it
had been, giving the circuit a
lower total resistance. [1]
Chapter 12
Exercise 12.1 4 a i Where the gradient of the graph is
a maximum—this occurs when the
1 a Time period, T, is the time taken to make displacement is zero—that is when
one complete oscillation. the oscillator is passing through the
equilibrium position.
b Frequency, f, is the number of complete
oscillations made in 1 s. ii Where the gradient of the graph
is zero—this occurs when the
c Amplitude, A, is the maximum displacement is a maximum or
displacement from the equilibrium minimum from the equilibrium
position. position.
d Equilibrium position is the position of the b The gradient of the graph of displacement
oscillator when there are no unbalanced against time gives the velocity of the
forces acting on it. oscillating body.
e Displacement, x, is the distance (and 5 a, b and c
direction) of the oscillator away from the
Displacement / cm
D
equilibrium position.
D O O
f Angular frequency is the angle, in radians, 0
P P
turned through in 1 s. Time / s
2 a The body will experience an

unbalanced force. a Any two points that are a whole number
of waves apart will be in phase.
b The force acting on the body is directed
towards the equilibrium point. This will b Any two points that are an odd number
make the body accelerate towards the of half-waves apart will be out of phase.
equilibrium point. So, whenever the body c Two points that are a quarter of a wave
is away from the equilibrium point, it out of phase will have a phase difference
will always be accelerating towards the   π .
of _
equilibrium point. This, in effect, is 2
an oscillation.
Exercise 12.2
c The force acting on the body must be
proportional to the displacement from the 1 a
xo
Displacement, x
equilibrium point if the body is going to

oscillate in SHM. Time, t
d Either
force is proportional to, and in the –xo
opposite direction to, the displacement
from the equilibrium position b v = ωxo cos(ωt)
i
or ii = ωxo
vmax
acceleration is proportional to, and in the c
v xo
opposite direction to, the displacement
Velocity, v
from the equilibrium position.

Time, t
 2 ×510 = 4 × 10  −4 s
−3
3 a Period = _
b Frequency, f = 2500 Hz
–vxo
c Amplitude = maximum displacement =
3 cm
d a = − ω  2x osin(ωt)
i 4 a For a stretched spring, the extension of
the spring is proportional to the force
ii = ω 2xo
amax used to stretch it, or F = kx.
e b i The weight of the mass downwards,
v 2xo
Acceleration, a
w = mg
The tension in the spring upwards,
Time, t
T = kx
–v 2xo ii The two forces are equal and
opposite.
f x = xo sin ωt and a = − ω 2xosin(ωt)
c i
F = kxo 
∴ a = − ω 2x
ii The tension in the spring has
2 a The graph shows that F ∝ − x. changed. It is now larger by kxo  .
Since a = _ F  , the graph is also showing
 m iii Upwards.
that a ∝ − x, which is, effectively, the
definition for SHM. iv The upwards force will cause the mass
to accelerate upwards.
b i Amplitude is maximum displacement = F kx
30 cm. v a =  _ _
m  = −   m (The minus sign here
is showing that the direction of
ii The gradient of the graph =___
− mω 2 = the acceleration is opposite to the
20    = direction of the displacement.)
 ___
− 0.3 √   0.5
6   = − 20 Nm  −1 ⇒ ω = ___
6.3 rads  −1 vi The definition of SHM is a = − ω  2x.

_
iii  ω   = _
f=_   6.3 = 1.0 Hz. So, ω  2 = _
  m
_
√  mk   .
k   ⇒ ω = _
_
2π 2π
vii ω= 2πf = √ (   )(√  m  )
_ k    ⇒ f = _
  m 1 _k
iv  1  = _
T=_   1 = 1 s _ 2π
f 1
 1 = 2π√_
T=_
viii   m  
3 a p f k
q = mg sin θ
b 5 a ω= 2πf = 2π × 250 = 1.57 × 10  3 rads  −1
c The pendulum will accelerate towards the b i Since x = 0 at t = 0, the equation is

equilibrium position. x = 2 × 10  −4 sin(1.57 × 10  3  t).
d mg sin θ = ma ⇒ a = − g sin θ; here, ii x = (2 × 10  −4) × sin(( 1.57 × 10  3) ×
(1.0 × 10  −3) ) = 2.0 × 10  −4m from its
the minus sign is showing that the
acceleration is in the opposite equilibrium position.
direction to θ. c v = ((2 × 10  −4)× (1.57 × 10  3)) ×
i
e The displacement from the equilibrium cos(1.57 × 10  3  t)
position, x
, is given by x
= lθ, so
v = ( (2 × 10  −4) × ( 1.57 × 10  3)) ×
ii
a = − g sin(_   x ) cos(( 1.57 × 10  3) × ( 1.0 × 10  −3) )
l
= −g _   x  = 0.0 ms  −1 (2 s.f.)
l
g
_
= −     x iii   = ωxo 
vmax
l
g = (1.57 × 10  3) × ( 2 × 10  −4)
f The definition of SHM gives ω  2 = _
    ⇒
_ l = 0.31 ms  −1
  1  )(  
f = (_ _  ).
g
√ l_ 2π
d a = − ((1.57 × 10  3)  2× (2 × 10  −4)) ×
i
g 1
_
√_gl   
T =    = 2π  
f sin(( 1.57 × 10  3) t)
ii a = − ( (1.57 × 10  3)  2× ( 2 × 10  −4)) × b i v = ωxo  cosωt

_
sin(( 1.57 × 10  3) × ( 1.0 × 10  −3) )
ii cos ωt = √ 1 − sin  2ωt  and
= − 490 ms  −2 (2 s.f.)  x2   
sin  2 ωt = _
2
xo   
iii a max = − ω  2xo  _ _
√
 x2     = ω√xo  2  − x  2 
2
∴ v = ωxo  1 − _
(1.57 × 10  3)  2× (2 × 10  −4)
= − xo   
c i v max = ωxo 
= − 490 ms  −2(2 s.f.)
= 2π × 12 × 0.25
Note: You may notice that for a frequency
= 19 ms  −1(2 s.f.)
 1 of a cycle.
of 250 Hz, a time of 1 ms is _ _
4
So x will be at its maximum displacement of v = ω√xo  2  − x  2 
ii
0.2 mm, v will be zero, and a will be the _
= ω xo  2  − (
√   o )   
 
x 2
maximum acceleration. _
2
F  _
6 k =  _
a x _3  
= ωxo     √4
  10 × 10
=_  
0.2 = 16 ms  −1(2 s.f.)
= 500 Nm  −1
_ iii E T = EK    (because when EK  is a

  m  
T = 2π√_
MAX
maximum EP  = 0)

k
_
= 2π _ √ 500
  10      1  m(ωxo  )  2 = _
∴ E T = _   1 × 0.25 ×
2 2
( 2π × 12 × 0.25)  2= 44 J (2 s.f.)
= 0.89 s
b i v max = ωxo  9 a ω = 3 rads  −1
2π  ω 
= _
   ω  
f=_

T o 2π
= _2π  × 0.2

    3  
b = _
0.89 2π
= 1.4 ms  −1 = 0.48 Hz (2 s.f.)

a  
ii   = ω  2xo 
amax c x o = _
  max2 
ω 
2π  × 1.4 _  
Fmax
= _
  =   2 
mω 
0.89
= 9.9 ms  −2 =  _2.7 × 10  −2 
0.1 × 3  2
7 a = ωxo
vmax = 0.03 m
= 2πfxo  d v max = ωxo  = 3 × 0.03= 0.09 ms −1 or
9 cms  −1
= 2π × 440 × (2.5 × 10  −3) _
= 6.9 ms  −1(2 s.f.)

10 a _l   
i T = 2π  
g √ _
b a max = ω  xo 

2   22.45  
= 2π × _ √ 9.81
= 9.51 s (3 s.f.)
= (
2πf )  2xo  _
= (
2π × 440)  2 × 2.5 × 10  −3
ii _l   
T = 2π  
g √ _
= 1.9 × 10  4 ms  −2(2 s.f.)

√
  22.45
= 2π × _ 9.81
  
(_ )
   
6
8 a i Displacement from the equilibrium = 23.3 s (3 s.f.)
position
or
ii Amplitude, or maximum _
displacement from the
T = 9.51 × √
6 = 23.3 s
equilibrium position
iii Angular frequency of the oscillations
_
b i   m  
T = 2π√_ ii When the mas moves from b to c,
k _
the kinetic energy of the bob is
√
  0.45  
= 2π × _
20 transferred to the potential energy
= 0.94 s (2 s.f.) in the string and the E P of the bob.
ii Since g does not appear in the iii When the mass moves from c to b, the
equation for T, the time period on gravitational potential energy of the
the moon’s surface would be the bob and the potential energy in the
same; T = 0.94 s. string are transferred to the kinetic
energy of the moving bob.
Exercise 12.3 iv When the mass moves from b to a,
the kinetic energy of the bob is
1 a At a, the mass is displaced x o  above the
transferred to the potential energy
equilibrium position. At b, the mass is at
in the string and the gravitational
the equilibrium position. At c, the
potential energy of the bob.
mass is displaced x
o  below the
equilibrium position. 3 a i At either of the maximum
displacements, xo
b At a and at c
ii At the equilibrium point, x = 0
c At b
b i At either of the maximum
d i When the mass moves from a to b,
displacements, xo
the gravitational potential energy
transfers to the potential energy in the ii At the equilibrium point, x = 0.
spring and to the kinetic energy of the
moving mass. c kinetic energy
ii When the mas moves from b to c,

and kinetic energy are transferred
to the potential energy in the spring.
iii hen the mass moves from c to b,
W
the potential energy in the spring xo xo
is transferred to the gravitational Displacement, x
potential energy and kinetic energy
of the moving mass. d
iv When the mass moves from b to a, the
Kinetic energy
kinetic energy and potential energy

are transferred to the gravitational
potential energy of the mass
2 a At a, the bob is displaced xoto one side of
the equilibrium position. At b, the bob is
at the equilibrium position. At c, the bob
0
is displaced xoto the other side of 0 Time T
the equilibrium position.
e i At the equilibrium point, x = 0.
b At a and at c
ii At either of the maximum
c At b displacements, xo
d i When the bob moves from a to b,
of the bob and the potential energy
in the string are transferred to the
kinetic energy of the moving bob.
_ _
f Potential energy 6   m   = 2π × _
a T = 2π√_
k √ 15
  0.45  = 1.088 =
1.1 s (2 s.f.)
  1 m(_ T) o
2
  1 mω 2xo2 = _
b ET = _   2π   1 × 0.45 ×
x2 = _
2 2 2
(_
  2π )
2
× 0.3 2 = 0.676 = 0.68 J
1.088
EK = _ 1 mω 2(xo2 − x 2) = _ 1m(_ T)
2
c  2π
2 2
( xo2 − x 2) = _  12 × 0.45 × (_   2π ) ×

2
xo Displacement, x xo
1.088
g (0.3 2 − 0.2 2) = 0.375 = 0.38 J (2 s.f.)

d EP = ET − EK = 0.676 − 0.375=
Potential energy
0.30 J (2 s.f.)
_ _
g
7 a f = _
2π l √
  1      1 _
_  = _ √
  10  = 1.125 = 1.1 Hz (2 s.f.)
2π 0.2
b Number of oscillations in 1 minute = _   60
T
=
60 × f = 60 × 1.125= 67.5 = 68 (2 s.f.)
0 c = ωxo = 2πfxo = 2π × 1.125 × 0.2=

vmax
0 Time T
1.414 = 1.4 ms  −1 (2 s.f.)
_______
  1 m( ω√xo  2  − x 2 )  = ET = _   1 mω 2xo2 = _
  1 × 0.2 × ( 2π × 1.125) 2 ×
2
4 a i   1 mv 2 = _
EK = _ d
2 2 2 2
 _1 mω 2(xo  2  − x  2) 0.2 2 = 0.2 J
2
ii EK occurs when x = 0, so 8 a   24 = 2.5 rads s  −1 (2 s.f.)
ω= 2πf = 2π × _
60
max
b = ωxo = 2.5 × 0.04= 0.1 ms  −1

vmax
EK =  _1 mω 2xo2.
2
  1 mω 2xo2 = _
  1 × 0.25 × 2.5 2 ×
max
1
_ c i ET = _
b i
EP =   kx 2 2 2
2
0.04 2 = 1.25 mJ = 1.3 mJ (2 s.f.)
ii EP occurs when x = xo , so
ii Halving the amplitude will quarter
max
EP = _  1 kxo2.

2
  1 × 1.25 =
the total energy, so ET = _
max
  1 mω 2xo2,which
iii k = mω 2 ∴ EP = _ 0.3 mJ.
4
max 2 _
√
is the same as EK . ET
9   1 mω 2xo2 ⇒ xo =  _
ET = _    =
2 1
max
_   mω
2
c i At the equilibrium point ________________ 2
√    2.0
 ________________    = 0.73 m (2 s.f.)
ii Since x = 0, EP = 0.   1 × 1.2 × ( 2π × 0.4) 2
_
2
d i At x
o
10 a ET ∝ m
i
ii
EK = 0 ET ∝ f 2
ii
e Total energy of system = EK + EP = iii   12 

ET ∝ _
T
constant.
ET ∝ xo2
iv
5 a ω=_   2π   2π = 8.379 = 8.4 rads  −1 (2 s.f.)
= _
T 0.75 b ET ∝ m
i
k
_
b ω =   m ⇒ k = mω 2 = 0.15 × 8.379 2 =
2
ET ∝ f 2
ii
10.53 = 11 Nm  −1 (2 s.f.)
  12 
ET ∝ _
iii
  1 mω 2xo2 = _
c EK = _   1 × 0.15 × 8.379 2 × 0.05 2 T
2 2
max
ET ∝ xo2
iv
= 1.3 × 10  −2J (2 s.f.)
Students should notice that the
relationships above apply to all
systems undergoing SHM.
Exam-style questions c = ωxo = 4.5 × 0.3 = 1.4ms −1

vmax [1]
Multiple-choice questions   1 mω 2xo2 = _

d ET = _   1 × 0.3 × 20 × 0.3 2 =
2 2
1 B [1] 0.27 J [1]
2 A [1] 14 a   10π = 5 Hz

f = _ [1]
2π
3 C [1] b i x = 0.25 cos(10π × 0.3) = −0.25 m,

that is 0.25 m to the left of
4 D [1] the equilibrium position. [1]
5 D [1] v = 0
ii [1]
6 D [1] iii t = 0.05 s, 0.15 s, 0.25 s, 0.35 s, . . . [1]
7 C [1] = ωxo = 10π × 0.25 = 7.9 ms  −1
iv vmax
8 C [1] (2 s.f.) [1]
_ _
9 A [1] 15 a
T = 2π  
g √ √ 9.81
  1.20  = 2.2 s (2 s.f.)
_l   = 2π × _ [2]
b x = xo cos(_ T )
  2π t = 15 × cos(_
  2π × 1.5)=
Short-answer questions 2.2
6.2 cm from the equilibrium
−
10 a 20 cm [1] position
b   2π
ω = _ = _ 2π   = 20.95 = 21 radss  −1
  3.0 [2] So, the mass is 6.2 cm to the left of
( 10 )
T _
 
the equilibrium position. [1]
c = ω 2xo = 20.95 2 × 0.2 = 88 ms  −2
amax [2] _ _
  2π
c v = _   2π × √15 2 − 6.2 2  =
x2 − x 2  = _
T√ o 2.2
ω= _
11 a   2π   2π = 7.855 = 7.9 radss  −1
= _
T 0.8 39 cms  −1 [2]
(2 s.f.) [1]
OR
= ωxo = 7.855 × 0.06= 0.47 ms −1 [2]
b vmax
T o (T )
  2π
v = − _   2π t = − _
x sin _   2π × 15 ×
c EK   1 mvmax
= _   1 × 1.25 × 0.47 2 =
2 = _ 2.2
sin(  × 1.5) = 39 cms  −1
2 2 _ 2π [2]
max
0.14 J (2 s.f.) [2] 2.2
12 a Acceleration must be proportional [1] 16 a   2π

T=_ _ 2π
ω =   =0.25 s [1]
25
and in the opposite direction [1]
to displacement from the   1 mω 2xo2 = _
b ET = _   1 × 0.05 × 25 2 × 0.05 2
2 2
equilibrium point. = 0.039 ≈ 40 mJ [2]
b i Time period will not change. (It c 0.01 =  _1 mω 2(xo2 − x 2) ⇒
2
_________________
is independent of the amplitude.) [1]
∝ xo, so the maximum
ii vmax [1]
x = 0.
   √
05 2 − _   2 × 0.01 2  = 4.3 cm
0.05 × 25
velocity will decrease linearly So, the mass is 4.3 cm from the
with time. [1] equilibrium position. [2]
_ _
  1 )(√_
17 a f = (_ ) (  2π ) × (   0.5  ) =
√
k   = _
1 _20
13 a The graph shows that 2π
  m
• acceleration is proportional to 1.0 HZ [1]
displacement and [1] _ ___________
b v = ω√xo2 − x 2  = 2π × 1 × √
0.25 2 − 0.1 2 
• gradient of line is negative (or = 1.4 ms  −1 (2 s.f.) [2]
equivalent statement). [1]
c i Zero. The angular frequency is
b ω 2 = magnitude of slope of graph = independent of the amplitude. [1]
_
6 = 20 ⇒ ω = √
 _ 20 = 4.5 radss  −1 (2 s.f.)[1]
0.3 ∝ x o. So the maximum speed
ii vmax
will change by a factor of a half. [1]
Chapter 13
Exercise 13.1 4 a A to C or B to D or C to E
1 a i Wavelength is the distance from one b Frequency, f, is the number of waves that
peak of a wave to the next peak pass a point in 1 s. Time period, T, is the
(or trough to trough). time it takes for one complete wave to
pass a point.
ii Frequency is the number of waves
that pass a given point in 1 s. c i λ
iii Time period is the amount of time it ii T

takes for one complete wave to pass a iii λ = fλ
distance travelled = _
speed, v = _____________
given point. time taken T
5 a i xo = 2.5 cm
iv Amplitude is the maximum
displacement from the equilibrium ii λ = 10 cm
position of whatever is oscillating in
b i It will take a time, T = _1 = _1 s.
the wave. f 2
ii v = f λ = 2 × 10 = 20 cms −1
v Wave speed is the distance that one
complete wave travels in 1 s. 6 Equipment: an oscilloscope with a dual trace
1 and two microphones, as in Figure 13.14.
b f=_
T
c Amplitude
d A disturbance that transfers energy and
momentum through oscillations of the
particles of a medium.
2 a i Amplitude and period—and from the make sound microphone microphone
period, frequency. here 1m
ii Wavelength
Place the two microphones a set distance
b i Amplitude and wavelength apart, say, 1.0 m. Connect each microphone
ii Frequency (or time period) to the oscilloscope. When each microphone
receives a sound, the oscilloscope trace will
3 a i A show a small blip.
ii C Measurements: distance between the two
microphones, time between the two blips on
b i B
the oscilloscope screen
ii A and C speed of sound in air =
c and d distance between two microphones
________________________________________
time interval between the two blips on the oscilloscope
Direction of propagation of wave
A % uncertainty in speed = % uncertainty in
Displacement
E F
distance + % uncertainty in time
B D G
C l
Exercise 13.2 e 3
Displacement / mm
2
1 a and b 1
T Time / ms
0
Incident wave
–1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
–2
–3
L (Exactly twice as many waves and any
c In a transverse wave, oscillations occur amplitude that is smaller.)
perpendicularly to the direction of 4 a It will be compressed.
travel of the wave. In a longitudinal
wave, oscillations occur along the same b The compressed spring will exert a force
direction (and its opposite) as that of on the second ball, which will make the
the wave. second ball accelerate towards the right.
d i Ripples on some water, c The moving second ball will compress the
electromagnetic waves, waves on a second spring.
string, some seismic waves
d Each time a spring is compressed it will
ii Sound waves, some seismic waves, exert a force on the next ball, making the
compression waves on a Slinky next ball accelerate to the right.
2 a Direction of sound wave e The first spring will now be extended
(beyond its uncompressed length). This
will make the spring exert a force on
Pmin Pamb Pmax the second ball to make the second ball
accelerate towards the left. The leftwards
moving second ball will now extend the
second spring, causing the second spring
b and c to accelerate the third ball towards the
left, and so on.
Air pressure
f The original pushing of the first ball
ambient Distance / m introduced kinetic energy (and hence
air pressure 2 4 momentum in the left-to-right direction).
As each successive ball moves, the kinetic
energy and momentum is moving in the
left-to-right direction. This is what a wave
d f=_   330 = 165 Hz
 λv  = _ does; it transfers energy and momentum.
2
3 a No. g It is a pulse of a longitudinal wave.
b i 2.5 mm (Because the motion of the balls is in the
same direction and opposite direction
ii From the figure, T = 10 ms, to the transfer of energy along the line
 T1   = _
so f = _   1 −3 = 100 Hz. of balls.)
10 × 10 
c v = f λ = 100 × 3.3 = 330 ms  −1 h i The spring constant of the springs
and the mass of the balls
d i The gradient of the graph gives the
speed of the molecule. At t = 2.5 ms, ii For the spring constant of the springs,
the gradient os the graph is zero, so for a given initial displacement of
the speed of the molecule is zero. the first ball, the spring constant
will determine how much force the
ii The gradient of the graph is a compressed spring exerts on the
maximum at t = 10 ms, so the speed second ball, and so on along the line.
of the molecule must be a maximum. A larger spring constant means that
the springs will exert larger forces
on the balls. This will make the balls 6 a i  1  = _

T=_   1  = 0.01 s
f 100
accelerate more, causing the speed at
which the pulse travels along the line ii 0
net displacement
to be larger. b  
vaverage = _____________
  
    = _  0  = 0 ms  −1
time 1
For the mass of the balls, a larger c distance moved = 100 × 4 × 5 cm =
mass means that the balls will 2000 cm = 20 m
accelerate less for a given force from
the springs. Thus, a larger mass will   distance moved
d speed  average = ____________
     20 m 
  = _
time taken 1s
cause the speed of the pulse along the = 20 ms  −1
line to be smaller.
e Velocity is a vector; speed is a scalar.
The springs are representing the The point on the string doesn’t actually
forces that exist between atoms go anywhere; it’s net displacement is zero,
and molecules through which so its average velocity is zero. It does move
the longitudinal wave (sound) over a distance 100 × 4 × 5 cm, so its
is travelling. In a steel bar these average speed is not zero.
intermolecular forces are very large
(they are related to the Young f There is no information about the
modulus of the material, a kind of wavelength of the wave, so we cannot use
measure of how stiff the material is), the equation v = f λ to find v.
so much so that they dominate any 7 a Echolocation is a way in which animals
effect of atomic mass. In the air, these can use the echo of a sound wave to detect
forces are related to the bulk modulus objects and their distance away. It is used
of the material—a measure of how by toothed whales, porpoises and bats.
squashy the material is—and they
 1.4 × 10  3 = 0.01 m = 1 cm
λ = _  v  = _
3
are much smaller values (by a factor b i
f 120 × 10 
of more than 10  6). This means that (2 s.f.)
the sound waves travel much faster
through the steel than through the ii distance away = speed × time =
air—in fact, about 10 times faster.   1 × 0.3 = 210 m
1.4 × 10  3 × __
2
5 a The movement of the first ball upwards iii Yes. The squid is larger than the
will stretch the spring between the first wavelength of the sound waves, so
ball and the second ball. This stretched the whale should be able to detect
spring will exert a force on the second the squid.
ball, pulling it upwards. In turn, this then
stretches the next spring, which pulls the Exercise 13.3
third ball upwards, and so on.
1 a An electromagnetic wave does not require
When the first ball is then pulled a material medium for it to travel through;
downwards, the spring between the first it can travel through a vacuum.
ball and the second ball is once again
stretched, causing it to exert a force b An electromagnetic wave is an oscillating
downwards on the second ball. This electric field, accompanied by an
accelerates the second ball downwards oscillating magnetic field (oscillating
and so on. perpendicularly to it) moving
through space.
b This is a model for a pulse of a transverse
wave, because the motion of the balls is c They all travel at the same speed;
perpendicular to the transfer of energy the speed of light (3.0 × 10 8 ms  −1 in
and momentum. a vacuum).
c Yes. d Gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet light,

visible light, infrared light, microwaves,
radio waves
2 a Radioactive nuclei: when an unstable 3 a X-rays are produced when highly

nucleus changes its nuclear energy level accelerated electrons strike a dense target.
to a lower level, it will emit a gamma ray The electrons lose their kinetic energy and
photon, because nuclear energy levels are some of this is transformed into an X-ray.
in the order of 100 MeV or more.
b About 1 pm to 1 nm
Particle pair annihilation: when a
sub-atomic particle and its anti-particle c Some uses are
interact they will annihilate producing
• medical uses: for examining suspected
a pair of gamma rays.
broken bones, checking for cancerous
Decay of pi- mesons: neutral pi- mesons (π  o) growths with mammograms, chest
will decay into two gamma ray photons. x-rays for detecting pneumonia
or other chest infections,
b Gamma rays contain large amounts of
dental examinations;
energy. When gamma rays interact with
matter, they will lose some or all of this • industrial uses: non-destructive
energy, causing ionisation of atoms. testing, exploring for cracks or
If such atoms are part of human tissue, breaks in pipes, quality control of
then cells can become mutated or manufactured items; and
destroyed. This can harm human organs.
• security: airports and other secure
c Less than 10 pm buildings use soft x-rays to check
for illegal metal objects (like guns or
d i Cancerous cells can be irradiated
other potentially lethal weapons).
with highly focused gamma rays,
which can destroy the cells. Also, d X-rays contain large amounts of energy.
some medical equipment is made out Some of this energy will be absorbed by
of plastic and cannot be sterilised our bodies, which may cause mutation or
using superheated steam. So, such destruction of vital cells. This can lead
equipment is irradiated with gamma to cancer.
rays, which kill any bacteria present.
Gamma rays are also used in positron 4 a Excited electrons in atoms that fall from
emission tomography (PET) their high energy levels to (usually) the
scans, which can provide vital ground state will emit radiation that
information about ill-performing has enough energy (more than about
biological processes. 3 eV) and a low enough wavelength to
be ultraviolet light.
ii Packaged food can be irradiated
with gamma rays to kill any fungi or b 1 nm to 400 nm
bacteria present. This will lengthen c Eyes: too much ultraviolet radiation can
the shelf life of the packaged food. be harmful to our eyes, causing cataracts
(This is particularly useful in the and potential blindness. (This is why we
worldwide exportation of food.) are encouraged to wear sunglasses when
iii Airborne and ground-based gamma the sunshine is very strong.)
ray detectors can search for the Skin: Too much absorption of ultraviolet
presence of trace radioactive by the skin can cause: sunburn, premature
materials, such as thorium or ageing, excessive wrinkle growth,
uranium, under the surface of the enhanced liver spot formation and cancer.
Earth. This can help with geological
mapping, mineral exploitation and d Vitamin D production: absorption of
environmental contamination. ultraviolet light stimulates the skin to
produce vitamin D (a vital vitamin for
iv Some astronomical objects emit healthy bodies). Ultraviolet radiation is
bursts of gamma rays. These also used in sun-tanning booths.
astronomical objects can be studied
by detecting and analysing the
gamma rays emitted from them.
Phototherapy: treatment of acne, c Perhaps most commonly, microwaves are

jaundice, eczema and psoriasis using used in cooking food. They are also used
ultraviolet lamps radar and speed guns, telecommunications
and mobile phones.
Illumination: fluorescent lamps
use ultraviolet light, backlighting 8 a Oscillating electric charges, such as
in aeroplanes uses ultraviolet light, electrons, create radio waves.
emergency exit signs So, an alternating current will produce
radio waves.
Disinfecting: irradiating air, water or
surfaces of objects can kill bacteria and b 10 cm to over 1000 km.
fungal presence, which has a disinfectant,
germicidal or sterilisation effect c Most commonly they are used in
communication systems: radios,
Ultraviolet curing: industrial adhesives, televisions and cellular phones. They
varnishes, inks and dental implant are also used extensively in the scientific
material (i.e. fillings) can be set when exploration of the upper atmosphere and
irradiated with ultraviolet. This is in observations of radio sources in space
particularly useful in the automotive and by radio telescopes.
aeronautical industries.
d Radio waves have long wavelengths.
5 a Medium energy level drops by bound This enables them to be diffracted easily
atomic electrons (1 or 2 eV) will produce around large obstacles (like mountains or
radiation that is visible. large buildings.)
b The first letters of each word represent
the seven major colours in the visible
Exercise 13.4
spectrum: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, 1 a p = mv
Blue, Indigo and Violet.
b i Diffraction
c Red: 650 nm, Orange: 600 nm, Yellow:
580 nm, Green: 540 nm, Blue: 470 nm, ii Less. Their paths will spread out
Indigo: 450 nm, Violet: 420 nm. (All these because they collide slightly with the
could vary by about ±20 nm or so.) edges of the hole. Those particles
that pass through the hole without
d The greenish side of yellow. This is touching the edges of the hole will
roughly in the centre of the visible be undeflected. More momentum
spectrum. It’s also not far from the suggests that if they collided slightly
wavelength at which the Sun’s radiation is with the edges of the hole, their paths
most pronounced (red-orange). would be altered by only a small
6 a Small falls in electron energy levels amount, and so they would spread
produce infrared radiation. out only a little.
b 1 µm to 1 mm iii Less. A bigger hole means that a

larger proportion of the particles will
c Electrical heating, optical fibres, remote pass through the hole undeflected, so
control units, security systems, fewer particles will have their
thermal imaging paths changed.
7 a In magnetron vacuum tubes, bunched c i In diffraction, waves with a larger
groups of electrons are made to oscillate wavelength diffract more than waves
in cavities by electric and magnetic with a smaller wavelength. This
fields. This oscillatory motion causes the suggests that λ ∝  _1p .
emission of microwaves.
b 1 mm to about 10 cm
ii The amount of diffraction, or 6 B [1]

spreading out of the particles, is
proportional to the wavelength 7 C [1]
of the particles, and so inversely 8 B [1]
proportional to their momenta.
The amount of diffraction is inversely Short-answer questions
proportional to the size of the hole.
So, together these suggest that 9 a In water, the molecules are
much closer together than in air.
amount of spreading out ∝ _   1  , where The energy of an oscillation is
pb
b is the ‘size’ of the hole. transmitted quickly from one
molecule to the next. Air
d An electron. Its momentum will be the
molecules are much farther apart,
smallest (but not zero), giving it the
so an oscillation is transmitted
largest wavelength. The stationary atom
much less quickly. [2]
has no momentum (and so cannot exhibit
 1.5 × 10  3 
λ = _  v  = _
3
wave-like properties). b i
f 200 × 10 
e It tells us the probability of finding the = 7.5 × 10  −3m (or 7.5 mm) [1]
particle at any given position.
  330 3 
λ = _  v  = _
ii
f 200 × 10 
2 a Accelerating large masses, such as massive = 1.65 × 10  −3m (or 1.65 mm) [1]
stars, galaxies or black holes
c No. 200 kHz is above the range of
b The curvature of spacetime. One can human ears, so it cannot be heard. [1]
think of this as space itself stretching and
compressing as the gravitational wave 10 a 0.6 m [1]
passes through.
b 1.0 m [1]
c Transverse
c The first peak has moved 0.25 m
d They travel at the speed of light, c. in a time of 100 ms, so v = _  st  =
  0.25  = 2.5 ms  −1.
_ [1]
e The amplitude of the oscillations of 0.1
spacetime is very, very small (perhaps d f = _  λv  = _  2.5 = 2.5 Hz [1]
1.0
only one part in 10  21). This makes it very
difficult to detect changes. Observations e T=_  1  = _   1  = 0.4 s [1]
f 2.5
by LIGO, for example, have required
extremely sensitive, expertly crafted laser 11 a  T1   = _
f=_   1 −3 = 25 Hz [2]
40 × 10 
detectors operating in different places
separated by large distances. (There are b i and ii
other reasons too, but these delve into 5
4 Y Y Y
the very quantum nature of matter. 3
Velocity / ms–1
2
Such physics is too advanced for an IB 1 X
0 X X X X X Time / ms
Physics course!) –1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
–2
Exam-style questions –3
–4
Y Y
–5
Multiple-choice questions Any of the positions shown. [2]
1 A [1]
c The area under the curve from
2 C [1] t = 0 ms to t = 20 ms represents the
distance travelled from a peak to
3 D [1] a trough, so this will be twice the
4 A [1] amplitude of the oscillations. [1]
5 C [1]
12 a
Direction of sound wave Direction of sound wave b 1.5
Displacement / cm
1
OR 0.5
[1] Time / s
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
–0.5
b i  T1   = _
f=_   1 −3 = 200 Hz [1]
5 × 10  –1
v = f λ = 200 × 1.65 = 330 ms −1
ii [1] –1.5
• Correct x-axis, with units
c i Louder ⇒ larger amplitude ⇒
and scale [1]
greater distance travelled
in the same time ⇒ greater • Negative cosine curve [1]
average speed. [1]
v = f λ = 2.0 × 2 × 0.6 = 2.4 ms −1
14 a [2]
ii No change. Same frequency ⇒
same time period. [1] b 2.4 ms  −1 [1]
13 a 1.5
c i The speed will decrease. [1]
Displacement / cm
1 ii The wavelength will

0.5 also decrease. [1]
Distance / cm
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
–0.5
–1
–1.5
• Correct axes (with units) [1]

• Correct scales [1]
• Negative cosine curve—
at least two complete waves [1]
Workbook answers
Chapter 14
Exercise 14.1 3 a i Direction of
reflected pulse
Direction of
transmitted pulse
1 a Direction of pulse mirror
Chapter
Before
1 After
Test Your Understanding Modern ii

scientific controversies
both the transmittedinclude:
and the reflected
pulse do not undergo a phase change.
• the idea that increasing concentrations of
• You should be familiar with some of the
carbon
b i dioxide in the atmosphere
The transmitted pulse willare causing
move
global warming
faster than the reflected pulse.
memory of cell structure. mirror • the controversy about whether the measles,
ii The speed of the pulse depends on the
mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine can
• The functions of the main structures are mass per unit length of the medium
After increase the risk of autism (but scientists are
found in the sections ‘Features that animal through which it is travelling. (In fact,
now agreed that there is no link between the
_______________
and plant cells have in common’ and
‘Differences between animal and plant cells’
MMR vaccine √ mass per unit length
1
_______________
v ∝   
  and autism).   .) A smaller
on pp 0–0.
Direction of reflected pulse
Self-assessment questions
mass per unit length means a faster
• As well as Figures 1.4 and 1.5, you will speed of the pulse.
find The
b relevant
pulseinformation in the section
has been reflected.
1 c i Same phase—no change of phase
‘Differences between animal and plant cells’ Structures that animal and plant cells have in
c There
0–0. has been a phase change of π
on pp common:ii Same phase—no change of phase
radians (or 180°).
• Yes. There are organisms other than animals d i with
• nucleus Smaller amplitude
nucleolus than the
and chromatin
2 a
and iplants. They are classified in different original pulse
Direction of transmitted pulse • cytoplasm containing mitochondria, Golgi
kingdoms which you will learn about later.
apparatus and other
ii Smaller small structures
amplitude than the
group of mainly unicellular organisms called original pulse
• cell surface membrane.
protoctists, bacteria
Direction and viruses.
of reflected pulse 4 a i
Structures A rayonly
found shows the direction
in plant cells: in which
waves are travelling.
Science in
ii Thecontext
transmitted pulse continues
• chloroplasts
ii A wavefront is a line, or curve, on
Two obviousonwards
exampleswith are:no phase change • large, permanent central vacuole
which all parts of a wave are of
(and a small decrease in amplitude), • cell wall the
withsame
middle lamella
phase. The and
wavefront is
a Darwin and Wallace’s
but the theory
reflected pulseofundergoes
evolutiona
plasmodesmata.
perpendicular to the ray.
by natural selection was highly
phase change of 180°, or π radians. controversial
because it appeared to be in conflict with the Structureiii
found
Theonly in animal
normal cells:
is a constructional line
b i The
religious transmitted
belief pulse will
that God created allmove
species of • centriolethat is perpendicular to the surface
slower
living things andthan thatthe reflected
humans were pulse.
a special between two media at the point where
creation.
ii The speed of the pulse depends on the
2 a ray meets the surface.
massplaced
b Galileo was per unit length
under house of the medium
arrest for the • use aiv
sharp
Thepencil
angle of incidence is the angle
through
rest of his which
life_______________
after it is forward
putting travelling. the(In fact,
idea • between the incident
don’t use shading/don’t ray nucleus
draw the and as a
that Earth and the other planets orbited the the normal
v ∝   
Sun rather than
  √
mass
1
_______________
theperEarth
unit length
  .) A greater
being at the centre
solid blob
mass per unit length means a slower • don’tv Thelabel
cross angle of reflection is the angle
lines
of the solar system. Again, this appeared to
speed of the pulse. between the reflected ray and
contradict the religious beliefs of the time. • don’t use arrow heads on label lines
the normal.
c examples
Other i Same phase—no change of phase
include: • use a ruler to draw label lines
b
• Einstein’s
ii Outtheory of general
of phase—a relativity
phase change(which
of π • make outline of cells less sketchy - lines should
challenged our ideas of the
radians (or 180°) link between space be continuous, not broken
and time) • write labels horizontally, not at the same angle
d i Smaller amplitude than the uu uu
• Wegener’s theory of continental drift (which as the label line
original pulse
was controversial because scientists could not • c The two
interpret whatangles areFor
is seen. theexample,
same. outlines
explain
ii how continents
Smaller could
amplitude move).
than the are
d not
Raysvery
andaccurate (tooare
wavefronts rounded)
perpendicular to
original pulse
each other.
5 a i Refraction is the change in wave 7 a

speed that occurs when a wave moves
from one medium into a different
medium. (Note that although there refracted ray
may be a change in direction, the Air
change in direction is not a definiton
of refraction.) Water
ii he refractive index, n, is the ratio

T
of the speed of electromagnetic
reflected ray
waves in a vacuum to the speed of the
same wave in a different medium; normal
v 
 v vacuum   = _  cv .
n = _
medium
b It increases until it reaches its maximum
b incident reflected value of 90°.
ray normal ray
c From Snell’s law, the critical angle will be
θ c = sin  −1 (_
  1n ),
So θc  = sin  −1(_
  1  )= 49° (2 s.f.)
i 1.33
air d This is called the critical angle.
water e At angles greater than θ c, the ray
r undergoes total internal reflection.
refracted
ray 8 Equipment: Light box or laser to produce a
thin beam of light, rectangular glass block,
sin i   = n, where n is the refractive index of
c  _
sin r protractor, pencil, white paper.
the water.
Method: Place the glass block on white paper.
d Snell’s law Set up the ray box or laser so that a thin beam
of light is incident on one side of the
6 r = sin  −1(_
a   sin
n ) (  1.5  )
sin 40° = 25°
i = sin  −1 ______
glass block:
(2 s.f.) normal
  3 × 1 
  c   = _ 0  = 2 × 10  8ms  −1
8
b v glass = _
1.5 1.5 ray from ray
c
_
c λ air =     =   3
_ × 1
0  8
  = 5 × 10  −7m
f 6 × 10  14
box/laser i
vglass
  2 × 10  8  = 3.3 × 10  −7m
d λ glass = _     =  _ glass
f 6 × 10  14
e Green block
f The same (green). This is an important r

idea: it is the frequency of an
electromagnetic wave that dictates what
colour we perceive, not the wavelength.
g and h
lair Draw around the glass block. Make marks
6 where the incident beam approaches and is
incident on the block, and where the beam
40° leaves the opposite side of the glass block.
Air
Remove the glass block. Complete the paths
Glass of the incident ray and the refracted ray
lglass
through the glass block. Draw in the normal
where the ray is incident on the glass block.
Now measure, using the protractor, the angle
of incidence, r, and the angle of refraction, r.
Repeat this several times to get a range of 10 a i   6000 = 100 m

λ = _ v  = _
f 60
angles of incidence.
  X  ⇒ r = sin  −1(_
  vY    × sin i)=
sin i   = _
v   v 
ii  _
Record values of i and r in a suitable table. sin r vY  X
sin  −1(_
  4000 × sin 45°)= 28° (2 s.f.)
Process the values of i and r into two more 6000
columns, sin i and sin r.  sin 28°  =
b At the layer Y/Z boundary, _
sin r
Plot a graph of sin i (on the y-axis) against   4000  ⇒ r = sin  −1(_
_   9000 × 0.47) =
9000 4000
sin r (on the x-axis). sin  −1(1.06),
Obtain a best-fit line. It should be a straight which is not possible. So the compression
line that passes through the origin, with waves will undergo total internal reflection
gradient = _  sin i  = refractive index of the at the layer Y/layer Z boundary and
sin r
glass block. therefore not be transmitted into layer Z.
9 a Speed of light in the cladding is faster
than the speed of light in the glass fibre. Exercise 14.2
c   = n ⇒ v    3.0 × 1 
  nc  = _ 0  8
b i  _ = _ 1 a and d l
v  glass fibre
glass fibre 1.47
= 2.04 × 10  ms 
8 −1
c   = n ⇒ v    3.0 × 1 

  nc  = _ 0  8
ii  _
v  = _
cladding
cladding 1.45
=2.07 × 10  8 ms  −1
  ⇒ θc  = sin  −1(_   )
1   = _ vcladding
  vglass
  fibre
c  _   v    v 
sin θc  glass fibre cladding
= sin  −1( _
2.07 )
2.04  = 80.2º (3 s.f.)
d This is the critical angle b They are all travelling radially outwards.
e Actual path length =  _ 1.0 km  = 1015 m, so
cos 9.8  o c All the wavefronts are circular; they have
  1015 8  = 4.98 × 10  −6 s.
time taken =  _vs  = _ all travelled the same distance in the same
2.04 × 10  amount of time; hence, they are travelling
f  _ 1000   = 4.90 × 10  −6, so time taken is
2.04 × 10  8 at the same speed.
8.0 × 10  −8 s longer. d See answer to part a.
g Advantages over copper cables 2 a Such sources are called Huygens
might include secondary wavelet sources.
• almost no signal loss, b wavefront
•
greater bandwidth (i.e. can carry
more information),
With Huygens secondary
• faster transfer speed, Huygens
wavelet sources closer together,
secondary
• thinner, the combined wavefront
wavelet
becomes a straight line.
•
less prone to damage source
and breaking,
3 a
In phase means that each source produces
•
cables can be longer and so a peak (or a trough) at the same time.
transmit information over
b They will arrive in phase because they
larger distances,
have both travelled the same distance (or
•
more reliable and less prone to path length) at the same speed, having
electromagnetic interference and begun in phase.
•
cheaper long term than c Constructive interference
copper cables.
d The amplitude would be 2A.
4 a They will arrive out of phase, because 7 a She will hear the music become louder
they have both travelled the same distance until a maximum, then quieter to a
(or path length) at the same speed, having minimum, then louder and so on.
begun out of phase.
b If she sits equidistant from the two
b Destructive interference speakers, the path difference of waves
from the two speakers is zero, so
c The amplitude would be zero. constructive interference will occur,
5 a Path difference making the sound loud.
b i Constructive interference c If she moves a small distance sideways, the

path difference will no longer be zero. As the
ii Constructive interference path difference approaches half a wavelength
iii Constructive interference the sound will become quieter and
quieter. Since the loudenss of the sound is
c i Destructive interference proportional to the square of the amplitude
of the superposed waves, any reduction in
ii Destructive interference
amplitude results in a significant reduction
iii Destructive interference in intensity, or loudness.
6 a Using Pythagoras, d With the two speakers closer together,

___________ a small sideways movement of the fan
_= YP − XP = √
path difference ( XP  2 + XY  2)   −
   does not produce such a large change in
XP = √ 4  + 3   − 4= 1.0 = λ.
( 2 2 )
path difference. So the waves continue to
So, there would be constructive interference. superpose constructively (or nearly so as
she moves) over a larger sideways distance.
b Using Pythagoras,
___________ e Probably not as good an idea as putting
path difference
_
= YP − XP = √ (XP  2 + XY  2)  −
   the two speakers close together. Closer
XP = √( 12  2 + 5  2)  − 12= 1.0 = λ. speakers give a larger lateral range over
which waves can superpose constructively
So, there would be constructive interference. and so make the listening better.
c Using Pythagoras,
___________ Exercise 14.3
path difference
___________
= YP − XP = √ (XP  2 + XY  2)  −
  
XP = √( 0.75  2 + 1  2)  − 0.75= 0.5 = _  1  λ. 1 a
2
So, there would be destructive interference.
d Using Pythagoras,
___________
path difference
____________
= YP – XP = √   (XP  2 + XY  2)  −
XP = √(6.5  2 + 2.6  2) − 6.5= 0.5 = _ 1  λ.
2
So, there would be destructive interference. b The amount of diffraction depends on the
size of the aperture. Small apertures cause
e Using Pythagoras, more diffraction than large apertures.
___________
path difference
_____________
= YP – XP = √ (XP  2 + XY  2)  −
  
(1.95  2 + 4.0  2) − 1.95= 2.5 = _
XP = √    5  λ.
2
So there would be destructive interference.
2 a   nλD
c s n = _  
d
( λD)
  n + 1 
d s n + 1 = _
d
( λD _
) λD 
  n + 1 
s = ( sn  + 1)− sn  = _
e −   nλD
  =  _
d d d
 λ D  =  _____________

450 × 10  ×  
8 = 2.4 cm
−9
6 a s = _
d 0.15 × 10 
−3
b Since s ∝ λ, if the new λ is 1.5 times larger,

then the separation of the maxima will be
b Longer wavelengths diffract more than 1.5 times larger.
shorter wavelengths.
  = 1.5 × 2.4 = 3.6 cm.
So, snew
3 a At B, waves from the two slits are arriving
c  _λ  = _
  450 × 10  −3  = 3 × 10  −3
−9
in phase. They add together constructively d 0.15 × 10 
and so produce a wave with a large
Since the maximum value of sin θis 1,
amplitude, hence a bright spot.
n=_   1 −3   = 333.
3 × 10 
b At D, waves from the two slits are
So, there would be 2 × 333 + 1 = 667
arriving out of phase. They add together
maxima. (Assuming you could see them all!)
destructively and so produce a wave with
little or no amplitude, hence a dark spot. 7 a At the central maximum the path
difference is zero. This is true for all
c At C, you would expect to see a bright
wavelengths. So all wavelengths present in
region. This is because the waves from
the white light will interfere constructively,
the two slits have to travel exactly the
making the central maximum white.
same distance to get to C. If these waves
began in phase, they will still be in phase b For all other maxima either side of the
when they get to C and will add together central maximum, the path difference
constructively to produce a bright region. condition for constructive interference
depends on the wavelength. So, light
d Red light has a longer wavelength than
of different wavelengths will interfere
green light. So, in order for the path
constructively at slightly different angles,
difference between the two rays to satisfy
making the maxima on the interference
the same criteria for constructive and
pattern coloured (as a spectrum
destructive interference, B, C and D will
of colours).
be farther apart, although the postion of
C, directly opposite the two slits will c Red light has a longer wavelength than
not change. blue light, so the angles at which red light
will interfere constructively will be larger
4 a The distance is given by YZ.
than those for blue light.
b Since XYZ is a right-angled triangle,
 λD  = _____________
  500 × 10  −3× 
5 = 1.25 cm.
−9
s=_
d
YZ = d sin θ. d 0.2 × 10 
c λ
Exercise 14.4
d λ = d sin θ
1 a Intensity
e 2λ = d sin θ 2
f nλ = d sin θn 
5 a Triangles XYZ, XCP and YCP are similar
s  = tan θ ≈ sin θ(since θ
triangles.  _ is a
D
small angle).
So, s = D sin θ.
Distance across screen
 λ  = _
b sin θ = _  λD 
  Ds   ⇒ s = _
d d
b i Smaller separation of the maxima Exercise 14.5

ii Larger separation of the maxima 1 a Intensity
2 a violet
b The first minimum occurs when sin θ = _   λ  =

b
400 × 10    ⇒ θ = 8.0 × 10  −2 radians or
 _
−9
5 × 10  −6
4.6°.
So, the angular width of the central
maximum will be twice this value: = 9.2°. 5 × 10–3 Angle (radians) 5 × 10–3
c Width of central maximum = 2 × 4

tan 4.6° = 64 cm. b Intensity
d Part a will be red; parts b and c will both

be double their violet values, so 18.4° and
1.28 m, respectively.
3 Sound waves of frequency 300 Hz have a
  330  = 0.89 m.
wavelength in air of λ = _ v  = _
f 370
So, the angle at which the first minimum of 5 × 10–3 Angle (radians) 5 × 10–3
the single-slit diffraction pattern would c The single-slit diffraction pattern forms
occur is an ‘envelope’ inside which the interference
pattern must occur. This is why, if
  λ ) = sin  −1(_
sin  −1(_   0.89 ) = 90°.
b 0.9 each of the two slits is considered to
This means that the central maximum of the be infinitesimally thin, the maxima of
single-slit diffraction pattern covers all angles the interference pattern will be equally
possible between −90° and +90°. All pupils bright—they are all inside the central
within the classroom will be within this range maximum of the diffraction pattern.
and can hear the sound from the shoes.
2 a In the single-slit diffraction pattern,
  λ ) = sin  −1(_
i θ = sin  (_   2 × 10  −2 ) = 23.6°
−2
4 a −1 nλ = b sin θn  tells us where the minima of
b 5 × 10 
(0.412 radians) the diffraction pattern occur.
ii
Second-order minimum occurs at b In the two-slit interference pattern,
mλ = d sin θm  tells us where the maxima of
  2λ ) = sin  −1(___________
θ = sin  −1(_ )
  2 × 2 × 1−20  

−2
b 5 × 10  the interference pattern occur.

= 53.1° (0.927 radians).  nλ  = sin θm  = _
c sin θn  = _  mλ 
b d
So, at a distance of 1.5 m away, Therefore,  _n  = _   m .
these minima will be separated by b d
(0.927 − 0.412) × 1.5 = 0.77 m (77 cm).   d  = _
So, _   m
n   .
b
b The third-order minimum should occur at d The missing maximum from the
an angle interference pattern is given when n = 1,
so it is the mth maximum that is missing;
  3λ ) = sin  −1(___________
θ = sin  −1(_ )
  3 × 2 × 1−20  

−2
b 5 × 10   d . When n = 2, it

this is the value of _
b
= sin  −1(1.2) will be the (m × 2)th maximum that is
2d .
missing:  _
Since this is not possible, there will be four b
minima altogether: two on either side of e The number of maxima of the
the central maximum. interference pattern inside the central
maximum of the diffraction pattern is
  2d  − 1.
given by _
b
3 a many slits b The spacing of the atoms is now much

pattern smaller, so now the angle for the first
maximum of an interference pattern
2 slit would occur at
θ = sin  −1( _  λs ) = sin  −1(_
  1.0 × 10  −9 ) = 19.5°.
−10
pattern
0.3 × 10 
b The intensity of the maxima has This is easily resolved.
increased. There are more slits, so more
c Using X-rays with crystals produces
energy is able to pass through onto
interference patterns that can be easily
the screen.
observed. This allows scientists to make
c The spacing of the maxima has remained accurate measurements of the spacing and
the same, because the spacing of the slits orientation of atoms within a crystal.
is the same.
d The width of the maxima has decreased. Exam-style questions
With more slits, it is less likely that waves Multiple-choice questions
can arrive in phase over a small range of
distances on the screen. Waves that do 1 C [1]
arrive in phase—and therefore produce 2 C [1]
a maximum—only do so for a limited
region on the screen, leading to 3 D [1]
thinner maxima.
4 B [1]
4 a A diffraction grating is a set of many, very
5 C [1]
narrow, slits. Each slit is separated from
the one next to it by a very small distance. 6 A [1]
Light passing through a diffraction
grating will then produce an interference 7 D [1]
pattern similar to that shown in the 8 D [1]
answer to question 3 part a.
9 C [1]
b The light would be a different colour:
blue rather than orange. The spacing of 10 C [1]
the maxima would be smaller (by a factor
450 ).
of  _ Short-answer questions
590
11 a A line, or surface, showing parts
10    = 1.7 × 10  −6m.
s =  _
c
−3
600 of a wave that are of the same

The angle between the central maximum phase as each other. [1]
and the first-order maximum is given b i v = f λ = 3.0 × 60 × 10 −3 =
by sin  −1 _  λs  = sin  −1 _
  630 × 10 −6  = 21.8°
−9
0.18 ms  −1 [2]
1.7 × 10 
(0.38 radians).   0.12 = 0.04 m (= 40 mm)
λ = _ v  = _
ii [1]
f 3.0
Therefore, the separation on the screen =  0.18  = 1.5
n=_
iii [1]
0.38 × 5 = 1.9 m. 0.12
d s sin θ = 2λ ⇒ λ =  _  θ = _

s × sin   10    ×
−3
12 a   330 =0.375 m
λ = _ v  = _ [1]
2 2 × 600 f 880
sin(tan  −1(_
  9.5 ))= 640 nm (2 s.f.) b
vwater
  _
i   v    =   1   ⇒ vwater
_   1   ×
  = _
8
air sin θc  sin 13°
5 a The first maximum of an interference 330 = 1467 = 1470 ms  −1
pattern would occur at an angle given by (3 s.f.) [2]
θ = sin  −1(_  λs ) = sin  −1 _
( (_    ) )
v  
  1.0 1×0  −310   
=  _
1.0 × 10    =
−10 −10
1.7 × 10  −6 n=_

ii   330   = 0.22
 v  air   = _ [1]
water 1467
600
5.9 × 10  −5 radians (≈ 3.4 × 10  −3 degrees). c The sound waves will be partly
reflected and partly transmitted. [1]
This angle is too small to be resolved by an
X-ray detector.
(  n ) =
sin i   = n Therefore, r = sin  −1 _
13 a  _ sin i c With white light,
sin r
sin  −1(_ )
  sin 40  
= 25°. (2 s.f.)
o
[2] •
the central maximum
1.5
will be white. [1]
b v glass = _   3 × 1 
  c   = _ 0  8 = 2 × 10  8 ms  −1 [1] •
the higher-order maxima will
1.5 1.5
each be a spectrum of colours,
  3 × 10 14 = 5 × 10  −7 m
c λ air = _  c  = _
8
[1] with violet and blue closest to
f 6 × 10  the central order maximum
v  glass and red farthest away from the
  2 × 10 14  = 3.3 × 10  −7 m
8
d   =  _
λglass   = _ [1] central maximum. [1]
f 6 × 10 
(However, beyond about the second
  3.0 × 10  14  = 656 nm
λ = _ c  = _
8
14 a [1]
f 4.57 × 10  order, it is likely that these maxima
will overlap, and so other colours
 λD  = _______________
  656 × 10  × 3.6 = 3.9 cm −9
x=_
b      [2] will be seen where this occurs.)
d −6
60 × 10 
c The bright fringes will now be 17 a 300 lines mm  −1means that the
spacing of the slits is _   1 −1   =
closer together. [1] 300 mm 
3.3 × 10  m.
−6
[1]
[1] b θ = sin  −1(_  λs ) = sin  −1(_
  590 × 10 −6 ) =
−9
brighter/more intense.
3.3 × 10 
15 a Intensity 10.3°(0.18 radians) [2]
c Maxima would also be produced as
  nλ
long as _ s  ≤ 1.0.
So, there would be a second-order
maximum at sin  −1 2  _λs  = 21°.
A third-order maximum at sin  −1 3  _λs  =
32.4°.
Distance across screen [2]
A fourth-order maximum at sin  −1 4  _λs  =
b The blue regions (as opposed 45.7°.
to the previous red regions) will be
closer together. [1] A fifth-order maximum at sin  −1 5  _λs  =
63.4°.
c With a smaller slit, the intensity of
the pattern would be reduced (because But, there is no sixth-order maximum
less light is able to pass through), because 6  _λs  > 1. [2]
and the spacing of the bright regions
18 a The angle at which the first-order
would increase (more diffraction). [2]
maximum for the blue light occurs is
  = sin  −1(_  λs ) = sin  −1 _
( _   )
16 a Angular width of the central θblue   467 ×1 10  
−9

maximum  
5 × 10 
5
= 13.5°. [1]
= 2 × sin  −1 (_
  λ )
b
The angle at which the first-order
= 2 × sin  ( 
1 × 10  −4 )
_530 × 10  −9
−1
 
maximum for the red light occurs is
  = sin  −1(_  λs ) = sin  −1 _
( _  5 )
  700 ×1 10  
−9
= 1.06 × 10  −2 radians [1] θred
 
5 × 10 
So, the width of the central maximum = 20.5°. [1]
on the screen = 1.06 × 10 −2× 8 = 8.5 cm. [1]
So, the angle between the two is
650  = 1.23
b  _ 20.5 − 13.5 = 7.0°. [1]
530
So, the width of the new central
maximum will be 1.23 × 8.5 cm =
10.5 cm. [1]
b The angle at which the third-order 19 a λ   = _

i s =  _   550 × 10   = 1.25 μm
−9
[2]
sin θ sin 26
maximum for the blue light occurs is
  1000  =
ii Number of slits mm  −1 = _
  = sin  −1(_ s ) = sin   
( )
1.25
  3λ 3 × 467 × 1  0 
−9
−1 ____________
θblue _ 1   800 [1]
 
5 × 10  5
= 44°. b λ = s sin θ = 1.25 × 10 −6× sin 23.5 =
The angle at which the second-order 498 nm [2]
maximum for the red light occurs is
  = sin  −1(_ s ) = sin   
( )
  2λ 2 × 700 × 1  0 
−9
−1 ____________
θred
  1 5 
_
5 × 10 
= 44°. [1]
Since these two angles are the same,
the two maxima overlap. [1]
Workbook answers
Chapter 15
Exercise 15.1 2 a A standing wave is formed when two
similar waves, travelling in opposite
1 a directions, superpose.
Chapter 1 b The standing wave does not transfer
Test Your Understanding Modern energy from
scientific one place to
controversies another; the
include:
progressive wave does.
ccarbon
i Yes, forinexample,
dioxide standingare
the atmosphere waves
causing
on a
global warming string.
b
memory of cell structure. • the controversy
ii Yes, forabout whether
example, the measles,
standing waves
Figure mumps andin a rubella
pipe. (MMR) vaccine can
• The functions of the main structures are
i ‘Features
ii iii iv v increase the risk of autism (but scientists are
found in the sections that animal 3 a
nowi A point
agreed on theisstring
that there where
no link the the
between
and plant cells1have
0 in common’
−1.4A −2Aand−1.4A 0 amplitude of oscillation is
MMR vaccine and autism).
‘Differences between animal and plant cells’ always zero.
2 0 0 0 0 0
on pp 0–0.
3 0 1.4A 2A 1.4A 0
• As well as Figures 1.4 and 1.5, you will ii A point on the string where the
4 0
find relevant information 0 in the0section0 0 1 amplitude of oscillation is
‘Differences a maximum.
Point between animal and
5 0 −1.4A −2Aplant cells’ 0
−1.4A Structures that animal and plant cells have in
on pp 0–0. 6 0 0 0 0 0 common:iii The maximum displacement of
• Yes. There are7organisms a point on the and
string from the
0 1.4Aother2A than 1.4A
animals0 • nucleus with nucleolus chromatin
and plants. They are classified in different equilibrium point.
8 0 0 0 0 0 • cytoplasm containing mitochondria, Golgi
iv The
apparatus and number of complete
other small structuresoscillations
Other types of9organism
0 −1.4A −2Afungi,
include −1.4A
a 0
in 1 s.
group of mainly unicellular organisms called • cell surface membrane.
cprotoctists,
i Destructive
bacteria and viruses. occurs at all
interference b i
Structures   distance
  =only
vave
found    travelled = _
_____________
in plant  
0 cm
cells:    
time taken 1s
times at these points, causing zero
Science in netcontext
displacement. • chloroplasts= 0 cms 
−1
Two obvious examples are:the net displacement is • large, permanent central vacuole___________
ii Points where ii   distance travelled
_____________
  =   
vave   =   8 × 4 × 12
 cm
time taken 1s
always zero aretheory
known • cell wall with middle lamella and
a Darwin and Wallace’s ofas nodes.
evolution = 384 cms  −1
plasmodesmata.
by natural selection was highly controversial
d i Values in the table for points: 2, 4, 6
because it appeared to change;
be in conflict withallthe c i found
Structure s  −1 in animal cells:
0 cmonly
and 8 will not they will
religiousbe
belief
zero.that God created all species of • centriole
ii 0 cms  −1

creation.Values in the table for points: 1, 5 and 2 d 𝜆 = 2 × 30 cm = 60 cm
9 will become 1.4A, 2A, 1.4A, 0.
b Galileo was placed under house arrest for the • use =f𝜆=
e av sharp pencil
8 × 60 = 480 cms −1
Values
rest of his in the
life after table for
putting points:
forward the3 idea
and 7 • don’t use shading/don’t draw the nucleus as a
willand
that Earth become −1.4A,
the other −2A,orbited
planets −1.4A,the 0. Exercise
solid blob15.2
Sun rather than the Earth being at the centre
ii The net displacement at these points •
1 don’ti
a cross
Thelabel
firstlines
harmonic mode is the mode
oscillates between ±2A. • in which
don’t use arrow headsthe lowest frequency
on label lines of a
contradict the religious beliefs of the time.
standing wave can be formed.
iii These
Other examples points are known as antinodes.
include: • use a ruler to draw label lines
• Einstein’s
e Thesetheory
pairs ofofpoints
general
arerelativity
all half (which
a • makeii outline of cells less sketchy - lines should
challenged our ideas
wavelength apart.of the link between space be continuous, not broken
f No, the standing wave does not transfer
• Wegener’s theory of continental drift (which
any energy. as the label line
was controversial because scientists could not • interpret what is seen. For
l example, outlines
λ = 2l
iii
b i
f2  = 2 f o 3 a 6 cm
ii b 3 cm
c Eighth harmonic
Exercise 15.3
l 1 a i Node
ii Antinode
 2l  = l
λ=_
iii
2
b i
c i
f3  = 3 f o; f4  = 4 f o; f5  = 5 f o
X Y
ii Third harmonic:
ii
X Y
l iii
X Y
Fourth harmonic:
c Even-numbered harmonics would suggest

that there would be a node at point Y.
This cannot occur, since the pipe is open
here. Only odd-numbered harmonics will
produce antinodes at point Y.
l
d   4l
λn = _ n , where n is an odd integer.
Fifth harmonic:
2 a Nodes
b In the first harmonic mode, half of a wave
will be present. So, the wavelength will be
twice the length of the pipe. 𝜆 = 2l.
  2l
c λ n = _ n 
l 3 a Antinodes
  2l
iii λ n = _ _ v _ nv
n ; fn  =   λ    =     b In the fundamental mode, half of a wave
n
2l
2 a v = f λ = 440 × 2 × 1.2= 1056 will be present. So, the wavelength will be
twice the length of the pipe. 𝜆 = 2l.
= 1100 ms  −1 (2 s.f.)
2 × 1.2   2l
c λ n = _ n 
b
i   2l
λ2  = _ n  =  
_   = 1.2 m; f = 2 fo 
2
= 2 × 440 = 880 Hz   2l
d They are the same. The equation λ n = _ n 
applies to pipes with two open or two
  2l
ii λ 3 = _ 2 × 1.2
_
n  =     = 0.8 m; f = 3fo 
3
closed ends.
= 3 × 440 = 1320 Hz e No. All harmonics are possible.
= 1300 Hz (2 s.f.)
  2l
iii λ n = _ 2.4
_
n  =   n  m; f = n fo 
λ=_
c   330 = 0.75 m
 v   = _
fo  440
4   330 = 1.5 m. In the second

a λ = _ v  = _ b All mechanical systems are subject to
f 220
harmonic, one complete wave will be friction in one form or another. The effect
present, so the length of the pipe must of friction on an oscillating system is to
be 1.5 m. transfer energy from the oscillating system
into the internal energy of the system
  3   f 2 = _
b f 3 = _   3 × 220 = 330 Hz and its surroundings. This loss of energy
2 2
means that the amplitude of oscillation
c λ 4 =     λ2  =  _1 × 1.5= 0.75 m
1
_
will decrease; the oscillations are
2 2
d A pipe that is closed at one end can being damped.
produce the same first harmonic c A system that is overdamped will move
frequency in only half the length. So the towards its equilibrium position over
organ pipes don’t need to be so long. a long period of time, but it will not
5 a Pushing the piston inwards makes the oscillate. An underdamped system
length of the pipe of the whistle smaller. will continue to oscillate but will move
This means that standing waves that are towards its equilibrium position over a
set up inside the pipe will have to have long period of time. A critically damped
a smaller wavelength. Since the speed of system will move towards its equilibrium
sound in air is fixed, a smaller wavelength position before the oscillator has been
of standing wave means there will able to make another oscillation.
be a larger frequency—hence a 3 Amplitude
higher-pitched sound.
U
b Pulling the piston outwards makes the
length of the pipe of the whistle longer.
This means that standing waves that are O
set up inside the pipe will have to have
a longer wavelength. Since the speed of C
sound in air is fixed, a longer wavelength
of standing wave means there will Time
be a smaller frequency—hence a
lower-pitched sound. 4 a Amplitude
Exercise 15.4
1 a free oscillation: when a system is displaced
from its equilibrium point and left
to oscillate without the effect of any
additional forces.
b forced oscillation: when a system is acted Forcing frequency
upon by a periodic external force.
c resonance: when the frequency of an b Amplitude
external periodic force applied to a system
is the same as the natural (or resonant)
frequency of the system. This will result in
large amplitudes of oscillation.
2 a Damping means that energy is removed with
heavy
from the oscillator, leading to a reduction damping
in the oscillator’s amplitude. Forcing frequency
c It will occur at a slightly lower frequency.
d i The oscillating body is in phase with e The electrical circuits of the radio receiver
the forcing frequency. allow oscillating currents to flow.
The natural frequency of such alternating
ii The oscillating body lags the forcing currents is determined by the values of the
frequency by _  π . capacitance, inductance and impedance
2
iii The oscillating body lags the forcing of the receiver’s components. When the
frequency by π. values of these components are set so
that the natural frequency of allowable
5 a When the frequency of sound being alternating currents matches the frequency
produced by a speaker matches the of the radio waves from any particular
natural frequency of the speaker cabinet, radio station’s broadcasts, resonance
the cabinet itself will vibrate at the forcing occurs and the alternating currents that
frequency, producing an unwanted sound flow have a large amplitude. These larger
that is often just described as noise. High- amplitude alternating currents are then
quality speaker cabinets are designed such used to produce sound via amplifiers with
that their natural frequency is in a range speakers or via crystal oscillators.
of values significantly lower than audible
frequencies. Usually, this is affected by Exam-style questions
making the speaker cabinets very heavy.
b The microwave oven emits electromagnetic
waves at the same frequency as the natural 1 D [1]
frequency at which water molecules 2 A [1]
oscillate. The water molecules are then
forced to oscillate in resonance, thus 3 B [1]
producing large amplitudes, which we
4 A [1]
associate with the water molecules getting
very hot. 5 B [1]
c When a substantial number of people 6 C [1]
walked along the bridge, they tended to
walk ‘in step’ with each other. 7 D [1]
Two thousand people stepping, each in 8 B [1]
phase with each other, forced the bridge to
oscillate. The frequency of the oscillations 9 C [1]
was close to the resonant frequency of
the bridge, causing the oscillations of the Short-answer questions
bridge to be dangerously large. 10 a A progressive wave transfers
The redesign of the bridge used the idea energy from one place to another.
of damping to reduce the amplitude of A standing wave does not transfer
oscillations. Large viscous fluid dampers energy from one place to another. [1]
were installed to extract energy from b i There will have to be a node at
horizontal oscillations of the bridge, both ends of the string, so the
essentially preventing any effects only wavelengths possible will
of resonance.
 2 ×n4 
be given by _ m (where n is
d Modern skyscrapers are designed so that speed of waves
an integer) Since f = ___________
  
    ,
their foundations are not directly part of wavelength
the building itself. The foundations and f will occur only at certain
the main structure are joined by sets of discrete values. [1]
base isolation systems, which heavily damp
any oscillations caused by seismic activity.
In this way, the structure itself cannot then
oscillate with a large amplitude.
ii The minimum frequency will occur 13 a Half a wave is present, so the

at the fundamental mode, which will wavelength of the standing wave
have a wavelength of 2 × 4 = 8 m. is 2 × 2.4 m = 4.8 m. [1]
So f = _  760 = 95 Hz. b i It will be the same as before. [1]
8
_
5 × 760
f5  =  _
iii  = 475 Hz. Or, more ii The speed of wave ∝ √
Tension ,
8
simply, f5  = 5 f1  = 5 × 95 = 475 Hz. so the frequency_ will increase [1]
11 a A node is a place where there is by a factor of √2 . [1]
no oscillation of the medium
c The mass per unit length of the string [1]
(the amplitude is zero). An antinode
is where the amplitude of the 14 a In this context the term, exponential
oscillation of the medium is refers to the fact that the amplitude
a maximum. [2] of the oscillations decreases by the
same factor, or fraction, on
b The wavelength of the waves is
each oscillation. [1]
twice the node separation, so
λ = 2 × 8 cm = 16 cm. [1] b Use the constant ratio rule, that is
A  A  A 
c In the fundamental mode  _ 1
  =  _2  = _
  3 . . . and so on.
A  A  A 
[2]
 1  a
(first harmonic) there will be __
2 3 4
2 c 0.5 = 0.9  n
wavelength present. In the second
harmonic there will be one complete log 0.5
log 0.5 = n log 0.9 ⇒ n = _
    = 6.6. [1]
wavelength present and in the log 0.9
third harmonic there will be 1.5 So, it would take seven oscillations
wavelengths present. Since the for the amplitude to have fallen
string is 24 cm long (= 1.5 𝜆), it is below a half of its initial value. [1]
the third harmonic that is present. [1]
15 a Energy ∝
Amplitude  2 [1]
d Since the tension in the string and
the mass per unit length of the string b i 0.001 = 0.9  n
have not changed, the speed of the log 0.001 = n log 0.9 ⇒
waves along the string remains log 0.001
constant. So, if the frequency of n=_
    = 66
log 0.9
the standing wave has increased,
So, 66 oscillations would be required
then the wavelength must have
for the energy to be 0.1% of its
decreased so that f × λ = constant.
initial value. [2]
So, the separation of the nodes and
antinodes will decrease. [1] ii    E
Q = 2π ×  ___________   E  
 = 2π × _
E lost per cycle 0.1E
12 a There are 1.25 wavelengths in = 2π × 10 = 63
the pipe. [1]
Since this value is about the same
3   = 2.4 m.
So, 1.25 λ = 3 ⇒ λ =  _ [1]
1.25 as the answer to part i, the Q factor
could be described as the number of
b f = _ λv  = _
  330 = 137.5 Hz
2.4 oscillations required for the energy
(140 Hz to 2 s.f.) [1] of the oscillator to fall to 0.1% of its
c Only odd-numbered harmonics can initial value. (In practice, engineers
occur. The first harmonic has 1 node will assume that when the energy in
and 1 antinode. The third harmonic an oscillating system has fallen to
has 2 nodes and 2 antinodes. such a low amount compared to its
The fifth harmonic has 3 nodes and initial value, then the oscillations
3 antinodes. This is what the diagram have ceased.) [1]
shows, so it is the fifth harmonic that c 1 [1]
is present. [2]
16 a There are five oscillations in 20 s. 17 a The condition in which a body is

 1  =
So T = 4 s; therefore, f = _ being forced to oscillate at its
4
0.25 Hz. [2] natural frequency. [1]
_ _
b Any form of resistive force that b i  1   √_
f = _ k    = _
  m √   20    = 1.1 Hz
  1   _ [2]
causes an oscillating body to lose 2π 2π 0.4
energy and so makes the amplitude ii
of its oscillations smaller. [1]
Amplitude
c Using the constant ratio rule:
Successive positive amplitudes
are 9.5, 7.8, 6.4, 5.2, 4.3. [1]
(or any other sensible sequence)
9.5  = 1.2, _
So,  _   7.8  = 1.2, _
  6.4 = 1.2, and 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7.8 6.4 5.2 Forcing Frequency / Hz
5.2 = 1.2, therefore exponential.
 _ [1]
4.3
• Correct shape curve [1]
• Max. amplitude at 1.1 Hz [1]
• Non-zero amplitude at f = 0 [1]
Chapter 16
Exercise 16.1 4 a i λ = _  c 
f
1 a i f wavefronts ii t =  _  = _  λc 

1
f
iii vt =  _ cλ = _   v 
ii  1 
T=_ c f
f
iii _ c
λ =     = cT iv λ′  = λ − _  v 
f f
λ′  = λ −  _v  = λ − _   vλ c = λ(1 −   c )
v _v
b i Less time f
ii During the time it takes for a wavefront vi Δλ = λ − λ′  = λ − λ(1 − _  vc ) =
to travel the distance, λ, the observer λ(1 − 1 + _  vc ) ⇒ _   Δλ λ
  = _  vc 
has moved towards the source a
distance of _  v . So the distance that the b i λ =  _c 
f f
next wavefront has to travel before it is ii t =  _1  = _  λc 
f
received by the observer is less. Since vλ = _
the waves travel at a constant speed, this iii vt =  _ c   v 
f
means that it will take less time for the iv λ′  = λ +     v
_
next wavefront to arrive at the observer. f
c = λ(1 +   c )
  vλ
v v
λ′  = λ +     = λ + _
_ _v
iii A larger frequency f
vi Δλ = λ′  − λ = λ ( 1 + _  vc ) − λ =
iv A smaller wavelength
λ(1 + _  vc  − 1) ⇒ _   Δλ λ
  = _  vc 
2 a i f wavefronts
c i λ′  = λ −  _v 
f
ii  1 
T=_
f ii Δλ = λ − λ ′  = λ − λ(1 − _  vc ) =
iii λ = _  c  = cT
f λ(1 − 1 + _  vc ) ⇒ _   Δλ λ
  = _  vc 
b i More time Δλ  = _ Δf
d  _
λ
    = _  vc 
f
ii During the time it takes for a
e o, they will be the same, providing v is
N
wavefront to travel the distance, λ, the
the relative speed at which the source and
observer has moved away from the
the observer are moving towards/away
source a distance of _  v . So the distance
f from each other.
that the next wavefront has to tavel
before it is received by the observer 5 a lue-shift refers to the change in
B
is more than before. Since the waves wavelength to a smaller wavelength,
travel at a constant speed, this means because the relative motion between
that it will take more time for the next source and observer is towards each other.
wavefront to arrive at the observer. This is because blue light is at the short
wavelength end of the visible part of the
iii A smaller frequency electromagnetic spectrum. Red-shift refers
iv A larger wavelength to the change in wavelength to a larger
wavelength, because the relative motion
3 a o. The relative motion between the two
N between source and observer is away from
is the same, whether it is the observer each other. This is because red light is at
moving or the source moving. the long wavelength end of the visible part
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
b i Smaller frequency
ii Larger frequency
iii For relative motion away from each
other, the wavelength will be larger.
For relative motion towards each
other, the wavelength will be smaller.
b y measuring the red-shifts exhibited by

B Exercise 16.2
distant galaxies, Edwin Hubble and other
cosmologists and astrophysicists have 1 a vt
been able to confirm that the universe is
b us  t
expanding. Moreover, Hubble’s law has
shown that the farther away a galaxy is c ft
from us, the faster it is receding from us.
d vt − us  t = ( v − us  )t
c i ince the measured wavelength is
S
larger than the actual wavelength, e   distance    
    in which wavefronts are
λ′  = _____________________________   located =
number of wavefronts
the distant star must be moving away _ (v − u s  )t _ v − u s 
    =    
from the Earth. ft f
f f ′  =   λ′   =   v − u    = f(_
_ v _ v   v −v u     )
(_
f )
Δλ  = _
ii  _  c ×λ 
  vc  ⇒ v = _ Δλ =
    s
s
λ
( )
3 × 10  × 580.9 − 527.0
8
 ______________________
        = g Larger frequency
527.0
3.1 × 10  ms  away from the Earth
7 −1
h es. The speed of the sound waves
Y
(i.e. about one-tenth of the speed
through the air is determined by the
of light).
properties of the air itself (such as
6 Δλ  = _
 _  620 − 590
  vc  = _  = 0.048 temperature, pressure, composition etc.).
λ 620
v  = λ(1 −  v )
v − u   u 
So the motorist would have had to be driving i   v   = _
λ′  = _ v
  _   = λ  _ s _s
v
f ′  f(  v − u   )
at a speed of 0.048c = 1.45 × 10  7 ms  −1. s
j Smaller wavelength.
This is 1.45 × 10  7 × 60 × 60 =
5.22 × 10  7 kmhr  −1! 2 a vt
This is not possible for a vehicle on the road. b us  t

So the motorist was telling a lie.
c ft
7 a Doppler radar gun measures
A
small changes in the frequencies d vt − us  t = ( v + us  )t
of electromagnetic waves—usually e   distance    in which wavefronts are
λ′  = _____________________________
      located =
number of wavefronts
microwaves. Waves are transmitted at a (v + u s  )t _
v + u s 
known frequency. These waves reflect _
    =    
ft f
from a moving car to the receiver in the v   = _
f f ′  =  _   v +v u    = f _
  v +v u    
(_ )
Doppler gun. The received waves show a λ′ 
   
s s
change in frequency if there is a relative f
motion between the observer and the g Smaller frequency

car. Since the speed of electromagnetic
h es. The speed of the sound waves
Y
waves is known, the Doppler gun uses the
Δf through the air is determined by the
expression  _vc  = _
   to calculate an accurate properties of the air itself (such as
f
value for v, the speed of the moving car. temperature, pressure, composition etc.).
  = λ(_ ) = λ(1 + _
 vs )
v + u   u 
b i Microwaves i   v   = _
λ′  = _ v
  _   v 
s
( s)
v
f ′  f   v + u   
Δf
  2 × 10  9  =
3
v=c_
ii     = 3.0 × 10  8 × _
f 24 × 10  j Larger wavelength
25 ms  −1 (90 kmhr  −1)
c ltrasonic waves will suffer too much
U
absorption, too much scattering by the air
and too much diffraction. They also travel
significantly slower.
v + u  
3 a v + uo  8 a f ′  = f _
  v 
o
 330 + 10
= 800 × _  = 824 Hz
330
b The same b f ″ = f ′    v − u    = 824 ×   330  = 850 Hz
_ v _
o 330 − 10
v + u  v + uo  v + u 
( v + u s  )
c v ′   = _
f ′  =  _   λ o =  _   = f _
  v o = 9 a ftowards
  = f(  v − u    )and faway
_ v   v   .
  = f _
(f)
λ _  v  s
f(1 +  _ v )

uo 
f  f(_
  v −v u   ) v + u 
So, _
  towards  =  _ s
  = _
  v − us    = k.
( )
faway
  v
_
d Larger frequency f   v + u   
s
s
4 a v − uo  Therefore, us  = (_

  k − 1 ) v and k = _
 480 = 1.2.
k+1 400
b The same   1.2 − 1  × 330 = 30 ms  −1.
So, us  = _
1.2 + 1
v − u 
v ′   = _ v − u  v − u 
c f ′  =  _   λ o =  _  o = f  _
v  =
o
b ftowards
  = f(_
  v −v u     ) ⇒ f = 480 × _
 300  =
(f)
λ _v     s 330
f(1 −  _
v )
u o 
436 Hz = 440 Hz (2 s.f.)
d A smaller frequency Alternatively,
( )
5 a s the train approaches the bridge, the
A  360  =
  v +v u    ⇒ f = 400 × _
f away = f _
s 330
train-spotter will hear the whistle from 436 Hz = 440 Hz (2 s.f.)
the train as a higher frequency sound
than normal—it will also get louder as it Exam-style questions
approaches. When the train has passed
under the bridge and recedes from the Multiple-choice questions
train-spotter, the train-spotter will hear 1 D [1]
the whistle from the train at a lower
frequency than normal—and the sound 2 D [1]
will become quieter. 3 C [1]
b i   v +v u )= 800(_
f ′  = f(_   330  ) = 4 A [1]
330 − 60
978 Hz (980 Hz to 2 s.f.)
5 C [1]
  v +v u )= 800(_
ii f ′  = f(_   330  ) =
330 + 60 6 B [1]
677 Hz (680 Hz to 2 s.f.)
7 B [1]
6 a  330 = 660 Hz
f = _  λv  = _
0.5 8 C [1]
b i f ′  = f  _ v _ 330
v − us    = 660 ×  330 − 20 = 703 Hz
(3 s.f.) Short-answer questions
  3.0 × 10 −9   = 5.2 × 10  14 Hz
f = _  λc  = _
8
  330  = 622 Hz
  v +v u    = 660 × _
ii f ′  = f _ 9 a
575 × 10 
[1]
s 330 + 20
(3 s.f.) b ince the received frequency is
S
v + uo  less than the emitted frequency
f ′  = f _
iii   v   330 +  
= 660 × _ 20 = 700 Hz
330 [1], the star is exhibiting red-shift,
v − uo  330 − 20
iv f ′  = f  _ _
v  = 660 ×   330 = 620 Hz so it is moving away from the Earth. [1]
c he frequency observed from a moving
T c
Δf Δf
 _  = _  vc  ⇒ v = c  _  = 3.0 × 10  8 ×
source is slightly larger than the frequency f f
( 5.2 − 4.8 ) × 10  14
________________
observed by a moving observer.       = 2.3 × 10  7 ms  −1
5.2 × 10  14
7 a 4 0 kHz is above the range of human away from the Earth [2]
hearing; it is ultrasonic. 10 a he change in frequency
T [1]
b i f ′  = f  _ v _ 330 when there is relative motion
v − us    = 40 kHz ×  330 − 6  =
between a source and an observer. [1]
40.74 kHz = 40.7 kHz (3 s.f.)
v + u 
330 + 6 b he star is moving away from
T
ii f ″ = f ′   _ _
v  = 40.74 ×   330  =
o
the Earth. [1]

41.45 kHz = 41.5 kHz (3 s.f.)
v + u 
The star’s speed is about 5% of the 14 a f ′  = f _
  v 
o
 330 +  
= 1250 × _ 25 =
330
speed of light. [1] 1345 Hz [2]
v − uo 
c he speed of the person is far too small
T b f ′  = f  _ v   330 − 9 =
= 1250 × _
330
compared to the speed of light for the 1216 Hz [1]
light to be detectably blue-shifted.
c he answer to part a will be smaller.
T [1]
11 a he cars have a relative
T The answer to part b will be larger. [1]
motion that is towards each
other [1] making the received Warmer air means a larger speed
frequency higher [1]. (OWTTE) [1] of sound. This will give a smaller
v + u  received frequency.
b f ′  = f _
  v − uo    = [1]
s 15 a i ed-shift is the change in
R
300 + 20 = 230 Hz (2 s.f.)
200 ×  _ [2] wavelength (an increase),
300 − 20
or frequency (a decrease),
  3 × 10  3  = 6.0 × 10  4 m
λ =  _c  = _
8
12 a i caused by an emitter moving
f 5.0 × 10 
away from an observer. [1]
(60 km) [1]
ii Blue-shift is the change in
  3 × 10  3  =
λ = _  c  = _
8
ii
f 4.85 × 10  wavelength (a decrease), or
6.186 × 10  4m (62 km) [1] frequency (an increase), caused
by an emitter moving towards
b Away from the Earth [1] an observer. [1]
(A lower received frequency—or b femitted
    3 × 10  −9  =
= _  λc  = _
8
longer wavelength—means the signal 620 × 10 

has been red-shifted, so the spacecraft 4.8 × 10  14 Hz [1]
must be travelling away from the Earth.) Δf = femitted
  ×  _vc  = 4.8 × 10 14 ×
_   Δλ Δλ  = 3 × 10  8 ×
  = _  vc  ⇒ v = c  _   4.5 × 10 8  = 7.2 × 10  12 Hz
6
c λ λ
_ [1]
3 × 10 
( 61.86 − 60) × 10  3
_______________
  
    = 9.0 × 10  6 ms  −1 [2] Smaller [1]
60 × 10  3
or
Δf Δf
 _  = _  vc  ⇒ v = c  _  = 3 × 10  8 ×
f f
(_______________
5.0 − 4.85) × 10  3
      = 9.0 × 10  6 ms  −1 [2]
5.0 × 10  3
13 The frequency received by blood cells
travelling at 20 cms  −1 is
v + u 
f ′  = f _
  v 
o
 1500 + 0.2
= 10.000 × _   =
1500
10.00133 MHz. [1]
So, the frequency received by the doctor
would be
f ″ = f ′   _ v 1500   =
___________
v − u    = 10.00133 ×  
o 1500 − 0.2
10.00266 MHz. [2]
Since the doctor receives a frequency
higher than this, the speed of the blood
cells must be higher than 20 cms −1. [1]
This suggests that there is a blockage. [1]
Chapter 17
Workbook answers
Exercise 17.1
Chapter 1
c The size of the Sun and the size of the
planets is very much smaller than their
1 a i A gravitational field is a region in separation. This allowed Newton to
Test Your space Understandingin which a mass will experience Modern model
scientific
thecontroversies include:as
Sun and the planets
a gravitational force. point masses.
ii A seenuniform gravitational carbon
Thedioxide
Sun and in the
the planets
atmosphere are causing
are spherical—or
structures in cells from workfielddoneisat
a gravitational global warming
very nearly so in the case of the planets—
GCSE. Figures 1.4 and field in which
1.5 will refreshtheyour
memory gravitational
of cell structure. force on a given mass • and behave,about
the controversy at a distance
whetherlarger than their
the measles,
is the same at every point in the field. mumpssize,andas ifrubella
all their mass isvaccine
(MMR) concentrated
can at
This could also be expressed as a the centre
increase the risk ofof mass—the centre
autism (but of
scientists are
gravitational field in which the field nowthe sphere.
agreed that there is no link between the
and plant cells have in common’ and
strength is constant at all points in MMR vaccine M and autism).
‘Differences between animal and plant cells’ 4 a i g = G  _2 
the field. R 
on pp 0–0. Self-assessment questions
iii
• As well The
as Figures radius1.4
of and
the Earth is so
1.5, you willlarge ii Towards M
compared
find relevant to the height
information above the
in the section 1 b Since the gravitational force on a unit
‘DifferencesEarth’s surface
between in which
animal and we live.
plant cells’ Structures
testthat animal
mass at X and plant
due to thecells have in
left-hand mass
on pp 0–0. So the field strengths at the Earth’s common:is directed horizontally to the left and
surface and at a height, say, 1 km, the gravitational force
• Yes. There are organisms other than animals
above the Earth’s surface will both be • nucleus with nucleolus andon the same unit
chromatin
and plants. They are classified in different test mass due to the right-hand mass is
almost exactly the same. • cytoplasm
directed containing mitochondria,
horizontally Golgi
to the right—and
apparatus and other small structures
of the same magnitude, the total force
2 a R  ∝ T  2,ofwhere
Other 3types organism include
R is the orbitalfungi,
radiusa and
groupT isofthe
mainly unicellular
orbital period. (Atorganisms
the timecalled
of on the unit
• cell surface test mass is zero. So, the
membrane.
protoctists,
publishing, bacteria anddid
Kepler viruses.
not know any more new gravitational fieldcells:
Structures found only in plant strength at X is
than this.) zero. (The two vectors representing the
Science inv  context
2
• chloroplasts
gravitational field strengths due to the
b a = _    • large,left-hand
permanent andcentral
the right-hand
vacuole masses are
Two obviousRexamples are:
equal and opposite, so adding them gives
c 2πR
v =  _   • cell wall with middle lamella and
a Darwin and T Wallace’s theory of evolution a zero result.)
plasmodesmata.
by natural selection 2 was highly controversial
(_  2πR  )  c
because
d _
a =  it
v   2

  appeared _
=   R  = T
  4 be
to_ π  2Rin
   =
2
  4π  R
conflict
_ 2 3
   ×
with
 _ 1   the Structure found only in animal cells:
R
T   2

R
T   2

R   2 of
religious belief that God created all species • centriole
M
e Since _
creation.   4π  R
2 3
    = constant, then a =  _ constant   2 2G
 
T 2
R  2
R2
_ 1 • use a G M pencil
sharp
b Galileo was placed
⇒ a ∝   2 . under house arrest for the 2
R  R
rest of his life after putting forward the idea • don’t use shading/don’t draw the nucleus as a
And
that Earthsince
andFthe =m a, and
other F must
planets orbited be the
solid blob
provided by the gravitational force
Sun rather than the Earth being at the centre exerted
bysolar
the Sun on the planet, _ 1
∝   2 
appeared
F • don’t cross label lines
45°
of the system. Again, this R 
to
contradict the religious beliefs of the time. • don’t use arrow heads on label lines
3 a A point mass is a theoretical object of no M
G
Other examples include:
size having mass. • use a ruler to draw label lines
R2
• bEinstein’s • make outline of cells less sketchy - lines should
i Since theofpoint
theory general
massrelativity
has no ‘size’,(whichits
5 a Gravitational
challenged our ideas of the link between space be continuous, notfield strength, g: the amount
broken
density must be infinite. of gravitational force experienced by a
and time) • writeunit
labels horizontally,
ii Nothing mass in the field.not at the same angle
• Wegener’s theory real can have andrift
of continental infinite(which as the label line
F  
was controversial because scientistshas
density, so the point mass to be
could not • b g=_
interpret mwhat is seen. For example, outlines
theoretical only.
c M   = 6.67 × 10  −11 ×

i g = −G  _ he extra distance that the opposite face of
T
2
 
R
the Earth adds to the distance between the
  ( 6 × 10  6) 2  = −9.8 Nkg−1 (or 9.8 Nkg  −1
24
_
6.4 × 10    Earth and the Sun means that there is little
towards the centre of the Earth) difference in the gravitational force from the
Sun on the opposite faces of the Earth.
ii The Earth is not a perfect sphere; it is
M   and M = _ 4πR  3ρ
a sphere that is ‘squashed’ from top to 7 a i g = −G  _     so
2
 
R 3
bottom. So, its radius is not the same 4π R   3
ρ
4πρR
everywhere. We usually quote g as a g = −G  _   = −G  _  
Radial3distance
R  2 from 3centre of Earth
globally averaged value to eliminate
ii 0 R 2R 3R
the difficulty caused by this
changing radius.
iii
g is largest at the poles, because the
radius of the Earth is smallest there—
and since the gravitational field
strength is an inverse square law, g
a smaller radius gives a bigger
field strength. 4πρR 3g
g = G  _
iii   ⇒ G = _
   
M   = 6.67 × 10  −11 ×  _ 2 × 10  30   3 4πRρ
6 a gSun = −G  _
R  2 (1.5 × 10  11)  2 3 × 9.81
____________________
b G =    
     =
= −5.93 × 10  −3 Nkg  −1 4π × 6.4 × 10  × 5.5 × 10 
6 3
M   = 6.67 × 10  −11 ×  _ 7.3 × 10    22 6.65 × 10  −11 N m  2kg  −2
b gMoon = −G  _ ( 8) 2
2
R  3.8 × 10    6.67 − 6.65
So, percentage difference is  ___________
  ×
= −3.37 × 10  Nkg 
−5 −1 6.67
100%= 0.3%.
c The gravitational field strength of the Sun M  v  2 MSun
  MEarth
 
where the Earth is in its orbit is greater 8 a _   = G  _
  Earth  
R R  2
than the gravitational field strength of
b Rearranging the previous equation:
the Moon where the Earth is. However, if _
one considers the relatively small distance
that the Earth is away from the Moon, the
_ M  v  2
  = G  _
  Earth
R
_
MSun
  MEarth
 
  ⇒ v = _
R  2
GM 
  RSun √
  .
_________________
size of the force acting on the face of the
Earth closest to the Moon is significantly c v = _ √
GM 
  RSun √
6.67 ×  
10  −11 × 2   
_________________
   =    
   × 10  30 =
1.5 × 10 
11
greater than the size of the force acting 3 × 10  −4 ms  −1 (1 s.f.)
on the face of the Earth farthest from the
Moon. It is this difference in force from 19 miles s  −1= 19 × 1603 = 30457 ms −1 =

the gravitational field of the Moon that 3 × 10  4 ms  −1
causes the tides. The song’s claim is quite right!
9 a When g = 0, the two gravitational field strengths from the two bodies have to be equal:
M  M 
G  _   = G  _
Earth Moon
 , where xis the distance from the Earth to point X and R is the separation of
2
x  ( )2 R − x  
the Earth and the Moon.
M  M 
So,  _   = _
Earth
  ( Moon) 2  ⇒ MEarth
  (R − x)  2= MMoon
  x  2.
x 
2
R − x  
Therefore, ( MEarth

  − MMoon
  )x  2 − 2MEarth
  Rx + MEarth
  R  2 = 0.
________________________________
2M  R ± √ ( 2MEarth
       R)  2− 4(MEarth
_____________________________________
  − MMoon
  ) MEarth
  R  2 
  Earth
Solving: x =            =
2(MEarth
  − MMoon   )

__________________________________________________________________
√(2 × 6 × 10 24 × 3.8 × 10  8)   2 − 4(6 × 10  24 − 7.3 × 10  22) × 6 × 10  24 × ( 3.8 × 10  8)   2 
  2 × 6 × 10  × 3.8 × 10  ±        
24 8
____________________________________________________________________________
        
      =
2(6 × 10  24 − 7.3 × 10  22)
3.5 × 10  8m (~92% of the distance between the Earth and the Moon).
R    3
  4π    × _ 4π 
2 2
b Earth Moon 11 a M Earth = _ G
  Moon2  =  _   ×
TMoon
    −11
6.67 × 10 
( 3.8 × 10  8)   3
_______________
       = 5.84 × 10  24 kg
( 27.3 × 8.64 × 10 4)   2
g g MMars   MEarth
 
b G  _  = 0.38 G  _   ⇒ MMars
  =
(RMars  )  2 (REarth
  )  2
(
9.81 × 3.4 × 10   
_______________ 6) 2
0.38         = 6.5 × 10  23 kg.
6.67 × 10 
−11

10 a
1 Planets orbit the Sun in elliptical Exercise 17.2
orbits with the Sun at one focus.
1 a i
mg (the same as the weight of
2 Planets sweep out equal areas in the mass)
equal times
ii
mgh (work done = force ×
3 The square of a planet’s orbital
distance moved)
period is proportional to the cube of
its orbital radius iii
T  2 ∝ R  3.

b i Kepler’s third law; a bigger orbital
Force
period suggests a larger orbital radius.

Saturn’s orbital radius is larger
than Jupiter’s.
ii Kepler’s first law; the moon will
appear larger when it is closer to the
earth. This is implied by the orbit Distance
being elliptical.
iv The work done is the area under
iii Kepler’s second law; In order for a the graph.
planet to sweep out an equal area in a
v The work done has been transferred
given time, it must travel faster when
into gravitational potential energy of
it is closer to the Sun.
the mass.
vi Yes; it now has more E P than it had
on the ground.
b i The area under the curve represents 3 a i Gravitational potential, Vg  , is the
the work done in moving the 1-kg gravitational potential energy of a
mass from the Earth’s surface to an unit mass.
infinite distance away from the Earth.
ii V gis the work done to move a unit
[ R ]
∞ ∞ ∞
Mm  dR = −G  _
ii  ∫  F dR =   ∫  G  _ Mm      mass from infinity to a place in a
R R
2
R  R
gravitational field.
= − (0 − G  _R )
Mm Mm
  = G  _R
 
Mm
iii Jkg  −1
iii work done = G  _R
  = 6.67 × 10  −11 ×
E 
6 × 10  ×  
 _
24
1 = 62.5 MJ iv V g = _
  mP or EP  = mVg 
6.4 × 10 
6
iv More v Scalar (EP  and m are both scalars,

so Vg  must also be a scalar.)
v It suggests that the value of the E P at M  = −6.67 × 10  −11 ×
the Earth’s surface, or above it, must b i V g,Earth = −G  _
R
be less than zero; that is it must be a
  6 × 10  6  = −6.25 × 10  7 Jkg  −1
24
_
negative quantity. 6.4 × 10 
ii = −G  _
Vg,Sun M  = −6.67 × 10  −11 ×
Mm
vi E P = −G  _  (The minus sign is R
R _ 2 × 1
0  30

necessary, because the E P must be a     = −8.89 × 10  8 Jkg  −1
1.5 × 10  11
negative quantity and G, M, m and R
iii Vg,total
  = 6.25 × 10  7 + 8.89 × 10  8
are all positive quantities.)
= −9.5 × 10  8 Jkg  −1
2 a Mm 
F = −G  _2
R  iv E = m |Vg  |= 5 × (9.5 × 10  8) =
b
R 4.75 × 10  9 J = 4.8 GJ ( 2 s.f.)
4 a i Mm 
F = −G  _2
R 
F Mm
ii E P = −G  _R
 
iii Although we can often write ‘work
done = force × distance moved in
direction of force’, this is only true
if the size of the force is independent
c i Zero of the distance, that is if the force
ii It will make m accelerate towards M. is constant. Since, in the case of a
gravitational field, F is a function of
iii E Pis being transferred into kinetic R, F is not constant as R varies, and
energy. (This seems strange, since so we cannot say that E P = F × R.
initally, the E  P of the satellite
was zero.) iv The area under the graph of F against
R will give E P.
iv It would represent the work done
by the gravitational force due to M in v To make the two equations mutually
moving the mass, m, from infinity to a consistent, we must write EP  = −∫F dr .
distance R  * away from M. This is the b i To find Fg  from the graph of E P
gain in kinetic energy, or the
loss in E P. against R, one would first determine
the gradient of the graph at the
Mm 
v E P = −G  _ value of R—and then make the
*
R 
answer negative.
vi E Pis the work done in moving a
mass, m, from an infinite distance d(EP  )
ii Fg  = −  _  
away to a distance, R, away from M. dR
c i One rectangle of the graph = 10 Mm × 7 a and b

−2 N = −20 MJ 5.
4.
Area under graph from R = 10 Mm to 3.
2.
R = ∞is a little over 1 square—maybe 1.
Earth’s surface
about 1.2 squares. This would represent
E P= 1.2 × −20 MJ = −24 MJ.
ii From the graph, at R = 10 Mm, c Equipotentials
EP  = −24 MJ.
d The equipotentials are equally spaced.
iii They are the same.
40 MJ   ≈ 1.5 N. e Since a higher equipotential requires work
iv The gradient is about  _ to be done against the gravitational field,
26 Mm
So the force is −1.5 N. and since g = constant, we can write:
work done = 1.0 ×10 4 J = g × distance,
v From the graph in Figure 17.2.2,
and taking g = 10 Nkg  −1.
Fg  ≈ 1.5 N.
  1.0 ×  
10  4
So separation of equipotentials = _
vi They are the same. 10
= 1 km
vii Yes, they have confirmed the
mathematical relationships between 8 a and b
F g and EP  .
5 a The gravitational force acting on a unit Field line
mass is the gravitational field strength, g.
b The EP  of a unit mass is the gravitational
potential, Vg  .
d(EP  ) 270 MJkg21
c Fg  = −  _
i  and E
P  = −∫Fg  dR
dR 260 MJkg21
d(Vg  ) 250 MJkg21
ii g = − _  and V
g  = −∫g dR
dR
d F g= m g and E P = mVg  , so m occurs on
both sides of the equation, making the
mathematical relationship between F g and
E P and between g and V  g the same.
Field lines are solid lines, equipotentials
6 a
work done = force × distance = mgh = are dashed lines.
5 J
60 × 9.81 × 556 = 3.3 × 10 
c The spacing of the equipotentials is
b The observer’s EP  at the surface is increasing as the distance away from the
Mm
|EP  | = G  _   6 × 10  × 60
  = 6.67 × 10  −11 × _
24
  = planet increases.
R 6400 × 10  3
3.75 × 10  9 J. d Equipotentials are perpendicular to

field lines.
Alternatively, | EP  | = mVg  =
60 kg × 62.5 MJkg  −1 = 3.75 × 10  9 J. 9 EP = 2# F dR
Force, F GPE
3.3 × 10  5  =

So the work done =  _ Mm Mm
F = 2G GPE = 2G
3.75 × 10  9 R2
F=2
d(GPE)
dR
R
8.8 × 10  −3%of the observer’s EP  at the

Earth’s surface. F
g =m F = mg GPE = mVg Vg =
GPE
m
Vg = 2# g dR
Field strength, g Potential, Vg
M M
g = 2G Vg = 2G
R2 d(Vg) R
g=2
dR
Exercise 17.3 3 a  2πR

v=_ T
 
(_
  2πR ) 
2
 vR    = _   4π  2R 

2 2
1 a The gravitational force exerted by M on a=_
b   TR  = _
T  _
the satellite.
4π  2 R   GMT
M   ∴ R = 3 _     √
2
a = g ⇒  _
c   = G  _
2 2
T  2
R  4π 
  mRv   ⇒ EK  = _
Mm  = _   1  mv  2 = G  _
Mm 
2
G  _
b _
2
R  2 2R
  GMT √
    =
3 2
Mm d R = _
c E P = −G  _ 4π 
2
R
 
_____________________________
Mm  − G  _
total energy = EK  + EP  = G  _ Mm  =
√ 6.67 × 10  −11 × 6 × 10  24 × (24 × 60 × 60)  2
3
R 2R _____________________________
    
          =
Mm 
2
4 π 
−G  _
2R 4.2 × 10  7 m
d Etotal
i Mm  = −6.67 × 10  −11 ×  
  = −G  _
2R So distance above the Earth’s surface =
2 × 1

_____________0  30
× 6 × 10  
24
= −2.7 × 10  33 J ( 42 − 6.4) × 10  6m = 3.6 × 10 7 m
     
2 × 1.5 × 10 11
Mm  = −6.67 × 10  −11 × This is 36 000 km.
ii   = −G  _
Etotal
2R
6 × 1
0 
________________ 24
× 7.3 × 1  0  22 = − 3.8 × 10 28 J e The orbit must be over the equator.
  
    
2 × 3.85 × 1 0 8
f An orbit this high above the Earth’s
2 a surface can “see” about 1/3 of the
Orbital / Orbital speed /
Planet surface of the Earth. This makes a
Radius Gm kms  −1
satellite in such an orbit ideal for
Mercury 58 48
telecommunications or for large scale
Venus 108 35 meteorological observations.
Earth 150 30
4 a Using Kepler’s third law:
Mars 228 24 _
√
  GM2  T  2  =
3
R=_
Jupiter 779 13 4π 
___________________________________
Saturn 1434 10
√
3 6.67 × 10  −11 × 2 × 10  30
_________________
      
     × (25 × 24 × 60 × 60)  2  =
Uranus 2873 7 4 π 
2
Neptune 4495 5 2.5 × 10  10 m

(Interestingly, this is nearly 36 solar radii
b 60 away from the centre of the Sun.)
Orbital speed / kms–1
50 b This would be inside the orbit of Mercury.

40
2π × 6400 + 420 × 10  ( )
 2πR
3
30 5 a v = _ T
__________________
  =          =
93 × 60
20 7.68 kms  −1 = 7.7 kms  −1 (2 s.f.)
10 v    =   
2 (7.68 × 10  3)  2
b g =  _
R
______________
    
( )
  = 8.65 Nkg  −1 =
0 6400 + 420 × 10 
3
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 8.7 Nkg  −1

Orbital radius / Gm
  vR    ⇒ M = _
M   = _  Rv   =
2 2
c g = G  _ G
c First, take data from the graph and draw
2
R 
(
6820 × 10  × 7.68 × 10   
___________________3 3) 2
a new graph of v  2 against 1/R.          = 6.0 × 10  24 kg
6.67 × 10 
−11

This will give a straight line through the d The total energy of the ISS is
origin showing that v  2 ∝ 1/R. M 
M 
= −G  _
Etotal Earth
 
ISS
= −6.67 × 10  −11 ×
2R
The gradient of this graph will be GM.
  6 ×  10  24 × 4.2 × 1 
_______________
   0  5 = −1.2 × 10  13 J.
2 × 6820 × 10 3
Divide the gradient by G to give M.
So to escape the Earth’s gravitational
field, the ISS will require 1.2 × 10  13 J.
6 a total energy = EP + chemical energy = 8 a The frictional forces will decrease the total
−62.5 MJkg  −1 + 62.5 MJkg  −1= 0 J energy of the satellite.
b i EK will decrease—it is being b Decreasing the total energy
( 2R )
transformed into E P . Gmm
  = − _
Etotal   means that the total
ii EP will become less negative energy becomes more negative.
(i.e. approach zero). This makes the orbital radius of the
iii 0J satellite smaller—the satellite moves
closer to the Earth’s surface.
iv It will escape the Earth’s gravitational
field completely, at which point its EK c Since the orbital speed is given by
_
will be zero.
_____________ √
  GM
v = _ R
  , a smaller value for R means that
v  _1  v  2 = 62.5 MJ ⇒ v = √
  
2 × 62.5 × 1 0 6 
2 the speed of the satellite will increase.
= 1.1 × 10  4 ms  −1 (11 kms  −1)
d
Energy is being transferred from an EP
vi This is called the escape speed. store to a EK store (+ thermal energy, as
vii It would be parabolic. the satellite starts to heat up).
c Now, the total energy of the rocket is less e The rate at which EP is being transferred
than zero, so it cannot escape the Earth’s is increasing.
gravitational field. It will travel upwards f The increased heating of the satellite
and then remain in an elliptical orbit may make it burn up before it reaches the
around the Earth. Earth’s surface.
d Now the total energy of the rocket is _
greater than zero. So, it will be able 9 a c = _ √
  2GM
R
2GM
   ⇒ R =  _2
  =
c 
to leave the Earth’s gravitational field   2 × 6.67 × 10   
−11
× 2.4  
__________________________
    × 2.0 × 10 30 =
completely and keep moving away. Its ( 3 × 10  8)   2
trajectory will now be hyperbolic. 7.1 × 10  3m (7.1 km)
7 a The gravitational potential energy of a b The actual size of the black hole will
unit mass at the surface of the body be smaller than this. The value of the
M .
is −G  _ gravitational field strength at the surface
R of the black hole will be too great to allow
M 
If this unit mass were given EK of G  _
R radiation to leave, but the field strength
then it would be able _
to escape to infinity. reduces with distance, so there will be a
distance at which the gravitational field
 _1  vesc
2
M  ⇒ v  = _
  2   = G  _
R esc √
  2GM
R
  
strength is just strong enough to prevent
_
radiation from escaping. At any distance
  2GM
  = _
b From vesc R √
  , and given vesc
  = c, then
greater than this, radiation can escape.
2GM
R =  _  .
c  2 c The Schwarzschild radius
c i R =  _ 2GM   2 × 6.67    × 1 0 −11 ×  
____________________
  =    2 × 10  30 =
c  2 ( 3 × 10  8)   2
2.96 × 10  3 m ≈ 3 km
 2GM
ii R = _   2 × 6.67   × 1 0 −11 ×  
____________________
  =    6 × 10  24 =
1 B [1]
c  2 (3 × 10  8)  2
8.89 × 10  −3 m ≈ 9 mm 2 B [1]
iii R = _ 2GM   = 3 C [1]
c  2
  2 × 6.67 × 1 0  × 21.2  × 2 × 10 30 =
−11
_________________________
       4 A [1]
( 3 × 10  8)   2
6.28 × 10  4 m ≈ 63 km 5 B [1]
d A black hole 6 C [1]
7 B [1] 20 a The gravitational force [1] acting on

a unit mass. [1]
8 D [1]
N   = _ kg m 
2
b   _   J   =   _2  =   _
m  [1]
9 B [1] kg m kg m kgs 
2
s 
  ( 6 × 10  6) 2  =

M   = 6.67 × 10  −11 × _ 24
10 D [1] c g = G  _2
R  6.4 × 10   
11 C [1] 9.8 Nkg  −1 [2]
12 D [1] 21 a First law: Planets orbit the Sun in
elliptical paths with the Sun at
13 D [1] one focus. [1]
14 A [1] Second law: Planets sweep out equal
15 B [1] areas in equal times. [1]
16 C [1] Third law: R  3 ∝ T  2, where R is the

orbital radius and T is the
17 D [1] orbital period. [1]
b Mm , so as the comet
i F = −G  _
Short-answer questions R  2
approaches the Sun, R decreases
18 a Either: The gravitational force between and the gravitational force increases,
two point masses is proportional to the accelerating the comet with an
product of their masses and inversely increasing acceleration until it
proportional to the square of reaches its point of closest
their separation. approach (perihelion). [1]
Mm , where M and m are
Or F = −G  _2
R  ii When R is smallest, the distance
the two masses, R is their separation the comet travels in a given
and G is the universal gravitational period must be largest (i.e. its
constant. [2] speed must be greatest) so that
the area swept out by the comet is
Mm  dR =
b E P = −∫  F dR = −∫  −G  _ equal to that when R is very large
2
R  and its speed is small. [1]
Mm
−G  _   [2]
R 22 a i and ii
 
E M  = − 6.67 × 10  −11 ×
c V g = _
  mP = −G  _
R
Not to scale
a and v are mutually
a v perpendicular
  6 × 10  6  = 6.25 × 10  7 Jkg  −1 =
24
_
6.4 × 10 
62.5 MJkg  −1 [2]
[2]
_
19 a It shows that the force between M
and m is attractive. [1]
4π  2 R  3  =
From Kepler’s third law: T =  _
GM
_____________________________
√
√_________________
4π  2
a=_
b   m Mm  = −G  _
F   = −G  _ M   [1]     
     × (6.8 × 10  )    = 6 3
2
R  m
2
R  6.67 × 10  × 6 × 10 
−11 24
_
5.57 × 10  3s (about 93 minutes) [3]
 vR    = G  _
M   ⇒ v = G  _
√
M  
2
a=_
c R
[2] _
2
R 
_ _____________________
M   =
Alternatively: v = G  _
R √
√ √
M   = 6.67   2 × 10  11   
30
d v = G  _    × 10  −11 × _ ____________________
R 1.5 × 10 
√     6 × 10     = 7.67 × 10  ms 
24
6.67 × 10  × _ −11 3 −1

6.8 × 10  6
= 2.98 × 10  4 ms  −1 ≈ 30 kms  −1 [1]
 2πR
and T = _ 2π × 6.8 × 1 
___________ 0  = 5.57 × 10 3 s. 6
v  =   3
7.67 × 10 
23 a R3 against T 2 b The escape speed of a body is

_
800
700
vesc √   2GM
  = _ R
  . [1]
y = 3.221x   =
For the Sun, this is vesc
R3 (× 1025)/m3
600
____________________
500
√ 2 × 6.67 ×  
10  ×  .
2 × 10 
−11 30
____________________
  
   
400 7 × 10 
8
300 = 6.17 × 10  ms  (620 kms  2 s.f.)

5 −1 −1
[1]
200
Since this is more than the initial speed
100 of the solar wind, the solar wind
0 particles will not be able to escape
0 50 100 150 200 250
the solar system. [1]
T 2/(× 1010) s2
26 a The work done, per unit mass, in moving
• Axes [1] a body from infinity to where it is in the
• Correct points [1] gravitational field. [1]
b M 
Gravitational potential = −G  _
• Straight line [1] R
  M
For Jupiter, _ 318  = 28.4times that for
  =  _
 R2  =
3
b The gradient of this graph is _ R 11.2
T 
GM  = 3.221 × 10  15 m  3s  −2
 _ [1] the Earth.
4π 
2
Therefore, for Jupiter, Vg  =

 4Gπ    ×3.221 × 10  15 =
2
So, M = _
28.4 × 62.5 MJkg  −1 = −1775 MJkg  −1 ≈
_
  4π  2  ×3.221 × 10  15 =
6.67 × 10  −11
− 1.8 GJkg  −1. [2]
_
1.91 × 10  27 kg. [1]   2GM
c Escape speed = _
____________
R
   = √
 2πR
24 a v = _ 2π × 4.2 × 1 0   =
  =  ___________
8
√  2 × 1.8 × 10    = 6 × 10  4 ms  −1
9
T 42 × 60 × 60
( = 60 kms  −1) [2]
17.46 kms  −1 = 17 kms  −1 (2 s.f.) [1]
27 a The gravitational force between the
( 3) 2
  17.46 × 10 8 
 vR    = ___________  
2
b g = _ = 0.73 Nkg  −1 [2] satellite and the Earth. [1]
4.2 × 10  _
M   ⇒ M = _
c |g| = G  _2 G
R 
  0.73  
gR  2
× 4.2 × 10   
_______________
    =    −11
 
(
6.67 × 10 
8) 2
r
GME  m
mv   =  _
b  _
2
  ⇒ v = _
r  2
√
GM 
  r  E [2]
= 1.93 × 10  27kg ≈ 1.9 × 1 0 27 kg. [2] _
25 a The speed of a body that will allow  2πr

c v = _ T
  ⇒ _
  4π  2r   3 = G M  ⇒ r = 3 _
T 
2 E
 √G ME  T  2
   =
4 π  2
it to escape from the gravitational _____________________________
field it is in so that when it reaches
√   
6.67 × 10  × 6 × 10  × (24 × 60 × 60) 
3 −11 24 2
____________________________
           =
an infinite distance [1] away, 4π  2
its kinetic energy will be zero. [1] 4.2 × 10  7 m [2] (This is about six
Earth radii from the Earth’s surface.)
Chapter 18
Workbook answers
Exercise 18.1 ii F = k  _
30
2
× 1

Qq
  = 9 × 10  9 ×
r 
0 
_______________
      
−6
× 20 ×  10  −6 = 2 × 10  5N (1 s.f.)
1 a i ( 5 × 10  −3)   2
Chapter 1 Y (Note that the positive value shows
this is a repulsive force.)
Test Your ZUnderstanding Modern scientific controversies include:
Qq
iii F = k  _   = 9 × 10  9 ×
• the idea that increasing r  2 concentrations of
• You should be familiar with some of the − 1.6 ×   1in 0  −19the
× 1.6 × 10  −19 = are causing
structures seen in cells from work  ___________________
carbon dioxide
   atmosphere
X done at global warming −8
(100 × 10  )  2 −12
GCSE. Figures 1.4 and 1.5 will refresh your −2.3 × 10  N
memory of cell structure. • the controversy about whether the measles,
Qq
mumps and
iv F k  _
= rubella   = 9(MMR) × 10  9 ×vaccine can
r  2
increase the 6.4 ×risk of × autism (but =scientists are
found in the sections ‘Features that animal 10   
___________________
   
−19
1.26   × 10 −17
8.1 × 10  3 N
∝_   12 ,have now agreed that (3 there × 10  −15is
)  2no link between the
and ii F
plant cells r 
where is the distance
in rcommon’ and between
MMR vaccine Qq and autism).
‘Differences between
the two animal and plant cells’
charges. 3 a F = k  _   = 9 × 10  9 × _______________ 50 × 1  
    0  −3 × 20 × 10  −3 =
r 
2
2 × 10  ( −3) 2
 
on pp 0–0.
b i F is towards B (because the charges
2.3 × 10  12 N (2 s.f.)
• As well asareFigures
opposite). 1.4 and 1.5, you will
find relevant information in the section 1 The sign of the force is positive, so the
ii Yes,between
‘Differences sphere Banimalexperiences the same
and plant cells’ force
Structures thatisanimal
repulsive.
and plant cells have in
on pp 0–0.sized force, but in the direction common: Qq
towards A.   − 50 ×  
b F = k  _  = 9 × 10  9 ×    10  −3 × 20 ×
________________ 10  −3
 
• Yes. There are organisms other than animals r   2 (2 × 10  −3)  2
• nucleus with nucleolus
= −2.3 × 1and chromatin
0  12 N
and iii
plants. They are
Newton’s classified
third law. in different • cytoplasm containing mitochondria, Golgi
kingdoms which you will learn about later. The sign of the force is negative, so the
2 a i F ∝ of q organism include fungi, a apparatus and other small structures
Other types force is attractive.
group ofFmainly • cell surface membrane.
ii ∝ Q unicellular organisms called c A positive force is repulsive, and a
protoctists, bacteria and viruses. Structures found force only in
iii F∝_   12  negative is plant cells:
attractive.
Science in context
( r  2  )
r  • chloroplasts Q  q Q  q Q1  Q2 
b i Coulomb’s law: the electrical force 4 a F = k ___
  12 − k ___   22 = kq   __ __
2   −   2  =
• large, permanent
r     central
r     vacuole
r    
Two obviousbetween
examplestwo
are:charged particles, q  1 2 1
1 × (________
(2 × 10  −2)  2 and(2 × 10  −2)  2)
1
9 × 1with
0  9 × middle 12
  lamella × 1
0  −6
  − ________   × 1 0    =
−12 −6
and Wallace’s
q2  , separated by aofdistance, r, is • cell wall
a Darwin and theory evolution
proportional to highly
the product of their plasmodesmata.
by natural selection was controversial 5.4 × 10  8 N towards the − 12 μC charge.
charges
because it appeared andto
inversely proportional
be in conflict with theto Structure found only in animal cells:
( r  1  r  2  )
Q  q Q  q Q  Q 
religiousthe square
belief thatof
Godtheir separation,
created r. of
all species b F = k ___
• centriole   12 − k ___
r  1 
  22 = kq   __21 −   __22 =
r  2 
living things andq1  q2 that

_  , humans were a special
9 × 10  9 × 1 × (________ −2 2 )
ii F = k  
  36 × 1−2
0    +   ________
−4 × 10    = 0 N.
−6 −6
creation. r  2 2 (6 × 10  ) 
2
(2 × 10  ) 
where k is Coulomb’s constant
b Galileo was placed under house arrest for the • c
use aSince
sharpthis
pencil
is a Pythagoras triangle:
=_ 1   = 9 × 10  9 Nm  2 C  −2
( r  2  )
(klife
rest of his   after
4π εo  putting forward the idea • don’tFuse Q  q
= kshading/don’t
___
  12 − k ___
Q  q
  22 = draw
Q
kq   __the   nucleus
Q2 
__ as a
2 −   2 =
1
that Earth and

in air or the inother planets
a vacuum ), q1  orbited
and q2  the solid blob 1
r    
r   2
 
r   1
 
5( −2 2 )
Sun rather than the Earth
are the charges on two charged being at the centre 3 ________
  __   4 × 10 −2 2  −  ________
−6
− 4 × 10  −6  =
• don’t9 cross
× 10  9label
× 1 ×lines
(5 × 10  )  (5 × 10  ) 
of the solar
particles and r is the separation ofto
system. Again, this appeared
contradict
thethe religious
charged beliefs of the time.
particles. • don’t use arrow heads on label lines
1.7 × 10  7 N vertically upwards. (2 s.f.)
Other • use a ruler to draw label lines
c examples
i F =include:
Qq
k  _  = 9 × 10  9 × d This is also a Pythagoras triangle, so,
r   2
• Einstein’s________________
theory −9 of general
10  −9relativity
= −1.0 ×(which • make outline of cells less sketchy - lines should
( r  2  )
50 × 1
0  × − 20 ×  Q 1 q Q 2 q Q
       10  −4 N F = k   ____ k   ____ ___ 1 −   Q
___ 2 =
challenged our ( 30ideas × 10  −2of
)   2 the link between space be continuous, 2 −
not broken 2 = kq  
r  1  r  2  2
r  1 
2
and time)(Note that the minus sign is showing

as the label line 5 ( (5 × 10  −2)  2 (5 × 10  −2)  2)
• write labels9 horizontally, not−6at the− 4same angle
  4 × 10    − ________
4 ________   × 10    =
−6
this is an of
attractive force.) 9 × 10  × 1 ×   __
• Wegener’s theory continental drift (which
was controversial because scientists could not • interpret
2.3 ×what
10  7 Nishorizontally
seen. For example, outlines
to the right (2 s.f.)
5 a Electric field strength: the force that acts iii

on a unit positive test charge in the field.
b E has units of NC  −1.
x
c  Fq 
E=_ –q –q
Q 6 × 1.6 × 10    = −19
6 a E = k  _2  = 9 × 10  9 × ___________
   ( −10) 2
r  7 × 10   
1.8 × 10  10 NC  −1
b
F = E q = 1.8 × 10  10 × −1.6 × 10  −19 =
−2.9 × 10  −9 N iv The arrows would point outwards,
not inwards.
  2.9 × 10 −31  = 3.2 × 10  21 ms  −2
F   = _ −9
a=_
c  m
9.1 × 10 
b
7 a and b
+q –q
P
δQ2 1
2
δQ1 c i No
ii The electric field strength is large
when the electric field lines are
close together.
c For each section, dQ 1, the opposite 10 a i Electrons have been removed from the
section, dQ 2, would have an opposite top plate, leaving it positively charged.
contribution to the total electric field ii Electrons have been added to
strength at P. This suggests that the total the bottom plate, making it
field strength at the centre of the sphere negatively charged.
would be zero.
b Both plates are made from metallic
d All opposing sections of charge on the conductors. Metallic conductors contain a
surface of the sphere would create a total large number of free electrons. These free
field strength at P of zero. Therefore, electrons can move freely around. They
the electric field strength inside a hollow will arrange themselves equally spaced
sphere is zero in all places. apart, which will make the density of
8 Using the same arguments for small charged charge constant across the plate.
volumes within the inside of the sphere, we c 1111111111111111111111111
can conclude that the electric field strength
inside a solid charged sphere is also zero. A
(This assumes that the density of charge is the
same throughout the sphere.) B
C
9 a i Zero 2222222222222222222222222222222
ii No.
d Within the region between the two plates, c More current means that the magnetic
the electric field lines are equally field around the wire will be stronger. To
spaced. This shows a uniform electric show this, the diagram should have more
field strength. field lines, and these field lines will be
closer together.
e Since the electric field strength is uniform,
the size (_
   )and direction (vertically
Vq B ∝ I
d
d
downwards) of the force on the charge, q, e B ∝  _1r , where r is the radial distance from
will be the same at points, A, B and C. the wire.
f i work done = Fd 3 a Tesla
  120 × 10  −2
I  = 4π × 10  −7 × ____________   =
−3
ii work done = Vq b i B = μo   _
2πr 2π × 5 × 10 
Vq V 
F  =  _  =  _
Fd = Vq ∴ E =  _
iii q 4.8 × 10  −7 T
dq d
o   _
ii B = μ   2
I  = 4π × 10  −7 × ____________   =
Exercise 18.2 2πr 2π × 8 × 10 −2
5.0 × 10  T−6
1 0.5
I   = 4π × 10  −7 × ___________
o   _
iii B = μ     =
2πr 2π × 25 × 10 −2
4.0 × 10  T−7
4 a
N S
S N S N
b i Out of the page—towards your eye.

ii Replace the small point inside the
2 a
circle with a cross (X). This would
show the current flowing into the
page, away from your eye.
c i
N S
b Use the right-hand grip rule: point the ii A catapult field.

thumb in the direction of the current and
iii The effect of this catapult field is to
allow the fingers to naturally curl. The
exert a force on the conductor (in this
direction in which the fingers curl shows
case in the upwards direction).
the direction of the magnetic field lines.
iv Fleming’s left-hand rule: point
Alternatively, if a plotting compass is
your first finger ahead, then point
placed in several positions around the
your thumb and your second finger
wire it will align itself to the magnetic
perpendicular to the first finger.
field and show the direction of the force
The first finger represents the field,
on the north pole of the compass; this will
the second finger represents the
be the magnetic field direction.
current and the thumb represents
the force on the conductor.
v The force can be made larger by using 9 a The two wires would move towards each
stronger magnets, a larger current other. Each wire produces a magnetic field
in the conductor, or a longer length that interacts with the current flowing in
of the conductor in the catapult the other wire to produce a catapult force.
field. (Also, make sure that the angle The direction of these two catapult forces
between the conductor carrying the is such that each wire experiences a force
current and the magnetic field of the acting towards the other wire.
two magnets is a right angle.)
b With opposite currents, the two catapult
5 F = B I l sin θ
a forces exert a force on each wire away
from the other wire. The two wires move
b i F = B I l sin θ = 4 × 10  −5 × 250 × 10  −3 × away from each other.
5 × 10  −2× sin 90° = 5 × 10 
−7 N
c The SI unit of current, the ampere, is
ii F = B I l sin θ = 4 × 10  −5 × defined by the force experienced by each
250 × 10  −3 × 5 × 10  −2× sin 30° = wire due to the currents flowing in the
2.5 × 10  −7 N two wires:
6 B is defined using the equation F = B I l sin θ An ampere is that constant current that
⇒B=_  F ; for θ = 90°, the force exerted on a flows in two infinitely long, straight,
Il
1-m length of the conductor carrying a 1 A parallel conductors, of negligible cross
current perpendicular to the magnetic field. section, 1 m apart in a vacuum, such that
7 If the catapult force is sufficient to balance the force experienced by each wire is 2 ×
out the weight of the wire then the wire will be 10  −7N per metre length of the wire.
suspended in mid-air. 10 a
So, B I l = mg, where m = πr  lρ. 2
πr  2lρg ( −3) 2

So, I = _
    π × 1.0 × 10    
  = ______________________
      × 8900 × 9.8
  = I I
Bl 0.2
1.4 A (2 s.f.)
8 a i I  
B = μo   _
2πr
ii B will be directed into the page.
b F = B I l (sin θ = 1)
i
I  l  
I   × I l = μ   _ 2 b i   N .
B would be larger: B ∝ _
F = B I l = μo   _
ii l
2πr o 2πr
ii B would be larger: B ∝ I.
iii Using Fleming’s left-hand rule, the
force on the second wire will be iii No change to B
directed leftwards, towards the NI 
first wire. B = μo   _
c
l
NI 150 × 30 × 1 
o     = 4π × 10  −7 × ___________
11 a B = μ _     0 −3 =
c The magnetic field caused by the current l 20 × 10  −2
I   and will
in the second wire is B = μo   _ 2.8 × 10  −5 T
2πr
be directed out of the page on the second b At the edge of the solenoid, the field is
wire’s left-hand side (where the first half the strength of the field in the centre.
wire is.) So, the force on the first wire
I  2l  and will, again So, B = 1.4 × 10  −5T at the edge.
will be F = B I l = μo   _
2πr
using Fleming’s left-hand rule, be directed 12 a   vl  
t=_
towards the right, towards the second q
I = _
b   t 
wire. So the two forces experienced by the q q
two current-carrying wires are equal in c F = BIl = B _   t  l = B _
  l   l = Bqv
(_  v )
magnitude and opposite in direction, as
d The force depends on the perpendicular
Newton’s third law states.
component of the charged particle’s
velocity, so F = Bqvsin θ.
13 a
F = B q v = 0.5 × 1.6 × 10 
−19 × 2 × 10  6 = h It has more energy. (Since we have done
1.6 × 10  N
−13
work on the test charge—and that work
hasn’t been transferred into kinetic
b The direction of the force is perpendicular energy—then the work must have been
to the velocity, v, and perpendicular to the transferred into electrical potential energy.)
magnetic field, B.
i The electrical force from electric field
c The electron will follow a circular path. caused by the point charge will push the
14 a Both paths will be circular. test charge away from Q and the test
charge will lose its E Puntil it is once again
b The paths will differ because an infinite distance away from Q (where
• the proton’s path will be in the its EP  will be zero).
opposite direction to that of the j Now we will have to do q times the work;
electron (because their charges are Qq
that is k _
  r .
opposite, so the force acting on them
Q
will be opposite) and k i V e = k  _
r 
Qq
• the proton’s path will have a much ii E P = k  _
r 
larger radius (by a factor of about
1800, because the mass of the proton l i Volts, V—or Joules per Coulomb
is this much larger, meaning that its (1 V ≡ 1 JC  −1)
acceleration—and hence how much it ii Joules, J
curves—is much less).
2 a E = Vq = 50 × 1 = 50 J
Exercise 18.3 b E = Vq = 10 × 1 = 10 J
Q
1 E = k  _2 
a c Work done = qΔV = 1 × (50 − 10) = 40 J
r 
b E will be zero. d No. The path does not matter, only the
start and end points matter.
c From Coulomb’s law, the force is inversely
proportional to the radial distance, r, 3 a An electrical equipotential is a line or
away. So, as we move towards the surface on which the electrical potential is
point charge the force we need to the same at all places.
apply increases.
b i Zero. X and Y are on an equipoten
d We have to do more and more work, in tial, so no work is required to move
increasing increments, as we approach the along from X to Y.
point charge.
ii
E = q ΔV = 4 × 10  −6× (12 − 3) =
e The work we would do is given by the 3.6 × 10  −5 J
area under the graph of E against r.
iii 3.6 × 10  −5 J
f Work done = area under graph =
Q Q c i No.
− ∫Edr = − ∫k _2 dr = k _
  r 
r 
ii No.
Note that the minus sign shows that the
force we have to apply to the unit test 4 a
charge is in the opposite direction to the
force exerted by the point charge on the
unit test charge.
g This work done will be the electrical
potential at a radial distance r from the
point charge, Q.
b The potential varies inversely with Field lines have arrows to show the
increasing distance from the surface of direction of the field. Equipotentials
the sphere. have no direction, since potential is a
scalar quantity.
c
c The electric field strength is greatest where
the equipotentials are closest together.
8 a ΔV = kQ (   r1    ) = 9 × 10  9 × 6 × 10  −3
  r1    − _
_
1 2
(  5 × 10  −2  −   10 × 10  −2 )= 5.4 × 10  V

_ 1 _ 1 8
b
E = q ΔV = 2.0 × 10  −6 × 5.4 × 10  8= 1.1 kJ
c Since the force acting on it will be to repel
it from the 6-mC charge, the 2.0-μC
charge will be repelled, and it will
accelerate radially away.
d When the electric field strength is large, kQe
the equipotentials are close together. 9 F =  _
a  
2
r 
When the electric field strength is small, m v   kQe kQe
  1  mv  2 = _
2
b   r  =  _
_   ⇒ _    
the equipotentials are far apart. r  2 2 2r
kQe
c E K of electron = _     and EP  of the
e The equipotentials and the field lines are kQe 2r
perpendicular to each other. electron = − _   r  because the electron’s
charge, e, is negative.
5 a and b kQe kQe kQe
  = _
So, Etotal     −  _ _
r = −   2r , which is
2r
less than zero.
kQe ( −19) 2
+ +   9  
× 10  × 1.6 × 10   
9
d r = −  ___________
   ( )
  = _________________
    
2 × − 13.6 eV 2 × 13.6 × 1.6 × 10 
−19
= 5.3 × 10  −11 m

10 a Decreased
c The electric field strength is smallest where b The total energy of the electron is now
the equipotentials are farthest apart. more negative than it had been. This
6 a and b means that it must be in an orbit that is
closer to the nucleus. So, its kinetic energy
has increased, since its E K is inversely
+ proportional to r.
c The EP  of the electron has become
more negative.
d Closer
negatively charged plate 11 a F=Eq

b E P = q Ve 
7 a and b
dV 
E = −  _ e
c
dr
d (EP  )
F = −  _
d  
dr
+ –
12 14 a 100   = 500 Vm  −1

V  =  _
E =  _ [2]
Force, F
Ep = 2# F dR
potential energy, EP
−2
d 20 × 10 
Qq
b −6 =
F = Eq = 500 × 6 × 10 
Qq
F=k
r2
F=2
d(EP)
Ep = k r 3 × 10  N
−3
[1]
dr
c Work done = qΔV = 6 × 10  −6 ×

E=
F
F = Eq EP = qVe Ve =
Ep (100 − 0) = 6 × 10 −4 J [2]
q q
Qq ( −19) 2
15 a F = k  _   ( 1.6 × 10  −11)   2  =
  = 9 × 10  9 × ___________
r  2 5.3 × 10   
Ve = 2# E dr 8.2 × 10  −8 N [2]
Field strength, E Potential, Ve
 8.2 × 10 −31   = 9.0 × 10  22 ms  −2

F   = _ −8
b a = _
  m [1]
E=k
Q
d(Ve)
Ve = k
Q
r
9.1 _____________________
× 10 
r2
E=2 _
dr
ar = √
c v = √ 9.0
   × 10  × 5.3 × 10   
22 −11
= 2.2 × 10  6 ms  −1 ( 2s.f.) [2]

Exam-style questions 16 a The left-hand point charge exerts
Q
Multiple-choice questions a force F = k  _2  to the right on the
r 
1 B [1] unit test charge. [1]
2 A [1] The right-hand point charge exerts a

Q
force F = k  _2  to the left on the unit test
3 B [1] r 
charge. So the sum of these two
4 A [1] forces is zero. [1]
5 D [1] b Since V  eis a scalar quantity,
6 C [1] the net electrical potential at
the position of the unit charge
7 B [1] Q
is Ve,  net = 2 k  _
r . [1]
8 A [1] c Suppose the test charge is displaced
9 A [1] to the left. The net force on it will
now be greater than zero and directed
10 D [1] towards to the right, making the
test charge accelerate to the right. [1]
11 C [1]
Similarly, if the test charge is displaced
12 D [1] to the right, the net force on it will now
be greater than zero and directed to the
Short-answer questions left, making the test charge accelerate
13 a E = _ 300   =
 V  =  _ towards the left. [1] This is rather like
d −3
30 × 10 
simple harmonic motion. This will
1.0 × 10  4 Vm  −1 [2]
result in the test charge undergoing a
b 300 V periodic oscillatory motion about the
position equally distant from the two
point charges. [1]
o   _
17 a B = μ 20 × 50 × 10 
NI = 4π × 10  −7 ×  ___________   =
−3
30 mm l −2
10 × 10 
1.3 × 10  −5 T (2 s.f.) [2]
b The magnetic flux density at the
[1] two ends of the solenoid will
be half the value at the centre. [1]
c
F = Eq = 1.0 × 10  4 × 1.6 × 10  −19
= 1.6 × 10  −15 N [1]
d Towards the top plate [1]
c Each pair of turns of the solenoid 19 a An inverse-square law is a law

is behaving like a pair of parallel  k2  , [1], where k is a
where Y = _
X 
conductors, each with identical constant (i.e. if X doubles in value,
currents. [1] Each turn of the
then Y becomes __   1  of the value). [1]
solenoid then experiences a force 4
due to the turn next to it in the b Since Y =  _k  , then YX  2 = k.
X  2
direction towards the next turn. So, if pairs of values Y and
In this way, all the turns of the X  2are multiplied together, they
solenoid are forced closer together. [1] should all come to the same
18 a 2 × 10  −5 N [1] (From the definition of B) constant, k. [1]
b N = nAl = 8.4 × 1 0 28 × 1 × 10  −6× 1 = c 302 × 2  2 = 1208, 72 × 4  2 = 1216,
8.4 × 10  22 electons [2] 34 × 6  2 = 1224, 19 × 8  2 = 1216, 12 × 10  2 =
1200, 8 × 12  2 = 1152.
c   = NBqv = 8.4 × 10 22 × 2 × 10  −5 ×
Ftotal
So, to two significant figures, all these give
1.6 × 10  −19 × 7.44 × 10  −5
k = 1200. This confirms that X and Y are
= 2.0 × 10  −5 N– the same as part a) [2]
related by an inverse-square law.
Alternatively, this could be answered
algebraically:
In part a, F = BIl
In part c, F = NBqv = nAlBqv and
I = nAqv so F = BIlas given by a) [2]
Chapter 19
Exercise 19.1 3 If the electron is to pass through the plates,
its vertical distance travelled must be less than
1 a i  V  = _
E = _   12 −2  = 300 Vm  −1 2.5 cm. So,
d 4 × 10 
s = _  eV   =   
 1  at 2 with a = _ 1.6 × 10  × 6   =
−19
________________
    
qV
F   = _   4 × 10  −3  × 300
−3
ii a = _
  m     = _ 2 dm 5 × 10  × 9.1 × 10 
−2 −31
md 1.5 × 10 
= 800 ms  −1 2.1 × 10  ms  and t = _
13 −2
  30 cm−1  = 5 × 10  −8 s
6 Mms 
_
 1  at  2, t = √
iii From s = _ _  2s  1  × 2.1 × 10  13 × (5 × 10  −8)  2= 2.625 cm.
∴ s = _
2 a   = 2
___________
This is greater than 2.5 cm. So, the electron
√ 2 × 4 ×    = 1.0 × 10  −2 s
1
0 
−2
  ___________
800 cannot pass through the two plates; it will hit
iv v = at = 800 × 1 × 10 −2 = 8.0 ms  −1 the top plate just before it exits the electric
field between the two plates.
  1  mv 2 = _
v E K = _   1  × 1.5 × 10  −3 × 8  2
2 2
4 a to c
= 48 mJ
b work done =
i qV = 4 × 10 −3× 12 q
= 48 mJ
50q
ii The two answers are the same.
The work done by the electric field
transfers to kinetic energy gained by
the charged particle. The closer the q charge is to the 50q
charge, the larger the electrical repulsive
2 a v hwill not be affected by the electric force becomes. This means that the
field. Since the electric field can only acceleration of the q charge will be
exert a force on the charged particle in larger. Larger acceleration means a larger
the vertical direction, the horizontal deflection from its original path.
component of the particle’s velocity will
remain constant. d Yes; it should! This is very similar to what
Lord Rutherford did (with Geiger and
b Vertically downwards Marsden in 1909) in bombarding
F  t = _ Eq the nuclei of gold atoms with alpha
c v v = at = _
 m   m t
____________ particles in order to explore the structure
_______ of the atom.
√
v = √vh  2  + vv  2    = vh  2  + (   m t)   
2
Eq
d _
s=(   m t  2)
Eq e As the q charge approaches the 50q
e   1  _
vh  t, _ charge, its E K is transferred to electrical
2
f Since the expression in part e is that of a potential energy, E P. As the q charge then
parabola, the trajectory will be parabolic. recedes from the 50q charge, its E P is
transferred back to E K.
g Both examples will have a trajectory that
is parabolic, because in both cases the f This is the distance of closest approach.
acceleration of the body is in the vertical g i Smaller initial EK  means that the
direction only, leaving the horizontal deflection of the q charge will be
component of the velocity unchanged greater—and it will occur at larger
throughout. For the electric field case, distances from the 50q charge.
Eq
the acceleration of the particle is a =  _
m 
downwards, and for the gravitational field ii Larger initial EK  will decrease the
case, the acceleration is g downwards, deflection caused by the electrical
both of which are independent of the repulsion from the 50q charge.
initial velocity of the particle. Also, the distance of closest approach
will become smaller—there will be
more EK  to transfer to E P, hence a
smaller distance from the 50q charge.
Qq
5 EK  → EP  so k _
  r = EK  3 a qV
Qq 1.12 × 1  
0  −18 × 1.6  
× 10  −19 =
r = k  _
∴ EK 
____________________
  = 9 × 10  9 ×     b A circular path
1.6 × 10  −14
1.0 × 10  −13 m c It will accelerate towards the left-hand
semi-circle, gaining qV of kinetic energy
Exercise 19.2 so that its total kinetic energy is now 2qV.
Its speed has increased.
1 a F m = Bqv (sin θ = 1)
d It is travelling faster, so its radius of
b i Perpendicular to B circular path will be larger.
ii Perpendicular to v e The charged particle will spiral outwards,
c For a particle to travel in a circular path, because its radius of circular path is
it must have a centripetal force that is increasing each time it moves from one
perpendicular to its velocity. In this case, dee to the other.
the centripetal force is provided by the f i Quite close to the centre of the
magnetic force, F m, which is perpendicular straight edge of one of the dees.
to its velocity, v.
ii Near to the outer part of the straight
d
Fcentripetal
  = _   = F  = Bqv ∴ r = _
 mrv 
2
  mv 
m Bq edge of one of the dees.
e i r increases. g Since the time it takes to make half a
ii r increases. circle is always the same—no matter what
the speed or radius of the particle is—the
iii r decreases. frequency of the alternating supply to
the two dees can remain constant and the
iv r decreases.
charged particle will always arrive at the
2 a i F = Bqv = 4 × 10 −3 × 1.6 × 10  −19 × straight edge of one of the dees as the
5 × 10  6 = 3.2 × 10  −15 N potentials of the two dees swaps over.
ii F = Bqv = 4 × 10 −3 × 1.6 × 10  −19 ×

5 × 10  6 = 3.2 × 10  −15 N
Exercise 19.3
1 a i
N.B. Same force because same charge
but in opposite direction because 2
charge is opposite sign. d V
1
 mv   1.67 × −310  × 5 × 1−19
0    = 13 m
−27 6
b r=_
i Bq
  = _________________
  
4 × 10  × 1.6 × 10 
ii   9.1 × 10  −31 × 5 × 10  6  = 7.1 mm

mv  = ________________
r =  _     qV
Bq 4 × 10  −3 × 1.6 × 10  −19 ii F e = _
   
d
c 2πr  = _
T =  _
i   2π × 136 = 16 μs
v iii The force is upwards and is
5 × 10 
perpendicular to the horizontal
  2π × 7.1 ×61 
2πr  =    0  = 8.9 ns −3
T =  _
ii v
____________ component of the charged particle’s
5 × 10 
velocity, so it cannot alter the
d i Since Fm  ∝ v, if v doubles, so does F m. horizontal speed.
ii Since r ∝ v, if v doubles, so does r. b i F m = Bqv
T depends on the ratio of  _vr , so if both
iii ii The force will have to be in the
double, then the value of T remains downwards direction. So, using
the same. Fleming’s left-hand rule, the magnetic
iv This is an important idea. T
=T = field will have to be directed out of
(2π _ the page—towards one’s eye.
Bq )
mv 
_ 2πr _
  v  =   v   2πm
=_  
Bq
v T is independent of v.
c i Dynamic equilibrium means that 6 C [1]

there are no net forces acting on the
charged particle; that is it will be 7 A [1]
travelling with a constant velocity. 8 B [1]
ii The charged particle will follow a 9 C [1]
straight line horizontally through the
two parallel plates. Short-answer questions
iii The electric and magnetic forces act 10 a i
in opposite directions and cancel each
other out, giving no net force, so
qV Z
 V  .
 _ = Bqv ⇒ B = _

d vd
a-particle X Y
iv The charge, q, of the charged particle
appears in both expressions for
force, both electric and magnetic. Gold nucleus
So, mathematically, the charge cancels
out. In addition, there is no term for ii Y
mass in the expressions for force.
b The alpha-particle slows down as it
2 a The charged particle will now be deflected moves past X towards Y. Its minimum
in the upwards direction. speed is at Y. [1] Then it speeds up
b The charged particle will now be deflected again as it moves towards Z
in the downwards direction. and beyond. [1]
Qq
c The charged particle will now be deflected c F = k _  
2
r 
in the downwards direction. 1.26 × 1   0  × 3.2  −17
× 10 
−19
= 9 × 10  9 × ____________________
   
(2 × 10  −13)  2
d No deflection = 0.91 N [2]
e No deflection 11 a F = Bqv = 4 × 1 0 −6 × 1.6 × 10  −19 ×
3 × 10  6= 1.9 × 10  −18 N [2]
f The charged particle will now be deflected
  1.9 × 10  −27  = 1.1 × 10  9 ms  −2
F   = ___________ −18
in the downwards direction. a=_
b  m [1]
1.67 × 10 
qV
3 The electric force will be Fe = _  80   =
    = q × _   1.67 × −610  × 3 × 1−19
mv  = _________________
c r =  _    0    =
−27 6
d 0.4
200 q. Bq 4 × 10  × 1.6 × 10 
7.8 × 10  3 m ≡ 7.8 km [2]
The magnetic force will be F m = Bqv = 5 ×
10  −6 × q × 4 × 1 0 7= 200 q.   1  mv  2 = _
EK = _
12 a   1  × 6.64 × 10  −27 ×
2 2
(2 × 10  7)  2 = 1.328 × 10  −12 J [1]
Since these two force are equal, and opposite,
the charged particle will pass through the 1.328 × 10    = 8.3 MeV.
This is  ___________
−12
[1]
1.6 × 10 
−13

region undeflected.
b At the closest approach, the
Exam-style questions alpha particle’s E K will be zero,
since all E K transfers to EP  . [1]
Multiple-choice questions Qq Qq
So, k _ K  ⇒ r = k _
  r = E   E    = 9 × 10  9 ×
1 B [1] 1.26 ×  
10  × 3.2 × 
−17
____________________
K
10  = 2.7 × 10  −14 m. [2]
−19
   
1.328 × 10 
−12

2 D [1]
3 C [1]
4 D [1]
5 A [1]
13 a i and ii 14 a Out of the page [1]

qV 3.2 × 10  −19× 50
b F e = _
    = ____________
  
   
d 0.25
Evacuated X
circular tube
= 6.4 × 10  −17 N [2]
F c For undeflected path, F e = Fm  ⇒
F  6.4 × 10  −17
B=_
 qve   = ________________
  
       =
3.2 × 10 
−19
× 2 × 10 
7
Path of protons 1.0 × 10  −5 T. [2]
Velocity must be tangential to circular

path; the force vector must be directed
towards the centre of circular path. [2]
q
  mrv   ⇒ _   2.88 ×−310   
v   = ___________
2 5
b Bqv = _   m  = _
  Br
3 × 10  × 1
= 9.6 × 10  7 Ckg  −1 [2]
(N.B. Look out for unit penalty here!)
c Since the specific charge of an electron
is greater than that of a proton, for the
same values of v and B, r would have to
be smaller [1]—by a factor of
about 1840.
Chapter 20
Exercise 20.1 7 Φ = B A cos θ = 4.87 × 10  −5× 91.4 × 55 ×
N
cos 24° = 0.22 Wb
1 a The needle on the galvanometer will kick
8 ε is the induced emf (measured in
a
to one side of the scale and then return
to zero.   d   is the operator that signifies the
volts), _
dt
rate of change, N is the number of turns
b The needle on the galvanometer will of the conductor and Φis the magnetic
kick to the other side of the scale (same flux associated with the conductor
amount as before) and then return to zero. (measured in webers).
d Φ
( )
c The needle will not move. b ε ∝ N  _   and Φ = BA,
dt
d The needle will kick farther. so ε ∝ N(B  _
dA  + A  _
)
dB  .
dt dt
e The needle will not move. c An emf can be induced by changing A;
this usually means moving something so
2 a Towards the left (Fleming’s left-hand rule)
that an area A is swept out in 1 s. Or, an
b The left-hand side of the conductor will emf can be induced by changing B; this
have a build-up of electrons, making it usually means producing a magnetic field
negatively charged. The right-hand side using an electromagnet and changing the
of the conductor will have lost some of its strength of the electromagnet by changing
electrons, making it positively charged. the current flowing in it.
c Yes, there will be an electric field across 9 a The moving wire sweeps out an area, A,
the conductor because one end of the per second. This induces an emf in the
conductor is negatively charged and the wire, according to Faraday’s law. Since the
other end is positively charged. wire is connected to a galvanometer, there
is a complete electrical circuit and so the
d In equilibrium, the electrical force acting induced emf causes a current to flow.
on each electron is the same magnitude as
the magnetic force acting on each electron b The kinetic energy of the moving wire.
but in the opposite direction.
c Since the wire has lost kinetic energy, the
e   ΔVe
FE  + Fm  = 0 ⇒ _   = Bev ⇒ ΔV = Blv speed of the wire must be reduced.
l
3 ε = Blv = 4.0 × 10  × 12 × 10  −2 × 2.0
−2 10 a Lenz’s law: the direction of the induced
= 9.6 × 10  −3= 9.6 mV emf is such that its effect will be to oppose
the flux change that caused it.
4 ε = Blv= 0.14 × 5 × 10  −2 × 60 × 10  −2
= 4.2 × 10  = 4.2 mV
−3 b Conservation of energy
5 ε = Blv sin θ ⇒ θ = sin  −1( _ )
ε   11 a There is an induced emf in the coil, which
Blv
causes a current to flow.
= sin  −1(  
0.3 × 25 × 10 −2× 1.5 )
     97 × 10  −3
________________   = 60° (2 s.f.)
b Lenz’s law states that the direction of the
6 agnetic flux, Φ
M , is the product of the induced emf (and hence the direction
magnetic flux density, B, and the perpendicular of the current) is such that its effect will
area through which it passes, A: be to oppose the original flux change.
This means that the left-hand side of
Φ = B A cos θ, where θ is the angle between the coil will have to be a north pole
the perpendicular to the area and the so that it repels the north pole of the
field lines. approaching magnet.
agnetic flux linkage is the product of the
M
magnetic flux and the number of turns of
conductor: NΦ.
12 a When the switch is pressed, the current f For the ring with a cut through it, no
in the coil tries to change from zero to induced current can flow around the ring
its proper value in a very short time. and so no magnetic field is produced by
The changing current during this time the ring. This means no repulsive forces
causes a changing magnetic field in the will occur and the ring will stay where it is.
solenoid. Faraday’s law means that an
induced emf occurs in the solenoid itself. 14 a As the coil moves, it leaves the magnetic
But Lenz’s law tells us that the effect of this field, making the magnetic flux linked
induced emf must be to oppose its cause— to its decrease. So, the induced current
that is to oppose the change from 0 to 10 V. must oppose this decrease and produce a
So, the actual voltage across the solenoid magnetic field that is in the same direction
will be less than 10 V. However, as soon as the one the coil is leaving. Therefore the
as there is a potential difference across the induced current must flow clockwise.
solenoid, the rate of change of flux becomes b In this example the area enclosed by the
less and so the induced emf becomes less, coil is in a plane that is parallel to the
the voltage across the solenoid increases magnetic field from the north pole of the
and so the current flowing through the magnet. This means there is no magnetic
solenoid increases. In this case, after about flux linkage. So, if the coil moves as
100 ms, the voltage across the solenoid will shown, there is no change to the magnetic
be 10 V and the current flowing through the flux linkage, so there is no induced current
solenoid will be 1.0 A. in the coil.
b Twice the number of turns means twice c As the coil rotates, the area it encloses
the induced voltage. So, the trace would that is perpendicular to the magnetic
take twice as much time to rise to 1.0 A. field of the magnet changes. A change in
13 a The iron rod will become magnetised, but the magnetic flux linkage will, therefore,
the direction of the magnetic field in the produce an induced current in the
iron rod will be changing periodically with coil. When the perpendicular area is
the frequency of the supply. increasing, the induced current must
produce a magnetic field that opposes the
b The changing magnetic field around the north pole. When the perpendicular area
aluminium ring will induce an emf in the is decreasing, the induced current must
ring, which will make a current flow in the produce a magnetic field that is in the
ring. However, since the rate of change same direction as the north pole of the
of the magnetic field is changing (because magnet. So, the induced current will be an
the field itself is changing sinusoidally) the alternating current.
induced emf—and hence the current—is
also changing. Exercise 20.2
c The current in the aluminium ring creates 1 a
a magnetic field that opposes the magnetic
field that is causing it. So, two opposing
magnetic fields occur. Time
d The opposing magnetic fields exert a

repulsive force on the ring, which pushes
the ring upwards. flux emf
e The change of magnetic flux experienced Φ = BA sin ωt
b
by the ring is not as great as it had been
when the switch was first pressed. So, the c i Induced emf, current will flow from
opposing magnetic fields do not exert as A to B
large a force on the ring. In fact, the ring
then floats because the upwards force
from the opposing magnetic fields is
balancing the weight of the ring.
V 
ii No induced emf (BC is parallel to 7 a V RMS =  _   18_ = 13 V (2 s.f.)
_o   = _
√ 2 √ 2
the magnetic field, B) but current will
(VRMS
  )  _
2
13  2  = 7.0 W
flow from B to C b   1   _
P=_   =   1   _
2 R 2 12
iii Induced emf, current will flow from 8 a
C to D
iv No induced emf (DA is parallel
to the magnetic field), but current
will flow from D to A, making a
complete circuit.
dΦ = − _ b Alternating current
d i ε = − N  _   d   (BA sin ωt) =
dt dt
−BA ω cos ωt (N = 1) c Iron has a high value of relative
permeability (about 1000) and so is
ii BA𝜔 very receptive to magnetic fields. Iron
is a magnetically soft material, so it will
iii See figure in answer to part a.
magnetise and de-magnetise quickly
iv They are 90° or π/2 out of phase. and easily.
e It is an a.c. generator. d To prevent eddy currents from flowing

in the core. Faraday’s laws state that an
2 induced emf will occur in any conductor
present where there is a changing
Induced emf
magnetic flux. So, there will be an induced

Time
emf in the iron core. Without laminating
(which increases its resistance), this
induced emf would make a current flow,
which wastes energy heating the core.
e The alternating current in the primary
3 a ε ∝ ω, so if ω is doubled, then ε will
coil sets up an alternating magnetic field
double; so, ε = 120 V.
in the iron core. The iron core links the
ε ∝ N, so if N is reduced to 150 from 200
b secondary coil with the primary coil via
 3 ), then ε will now be __
(i.e. it is now __  3 ; so, the changing magnetic flux. Faraday’s law
4 4
ε = 45 V. states that the changing flux induces an
emf in the secondary coil. The value of
4 a Zero the induced emf depends on the number
b Zero of turns on the coils. If the number of
turns on the two coils are different, then
c P = IV = (Io  sin ωt)× ( Eo  sin ωt) the voltage across them will be different.
= Io  Eo  sin  2 ωt
9 a A step-up transformer has more turns on
  1 , the
d Since the average value of sin  2 ωt is __ the secondary coil than on the primary
2
1
__
mean power =   Io  Eo  . coil, so the voltage across the secondary
2
coil is higher than the voltage across the
5 a The RMS value of an alternating current primary coil.
is the value of a direct current that would
have the same power dissipation. b A step-down transformer has more turns
I   on the primary coil than on the secondary
b I  RMS = _
  _o   coil, so the voltage across the secondary
2 
√
_
c V o = VRMS
  × √
2 = 240 × 1.414 = 339 V coil is lower than the voltage across the
primary coil.
6 Paverage
  = Io  Vo  = 600 × 10  −3× 5.0 = 3 W
c An ideal transformer does not waste any
energy (in the form of heat); the power
supplied to the primary coil is the same as
the power delivered by the secondary coil.
d This kind of transformer is called a parity iii An observer would see the plotting
transformer. It is used to isolate the actual compass needle oscillating backwards
power supply from the device that is going and forwards, showing that the
to be used. It is a safety feature. magnetic field was oscillating between
out of the page and into the page.
10 a Step-down transformer
V  N  N  iv Yes. As already established in
b  _ s
  = _
  s   ⇒ Vs  = Vp  ×  _
V  N 
s
N 
 45  
 = 110 × _ question 20.2.14, a changing magnetic
p p p
360
field induces an electric field.
= 14 V
v Yes. The rate of change of magnetic
c This may be used in several household
field is also changing, so the induced
appliances where a working voltage of
electric field must also be changing.
14 V is required, such as a power supply
for a computer or a children’s train set. vi They are all mutually perpendicular.
Vs  _ N  V  400 kV
11 a  _   =   s   ⇒ Ns  = Np  × _
Vp  Np 
  Vs    = 250 ×  _   vii An electromagnetic wave is a varying
p 2 kV
magnetic field perpendicular to a
= 5 × 10  4 turns
varying electric field, both of which
b i
P = IV= 150 × 2 × 10 3 = 3 × 10  5 W are moving in a mutually
perpendicular direction.
P   = _  3 × 10  3 = 0.75 A
5
ii I s = _
  V   400 × 10 
s viii
_P _ 20 Electric Field
12 a i I =   V  =    = 83 mA
240
ii Is = 20 Ip  = 20 × 83 mA = 1.7 A Direction of
propogation
b
Q = It= 1.7 × 10 × 60 = 1.0 kC Magnetic Field
13 The power loss in transmission lines depends Exam-style questions

on I  2. Reducing the current reduces energy
losses. The step-up transformer changes the Multiple-choice questions
output voltage of the power station from
1 D [1]
about one thousand volts up to about
400 kV. In turn, this makes the current in the 2 D [1]
transmission wires 10  3times smaller—and so
the power losses will be 10 6times smaller than 3 C [1]
without the transformer. 4 A [1]
14 a i A 5 C [1]
ii Out of the page—towards one’s eye. 6 C [1]
iii D 7 D [1]
iv The magnetic field moves outwards 8 C [1]
at a finite speed (actually, c) from
the wire. 9 C [1]
v It is travelling radially outwards from

the wire.
10 a An induced emf will occur in any
vi They are perpendicular to each other. conductor linked with a changing
b i It will be changing direction at the magnetic flux [1] and the magnitude
same frequency as the a.c. supply to of the induced emf is proportional
the wire. to the rate of change of magnetic
flux linkage. [1]
ii Yes
(Must have both parts.)
dΦ  so ε= −200 × gradient

b ε = − N  _ 14 a NΦ =
NBA = 120 × 4 × 1 0 −3 × 5 × 10  −3
dt
= 2.4 × 10  −3 Wb [2]
  0.9 = −30 V
of graph [1] = −200 × _ [2]
6
b The perpendicular area through
11 a The rate of change of magnetic flux
which the magnetic flux passes is
linkage is increasing. This is due to
varying sinusoidally with time. [1]
the speed of the magnet increasing,
So the sinusoidally changing magnetic
and the magnetic flux linked to the
flux linkage means that a sinusoidally
coil is increasing because the magnet
varying induced current occurs. [1]
is getting closer. [2]
c The maximum induced current will
b The magnet is leaving the bottom of
be twice as large as it had been. [1]
the coil and so the change in magnetic
This is because the rate at which the
flux is opposite to what it had been
magnetic flux linkage is changing is
when the magnet was approaching
twice as large as it had been. [1]
the coil. [1]
15 a Two of the following:
c The speed at which the magnet is
falling is increasing all the time, so • The coil on the live wire has
the rate of change of magnetic flux the same number of turns as
is increasing and the induced emf the coil on the neutral wire. [1]
is increasing. [1]
• In normal operation, the current
d Twice the number of turns would in each coil is the same. [1]
mean twice the magnetic flux linkage,
and so twice the induced emf. So, the • So, the magnetic flux generated by
trace on the oscilloscope would show each coil is the same magnitude. [1]
twice the voltage. [1] • But the two coils are wound
12 a A larger B means a larger ε. [1] oppositely around the core. [1]
b A larger N means a larger ε. • So, the magnetic flux from one
coil cancels out the magnetic flux
c A smaller A means a smaller ε. from the other. [1]
d A larger ω means a larger ε[1] and b • If the current in the live wire is
that the frequency of εincreases. [1] different from the current in the
13 a Output voltage is less than input neutral wire, then there will be a
voltage. [1] net magnetic flux in the iron core. [1]
• The change from zero magnetic
b Iron has a large relative permeability/
flux to some magnetic flux induces
iron core makes the magnetic field,
produced by the current in the a current in the third coil around
primary coil, stronger. [1] the iron core, due to Faraday’s law.[1]
c To reduce eddy currents in the • The current in the relay coil
iron core [1] magnetises the relay coil. [1]
• The magnetised relay coil attracts
d For an emf to be induced in the
secondary coil, the magnetic flux the relay switch, which moves and
linked to it must change. [1] A breaks the circuit. [1]
changing current in the primary coil 16 a Answer must have first condition.
will produce a changing magnetic flux Second mark for either of the
in the iron core that is linked to the other statements.
secondary coil. [1]
N s > Np  [1]
e The transformer is ideal, so input
power = output power. Power = IV, Both coils wrapped around a
so if output V is smaller, then output laminated iron core [1]
I must be larger. [1] Supplied with a.c. current [1]
b Secondary voltage must be ≥60 kV. b The changing magnetic field induces
 
N an emf in the conductor, which causes
  60 kV  =  _s   ⇒ Ns  = 120 × _
So: _  60 kV  = a current (an a.c. current) to flow in
240 V 120 240 V
30 000 turns [2] the vertical direction. [1]
c The sparks between the electrodes c The changing electric field exerts a
produce x-rays, which are dangerous changing force on the electrons in the
to humans. So, the demonstration conductor, causing a changing current
has been banned for health and to flow in the vertical direction. [1]
safety reasons. [1]
d The changing magnetic field effect
17 a An induced emf will occur (in any and the changing electric field effect
conductor) when there is a changing produce the same result in the
magnetic flux. [1] The magnitude of conductor [1] So, there will be an
the induced emf is proportional to oscillating current in the conductor,
the rate of change of magnetic flux. which can then be used in a circuit
dΦ 
ε ∝ N  _ [1] designed to extract information from
dt
the electromagnetic wave (i.e. a
. radio receiver). [1]
Workbook answers
Chapter 21
Exercise 21.1
Chapter 1
(Actually the nucleus of a gold atom
has a radius of about 7 × 10 −15m, so the
1 a A positively charged mass of an atom in alpha particle would have had a distance of
Test Your
which Understanding
negatively charged electrons Modern scientific
closest approachcontroversies include:
that is about six-and-a-half
were embedded. nuclear radii.)
b Geigerseen
andinMarsden fired alpha particles 4 carbon
a dioxide
Excited gasinatthe atmosphere
a low are causing
pressure emits
structures cells from work done at
at gold nuclei global warming
electromagnetic radiation as electrons of
GCSE. Figures 1.4and
andobserved where they
1.5 will refresh your
wereof
memory scattered.
cell structure. the atoms ofabout
• the controversy gas fall from higher
whether energy
the measles,
levels
mumps andtorubella
lower energy
(MMR) levels, eachcan
vaccine time
• The functions
Most of alpha
of the the main structures
particles passedare
emitting
increase a photon.
the risk of autismThe(but
termscientists
spectrumareis
found in the sections ‘Features that
through the gold foil undeflected. Some animal
nowused to that
agreed describe
therethe different
is no wavelengths
link between the
and were
plantdeflected
cells havethrough
in common’
large and
angles, and a MMR present in these
vaccine emissions. Each
and autism).
‘Differences between animal
few were deflected backwards. and plant
As acells’
result wavelength corresponds to a different
on pp 0–0.
of their observations, they were able to Self-assessment
change in energyquestions
levels.
• construct
As well as Figures a new1.4model for you
and 1.5, the atom.
will
find relevant information in the section 1 b Place a sample of gas in a glass tube and
c The ‘size’ of an atom of gold is close close
‘Differences between
to 10  5times largeranimal and‘size’
than the plantofcells’ Structures thatthe tube. and
animal Excite thecells
plant gas byhaveplacing
in
on pp 0–0. common: a strong electric field across it. The gas
its nucleus. At a distance equal to the will glow. A student may then observe the
• Yes. radius
There are of anorganisms
atom of other thanCoulomb
gold, the animals • nucleus with nucleolus
emission spectrum and chromatin
by looking at the gas
and repulsive
plants. They areonclassified
force an alphainparticle
different
would through a diffraction grating.
• cytoplasm containing mitochondria, Golgi
kingdoms which
be 10  −10timesyouthewill
forcelearn
at aabout later.
distance of
apparatus and other small structures
Otherthetypes
radius of of
organism include
the nucleus. fungi,ofa this
A force 5 Emission spectra consist of a set of discrete
group ofwould
size mainlynot unicellular organisms
be sufficient to causecalled
the • lines.
cell surface membrane.
Each line in the emission spectrum
protoctists,
large angle bacteria and viruses.
deflections that were observed Structures found only in plantEach
represents a wavelength. cells:different
in Geiger and Marsden’s experiment. wavelength is associated with a different
Science in context • amount
chloroplasts
of energy. These different amounts
2 • oflarge, permanent
energy are duecentral vacuole
to different energy level
Experimental
Two obvious examples are: Conclusion
observation • cell wall with middle lamella and Because the
transitions of electrons in atoms.
a Darwin and Wallace’s theory of evolution emission lines are discrete, the energy-level
The vast majority plasmodesmata.
by natural selection was Most
highlyofcontroversial
the space
transitions of the electrons must correspond
of alpha particles taken
because it appeared to be in conflictup bywith
the the Structure foundamounts.
only in animal cells:
to discrete This can only be true if
passed through atom is empty—
religious belief that God created all species of • the energy levels themselves exist in discrete
centriole
the gold
living foiland that humans
things that iswere
it does not
a special energy values.
undeflected.
creation. contain anything. 2
Some alpha There was a small, 6 a The planetary model of the atom has
b Galileo waswere
placed underpositively
house arrest for the • use a sharp pencil
particles charged a nucleus at the centre of the atom
rest of his life after
deflected through putting forward the
and dense nucleus idea • don’tand
useelectrons
shading/don’t drawaround
that orbit the nucleus
the as a
that Earth and
such large anglesthe otherat the centre of the
planets orbited solidnucleus,
blob like planets orbit around a star.
Sun rather than the Earth
thebeing at the centre
that they bounced atom. • don’tThe different
cross radii of the orbits of the
label lines
ofbackwards.
the solar system. Again, this appeared to electrons help us to visualise the different
contradict the religious beliefs of the time. • don’telectron
use arrow heads
energy on label lines
levels.
3 The
Other distanceinclude:
examples of closest approach must be • use a ruler to draw label lines
b i The electromagnetic force keeps the
larger than the radius of a gold nucleus. • make outline of cells less sketchy
• Einstein’s theory of general relativity (which electrons in orbit around -the
lines should
nucleus.
So the gold nucleus must be smaller
challenged our ideas of the link between thanspace be continuous, not broken
this
and distance
time) of ii Towards the nucleus
Qq Qq • write labels horizontally, not at the same angle
5Wegener’s
MeV = k  theory ___⇒ r = k _____   5 MeV  = drift (which
• r of continental as the label
iii Yes.line
The electron in its orbit is
was controversial because
79 × 1.6 ×  1 0 −19× 2scientists
× 1.6 × 10 could
−19
= not • changing direction
interpret what is seen. all the time,
For example, so it
outlines
9 × 10  9 ×  ________________________
   
explain how continents 5 × 1.6could × 1 0 −13move).
must be accelerating.
are not very accurate (too rounded)
4.6 × 10  −14 m.
c A constantly accelerating electron should 10 a A photon is a discrete particle of

be constantly emitting radiation, which light energy.
would cause its energy to decrease and
it would spiral in towards the nucleus. b
E is the photon’s energy, h is Planck’s
Experiments show that this does not constant and f is the frequency of the
occur, so the planetary model is flawed. electromagnetic radiation.
7 a Since the electron is attracted to the c   c λ , so E = h  __c λ .
E = hf and f = __
positive charge in the nucleus, it takes d An electronvolt is the amount of kinetic
energy to pull the electron away. By energy gained by an electron that has been
convention, this is given a negative value. accelerated through a potential difference
b The level labelled n = 1 is the ground state. of 1 volt.
  hc   6.64 ×  
10  × 3 × 10  =
−34 8
This is the lowest energy state of e E = __
i = ________________
  
λ 630 × 10 
−9
the atom.
  3.16 × 10 −19 = 1.98 eV
−19
3.16 × 10  J = _________
−19
c In level n = 1 1.6 × 10 
 6.64 ×  
10  × 3  
hc = ________________ × 10  =
−34 8
An atom at room temperature will have an E =  __

ii λ
  
532 × 10 
−9
  3.74 × 10 −19  = 2.34 eV

−19
average kinetic energy of 3.7 × 10  J = _________
−19
1.6 × 10 
 3 kT = __
E = __  3 × 1.38 × 10  −23 × 293 =
2 2
  hc  6.64 ×  
10  × 3  
× 10  =
−34 8
6.1 × 10  −21 J. E = __

iii λ
= ________________
  
430 × 10 
−9
  4.63 × 10 −19  = 2.89 eV

−19
This is very much smaller than the energy 4.63 × 10  J = _________
−19
1.6 × 10 
of the ground state, n = 1 (≈ 2 × 10 −18 J). 11 a The four visible lines are due to
d The electron would jump up to the next transitions from n = 6, 5, 4 and 3 to n = 2.
energy level, n = 2.  hc
E = __
b  6.64   
× 10  × 3 × 
________________
=   
−34
10  = 3.04 × 10  −19 J
8
λ 656.3 × 10 
−9
e This process is called excitation. 3.01 × 1

_________ 0  −19
= 1.88 eV ≈ 1.9 eV
=  
1.6 × 10  −19
8 a In the levels n = 2 or higher
 6.64 × 10  × 3 × 10   = 488 nm.
hc = ________________ −34 8
λ =  __
c E
     
b Excited: the electrons are in an energy 2.55 × 1.6 × 10 
−19

level higher than they would normally be, The turquoise coloured line.
that is above the ground state.
12 Series Ending e.m. radiation
c An excited electron is most likely to fall name energy level emitted
down to a lower energy level, emitting the
difference in energy between the two levels Lyman 1 Ultraviolet
as a photon. Balmer 2 Visible
d The process of falling to a lower energy Paschen 3 Infrared
level is called spontaneous emission. Brackett 4 Infrared
e The energy of the atom has decreased. Pfund 5 Infrared
It has become more negative.
13 The emission spectrum from a filament light
9  −13.62 eV ; then for n = 2,
a E n = _______ bulb is continuous: it contains a wide range
n 
−13.6 eV = −3.4 eV. of wavelengths from the deep red colours to
E2   _______
2  2 the violet end of the spectrum. The emission
spectrum from an excited gas consists of a
  −13.62 eV ; then for n = 3,
b E n = _______ limited number of discrete lines at
n 
−13.6 
eV = −1.5 eV. particular wavelengths.
E3   _
3 
2
 −13.62 eV ; then for n = 4,

En  = ________
c
n 
E4   −13.6
_______ eV = −0.85 eV.
4  2
14 a Taking an average wavelength of 589.3 nm, c Bohr proposed that there might be
certain ‘special’ orbits in which the
 hc  6.64   
× 10  × 3 × 
10  = 3.38 × 10  −19 J
−34 8
E = __
λ
= ________________
   electron did not radiate electromagnetic
589.3 × 10 
−9
=   3.38 ×

_________1
0    = 2.11 eV.
−19
energy. This compromise would allow
1.6 × 10  −19 Rutherford’s model.
So, the difference in energy between these
two levels must be 2.11 eV. 2 a kgm  2s  −1
b The energy level n = 2 is actually split into b This is angular momentum, L.

two energy levels, which are about c i Quantised means that it can take only
3.4 × 1 0  −22J apart (or about 2 meV apart). certain discrete values and that these
15 a Red values will all be integer multiples of
a ‘unit’ amount.
  hc   6.64   
× 10  × 3 × 
10  =
−34 8
b E = __
i λ
= ________________
  
632.8 × 10 
−9
h has units of J s. J ≡ kgm  2s  −2, so
ii
3.15 × 10  −19
J J s ≡ kgm  2s  −1, which is the same as
3.15 × 10    = 1.97 eV
−19 for angular momentum, L.
ii E =  _________
1.6 × 10 
−19
e  = ___
  mrv    ⇒ r1  = k  ___
e 
2 2 2
3 a k  __
r1   
2
1 v 
m 2
16 a The Fraunhofer lines are absorption lines.
b mvr  1 =   ⇒ v  =   2h  2 2
h 2
__ 2 ______
Radiation created in the Sun’s core travels 2π 4π  m  r1   
outwards and is absorbed (and re-emitted
  e  2 = k  _______ e  2 = _______
  h  .
2 2
So, r1  = k ___
in all directions) by atoms in its outer mv  m  ______ h  2 4π  2ke  2m
4π  2m  2r1  2 
layers at wavelengths corresponding to
  2h  2 =
2
transitions in the atoms. This removes c r 1 = _______

4π  ke  m
some of the intensity of the radiation in ( 6.63 × 10  −34)   2 
_______________________________
     
   =
any particular direction, causing a dark 4π  2 × 9 × 10  9 × ( 1.6 × 10  −19)   2 × 9.1 × 10  −31
line to occur in the emission spectrum.
0.53 × 10  −10m
b By comparing the patterns of the
absorption lines with those of well-known d For n = 2, r2  = 4 × 0.53 × 10 −10 =
atoms, the kind of atoms present in the 2.12 × 10  −10 m.
outer layers can be determined. Also, the For n = 3, r3  = 9 × 0.53 × 10 −10 =
amount by which the intensity is reduced
4.77 × 10  −10 m.
can lead to information about the relative
abundance of such atoms. Together, this For n = 4, r4  = 16 × 0.53 × 10 −10 =
information can inform astrophysicists 8.48 × 10  −10 m.
about the chemical composition of the
outer regions of the Sun and other stars. 4 a Electric force—the Coulomb attraction
between the electron and the proton.
Exercise 21.2 e  (Note that since the charge on
F = −k  __
b
2
r  2
1 a A small, dense, positively charged nucleus, the proton is the same magnitude, but has
around which, at some distance, the opposite sign to that of the electron,
electrons orbit. there is no need here to use the usual Q
and q for the two charges.)
b Classical physics suggests that charged
e    = m  __
c |F| = k  __ v  . E  = __
2 2
  1 mv  2 = __ e 
  r F = k  __
2
particles accelerating will radiate 2 r
r  K 2 2 2r
electromagnetic energy. If electrons d The electrical potential energy of the
orbited the nucleus, as Rutherford
  er   , so the total energy
2
suggested, then they would be electron is EP = −k __

  e    + −k __
  er    = −k __
  e   .
2 2 2
accelerating and so should be radiating = k __
is Etotal
2r 2r
electromagnetic radiation. The loss of ( 1.6 × 10  −19)   2
e
Etotal __
e   2
9 ____________
= −k     = −9 × 10  ×      =
energy would make the electron fall into 2r 2 × 0.53 × 10 −10
the nucleus. Since this is not observed,
  −2.17 × 1−190  = −13.6 eV
−18
Bohr objected to Rutherford’s model. −2.17 × 10  −18 J = __________

1.6 × 10 
mp  1.67 × 10  = 1835 ≈ 1840 −27

5 a  _
m    =  
_________
e 9.1 × 10 
−31

b Yes, because the electron’s mass is only Multiple-choice questions
about  _ 1  = 0.05 % of the mass of
1840 1 B [1]
the atom.
( −10) 3
2 D [1]
c   _______________
  
     (10  −15)  3 = 10  15
volume of an atom = ______
volume of a nucleus 10    3 D [1]
d 10  15
4 A [1]
  mass = _________
  1.67__4× 130  =
−27
e ρ proton = ______
volume   πr  5 C [1]
3
1.67
____________
     × 1
0  −27
= 2.3 × 10  17 kgm  −3
  4 π(1.2 × 10  −15)   3
__ 6 D [1]
3
ρproton
  2.3 × 10  = 6.6 × 10  13 ~ 10  14.
17 7 A [1]
f  _
ρ 
________
  =  
diamond
3
3.51 × 10 
8 B [1]
The answer is only a factor of
ten different. 9 D [1]
 __1 10 C [1]
6 a   4 πr  3 = __
V = __   4 π( ro  A3  )  3 = __
  4 πro  3  A
3 3 3
A = _____
b  __   3 3  
  A = ____ Short-answer questions
V __4 3   πro    A 4πro   
3
11 a
E = hf = 6.63 × 10  −34 × 3.08 × 10  15 =
c This is independent of A and implies that 20.4 × 10  −19 J [1]
all nuclei should have the same density.
3 × 1.7 × 10  = 2.3 × 10  17 kgm  −3
3m = ____________ −27 The transition from n = 4 to n = 1
d  ____     
  
( −15) 3 gives E = (−1.36 − −21.8) × 10  −19 =
4πro   
3
4π 1.2 × 10   
e They are the same. All nuclei have the 20.4 × 10  −19 J.
same density. So, the transition responsible must
7 be from n = 4 to n = 1. [1]
b Ultraviolet [1]
Nucleus Nucleon Radius (× Density (×
number 10  −15 m) 10  17 kgm  −3) c E K = hf − ΔE = ( 6.63 × 10  −34 × 4.0 × 10  15)
H 1 1.2 2.35 –21.8 × 10  −19
He 4 1.9 2.35 4.72 × 10  J =
−19
= 4.72 × 10  −19 J = _____________
    
  
1.6 × 10  −19 J eV  −1
C 12 2.7 2.35 2.95 eV [2]
S 32 3.8 2.35
12 a i This is the energy level in which
Sr 88 5.3 2.35 the atom has the lowest amount
Au 197 7.0 2.35 of energy. [1]
U 238 7.4 2.35 ii This means that the electron is in
8 a The radius of a golf ball is about 1.3 cm. an energy level higher than the
ground state. [1]
So, its volume is V =  __4 πr  3 =
3
  4 π × 0.013  3 = 9.2 × 10  −6 m  3.
__ iii This means that the electron
3 has gained enough energy to
m = ρV = 2.3 × 10  17 × 9.2 × 10  −6 =
b escape from the atom completely—
2.1 × 10  12 kg leaving behind only the
2.1 × 10  = 4.6 × 10  13
12 proton/nucleus. [1]
c  ________
46 × 10 
−3
b Electrons in energy levels above the c The absorption spectra from stars
n = 2 level [1] fall to the n = 2 show discrete energy-level transitions
level [1] emitting photons that have within the atoms in the star. Scientists
their energies in the visible part of have catalogued the spectra of
the e.m. spectrum. elements and compounds in laboratory
experiments. The star spectra can be
  hc   6.63 × 10  × 3 × 10    =
−34 8
λ = __
13 a E
= _________________
     
( −2.6 − 8.8) × 10  −19
matched up to the catalogued spectra,
giving us information about which
3.2 × 10  −7m = 320 nm [2]
elements and compounds are present
b n = 3 → n = 2 [1] in the star. [1]
n = 4 → n = 1; [1] n = 3 → n = 1 and
c 16 a mass of electron, [1] speed of electron
n = 2 → n = 1 [2] in its orbit, radius of electron orbit [2]
 __1   1
__
b   h (n = 1 for ground state)
mvr = __
14 a
r = ro  A 3 = 1.2 × 10  −15 × 197  3 = 2π
7.0 × 10  −15 m (2 s.f.) [1] h =    6.63 × 10  −34
So, v =  ____  ______________________
   
2πmr 2π × 9.1 × 10  −31 × 0.53 × 10  −10
b = 2.2 × 10  6 ms  −1 [2]
 1  of
c It would be moving at a speed _
a 4
that in the ground state.
a
  2.2 × 10  ms  = 5.5 × 10  5 ms  1
6 −1
So: v = ___________ [1]
4
Gold nucleus [1] 17 a  _1  mv  2 = 3.5 MeV ⇒
2 _______________
√ 2 × 3.5 × 1.6 × 10    =
−13
v =    ________________
      
6.64 × 10  −27
c Distance of closest approach must be
≤8.0 × 10  −15 m. So, 1.3 × 10  7 ms  −1 [2]
Qq b It slows down, at an increasing rate. [2]
E = k  ___
r = 9 × 10  ×
9
79 × 1.6 × 10   
−19
× 2 × 1.6 × 10 −19 = c At Y, the alpha particle will have an
 ________________________
   
8 × 10 

−15
electrical potential energy of
4.55 × 10  J =   
−12 4.55
    × 10  −12 J =
____________ Qq
1.6 × 10  −19 J eV  −1 E P = k  ___
r = 9 × 10  ×
9
28 MeV. [2] 79 × 1.6 × 10  × 2 × 1.6 × 10  =

 ________________________
      
−19 −19
8 × 10 
−14

15 a The dark lines are caused by 4.55 × 10  −13 J. [1]
absorption of those wavelengths
that correspond to the energy-level So, at Y, the alpha particle will have a
transitions of the electrons in the kinetic energy of
atoms of the hydrogen gas. (3.5 × 1.6 × 10 −13) − 4.55 × 10  −13 =
The excited electrons then re-emit 1.05 × 10  −13 J. [1]
the photons but in all directions. −13.6 eV .
Since the intensity of the light in the 18 a For n = 3, E =  _______
2
3 
direction being viewed has been So, the energy required for the
reduced, the observer sees dark lines. [2] transition n = 1 to n = 3 (or above)
  hc
E = __
b 6.64 ×  
10  × 3 × 10  =
−34
=  ________________
  
8
is E = 13.6 eV × (
__   12 ) =
  12 − __
λ 434 × 10  −9 1  3 
12.1 eV ( 3 s.f.). [2]
 4.59 × 10 −19   = 2.87 eV [2]
−19
4.59 × 10− J = __________
19
1.6 × 10 
b
i Transitions in the Balmer series • Hydrogen atoms in the ground
will produce visible light photons. [1] state don’t have enough energy to
transfer a minimum of 12.1 eV
or during collisions.
Transitions that finish on the • (A good answer would include
n = 2 energy level will produce 1.38 × 10  × 293 ≈
E =  __3 kT = __
  3 ×  ______________
−23
visible light photons. [1]   

2 2 1.6 × 10 
−19
0.04 eV)
ii Any two of the following:
• So electrons cannot get to level 3
• Atoms can transfer energy from
or above in order to fall to level 2
one to another by collisions.
and emit visible light photons.
• At room temperature, hydrogen
atoms will be in the ground state.
Chapter 22
Exercise 22.1 plate would discharge. Since this does
not happen, light cannot be behaving
 hc   6.63 × 10   
× 3 × 10  =
−34 8
1 a E = hf = _
i λ
___________________
  =    like a wave.
2.5
8.0
_
8.0 × 10  J =  
−26 × 1
0  −26
  = b i A photon of light with this shorter
1.6 × 10  −19
5.0 × 10  eV
−7 wavelength has enough energy to give
to an electron so that it can break free
  hc  6.63 ×  
10  × 3 
× 10  =
−34 8
E = hf = _
ii λ
 = ___________________
   of the metal surface, without having
6.0 × 10 
−6
3.3
_ × 10  −20 = 0.21 eV to wait for energy to build up.
3.3 × 10  J =  
−20
1.6 × 10  −19
ii This suggests that the energy needed
 6.63 ×  
10  × 3  
hc = ___________________ × 10  =
−34 8
E = hf =  _
iii λ
   to break an electron free of the
623 × 10 
−9
3.2
_ × 10  −17 = 2.0 eV surface must be contained in a small
3.2 × 10  J =  
−19
1.6 × 10  −19 space over a small time—a discrete
packet of energy that we call a
 6.63 ×  
10  × 3  
hc = ___________________ × 10  =
−34 8
E = hf =  _
iv λ
  
1.5 × 10 
−10
photon. A rapid, complete discharge
1.3
_
1.3 × 10  J =  
−15 × 10  −15 = 8.1 keV of the metal plate suggests that there
1.6 × 10  −19
are numerous electrons released, in
 6.63 ×  
hc =    10  × 3  
× 10  =
−34 8
b E = hf =  _
i ___________________ turn suggesting a stream of photons.
λ 630 × 10 
−9
3.2 × 10  −19 J 4 a The metal plate will lose electrons at an

increased rate, so the coulombmeter will
  5.0 × 10 −19 =
−3
ii Number of photons s  −1 = ________
3.2 × 10  show a faster decrease in charge.
1.6 × 10  photons s  .
16 −1
b Higher intensity means that there are

2 a Einstein was able to show that light
more photons of light per second.
behaved like particles.
This allows more electrons per second
b Until Einstein’s work with the to break free of the metal surface, so the
photoelectric effect, it was an accepted charge decreases at a faster rate.
fact that radiation—and light in
c It increases the number of photons per
particular—was made up of waves.
second. It does not change the energy
The behaviour of waves had been well
that each individual photon has. So,
understood for more than 100 years, so it
the maximum kinetic energy of the
was a very big step to consider that light
photoelectrons would not change.
could show particle-like properties, and
that the accepted wave properties of light 5 3.2 × 1.6 × 10   = 7.7 × 10  14 Hz
a f o = _______________
   
−19
6.63 × 10 
−34

could not explain the observations of the
  3 × 10    = 3.9 × 10  −7 m
 c   = _
8
photoelectric effect. λ=_
b
fo  7.7 × 10  14
c The photoelectric effect is the beginning (390 nm)
of quantum physics, which introduces   hc
c Photon energy = _  6.63 ×  
10  × 3 
 = ___________________
   × 10  = −34 8
the idea that radiation can behave λ −8

6.5 × 10 
 3.06 × 10 −19  = 19.1 eV
−18
like particles. 3.06 × 10  −18J = ___________
1.6 × 10 
3 a i The photons of light do not have So, maximum EK  of photoelectrons =
enough energy for them to eject an 19.1 − 3.2 = 15.9 eV.
electron free of the metal surface.
 4.2 × 1.6 × 1−340   = 1.0 × 10  15 Hz
  E  = _______________
−19
The metal cannot lose any of its 6 a f o = _   
h 6.63 × 10 
negative charge.
b Ultraviolet
ii Over time, the electrons in the metal
c Photon energy = hf = 6.63 × 10 −34 ×
would absorb energy from waves.
 1.47 × 10 −19  =
−18
Eventually, they would have enough 2.2 × 10  15 = 1.47 × 10  −18J = ___________
1.6 × 10 
energy to break free of the metal 9.19 eV
surface and the negatively charged
So, EKmax
  = 9.19 − 4.2 = 4.99 eV. b By the process of the photoelectric effect,
_
the illuminating light causes the emission
Therefore, v = √
_  2E
m    = of electrons from the metal plate. These
___________________
electrons move away from the metal plate,
√  2 × 4.99 × 1.6 ×  
10  = 1.3 × 10  6 ms  −1.
−19
___________________
  
     
9.1 × 10 
−31
and some will arrive at the collector,
7 a E Kmaxis the maximum kinetic energy of creating a photocurrent. This current is
the photoelectron emitted; h is Planck’s measured by the sensitive ammeter.
constant; f is the frequency of the
c i The collector is connected to the
incident radiation; φ is the work function
negative terminal of the variable
of the metal surface, from which the
power supply. As the collector is made
photoelectrons are emitted.
more negative, more photoelectrons
b EKmax will be repelled from the collector.
This reduces the photocurrent, and
the reading on the ammeter decreases.
ii For a given photon energy from the
illuminating light (and a given value
for the work function of the metal
0 surface), the maximum kinetic energy
f0 f
of the photoelectrons is determined.
c Planck’s constant, h When the voltage value, in volts, on
the variable power supply equals
d The threshold frequency, f   o (see the diagram the maximum kinetic energy of the
in part b), is the minimum frequency of photoelectrons (in eV), then the
radiation that will cause the emission of photoelectrons will not have enough
photoelectrons from the metal surface. energy to overcome the repulsion
8 a i 45
from the negative collector and the
40 photocurent will be zero. Increasing
KEmax/× 10–20 J
35 the voltage beyond this value will have

30
25 no effect, since the photoelectrons
20 already have insufficient energy to
15 30 × 10–20 J
10 reach the collector, so the reading on
5 f0 = 7.5 × 1014 Hz the ammeter will continue to be zero.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
i The value of voltage at which the
4.5 × 1014 Hz
Frequency/× 1014 Hz
photocurrent becomes zero is called
the stopping potential.
The intercept on the x-axis is at ii At a smaller wavelength, the incident
7.5 × 10  14 Hz. photons have more energy. The work
So, the work function must be φ = hfo  = function of the metal plate is the
6.63 × 10  −34 × 7.5 × 10  14 = same as it had been. So, the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
4.98 × 10  −19 J (   4.98 = 3.1 eV).
=_
1.6 will be larger. This means it will
ii See diagram, part a i. h is the gradient require a larger stopping potential
of the graph. to cause the photocurrent to
30 × 10    = 6.7 × 10  −34J s (the
−20 become zero.
So, h =  _
14
4.5 × 10 
iii More intense light means more
accepted value for h is 6.63 × 10 −34J s).
photons, of the same energy as
b
Any straight line of the same gradient to before, per second. So the original
the right of the line on the graph. photocurrent would be greater.
However, since the maximum kinetic
9 a With no air molecules between the energy of the photoelectrons is still
metal plate and the collector, emitted the same, the stopping potential will
photoelectrons can move unhindered from also stay the same.
the metal plate to the collector.
Exercise 22.2 b i The electron of wavelength

3.6 × 10  −11m is going to behave
1 a Diffraction and interference like a wave because it will
have the opportunity to show
b De Broglie’s argument was that physics
diffraction effects.
seemed to be based on symmetry and,
because of that, if light could show The wavelength is too short for the
particle properties, then particles should cricket ball to show diffraction effects
be able to show wave properties. within its surroundings.
λ=_
c   hp , where λ is the wavelength of the The human’s wavelength is far too
matter wave, h is Planck’s constant and short and cannot show diffraction
p is the momentum of the particle. effects within its surroundings and so
cannot show wave behaviour.
2 a It showed that electrons exhibited
wave properties—that is, diffraction. ii For a human to show diffraction
This supported de Broglie’s hypothesis that effects, their momentum would have
matter should exhibit wave properties. to be ~10  −35 kg ms  −1. Humans do
not move this slowly so they do not
b Electrons were reflected from layers of
show wave properties; they behave
atoms within the zinc crystal so that at
like particles.
various angles electrons showed maxima
in the intensity detected by the detector. 5 a i   hp  = _
λ=_ h
  _   =
2 meV 
√
This was similar to what had been 6.63 × 10  −34
______________________________
  
     
___________________________________   =
observed by Bragg with X-rays and it √
2   
× 9.1 × 10 −31 × 1.6 × 10  −19× 400 
suggested that the wavelength of electron
6.1 × 10  −11 m
waves must be of the order of the spacing
between the layers of atoms in the zinc ii 100 is  __1 of 400, and λ ∝ _
  1_ .
4 √V 
crystal. Such observations lead the way
for future physicists to consider matter as So, new λ = 1.2 × 10 −10 m.
having wave properties. sin θ =  _λ  = _
  10  −10
 = 0.33 −10
b
d 3 × 10 
3 a Energy gained = eV So, yes, there should be diffraction effects
b 2 2 2
  1  mv  2
p = mv, so p  = m  v  and EK  = _ for either of these electrons.
2
m  2v   2 = _
 _
p 
2
   = E  K. 6 a It would have to be a standing wave.
2m 2m
_ _
c If EK  = eV, then p = √
2m × E  K   = √
2meV . b  2πr
nλ = 2πr or λ = _ n , where n is an integer.
d From diffraction theory, nλ = d sin θ, so c   nh  ; and rn  = n  2r1 

mvrn  = _
2π
there will be more diffraction for larger   nh   = _
So, p = mv = _   nh2   = _
  h  .
values of λ. This means that the radii of 2πrn  2πn  r1  2πnr  1
the bright and dark rings will increase 2πrn 
d   hp  = _
λ=_ h   = _
  nh   n 
when the wavelength of the electron _
   
2πrn 
waves increases.
_1 2πr  2πr 
e λ =  _
i n =    = 2π × 0.53 × 10  =
n −10
  hp  = _
λ=_
e   _   1_ ; that is as V
h   so λ ∝ _ 1
√2meV  √V  3.33 × 10  −10 m
increases, λ decreases and so the radii of
the bright and dark rings decreases. Since λ = 2πr1  and circumference

of orbit n = 1 is also 2πr1  , there
4 a i   hp  =   
λ=_    6.63 × 10 
__________________   =
−34
9.1 × 10 
−31 7
× 2 × 10  is 1 wavelength present in the
3.6 × 10  −11 m ground state.
2πr  2π × 2  2r 
  140 × 10   = 38.9 ms  −1 λ =  _ _
3
ii 140 kmhr  −1 = _ ii n =     = 2 × 2π ×
n 1
60 × 60 2
_ h
λ =   p  =   6.63 × 1

___________ 0  −34
  = 1.1 × 10  −34 m 0.53 × 10  −10 = 6.66 × 10  −10 m
0.16 × 38.9
 6.63 × 10    = 9.5 × 10  −36 m
iii λ =  _hp  = ___________
−34
70 × 1.0
Since λ = 4πr1  and circumference

iv Schrödinger’s argument is based on
of orbit n = 2 is 8πr1  , there are 2 the idea of probability. He argued
wavelengths present in the n = 2 state. that the matter wave associated with
2πr  2π × 3  2r  the electron is a kind of probability
λ =  _
iii n =  
n _ 
1
= 3 × 2π × that the electron exists in a particular
3
0.53 × 10  −10 = 9.99 × 10  −10 m place. As each electron arrives at the
fluorescent screen, its probability
Since λ = 6πr1  and circumference

density (related to the square of
of orbit n = 3 is 18πr1  , there are 3
the wave function, ψ, itself) dictates
wavelengths present in the n = 3 state.
the chance that it will arrive in any
f They are the same: there are n wavelengths particular place. The bright regions of
present in the electron standing wave for the Young slits’ interference pattern
quantum state n. are places where the probability
density function of the electron waves
7 a i The interference pattern produced is quite high, whereas the regions
by the electrons is something that is where no electrons arrive (the usual
considered to be a wave phenomenon. dark regions between the interference
Only if electrons were exhibiting maxima) are places where the electron
wave-like properties would they wave’s probability density fucntion
produce an interference pattern. is very low. In this way, electrons will
ii The current arriving at the fluorescent build up a pattern on the screen that
4.8 μA depends on the probability of them
screen is  _ = 2.4 μA. arriving in any particular place—and
2
So, the rate at which electrons are that probability is highest where the
2.4 × 10  −6 C s  −1   = interference maxima should be.
arriving must be  ___________________
  
   −19
1.6 × 10 
−1
C electron 
v Schrödinger’s probability density
1.5 × 10  13 s  −1.
function has a high value where
iii Reducing the accelerating voltage Bohr’s orbital radius occurs, and a
gives the electrons less kinetic lower value at other distances from
energy. This means that their the nucleus. What is most interesting,
de Broglie wavelength is longer. perhaps, is that this allows the
Longer wavelengths will produce an electron to exist anywhere within
interference pattern with maxima (and outside!) the atom, with the
more spread out. probability that it exists at the Bohr
radii being higher than anywhere else.
b i Individual flashes of light on the
screen in apparently random places.
ii Over a long period of time, the usual
Young slits’ interference pattern will Multiple-choice questions
be built up.
1 D [1]
iii Our particle model of the electron
2 B [1]
prevents us from accepting that the
electron can pass through both slits 3 A [1]
at the same time. If we consider the
electron to be a matter wave—as 4 B [1]
described by de Broglie—then the 5 B [1]
de-localised nature of the wave may
be sufficient to allow us to consider 6 C [1]
that it passes thorugh both slits at the
7 C [1]
same time.
8 B [1]
9 C [1]
θ = sin  −1 (_  λs ) = sin  −1(______________

  5.5 × 10 −10 m ) =
−11
Short-answer questions c
2 × 10  m
10 a Work function is the minimum 16  o, [1]
amount of energy required by which is easily measurable/observable. [1]
an electron to break free of the
metal surface. [1] 13 a Work function: the minimum
amount of energy that an electron
b Some of the electrons will be deeper requires to break free from
inside the metal and will, therefore, the surface. [1]
require more energy to break free. [1]
So, the energy remaining from the b Threshold frequency: the minimum
photon, which becomes kinetic frequency of radiation that
energy for the electron, will have will cause the emission
a range of values. [1] of photoelectrons. [1]
c Photons have energy, E =   _ hc =
c E K  max = _  hcλ
 − ϕ = λ
6.63 × 1
0 
____________________
      
−34
× 3  
× 10  8 − ( 2.2 × 1.6 × 1
0 −19) =   6.63 ×  
   10  −34 × 3  
___________________ × 10  8 = 4.4 × 10  −19 J
200 × 10  −9 450 × 10  −9
=   × 10  −19 = 2.75 eV.

4.4 −19
6.4 × 10  −19J = 4.0 eV [2] _
1.6 × 10 
11 a
Wave–particle duality means that So, the maximum E Kis 2.75 − 1.5 =
particles can show both the 1.25 eV (1.3 eV 2 s.f.) [2]
behaviour of particles and of waves. [1]
d Number of incident photons s  −1
b i Any demonstration involving   3 × 10  −19   = 6.8 × 10  15 s  −1
=_
−3
diffraction or interference, 4.4 × 10 

especially Young’s double slits. Only _  1 of these eject photoelectrons,
8
ii The photoelectric effect: illuminate so current = _  1  × 6.8 × 10  15 ×
8
a metal surface with ultraviolet light 1.6 × 10  −19= 0.14 mA. [2]
and measure the electrons emitted
from the metal surface.   hc
14 a E Kmax = _ λ
 − ϕ =
6.64 ×  
10  × 3  
−34
 ___________________
   × 10  −
8
c Any two of the following: [2] 260 × 10 
−9
• Electron gun, graphite crystal and ( 4.25 × 1.6 × 10 −19) = 8.6 × 10  −20 J [2]
fluorescent screen inside an evacuated b The right-hand terminal will
glass flask have to be the negative terminal
• Electron gun to accelerate electrons in order to inhibit the flow of
electrons to it. [1]
• Variable voltage supply to electron gun
c Minimum terminal voltage =
• Diffracted electrons from graphite   8.6 × 10  −19 = 0.54 V
_ −20
[2]
crystal show a diffraction pattern 1.6 × 10 
15 a To remove atoms that might
• Change voltage and the radius of the
obstruct the movement of
diffraction rings changes
electrons from the graphite crystal
  8.0 × 10  J  =
12 a 8.0 × 10  −17J = _______________
   
−17
to the fluorescent screen. [1]
−19
1.6 × 10 
−1
J eV 
500 eV [1] b The pattern observed on the
So, the electrons must have been fluorescent screen is a diffraction
accelerated through a voltage pattern. [1] Diffraction/
of 500 V. [1] interference is a property that
we associate with wave behaviour. [1]
b  ph  = _
λ=_ h
  _   =
2 meV 
√
   
   6.63 × 10  −34
_______________________
__________________________   =
√
2   
× 9.1 × 1 0 −31 × 8 × 10  −17 
5.5 × 10  −11 m [2]
3.5  ) = 9.9°

λ = s sin 𝜃 and 𝜃 = tan  −1 ( _
c [1] 18 a 2.4 × 10  −15m [1]
20.0
(Accept 10  −15 m.)
  λ   = ____________
So, s = _      h _  =
sin θ sin θ × √
2meV 
 6.63 × 10 −15  =
h  = ___________ −34
b p =   _
λ
6.63 × 10  −34 2.4 × 10 
 _________________________________________
   
     ____________________________________   =
sin 9.9° × √   
2 × 9.1 × 1 0  × 1.6 × 10  × 1000 
−31 −19
2.8 × 10  −19
kg ms 
−1
[2]
2.3 × 10  −10 m. [2] (Using λ = 1 × 10 −15m will give
16 a f ois the intercept of the x-axis, so 6.6 × 10  −19 kg ms  −1.) [2]
fo  = 5.6 × 10  14Hz. ([1] for ±0.2 ) c Using p = mv :
p
 2.8 × 10  −31  = 3.1 × 10  11 ms  −1
−19
  = hf − Φ; EK 
b Einstein’s equation is KEmax   m  = _
v=_ [1]
9.1 × 10 
of photoelectrons = eV, so h will be given
by gradient of graph × e This is faster than the speed of light
and cannot occur. [1]
1.8   × 1.6 × 10  −19 =
∴ h =  _
14
4.4 × 10  So the value of m must be larger than
6.5 × 10  −34J s. [2] 9.1 × 10  −31kg to make the speed of the
electron below the speed of light.
Φ is the intercept on the y-axis
c
times e. This will be h
λ =  _ _ h
19 a mv  ⇒ v =   λm  =
1.8 × 5.6 × 1.6 × 1
 _ 0 −19= 3.7 eV. [2] 6.63 × 10  −34
______________________
4.4
  
       =
2.4 × 10 
−11
× 1.67 × 10 
−27

17 a Photoelectrons cannot have 1.7 × 10  4 ms  −1 [2]
negative kinetic energy. The h 6.63 × 10 
_____________________ −34
λ =  _
b mv  =   
     =
dotted line is an extrapolation 9.1 × 10 
−31 4
× 1.7 × 10 
backwards of the graph to show 4.3 × 10  m
−8
[2]
the position of the work function. [1]
c Any of the following: [1]
b i f ois the intercept on the x-axis. [1]
• Electrons are easier to obtain.
ii
h is the gradient of the graph. [1]
•
Wavelength of electrons is likely
ϕ is the intercept on the y-axis.
iii [1] to be larger than wavelength
for protons.
c
•
Wavelength of protons is too
EKmax small to show diffraction.
•
Larger wavelength for electrons
f means it is easier to demonstrate
diffraction.
Workbook answers
Chapter 23
Exercise 23.1
1 a A nucleon is any of the two kinds of particles in the nucleus (a neutron or a proton).
Chapter 1
b An isotope is a form of an atom that has the same number of protons in the nucleus but
a different number of neutrons. Modern scientific controversies include:
Test Your Understanding
c A nuclide is a description of a particular kind of• nucleus:
the idea that increasing
it expresses concentrations
the nucleon number of
and the proton number (from which it is possible to carbon
calculatedioxide in the number).
the neutron atmosphere are causing
global warming
2 GCSE.
a Figures 1.4 and 1.5 will refresh your
Name of force
memory of cell structure. Acts on Range
• the controversy about whether Boson responsible
the measles,
Electromagnetic charge mumps and rubella (MMR)
infinite photonvaccine can
massanimal increase the risk of autism
infinite (but scientists are
graviton
foundGravitational
in the sections ‘Features that
now agreed that there is no link between the
and plant
Weakcells have in common’nucleons
force and ~MMR
10  −18 m W and Z boson
vaccine and autism).
‘Differences between animal and plant cells’
Strong nuclear force nucleons ~10  m
−15
gluon
on pp 0–0. Self-assessment questions
•As
b well
i as Figures
Weak 1.4 and 1.5, you will
nuclear e i Alpha-particles approaching the gold
find relevant information in the section 1 nuclei were repelled by the protons in
ii Gravitational
‘Differences between animal and plant cells’ Structures that
theanimal
nucleus.and plant
Since thecells have
alpha in
particles
on pp 0–0.
iii Electromagnetic common: didn’t have enough energy to get close
• Yes. There are organisms other than animals enough
• nucleus with for theand
nucleolus strong nuclear force
chromatin
and iv Strong
plants. Theynuclear
are classified in different to overcome the electromagnetic force
• cytoplasm of containing mitochondria,
repulsion, the Golgi
alpha particles
kingdoms
c Three of the four will
which you learn about
fundamental later.
forces act apparatus and other
were deflected. small structures
Other types of organism include fungi,
on the nucleons in the nucleus. Of these, a
grouptheofgravitational
mainly unicellular
force is organisms
too weak tocalled
have • cell surface membrane.
ii If the alpha particles had had more
protoctists, bacteria and viruses.
any appreciable effect on holding the Structures found
energyonly
so in plant
that theycells:
could approach
nucleons together. The electromagnetic
Science in context
force causes the positively charged protons
the
• chloroplasts nucleus to within about 3 fm, the
strong nuclear force would have been
Two obvious
to beexamples are: each other—suggesting
repelled from • large, permanent central vacuole
able to overcome the electromagnetic
that they should fly apart. However, the • cell wall force
with middle
and causelamella and particle to
the alpha
a Darwin and Wallace’s theory of evolution
strong nuclear force is about 100 times plasmodesmata.
be absorbed by the gold nucleus.
by natural selection was highly controversial
stronger than the electromagnetic force Hadonly
thisin
been the case,
because it appeared to be in conflict with the Structure found animal cells:Rutherford
and is attractive between all nucleons. would not have seen the very
religious belief that God created all species of • centriolelarge angle deflections that
This overcomes the electromagnetic force
and holds the nucleons together.
creation. 2 occasionally occurred.
d The strong nuclear force acts most strongly 3
• a
use ai  
_
sharp
1  of the mass of a 12
  6  C atom
b Galileo was placed under house arrest for the
on nucleons that are closest together. 12 pencil
rest of his life after putting forward the idea • don’tii
useThe
shading/don’t draw thethe
difference between nucleus
mass as
of a
So, in a nucleus with a large number of
that Earth and the other planets orbited the solid blobthe nucleons and the mass of
nucleons, some of the nucleons do not
Sun rather than the Earth being at the centre thelabel
nucleus.
‘feel’ the strong force from many of the • don’t cross lines
other nucleons; they only ‘feel’ the strong
contradict the religious beliefs of the time. • don’tiii
useThe minimum
arrow amount
heads on of energy
label lines
force from the nucleons immediately
Other examples include:
next to them. This allows a tightly bound • use a ruler to draw label lines the nucleons
required to separate all
in a nucleus.
• Einstein’s theory oftogeneral
alpha particle break free of the(which
relativity nucleus • make outline of cells less sketchy - lines should
if the nucleus is heavy enough.
challenged our ideas of the link between space be continuous, not broken
• Wegener’s theory of continental drift (which as the label line
was controversial because scientists could not • interpret what is seen. For example, outlines
b Name of particle Mass / u Mass / kg

proton 1.007 28 1.672621 × 10  −27
neutron 1.008 67 1.674928 × 10  −27
electron 0.00055 9.11 × 10  −31
c i 4.0015 u = 4.0015 × 1.66 × 10 

−27 = 6.64 × 10  −27 kg
ii Mass of particles = 2 (1.00728 + 1.00867)= 4.0319 u
iii The mass of the particles is greater than the mass of the alpha-particle.
iv Mass defect = 4.0319 − 4.0015 = 0.0304 u
v Energy equivalence = 0.0304 × 931.5 MeV = 28.32 MeV
  28.32
vi E B nucleon  −1 = _   = 7.08 ≈ 7.1 MeV nucleon  −1
4
( )
4   6 × 1.00728 + 9 × 1.00867
a E B nucleon  −1 =      − 15.0106 × 931.5 MeV
______________________________________
  = 6.9 MeV nucleon  −1
15
( )
  11 × 1.00728 + 13 × 1.00867
        − 23.99096 × 931.5 MeV
b E B nucleon  −1 = _________________________________________
  = 7.8 MeV nucleon  −1
24
( )
  26 × 1.00728 + 30 × 1.00867
        − 55.93494 × 931.5 MeV
c E B nucleon  −1 = _________________________________________
  = 8.6 MeV nucleon  −1
56
( )
  28 × 1.00728 + 34 × 1.00867
        − 61.9129 × 931.5 MeV
d E B nucleon  −1 = ________________________________________ = 8.8 MeV nucleon  −1
62
5 a, c and e b For the reaction to occur, the mass-energy

of the left-hand side of the equation must
be greater than the mass-energy of the
9 right-hand side of the equation so that the
reaction products can gain kinetic energy
EB per
nucleon fission and move away from each other.
region
fusion c or the first equation (which is a
F
region beta-minus decay; this will be examined
in section 23.2):
0 Left-hand side: 46.9524 u
0 56 238
Nucleon number Right-hand side: 46.9518 + 0.00055 =
MeV / nucleon 46.95235
b The most stable nuclei are those that So, mass-energy of left-hand side >
are held together with the most binding mass-energy of right-hand side.
energy per nucleon. So, those nuclei at
the peak of the curve are the most stable. Therefore, this reaction can occur.
d Iron’s and nickel’s binding energy per For the second equation (which would
nucleon are the maximum values on the be a beta-plus decay—also examined in
curve. The implication of this is huge: iron Section 23.2):
and nickel are the heaviest elements that
Left-hand side: 46.9524 u
can be produced by nuclear fusion in
stars without the extra energy from Right-hand side: 46.9545 + 0.00055 =
supernova events. 46.95505 u
6 a In any event or process, the total energy Here, the mass-energy of the left-hand
(in all its forms) must remain constant; side < mass-energy of the right-hand side.
no energy can be lost—or gained.
So, this reaction cannot occur.
d In any event or process, the total 8 a

E = 233.03950 − (229.03163 + 4.001506) u
momentum remains constant. = 5.93 MeV
e i Energy available = ( 46.9524 – b The alpha particle will gain
46.95235)u = 0.00005 u = 46.6 keV
(_
  229.03163 )
_____________4.001506
      × 5.93 MeV = 5.83 MeV.
(  + 1)
|pTi
  | = |pβ  | = p   229.03163
_
4.001506
p  2 _ ____________________
 _ 
 _
ii
E  K  β
  = _
2 mβ  m  46.9518
  mTi    = _
  p  2   = _    
v = _
c √
2 × E 
    √ 4.001506 × 1.66 × 10 
2 × 5.83 × 1.6 × 10 −13   
____________________
  m  K =    −27

E  K  Ti _ β 0.00055
    = 1.7 × 10  7 ms  −1
2 mTi
 
= 8.5367 × 10 4
Exercise 23.2
 85 367 × 46.6
So, the b-particle gains _
85 368
1 a The nucleus
keV = 46.599 keV, and the Ti nucleus
1   × 46.6 keV = 5 × 10  −4 keV,
gains  _ • has too many nucleons.
85 368
that is the beta particle gains about • has too many protons.
99.999% of the available • has too many neutrons.
kinetic energy.
• is in an excited energy state.
7 a i The mass-energy of A must be greater
b Too many nucleons: 𝛼-decay
than the combined mass-energy
of B + C. Too many protons: β +-decay
ii The mass of the neutron is greater Too many neutrons: β −-decay
than the combined mass of the
proton, the electron and the Nucleus on an excited energy state: γ-decay
antineutrino. c i  AZ  X → A−4
  Z−2 Y + 42   α
iii The mass of the proton is less than _
ii  AZ  X → Z+1 0  β  − + ν  e
A  Y + −1
the combined mass of the neutron,
beta-plus particle and the neutrino. iii  AZ  X → Z−1
A  Y + 01   β  ++ ν  e
iv The nucleus must contribute some iv  AZ  X → A  Z  X + γ
energy to the proton so that the total
d
mass-energy of the left-hand side of
a
the equation becomes greater than the
total mass-energy of the right-hand
side of the equation.
A-Z A-Z = Z
b i The combined mass of A and B must b–
b+
be greater than the mass of C.
ii
MassA  + MassB  > MassC 
Or Z
MassA  + MassB  + E K  A + EK    B >

MassC  + E K  C 2 a Strong nuclear force and electrical force
iii (2.01355 + 1.00728 – 3.01603) u = b The strong nuclear force pulls the
4.47 MeV nucleons together; the electrical force
pushes the protons away from each other.
So, this reaction can occur.
c The strong nuclear force
d The strong nuclear force has a limited single nucleon because a single nucleon
range (of about the size of a nucleon), so has no binding energy, so its relatively
for any given nucleon, the strong nuclear large mass means the decay process
force acts only on those other nucleons cannot occur because it would break the
which are immediately adjacent. conservation of energy rule.
The electrical force has an infinite range
3 a It will attract two electrons from nearby
(even though it is an inverse-square law)
and become a helium nucleus.
and so can act on nucleons beyond those
that are immediately adjacent. When the b Rutherford and Royds were able to trap
number of protons is very large (and this the emissions from an alpha emitter in a
means that the number of neutrons is glass jar. After leaving the jar for some
also very large), the electrical force can time, for the alpha particles to attract
become larger than the strong nuclear electrons from the nearby air and become
force—enough to push nucleons away helium atoms, they were able to test the
and cause 𝛼-decay. gas in the jar. They found the gas to be
helium and so were able to show that
e  241 Am → 237
  93 Np + 42   α
95
alpha particles were helium nuclei.
f i 241.004579 u – ( 236.99702 +
4 a I onise means to remove one or more
4.00151)u = 0.006049 u,
electrons from an atom to leave a positive
which is positive, so the decay can ion and a free electron, called an ion pair.
occur spontaneously.
b It moves relatively slowly (compared to
ii 0.006049 × 931.5 = 5.6346 MeV β-particles or γ-rays).
iii Fraction of EK  taken by α-particle It has a doubly positive charge.
depends on ratio of neptunium’s mass
It is relatively large (compared to
to that of the α-particle: _   237   = β-particles or γ-rays).
237 + 4
98% = 0.98 × 5.6346 = 5.52 MeV.
c Suppose the alpha particle has 3 MeV of
iv The neptunium nucleus, formed as   3 × 1 
E K, then it can produce _ 0  6 =
a result of the decay process, is in 30
1 × 10  5 ion pairs.
an excited nuclear energy level. The
nucleus then emits a gamma ray as d i
At the start of its path, the
it falls from the excited state to its alpha particle has lots of energy
ground state. and moves at a constant speed, so
its ability to ionise remains fairly
g
i 241.004579 u − (240.00211 + 1.00728) constant. As the alpha particle loses
u = −0.00481 u, a significant amount of its energy, it
which is negative, so the decay cannot starts to slow down, which allows it to
occur spontaneously. ionise more atoms per cm. When the
alpha particle has lost almost all its
ii 241.004579 u − (240.00305 + 1.00867) energy it slows down very quickly and
u = −0.00714 u, so doesn’t travel very much farther
which is also negative, so the decay and doesn’t have enough energy left to
cannot occur spontaneously. ionise any more atoms, so the ionising
events per cm fall rapidly to zero.
h The alpha-particle is so tightly bound –
that is has a binding energy that is so ii Area = total number of ion pairs.
large – that its sufficiently small mass Estimate is 90 000 ion pairs. This is
allows it to be emitted from unstable not significantly different from the
nuclei whilst obeying the conservation of answer to part c.
energy rule. Nuclei cannot usually emit a
e 8 × 10    = 4 × 10  5 atoms thick

i  _
−5
d No.
2 × 10 
−10

5 × 1 
ii  _ 0  = 1.67 × 10  5 ionising events
6
e Typical γ-rays have energies of the order
30 of MeV. A visible light photon from an
iii To pass through the paper, the electron energy level transition in an atom
alpha-particle would have to make at would have an energy of between 1 and
least 4 × 10  5ionising events. With an 2 eV. So the γ-ray energy is about a million
initial kinetic energy of only 5.0 MeV, times larger.
the alpha particle can make only 8 a Using the constant ratio rule for every
1.67 × 10  5ionising events. So, the 5 mm:
alpha-particle will have run out of
400 = 1.87;  _
 _ 115 = 1.90;
214 = 1.86;  _
energy before it passes through the 214 115 61
piece of paper. 61
_
    = 1.85.
33
5 a i 6 protons and 6 neutrons
Since these values are all approximately
ii 6 protons and 8 neutrons the same, the graph is exponential.
b It has too many neutrons. b i Reading from the graph, half the
intensity occurs for a thickness of
c It will decay by β  −-decay. 5.5 ±0.2 mm.
_
d  146  C → 14 0  β  − (+00   ν )
  7  C + −1 ii 1/e = 0.37. 0.37 × 400 = 148.
6 a 32  He The thickness required for this is
about 8.0 ±0.2 mm.
b 32
16
  S
9 a 2 × 938 MeV = 2 × 938 × 1.6 × 10 −13
E=
c 63
29
  Cu = 3.0 × 10  −10 J
d 90
39
  Y b i Pair production requires the
e  209 Bi intervention of a heavy nucleus.
83
During the production process,
7 a No particles are emitted from the nucleus some of the energy of the photon is
(assuming we don’t decribe a γ-photon as given to the nucleus. Excess energy
a particle!). is transformed into E K of the two
particles produced. So, the actual
The nucleus does not change into a
energy required by the photon is
different nuclide.
greater than this calculated value.
b  AZ  X  * → A  Z  X + 00   γ
ii Most will be transformed into E K of
Note: it is usual to add an asterisk to the
the proton and anti-proton, a small
symbol for the nuclide to show that it is in amount will be transformed into E K
an excited state. of the nearby heavy nucleus.
c Since there is no change in the kind of

nucleus it is, the nucleus must go from
an excited energy state to a lower energy
state, emitting the gamma photon as the
difference between the energies of the two
states involved.
10 Radiation What is it? Charge Mass Ionising Stopped Deflected by em

(amu) ability by? field?
𝛼 Helium +2 4.00151 Very A piece Yes, weakly
nucleus good of paper
β  − Fast-moving −1 0.00055 medium Thin Yes, strongly
electron aluminium
β + Fast-moving +1 0.00055 medium Thin Yes, strongly
positron aluminium
γ Electromagnetic 0 0 low Several cm No
radiation of lead
11 a Any radiation present around us that is of 6: Repeat step 2 every minute and record all
natural origin. results in a table.
b The Sun, cosmic rays, food, rocks, radon Plot the graph of the average count for 10 s
gas from the ground and buildings. against time for about half an hour.
c Generally, the amount of radiation we are Use the graph to find the half-life in the
exposed to in our lives is too small for it usual way.
to cause us any significant harm.
15 a A series of decays that lead eventually to
d Corrected count means that the count of a stable nucleus.
radioactive decay events from a particular
b 238 U
source has been adjusted by subtracting 92
146
the background count from it.
12 a i
The time it takes for half of the nuclei 144
Neutron number, A-Z
present to decay.
142
ii The number of decay events per second
b Becquerels, Bq, where 1 Bq = 1 decay 140
per second.
138
c 1 Ci = 3.7 × 10  10Bq, and so 1 mCi =
3.7 × 10  4 Bq.
136
84 86 88 90 92
13 a 80 g
Proton number, Z
b 40 g
  92 U → 234
c
238
  90 Th + 42   α
c 10 g
  90 Th → 234
234   91 Pa + −10  β  −
14 Equipment required: GM tube and counter,
radioactive sample, two stopwatches, tongs to  234
91
 Pa → 234 0  β  −
  92 U + −1
hold the sample  234 U → 230
  90 Th + 42   α
92
Method: Measure the background radiation    Th → 226

230
  88 Ra + 42  α
90
for a period of 10 s several times and find the
average count due to background radiation    Ra → 222
226
88
  86 Rn + 42   α
over a 10-s period. Measure the time with   86 Rn → 218
222   84 Po + 42   α
the stopwatch. 2: Place the sample against
the GM tube. 3: Start one of the stopwatches   84 Po → 214
218   82 Pb + 42   α
and use the other stopwatch and GM tube
and counter to measure the count over a
10-speriod three times. 4: Find the average
count over the 10-s period. 5: Subtract the
background count to get a corrected count.
Exercise 23.3 ii The mass deficit in the beta-decay

equation defines the total amount of
1 a Scattering thorugh small angles still energy that is released—by whatever
occurred, but the back-scattering and the means. So, since both modes of decay
scattering through very large angles that are examples of the same β-decay
Lord Rutherford had observed no process (involving the same nuclei),
longer occurred. both modes must release the same
total energy.
b The strong nuclear force
iii If the daughter nucleus produced is
c The much-higher-energy α-particles were
in an excited state—that is, one that
now able to approach the gold nuclei to
is above its ground state—then the
within about 10  −15m. At this distance,
daughter nucleus will emit a gamma
the strong nuclear force is dominant
ray to lower its energy down to an
over the Coulomb repulsive force, and
energy level lower than its current level,
the α-particles were absorbed within the
and eventually to its ground state. This
gold nuclei, thus making the large-angle
may involve more than one γ-emission
scattering absent from observations.
and so suggests that more than one
This provided suitable evidence for the
nuclear energy state may exist.
existence of the strong nuclear force.
4 a 5.443 MeV + 0.102 MeV = 5.545 MeV
2 a They have too many neutrons.
5.443 MeV + 0.043 MeV + 0.059 MeV =
b i The β  −spectrum is continuous; the
5.545 MeV
α-spectrum is discrete, consisting on
one or more vertical lines extending 5.486 MeV + 0.059 MeV = 5.545 MeV
upwards from the kinetic energy axis.
So, all modes release the same total energy.
ii Pauli suggested that if there were
another particle emitted, along with b The mass deficit in the α-decay equation
the β  −-particle, then the two particles defines the total amount of energy that is
could share the available energy— released—by whatever means. So, since all
allowing the energy spectrum of the three modes of decay are examples of the
β  −-particle to be continuous. same α-decay process (involving the same
The other particle turned out to be nuclei), all three modes must release the
the electron antineutrino. same total energy.
_ c 1.02 MeV above ground state
c  136  C → 13 0  β + 00    ν
  7  N + −1
0.059 MeV above ground
d i
Δm = 13.99994 u −
(13.99922 + 0.00055) u = 0.00017 u
Ground state
∴ E = 0.00017 × 931.5 = 158 keV
d They are very much larger. In this
ii Max. fraction of available energy =
example, the excited nuclear energy levels
   13.99922
 ________________  = 99.996%—very
0.00055 + 13.99922 are 59 keV and 102 keV; excited energy
nearly all of it! levels for electrons in atoms are of the
order of about 10 eV, so the nuclear
3 a  AZ  X  * → A  Z  X + 00   γ energy levels are of the order of 10 000
b
i 9 + 4.4 = 13.4, so the two release the times larger.
same total energy. e Electromagnetic radiations from the
electron energy level transitions in atoms
have energies that are of the order 10 −4 of
the energies of the gamma rays emitted by
excited nuclei.
N 
5 N = No  e −λt, so after t = t _ 1 , N = __
a   o and 8 a The radioactive isotope  146  C decays by β −
2 2
N  emission. In living tissue, the proportion
so,  __o  = No  e  −λt 
  1 
__
2
2
of  146  C to 12
  6  C remains constant, but in
 lnt 12 .
∴ −ln2 = −λt _ 1  ⇒ 𝝀 = _

dead tissue, the proportion decreases as
2  _ 
2 the radioactive isotope decays. So, if a
This is, in fact, the usual way in which the known quantity (say, 5 g) of fossilised
link between half life, t__ 1 , and the decay organic material is measured for its count
2
constant, 𝜆, is derived. rate and then compared to the corrected
b i λ =  _
( )
ln 2 _____________________
0.693 count rate for a sample of 5 g of the
t  1 
=     9
_
   
7
 
1.25 × 10  × 3.15 × 10  same kind of living organic material, an
2
= 1.8 × 10  −17 s  −1 approximate age of the fossilised material
( )
can be found, using half-life.
ii  lnt 12 
λ = _ _
=  
0.693   = 1.2 × 10  −3 s  −1
_
9.96 × 60
 _ 
2 b i
√144 = 12
( )
  lnt 12 
iii λ = _ ________________
0.693
=     7 
144 , so the material will be three
ii 18 =  _
_
   
2
5.27 × 3.15 × 1 0  3
2 
= 4.2 × 10  −9 s  −1 half-lives old = 3 × 5730 years =
17 190 years.
( A  ) ( A  )
( )
6   ln 2  = ___________
t  _ 1  = _
a   0.693 −5  = 5.4 × 1 0  4 s   A  
ln _   A  
ln _
λ 1.28 × 10 
2
A = A  o e  −λt ⇒ t = _
c   −λo = t   _ 1  × _
  o
  =
2 −0.693
 5.4 × 10  = 15.0 hours
4
b 5.4 × 10  4s = _______ ln(0.92)
60 × 60 5730 ×  _  = 690 years.
−0.693
i
After 15 hours, the activity of a 9 Measure the mass of the sample accurately.
sample of 24   1 .
  Na will be __ Use the mass of the sample and the relative
11 2
atomic mass of the nuclide to calculate
ii After 30 hours, the activity of a the number of nuclei present. Measure the
sample of 24  1 .
  Na will be __ corrected count rate with a GM tube placed
11 4
1 cm away from the sample. Assuming that
7 a   0.693
t_ 1  = _ λ
  0.693  = 60 s
  = _ the sample emits its decay products in all
2 0.01155
directions, find the fraction of the area of
b and c the GM tube window to the area of a sphere
700 of radius 1 cm. Divide the corrected count
600 dN 600
rate by this fraction to get the activity of
Gradient = = < 7 decays s–1
dt 86 the sample.
500
Find the decay constant using λ = _A .
 N
400
N
Half life = 60 s
300   0.693
Determine the half-life by using t _ 1  = _ λ
 .
2
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
60 86 Time / s
−dN
d  _ |
   = λ N0  = 0.01155 × 600 = 6.93 ≈ 7
dt t=0
Chapter 24
Exercise 24.1 c The induced fission of  235
92
 U can produce
a range of pairs of nuclei, not just Cs and
1 a The splitting of a nucleus of large mass Rb. This means that the energy released
into two smaller nuclei of smaller mass will be different for each particular
(usually accompanied by one or example of the fission process.
more neutrons). The average energy released by all
b The fission process occurs without the possible fission reactions is 215 MeV.
need for an absorbed neutron. 5 a  235 U absorbs a slow neutron and
92
c The fission process requires a neutron to undergoes fission quite easily. The
be absorbed. nucleus  238 92
 U does not readily undergo
fission; it absorbs neutrons without
2 a Two smaller-mass nuclei have binding further nuclear processes.
energy per nucleon that is larger than
a heavy mass nucleus, such as uranium b Specific energy of natural uranium =
or plutonium. So the fission process is 0.6% × 8.0 × 10  13= 4.8 × 10  11 Jkg  −1
energetically possible since the difference c 200 MeV = 200 × 1.6 × 1 0  −13 = 3.2 × 10 −11 J
between the total binding energy of the from the fission of one nucleus.
fission products and the original, heavier, 1000  × 6.023 × 10  23 =
nucleus is the energy released by the In 1 kg there are  _
235
fission process. 2.6 × 10  nuclei.
24
So, the specific energy = 3.2 × 10  −11 × 2.6

b Small-mass nuclei, such as deuterium and × 1 0  24= 8.3 × 10  13 Jkg  −1, which is about
tritium, have binding energy per nucleon 8 × 1 0  13 Jkg  −1.
that is smaller than heavier-mass nuclei,
such as helium. So when two small- d This value is about 10  4greater than the
mass nuclei are fused together to make a specific energy for fossil fuels.
heavier-mass nucleus, the total binding
e Enriched nuclear fuel is uranium that has
energy becomes greater and energy is
  92 U content increased. A greater
had its 235
thus released. Another way of looking at
percentage of the uranium fuel rod can
this is that the combined mass of the two
undergo fission, increasing the specific
small-mass nuclei is greater than the mass
energy of the fuel. This improves the
of the heavier nucleus. The difference in
efficiency of the nuclear power station.
mass between the two becomes the energy
released in the fusion process. 6 a i The energy released by the fission
process is in the form of kinetic
c The boundary between the two processes
energy of the fast neutrons. It is this
occurs where the binding energy per
kinetic energy that is destined to
nucleon is greatest. This happens for the
become the electrical energy output
elements iron and nickel.
from the power station.
3 a Nuclear fission
ii The uranium nuclei will not readily
b Neutron absorb fast-moving neutrons; they will
just ‘bounce off’. (In technical terms,
c Kinetic energy of the fission fragments physicists say that the cross section for
4 a 235 + 1 = 137 + 95 + 4. So, n = 4. absorption—that is, the probability—
is too small for fast-moving neutrons
b The mass deficit is (234.994 + 1.0087) – and is very much larger for slow, or
(136.877 + 94.886 + 4 × 1.0087) = thermal, neutrons). So, the fast-moving
0.2049 u. neutrons have to be slowed down to a
So, the energy released is 0.2049 × 931.5 = speed that is acceptable to the uranium
191 MeV. nuclei. Only then will the neutrons
be absorbed.
b The fast-moving neutrons collide with the b i Fast-moving neutrons (from the
atoms of the moderator. Each collision fission process) collide with atoms/
makes the neutrons lose a small amount molecules of the moderator, slowing
of their energy (about 30% or so). So, down the neutrons so they are more
after many collisions, the neutrons will likely to be absorbed by uranium-235
have lost sufficient energy to slow them nuclei. This transfer of energy heats
down to thermal speeds, at which they can the moderator. This thermal energy
then be absorbed by other uranium nuclei. is transferred via a heat exchanger
to a more conventional system
In addition to this, the energy lost by the that produces steam. Typically, a
neutrons is gained by the atoms of the moderator can be water or graphite.
moderator, making the moderator become
very hot. It is this thermal energy that is ii Control rods absorb neutrons.
then transferred, by heat exchangers, and This reduces the number of neutrons
will be used to heat water to make steam that are able to collide with, and be
to drive turbines and so on. absorbed by, uranium-235 nuclei.
This allows a controlled chain
c If one of the neutrons emitted during reaction to occur, that is a sequence
the fission process can be used to initiate of fission processes that does not
another fission process, then a chain of increase in number but keeps a
reactions can occur: a chain reaction. steady output of energy. Inserting
This requires two things: first, the (or withdrawing) the control rods
neutrons are moderated, and second, reduces (or increases) the number
some of the neutrons need to be of fission reactions occurring, thus
removed so that only one neutron controlling the amount of energy
will become available to induce another produced. Control rods are usually
fission reaction. made from boron.
d Control rods. The control rods are made iii The heat exchanger takes the thermal
from materials whose atoms will readily energy from the moderator and uses
absorb neutrons without becoming it to produce steam for the turbines.
themselves unstable. In this way, inserting The heat exchanger is a closed system
the control rods into the nuclear reactor so that if it is contaminated in any
allows some of the neutrons to be absorbed. way by radioactive material, it will
7 A small mass of uranium will have a relatively not affect the surrounding power
large value for the surface area-to-mass ratio. station. Common heat-exchanger
This means that if fission events occur within materials include pressurised water
the mass, then it will be fairly easy for some and carbon dioxide gas.
of the neutrons emitted to escape from the c i Removing the moderator would
surface of the fuel rod. If this occurs then reduce or stop the output of the
there will be insufficient neutrons to keep a nuclear power station.
sustained chain reaction going. A mass large
enough to have a surface area to mass ratio It would not slow down the fast
that is small enough to keep most of the neutrons, so fewer fission
neutrons produced inside the fuel rod is called reactions occur.
the critical mass.
There would be no facility to transfer
8 a Nuclear binding energy in the the energy from the kinetic energy
nucleus of uranium →kinetic energy of the fast neutrons to the heat
of fission fragments →thermal energy exchanger in order to produce steam
of moderator → thermal energy in heat for the turbines.
exchanger →thermal energy of steam →
rotational energy of turbines →electrical
energy produced by generator.
ii Without the control rods, it would 13 a → 229

   U
233
92
  90 T h + 42  α [2]
not be possible to sustain a chain
reaction. Too many neutrons will be b E  Kavailable = (4.00787 − 4.001506) =
available to produce further fission 0.00636 u
reactions, which go on to produce = 0.00636 × 931.5 MeV = 5.92 MeV [2]
even more neutrons. The nuclear
power station would probably c The conservation of momentum
overheat, melt down and explode. states that the total momentum before
the interaction must equal the total
d The nuclear waste from a fission reactor momentum after the interaction.
is highly radioactive, with long half- If the alpha particle moves off in one
lives and chemically reactive. It must be direction, then the daughter nucleus left
disposed of somewhere where it will behind must move off in the opposite
not be a risk to living things for direction. This will require some of the
thousands of years. It is an expensive energy available from the alpha decay
technological challenge. process. What remains is the actual
E  Kof the alpha particle. [1]
14 a Mass available = (220.01140 −
Multiple-choice questions 216.00192 − 4.001506) u = 0.00797 u [1]
1 B [1]
So, EK  available is 0.00797 ×
2 A [1] 931.5 MeV = 7.43 MeV.
3 B [1] b The Po nucleus is 54 times more massive
than the α-particle, so its velocity will
4 A [1]
  1  of that of the α-particle. So, its
be _
54
5 B [1]   1   of that of the α-particle. [2]
EK  will be _
54
6 C [1]   54
c E Kα = _ 55
 × 7.43 MeV= 7.29 MeV [2]
7 D [1] _
15 a  146  C → 14 0  β  − + ν  e
  7  N + −1 [2]
8 C [1]
b Mass available for conversion into
9 C [1] energy = 14.003241 − 13.999231 −
0.00055 = 0.00346 u
10 C [1]
This energy is 0.00346 × 931.5 MeV =
11 B [1] 3.22 MeV.
Short-answer questions (Note that in this calculation, the mass

of the electron antineutrino has been
12 a Two protons; one neutron [1]
ignored. Although it is, in fact, non-zero,
b Mass deficit = (2 × 1.007276 + the mass of the antineutrino is likely to
1.008665 − 3.01603) u = 0.0072 u [1] be too small to have an effect here.)
So, binding energy = 0.0072 × So, the EK  of the electron must be less
931.5 MeV = 6.72 MeV [1] than 3.22 MeV. [2]
Therefore, the binding energy per
  6.72 = 2.24 MeV nucleon  −1.
nucleon ____ [1]
3
c 21 D + 21 D → 32 He + 10  n [1]
c Some of this E Kis required for the d This method has two major problems
mass of the electron antineutrino. Some with a half-life as long as this:
of this energy is also required for the
EK  of the electron antineutrino and for The activity of a sample is likely to be
the EK  of the daughter nucleus. So, the very small. The activity may not be
maximum EK  of the electron is never significantly different from (or smaller
observed to be as high as 3.22 MeV. [1] than) the background activity.
So, trying to make a corrected count
( )
  lnt  2 
16 a λ = _
_______________
0.693
=        rate would be meaningless. [1]
  1 
_ 433 × 3.15 × 10 
7
2
−11 s  −1

= 5.1 × 10  [1] There will not be any appreciable
5 × 1  
0  × 3.7 ×  10 
change in the activity of the sample
 A  =  __________________
−6 10
b A = λN ⇒ N = _    over a period of time in which the
λ 5.1 × 10  −11
= 3.6 × 10  15 nuclei [2] measurements might be made. So, a
calculation of this kind would produce
c In one year, the activity of the sample a ln (1) = 0, meaning that t __ 1 cannot
won’t drop appreciably because its be calculated
2
[1]
half-life is so long; the advertised
activity will be very close to the 20 a 1 + 13 = 13 + 1, so the particle must
actual activity. [1] have 1 nucleon.
_
17 a 38 S  r → 39
90 90
  + −1 β  + ν  e
 Y 0 −
[2] And 1 + 6 = 7 + 0, so the particle has
no charge.
b The total energy available is equal to
the mass–energy difference between the Therefore, the particle must be
parent nucleus and the three product a neutron. [1]
particles. This is a constant.This energy is
_ b Mass deficit = (1.007276 + 13.000055)
shared between the α-particle and the ν  e,
so the electron has a spectrum of u – (13.001889 + 1.008665) u =
energies between zero and the total − 0.003223 u [2]
energy available. [2] So, the proton needs a minimum E K of
c The nucleus left behind (  Y
  ) has a 90 0.003223 ×931.5 MeV = 3.002 MeV. [1]
39
mass that is about 160 000 times that c Conservation of momentum.
of the β 
−-particle, so its kinetic energy (statement alone = [1]) Since before
will be 1/160 000th of the β  −-particle’s. the reaction the proton had momentum,
This is too small for it to be significant.[1] after the reaction the nitrogen nucleus
ln2  = ___________
18 a 𝝀 =  _   0.693 17  = 4.88 × 10  −18 s  −1 [1] and the neutron will have to have
t   _1  1.42 × 10  momentum too. This will require
2
extra energy. [1]

 1 × 10  × 6.023 × 10  = 2.53 × 10  18 [2]
−3 23
b N = _____________________
    
238
dN = − 𝝀N = 4.88 × 10 −18 × 2.53 × 10  18
21 a Nuclear fission [1]
c  _
dt
= 12.3 decays s  −1 [2] b Mass defect for energy production
19 a The count rate that the GM tube has = ((236.0526 − ( 143.92292 + 88.91781 +
measured has the value of the (3 × 1.008665)) ) u [1]
background radiation count rate = 0.185875 u [1]
subtracted from it so that the corrected
count rate is due only to the sample. [1] So, energy available = 0.185875 ×
931.5 MeV = 173.14 MeV. [1]
( CCRo  ) _ (  470 )
  CCR   − ln _
−ln _ 380
CCR  = e  −λt ⇒ λ = _
b  _     =     c Energy is released as E 
K of the
CCRo  t 20 × 60
fission fragments. [1]
= 1.8 × 10  −4 s  −1 [2]
  0.693 −4  = 3.85 × 10  3 s =
c t __ 1 = _
2 1.8 × 10 
1.07 hours [1]
22 a 200 MeV = 200 × 1.6 × 10 

−13 = c 0.7  n × 3.2 × 10  −11 = 6.1 × 10  −21
3.2 × 10  J
−11
[1]   6.1 × 10  −11  = 1.9 × 10  −10
−21
⇒ 0.7  n = ___________
3.2 × 10 
  3  kT,
Then, using the equation E K = _
2 log(1.9 × 10  −10)

2 × E  _____________
So, n =   
   = 63.
T = _
  K 2 × 3.2 × 1 0   
  =  ______________
  
  
−11
( ) log 0.7
3×k 3 × 1.38 × 1 0 
−23
So, the neutron will need to make

= 1.5 × 10  K.
12
[1]
about 60 collisions for its energy
b  _3  kT = _
  3  × 1.38 × 10  −23× ( 20 + 273) to be reduced to that of a
2 2
thermal neutron. [2]
  6.1 × 10  −19 
−21
= 6.1 × 10  −21 J = ___________
1.6 × 10 
= 3.8 × 10  −2 eV [1]
Chapter 25
Exercise 25.1 vii It is about 5 million times more.
b i They will need to overcome the
1 a The joining together of two light nuclei to
electrostatic repulsion of the
form a heavier nucleus.
Coulomb force if they are to join
b If the combined masses of the two together. This will require transferring
nuclei (or nucleus and another particle) kinetic energy into electrical potential
are greater than the mass of the heavier energy so that the two protons get
nucleus (and any other particles close enough to each other for the
produced), then energy is released. strong nuclear force to overcome the
Coulomb force. If one of the two
c Kinetic energy of the particles and any protons were stationary, then as the
gamma rays produced. other approaches, the stationary
2 Mass deficit = ( 1.007276 + 1.008665 − proton would be deflected backwards
2.013553)u = 0.002388 u (away from the approaching proton),
which may mean that the two protons
So, energy released = 0.002388 × 931.5 MeV = could not get close enough for the
2.22 MeV strong nuclear force to overcome the
3 a i Mass deficit = ( 2 × 1.007276)− electrostatic repulsion.
(2.013553 + 0.00055)u = 0.000449 u ii Combined EK  = EP  at a separation of
So, energy available = 0.000449 × 2.4 × 1
0−15m
931.5 MeV = 0.418 MeV
So,
   1
ii  ____________________   = 5.98 × 10  26 q  2
1.007276 × 1.66 × 1 0 
−27
  1  × k _
EK  of each proton = _   r 
2
protons kg  −1 ( 1.6 × 10  −19)   2
  1  × 9 × 10  9 ×  ___________
=_  
2 2.4 × 10  −15
An alternative method might be
1 gramme of hydrogen is 1 mole. = 4.8 × 10  −14 J
So 1 kg is 1000 moles = 4.8 × 10    J
=  ______________
  
    
−14
6 × 10  26 protons kg  −1.

−13 −1
1.6 × 10  J MeV 
= 0.3 MeV.
iii 5.98 × 10  26× 0.418 × 1.6 × 1 0 −13 =
iii 2 ×   0.3 × 1.6 × 10   = 2.3 × 10  9 K
T =  ___________________
  
−13
4.0 × 10  13 Jkg  −1 3 × 1.38 × 10 
−23
iv The 01   β  +particle will quickly iv If the temperature in the Sun’s core
annihilate with one of the electrons is of the order of 10 7K, then, because
from the hydrogen. This will produce of the Maxwellian distribution of
two gamma rays, which have energy. energies that the protons will have,
some protons, although not a large
v The combined mass of the 01   β  + proportion of them, will have
particle and the electron is energies significantly larger than
2 × 0.00055 u = 0.0011 u. This is the average (i.e. the small number
equivalent to 0.0011 × 931.5 = of protons in the largest energy tail
1.02 MeV. of the distribution). This means
vi So, the total energy available from that it is possible for this reaction
each fusion reaction is 0.418 + 1.02 = to occur, although it does so with a
1.438 MeV low probability.
Therefore, the energy from 1 kg of

hydrogen will be
5.98 × 10  26× 1.438 × 1.6 × 1 0 −13 =
1.38 × 10  14 Jkg  −1.
v This reaction process—the production c The technological difficulties are based

of deuterium nuclei from protons—is on the three conditions that the star’s
the start of a chain of other fusion core satisfies: temperature, density
processes, all of which contribute to and confinement.
the energy production of a star like the
Sun. So, if this fusion reaction happens Temperature: It is possible to produce
with only a low probability, then a protons with effective temperatures—
relatively low number of deuterium or such high energies—using particle
nuclei will be available for the other accelerators. This isn’t seen, as yet,
fusion reactions. This limits the energy as a viable method of producing
that a star like the Sun can produce. high-energy protons.
4 a i The gravitational collapse of a cloud Density: The biggest difficulty of this

of (mostly hydrogen) gas, following is that, at the current time, it is only
the Rayleigh–Jeans criterion, transfers possible to produce protons of these
gravitational potential energy into high energies in small amounts, amounts
thermal energy. This heats up the that are insufficient to sustain the fusion
core of the star to temperatures reactions necessary to produce usable
that eventually allow thermonuclear fusion power. This means that the high
fusion to occur. densities of protons required are not yet
easily achievable.
ii The large gravitational forces acting
on all parts of the star, cause the Confinement: Keeping the hot, energetic
constituent particles within it to be protons in a small space is not an
forced very close together, increasing easy thing to do, despite technological
its density. This is particularly the advances in strong magnetic and
case at the core of the star. So, the electric fields.
core becomes very dense. 5 a (1.007276 + 7.016)u − ( 2 × 4.0015)u =
b i Large number of protons in close 0.0203 u
proximity partly negates the low This is 0.0203 × 931.5 = 18.9 MeV.
probability of them fusing.
The overall effect is to allow sufficient b 18.9 MeV = 18.9 × 1.6 × 10 −13 =
numbers of fusion reactions to occur, 3.02 × 10  −12J. This would have been split
producing the deuterium nuclei that evenly between the two alpha particles, so
will go on to produce more energy by each alpha particle would get 1.5 × 10 −12 J
other fusion processes. (9.38 MeV) of kinetic energy.
ii Despite the large kinetic energies Exercise 25.2

that the protons have at these high
temperatures, the large density of 1 a Spica
the core—and the large gravitational
force acting against thermal
expansion—keeps the density Betelgeuse
high enough to keep the protons
Intensity
in the core region available for the

fusion reactions.
iii The transfer of gravitational potential
energy into thermal energy causes
both the high density of the core Wavelength
and the high temperatures in the
core. So, the high density has to be
accompanied by a high temperature.
b i The hotter star will have its peak LProcyon

  σAProcyon
 
4 × 6530   = 6.9 TProcyon
 4  4
3 a  _   = ___________
    =  _
intensity at a smaller wavelength. L  ⊙
4 4
σA⊙  T⊙     5700 
L  σA  T  4 
ii Wien’s displacement law. λpeak   = b  _
Sirius A
 = 25.4 = ___________
  Sirius A Sirius
 A
2.9 ×  
10  −3, where λ  is the wavelength L  4
σA⊙  T⊙    
 _
⊙
T peak σ4π(r  Sirius A)  2 TSirius

______________   4 
at which maximum intensity occurs =          A
σ4π(r  ⊙)   T⊙    

2 4
and T is the absolute temperature. ___________
√
r  T⊙  4  
iii It doesn’t! There is no emissivity term So, _
  Sirius
r⊙   
A
=
  
25.4 × _
    
TSirius
  4  A

in Wien’s law. ___________
√  5700  4   = 1.7
4
= 25.4 × _
 2.9 × 10  −9 = 4462 = 4500 K (2 s.f.)
−3
c T=_ 9940 
650 × 10 
L  σ4πr  2  T  4   T 
  2.9 × 10   = 670 nm (2 s.f.)
−3
d i   = _
λpeak 4 a  _ X
  = _
  X X
 = 500 and _
 TX    = 20
4300 L  Y
2 4
σ4πrY    TY     Y
_
ii With the peak in the spectrum at this r  
wavelength (almost right at the far So, _   rX    = _
Y
√
  5004   = 0.06
20 
red end of the visible spectrum), there L  Betelgeuse σ4π(rBetelgeuse   )  2 TBetelgeuse
  4 
will be a large amount of energy at b  _   =   __________________
        =
L  Rigel σ4π(rRigel
  )   TRigel
2
   4

wavelengths that are too long to be (1100 × r  )  2 (0.6 × T  )  4
  1100 2 × 0.4 
6  = 2.0 2 4
visible. These infrared wavelengths  _____________________
     ⊙ ⊙
  = ___________
(70 × r⊙  )  (2 × T⊙  ) 
2 4
70  × 2 
will add to the visible part of the
emission to make the luminosity 5 a Apparent brightness: the amount of
(the total emitted power) larger than energy received at the Earth per second
one would expect by considering the per unit area—or the received power per
visible wavelengths only. unit area at the Earth.
  2.9 × 10  −3  = 2.7 K
−3
T = ___________   3.83 × 10    =
L   = ______________ 26
e
1.063 × 10  b b =  _
i ( 11) 2
2
4πd  4π 1.5 × 10   
2 a
Luminosity is the total power radiated by 1.4 × 10  3 Wm  −2
the star.
ii This is usually known as the solar
b L = 4πσR  2T  4 constant, S.
c i L = σAT  4 = 5.67 × 10  −8× 4π × c L   =   
b =  _     5.0 × 10 
__________________   =
28
2 ( 15) 2
4πd   4π 4 × 9.46 × 10   
(7 × 10  8)  2 × 57 00  4 = 3.7 × 10  26 W
2.8 × 10  −6 Wm  −2
ii L = σAT  4 = 5.67 × 10  −8× 4π × L 
_
  α 2  L  d    2
(8.2 × 10  11)  2 × 35 00  4 = bα  4π(d  )  ( )
7.2 × 10  31 W 6     =   L  α   = _
_ _   α ⊙ 2  =
⊙( α)
bSun
  _
L   d   
  ⊙ 2 
4π(d⊙  ) 
iii L = σAT  4 = 5.67 × 10  −8× 4π ×
1.52 × (  )  = 2.1 × 10  −11
2
8.33
_________________
    
(4.9 × 10  10)   2 × 11 200  4 = 2.7 × 10  31 W 4.3 × 365 × 24 × 60
L   = _  3.7 × 10   = 0.97 ≈ 1
26
d i  _
L⊙  3.8 × 10  26 7 a Using Wien’s displacement law,
 2.9 × 10  −9 = 7250 = 7300 K (2 s.f.)
−3
T=_
  7.2 × 10 26   = 1.9 × 10  5
L   = _ 31
ii  _
L 
400 × 10 
⊙ 3.8 × 10  _ ______________
√ 4πb √ 4π × 2.8 × 10 
  7.2 × 10  −10   =
  L   = ______________
27
iii  _L   = _  2.7 × 10    = 7.1 × 10  4

31
d=_
b   
L  ⊙ 3.8 × 10  26
1.43 × 10  18 m
  1.43 × 10  15 = 151 ly
18
=_
9.46 × 10 
8 a A Hertzsprung–Russell diagram is a iv 10  −2.5 × 10  10 = 3.2 × 10  7years =

graph showing the relationship between 3.2 million years
the luminosity of stars and their
surface temperatures. 11 a Gravitational potential energy is
transformed into thermal energy as the
b, c and d cloud of gas contracts and heats up.
b i Thermonuclear fusion means
supergiants that small nuclei fuse to form
106
heavier particles.
Luminosity relative to Sun
Betelgeuse
104 ii The end products are helium nuclei
and energy.
red
102
giants 12 a When the core of the star has converted
Vega
main 12% of the star’s hydrogen into helium the
1 Sun
sequence amount of helium in the core of the star
starts to inhibit the further production of
10–2
helium by the proton–proton chain. The
Sirius B
white helium nuclei simply ‘get in the way’. This
10–4 causes instabilities to occur in the star,
dwarfs
0 because the rate of energy production has
40 000 20 000 10 000 5 000 2 500
become less. The gravitational—inward
Temperature/K
directed—forces then start to overcome
9 a Main sequence stars have a range of the thermal expansion forces in the core.
temperatures and luminosities that, on the
b After moving off the main sequence, the
HR diagram, form a band from top left to
star will become a red giant star. After
bottom right.
that, it will become a planetary nebula
b Red giant stars have quite small surface and leave behind a small core. If the mass
temperatures and large luminosities, of this core is less than 1.4 solar masses, it
putting them in a clump above and to the will become a white dwarf. Since the white
right of the main sequence. dwarf cannot continue to produce energy,
it will gradually cool and fade until it
c Supergiant stars have extremely large becomes a brown dwarf, and eventually,
luminosities and a mid-range of it will become too cold to radiate in
temperatures, putting them in a clump the visible part of the electromagnetic
above the red giants on the HR diagram. spectrum; it will be a black dwarf.
d White dwarf stars have high surface c In a white dwarf star, the
temperatures and small luminosities, gravitational forces are balanced by
putting them in a region below and to the electron degeneracy pressure.
the left of the main sequence on the This is a consequence of the Pauli
HR diagram. exclusion principle.
10 a A main sequence star’s luminosity is 13 a It will become a supergiant star once it
proportional to its mass to the power leaves the main sequence. After a period
3.5 (L ∝ M  3.5) of continued fusion of heavier elements, it
b (10M  ⊙)  3.5 = 10  3.5 × M  ⊙  3.5= 3162 M  ⊙  3.5, undergoes a supernova explosion, leaving
which is about 3200 L  ⊙. behind a dense core. If the mass of this
core is less than 1.4 solar masses (this is
c 53.5 ≈ 280. So, the luminosity of the star called the Chandrasekhar limit) then the
will be 280 × 3.8 × 1 0 26 = 1.1 × 10  29 W. core will become a white dwarf. If the
d i E = αMc  2 mass of the core is 1.4 to 3.0 solar masses
(called the Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit), it
 αM  
c  2
ii t=_ L
will become a neutron star. If the mass of
the core is greater than three solar masses,
  αM3.5c     ⇒ t ∝ M  −2.5
2
iii t∝_ it will become a black hole.
M 
b The Chandrasekhar limit is the 15 At some distance away from the black hole,
maximum mass that a white dwarf star the escape velocity becomes smaller than the
can have. For a mass below this limit, speed of light, allowing radiation to escape the
electron degeneracy pressure can oppose huge gravitational field. This is often called
gravitational forces and allow the star the event horizon. Matter (e.g. from a binary
to be a stable white dwarf. For a mass companion star) that has been attracted by the
larger than this, electron degeneracy huge gravitational field of the black hole emits
pressure is no longer sufficient to oppose X-rays as it speeds up on its path towards
the gravitational forces and the star will the black hole. Astronomers can observe
contract further into a neutron star. this X-ray emission from the region outside
the event horizon and infer the existence of
c neutron degeneracy pressure. a black hole.
d The Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit states 16 a The mass deficit is ( 1.007276 + 2.013553) u
that for masses greater than three solar − 3.01493 u = 0.0059 u.
masses, the core of the star will not
be able to provide sufficient neutron So, energy released is E = 0.0059 × 931.5 =
degeneracy pressure to keep the star in 5.49 MeV.
hydrostatic equilibrium. The core will
collapse into a black hole. b The mass deficit is (2 × 3.01493) u −
(4.001506 + 2 × 1.007276)u = 0.01381 u.
14 a
So, energy released is E = 0.01381 × 931.5 =
supergiants
106 12.86 MeV.
Luminosity relative to Sun
c 4 11  H → 42   He + 2 01   β  ++ 2 00  v (Only the
104 particles are shown.)
red d 2 × 1.44 + 2 × 5.49 + 12.86 = 26.7 MeV
102
giants
3.8 × 10   
e Number of reactions s  −1 = _______________
    
26
1 26.7 × 1.6 × 10 −13

Sun = 8.9 × 10  s 
37 −1
10–2 f Mass lost s  −1 = 8.9 × 10  37× 4 × 1.007276 ×

1.66 × 10  −27 = 5.9 × 10  11 kgs  −1
10–4 white
dwarfs g 0.75 × 2 × 10 30 = 1.5 × 10  30 kg
0
  0.12 × 1.5 ×111 
0  = 3.1 × 10  17s = 30
40 000 20 000 10 000 5 000 2 500 h time = _______________
  
5.9 × 10 
Temperature/K 3.1 ×
_______________ 1
0  17
s
  
       = 9.8 × 10  9 years
3.15 × 10  7 s year  −1
b As the star moves off the main sequence
it expands. This causes its luminosity to i 9.8 − 4.6 = 5.2 billion years.
increase and its surface temperature to
decrease. After a period of time in the red Exercise 25.3
giant region of the HR diagram, the star
1 a i
1
  6  C → 13
  p + 12   7  N + γ
undergoes a planetary nebula event, and 1
the core left behind will move from the red ii  137  N → 13
  6  C + 01   β  ++ 00   ν
giant region into the white dwarf region
because it is now smaller and hotter. iii
1
1
  6  C → 14
  p + 13   7  N + γ
The effect of the reduced surface area is iv
1
  7  N → 15
  p + 14   8  O + γ
1
greater than the effect of the increased
temperature, so the luminosity of the v  158  O → 15
  7  N + 01   β  ++ 00   ν
star decreases. vi
1
  7  N → 12
  p + 15   6  C + 42   He
1
b i No. 3 a The two nuclear reactions are

ii No.
4
2
 He + 42  He → 84 Be + 00  γ
iii No. quickly followed by
c It uses 4 protons and produces a helium
8
4
 Be + 42  He → 12  6 C
  + 00 γ.
nucleus, 2 beta-plus-particles and
2 neutrinos, and some gamma radiation. b The 84  Be
  nucleus is highly unstable and
will decay, by alpha decay, into two
d For a proton to fuse with a carbon alpha particles (the half-life for this decay
nucleus (or a nitrogen nucleus), it will is of the order of 10 −16s). So, the second
need to have more kinetic energy than it of the triple-alpha processes has to occur
needs to fuse with an other proton, as in very quickly indeed.
the proton–proton chain. This means that
the temperature of the core of the star c Mass deficit = (3 × 4.001506 – 11.99945) u
will have to be higher. A larger-mass star = 0.005068 u
will have converted more gravitational So, the energy released = 0.005068 × 931.5 MeV
potential energy into thermal energy in = 4.72 MeV.
collapsing from a nebula into a protostar
and then into a main sequence star. The d The surface temperature of the
hotter core will then provide protons with star increases.
enough kinetic energy to approach the e i It will end up as a white dwarf.
heavier nuclei close enough for the strong
nuclear force to overcome the Coulomb ii The very central part of the core will
repulsion and allow the two particles contain carbon; outside this will be
to fuse. helium and outside that hydrogen.
2 a (1.007276 + 11.99945 − 13.00189) × iii No.
931.5 = 4.5047 MeV
4 a The star needs to have enough mass for its
b (13.00189 − 13.00006 − 0.00055)× 931.5 + core to have a high enough temperature so
1.02 MeV = 2.2123 MeV that the helium nuclei have enough kinetic
energy to approach and be absorbed
c (1.007276 + 13.00006 − 13.99922) × by nuclei.
931.5 = 7.5601 MeV
b Adding helium nuclei to other nuclei can
d (1.007276 + 13.99922 − 14.99867) × happen up to iron and nickel. After that,
931.5 = 7.2899 MeV the binding energy per nucleon starts to
e (14.99867 − 14.99626 − 0.00055)× 931.5 + decrease with increasing mass, so further
1.02 MeV = 2.7526 MeV fusion is not possible spontaneously.
f (1.007276 + 14.99626 − 11.99945 − 5 Initial mass Eventual fate of star

4.001506)× 931.5 = 2.4033 MeV M < 0.25M⊙  White dwarf with
g Total energy released = 4.5047 + 2.2123 + helium core
7.5601 + 7.2899 + 2.7526 + 2.4033 = 0.25M⊙  < M < 8M⊙  White dwarf with
26.7 MeV carbon core
h 4 11  p → 42   He + 2 01   β  ++ 2 00   ν (Only the 9M⊙  < M < 12M⊙  White dwarf with
particles are shown.) This is exactly the oxygen, neon or
same as the overall effect of the magnesium core
proton–proton chain. 12M⊙  < M < 40M⊙  Neutron star
i The energy production of the CNO cycle M > 40M⊙  Black hole
is the same as the energy production of
the proton–proton chain.
6 a A sizeable flux of neutrons is required. collapse (because the electron degeneracy

Neutrons can build up in stars over the pressure is insufficient to balance the
long period during which the stars have gravitational force). Further fusion of carbon
been producing heavier and heavier and oxygen produces such a large amount
nuclei. Also, in the very heaviest of stars, of radiation pressure that the star explodes
the extremely high core temperatures into a supernova.
can cause nuclei to break apart during
Since the supernova occurs because the mass
collisions. Some of the collisions will split
of the white dwarf has become 1.4 solar
helium nuclei into protons and neutrons,
masses, the resulting luminosity of the star
adding to the neutron flux available.
will be a constant value—hence the idea of it
In supernovae, the large amounts of
being a standard candle. This constant value
energy available from the explosion do
can then be used to find the distance of the
the same thing, thus increasing the flux
supernova from the Earth.
of neutrons in the star.
10 A type 2 supernova occurs after several stages
b The equation gives a positive mass deficit.
of fusion of successively heavier nuclei in
(Actually, the mass deficit is 0.027 u.)
stars heavier than the Sun. Nuclei fuse in the
This means that the reaction can
core of a star until the supply of nuclei runs
occur spontaneously.
out. This makes the star collapse (because
_
c 59
26
 Fe → 59 0  β  − + 00    νe
  Co + −1
27
the hydrostatic equilibrium has been lost
and gravitational force is dominant). The
d Since neutrons are unstable (per se), result of the collapse is a rapid heating of
nuclei that absorb a neutron will decay the core, which enables heavier nuclei to fuse
by beta-minus decay, producing a together until the supply of these nuclei runs
nucleus with a higher atomic number. out. The process repeats itself, producing
Providing there is a sufficient neutron shells of successively heavier nuclei around
flux—and the supernova explosion will the core until the innermost shell is made
satisfy this—further neutron absorption from iron. Once iron is reached, no more
followed by further beta-minus decay fusion can occur and hydrostatic equilibrium
will produce higher and higher atomic is lost for the last time. The star collapses
number nuclides. under its gravitational force, which is too
7 The s-process requires a small flux of neutrons strong for electron degeneracy pressure, and
(these are by-products of other processes neutrons are produced. The resulting neutron
involving carbon, oxygen and silicon), which degeneracy pressure is extremely large,
allows nuclei to absorb a neutron, which and the star explodes, producing elements
then decays by β  −-decay. Because the process heavier than iron.
happens slowly, there is enough time for the Type 1a supernovae have a luminosity that is
neutron to decay. This produces nuclei of higher than type 2 supernovae (about 10 times
higher atomic number. higher) and this luminosity decreases at a
8 In the r-process, a large neutron flux means decreasing rate over the next year or so.
that the capture of neutrons by nuclei happens Type 2 supernovae have a luminosity that
relatively easily in very short times. Neutrons decreases sharply for a few days and then
do not have time to decay (by the usual levels out for a month or so before decreasing
β  −-decay), so the nucleus formed will be a sharply again. After about three months,
heavier isotope of the same element. the luminosity decreases gradually for
9 A type 1a supernova occurs from a binary about a year.
star system, one star of which is a white dwarf
with a large gravitational field. Material from
the companion star is attracted to the white
dwarf, which increases the mass of the white
dwarf. When the mass of the white dwarf
becomes larger than the Chandrasekhar
limit (1.4 solar masses), the white dwarf will
Exam-style questions 12 a Fusion of protons into helium [1]
Multiple-choice questions By the proton–proton chain or

by the CNO cycle [1]
1 C [1]
b i Stars A and B have the same
2 D [1] luminosity, but A is hotter [1],
3 A [1] so, since L = 𝜎AT 4, star A must
have a smaller surface area and,
4 A [1] therefore, be smaller. [1]
5 D [1] ii Stars B and C have the same
temperature, but star B has
6 A [1]
a larger luminosity [1] so,
7 B [1] since L = 𝜎AT  4, star C must
have a smaller surface area and,
8 B [1] therefore, be smaller. [1]
Short-answer questions 13 a Main sequence → red supergiant →
supernova → neutron star [2]
9 a Nuclear fusion [1]
b The maximum mass of a neutron
b Δm = ( ( 2.014102 + 3.01605) −
star is about 3.0 solar masses. [1]
(4.002604 + 1.008665)) u =
0.01888 u [1] Above this mass and the star will
collapse into a black hole. [1]
So, E = 0.01888 × 931.5 =
17.59 MeV (= 17.59 × 1.6 × 10 −13 = c It does not have enough mass. [1]
2.81 × 10  −12 J). [2]
After the supernova event, the
(Accept answer in MeV.) remnants of the star (which will be
less than three solar masses, because
c Energy is released in the form
most of the star’s mass will be lost
of EK  of the alpha particle and
n the supernova event) will be kept in
the neutron. [1]
equilibrium by neutron degeneracy
10 a Supergiant region [1] pressure, preventing gravitational
forces from collapsing the star into
b More massive [1] a black hole. [1]
c 1.4 solar masses [1] 14 a i The total emitted power of
d Eventually, the material ejected the star [1]
from the star will form a new ii The power received at the Earth
nebula and allow the formation per unit area from a star [1]
of new stars. [1] _ _____________
√ 4πb √ 4π × 1.3 × 10 
  3.8 × 10  3   =
  L    = _____________
26
1   r=_
b
L  ⊙ ( M  ⊙ ) ( L  S )
3.5  _
11 a  _L   = _
  M     ⇒ M = _
  L   × M  ⊙  3.5   =
3.5
1.5 × 10  11 m [2]

1  
( L  S ) ___1 ⊙

 _
  L     × M  =
_
3.5
[1] 4πr    
2
  4 
T
c A starT  star
4
⊙  T  4⊙   ⇒ _
 = A     = _⊙
  ⇒
  star
  _ 4πr   
2
star
4
T  ⊙  
3000  3.5 × M ⊙ = 9.85 M ⊙ ≈ 10 M  ⊙ [1] _
√ 
r  ⊙ T  4star
 
 _
r  star  =
_   = √0.5  4 = 0.25 [2]
T  ⊙4  
b The star will expand to become
a red supergiant. [1]
After that, it will undergo a
supernova event, [1]
leaving behind a neutron star or
a black hole. [1]
  2.9 ×T 
10  =  _
2.9 × 10   =
−3 −3
15 a λ  max = _ 17 a L = 4πσR  2T  4= 4π × 5.67 × 10 −8 ×
5200
558 ≈ 560 nm [2] (6.96 × 10 8) 2 × 5778 4 = 3.8 × 10 26 W [2]
b
L = 4πσR  2T  4= 4π × 5.67 × 10 −8 × b Fusion of protons into helium
( 5 × 10 8)  2 × 5200 4 = 1.3 × 10 26W [2] (by the proton–proton chain) [1]
c It will eventually become a white c Main sequence [1]

dwarf. [1]
_ Red giant [1]
  mass   ⇒ R = _ √ 4πρ
3 3M
ρ=_
16 a      =
volume
_____________
(Planetary nebula)
√   3 × 3 × 10  17  = 15.8 km ≈ 16 km

3 30
_____________
   [2]
4π × 1.8 × 10  White dwarf [1]
b 6 × 10 30 kg = 3M ⊙ [1]

The Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit
states that a neutron star with a mass
larger than 3M ⊙will collapse into
a black hole. [1]
c neutron degeneracy pressure. [1]

IB Physics 7e Answers

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PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: WORKBOOK

c Direction = ​​tan​​ −1​​​​(__

d 500 m​​s​​ −1​​at 50° to the horizontal

3 a c Speed is the gradient of the graph.

See the figure in part a.

t1 t2 t3 ​​ 1 ​​× 50 × 5 = 125 m

Using the area under the graphs: 50

b See the figure in part a.

5 a The toy is moving forwards at t = 0 at a b 45

​​ __1 ​​ × ​​(5 × 8)​​ + __

• Spin will change the trajectory of the b 60

1 ​​ 1 ​​ × 2 × ​​10​​ 5​​ ×

radius of the ball. This suggests that 2 2 9.81

10 a Initial speed / ​​ms​​ −1​​ Thinking Braking Stopping

c Total travel time = time to reach 16 a Acceleration = gradient of graph between

H b Weight, W = 2 × 60 cos 35° = 98 N (2 s.f.)

11 The box is in equilibrium (moving at a 14 a For an object that is partly or fully

b ​​ __4 ​​π​​ρlead ​​ 4 ​​π​​ρwater

16 a i ​​F​ k​​​ = ​​μk​ ​​​N and N = mg • using materials with a high strength-to-

c deformation of the electron clouds

raindrop to decelerate and come to

This then leads to us defining our hypothesis c The centripetal force

and our justification of it is that repeated F = ___

2 a A body moving in a circular path is

d Friction between the car’s tyres and ii

b The tension must balance the weight, so 12 a  5 ​= 20 cm, 

16 a normal reaction 18 a  ​​ 2π

​ ​20​​ ​ ​​ ​ 0.34 60

​​ work done ​ = ​ _______

v ​ = ​ 20 1 a chemical energy → ​​EK​ ​​​+ internal energy +

to share their energy there will come Short-answer questions

6 B [1] ​​ 798 ​​ =

So the student will require a minimum

c 12 J = area under graph = __

2 4 3.2 × ​10​​ 3​× 15.0 = (​ 3.2 × ​10​​ 3​ − 800)​v

Therefore, 2 ​v1​ ​​ ​v2​ ​​ = 0. 2 A [1]

There are two possible solutions to this: ​ 3 C [1]

12 a Before the collision, p = mv = 16 a 

c Before the collision, E

the collision, so the collision d ∆ v = __

ii v = r ω = 4.5 × 0.21 = 0.95 ​​ms​​ ​​ −1 3

• don’t use shading/don’t

b i ​​ ___ ​​ 4π ​​t = 1.3 rad​​s​​ −2​​

c A constant couple will produce a constant ⇒ θ = ​​tan​​ −1​​​​(____

25.6 × ​​10​​ −2​​ = 0.256 ​​kgm​​ 2​​ r∆t r∆t 5r∆t

I = 6.0 × ​​10​​ −3​​ + 0.12 × ​​0.12​​ 2​​ = ​​ 1 ​​ ​​Iω​​ 2​​ = __

​​ 1 ​​ ​​(​Mv​​ 2​+ __

Exercise 6.2 ii ​​(distance travelled)​​ 2​​ = ​​(ct)​​ 2​​ + ​​(vt′)​​ 2​​

​​ ​t​​ ​​v​​ 2​​

Therefore, Δ​​s​​ ​​ = ​​(cΔt)​​ ​​ − Δ​​x​​ ​​ = 2 2 2

1.28 × ​​10​​ −5​​ s P –

c i B and C b The time in S′ is longer than it is in S.

ii Between A and B in S and between B e t

and C in S′, it is possible to measure a Som returns to

car in S9 x9 Som thinks

5m f Som sees that the Earth clocks now show

Exam-style questions 14 a Taking S to be the frame of reference

∆t = __ 2.4 × ​10​​ ​ ​​= 840 s (2 s.f.).

6 a Energy lost by aluminium = m c ΔT =

c Direction = tan  −1(__

d 500 ms  −1at 50° to the horizontal

3 a c Speed is the gradient of the graph.

t1 t2 t3   1 × 50 × 5 = 125 m

5 a The toy is moving forwards at t = 0 at a b 45

 1 × (5 × 8) +

• Spin will change the trajectory of the b 60

1   1 × 2 × 10  5 ×

10 a Initial speed / ms  −1 Thinking Braking Stopping

c Total travel time = time to reach 16 a Acceleration = gradient of graph between

11 The box is in equilibrium (moving at a 14 a For an object that is partly or fully

b  __4 πρlead   4 πρwater

16 a i F k = μk  N and N = mg • using materials with a high strength-to-

2 a A body moving in a circular path is

d Friction between the car’s tyres and ii

b The tension must balance the weight, so 12 a 5 = 20 cm,

16 a normal reaction 18 a   2π

  20      0.34 60

 work done  =  _______

v  =   20 1 a chemical energy → EK  + internal energy +

6 B [1]  798   =

2 4 3.2 × 10  3× 15.0 = ( 3.2 × 10  3 − 800)v

Therefore, 2 v1  v2  = 0. 2 A [1]

There are two possible solutions to this: 3 C [1]

12 a Before the collision, p = mv = 16 a

c Before the collision, E

the collision, so the collision d ∆ v = __

ii v = r ω = 4.5 × 0.21 = 0.95 ms  −1 3

b i  ___   4π t = 1.3 rads  −2

c A constant couple will produce a constant ⇒ θ = tan  −1(____

25.6 × 10  −2 = 0.256 kgm  2 r∆t r∆t 5r∆t

I = 6.0 × 10  −3 + 0.12 × 0.12  2 =   1 Iω  2 = __

  1 (Mv  2+ __

Exercise 6.2 ii (distance travelled)  2 = (ct)  2 + (vt′)  2

  t  v  2

Therefore, Δs  = (cΔt)  − Δx  = 2 2 2

1.28 × 10  −5 s P –

ii Between A and B in S and between B e t

5m f Som sees that the Earth clocks now show

Exam-style questions 14 a Taking S to be the frame of reference

∆t = __ 2.4 × 10  = 840 s (2 s.f.).

((0.05 × 4200)− (0.25 × 4200)) Tfinal

energy to the atoms next to them

Short-answer questions c Once the temperature of the

12 a The molecules of water have a 14 a mass × slhf = power × time ⇒

13 a Energy from the heater passes 1

absolute temperature. 650 × 10 

4π × 0.12  2 × ( 20 + 273)  4 = −57 W (2 s.f.) 400 × 10 

c Net exchange of energy per second = b d = _   

Exercise 8.2 iii At T = 288 K, the Earth is radiating

ii Since a large proportion of the iii Infrared is in the approximate range

v Less ozone means less absorption. atmospheric molecules, meaning that

7 a Permafrost, ice cores, and glaciers; 9 a Increased amounts of man-made

12 a P net = σA(Troom     4)

25 methane, nitrous oxide [2]

b S = _ 3.83 × 10   

c CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) or 20 a L = 4πd  2 S = 4π × ( 1.5 × 10  11)  2 ×

 2 × 10   = 1.66 × 10  −27 kg

pressure thermometer 7 a Charles’s law: if the pressure of a sample

The capillary tube is attached to a ruler Exercise 9.3

b Absolute temperature is a measure of

 volume ofNcontainer   3 × 10  23   =

Exam-style questions c V = ______________

5 C [1] b M = n × molar mass = 60 × 0.029 =

Charles’ law and the pressure law 220 K (2 s.f.). [2]

• Consists of particles whose volume is   molar mass of bromine

• Consists of particles that collide  3 RT = _

17 a Pressure / kPa 18 a Using Boyle’s law: P 1V1  = P2  V2  ⇒ P2  =

• temperature, T, of the system; e As the gas expands at a constant pressure,

ii Z is at a higher temperature than Y. 9 a Work done = area under graph from W to

1 a i Adding Q will increase the average ii Q>0

c i One would expect Amaya and ii

c i 24 ii 2.52 × 10  5 J

5 a gravitational potential → kinetic → ii The internal energy of the gas is the

So, the net entropy change is greater   W   =  

c The change in electrical energy production e A

energy output. The performance of the g i ΔSH  = − _

h i η = 1 −  T    = 1 − _

A removed none on the 7 D [1]

Exam-style questions b i Since the surroundings are