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Investigation of M2 and Anti-segregation
Process HSS Flat Broaching Tools

Shahzad Alim

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements of
Sheffield Hallam University
for the degree of Master of Philosophy

June 1994
CITY CAMPUS
 ABSTRACT

An investigation has been carried out to compare the cutting performance and
tool life evaluation of high speed steel broach samples. The comparison has
been done between conventional M2 and Anti-Segregation Process (ASP)
ASP53 and ASP30 high speed steel broach samples. The ASP53 was a
development material. The cutting performance was evaluated by measuring
the cutting forces and calculating the specific cutting energy, an indicator of
cutting performance. As the roughness of the machined surface is an important
criterion in the evaluation of performance of a tool, the surface roughness of
the workpiece was studied as a function of undeformed chip thickness. The
workpiece material was 150M36 alloy steel used in manufacture of automobile
engines. The performance tests were conducted at two cutting speeds, which
were 0.7 m/min and 10.5 m/min respectively. This allowed a better
understanding of the effect of cutting speed on tool performance. The wear
tests were performed at a cutting speed of 10.5 m/min.

The cutting edges of ASP broach samples were finer compared to that of M2.
There was no practical difference in the cutting forces and the specific cutting
energy while cutting with M2, ASP30 and ASP53 broach samples. The ASP30
and ASP53 tools gave a better surface roughness on the machined surface than
that of M2 at both cutting speeds. The ASP30 gave 2.25 times the life and an
improved surface finish compared to M2 steel. The ASP53 gave 1.3 times the
life of M2 steel.
 CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ii
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF TABLES xii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT xiii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 High speed steel 3

1.1.1 Carbon 4

1.1.2 Chromium 4

1.1.3 Tungsten and molybdenum 4

1.1.4 Vanadium 5

1.1.5 Cobalt 6
1.2 Anti-segregation process high speed steels (ASP HSS) 7

CHAPTER TWO: M ECHANICS OF M A CH IN IN G AND T O O L W EA R 8

2.1 Mechanics of metal cutting 9

2.2 Cutting forces 9

2.3 Specific cutting energy 10

2.4 Chip formation 12

2.4.1 Discontinuous chip 13

2.4.2 Continuous chip 14

2.4.3 Built-up edge 15

2.5 Tool life and tool wear 16

2.6 Tool wear mechanisms 17

2.6.1 Adhesion wear 17

2.6.2 Abrasive wear 18

 2.6.3 Diffusion wear 19

2.7 Forms of wear in metal cutting 19

2.7.1 Crater wear 19

2.7.2 Flank wear 20

2.8 Tool life criteria 20

2.9 Premature tool failure 22

CHAPTER THREE: BROACHING 24

3.1 Advantages of broaching 25

3.1.1 Productivity 25

3.1.2 Quality of machining 25

3.1.3 Operational economy 25

3.2 Broach types 26

3.2.1 Internal broaching 26

3.2.2 External or surface broaching 27

3.3 Broaching characteristics and broach design 27

3.3.1 Tooth rise 29

3.3.2 Pitch . 29

3.3.3 Chip space 30

3.3.4 Load on broach 31

CHAPTER FOUR: TO O L PERFO RM A N CE TESTS 35

4.1 Measurement of broach samples 36

4.1.1 Geometric features 36

4.1.2 Surface roughness 36

4.1.3 Heat treatment and hardness 37

4.1.4 Chemical composition 39

4.1.5 Carbide distribution 39

4.1.6 The cutting edge 41

4.2 Workpiece material 41

iv
 4.3 Cutting conditions 42
4.4 Instrumentation and test procedure 43

4.4.1 Measurement of cutting forces 44

4.4.2 Specific cutting energy 45

4.4.3 Roughness of machined surface 45

4.5 Discussion of results 46

CHAPTER FIVE: W EA R TESTS 51

5.1 Cutting conditions 51

5.2 Test procedure 51

5.2.1 Measurement of wear land 52

5.2.2 Roughness of machined surface 53

5.3 Discussion of results 53

CONCLUSIONS 56
REFERENCES 58

FIGURES 62

TABLES 113

v
 L IS T O F F IG U R E S

Figure No. Caption Page No.

Figure 2.1 A perspective view of orthogonal cutting. 62

Figure 2.2 A metal cutting diagram showing the rake angle 7, 62

clearance angle P, cutting speed V, undeformed
chip thickness UCT, chip thickness t*. and chip
velocity Vc.

Figure 2.3 Forces acting on the tool in orthogonal cutting. 63

Figure 2.4 Fragmental or discontinuous chips. 63

Figure 2.5 Continuous chip with built-up edge. 64

Figure 2.6 A micrograph showing the built-up edge and the 64

wear scar on the clearance face (x25).

Figure 2.7 Formation and failure of built-up edge leaving a poor 65

machined surface. The built-up edge has been shaded
dark only to illustrate.

Figure 2.8 A diagram showing the effect of illumination on the 66

machined surface while cutting with a built-up edge.

Figure 2.9 A micrograph showing the machined surface while 66

cutting with a built-up edge. The illumination is
along the direction of cut (x45).

Figure 2.10 A micrograph showing the machined surface while 67

cutting with a built-up edge. The illumination is
opposite to the direction of cut (x40).

Figure 2.11 Typical wear on a tool in orthogonal cutting. 67

Figure 2.12 A micrograph showing a typical wear scar in 68

orthogonal cutting (x75).

vi
 Figure 2.13 Development of flank wear with time for a carbide 69
tool at a cutting speed of 1 m/s.

Figure 2.14 Some features of single-point tool wear in turning 69

operations.

Figure 3.1 A diagram showing the significant features of a 70

round internal broach.

Figure 3.2 A diagram showing a flat broach and the use of a 71

tapered bar.

Figure 4.1 A side view of the broach sample showing the 72

geometric features. Rj is the rake angle radius and R 2
is the back-of-tooth radius.

Figure 4.2 A sketch showing the directions of measuring the 73

roughness of significant surfaces of the broach
samples.

Figure 4.3 Vickers hardness of M2 broach samples. 74

Figure 4.4 Vickers hardness of ASP53 broach samples. 75

Figure 4.5 Vickers hardness of ASP30 broach samples. 76

Figure 4.6 Carbide distribution of M2 HSS as seen under an 77

optical microscope (x600).

Figure 4.7 Carbide distribution of ASP30 HSS as seen under an 77

optical microscope (x600).

Figure 4.8 Carbide distribution of ASP53 HSS as seen under an 77

optical microscope (x600).

Figure 4.9 Carbide distribution of M2 HSS (x960) 78

Figure 4.10 Carbide distribution of ASP30 HSS (x960) 78

ry

Figure 4.11 Carbide distribution of ASP30 HSS (x960) ? 78

Figure 4.12 X-ray analysis of the tungsten/molybdenum rich 79

carbides of ASP30 tool material.

vii
 Figure 4.13 X-ray analysis of the vanadium rich carbides of 79
ASP30 tool material.

Figure 4.14 X-ray analysis of the vanadium rich carbides of 80

ASP53 tool material.

Figure 4.15 Carbide distribution of M2 HSS (xl20). 81

Figure 4.16 Carbide distribution of ASP30 HSS (xl20) 81

Figure 4.17 A view of the cutting edge of an M2 broach sample 82

(xllO )

Figure 4.18 A view of the cutting edge of an M2 broach sample 82

(xl70)

Figure 4.19 A view of the cutting edge of an M2 broach sample 83

(x340)

Figure 4.20 A view of the cutting edge of an M2 broach sample 83

(xl40)

Figure 4.21 A view of the cutting edge of an ASP30 broach 84

sample (xl50)

Figure 4.22 A view of the cutting edge of an ASP30 broach 84

sample (x75) j

Figure 4.23 A view of the cutting edge of an ASP53 broach 85

sample (x260)

Figure 4.24 A view of the cutting edge of an ASP53 broach 85

sample (x260)

Figure 4.25 A picture showing an overall setup of the test rig for 86
performance tests at a cutting speed of 0.7 m/min.

Figure 4.26 A picture showing the dynamometer, workpiece vice, 86

workpiece and the tool holder for performance tests
at a cutting speed of 0.7 m/min.

viii
Figure 4.27 A perspective view of the specially machined 87
workpiece (150M36 alloy steel) for performance tests
at a cutting speed of 0.7 m/min.

Figure 4.28 A picture showing an overall setup of the test rig for 87
performance tests at a cutting a cutting speed of
10.5 m/min.

Figure 4.29 A picture showing the tool and the workpiece for 88
performance tests at a cutting speed of 10.5 m/min.

Figure 4.30 A perspective view of the specially machined 88

workpiece (150M36 alloy steel) for performance tests
at a cutting speed of 10.5 m/min.

Figure 4.31 Typical traces of cutting and thrust forces obtained 89

from the oscilloscope.

Figure 4.32 Effect of undeformed chip thickness on cutting forces 90

(cutting speed : 0.7 m/min).

Figure 4.33 Effect of undeformed chip thickness on cutting forces 91

(cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 4.34 Effect of undeformed chip thickness on specific 92

cutting energy (cutting speed : 0.7 m/min).

Figure 4.35 Effect of undeformed chip thickness on specific 93

cutting energy (cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 4.36 Effect of undeformed chip thickness on roughness 94

average measured perpendicular to the direction of
cut (cutting speed : 0.7 m/min).

Figure 4.37 Effect of undeformed chip thickness on roughness 95

average measured parallel to the direction of cut
(cutting speed : 0.7 m/min).

Figure 4.38 Effect of undeformed chip thickness on peak to 96

valley height measured perpendicular to the direction
of cut (cutting speed : 0.7 m/min).

ix
Figure 4.39 Effect of undeformed chip thickness on peak to 97
valley height measured parallel to the direction of cut
(cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 4.40 Effect of undeformed chip thickness on roughness 98

average measured perpendicular to the direction of
cut (cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 4.41 Effect of undefoimed chip thickness on roughness 99

average measured parallel to the direction of cut
(cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 4.42 Effect of undeformed chip thickness on peak to 100

valley height measured perpendicular to the direction
of cut (cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 4.43 Effect of undefoimed chip thickness on peak to 101

valley height measured parallel to the direction of cut
(cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 5.1 A picture showing the overall set-up of the test rig 102
to perform the wear tests at a cutting speed of
10.5 m/min.

Figure 5.2 A picture showing the broach sample, broach sample 102
holder and the tool post.

Figure 5.3 A perspective view showing overall dimensions of 103

the specially machined workpiece to perform the
wear tests.

Figure 5.4 A perspective view of the specially machined jig to 104

hold the workpieces.

Figure 5.5 A micrograph showing the wear scar and the 105
adhesion of work material on the clearance face of
the M2 broach sample (x25).

Figure 5.6 A micrograph showing the wear scar on the clearance 105
face of the ASP53 broach sample (x25).

x
Figure 5.7 A micrograph showing the wear scar on the clearance 105
face of the ASP30 broach sample (x25).

Figure 5.8 Wear tests on M2, ASP53 and ASP30 broach 106
samples.

Figure 5.9 Effect of tool-wear on roughness average of 107

workpiece measured perpendicular to the direction of
cut (cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 5.10 Effect of tool-wear on roughness average of 108

workpiece measured parallel to the direction of cut
(cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 5.11 Effect of tool-wear on peak to valley height of 109

workpiece measured perpendicular to the direction of
cut (cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 5.12 Effect of tool-wear on peak to valley height of 110

workpiece measured parallel to the direction of cut
(cutting speed : 10.5 m/min).

Figure 5.13 A micrograph showing the wear scar on the clearance 111
face of the ASP30 broach sample (xl20).

Figure 5.14 A micrograph showing the adhesion of work 111

material on the clearance face of the M2 broach
sample (xl20).

Figure 5.15 A micrograph showing the chippings on the clearance 112

face of the M2 broach sample (x75).

Figure 5.16 A micrograph showing the chippings on the clearance 112

face and adhesion of work material on the rake face
of the ASP30 broach sample (x75).

Figure 5.17 A micrograph showing the chippings on the clearance 112

face of the ASP30 broach sample (xl20).

xi
 L IS T O F T A B L E S

Table No. Caption Page No.

Table 4.1 Clearance angle, rake angle, pitch and depth of 113
tooth of M2 high speed steel broach samples
measured on the Hilger Universal Projector (x25).

Table 4.2 Clearance angle, rake angle, pitch and depth of 114
tooth of ASP53 high speed steel broach samples
measured on the Hilger Universal Projector (x25).

Table 4.3 Clearance angle, rake angle, pitch and depth of 115
tooth of ASP30 high speed steel broach samples
measured on the Hilger Universal Projector (x25).

Table 4.4 Surface roughness of M2 high speed steel broach 116

samples measured on the rake and clearance
(flank) faces in the directions perpendicular and
parallel to the cutting edge. Numbers in
parentheses are Peak to Valley Roughness
Height (Rt).

Table 4.5 Surface roughness of M2 high speed steel broach 118

samples measured on the rake and clearance
(flank) faces in the directions perpendicular and
parallel to the cutting edge. Numbers in
parentheses are Peak to Valley Roughness
Height (Rt).

Table 4.6 Surface roughness of M2 high speed steel broach 119

samples measured on the rake and clearance
(flank) faces in the directions perpendicular and
parallel to the cutting edge. Numbers in
parentheses are Peak to Valley Roughness
Height (Rt).

xii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author wishes to express his gratitude and sincere thanks to

Professor M Sarwar director of studies, Dr. D Gillibrand supervisor and

Dr. S Dugdale for their constant encouragement and guidance throughout

the research programme. Thanks are also due to all the technicians and

staff of the School of Engineering. In particular the author wishes to

thank Mr. R C Wainwright, Mr. T J O'Hara, Mr. R C Wilkinson,

Mr. M Jackson, Mr. M Kew, Mr. J Evans and Mrs. A M Mallon.

My very special and sincere thanks go to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Alim

for all the love, time and financial support they gave me upto this stage

of my life. Last but not the least, I would like to register my gratitude to
my wife, Shazia who constantly inspired me to work hard to achieve my

objective.
 C H A PT ER ON E

INTRODUCTION

The materials from which the first steam engines were constructed were not

very difficult to machine. Grey cast iron, wrought iron, brass and bronze were

readily cut using hardened carbon steel tools. The methods of heat treatment of
tool steel had been evolved by centuries of craftsmen, and reasonably reliable

tools were available, although rapid failure of the tools could be avoided only
by cutting at very low speed. Alloy steels in particular proved more difficult to
machine than wrought iron, and cutting speeds had to be lowered even further

to achieve a reasonable tool life. The incentive to reduce costs by cutting faster

became more intense, evolving new tool materials.

The majority of industries concerned with machining have made a very

valuable contribution to the improvement of metal cutting technology. The

following developments have taken place in cutting tool materials over the last
century.

High carbon ste e l: still used for hand tools

High speed ste e l: the most common material, can be machined in the

annealed state

Tungsten carbides : in the form of sintered inserts

1
 Other carbides : e.g. tantalum, titanium

Stellite: cast alloys - chromium carbides in cobalt and

chromium

Cermets : mixed sintered oxides and sintered carbides

Coated carbides : hard coating on a tough substrate, usually with several

intermediate layers

Ceramics : sintered oxides

Sialon : silicon nitride ceramic in solid or laminate form

Cubic Boron Nitride : very hard, in either solid or laminate form

Diamond : natural and synthetic - suitable for cutting non-ferrous

materials

The newer techniques of applying wear resistant coatings have allowed cutting

tools to be used at increased cutting speeds. This has forced machine tool

manufacturers to develop their machines so as to make full use o f the new tool

materials through increased metal removal rates and improved productivity.

The machine operator, tool designer, the materials engineer are all seeking to

find solutions to new problems in the form o f cutting conditions, tool

geometry, tool materials and treatments. In order to improve the efficiency of

cutting and increase productivity, the cutting tool technologist m ust have an

understanding of the fundamentals of metal cutting. It is what happens at the

extreme cutting edge of the tool that determines the initial performance of the

tool, the machinability of workpiece material and the quality o f the machined
surface.

2
The latest development in cutting tool technology is in the application of

advanced surface engineering technologies to enhance/improve the cutting tool

by modifying the surface to give better performance and longer tool life.
Surface modification is carried out either by coating the substrate surface with
a very thin film (2 pm - 5 pm) of a hard substance or by implanting species

into the substrate to a depth of approximately 100 A. It is apparent that the

major research effort associated with surface engineering has been
concentrated on the film characteristics and little attention has been directed to
the substrate suitability. In order for this latest technology to be successful the

total system, i.e. substrate, interface and film characteristics have to be

scientifically studied.

1.1 High Speed Steel

High speed steels have been known in some form for over a century. The

discovery was made by Robert F. Mushet in 1868 that a steel containing

tungsten became hard when air cooled from a temperature from which most
steels required water quenching for hardening [1], It took its name from its

capacity to retain a high level of hardness when cutting metals and other
materials at high speed. The first real high speed steel as defined by modem

standards was the 18-4-1 composition developed by Crucible Steel Company.

This steel, now generally known by its specification number, T l, contains

18% tungsten, with 4% chromium, 1% vanadium, and 0.7% carbon. This steel

remained popular until the 1950s, when it was overtaken by a tungsten-

molybdenum steel, M2, in which two-thirds of the tungsten in T l was replaced

by 5% molybdenum and the vanadium content raised to 2% and the carbon to

0.85%.

3
The alloying elements impart certain properties to high speed steels. These

elements and their effects are discussed below.

1.1.1 Carbon

Carbon is the most important of the elements and is very closely controlled.
While the carbon content of any one high speed tool steel is usually fixed

within narrow limits and variations within these limits can cause important
changes in the mechanical properties and the cutting ability [1]. As the carbon
content is increased, the working hardness also rises; the elevated temperature

hardness is higher and the number of hard, stable, complex carbides increases.

The latter contribute much to the wear resistance of the high speed tool steels.

1.1.2 Chrom ium

The presence of chromium in high speed steel from 3 to 5% has been the most
consistent feature of most compositions throughout the history of these alloys.

Chromium provides hardenability by slowing down reactions and the carbon

necessary for hardening as its carbides dissolve in austenite [2]. It retards the

formation of precipitates of carbides during tempering and improves cutting

properties. The chromium carbide is readily soluble in the matrix on heat

treatment, and thus chromium contributes to the deep hardening properties of
the steel.

1.1.3 Tungsten and M olybdenum

Tungsten and molybdenum promote resistance to tempering, and cutting

efficiency improves as the concentration of tungsten, or its equivalent in terms

of molybdenum, is increased [3]. Molybdenum depresses the solidus

4
temperature more than tungsten, and hence the maximum permissible heat
treatment temperature is reduced in the case of molybdenum steels.

These two elements perform similar functions and are interchangeable on an

atomic basis. On a weight basis, 1% molybdenum is usually taken to be

equivalent to between 1.6 and 2% tungsten. Economic considerations have in

the past frequently been predominant in determining the selection o f alloy, as

both the metals are expensive.

The tungsten and molybdenum carbides are not soluble in the matrix on heat
treatment, and thus contribute a little to the deep hardening properties of the
steel. They do, however, slow down transformation reactions, thus

contributing greatly to the temper resistance, or red hardness.

1.1.4 Vanadium

Vanadium was first added to high speed tool steels as a scavenger to remove

slag impurities and to reduce nitrogen levels in the melting operation, but it
was soon found that the element materially increased the cutting efficiency of

tools. In amounts up to 1%, its main function is to reinforce the secondaiy

hardening. A small volume o f hard particles o f vanadium carbide of

microscopic size is formed, and these are the hardest constituents o f the alloy

[4]. The hardness of vanadium carbide is 2500 Hv [5]. When steels contain

more of the metal, there are many more of these hard particles and they play a
significant role in resisting wear. On the other hand the presence o f vanadium

carbides causes difficulty in grinding.

5
1.1.5 Cobalt

Cobalt is present in amounts between 5 and 12%. The cobalt raises the
temperature at which the hardness of the fully hardened steel starts to fall [6].

Although the increase in useful temperature is relatively small, the

performance of tools under particular conditions is significantly improved. The

cobalt restricts the growth of the precipitated carbide particles and does not

itself form a carbide.

High speed steels having low thermal conductivity (21 wm^k’1 for M2) [7],

which cause problems during solidification. Though high speed steels are

reasonably homogeneous in the molten state, they are characterised by a veiy

long freezing range. This causes the carbides to segregate [4] from the matrix

during solidification and thus affects uniformity of hardness. A non-uniform

and coarse microstructure [8] is inevitable, with variations in chemical

composition. This causes the problem of dimensional stability during the heat

treatment processes. Due to poor grindability of carbides, grinding o f a cutting

edge becomes difficult [9]. As the ingot contains a network of coarse carbides,

during hot working this network is gradually broken down and large carbides

are tom apart to form smaller ones. During recent years it has been learnt how

to control the ingot structure in a more efficient way with molybdenum high
speed steels. The measures include optimising the cooling rate [10] and

solidification conditions [7] and the use of consumable electrode remelting

processes such as electroslag refining (ESR) and vacuum arc remelting (VAR).
The effect of these combined efforts is a considerable improvement in

structure of the final product, but even after extensive hot working, rather

coarse carbides abound in the structure and the carbide distribution is not
uniform.

6
On the other hand development of powder metallurgy technology for the

production of powder compacted high speed steels such as anti-segregation

process has minimised the above problems to a great extent. This process is

explained briefly in section 1.2.

1.2 Anti-Segregation Process High Speed Steels

Since the early 1970's, several powder metallurgy techniques for producing
high speed steel have been developed. One of the processes for producing an

alloy powder is the Anti-Segregation Process (ASP), developed in Sweden [11,

12]. In this process, an alloy steel melt is atomised in an inert gas to give
spherical powder particles. The powder is then poured into cylindrical sheet

steel capsules, which are vibrated to pack the particles tightly. Air is removed

before a cover is welded to the capsule. The capsule and its contents are cold

isostatically pressed at 400 MPa (58,000 psi). The capsule is then hot
isostatically pressed at 100 MPa (14,500 psi) at 1150 °C (2100 °F). After
compaction, the steel is worked conventionally by forging and rolling to the

desired dimensions. This processing results in a fine-grained material with a

uniform distribution of small carbides. The homogeneous material, free from

segregation, has a structure which is the same regardless of bar size and alloy
content.

The high speed steels produced through the powder metallurgy process offer

better properties than produced by conventional methods. The ASP high speed
steels have much higher ultimate bend strength, better grindability and evenly

distributed carbides independent of the bar size compared to M2 high speed

steel [8,13].

7
 CHAPTER TW O

M E C H A N IC S O F M A C H IN IN G A N D T O O L W E A R

Considerable time and effort has been spent in studying the mechanics of

metal cutting, associated with single point tools with the information obtained

being applied to multi-point cutting tools. Although there has been some

benefit to multi-point tools, a study of the dynamics o f the chip once formed in
restricted conditions (broaching) is also of fundamental importance, and
should receive attention.

The characteristics of tool rake face and the geometrical features associated

with retention and rejection of the chip (in tools such as broaches, circular

saws and milling cutters), are also of prime importance.

Owing to the nature of the testing (i.e. time, tool and workpiece costs,

manpower utilisation), metal cutting research is expensive and therefore

mathematical modelling of the process is important. However, to date there is

no accurate mathematical model for predicting loads, temperatures and

stresses, which are absolutely esssential quantities to the tool designer. With

the development of computers, sophisticated electronic instrumentation and

improved techniques, this task of collecting empirical data has been made
somewhat easier.

8
2.1 Mechanics of Metal Cutting

The basic mechanism of metal cutting can be explained by analysing cutting

with a single cutting edge. A simple case is known as orthogonal cutting, in

which the cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of motion relative to

the workpiece and the cutting edge is wider than the chip. The wedge shaped

tool consists of two planes intersecting to form the cutting edge (Figure 2.1).

The surface along which the chip flows is known as the rake face and that
surface ground back to clear the new or machined surface is known as the

flank or clearance face (Figure 2.2). One of the most important variables of a

cutting tool is the inclination of the rake face, known as the rake angle, which

is specified in orthogonal cutting by the angle between the tool face and a line

normal to the machined surface.

While the tool flank does not contribute to the process of chip removal, the
rate of tool wear and quality of the machined surface can be influenced by the
clearance angle.

2.2 Cutting Forces

Orthogonal cutting (Figure 2.1) is two-dimensional cutting and all the forces

lie in one plane. The forces arising from this type of cutting action are shown
in Figure 2.3. In order to determine the resultant force Fr, its two rectangular

components are measured. The component of the resultant force acting along

the direction of cut is called the cutting force Fc and the second component

acting in the direction normal to the direction of cut, tending to push the tool

away from the work is known as the thrust force Ft. The magnitude of cutting
force is usually larger than that of the thrust force. The cutting force

component determines the work required to remove the material. The thrust

9
force component has a minimal contribution to the work done, but both

components produce deflection of the tool, the workpiece and the machine tool
frame, which affects the accuracy of cutting.

A knowledge of these forces is useful for various reasons:

1. To ascertain the power requirements and selection of a motor

for the machine tool.

2. To design the tool with sufficient rigidity to avoid excessive

deflection and vibration.

3. To design the structure of machine tool having sufficient

strength and rigidity.

4. To calculate the efficiency of metal removal.

Such requirements have led to the development of metal-cutting dynamometers

capable of accurately measuring forces at the cutting tool.

2.3 Specific Cutting Energy

This is defined as the amount of energy consumed in removing unit volume of

metal. This parameter is an indicator of the efficiency of the cutting process,

and this is of industrial importance. Rather than measure energy or power, it is

easier and more practical to measure the force required during cutting. The

rate of energy consumption during machining or power P is the product of

cutting speed V and the cutting force Fc. Power is also the product of specific
cutting energy Esp and the metal removal rate M ^.

10
 m
P\y [wtf//] = Fq \newton ] X V (2 . 1)
sec

m
Fc [tiew'ton ] x V
watt - sec _sec _
E sp (2.2)
m3 r m3 1
M fr
sec

Where,

Pw = P°wer

Fc = cutting force

V = cutting speed

Mn- = metal removal rate

ESp = specific cutting energy

In orthogonal cutting, metal removal rate is a product o f cross-sectional area of

undeformed chip thickness Ac and the cutting speed V.

r m3 ' m
= A c [m2] x V
sec L J _sec _

Where Ac = cross-sectional area o f undeformed chip thickness

11
The unit, watt is a very small unit to represent the metal removal rate of one
cubic meter. Hence its multiple unit is used for all practical purposes.

Gwatt - sec watt —sec

E sp 3
= 109
3
(2.4)
m m

Comparing equations (2.2) and (2.3), substituting the value of we get,

m
Fc [newton ] X V
newton sec
E sp (2.5)
- m m
[m 2 ] X V
sec

So specific cutting energy is dimensionally and numerically equal to specific

cutting pressure. The units are [newton/m2] or [joule/m3] (one joule = one
newton-meter). The numerical value is usually given as GJ/m3 (one GJ=109J).

2.4 Chip Formation

The majority of metal-cutting operations involve the separation of small

segments or chips from the workpiece to achieve the required shape and size

of manufactured parts. Chip formation involves three basic requirements

which are as follows:

12
 1. A cutting tool that is sufficiently strong and hard.

2. An interference between the tool and the workpiece in the shape

of a thin layer.

3. A relative motion or cutting velocity between the tool and the

workpiece with sufficient force to remove this thin layer.

When these three conditions exist, the thin layer of the material that interferes
with free passage of the tool will be displaced to create a chip (Figure 2.2).

Many possibilities and combinations exist that may fulfil such requirements.

Variations in tool material and tool geometry, feed and depth o f cut, cutting

velocity, and workpiece material have an effect not only upon the formation of

the chip, but also upon cutting force, cutting temperatures, tool wear and tool

life, dimensional stability, and the quality of the newly created surface.

Three basic types of chips are obtained during metal cutting with nominally

sharp tools which are:

1. Discontinuous chip.

2. Continuous chip.

3. Continuous chip with built-up edge.

2.4.1 Discontinuous Chip

If the workpiece material is brittle and has little capacity for deformation

before fracture, when the fracture shear stress is reached, separation will take

place along the shear plane to form a segmental chip (Figure 2.4).

Discontinuous chips are formed when machining brittle materials such as cast
iron.

13
2.4.2 Continuous Chip

The formation of the chip can be described as follows. Consider the wedge

type of tool, Figure 2.2, to be stationary and the workpiece approaching the
tool with a velocity V. Material in the vicinity of the cutting edge is

compressed and plastically deformed along a shear plane or shear zone and

continues to flow in a solid form as a chip with a velocity Vc, along the rake

face of the tool. Ductile materials have sufficient plasticity to deform along the
shear plane without rupture. Referring to Figure 2.2, the layer of material

removed called undeformed chip thickness, UCT, is plastically deformed into

chip thickness, t^.. In orthogonal cutting, thickness of the chip, is always

greater than the undeformed chip thickness, UCT. A measure of efficiency of

the cutting process is given by the cutting ratio Cr,

U C T [mm]
c r = . r L 1 (2 .6 )
l c [mmj

Where,

Cr = cutting ratio

UCT = undeformed chip thickness

tc = chip thickness

The cutting ratio being dimensionless is always less than one and a convenient
measure of cutting efficiency.

The nature of chip formation is approximately the same for orthogonal or

oblique cutting with one or more cutting edges. The type of chip produced

14
during metal cutting depends on the material being machined, the cutting

conditions, and the tool geometry.

2.4.3 Built-up Edge

As most of the cutting done by high speed steel tools is under conditions
where a built-up edge is formed, some explanation is given below:

Consideration of chip flow along the face of the tool in the formation of

continuous chips is of prime importance. If the friction force that resists the
passage of the chip along the tool face is less than the force necessary to shear

the chip material, the entire chip will pass off cleanly. In most cases, however,

it is virtually impossible to prevent some amount of seizure between the chip

and the tool face. Unless surfaces are perfectly flat, contact is made along the

high spots over only a fraction of the total area. As the chip passes over the

tool face, cutting forces give rise to an extremely high pressure, sufficient to
form pressure welds. If these welds are stronger than the ultimate shear
strength of workpiece material, that portion of the chip which is welded to the

tool becomes what is called a built-up edge (Figure 2.5). A micrograph

showing the formation of a built-up edge on the cutting edge of a high speed
steel tool is presented in Figure 2.6.

The edge builds up to a point where it eventually breaks off, part of it going

off with the chip along the rake face, and part of it being deposited on the

work surface. This occurs at rapid intervals and degrades the quality of

machined surface. Any change in cutting conditions that reduces or eliminates

the built-up edge will usually improve the surface quality.

As the built-up edge grows, it takes over the cutting action from the actual tool

tip (Figure 2.7) and hence cutting deeper than required. Part of the built-up

15
edge breaks off leaving the tool edge to begin cutting once again. This
repetition of the process forms microscopic steps on the machined surface.

This can be seen under a microscope with a single light source placed at an

acute angle (Figure 2.8). The illumination causes shadows, if placed against

the direction of cut and bright edges if placed along the direction of cut.
Micrographs (Figures 2.9 and 2.10) show the machined surface while cutting
with a built-up edge.

When one's finger is rubbed on a surface that has been machined under built-

up edge conditions, the surface feels rough when it is rubbed in the direction

of cutting, as the sharp edges of the steps are encountered, but it feels smooth
when rubbed in the direction contrary to the direction of cutting.

Also, referring to Figures 2.9 and 2.10, the adhering pieces of built-up edge

tend to be convex when viewed in the direction of cutting. This is because the

highest point of the built-up edge adheres first, and the lower parts on either
side shear a very short time later as the tool travels forward.

2.5 Tool Life and Tool Wear

For satisfactory performance the shape of the cutting tool edge must be

accurately controlled and is very critical in some applications. Much skill is

required to develop and specify the optimum tool geometry, to grind the tools
to the required accuracy and to inspect the tools before use.

In industrial machining operations the action of cutting gradually changes the

shape of the tool edge so that in time the tool ceases to cut efficiently or fails

completely. The following may be criteria for the end of tool life:

16
 1. Temperature rises beyond a certain limit. Smoke and sparks are
generated. The tool tip becomes thermally softened and is
rubbed off. The tool then ceases to cut.

2. Machining operation becomes excessively noisy or vibrations

become severe due to increased cutting forces.

3. Dimensions or surface finish of the workpiece fails to meet

specified values or the tool profile becomes unsatisfactory.

The change of shape of the tool edge is very small and can not be observed

adequately with the naked eye. A microscope with a suitable magnification is

needed for the measurement of wear.

Cutting-tool life is one of the most important economic considerations in metal

cutting so any improvement in tool or work-material that increases tool life is

beneficial. The life of a tool can be brought to an end in two major ways:

• Gradual or progressive wearing away of certain regions o f the

face and flank of the cutting tool.

• Fracture, bringing the life of the tool to a sudden end.

2.6 Tool W e a r M echanism s

In metal cutting three main mechanisms of wear are known to occur. These are

discussed as follows:

2.6.1 Adhesive w ear

High speed steel tools are used at relatively low cutting speed and

temperatures are low. The flow of metal past the cutting edge is more

17
irregular, less stream-lined or laminar (Figure 2.7), a built-up edge is formed

and contact with the tool is less continuous. Under these conditions fragments

of microscopic size are tom intermittently from the tool surface. This

mechanism is called adhesion wear.

In continuous cutting operations using high speed steel tools, adhesion is

usually a slow form of wear. More rapid destruction of the tool edge occurs in
operations involving interruptions of cut and where vibration is severe due to
lack of rigidity in the machine tool.

2.6.2 A brasive w ear

Abrasion wear occurs when hard particles pass over the tool, rake or flank

face, and remove material by mechanical action. The source of these hard
particles can be:

1. Highly strain-hardened fragments of an unstable built-up edge.

2. Fragments of the hard tool material removed by adhesion wear.

3. Hard constituents in the work material.

Abrasion is considered as a major cause of wear. Rapid wear by abrasion

occurs where the work material contains greater concentrations of hard

particles, such as pockets of sand on the surface of castings. In such

concentrations the action is like that of a grinding wheel. The surface of

castings should be treated to remove abrasive material in order to improve tool

life.

18
2.6.3 Diffusion wear

In diffusion wear the surface structure of the tool weakens due to solid state
diffusion. In this process, atoms in a metallic crystal lattice move from a
region of high atomic concentration to one of low concentration. Diffusion

wear is a sort of chemical attack on the tool surface, like etching, and is

dependent on the solubility of the different phases of the tool material in the

metal flowing over the surface, rather than on the hardness of these phases.
During metal cutting high temperatures are achieved and the process of

diffusion increases exponentially with the increase in temperature.

With high speed steel tools used in the usual cutting speed range, rates of wear
by diffusion are relatively slow because the interface temperatures are

relatively low. While using carbide tool inserts at high cutting speeds, higher

temperatures are achieved and diffusion wear becomes a predominant mode of

wear.

2.7 Forms of Wear in Metal Cutting

The progressive wear of a tool takes place in two ways and are discussed as
follows:

2.7.1 C rater W ear

Wear on the tool rake face occurs by formation of a crater, caused by the

action of the chip flowing along the rake face. The crater conforms to the

shape of the chip underside and is restricted to the chip-tool contact area

(Figure 2.11). The highest temperature occurs some distance from the cutting

edge along the rake face. At high cutting speeds a high enough temperature is

19
achieved to cause thermal softening in high speed steel. Hence the crater is

formed by diffusion wear. As the crater grows bigger, the cutting edge

becomes weaker and eventually fractures. A micrograph showing the crater

and flank wear on a high speed steel broach sample is presented in

Figure 2.12. It is obvious from the figure that the crater forms some distance
from the cutting edge along the rake face. The deepest point of the crater is
where the interface temperature reaches its maximum.

2.7.2 Flank W ear

Wear on the flank of a cutting tool is caused by friction between the newly

machined workpiece surface and the contact area on the tool flank. The width
of the wear land is measured using a microscope (Figure 2.12). A typical graph

of the progress of flank wear land width VB with cutting time is shown in

Figure 2.13. The curve can be divided into three regions:

1. High initial wear due to breakdown of sharp edge, region AB.

2. W ear at a uniform rate, region BC.

3. Wear occurs at a gradually increasing rate, region CD.

Region CD indicates where the width of flank wear has become sensitive to
the increased tool temperatures caused by such a large width of wear land. In

practice, tools are sent for regrind before region CD is reached.

2.8 Tool Life Criteria

When the total volumetric amount of wear debris detached from a relevant

surface (rake or flank) of the tool exceeds a specified value, the tool is at the

20
end of its useful life. The tool life is defined as a predetermined threshold

value of a measurement of a wear land or crater. The failure occurs when the

tool is no longer capable of producing parts within specification. The

following factors may alone, or in combination, be used as criteria for tool

failure:

1. Surface quality of the machined surface.

2. Dimensional tolerance of the workpiece.

3. Cutting forces and hence the cutting horsepower.

4. Production rate of the machined product.

Two criteria of tool failure are discussed below i.e. failure by measuring depth

of crater and by measuring width of flank wear. In practical machining

operations the wear of the rake and flank is not uniform along the active

cutting edge. Figure 2.14 shows a typical worn single-point tool. The crater

depth KT is measured at the deepest point of the crater (section A-A). The

largest permitted value of KT for sintered carbide tools is specified in terms of

the feed rate,

mm
KT [m m ] = 0.06 + 0.3f (2.7)
rev.

Where,

KT = maximum depth of crater

f = feed rate

21
It can be seen that flank wear is usually greatest at the extremities of the active

cutting edge. In the central portion of the cutting edge (zone B), the wear land

is usually fairly uniform. The average width of wear land in this region is

designated VB, and the maximum width of wear land is designated VBmax.
The criteria recommended by International Standards Organisation

(IS03685:1977) to define the effective tool life for high speed steel tools are:

1. Catastrophic failure, or

2. VB = 0.3 mm if the flank is regularly worn in zone B, or

3. VBmax = 0.6 mm if the flank is irregularly worn, scratched,

chipped, or badly grooved in zone B.

The high speed steel tools are subjected to relatively low cutting speeds, so
temperature during cutting is not high enough to cause significant diffusion

wear. The dominant mode of wear is the flank wear. Referring again to

Figure 2.12, this micrograph was taken at the end of useful life of a high speed

steel tool (tool life criterion being VB=0.3 mm). The depth of crater is
insignificant compared to the width of wear land.

2.9 Premature Tool Failure

It is possible to make cutting tools from very hard materials because the tool is

subjected to compressive stress while it is cutting. In fact, tools made from

hard alloys can only sustain the stresses for which they are designed. Because

of the low fracture toughness of these alloys, any accidental impact which
gives rise to tensile stress is likely to break a chip off the cutting edge [15], for

example, dropping the tool on the floor. As a further example, aluminium

oxide tools have a controlled bevel ground on the cutting edge, of a size

22
related to the expected feed rate, to avoid chipping during cutting. Fortunately,

high speed steel tools are fairly insensitive to rough treatment, but certain

malpractices will cause chipping, such as stopping cutting when the tool is still
engaged in the cut and then withdrawing the tool. The insensitivity of high

speed steel to chipping makes it suitable for heavy roughing cuts on large

forgings.

23
 C H A PTER TH REE

BROACHING

Broaching is a machining process in which a cutting tool having multiple

transverse cutting edges is pushed or pulled over a surface or through a hole to

remove metal by axial cutting. Broaching was originally developed for

machining internal key ways and its obvious advantages (Section 3.1) quickly
led to its development for the mass production machining of various surfaces,

such as flat, interior and exterior cylindrical, and other irregular surfaces.

Broaching produces better dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the

workpiece than can be obtained by milling or reaming [16]. The most

important part of the process is the broaching tool, in which the roughing,

semifinishing, and finishing teeth are positioned along the axis of a single tool.
Feed of the cutting edges is built into this tool. This permits an operation to be

completed in a single pass. Several broaches are sometimes used in

combination to form different surfaces on the workpiece simultaneously. As

several teeth of a broach are cutting at the same time, the feeds and the cutting

speeds may be reduced. With the introduction of powder metallurgy high

speed steels, the broach tools give longer useful lives and better surface quality

on the workpiece, making the broaching process more economical.

24
3.1 Advantages of Broaches

The major advantages of broaching include high productivity, dimensional

accuracy and good finish produced on the worksurface, and the economy in

production. These are discussed as follows:

3.1.1 Productivity

The ability to rough and finish machine in one pass increases productivity.

Broaching can produce finished product faster than other machining methods

provided the process is properly applied using the correct tools and machines

[17, 18, 19]. Several small parts may be stacked together and broached in a

single pass.

3.1.2 Quality o f M achining

Dimensional accuracy of the machined surface can be consistently maintained

because of the inherent accuracy of the broach. Several surfaces on a

workpiece can be located relative to each other, as this relationship is built into

the tooling and does not depend on the machine. The surface produced is

smooth compared with that of many other machining processes, as noncutting

burnishing elements are provided on the finishing end of the broach, resulting
in the elimination of any subsequent grinding operation [20].

3.1.3 O perational Econom y

Although the capital cost of the tools is high compared with that of

conventional tools, the cost per finished workpiece is low because of long tool

life. The longer tool life is achieved because of low cutting speeds in

broaching and because the amount of material removed by each tooth is small.

25
The reduced level of operational skill required for this process is one of the

factors in economy [21].

3.2 Broach Types

Broaching applications are of two types: internal broaching and external

broaching. Both types are used for machining configurations ranging from flat
surfaces to complex contours on or inside a workpiece. The workpieces can
range from small precision components to very large parts. Broaching is

generally not considered to be a heavy stock removal operation except in some

applications of surface broaching. Because of the length of stroke and power

requirements, broaching is seldom recommended for the removal of large

amounts of metal. Where heavy stock must be removed, a preliminary

roughing operation other than broaching is appreciated, or two or more

roughing broaching passes are used to remove the required stock. Broaches are
also classified by the way they are actuated i.e. pull or push type.

3.2.1 Internal Broaching

Workpieces with internal surfaces to be broached require a starting hole for

insertion of the tool. Starting holes for internal broaching are generally

produced by casting, forging, punching, drilling, or boring. Surfaces to be

broached must be parallel to the direction of tool travel. Most common internal

broached surfaces can be holes of different cross-sections such as: round,

square, rectangular, and other shaped holes, the process is used to cut

contoured surfaces, splines, keyways, serrations, and to rifle the bores of gun
barrels. If a through hole is available to be broached then a pull-type broach is

used. Figure 3.1 shows the features of a typical round pull-type broach. The

pull end and front pilot are passed through a starting hole in the workpiece and

26
the pull end is locked to the pull head of the broaching machine. The front

pilot on internal pull-type broaches ensures correct axial tool alignment with

the starting hole and also serves as a check on the starting-hole size. The
required size and shape of the hole is achieved in a single pass. If a through
hole is not available then blind holes are broached by short push-type

broaches. As the travel is limited so a series of broaches with increasing sizes

are used. The final size and shape of the hole may be achieved in more than

one pass. Pull broaches are much longer than the push-type since there is no
problem of bending.

3.2.2 External or Surface Broaching

Surface broaching applications are practically unlimited. Any external form

can be produced as long as the surfaces are in a straight line and unobstructed.

Apart from a flat surface, slots, keyways, contoured surface, rack and gear
teeth, and serrations are a few examples of external or surface broaching. Flat

broaching is one of the examples of external broaching. In this process width

of broach is more than that of workpiece. Flat broaches can have either
oblique cutting edges or perpendicular to the direction of cut. The later type of
flat broaches give rise to orthogonal cutting.

3.3 Broaching Characteristics and Broach Design

The information on mechanics of metal cutting, tool wear and tool life is

predominantly concerned with single-point tools. W hilst this information is

transferable to multi-point tools, a full analysis of multipoint cutting requires

additional information. Furthermore, owing to the broaching action and cutting

conditions being very different from those normally applied to single-point

tools, i.e.,

27
 1. the process is complex owing to the geometry of the tool,

2. the feed mechanisms, i.e. feed is achieved by rise per tooth or

tool inclination,

3. the tool requires accuracy in manufacture and setting in the

machine,

4. the overall dimensions are a function of the length of cut, area

of cut and shape and size of cut (relating to the work piece).

A major function of the broaching action is to efficiently produce the chip (i.e.

tool edge geometry is important), allow the chip to flow freely up the rake face
(requires an appropriate surface finish on the rake face) and to accomodate the
chip in the gullet throughout the cut without damaging the machined surface.

Current broach design (i.e. cutting edges, length of broach and tooth geometry
etc.) is purely on limited empirical data and broaching practice. Traditional
methods of broach design are not scientifically based. With rapid

developments of new workpiece materials the demands on the broaching

operation are being increased in terms of productivity, machinability and

component quality. In order to respond rapidly to these increased demands on

the broacch it is essential to provide the tool designer with,

1. a fundamental understanding of the broaching process,

2. clear design procedure,

3. scientific data associated with the tool and workpiece material.

Broaches in their simplest form consist of a slightly tapered flat or round bar

with rows of cutting teeth located on one or more surfaces. As the teeth are

stepped, additional metal is removed as each successive tooth contacts the

28
workpiece. The design of broaches is governed by the following general

principles:

3.3.1 Tooth Rise

The progressive increase in tooth height between successive teeth is called the
cut per tooth, step per tooth, or tooth rise. This height difference is greater

along the roughing section than the semifinishing section. Harder materials

require a smaller rise per tooth to avoid excessive stress on individual teeth.
Another approach in the design of flat broach is to provide a tapered holder

bar (Figure 3.2). The rise per tooth is incorporated in the holder bar rather than

the broach itself, thus achieving convenience and simplicity in broach

manufacture. All the teeth, except the finishing teeth, are ground to the same

height. The finishing teeth are back stepped to prevent a rise. In this case, the

clearance angle on the teeth is increased to compensate for the taper of the
holder.

3.3.2 Pitch

The linear distance from the cutting edge of one tooth to the corresponding

point on the next tooth is the pitch of a broach. This distance is determined by
the following factors:

1. Length of cut.

2. Rise per tooth.

3. Type of workpiece material.

A large pitch means the gullet size is greater to accommodate more chip

material. A relatively large pitch is required for roughing teeth, to provide

29
more chip space, for the roughing teeth have greater rise per tooth. The tooth
pitch is smaller for semifinishing and finishing teeth to reduce the overall
length of the broach. The longer cuts require more chip space, hence greater
pitch. Similarly the type of workpiece material determines the type o f chips

being formed. Continuous chips require more space as compared to

discontinuous chips. To prevent the broach from drifting and chattering it is

necessary that at least two or preferably more teeth are cutting simultaneously.

An empirical formula used to determine the pitch for short broaches, and not

applicable to large horizontal broaches, is:

(3.1)

Where,

P = pitch

L = length of cut

3.3.3 Chip Space

The chips produced during the broaching process are confined in the gullet,

between the teeth, for the length o f the cut. It is impossible to cut more metal

with a broach tooth than the preceding gullet permits without causing tool

breakage. The determination of gullet geometry and size depends on the

following variables:

1. Rake angle.

2. Rake angle radius.

3. Back-of-tooth radius.

30
 4. Cross-sectional area of gullet.

5. Surface finish on the rake face and the gullet.

These variables offer a compromise between the tooth strength, root diameter,

and ideal chip carrying capacity [21].

3.3.4 L oad on Broach

Pull on a broach can be calculated by rearranging equation (2.5), we get

newton
sp (3.2)
m

In other words the total pull on the broach is numerically equal to the cutting

force component times the number of teeth engaged in cutting.

The specific cutting energy values are required in the above load calculations.

The specific cutting energy varies for different workpiece materials, tool

geometry and is largely influenced by feed or rise per tooth.

Previously broach designers/users used a constant value for specific cutting

energy and,

PL = T x R x C (3.3)

Where,

T x R = area of metal removed by number of teeth in contact

R = rise per tooth

C = constant for workpiece material

and for surface broaching

31
 T =NxL (3.4)

Where,

L = effective width of broach

N = number of teeth engaged

In 1986, Vijayaraghavan [16] proved that better accuracy can be achieved by

using internal broaching process. He also proved that higher cutting speed

minimises dimensional deviation in broaching.

Cox [17] in 1988, showed that when several surfaces on a workpiece must be
maintained in a precise parallel relationship to each other, external broaching

is usually the fastest and most accurate method of machining.

Kuljanic [22] in 1975, showed that increase in cutting speed causes a decrease

in the cutting forces and improved surface finish of the workpiece.

Beach [18] in 1987, claimed that broaching led to increased production. The
workpiece was a cast-iron valve lever used in an automobile engine.

Motter [19] in 1989, argued that the Weldon Tool Company of Cleveland,
Ohio had been able to improve production capability from a multiple-machine,

multiple-person and multiple-shift operation to a one-person, one-machine and

one-shift operation, after a broaching process had been installed to machine

flats on cylindrical surfaces of end mill shanks.

Konig [20] in 1990, claimed that better surface finish can be achieved by the
broaching process.

32
A specific objective of the present programme is to compare the performance

of alternative tool steels. Literature treating this topic can now be considered.

Alvelid [23] in 1980, studied the wear mechanisms of M2, ASP23 and ASP30

high speed steel milling cutters. The ASP30 showed the longest life compared
with M2 and ASP23 milling cutters.

Heilman [8] in 1984, showed that high speed steels produced through powder

route has evenly distributed carbides and better bend strength. He also showed

that broaches made from powder compacted steel give longer life and

produced a larger number of pieces compared to broaches made from

conventional high speed steel.

Lowder [9] in 1984, showed that powder compacted steels offer better

grindability and increased performance in terms of tool life over conventional

wrought steels. He also claimed that powder compacted steels can provide
alloy combinations which were not possible before.

Bouzakis [24] in 1982, studied the effect of feed and speed on gear hobbing

cutters. The tool materials were ASP23, ASP30 and ASP60 high speed steels.

He showed that the ASP60 tool was more wear resistant than ASP30 and

ASP23. He also studied the effect of austenitizing temperature on ASP30 steel

and showed that hardening temperature of 1180 °C gave the best performance.

Ahman [25] in 1985, showed that ASP30 has uniformly distributed carbides.

He investigated the wear mechanisms and performed wear tests at different

cutting speeds.

Beard [4] in 1989, claimed that powder compacted high speed steels offer

better machinability, consistency in heat treatment, better grindability and

higher toughness than the conventionally produced high speed steels.

33
The general theme of these reports is that a better performance can be

expected from powder compacted steel, but this advantage is rarely described

in a quantitative way. In this thesis, performance is expressed numerically, to

provide a basis for economic decisions.

34
 CH A PTER FO U R

TOOL PERFORMANCE TESTS

An investigation has been carried out to compare the cutting performance and
tool life evaluation of high speed steel broach samples. The wear tests will be

discussed in chapter five. The comparison has been done between

conventional M2 and powder metallurgy ASP30 and ASP53 high speed steel
broach samples. The ASP53 was a development material.

The cutting performance was evaluated by measuring the cutting forces and

calculating the specific cutting energy, an indicator of cutting performance.

As the roughness of the machined surface is an important criterion in the

evaluation of performance of a tool, the surface roughness of the workpiece

was studied as a function of undefoimed chip thickness.

The tests were performed at two cutting speeds, which were 0.7 m/min and

10.5 m/min respectively.

Investigation was carried out on a set of six M2, five ASP53 and four ASP30

broach samples. All broach samples were measured prior to tests.

35
4.1 Measurement of Broach Samples

All the broach samples were measured as received and the following

measurements were made.

4.1.1 G eom etric Features

The broach samples had two teeth and a full gullet (Figure 4.1). A Hilger

universal projector was used at a magnification of x25 to measure rake angle,

clearance angle, pitch and depth of tooth of broach samples.

The nominal rake and clearance angles were 12 and 4 degrees respectively.

The nominal pitch and depth of tooth were 9.6 and 4.6 mm respectively.

Measurements of the geometric features are presented in Tables 4.1, 4.2 and
4.3, at total of 90 observations. Deviations from the nominal values were not
considered to be significant.

The mean radius of the cutting edge of the broach samples was 8+3 pm.

4.1.2 Surface Roughness

A Rank Taylor Hobson Form Talysurf L-120 with a stylus having a nominal
radius of 2 pm was used to measure the surface roughness of the following

surfaces (Figure 4.2):

1. Rake face (perpendicular and parallel to, and within 1.5 mm of

the cutting edge).

2. Clearance face (perpendicular and parallel to, and within 1.5

mm of the cutting edge).

36
Each measurement consisted of five cut-off lengths o f 0.25 mm. This cut-off
length was chosen owing to the small space available on each o f the above
surfaces. Four measurements were made on each surface, in each direction,
and the average was recorded (Tables 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6). Two parameters of

surface roughness were taken into consideration, which were, Roughness

Average (Ra) and Peak to Valley Roughness Height (Rt). The data shown in

Tables 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 represent 480 observations.

The roughness on the rake face measured perpendicular to the cutting edge is

an important factor to determine broach tooth surface characteristics, as this

surface is responsible for the chip flow resistance. The mean Ra values
measured perpendicular to the cutting edge for ASP30, ASP53 and M2 broach

samples were 1.42, 0.65 and 1.01 pm respectively.

The surface roughness perpendicular to the direction o f chip flow (or cutting

edge) affects the friction characteristics and the restriction of the chip flow.

Any improvements in surface roughness which will ease the chip flow will

improve the efficiency of cutting. In single-point cutting operations the chip

disposal is not as important compared with broaching. In broaching operations

the chip flows over the rake face, accommodated in the gullet and is ejected at

the end of the cut. The poor roughness on the rake face can cause adhesion of

the chip, which can damage the surface of the workpiece or overload the tooth

leading to a premature failure of the broach tool.

4.1.3 H eat Treatm ent and Hardness

The following heat treatment cycle was followed by the manufacturers during

the production of ASP30, ASP53 and M2 high speed steel tools:

37
 First pre-heat Dry air to 450°C - 500°C

Second pre-heat Salt bath at 850°C - 900°C

Hardening Salt bath at 1180°C (1220°C for M2)

Quench Salt bath at 550°C

Allow tools to equalise at the above

temperature then cool immediately in air to

hand warm.

Tempering Temper three times at 560°C for one hour

each minimum.

It is essential to allow the tools to cool

fully to room temperature between tempers.

The soaking time was the same for all the

three high speed steels.

Vickers diamond pyramid indentation tests were performed to measure the

hardness of the broach samples. A load of 50 kg was used for all tests to

reduce the variation in measurements. At least ten measurements were taken

from each broach sample.

The hardness measurements of all broach samples is presented in Figures 4.3,

4.4 and 4.5, representing 150 measurements. The average of measured values
were:

38
 Material HV Standard Deviation

M2 868 7.4

ASP53 910 9.7

ASP30 926 10.7

4.1.4 Chem ical Com position

The chemical composition (nominal) of the broach samples as supplied by the

manufacturer is shown below:

Material Carbon Chromium Molybdenum Tungsten Vanadium Cobalt

M2 0.85 4.0 5.0 6.0 2.0 -

ASP53 2.5 4.2 3.0 4.0 8.0 -

ASP30 1.28 4.2 5.0 6.4 3.1 8.5

It is noted that the hardness of ASP53 is not so high as might be expected from

its high vanadium content.

4.1.5 Carbide D istribution

The broach sample materials were polished and then etched with a reagent

having the following chemical composition to show the carbide distribution on

an optical microscope:

Concentrated hydrochloric acid : 50 ml

39
 Water 50 ml

Ferric chloride : 10 g

The time of etching was 2 minutes.

The carbide distribution of M2, ASP30 and ASP53 high speed steel broach

samples is shown in Figures 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8 respectively. The white spots
represent the carbides and the black background is the steel matrix. The

uniformity in carbide distribution of powder compacted material is obvious, as

compared to the conventional M2 high speed steel.

The samples were polished again and a Philips Scanning Electron Microscope

PSEM500 was used to identify the carbides of M2, ASP30 and ASP53 tool
materials. Figures 4.9, 4.10 and 4.11 are back-scattered images which show

the carbides and their distribution of M2, ASP30 and ASP53 high speed steel

tool materials. The bright spots represent the tungsten/molybdenum carbides

and the black spots represent the vanadium carbides.

Most of the carbides in M2 and ASP30 tool materials are of

tungsten/molybdenum and the Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDAX) of
these carbides is shown in Figure 4.12. The number density o f vanadium
carbides (dark spots) is very less, as it would suggest from the vanadium

content of these two materials. The X-ray analysis (EDAX) of these vanadium
carbides is shown in Figure 4.13.

The ASP53 tool material showed the presence of vanadium carbides only and

its X-ray analysis (EDAX) is shown in Figure 4.14.

To compare the size and distribution of carbides between M2 and ASP30 tool
materials, micrographs were taken at a relatively low magnification. Figures

4.15 and 4.16 represent the back-scattered images of M2 and ASP30 tool

40
materials respectively. The clusters, streaks and size of carbides in the M2

high speed steel is obvious in Figure 4.15. The uniformity in distribution and

size of the carbides is the characteristic feature of the powder compacted high

speed steels (Figure 4.16).

4.1.6 The Cutting Edge

A Philips Scanning Electron Microscope SEM500 was used to examine the

cutting edges of the broach samples. It was found that the M2 broach samples

did not have a keen cutting edge as required for broaching. Figures 4.17 to
4.20 show some of the defects on the cutting edge of M2 broach samples.
Figures 4.21 to 4.24 show the cutting edges of ASP30 and ASP53 broach

samples.

4.2 Workpiece Material

The workpiece material was 150M36 alloy steel. This alloy steel is used to

manufacture parts of an automobile engine. It had the following chemical

composition obtained by chemical analysis and conforms to BS970:1991.

Carbon Manganese Silicon Chromium Nickel Molybdenum Sulphur

0.40 1.46 0.25 0.16 0.16 0.05 0.05

Vickers diamond pyramid indentation tests were performed on the workpiece

material. The mean hardness value was 240 HV with a standard deviation of

4 HV. This analysis represents 50 measurements.

41
4.3 Cutting conditions

The cutting conditions were as follows:

Cutting speed 0.7 and 10.5 m/min.

Undeformed chip thickness : 0.005 to 0.10 mm.

Width of cut 10 mm.

Length of cut 26 mm.

Cutting fluid 7-8% Quaker E750 in water.

The cutting speed of 0.7 m/min was selected to record the cutting process on

video tapes. This provided a tool for better understanding of the broaching

process. The performance tests at low cutting speed also provided the means to
compare and understand the effects of cutting speed on tool performance. The

cutting speed of 10.5 m/min was selected for it is the practical cutting speed
for high speed steel broaches.

The undeformed chip thickness of 0.005 to 0.015 mm correspond to the tooth-

rise for finishing teeth while cutting steels under flat broaching conditions
[21]. Similarly the roughing teeth has a rise per tooth of 0.04 to 0.10 mm. This

range of undeformed chip thickness also provided the means to understand the

effect of undeformed chip thickness on specific cutting energy, an indicator of

performance.

The width of the broach sample was 18 mm and a width of 10 mm was

selected for the workpiece to achieve flat broaching conditions. The length of
cut was calculated by using equation 3.1.

42
4.4 Instrumentation and Test Procedure

A Kistler dynamometer type 9257A was used to measure the cutting forces

during flat broaching experiments. It was a piezoelectric transducer for

measuring forces in three components perpendicular to each other. For each of

the three force components a proportional electrical charge is set up in the

measuring platform. These charges were led into a charge amplifier where they

were converted into proportional voltages. A Fylde charge amplifier FE-128-

CA was used for this purpose. The output from the charge amplifier provided
input for the oscilloscope. A four channel Gould 1604 digital storage

oscilloscope having 10 kilobyte memory per channel, with a Gould 260

waveform processor, was used to store and record the data. This data was
further processed to compute the cutting forces and the specific cutting energy

required for the corresponding undeformed chip thickness.

A Precisa 125A sub-milligram balance was used to weigh the chips obtained

during the cutting test. The chips were weighed for the calculation of

undeformed chip thickness and specific cutting energy.

The cutting tests were performed at two cutting speeds which were 0.7 m/min
and 10.5 m/min respectively. A Parkson vertical milling machine was used for
the tests at a cutting speed of 0.7 m/min. A broach sample holder and

workpiece vice were specially designed and made for the purpose. A general

view of the test rig is shown in Figures 4.25 and 4.26. The workpiece was

specially machined and its overall dimensions as shown in Figure 4.27.

A specially adapted Giewont universal milling machine was used to perform

the tests at a cutting speed of 10.5 m/min. A minimum feed of 0.020 mm was

the limitation of this machine. Figures 4.28 and 4.29 show the general set-up

of the test rig. A specially machined workpiece is shown in Figure 4.30.

43
4.4.1 M easurem ent o f Cutting Forces

In order to compare the cutting performance of the broach samples the cutting

force Fc and the thrust force Ft were measured by using the instrumentation

explained in section 4.4. Figure 4.31 shows two typical traces, recorded during
the measurement of forces, for different undeformed chip thicknesses. The

traces in red and blue represent the cutting force Fc and the thrust force Ft
respectively. The horizontal scale represents the time elapsed and each
division is 500 millisecond. The vertical scale represents force factor Z and

each division represents 200 newton per volt. The curve was integrated to give

area under the curve in volt-sec. The following equation was used to calculate
the average cutting force for the corresponding undeformed chip thickness:

newton 1
Fc [newton] = A [volt - sec] X Z (4.1)
volt T [sec]

Where,

Fc = cutting force

A = area under the curve

Z = force factor

T = time taken to complete the cut

Similarly the thrust force Ft was calculated by integrating the corresponding

curve and repeating the above calculations.

The following equation was used to calculate the undeformed chip thickness:

W[ f c ]
UCT[m ] = (4.2)
kg_
3
X L [m ] X b [ra]
Lm J

44
Where,

W = weight of chip

p = density of workpiece material

L = length of cut

b = width of cut

In practice the units used for undeformed chip thickness are millimetres.

Figures 4.32 and 4.33 represent the cutting and thrust forces per unit width of
the workpiece as a function of undeformed chip thickness at cutting speeds of

0.7 and 10.5 m/min respectively. These figures represent 109 measurements.

4.4.2 Specific Cutting Energy

To compare the cutting efficiency of the broach samples the specific cutting

energy was calculated by using the equation (2.5). The cutting force and the

corresponding undeformed chip thickness was determined by using the

equations (4.1) and (4.2) respectively. Figures 4.34 and 4.35 show the specific
cutting energy as a function of undeformed chip thickness at cutting speeds of

0.7 and 10.5 m/min respectively. These curves are discussed in section 4.5.

4.4.3 Roughness of M achined Surface

Owing to the importance of roughness of the machined surface an

investigation was carried out to measure the surface roughness of the

machined surface. Two parameters of surface roughness were considered i.e.

Roughness Average (Ra) and Peak to Valley Roughness Height (Rt). The

values of Ra and Rt were measured in both the directions, perpendicular and

parallel, to the direction of cutting.

45
A Rank Taylor Hobson Form Talysurf 120-L was used to measure the

roughness of machined surface. Each measurement consisted of seven cut-off

lengths of 0.8 mm each. A set of four measurements were made on a broached

surface, in each direction, and their average was recorded. Figures 4.36 to 4.39
show the Ra and Rt of the machined surface, measured perpendicular and
parallel to the direction of cut, as a function of undeformed chip thickness at a

cutting speed of 0.7 m/min. The effect of undeformed chip thickness on Ra

and Rt of machined surface, measured perpendicular and parallel to the

direction of cut, at a cutting speed of 10.5 m/min is shown in Figures 4.40 to

4.43. This analysis represent 436 measurements.

4.5 Discussion of Results

1. The X-ray analysis (EDAX) and the back-scattered image

(Figure 4.11) of the ASP53 tool material shows that it had only

one type of coarse carbide i.e. vanadium carbide. The vanadium

has a strong chemical affinity with the carbon [1] and apparently

no carbon was left for tungsten and molybdenum to form their

carbides. The presence of tungsten and molybdenum in the

vanadium carbide can be seen in Figure 4.14. It suggests that

these metals are dissolved in the vanadium rich carbides.

2. The size of the carbide cluster (-375 pm long) in Figure 4.15 can

be compared with the size of defect (-380 pm long) on the

cutting edge of an M2 broach sample shown in Figure 4.18. It

can be inferred that a carbide cluster was knocked out during the

grinding of the edge. Similarly the presence of a massive burr on

the cutting edge of another M2 broach sample (Figure 4.17)

suggests the existence of a carbide cluster. Figures 4.19 and 4.20

46
 show similar defects on the cutting edges of the M2 broach

samples.

3. The Figures 4.21 to 4.24 show the keen cutting edges of the

ASP30 and ASP53 broach samples. Due to the uniform carbide

distribution of these steels, a keen cutting edge can be obtained
with certainty.

All graphs which are represented as a straight line have been obtained by a
least square fit analysis.

Performance tests at a cutting speed of 0.7 m/min revealed the following:

4. The cutting and thrust forces were practically the same while

cutting with ASP30, ASP53 and M2 broach samples and are

shown in Figure 4.32. This was because the cutting force is

largely influenced by tooth geometry and does not depend upon

the material of the tool. These broach samples had the same
nominal tooth geometry.

5. The slope of the lines (Figure 4.32) suggests that increasing the
undeformed chip thickness caused a proportional increase in the

cutting and thrust forces. This is because the shear stress

required to plastically deform the material is approximately

constant [14, 26].

6. There was no practical difference in the specific cutting energy

while cutting with ASP30, ASP53 and M2 broach samples.

Equation (2.5) shows that specific cutting energy is the

workdone per second over metal removal rate. Figure 4.34 is a

typical specific cutting energy curve as a function of

undeformed chip thickness. At low values of undeformed chip

47
 thickness the specific cutting energy is high and approaches
infinity. In a broaching situation at very fine undeformed chip

thickness the edge radius has a great influence on the cutting

process. At these low values of undeformed chip thickness the

total cutting force contains a large element of redundant forces

which are made of ploughing force and friction force. At high

feed values in the case of above 30 pm the specific cutting

energy is constant i.e. the edge radius of the tool has no effect.
This has been explained in detail by [27, 28].

7. The roughness of the machined surface was less while cutting

with ASP30 and ASP53 than that of M2 broach sample (Figures

4.36 to 4.39). The scatter of Ra and Rt values from the least

square line was also less. This can be explained by the better

cutting edges of the powder compacted material. A broken edge

(Figures 4.17 to 4.20) leaves a very large edge radius which

results in increased roughness of the machined surface [21]. The

length of defect (-380 pm) on the cutting edge is too small

compared to the width of cut (10 mm) to affect the average

cutting force but leaves a comparatively rough surface.

Performance tests at a cutting speed of 10.5 m/min revealed the following:

8. There was no practical difference in the cutting force, thrust

force and the specific cutting energy while cutting with ASP30,

ASP53 and M2 broach samples (Figures 4.33 and 4.35). This

has been explained above in paragraphs 4, 5 and 6.

9. Figures 4.40 to 4.43 show that the broach samples made from

powder compacted steels, ASP30 and ASP53, gave consistently

better surface finish, measured in both the directions, compared

48
 with M2 steel. Adhesion between tool and workpiece in the

form of built-up edge was observed in all cases. This is because

M2 broach samples tend to have a larger built-up edge than the

powder compacted broaches. Due to the uneven cutting edge of

the M2 broach, the cutting pressure varies considerably along

the edge. A higher local pressure promotes the formation of

built-up edge, resulting in a poor surface [23].

10. All the curves shown in Figures 4.40 to 4.43 show a positive

slope which suggests a decrease in surface quality with

increasing undeformed chip thickness. Increasing the

undeformed chip thickness is expected to increase the scale of

the deformation, with an increase in all dimensions, including

that of the built-up edge. This, in turn, gives increased

roughness. The micrographs in Figures 2.9 and 2.10 show the

machined surface produced while cutting with a built-up edge.

11. The effect of cutting speed on the Ra value of the machined

surface can be seen by comparing the Figures 4.36 and 4.37

with 4.40 and 4.41 respectively. A similar effect on Rt can also

be seen by comparing Figures 4.38 and 4.39 with 4.42 and 4.43

respectively. At extremely low cutting speeds, there is time

available for the cutting fluid to penetrate into the tool-work

interface. This reduces the width of the contact zone where

adhesion occurs, and may eliminate built-up edge, with a

beneficial effect on finish. As practical values of cutting speed

are reached, there is no time for penetration of cutting fluid, and

a built-up edge develops. The formation and collapse of the

built-up edge leaves a rough surface. At even higher cutting

speeds (approximately 100 m/min), the increased temperature at

49
the tool-work interface will not allow built-up edge to become
established, and surface finish is found to improve [21, 22].

50
 CH A PTER FIVE

WEAR TESTS

Simulation tests were carried out to investigate the useful life of the broach
samples.

5.1 Cutting Conditions

The cutting conditions were as follows:

Cutting speed : 10.5 m/min.

Feed rate : 0.079 mm/rev.

Width of cut : 10 mm.

Length of cut : 30 mm.

Cutting fluid : 7-8% Quaker E750 in water.

5.2 Test Procedure

The wear tests were carried out on a specially modified fully variable-speed

Churchill Denham SR10V centre lathe having a three-jaw chuck. The overall

set-up is shown in Figure 5.1. A tool holder was designed and machined to

51
 accommodate a broach sample and mounted on a standard tool post of the
lathe, shown in Figure 5.2.

A perspective view of the specially machined workpiece is shown in Figure

5.3. A set of two workpieces were assembled into a specially machined

workpiece holding jig (Figure 5.4). The workpiece had two legs A and B as

shown. The workpieces were gripped at 180 degrees to each other and the legs

marked A were cut first. A complete revolution of the chuck produced two

cuts, one on each workpiece. An automatic feed rate of 0.079 mm/rev was

selected for all wear tests, with a spindle speed of 15 rev/min. The workpieces

were unbolted and fastened again so that the legs marked B could be subjected

to cutting. In this manner the cutting speed was kept constant. A set of two
workpieces gave a total length of cut of 21 meters in approximately 24

minutes.

Although this set-up did not give truly orthogonal cutting, this was the closest

possible solution for performing the extensive wear tests.

5.2.1 M easurem ent of W ear L and

The broach sample was removed intermittently for measurement of the wear

land width. A tool maker's microscope at a magnification of x30 was used for

this purpose. The wear land width VB = 0.3 mm was the criterion of useful

tool life. Progress of the wear scar was recorded by using an optical and a

scanning electron microscope. Figures 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7 show the wear scar on

the flank face at the end of useful tool life of M2, ASP53 and ASP30 broach

samples respectively. The progress of tool life of the broach samples is shown
in Figure 5.8, representing 67 measurements.

52
5.2.2 Roughness of M achined Surface

The surface roughness of the workpiece was also recorded throughout the life

of the broach sample. The selection of cut-off length and the surface roughness

parameters were the same as explained in Section 4.2. The roughness of the

machined surface was measured after suitable intervals of cutting. The effect

of tool-wear on the machined surface is shown in Figures 5.9 and 5.10. This

analysis represents 144 measurements.

5.3 Discussion of Results

1. Adhesion between tool and work in the form of built-up edge

was observed in all cases and there is strong evidence of sliding

between tool and workpiece (Figure 5.13). The slip at the

interface was intermittent and probably there was slip at the

beginning of each cut and sticking occurred later. Adhesion of

workpiece on the flank face can be seen in Figures 5.5 and 5.14.

This adhered material was analysed and identified as workpiece

material by using energy dispersive X-ray analysis on the

scanning electron microscope. During the period when the tool

is not cutting, it cools and when the new cut starts the adhering

work material is tom off and sliding occurs until a new zone of

stagnant material is built up, and slip at the interface stops.

Figures 5.15 and 5.16 show the adhered work material on the

rake face and the scars caused by chipping on the flank faces of

M2 and ASP30 broach samples respectively. The chips were

small in the case of powder compacted steel and can be seen at a

relatively high magnification in Figure 5.17. The sliding wear

53
 mechanisms found in these cases are both adhesion and

abrasion.

2. The differences in the gradual wear between the different tool

materials for the same work material thus depend on differences

in the strength of the adhesion and the toughness of the tool

material. A closer look into the Figures 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7 shows

that the M2 steel has a greater tendency for adhesion compared

to the powder compacted steels.

3. While strong adhesion protects the edge from wearing away it

also causes a greater risk of chipping. Adhesion appears to be

stronger in the case of M2 steels. To avoid the chipping, the tool

should have high toughness. The toughness of the tool material

depends upon uniformity in distribution and size of carbides [5].

The powder compacted materials have proved to possess high

toughness and hence have a longer tool life as shown in

Figure 5.8. This conclusion has also been reached by others [8,
9, 23, 24].

4. The ASP30 broach showed an increase in life of 225% over that

of M2 broach. It may be noted that the scars due to microscopic

chipping on the flank faces were larger for M2 than for ASP30

(see Figures 5.13 and 5.15).

5. The ASP30 and ASP53 broaches gave better surface finish on

the workpiece compared to that of M2 broach (Figures 5.9 to

5.12). This has been explained in section 4.5 paragraph 9.

6. Surface finish produced by the tool throughout its useful life is

an important factor to consider. The slope of the lines in Figures

54
5.9 to 5.12 suggests that roughness of the machined surface was

not affected as the life of the tool progressed. In the case of M2

broach the scatter of Ra values from the least square fit line is

relatively larger compared with that of broaches made from

powder compacted steel. This suggests that wear of the M2

broach occurred in jumps rather than gradually, as can be seen

in Figure 5.8. The adhesion of relatively large amount of

workpiece material in the form of built-up edge causes large

pieces of tool material to be tom away, resulting in erratic

performance in terms of wear rate and quality of finish of the

machined surface.

55
 CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions drawn from the work in this thesis are hoped to

broaden the understanding of why the performances of alternative high speed

steels vary, and how this understanding can be used to improve the

performance of high speed steel broaches.

1. The surface roughness of the workpiece depends upon the

quality of the cutting edge. The M2 broach samples possessed a

poor edge which resulted in a rough surface (~ R a= l.l pm) even

at very low cutting speed (0.7 m/min). Whereas, the ASP broach

samples gave better finish at the same cutting speed

(~Ra=0.6 pm).

2. A keen cutting edge cannot be produced on a conventional high

speed steel tool because of irregular distribution of carbides,

which causes problems during grinding.

3. The anti-segregation process high speed steel has greater

toughness with respect to hardness, this allows the tool to wear

slower than the M2 steel. The ASP30 gave 2.25 times the life of

M2 broach sample. This is due to the uniform distribution of

carbides in the powder compacted steels.

4. The cost of ASP30 and ASP53 is twice that of M2 steel, and as

the ASP30 gave in excess of double the life and an improved

surface finish compared to M2 steel. The extra cost is therefore

justified.

56
5. The ASP53, being a development material, although gave a

better surface finish but the tool life was only 1.3 times that of

M2 steel and is therefore not cost-efficient.

6. The ASP broach samples had a reliable cutting edge which

could prove to be a better material for surface engineering

applications (e.g. TiN coating).

57
 REFERENCES

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3. Kremnev L S, Geller Yu A. Effect of Tungsten on the Properties of

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9. Lowder S H, Bhardwaj J. Cutting Tools for State-of-the-art

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Capacity, Cost. Heat Treatment, vol. 9, p .3 0 ,1985.

11. Heilman P, Billgren P. Commercial Gas Atomisation of High Speed

Steels. Met. Powder Report, vol. 40(1), p.38, 1985.

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Steels. 5th Europeon Powder Metallurgy Symposium, p.216, 1978.

14. Boothroyd G. Fundamentals of Metal Machining and Machine

Tools. Scripta Book Company. 1975.

15. Ghani A K, Barrow G. Tool Failure at Exit During Interrupted

Cutting. Annals of the CIRP. vol. 34(1), p.71, 1985.

16. Vijayaraghavan L, Krishnamurthy R. Dimensional Accuracy in

Internal Broaching. 12th AIMTDR conference IIT Delhi, p.285,

1986.

17. Cox W. Why Use Straddle Broaching? M odem .M achine Shop,

vol. 60(10), p. 82, 1988.

18. Beach J. New twist ... Broaching on The Fly. Machine and Tool

Blue Book. vol. 82(4), p .7 5 ,1987.

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19. Van De Motter C, Haupthoff W. Broaching Flats Leads to
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vol. 55(9), p.43, 1989.

20. Konig W, et al. Machining hard materials with geometrically

defined cutting edges - Field of applications and limitations. Annals

of the CIRP. vol. 39(1), p .6 1 ,1990.

21. Forst Handbook - Hints on Broaching. 1973. Oswald Forst

Gesellschaft Mit Beschrankter Haftung.

22. Kuljanic E. Cutting Forces and Surface Roughness in Broaching.

Annals of the CIRP. vol. 24(1), p.77, 1975.

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Milling. Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy, vol. 9, p.59, 1980.

24. Bouzakis K D, Konig W. Use of Powder Metallurgical High Speed

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25. Ahman L, et al. Wear of High Speed Steel Milling Tools.

Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy, vol. 14, p.60, 1985.

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when Machining with Negative Rake Angle Tools. Annals of the

CIRP. vol. 33(1), p .4 3 ,1984.

27. Lucca D A, Seo Y W. Effect of Tool Edge Geometry on Energy

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60
28. Sarwar M. and Thompson P J. Cutting Action of Blunt Tools.

International MTDR Conference, Manchester, p.295, 1981.

61
 Workpiece

Figure 2.1 A perspective view of orthogonal cutting.

Rake face

Chip Tool

Clearance face
UCT Workpiece

Undeformed New surface

chip thickness

Figure 2.2 A metal cutting diagram showing the rake angle 7,

clearance angle p, cutting speed V, undeformed chip
thickness UCT, chip thickness tc and chip velocity Vc.

62
 Chip

Motion of
w o rk p iece

Figure 2.3 Forces acting on the tool in orthogonal cutting.

Chip fra g m en t

Chip form ing

Tool
P la stic zo n e

W ork p iece V

Figure 2.4 Fragmental or discontinuous chips.

 Chip

B.U.E.

W orkpiece

Figure 2.5 Continuous chip with built-up edge.

Gullet

Cutting edge ---------------M' V

^ < •. * .-.vx v ; v
'* -- ' f / ,w , ' '.w ’t - ' ‘ ' "i :
^ .■ - ^ -'?• v>(
—t. ./V -- .■•‘ > ._■ ,\ -
r- • '; -
Flank face

XL
Figure 2.6 A micrograph showing the built-up edge and the
wear scar on the clearance face (x25).

64
 T3
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£3
3 C/3
CD
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65
Direction of cut —>

Illumination
Figure 2.10 A micrograph showing the machined surface
while cutting with a built-up edge. The
illumination is opposite to the direction of
cut (x40).

Face

Crater
w ear

Flank

W orkpiece
Flank w ear

Figure 2.11 Typical wear on a tool in orthogonal cutting.

67
 1D
<3
<D
£ £
Ui
3 C
c«
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|t o W $

I m
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f e w
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68
 0.8
E VB
E 0.7
CD
> Uniform
TJ Initial wear rate
i o ,
breakdown
S — Rapid
2 0.4 breakdown
1 0.3
M
—
o
JZ

100 150 200 250

Cutting tim
timee.s

Figure 2.13 Development of flank wear with time for a

carbide tool at a cutting speed of 1 m/s [18].

Tool
face

KB
KM

Section A-A
Zone Zone Zone Wear
*“n 1 notch

VC VN

View on major flank

Figure 2.14 Some features of single-point tool wear in turning

operations [18].

69
 o Pull
Shank end
length
Length
to first
tooth

Front Root
pilot d ia m .

Overall
1
length
R ough in g
teeth
I
Cutting
teeth
I
1
E 3 Semifinishing
^=4 teeth

Finishing
teeth Rear pilot

Follower

Figure 3.1 A diagram showing the significant features o f a

round internal broach.

70
 a<2 O)

CL
Q.
O)
finishing teeth

cn

CL
Back step

< a

CJ CL

ȣ U)
llt z :

Ofi
s

71
 oo

O)

O
u
3
OX)

cn

Q.

72
 Cutting e d g e

Clearance face

R ake f a c e

F igure 4.2 A sketch showing the directions of measuring

the roughness of significant surfaces of the
broach samples.
 tn
0)
VO <L)
1 O
VO cs
ON
o g £
<N
.o
'o
o S ^
H CL O
i—
H
o 4-i
03
Vickers hardness of M2 broach samples

vo
O '
o
<N

Measurement num ber

'o
£

o
<N
*0
H

o
o
H

o
o
■ H

(8 q o s ) ssa u p jB q s j o > p i\

74
 o
>■ H IojS^
ex
<L>

o
Vickers hardness of ASP53 broach sam p les

o
o
H

Measurement num ber

o
o
H

o
H

£
s
o
€
H <Din
»- 1-1 ^
,0
■ i+h -a
ro

o o
<
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n
N On
00

(§q o s) ssaupjBq s-ia^pi^

75
(8q 09) ss9upj«q s jo > p i\
Figure 4.6 Carbide distribution of M2 HSS as seen
under an optical microscope (x600).

Figure 4.7 Carbide distribution of ASP30 HSS as

seen under an optical microscope (x600).

Figure 4.8 Carbide distribution of ASP53 HSS as

seen under an optical microscope (x600).
Figure 4.9 Carbide distribution of M2 HSS (x960).

F igure 4.10 Carbide distribution of ASP30 HSS (x960).

Figure 4.11 Carbide distribution of ASP53 HSS (x960).

78
 £ ’o
x .5 2
X *3
cd
Lj C
cd o
> cn
L»J (Li
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-*->
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UD C|— ftH
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•—* (Li
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-C o
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carbides of ASP30 tool material.

X
u
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CD
CVJ
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Ui
CD
UD
cr» OX
UD

CD X !
C JL

79
 u“:.?t✓
i_ Sf'UQKi
ini i

f“
m\«n.iC
i i 1i w
i in i« ni
wj-i- i * ui
n i• i-*< ^ i i• ni s
r s a wik"ti [waa^ir nw X '.1 *4.

V/CrB

W Mo

ittJi i'ttj“irrrrjrTr
4t l/l
Q —
i
0 .0

Figure 4.14 X-ray analysis of the vanadium

rich carbides of ASP53 tool
material.

80
 PS^lSilii
sC-':A'1^. ‘'"V'b'S

Figure 4.15 Carbide distribution of M2 HSS (x!20).

Figure 4.16 Carbide distribution of ASP30 HSS (xl20).

F igure 4.17 A view of the cutting edge of an M2 broach
sample (x 110)

IB IH

Figure 4.18 A view of the cutting edge of an M2 broach

sample (xl70)

82
F igure 4.19 A view of the cutting edge of an M2 broach
sample (x340)

Figure 4.20 A view of the cutting edge of an M2 broach

sample (x!40)

83
 *K&*czT2mmsgwm*

view o f tu
t/,e CD,
h sample (x7s)

84
F igure 4.23 A view of the cutting edge of an ASP53
broach sample (x260)

F igure 4.24 A view of the cutting edge of an ASP53

broach sample (x260)

85
Figure 4.25 A picture showing an overall setup of the test rig for
performance tests at a cutting speed of 0.7 m/min.

Figure 4.26 A picture showing the dynamometer, workpiece vice,

workpiece and the tool holder for performance tests at a
cutting speed of 0.7 m/min.

86
 Figure 4.27 A perspective view of the specially machined
workpiece (150M36 alloy steel) for performance
tests at a cutting speed of 0.7 m/min.

Figure 4.28 A picture showing an overall setup of the test rig for
performance tests at a cutting speed of
10.5 m/min.

87
 •>v

Figure 4.29 A picture showing the tool and the workpiece for
performance tests at a cutting speed of 10.5 m/min.

Figure 4.30 A perspective view of a specially

machined workpiece (150M36 alloy
steel) for performance tests at a
cutting speed of 10.5 m/min.

88
 DATE : J u I 27/93
T I M E : 2 3 : 5 5 :22

CHI: 1 . 00U :500ms

C H 2 : 1 - 00U : 500ms

■*»***

DATE : J u I 27/93

r“-*“W*Vf+trW “Av
CH2 : 1 . 00U : 500ms

CH3 : 1 , 0 0 U : 500m

fig u re 4.31 Typical traces of cutting and thrust forces obtained from the
oscilloscope.

89
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90
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(r a r a /x p r ) ] i n n j a d a o j o j S fr n p p iQ
91
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92
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(g '-in /p o ) d sg X S ja u a S u iy j.n o o ij io a d s

93
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95
 Effect of U ndeform ed Chip Thickness on Peak to Valley H e ig h t

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97
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98
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(ra n ) qy

100
s s o n -q S n o j
o}
 Effect of U ndeform ed Chip Thickness on Peak to Valley H e ig h t
Measured P arallel to the Direction of Cut (cutting speed : 10.5 m / m i n )

(ran )
iq S ia q

101
ssa m jS n o j
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F igure 5.1 A picture showing the overall set-up of the test rig to perform
wear tests at a cutting speed of 10.5 m/min.

Figure 5.2 A picture showing the broach sample, broach sample holder
and the tool post.

102
 o
30m m

10mm

>
Figure 5.3 A perspective view showing overall dimensions of the
specially machined workpiece to perform the wear tests.

103
 Direction of Rotation

Chuck Jaw s

Figure 5.4 A perspective view of the specially machined jig to hold the
workpieces to carry out wear tests.

104
F igure 5.5 A micrograph showing the wear scar and the
adhesion of work material on the clearance face
of the M2 broach sample (x25).

F igure 5.6 A micrograph showing the wear scar on the

clearance face of the ASP53 broach sample (x25).

•9.«*

F igure 5.7 A micrograph showing the wear scar on the

clearance face of the ASP30 broach sample (x25).

105
 o
o

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Wear tests on M2, ASP53 & ASP30 broach sam p les

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106
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107
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108
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109
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(ran) ^qSxaq ssau q S n cn iC a^A oq. ^ B a j

no
Figure 5.13 A micrograph showing the wear scar on the
clearance face of the ASP30 broach sample
(xl20).

Figure 5.14 A micrograph showing the adhesion o f work

material on the clearance face of the M2 broach
sample (x!20).

Ill
Figure 5.15 A micrograph showing the chippings on the
clearance face of the M2 broach sample (x75).

Figure 5.16 A micrograph showing the chippings on the

clearance face and adhesion of work material on
the rake face of the ASP30 broach sample (x75).

Figure 5.17 A micrograph showing the chippings on the

clearance face of the ASP30 broach
sample (xl20).

112
 Table 4.1. Clearance angle, rake angle, pitch, and depth of tooth o f M2 high
speed steel broach samples measured on the Hilger Universal Projector (x25).

Clearance angle (deg.) Rake angle (deg.) Pitch Depth

Broach # Tooth 1 Tooth 2 Tooth 1 Tooth 2 (mm) (mm)

20961.1* 3.9 3.9 11.5 11.5 9.78 4.57

20961.2 4.0 4.0 12.0 11.9 10.07 4.67

20961.3 3.9 4.2 12.0 12.2 10.0 4.91

20961.4 4.4 4.1 12.4 11.8 9.84 4.66

20961.5* 3.7 3.5 12.0 11.5 9.45 4.65

20961.6" 3.8 3.4 11.7 11.9 9.43 4.64

Mean 3.9 11.9 9.76 4.68

Gn 0.27 0.27 0.25 0.11

Broach sample used for wear test. •

Broach sample used for performance test at 0.7 m/min.
Broach sample used for performance test at 10.5 m/min.
G n = Standard deviation.

113
 Table 4.2. Clearance angle, rake angle, pitch, and depth of tooth of ASP53 high
speed steel broach samples measured on the Hilger Universal Projector (x25).

Clearance angle (deg.) Rake angle (deg.) Pitch Depth

Broach # Tooth 1 Tooth 2 Tooth 1 Tooth 2 (mm) (mm)

■
1 3.6 3.5 12.7 12.7 9.55 4.68

2 3.5 3.7 12.4 12.2 9.53 4.66

3* 3.7 3.8 12.5 12.8 9.58 4.63

4 3.4 3.6 12.4 12.5 9.56 4.61

•
5 3.5 3.9 12.0 11.8 9.42 4.63

Mean 3.6 12.4 9.53 4.64

On 0.15 0.30 0.06 0.03

■
Broach sample used for performance test at 10.5 m/min.
* Broach sample used for wear test.
Broach sample used for performance test at 0.7 m/min.
a n = Standard deviation.

114
 Table 4.3. Clearance angle, rake angle, pitch, and depth of tooth of ASP30 high
speed steel broach samples measured on the Hilger Universal Projector (x25).

Clearance angle (deg.) Rake angle (deg.) Pitch Depth

Broach # Tooth 1 Tooth 2 Tooth 1 Tooth 2 (mm) (mm)

19340.1* 3.9 3.9 12.1 12.2 9.74 4.5

19340.2" 3.5 3.9 12.0 12.2 9.65 4.67

19340.3* 3.9 4.0 12.2 12.0 9.46 4.66

19340.4 3.8 3.6 12.2 11.9 9.55 4.6

Mean 3.8 12.1 9.6 4.6

On 0.2 0.1 0.1 ' 0.07

* Broach sample used for wear test.

" Broach sample used for performance test at 10.5 m/min.
Broach sample used for performance test at 0.7 m/min.
O n = Standard deviation.

115
 Table 4.4. Surface roughness of M2 high speed steel broach samples measured
on the rake and clearance (flank) faces in the directions perpendicular and
parallel to the cutting edge. Numbers in parentheses represent Peak to Valley
Roughness Height (Rt).

Rake Roughness, [pm] Flank Roughness, [pm]

Broach # Tooth # Ra (Rt) Ra (Rt) Ra (Rt) Ra (Rt)

_L to edge = to edge _L to edge = to edge

20961.1* 1 .80 (6.3) .31 (2.4) .26 (1.8) .31 (1.8)

2 1.2 (6.5) .61 (2.9) .21 (1.5) .58 (1.6)

20961.2 1 .68 (4.9) .38 (2.6) .28 (2.0) .30 (2.3)

2 1.69(11.0) 1.0 (5.2) .29 (2.1) .28 (1.9)

20961.3 1 1.26 (8.3) .95 (5.2) .27 (2.1) .29 (2.0)

2 1.54 (7.1) .66 (4.3) .32 (2.3) .32 (2.2)

20961.4 1 1.9 (9.3) 1.1 (8.1) .16 (1.3) .16 (1.3)

2 .85 (5.5) .51 (3.9) .15 (1.3) .15(1.1)

20961.5* 1 .40 (3.3) .23 (1.3) .13 (1.2) .12(1.1)

2 .65 (7.4) .41 (5.3) .14(1.6) .16 (1.5)

20961.6" 1 .43 (3.6) .34 (4.8) .32 (3.1) .25 (2.4)

2 .75 (8.3) .47 (5.8) .28 (3.0) .22(3.1)

Mean 1.01 (6.8) .58 (4.3) .23 (1.9) .26(1.8)

Gn .47 (2.2) .28 (1.7) .07 (.6) .12 (.5)

* Broach sample used for wear test.

* Broach sample used for performance test at 0.7 m/min.
■
Broach sample used for performance test at 10.5 m/min.
Gn = Standard deviation.

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 TABLE 4.6. Surface roughness of ASP30 high speed steel broach samples
measured on the rake and clearance (flank) faces in the directions perpendicular
and parallel to the cutting edge. Numbers in parentheses represent Peak to
Valley Roughness Height (Rt).

Rake Roughness, [pm] Flank Roughness, [pm]

Broach # Tooth # Ra (Rt) Ra (Rt) Ra (Rt) Ra (Rt)

± to edge = to edge ± to edge = to edge

19340.1* 1 1.54 (8.7) .77 (5.2) .26 (2.1) .87 (6.6)

2 1.1 (7.9) 1.07 (7.0) .28 (2.2) .27 (1.9)

19340.2" 1 1.68 (8.1) .98 (5.8) .20 (1.6) .24 (1.6)

2 2.02 (10.7) 1.2 (8.4) .27 (2.1) .28 (1.9)

19340.3* 1 1.35 (8.1) 1.07 (5.9) .26 (2.1) .22(1.6)

2 .97 (6.6) .90 (5.1) .24 (1.7) .22 (1.7)

19340.4 1 1.3 (5.6) .78 (3.6) .25 (1.8) .24 (1.8)

2 1.39 (6.8) 1.02 (4.7) .23(1.8) .20 (1.6)

Mean 1.42 (7.8) .97 (5.7) .25 (1.9) .32 (2.3)

Gn .31 (1.4) .14 (1.4) .02 (.2) .20 (1.6)

* Broach sample used for wear test.

" Broach sample used for performance test at 10.5 m/min.
Broach sample used for performance test at 0.7 m/min.
Gn = Standard deviation.

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