(Video 1 - Brief History of the Renaissance | 5 Minutes)
The Renaissance, the period of European history mainly taking place in Italy from the 14th to 16th century bridging the gap between the middle ages and modern day civilization. The word Renaissance means “rebirth” in this case the rebirth of the classical Greek and Roman arts and philosophy following the middle ages, an era often branded as a time of war, cultural decline, and pandemics such as the “black death”.
Humanism was really at the heart of the renaissance. A philosophy inspired by classical Greek and Roman texts celebrating human creativity, individual achievement in different fields and promoting the idea that man was the center of his own universe, not God. This new mindset contrasted with medieval philosophy which centered on the divine and on following the rules set forth by the catholic church as God’s Plan. The Renaissance started in Florence, Italy which became very wealthy thanks to trade with the Ottoman Empire, the biggest economic power in the region. Fewer theories accounting for the origins of the Renaissance, include the reintroduction of classical texts to Italy through the immigration of scholars following the fall of Constantinople and through returning crusaders who had encountered advanced muslim civilizations that had kept copies and translations. Also members of the powerful and wealthy medici family of Florence were famous backers of the movement and supported public art for recognition for the love of beauty and also to legitimize their wealth.
The movement later expanded to other Italian City-States such as Venice, Milan, Rome, and then throughout western and northern europe by scholars such as dutch philosopher erasmus. Thanks to the development of printing by Guttenberg and Europe, little known texts from early humanist authors such as Petrach were distributed to the masses as literature rose as an important aspect of everyday life. Dante’s divine comedy, Machiavelli’s Prince, and Shakespeare’s Hamlet were some of the most notable pieces of literature of the renaissance. Perhaps the most prominent feature of the renaissance was the furthering of the arts. The apex of artistic talent came later during the high renaissance in the form of Leonardo Da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo who were supported by the Medici family. Their Paintings and sculptures featured an atomically accurate human bodies in complex poses, dramatic, and emotional compositions, naturalistics depictions of space and intellectually sophisticated subject matter. Notable examples include the Mona Lisa, the Last supper, the Statue of David, the Birth of Venus and the Creation of Adam. The most prevalent societal change during the renaissance was the fall of Feudalism and the rise of a capitalist market economy, increased trade, and the labor shortage caused by black death gave rise to something of a middle class as workers started demanding wages, and better living conditions. The development of the middles class and the rise of humanism encouraged europeans to questions the role of the catholic church and caused its influence to wane in such context a german monk named Martin Luther challenged many of the practices of the church like nepotism and the selling of indulgences and led the protestants reformation a revolutionary movement that caused the split in the catholic church. To break Ottoman dominance over access to India and the far east, Europeans were eager to explore new trade routes for gold and spices.
In the age of exploration, Columbus discovered the Americas in 1492 and Magellan became the first person to successfully circumnavigate the globe in the early 1500s. Placing the sun at the center of the solar system rather than the earth was a major breakthrough in the history of science by Polish Astronomer Copernicus though his book was banned by the catholic church. Galileo Galilei later also found evidence for a heliocentric solar system in addition to improving the telescope and conducting experiments that paved the way for Newton’s discoveries about gravity. By the early 17th century, the renaissance movement had died out for different reasons including the invasion of Italian territories by neighboring powers and the catholic church censorship of artists and writers in response to the protestant reformation, as well as the establishment of the inquisition which made any views that challenged the church an act of heresy punishable by death many historians prefer to think of the renaissance as an arts and cultural movement rather than a historical period that is distinct from the middle ages since there are no clear dividing lines between the two periods. Also most historians claim the renaissance was only experienced by the very rich whereas for the vast majority of europeans who were peasants it was not really a thing. The reason we studied the renaissance so much is not because it was so central to the 15th century but because it matters to us now because of the legacy of humanism and individualism that strongly influenced the euro-american world ever since. (Video 2 - Renaissance: Ang muling pagsilang ng Europe EP 1 (panahon ng transpormasyon))
Ang katagan Renaissance ay nangangahulugan “rebirth” o muling pagsilang. Ngunit,
ano nga ba ang muling isinilang?
Ang renaissance ay sumibol noong 1350 at tumagal hanggang 1550. Ito ay umusbong sa Italy at kinalaunan ay lumaganap sa buong europa, dahil dito tinatawag din itong Italian Renaissance. Ang renaissance ay mayroong tatlong katangian 1. Ang pamumuhay sa renaissance Italy ay urbanisado, ang mahahalagang gawain ng mga citizen kagaya ng politika, economia, at social ay nakasentro sa ilang makakapangyarihan na lungsod-estado, kagaya ng Florence, Milan, at Venice. Naging maunland ang mga lungsod-estado na ito dahil ang mga ito ay naging tagapamagitan ng kalakalan ng kirstiyanong europa at mga islamikong kaharian ng silangan. 2. Ang renaissance ay panahon ng muling pagbangon. Ang europa ay isinalanta ng black death at mga digmaan noong gitnang panahon o medieval age. (25 milyong katao na nasawi dahil sa blackdeath noong 1340s) Sa panahon ng renaissance unti-unting nakabangon ang europe sa mga epekto ng disaster ng medieval age. 3. Pagusbong ng Humanismo. Sa medieval age itinuturing na ang buhay ng isang tao ay isang paghahanda lamang para sa buhay makalipas ng kamatayan. Gayunpaman, natuklasan ng mga italiano na sila ay mga descendants ng mga griyego at romano. Inasam din ng mga tao noong renaissance period namakamit ang mga bagay na nakamit din ng mga dakilang ninuno. Ang mga griyego at romano ay mga humanist. Ibig sabihin sila ay naniniwala na ang tao ay may kakayahang makamit ang bagay na kanyang nais at mayroon silang karapatan maging masaya habang sila ay nabubuhay. Naging inspirayon ng mga italiano ang mga griyego at romano noong renaissance period kung kaya muling nabuhay ang classical humanism. Ang mga pagbabagong ito na sanhi ng renaissance ang magiging mityas sa paglakas ng europe.
(Video 3 - Mga Ambag ng Renaissance: Panahon ng Transpormasyon)
Ang bagong pagpapahalaga sa bagong kahusayan ng tao ay kapansin-pansin sa
larangan ng sining at panitikan ng renaissance period. Ang humanism ay ang pangunahing tema ng renaissance, inaral ng mga tao sa panahong ito ang classical na pilosopiya, tula, at kasaysayan. Sila din ay bumuo ng obra na hinango sa mga gawa at kaisipan ng classikong griyego at romano. Si Petrarch ay ang ama ng Italian renaissance, ang nanguna sa pangangalap at muling paggamit ng classikong mano script noong renaissance. Ang kanyang inspirasyon sa kanyang mga sinulat ay si Virgil at si Cicero of Rome. Dahil sa kanyang ginawa lubos na umunland at nakilala ang humanism sa italy. Isinulat naman ni Giovanni Boccaccio ang aklat na The Decameron of Giovanni Boccaccio. Ito ay isang compilation ng isang daan salaysay ukol sa mga paglalakbay ng pitong babae at tatlong lalaki mula sa Florence upang iwasan ang epekto ng black death. Ang tema ng aklat na ito ay sumasalamin sa bagong pananaw ng mga tao sa kanyang sarili at kakayahan. Kumpara kay Petrarch, hindi ginamit ni Giovanni ang latin sa kanyang mga isinulat kundi ang Vernacular na wika. Vernacular na wika ay tawag sa wika na ginagamit at sinasalita ng mga ordinaryong tao sa isang bansa o rehiyon. Kagaya ni Boccaccio, sina Dante Alighieri, Geoffrey Chaucer, at Christine De Pizan, ay mga Vernacular Writers.
Ang obra maestra Divina Comedia ay naisulat ni Dante Alighieri noong 14th century. Inilalahad nito ay paglalakbay ng isang kaluluwa tungo sa pagkakaligtas. Nahati ang Divina Comedia sa tatlong aklat, ang Iferno, Purgatorio, at Paradiso.
Si Christine De Pizan naman ay ang French Woman nakilala dahil sa kanyang akdang The Book of the City Ladies. Ang kanyang isinulat ay isang direktang reaction sa mga naniniwala na ang mga kababaihan ay walang kakayahan matuto at walang paninindigan.
Naisulat naman ni Thomas More ang Utopia kung saan kanyang inilahad ang isang huwaran na lipunan kung saan ang bawat isa ay pantay pantay at masaganang pamumuhay.
Ang dakilang manunulat naman na si William Shakespeare ay produkto din ng
renaissance. Kanyang naisulat ang ilan sa pinakadakilang drama maging sa kasalukuyan kagaya ng Romeo & Juliet, Merchant of Venice, Midsummer Night’s Dream, at Macbeth.
Ang pagunland ng panitikan ng renaissance ay hindi natin maaring iasa sa mga
manunulat. Malaki din ang kinalaman ng inventions ni Johannes Guttenburg sa paglaganap ng panitikan. Kanyang naimbento ang Mechanical Printing Press. Dahil sa kanyang imbention naging mas mabilis at madali ang paglilimbag ng libro na nagresulta sa pagiging mural nito. Dahil naging mura ang mga libro, mas maraming tao ang nakapagbasa noong renaissance. Bukod sa mga panitikan, nasaksihan din sa renaissance ang pag usbong ng mga dakilang alagad ng sining.
Si Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni, siya ay nakilala dahil sa kanyang obra
maestra na the creation of adam na kanyang ipininta sa kisame ng sistine chapel. Si Donatello naman ay sculptor sa florence na gumamit ng bronze at marmol ang kanyang pinakadakilang obra ay david.
Si Raphael naman ay isang child prodigy at tinuturing na isa sa pinakamahusay na
pintor ng renaissance. Ang kanyang painting na the school of athens ay nagpapakita ng impluwensyang greek at roman sa kanyang mga gawa.
Ang panghuli naman ay si Leonardo Da Vinci, siya ay naging bantog dahil sa kanyang mga ipininta kagaya ng Mona Lisa at Last Supper. Bukod sa pagiging pintor siya ay isang mahusay na engineer, scientist, architect, writer, at philosopher. Dahil dito tinatawag siya bilang renaissance man. Lumaganap ang renaissance mula Italy sa mga bansa sa hilagang europa particular na sa England, France, Germany, at Low Countries noong 1400s. Ang mga malalakal ay ang nagdala ng impluwensya ng renaissance sa mga lupaing ito. Ang mga magaaral at scholars ng hilagang europe ay bumisita sa Italy upang pag aralan ang mga obra maestra dito. Sa katunayan, maging ang mga maharlika ay nagkaroon din ng interest sa renaissance. Kung saan sila ay nagpapabisita ng artists sa kanilang lupain upang ishowcase ang kanilang mga talents.
Ang muling pagkakatuklas ng mga ambag ng romano at griyego ay lubos na
nakaapekto sa pagiisip ng mga europeo. Dahil dito muling nagtiwala ang mga europeo sa kanilang mga sarili na nagresulta na hindi lamang sa kanilang huling pagbangon kundi maging sa pagiging dominante kapangyarihan nila sa buong daigdig sa mga susunod na siglo.
(Research - Sistine Chapel)
The Sistine Chapel is one of the greatest treasures of the Vatican City, of Rome, and of the world in general. It's known as much for its decoration, as for being the temple in which popes are chosen and crowned.
The construction of the building was carried out between 1473 and 1481 during the mandate of Pope Sixtus IV, to whom it owes its current name. The architect responsible for the construction was Giovanni of Dolci and it's the only work that he is remembered for.
The most striking thing about the Sistine Chapel is not its architecture, but the frescoes that completely cover the walls and the ceiling. Some of the most important artists who worked in the chapel are Botticelli, Perugino, Luca, and Michelangelo. The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel
All of the frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel are the work of Michelangelo, who spent four years painting the vault between 1508 and 1512.
If there is one thing that stands out from among the images on the ceiling, it's the nine stories from Genesis that occupy the central area: The scenes from the Drunkenness of Noah to the Separation of Light from Darkness are represented.
The Creation of Adam
Without any doubt, The Creation of Adam is the best-known image from the Sistine Chapel. It's located in the central part of the vault and represents the story from Genesis in which God gives life to Adam.
The Final Judgment
Located over the high altar and with some magnificent dimensions (13.7 by 12.2 meters), Michelangelo’s other masterpiece, The Final Judgment, is found. It's a fresco that represents the Apocalypse of St. John.
Decorating the apse occupied five years of Michelangelo’s life, between 1536 and 1541. It was an assignment of Pope Paul III to cover the murals that existed to that point.
(Video 4 - Ang Repormasyon: Paglaganap ng Protestantismo noong
Panahon ng Transpormasyon)
Ang Reformation ay isang movement na kumwestion sa mga turo ng simabahan at awtoridad
ng mga papa. Ang unang christian reformist na bumatikos sa kristiyanong lipunan ng europe ay si Desiderius Erasmus. Noong 1450-1520 ilang mga katolikong papa ang namahala na nakilala sa tawag na Renaissance Popes. Ang mga Papa na ito ay nagpakita ng mas malaking interes sa politika ng Italy at iba pang mga bagay kesa sa kaligtasan ng kaluluwa ng mga tao. Sa lokal na antas ng simbahan, marami sa kanilang mga opisyal ang nagpakita ng kawalan ng kakayahan na pamunuan ang mga tao para sa kanilang espiritwal na pangangailangan. Ito’y nagresulta sa paghahanap ng tao ng mga paraan kung papano nila maaring mailigtas ang kanilang mga kaluluwa, isa sa direktang epekto ng kawalan ng espiritwal na pamumuno ay ang pangongolekta ng mga tao ng religious relics (ang religious relics ay mga bahagi ng labi ng mga santo o kanilang mga gamit noong sila ay nabubuhay pa. Ilan sa mga halimbawa nito ay ang ulo ni St. John the Baptist, buti ni St. John Baptist De La Salle at personal na gamit ng mga santo.) ito ang nakita nilang paraan kung papano nila maliligtas ang kanilang sarili.
Ang mga tao ay naniniwala na sa pamamagitin ng mga relics sila’y makakatanggap ng
indulgences o kapatawaran sa mga kasalanan. Bukod dito, ang simbahan katoliko ay nagsimula rin mag tinda ng mga indulgences na nakasulat sa certificate. Ayon sa kanila, ang bawat indulgences certificate ay nakababawas ng 1,443 years sa purgatoryo. Ang mga kinita ng simbahan ay ginamit ng mga pope para sa mga proyekto nila kagaya ng pagpapagawa ng St. Peter's Basilica nong panahon ni Pope Leo the 10th. Bukod kay erasmus, isa pang reformist ang umusbong, ito’y si Martin Luther. Siya’y isang monghe at professor ng theology sa University of Wittennburg sa Germany. Ang doktrina ng katolisismo ay nagsasabi na ang kaligtasan ay matatamo sa pamamagitan ng pananampalataya at mabuting gawa. Taliwas dito, para kay martin luther ang kaligtasan ay hindi nakakamit sa pamamagitan ng mabuting gawa kundi sa pananampalataya lamang. Ito ang tinatawag na Justification by Faith, bukod sa pagkakaiba ng paniniwala, nais din ikinagalit ni martin luther ang pagbebenta ng indulgences ng simbahan. Kaya, kanyang ipinako ang kanyang Ninety Five Theses sa pinto ng Church of Wittenberg. Ito’y tumutuligsa sa ilang gawain ng simbahan katoliko lalo na sa pagbebenta ng indulgences. Noong 1520 tuluyan tumiwalag si martin luther sa simbahan katoliko, dahil dito siya’y ipinatawag sa isang assembly kung tawagin ay diet of worms. Ito’y upang bigyan siya ng bawiin ang mga sinabi, ngunit ito’y kanyang tinanggihan kung kaya’t hinatulaan si martin luther ng pagiging isang heretic. Ang kahatulan na ito ni martin luther ay tinawag na edict of worms.
Ang mga aksyon na ito ay magreresulta sa malalaking pagbabago sa simbahan,
pananampalataya, at maging mga serye ng digmaan sa pagitan ng mga katoliko at protestante sa europe.
(Video 5 - Reformation at ang Counter Reformation: Panahon ng
Transpormasyon)
Ang epekto ng reformation ay lumaganap sa europe at hindi nag tagal ay umani ng malakas na reaksyon mula sa simbahan katolika.
Ang mga aksyon ni Martin Luther ay nag resulta sa pagsisimula ng protestantismo sa europe (Lutheranismo, isang pangkat na nabuo resulta ng reformation). Gayunpaman ang protestant movement ay binubuo ng ibang pangkat, isa sa mga pangkat na ito ay itinatag ni Ulrich Zwingli ng Switzerland (Zwinglian Reform). Sa kanyang reforma, kanyang ipinatanggal ang mga paintings, decorations, at iba pang religious icon sa loob ng simbahan. Gayunpaman, naging maikli ang pamumuno ni Zwingli makalipas siya sa masugatan sa isang labanan, ng siya ay mahuli pinagputol putol ng kanyang mga kalaban ang kanyang katawan at sinunog. Dahil dito ang pamumuno ng protestantism sa Switzerland ay nalipat kay John Calvin. Isa sa pinakamahalangang konsepto ng Calvinism (branch ng protestantism) ay ang Predestination (ito’y pwedeng tawagin unconditional electron). Kung saan plinano na ng diyos in advance ang mga taong maliligtas at kung sino naman ang mapupunta sa impyerno. Ang Calvinism ay maituturing fundamentalist kung saan mayroong pagsasama ng simbahan at pamahalaan. Ipinagbabawal ng Calvinism ang pagsayaw, pagkanta, paglalasing, pagmumura, at paglalaro ng baraha.
Ang impluwensya ng reformation ay umabot sa England (english reform ang tawag dito), gayunpaman ang motibo ng pagsisimula ng reformation sa england ay sanhi ng politikal na kadahilanan kesa panrelihiyon. Ang reformation sa england ay nagsimula sa kagustuhan ni King Henry the 8 na nakipagdivorce sa kaniyang unang asawa na si Catherine of Aragon. Ni nais niyang makipagdivorce sakanyang unang asawa dahil sa kabiguan nito na bigyan siya ng lalaking anak. Bilang kapalit sa unang asawa nais niyang pakasalan si Anne Boleyn ngunit tinanggihan ng papa sa rome ang kanyang panawagan ng annulment. Dahil dito, siya’y lumapit sa Church of England upang gawin null-void and kanyang kasal kay Catherine. Noong 1534, sa panawagan ni Henry the 8 ipinasalang parliament o legislator ng england ang Act of Supremacy (Inaprubahan ng Parliament ang Act of Supremacy) kung saan tuluyang humiwalay ang Church of England sa awtoridad ng papa sa rome. Karagdagan dito itinanghal ng batas na ito ang Hari bilang leader ng simbahan at ng pamahalaan.
Ang Reformation sa england ang nagresulta sa pagkakatatag ng Anglican Church of England.
Ang mga Anabaptist naman ay isang grupo din na nabuo dahil sa reformation. Ang mga Anabaptist ay di sumasali sa mga gawain pampolitikal at hindi din sila gumagamit ng armas. Dahil sa kanilang radikal na paniniwala, tinuring silang delikado na grupo ng parehong katoliko at mga protestante. Sa mga sumunod na taon, nasaksihan ang paglaganap ng protestantism sa europe. Lumaganap ang Lutheranism sa Germany at Scandinavia, Calvinism naman ay sa Switzerland, France, Netherlands, at Eastern Europe at ang Anglican Church ay sa England.
Dahil dito, sinimulan ng simbahang katolika ang kanyang version ng reformation upang muling mapalakas ang kanilang impluwensya. Ito ay tinatawag na Counter Reformation o ang Catholic Reformation. Mayroong tatlong Aspeto ang Counter Reformation, Una ay ang pagkakatatag ng Society of Jesus o ang Jesuits, ang religious order ng Society of Jesus ay itinatag ni Ignatiues De Loyola. Ginamit ng mga Jesuits ang pagpapalaganap ng edkuasyon upang muling palaganapin ang impluwensya ng katolisismo sa Germany at Eastern Europe. Ang ikalawa naman ay ang Reporma sa Papacy sa pamumuno ni Pope Paul the 3rd kanyang itinatag ang Reform Comission upang imbestigahan ang mga katiwalian ng mga renaissance popes. Ang ikatatlo ay ang Council of Trent kung saan isinaayos ang doktrina ng Katolisismo upang mapagisa at mapalakas ito. Karagdagan, ipinagbawal din ng Council of Trent ang pagbebenta ng indulgences.
Ang Reformation at Counter Reformation ay lubos na nakaapekto sa geopolitical boundary,
ekonomiya, at lipunan ng Europe. Gayunpaman hindi dito nagwawakas ang pagbabagong naganap noong panahon ng transpormasyon ng europe. (Research - Church of England 1)
Church of England, English national church that traces its history back to the arrival of Christianity in Britain during the 2nd century. It has been the original church of the Anglican Communion since the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the successor of the Anglo-Saxon and medieval English church, it has valued and preserved much of the traditional framework of medieval Roman Catholicism in church government, liturgy, and customs, while it also has usually held the fundamentals of Reformation faith.
The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons, who began invading Britain after Rome stopped governing the country in the 5th century, was undertaken by St. Augustine, a monk in Rome chosen by Pope Gregory I to lead a mission to the Anglo-Saxons. He arrived in 597, and within 90 years all the Saxon kingdoms of England had accepted Christianity. Augustine’s archbishopric at Canterbury soon became the symbolic seat of England’s church, which established important ties to Rome under his leadership. Subsequent mission work, such as that of St. Aidan in northern England about 634, helped to solidify the English church. At the synod of Whitby in 664, the church of Northumbria (one of the northern English kingdoms) broke its ties with the Celtic church and accepted Roman usage, bringing the English church more fully into line with Roman and Continental practices.
In the centuries before the Reformation, the English church experienced
periods of advancement and of decline. The early church in England was a distinctive fusion of British, Celtic, and Roman influences. Although adopting the episcopal structure favoured by the church of Rome, it retained powerful centres in the monasteries that had been established due to the influence of Irish Christianity. During the 8th century, English scholarship was highly regarded, and several English churchmen worked in Europe as scholars, reformers, and missionaries. Representatives of the church, such as the great historian and scholar Bede, played an important role in the development of English culture. Subsequently, Danish invasions destroyed monasteries and weakened scholarship. Political unity in England was established under the Wessex kings in the 10th century, however, and reforms of the church took place. In the 11th century the Norman Conquest of England (1066) united England more closely with the culture of Latin Europe. The English church was reformed according to Roman ideas: local synods were revived, celibacy of the clergy was required, and the canon law of western Europe was introduced in England.
During the Middle Ages, English clergy and laity made important contributions to the life and activities of the Roman Catholic Church. The English church, however, shared in the religious unrest characteristic of the later Middle Ages. John Wycliffe, a 14th-century reformer and theologian, became a revolutionary critic of the papacy and is considered a major influence on the 16th-century Protestant Reformation.
The break with the Roman papacy and the establishment of an independent Church of England came during the reign of Henry VIII (1509–47). When Pope Clement VII refused to approve the annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the English Parliament, at Henry’s insistence, passed a series of acts that separated the English church from the Roman hierarchy and in 1534 made the English monarch the head of the English church. The monasteries were suppressed, but few other changes were immediately made, since Henry intended that the English church would remain Catholic, though separated from Rome.
After Henry’s death, Protestant reforms of the church were introduced during the six-year reign of Edward VI. In 1553, however, when Edward’s half-sister, Mary, a Roman Catholic, succeeded to the throne, her repression and persecution of Protestants aroused sympathy for their cause. When Elizabeth I became queen in 1558, the independent Church of England was reestablished. The Book of Common Prayer (1549, final revision 1662) and the Thirty-nine Articles (1571) became the standards for liturgy and doctrine. (In 2000 the church introduced Common Worship, a collection of services and prayers, as the official alternative to The Book of Common Prayer for congregations favouring a more “modern” liturgy.) In the 17th century the Puritan movement led to the English Civil Wars (1642–51) and the Commonwealth (1649–60). The monarchy and the Church of England were repressed, but both were restored in 1660.
The church’s hold on English religious life began to wane in the 18th century, despite reform efforts. John Wesley, Charles Simeon, John Newton, and other clergy associated with the Evangelical revival prompted a surge of new religious fervour and emphasized the Protestant heritage of the church. Evangelical laity such as William Wilberforce and the Clapham Sect fought slavery and encouraged social reform. In the early 19th century the Anglo-Catholic Oxford movement, led by John Henry Newman, John Keble, and E.B. Pusey, emphasized the Roman Catholic heritage of the church and attempted to recover the ancient liturgy and to respond to social concerns. These two attitudes have continued in the church and are sometimes referred to as Low Church and High Church, respectively. Since the 20th century the church has been active in the ecumenical movement and has made impressive efforts to encompass the diversity of modern English life while retaining its traditional identity.
The Church of England has maintained the episcopal form of government. It is
divided into two provinces, Canterbury and York, each headed by an archbishop. The archbishop of Canterbury takes precedence over the archbishop of York as the church’s most senior cleric. Provinces are divided into dioceses, each headed by a bishop and made up of several parishes. The supreme governor of the Church of England, the titular head of the national church, remains vested in the British monarch. (Research - Church of England 2)
The Church of England, or Anglican Church, is the primary state church
in England, where the concepts of church and state are linked. The Church of England is considered the original church of the Anglican Communion, which represents over 85 million people in more than 165 countries.
While the Church upholds many of the customs of Roman Catholicism, it
also embraces fundamental ideas adopted during the Protestant Reformation. In recent years, the Church of England has been viewed as one of the more progressive sects of Christianity and is known for its relatively liberal policies, such as allowing the ordination of women and gay priests.
Church of England Facts
● The British monarch is considered the supreme governor of the Church. Among other privileges, he or she has the authority to approve the appointment of archbishops and other church leaders. ● The Church of England contends that the Bible is the principle foundation of all Christian faith and thought. ● Followers embrace the sacraments of baptism and holy communion. ● The Church claims to be both Catholic and Reformed. It upholds teachings found in early Christian doctrines, such as the Apostles Creed and the Nicene Creed. The Church also reveres 16th-century Protestant Reformation ideas outlined in texts, such as the Thirty-Nine Articles and the Book of Common Prayer. ● The Church of England sustains a traditional Catholic order system that includes ordained bishops, priests and deacons. ● The Church follows an episcopal form of government. It’s divided into two provinces: Canterbury and York. Provinces are separated into dioceses, which are headed by bishops and include parishes. ● The Archbishop of Canterbury is thought to be the most senior cleric in the Church. ● The Church’s bishops play a lawmaking role in Britain. Twenty-six bishops sit in the House of Lords and are referred to as the “Lords Spiritual.” ● Generally, the Church embraces a way of thinking that includes scripture, tradition and reason. ● The Church of England is sometimes referred to as the Anglican Church and is part of the Anglican Communion, which contains sects such as the Protestant Episcopal Church. ● Each year, about 9.4 million people visit a Church of England cathedral. ● In recent years, women and members of the LGBTQ community were given the opportunity to participate in the church’s leadership roles.
Church of England History
The Church of England’s earliest origins date back to the Roman Catholic Church’s influence in Europe during the 2nd century. However, the church’s official formation and identity are typically thought to have started during the Reformation in England of the 16th century. King Henry VIII (famous for his many wives) is considered the founder of the Church of England.
Henry VIII Henry VIII broke ties with the Pope in the 1530s after the Catholic church wouldn’t allow him to annul his marriage to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, who failed to produce any male heirs. Henry passed the Act of Succession and the Act of Supremacy, which essentially declared himself the supreme head of the Church of England. After Henry’s death, Protestant reforms made their way into the church during the reign of Edward VI. But, when Edward’s half-sister, Mary, succeeded the throne in 1553, she persecuted Protestants and embraced traditional Roman Catholic ideals. After Elizabeth I took the title of Queen in 1558, however, the Church of England was revived. The Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion became important texts that outlined moral doctrine and worship principles. Church Movements The Puritan movement in the 17th century led to the English Civil Wars and the Commonwealth. During this time, the Church of England and the monarchy were quelled, but both were re-established in 1660. The 18th century brought the Evangelical movement, which promoted the Protestant customs of the Church. Conversely, the Oxford Movement in the 19th century highlighted the Roman Catholic heritage. These two movements and their philosophies have endured in the Church and are sometimes referred to as “Low Church” and “High Church.” Since the 20th century, the Church of England has been active in the Ecumenical Movement, which promotes ideas of worldwide Christian unity.
Church of England in America
Many of the early American colonists were Anglican Puritans. During the Colonial era, the Anglican Church set up establishments in Virginia, New York, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. After the American Revolution, the Anglican Church became an independent organization in the United States and called itself the Protestant Episcopal Church. The Episcopal Church, USA, is the official organization of the Anglican Communion in the United States. It’s been a self-governing body since 1785 and has about 1.9 million members.
(Research - Reformation (English Version))
Dating the Reformation
Historians usually date the start of the Protestant Reformation to the 1517 publication of Martin Luther’s “95 Theses.” Its ending can be placed anywhere from the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, which allowed for the coexistence of Catholicism and Lutheranism in Germany, to the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years’ War. The key ideas of the Reformation—a call to purify the church and a belief that the Bible, not tradition, should be the sole source of spiritual authority—were not themselves novel. However, Luther and the other reformers became the first to skillfully use the power of the printing press to give their ideas a wide audience. Did you know? No reformer was more adept than Martin Luther at using the power of the press to spread his ideas. Between 1518 and 1525, Luther published more works than the next 17 most prolific reformers combined.
The Reformation: Germany and Lutheranism
Martin Luther (1483-1546) was an Augustinian monk and university lecturer in Wittenberg when he composed his “95 Theses,” which protested the pope’s sale of reprieves from penance, or indulgences. Although he had hoped to spur renewal from within the church, in 1521 he was summoned before the Diet of Worms and excommunicated. Sheltered by Friedrich, elector of Saxony, Luther translated the Bible into German and continued his output of vernacular pamphlets. When German peasants, inspired in part by Luther’s empowering “priesthood of all believers,” revolted in 1524, Luther sided with Germany’s princes. By the Reformation’s end, Lutheranism had become the state religion throughout much of Germany, Scandinavia and the Baltics.
The Reformation: Switzerland and Calvinism
The Swiss Reformation began in 1519 with the sermons of Ulrich Zwingli, whose teachings largely paralleled Luther’s. In 1541 John Calvin, a French Protestant who had spent the previous decade in exile writing his “Institutes of the Christian Religion,” was invited to settle in Geneva and put his Reformed doctrine—which stressed God’s power and humanity’s predestined fate—into practice. The result was a theocratic regime of enforced, austere morality. Calvin’s Geneva became a hotbed for Protestant exiles, and his doctrines quickly spread to Scotland, France, Transylvania and the Low Countries, where Dutch Calvinism became a religious and economic force for the next 400 years. The Reformation: England and the 'Middle Way' In England, the Reformation began with Henry VIII’s quest for a male heir. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could remarry, the English king declared in 1534 that he alone should be the final authority in matters relating to the English church. Henry dissolved England’s monasteries to confiscate their wealth and worked to place the Bible in the hands of the people. Beginning in 1536, every parish was required to have a copy. After Henry’s death, England tilted toward Calvinist-infused Protestantism during Edward VI’s six-year reign and then endured five years of reactionary Catholicism under Mary I. In 1559 Elizabeth I took the throne and, during her 44-year reign, cast the Church of England as a “middle way” between Calvinism and Catholicism, with vernacular worship and a revised Book of Common Prayer.
The Counter-Reformation The Catholic Church was slow to respond systematically to the theological and publicity innovations of Luther and the other reformers. The Council of Trent, which met off and on from 1545 through 1563, articulated the Church’s answer to the problems that triggered the Reformation and to the reformers themselves. The Catholic Church of the Counter-Reformation era grew more spiritual, more literate and more educated. New religious orders, notably the Jesuits, combined rigorous spirituality with a globally minded intellectualism, while mystics such as Teresa of Avila injected new passion into the older orders. Inquisitions, both in Spain and in Rome, were reorganized to fight the threat of Protestant heresy.
The Reformation’s Legacy
Along with the religious consequences of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation came deep and lasting political changes. Northern Europe’s new religious and political freedoms came at a great cost, with decades of rebellions, wars and bloody persecutions. The Thirty Years’ War alone may have cost Germany 40 percent of its population. But the Reformation’s positive repercussions can be seen in the intellectual and cultural flourishing it inspired on all sides of the schism—in the strengthened universities of Europe, the Lutheran church music of J.S. Bach, the baroque altarpieces of Pieter Paul Rubens and even the capitalism of Dutch Calvinist merchants. (Video 6 - Dahilan, Pangyayari at Epekto ng Unang Yugto ng Kolonyalismo (Paglawak ng Kapangyarihan ng Europe))
Nagsimula noong ika-15 siglo ang dakilang panahon ng eksplorasyon o ang paghahanap ng mga lugar na hindi pa nararating ng mga Europeo. Ang eksplorasyon ang nagbigay daan sa kolonyalismo at imperyalismo.
Ang kolonyalismo ay ang pagsakop ng isang makapangyarihang bansa sa isang mahinang
bansa.
Ang imperyalismo ay ang panghihimasok, pagimpluwensiya at pagkontrol ng isang
makapangyarihang bansa sa isang mahinang bansa.
Tatlong motibo ang itinuturing dahilan para sa kolonyalismo dulot ng eksplorasyon.
1. Paghahanap ng kayamanan 2. Pagpapalaganap ng Kristiyanismo 3. Paghahangad ng Katanyagan at Karangalan Ang mga pangyayari bago ang Unang Yugto ng Kolonyalismo
1. Sinaunang Ruta ng Kalakalan
Bago paman ang pagtuklas at pananakop ng mga kanluran ay may nagaganap ng ugnayan sa mga Europeo at Asyanong mangangalakal. Ang kanilang pagkatagpo ay naganap dahil sa tatlong pangunahing ruta ng kalakalan mula sa Asya, ngunit naputol ang kalakan ng Europa at Espanya ng masakop ng mga turkong muslim ang mga ruta ng kalakalan mula sa Asya patungong Europa.
2. Ang mga Krusada
Ito ay isang kilusan na inilunsad ng simbahan at mga kristiyanong hari upang mabawi ang banal na lungsod ng Jerusalem sa Israel. Hindi man nagtagumpay ang mga krusada na mabawi ang Jerusalem mula sa mga turkong muslim ay napasigla naman nito ang kalakalan sa pagitan ng Europa at Asya.
3. Ang paglalakbay ni Marco Polo (The Travels of Marco Polo)
Si Marco Polo ay isang adbenturerong mangangalakal mula sa Venice, Italy. Siya ay nakarating at nanirahan sa China ng mahigit na 11 taon. Siya ay nagsilbing tagapayo ni Emperador Kublai Khan ng Dinastiyang Yuan ng China. Nakarating si Marco Polo sa Tibet, Burma, Laos, Java, Japan at Siberia. Ng siya ay bumalik sa Italy noong 1295, ay isinulat niya ang aklat na “The travels of Marco Polo” dahil sa aklat niyang ito ay maraming Europeo ang nahikayat na makarating sa Asya.
4. Ang Renaissance
Ito ay salitang Pranses na nangangahulugang “Muling Pagsilang” ang renaissance ay isang
kilusang pilosopikal, maka-sining at maka-agham. Ito ay labas sa saklaw ng simabahan o relihiyon. Ang panahon ng renaissance ang nagbukas ng daan sa mga pagbabago sa larangan ng kalakalan at negosyo at mga makabagong kaalaman at kagamitan sa paglalakay ay nabuo.
5. Ang prinsipyo ng Mercantilism
Ang merkantilismo ay ang prinsipyong pang-ekonomiya na ang tunay na kayamanan ng isang
bansa ay batay sa kabuuang dami ng ginto at pilak na mayroon ang mga ito. Ito ang nagtulak sa mga Europeo na humanap ng mga bagong ruta patungo sa Asya at nagbukas sa panahon ng eksplorasyon na nagdulot ng malaking pagbabago sa pamumuhay ng lipunan at kabihasnan ng mundo. Ang paghahanap ng Spices
Mula noong ika-13 siglo ay nakadepende na ang Europe sa spices na matatagpuan sa Asya lalong-lalo na sa India. Ang ilan sa mga spices na may malaking demand sa Europe ay ang paminta, cinnamon at nutmeg. Ang spices ay ginagamit ng mga Europeo bilang pampalasa ng kanilang mga pagkain at upang magpreserba ng mga karne. Ginagamit din nila ito para sa kanilang mga pabango, kosmetiks at medisina. Ang kalakalan ng spices sa Europe at Asya ay kontrolado ng mga Muslim at taga-Venice. Ang mga mangangalakal na Tsino at Indian ang nagbebenta ng mga spices sa mga Arabo na siya namang nagdadala ng mga paninda sa mga taga-Venice. Dahil sa pagmomonopolyo sa kalakalang ito ay naghangad ang mga Europeong mangangalakal na direktang magkaroon ng kalakalan sa Asya ng mga spices na kailangan nila. Ang panlupang kalakalan ay di garantisadong protektao dahil sa mga pananambang na ginagawa ng mga Mongol kaya mas minabuti ng mga Europeo na gamitin ang katubigan.
Ang Tunggalin ng Portugal at Spain
Pinangunahan ni Prinsipe Henry ang pagalugad ng baybayin ng Africa. Ito ay nagbunga ng
pagkakatuklas sa Azores, Canary, at Cape Verde. Tanong 1488, narating ni Bartolome Diaz ang dulo ng Africa at tinawag itong Cape of Good Hope. Natuklasan naman ni Vasco De Gama ang ruta patungong India mula sa Cape of Good Hope. Dito natagpuan ang mga Hindi at Muslim na nakikipagkalakalan ang mahuhusay na seda, porselana at mga pampalasa na pangunahing kailangan ng Portuges sa kanilang bansa. Ang pagkakasal ni Haring Ferdinand the 5th ng Aragon at Reyna Isabel the 1st ng Castille noong 1469 ang naging daan upang ang Spain ay maghangad din ng mga kayamanan sa Silangan at magpadala ng mga ekspedisyon. Pinondohan ng Espanya ang mga ekspedisyon ng Italyanong manlalayag na si Christopher Columbus. Natagpuan niya ang mga isla ng Bahamas na sa kanyang pag-aakala ay ang India dahil sa kulay ng balat ng mga naninirahan dito at kanya itong tinawag na “Indians”. Narating din ni Columbus ang Hispaniola at Cuba kung saan nakatagpo ito ng maraming ginto. At sa kanyang pagbabalik sa Espanya ay nagbigay ng mga titulong: Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, at Gobernador ng mga lupang kanyang natagpuan sa Indis.
Ang bansang Portugal at Spain ay nanguna sa karera sa pagtuklas ng mga bagong lupain upang maiwasan ang hidwaan sa dalawang bansa ay pumagitna ang santo papa na si Pope Alexander the 6th at nabuo ang Treaty of Tordesillas noong 1494.
Ang Paglalayag ni Ferdinand Magellan
Pinamunuan ni Ferdinand Magellan ang isang ekspedisyon na nagpatunay na ang Mundo ay
Bilog. Sa pamamagitan ng paglalayag pakanluran mula Europa. At muling makabalik sa Europa, makalipas ang halos tatlong put taong paglalakbay. Ang paglalakbay ni Ferdinand Magellan ang nagtama sa lumang kaalaman ng mga Europeo na ang mundo ay patag. Naitala sa mapa ang iba pang kalupaan sa silangan kaya’t lalo pang nakilala ang yaman ng Asya. Sa pagpasok ng ika-17 siglo ay naitatag ang mga bagong imperyo ng: Great Britain, France, Netherlands.
Mga lupaing Natuklasan ng Inglatera
Ng matalo ng England ang Spanish Armada noong 1588 ay nagsimula silang maglakbay patungo sa Asya. Nasakop ng England ang malaking bahagi ng India at itinatag ang British East India Company, nasakop din ng England ang ilang teritoryo gaya ng Ceylon, Singapore, Australia at New Zealand. Mga Lupaing Natuklasan ng France
Nasakop ng France ang ilang teritoryo sa Hilagang America, gaya ng Quebec, Canada, Louisana, America. Nasakop naman ng France sa Asya ang mga teritoryo ng Laos, Cochin China, Cambodia, Annam na mas kilala sa tawag na French, Indo-China. Sinakop din ng France ang ilang bahagi ng India, at itinatag ang French East India Company. Ngunit ng matalo laban sa England sa 7 years war ay binitawan ng France ang India.
Mga Lupaing Natuklasan ng Netherlands
Sinakop ng Netherlands ang malaking bahagi ng Indonesia, at itinatag ang Netherlands East Indies, Nagkaroon din ng kolonya ang mga Dutch sa North America. Pinangunahan ito ni Henry Hudson, isang ingles na manlalayag. Napasok ni Hudson ang Newyork Bay noong 1609 at ipinangalanan niya itong New newtherlands at noong 1624 ay isang trade outpost ang naitatag sa rehiyon at tinawag na New Amsterdam na mas kialala ngayon bilang New York City.
Epekto ng Unang Yugto ng Kolonyalismo
Maraming mahahalagang epekto ang unang yugto ng kolonyalismo, ito ang ilan sa mga halimbawa.
Ang mga eksplorasyon na pinangunahan ng mga Espanyol at Portuges ang nagbigay-daan sa
malawakang pagkakatuklas sa mga lupain na hindi pa nagagalugad at mga siblisasyong hindi pa natutuklasan. Ito rin ang nagpalakas sa ugnayan ng silangan at kanluran. Nakapukaw ito ng interes sa mga makabagong pamamaraan at teknolohiya sa heograpiya at paglalayag. Sumigla ang paglaganap ng sibilisasyong kanluranin sa Asya. Nagdulot din ito ng maraming suliranin sa mga bansang nasakop tulad ng pagkawala sa kasarinlan, paninikil at pagsasamantala sa kanilang likas na yaman. Nagkaroon ng pagbabago sa ecosystem sa daigdig na nagresulta sa pagpapalitan ng hayop, halaman, pati na ang sakit sa pagitan ng Old World at New World. (Research - Ferdinand and Isabella: The Marriage that Unified Spain) (Research - King Ferdinand the fifth and Isabela the first )
Ferdinand V
Ferdinand V (1452-1516), or Ferdinand the Catholic, and his wife, Isabella I, were joint sovereigns of Castile. As Ferdinand II, he was king of Aragon. He laid the foundations of Spanish unity and imperial power.
Born on March 10, 1452, at Sos, in Aragon, Ferdinand was the son of John II of Aragon and Juana Enriquez of Castile. In 1469 he married Isabella, heiress apparent to the Castilian crown. They became joint monarchs of Castile on the death of her brother Henry IV in 1474. In 1479 John II died, and Ferdinand became king of Aragon as well as of Castile (in whose government, however, he officially occupied second place).
Domestic Policy
In the union of crowns thus achieved, Castile's growing wealth and larger population gave it predominance. At the same time the lands of the two crowns retained their separate constitutional identities; and while the Catholic Monarchs might achieve a measure of centralization in Castile, they were prevented from doing so in the Aragonese realms by a jealous defense of local fueros (liberties).
In only one important respect did Ferdinand intervene in Aragonese politics—over all local protests he revived the moribund medieval Inquisition which, like the new Inquisition in Castile (after 1478), was placed under royal control. In both Castile and Aragon the Inquisition attacked the political and economic positions that had been won by middle-class conversos (Jews who had previously been forced to accept baptism). Conversos emigrated in large numbers; their place in commerce and finance tended to be taken by foreigners. In Castile, the Genoese, Flemings, and Germans grew fat on the wealth of the new Atlantic trades.
Ferdinand and Isabella exerted unrelenting pressure on the papacy in order to gain control of the wealth and power of the Spanish Church. In 1486 they were handed full patronage rights over bishoprics to be established in the newly conquered Moorish lands in Granada. Papal bulls of 1493, 1501, and 1508 also made the Crown master of ecclesiastical appointments and revenues in the New World. Ferdinand and Isabella also gradually assumed control of major ecclesiastical offices in their realm, thus gaining an important new source of patronage and revenue. The sphere of government also saw a dramatic extension of royal power. At the Castilian Cortes (Parliament) of 1476 and 1480 the Catholic Monarchs won assent to a number of important measures. They revived and centralized a medieval urban police force, the hermandad. Nobles were deprived of a significant share of the revenues that they had alienated from the Crown. The Royal Council was reorganized, and the financial administration was purged and pruned. Henceforth government was conducted through an interlocking system of royal councils, while newly powerful royal secretaries tied the whole apparatus to the will of the sovereign.
The Cortes also accepted a vigorous extension of royal control over municipal government. Finally, the higher court system was augmented and reorganized, restoring final determination of appeals to the Royal Council and the monarchs themselves.
Foreign Policy
All of these changes were tied together and legitimized by the last great crusade of medieval Spain. This was the war of conquest launched against Moorish Granada in 1481 and successfully concluded in 1492. While Christendom was in retreat before the Turks to the east, Ferdinand achieved through force and diplomacy a signal triumph for the Faith to the south. The year 1492 was decisive for Spain in other ways. That year Isabella gave Christopher Columbus her support, thus launching a vast new crusade to the west. And the end of medieval Spanish religious pluralism was confirmed by the expulsion of all Jews refusing baptism.
But while continued crusading appealed to religious zealots like Cardinal Jiménez de Cisneros, whom Ferdinand allowed to campaign against the Moors in North Africa (1505-1510), the King pursued traditional Aragonese interests in Spain and Italy. Charles VIII of France invaded Italy in 1494 but was defeated the following year by an Italian coalition in part engineered and aided by Ferdinand. And when another French king, Louis XII, desired to follow up his conquest of Milan (1500) by a renewed attempt on Naples, he too was caught in Ferdinand's net.
Gulled into a Spanish alliance for the division of the Neapolitan kingdom between the two monarchs, Louis found himself driven out, and in 1504 he was forced to recognize Ferdinand's exclusive right to Naples. Louis declared himself twice deceived by Ferdinand, and the latter replied: "He lies! I have deceived him ten!" Ferdinand thus firmly established Spanish preponderance in the western Mediterranean. He also involved the kingdom in a series of Italian wars which were to continue through the middle of the 16th century. Last Years
Isabella's death in 1504 made Ferdinand's position in Castile precarious. Pursuing their policies of isolating France diplomatically and of dynastic aggrandizement, the Catholic Monarchs had linked their five children with the royal houses of Portugal, England, and the empire. But only one of these unions bore fruit—that of their daughter Joanna the Mad and Philip of Burgundy. Adhering strictly to the lawful succession, Isabella willed Castile to Joanna (and Philip).
Forced to retreat from Castile, in 1505 Ferdinand married Germaine de Foix, niece of Louis XII. But after the death of Philip of Burgundy in 1506, Ferdinand resumed his administration of Castile as regent for the insane Joanna. Using his wife's connection with the royal family of Navarre to bolster his claims, Ferdinand conquered the larger, Iberian part of that kingdom in 1512 and annexed it to Castile in 1515.
Ferdinand died on Jan. 23, 1516, at Madrigalejo, Estremadura. Niccolò Machiavelli had already written: "We have in our day Ferdinand … who may … be called a new prince, since he has been transformed from a small and weak king into the greatest monarch in Christendom."
Isabella I
Isabella I (1451-1504) was queen of Castile from 1474 to 1504. She and her husband, Ferdinand V, founded the modern Spanish state.
Born in Madrigal on April 22, 1451, Isabella was the daughter of John II of Castile by his second wife, Isabella of Portugal, and was the half sister of Henry IV, who succeeded to the Castilian throne in 1454. Henry had recognized Isabella as his heir over the claims of his daughter Juana, whose royal paternity was questioned by the King's opponents, but when Isabella married Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469, Henry conferred the succession on Juana.
When Henry died in 1474, Isabella immediately claimed the throne. In the ensuing civil war Juana was supported by a cross section of the great nobles as well as by the Portuguese king, Alfonso V. Alfonso's army was defeated at the battle of Toro in 1476, and he made peace with the Catholic Monarchs (as the pair were styled) in 1479. In that same year Ferdinand succeeded to the throne of Aragon, associating Isabella with his rule in 1481. With Juana sequestered in a convent, the crucial step in the formation of a united Spain had been taken. Although "Spain" in 1481 was little more than a personal union of the two crowns, and remained so during Isabella's lifetime, the ultimate process of unification was facilitated by the achievements of the Catholic Monarchs, the most significant of which was the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moorish kingdom of Granada. Begun in 1481, the war lasted until 1492, ending in a complete Spanish victory. Generous peace terms, which allowed the inhabitants to retain their Islamic religion and laws, were soon violated, and, following an abortive Moorish revolt in 1502, adult Moslems who refused Christian baptism were expelled from Spain.
Earlier, in 1492-the same year in which Isabella agreed to subsidize Columbus's first voyage—the Catholic Monarchs had ordered the expulsion of all unbaptized Castilian Jews, nearly 150,000 in all. The Inquisition, established at the Monarchs' behest in 1478, was thus offered a free field to uncover and penalize the backslidings of all remaining "New Christians" (baptized Jews and Moors).
Isabella had five children. The marriage of daughter Catherine of Aragon to Henry VIII of England eventually resulted in the controversy leading to the English Reformation; and the marriage of Joanna (Juana) the Mad to Philip of Burgundy, son of the German emperor Maximilian I, produced a successor to the Spanish crown—Charles I of Spain (Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire). Isabella, who died on Nov. 26, 1504, nearly undid the work of the Catholic Monarchs by leaving the Castilian throne, not to Ferdinand, but to her demented daughter.
(Research - Catherine of Aragon)
Catherine of Aragon (born December 16, 1485, Alcalá de Henares, Spain—died January 7, 1536, Kimbolton, Huntingdon, England) was the first wife of King Henry VIII of England (reigned 1509–47). The refusal of Pope Clement VII to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine triggered the break between Henry and Rome and led to the English Reformation. Catherine was the youngest daughter of the Spanish rulers Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. In 1501 she married Prince Arthur, eldest son of King Henry VII of England. Arthur died the following year, and shortly afterward she was betrothed to Prince Henry, the second son of Henry VII. But subsequent rivalry between England and Spain and Ferdinand’s refusal to pay the full dowry prevented the marriage from taking place until her fiancé assumed the throne as Henry VIII in 1509. For some years the couple lived happily. Catherine matched the breadth of her husband’s intellectual interests, and she was a competent regent while he was campaigning against the French (1512–14). Between 1510 and 1518 Catherine gave birth to six children, including two sons, but all except Mary (later queen of England, 1553–58) either were stillborn or died in early infancy. Henry’s desire for a legitimate male heir prompted him in 1527 to appeal to Rome for an annulment on the grounds that the marriage had violated the biblical prohibition against a union between a man and his brother’s widow. Catherine appealed to Pope Clement VII, contending that her marriage to Henry was valid because the previous marriage to Arthur had never been consummated.
For seven years the pope avoided issuing the annulment because he could not alienate Catherine’s nephew, the Holy Roman emperor Charles V. Finally Henry separated from Catherine in July 1531. On May 23, 1533—five months after he married Anne Boleyn—he had his own archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, annul the marriage to Catherine. Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy repudiating all papal jurisdiction in England and making the king head of the English church. Although Catherine had always been loved by the English people, Henry forced her to spend her last years isolated from all public life.
(Research - British East India Company)
A Brief History of the British East India Company
Between early 1600s and the mid-19th century, the British East India Company lead the establishment and expansion of international trade to Asia and subsequently leading to economic and political domination of the entire Indian subcontinent. It all started when the East India Company, or the “Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies”, as it was originally named, obtained a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I, granting it “monopoly at the trade with the East”. A joint stock company, shares owned primarily by British merchants and aristocrats, the East India Company had no direct link to the British government.
Through the mid-1700s and early 1800s, the company came to account for half of the world’s trade. They traded mainly in commodities exotic to Europe and Britain like cotton, indigo, salt, silk, saltpetre, opium and tea. Although initial interest of the company was aimed simply at reaping profits, their single minded focus on establishing a trading monopoly throughout Asia pacific, made them the heralding agents of British Colonial Imperialism. For the first 150 years the East India Company’s presence was largely confined to the coastal areas. It soon began to transform from a trading company to a ruling endeavor following their victory in the Battle of Plassey against the ruler of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daullah in the year 1757. Warren Hastings, the first governor-general, laid down the administrative foundations for the subsequent British consolidation. The revenues from Bengal were used for economic and military enrichment of the Company. Under directives from Governor Generals, Wellesly and Hastings, expansion of British territory by invasion or alliances was initiated, with the Company eventually acquiring major parts of present day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar. In 1857, the Indians raised their voice against the Company and its oppressive rule by breaking out into an armed rebellion, which historians termed as the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857. Although the company took brutal action to regain control, it lost much of its credibility and economic image back home in England. The Company lost its powers following the Government of India Act of 1858. The Company armed forces, territories and possessions were taken over by the Crown. The East India Company was formally dissolved by the Act of Parliament in 1874 which marked the commencement of the British Raj in India. Founding of the Company
The British East India Company was formed to claim their share in the East Indian spice trade. The British were motivated the by the immense wealth of the ships that made the trip there, and back from the East. The East India Company was granted the Royal Charter on 31 December, 1600 by Queen Elizabeth I. The charter conceded the Company monopoly of all English trade in lands washed by the Indian Ocean (from the southern African peninsula, to Indonesian islands in South East Asia). British corporations unauthorized by the company treading the sea in these areas were termed interlopers and upon identification, they were liable to forfeiture of ships and cargo. The company was owned entirely by the stockholders and managed by a governor with a board of 24 directors.
Early Voyages
The first voyage of the company left in February 1601, under the commandership of Sir James Lanchaster, and headed for Indonesia to bring back pepper and fine spices. The four ships had a horrendous journey reaching Bantam, in Java in 1602, left behind a small group of merchants and assistants and returned back to England in 1603.
The second voyage was commandeered by Sir Henry Middleton. The third voyage was undertaken between 1607 and 1610, with General William Keeling aboard the Red Dragon, Captain William Hawkins aboard the Hector and the Captain David Middleton directing the Consent.
Establishment of Foothold in India
The Company’s ships first arrived in India, at the port of Surat, in 1608. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe reached the court of the Mughal Emperor, Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (1605–1627) as the emissary of King James I, to arrange for a commercial treaty and gained for the British the right to establish a factory at Surat. A treaty was signed with the British promising the Mughal emperor “all sorts of rarities and rich goods fit for my palace” in return of his generous patronage.
Expansion
Trading interest soon collided with establishments from other European countries like Spain, Portugal, France and Netherlands. The British East India Company soon found itself engaged in constant conflicts over trading monopoly in India, China and South East Asia with its European counterparts.
After the Amboina Massacre in 1623, the British found themselves practically ousted from Indonesia (then known as The Dutch East Indies). Losing horribly to the Dutch, the Company abandoned all hopes of trading out of Indonesia, and concentrated instead on India, a territory they previously considered as a consolation prize.
Under the secure blanket of Imperial patronage, the British gradually out-competed the Portuguese trading endeavor, Estado da India, and over the years oversaw a massive expansion of trading operations in India. The British Company’s win over the Portuguese in a maritime battle off the coast of India (1612) won them the much desired trading concessions from the Mughal Empire. In 1611 its first factories were established in India in Surat followed by acquisition of Madras (Chennai) in 1639, Bombay in 1668, and Calcutta in 1690. The Portuguese bases at Goa, Bombay and Chittagong were ceded to the British authorities as the dowry of Catherine of Braganza (1638–1705), Queen consort of Charles II of England. Numerous trading posts were established along the east and west coasts of India, and most conspicuous of English establishment developed around Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, the three most important trading ports. Each of these three provinces was roughly equidistant from each other along the Indian peninsular coastline, and allowed the East India Company to commandeer a monopoly of trade routes more effectively over the Indian Ocean. The company started steady trade in cotton, silk, indigo, saltpeter, and an array of spices from South India. In 1711, the company established its permanent trading post in Canton province of China, and started trading of tea in exchange for silver. By the end of 1715, in a bid to expand trading activities, the Company had established solid trade footings in ports around the Persian Gulf, Southeast and East Asia.
Towards Complete Monopoly
In 1694, the House of Commons voted “that all the subjects of England had an equal right to trade to the East Indies unless prohibited by act of Parliament.” Under pressure from wealthy influential tradesmen not associated with the Company. Following this the English Company Trading to the East Indies was founded with a state-backed indemnity of £2 million. To maintain financial control over the new company, existing stockholders of the old company paid a hefty sum of £315,000. The new company could hardly make a dent in the established old company markets. The new company was ultimately absorbed by the old East India Company in 1708. A tripartite venture was established between the state, the old and the new trading companies under the banner of United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies. The following few decades saw a bitter tug of war between the company lobby and the British Parliament to acquire permanent establishment rights which the latter was hesitant to relinquish in view of the immense profits the company brought. The united company lent to the government an additional £1,200,000 without interest in exchange of renewal of charter until1726. In 1730, the charter was renewed until 1766, in exchange of the East India Company lowering the interests on the remaining debt amount by one percent, and contributed another £200,000 to the Royal treasury. In 1743, they loaned the government another £1,000,000 at 3% interest, and the government prolonged the charter until 1783. Effectively, the company bought monopoly of trading in the East Indies by bribing the Government. At every juncture when this monopoly was expiring, it could only affect a renewal of its Charter by offering fresh loans and by fresh presents to the Government.
The French were late to enter the Indian trading markets and consequently entered into fresh rivalry with the British. By the 1740s rivalry between the British and the French was becoming acute. The Seven Years war between 1756 and 1763 effectively stumped out the French threat led by Governor General Robert Clive. This set up the basis of Colonial monopoly of East India Company in India. By the 1750s, the Mughal Empire was in a state of decadence. The Mughals, threatened by the British fortifying Calcutta, attacked them. Although the Mughals were able to acquire a victory in that face-off in 1756, their victory was short-lived. The British recaptured Calcutta later that same year. The East India Company forces went onto defeat the local royal representatives at the battle of Plassey in 1757 and at Buxar in 1764. Following the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Mughal emperor signed a treaty with the Company allowing them to oversee the administration of the province of Bengal, in exchange for a revised revenue amount every year. Thus began the metamorphosis of a mere trading concern to a colonial authority. The East India Company became responsible for administering the civil, judicial and revenue systems in one of India’s richest provinces. The arrangements made in Bengal provided the company direct administrative control over a region, and subsequently led to 200 years of Colonial supremacy and control.
Regulation of the Company’s Affairs
Throughout the next century, the East India Company continued to annex territory after territory until most of the Indian subcontinent was effectively under their control. From the 1760s onward, the government of Britain pulled the reins of the Company more and more, in an attempt to root out corruption and abuse of power.
As a direct repercussion of the military actions of Robert Clive, the Regulating Act of 1773 was enacted which prohibited people in the civil or military establishments from receiving any gift, reward, or financial assistance from Indians. This Act directed the promotion of the Governor of Bengal, to the rank of Governor General over the entire Company-controlled India. It also provided that nomination of Governor General, though made by a court of directors, would be subject to the approval of the Crown in conjunction with a council of four leaders (appointed by the Crown), in future. A Supreme Court was established in India. The justices were appointed by the Crown to be sent out to India.
William Pitt’s India Act (1784) established government authority over political policy making which needed to be approved through a Parliamentary regulatory board. It imposed the Board of Control, a body of six commissioners, above the Company Directors in London, consisting of the Chancellor of the Exchequer and a Secretary of State for India, together with the four councilors appointed by the Crown.
In 1813 the Company’s monopoly of the Indian trade was abolished, and, under the 1833 Charter Act, it lost its China trade monopoly as well. In 1854, the British Government in England ruled for the appointment of a Lieutenant-Governor to oversee regions of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha and the Governor General was directed to govern the entire Indian Colony. The Company continued its administrative functions until the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857.
Takeover of the Company by the British Crown
The brutal and rapid annexation of native Indian states by introduction of unscrupulous policies like the Doctrine of lapse or on the grounds of inability to pay taxes along with forcible renunciation of titles sparked widespread discontent among the country’s nobility. Moreover, tactless efforts at social and religious reforms contributed to spread of discomfiture among the common people. The sorry state of Indian soldiers and their mistreatment compared to their British counterparts in the armed forces of the Company provided the final push towards the first real rebellion against the Company’s governance in 1857.Known as the Sepoy Mutiny, what began as soldiers protest soon took epic proportions when disgruntled royalties joined forces. The British forces were able to curb the rebels with some effort, but the munity resulted in major loss of face for the Company and advertised its inability to successfully govern the colony of India. In 1858, the Crown enacted the Government of India Act, and assumed all governmental responsibilities held by the company. They also incorporated the Company owned military force into the British Army. The East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act was brought in effect on January 1, 1874 and the East India Company was dissolved in its entirety.
Legacy of the East India Company
Although the East India Company’s colonial rule was hugely detrimental to the interest of the common people due to the exploitative nature of governance and tax implementation, there is no denying the fact that it brought forward some interesting positive outcomes as well.
One of the most impactful of them was a complete overhaul of the Justice System and establishment of the Supreme Court. Next big important impact was the introduction of postal system and telegraphy which the Company arguably established for its own benefit in 1837. The East Indian Railway Company was awarded the contracts to construct a 120-mile railway from Howrah-Calcutta to Raniganj in 1849. The transport system in India saw improvements in leaps and bounds with the completion of a 21-mile rail-line from Bombay to Thane, the first-leg of the Bombay-Kalyan line, in 1853.
The British also brought forth social reforms by abolishing immoral indigenous practices through acts like the Bengal Sati Regulation in 1829 prohibiting immolation of widows, the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856, enabling adolescent Hindu widows to remarry and not live a life of unfair austerity. Establishment of several colleges in the principal presidencies of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras was undertaken by the Company governance. These institutions contributed towards enriching young minds bringing to them a taste of world literature, philosophy and science. The educational reforms also included encouragement of native citizens to sit for the civil services exams and absorbing them into the service consequently.
The Company is popularly associated with unfair exploitation of its colonies and widespread corruption. The humongous amounts of taxes levied on agriculture and business led to man-made famines such as the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and subsequent famines during the 18th and 19th centuries. Forceful cultivation of opium and unfair treatment of indigo farmers lead to much discontent resulting in widespread militant protests.
The positive aspects of social, education and communication advancements were overshadowed largely by the plundering attitude of the Company rule stripping its dominions bare for profit.
(Research - French India East Company)
FRENCH EAST INDIA COMPANY The French East India Company (La Compagnie Française des Indes Orientales), was founded as a monopoly by royal edict of Louis XIV in 1664 at the strong urging of his finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert. The king was its largest investor, and the crown effectively controlled the company. After an inauspiciously disastrous beginning, it eventually became moderately successful and profitable but was always undercapitalized and dependent on loans, often from the treasury. The establishment of the French East India Company was part of Colbert's ambitious mission to revamp France's economy. Its founding implied the removal of the monopoly from the Compagnie de l'Orient started by Cardinal Richelieu in 1642. Richelieu's company had become entangled in the colonization of Madagascar, which it saw as a necessary way station on the sea-lanes to India. As a consequence, it was unable to meet the demand for fine Indian silks and cotton goods, and a substantial market share had been taken by "foreign businesses." Colbert, a mercantilist, wished to slow, if not prevent, the steady export of wealth required to pay for the trade balance. At the time, it is estimated that the French market was purchasing 30 percent of the textiles and spices imported by other joint stock companies, chiefly the English and Dutch East India Companies.
Colbert's company was granted a fifty-year monopoly of trade east of the Cape of Good Hope, given charge of the colonization of Madagascar, two adjacent isles (Réunion and Mauritius), and trading centers in India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia. Unfortunately, the initial reaction of French merchants was tepid; of the 15 million livres envisaged, just over eight million livres (three million from the king) were raised. Colbert's company was nearly always undercapitalized and often had to borrow money to operate from season to season.
Personnel were a second problem, solved by recruiting among the Dutch. The Dutch were hardy mariners and skilled shipwrights. Dutchmen had been crews on Portuguese vessels when that country had a monopoly on the spice trade. Once Dutch crews learned how to navigate to the Moluccas, they went into business for themselves. By 1664 there were experienced Dutch captains and sailors to be had. A third obstacle was the lack of adequate vessels, so Colbert established a port and shipyard named, appropriately enough, Lorient, on the Atlantic coast.
The first decades of the Compagnie Française des Indes Orientales were checkered. The company faced stiff competition from the Dutch East India Company, which harassed the French merchant marine and occasionally confiscated cargoes. Support from French merchants was never enthusiastic for they were subject to strict royal control. Furthermore, the company's administration deteriorated after the deaths of Colbert in 1683 and his son, the marquis de Seignelay, in 1690. The initial voyages were so commercially disastrous that Colbert had to resort to lies to hide the magnitude of the losses in order to raise more capital.
Affairs in India were better, however. François Martin, left behind after a French defeat by the Dutch and the qutbshah (king) of Golconda in San Thomé, founded Pondicherry in 1674. Pondicherry became the center of French India, lying about 85 miles (137 km) south on the Coromandal coast from the English East India Company's trading center at Fort St. George (Madras, now Chennai). Even though port facilities were inconvenient, the commercial viability of Pondicherry was based on the availability of silk and cotton textiles, calicoes and muslins, produced by nearby village cottage industries. The profitable commercial activity caught the jealous attention of the Dutch East India Company, which drove out the French in 1693. The Compagnie Française des Indes Orientales, facing deficits due to failed adventures in Madagascar and Thailand, was helpless. After a sojourn in France, where he was received cordially by king and company, Martin was named governor of Pondicherry for the third time and as director of all French factories in Surat, Chandarnagar, Calicut, Dhaka, Patna, Qasimbazar, Balasore, and Jogdia. He remained in Pondicherry, the Indian capital of the French East India Company, until his death in 1706.
With the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the Dutch East India Company withdrew to Indonesia, leaving England and France the only rivals in India, much as their rivalry was to dominate European affairs for the next hundred years.
When the fifty-year monopoly of the Compagnie Française des Indes Orientales expired the next year, a ten-year extension was granted to the by-then moribund company. Shortly afterward, Louis XIV died, and the duke of Orleans succeeded as regent. In 1717 the regent granted monopoly trade rights in the Caribbean, Canada, and Louisiana to a publicly traded French West India Company, La Compagnie Française des Indes Occidentales, founded by John Law, a Scottish financier. Two years later, Law persuaded the regent to meld the dormant East India and the nascent West India companies, and the conglomerate was titled simply the Company of the Indies (La Compagnie des Indes).
The new company's public stock offering was a brilliant success, briefly doubling and redoubling in value. It immediately purchased the tobacco monopoly, which was a steady source of revenue, allowing it to pay its promised dividends even as the stock was becoming grossly overinflated. The bubble burst, and by the summer of 1720, panic set in. There was a run on the Royal Bank, and the company's shares plunged. The company offered to accept all its shares at face value in return for a perpetual monopoly (its ten-year extension was due to expire in 1725), and it was restyled the Perpetual Company of the Indies (La Compagnie perpétuelle des Indes).
The crash tarnished the reputation of the Perpetual Company, however, which had to be restructured in 1723 into a private regulated monopoly, but one in which the king and regent still had substantial investments. However, the Perpetual Company was successful for several decades, becoming a serious rival to the English East India Company, and was responsible for the major French impact on India. After the Seven Years' War, the Perpetual Company declined steadily, and was completely moribund by the French Revolution. (Video 7 - ANG REBOLUSYONG INDUSTRIYAL )
Noong Gitnang Panahon o Middle Ages nakabatay sa lupa ang mga gawaing pangkabuhayan ng mga europeo. Gamit ang kamay ay naghabis sila ng tela at gumawa ng iba pang produkto subalit nagbago ito sa pagpasok ng ikalabing walong siglo. Isang rebolusyon ang naganap sa paraan ng paggawa ng tao ng produkto, ito ay tinatawag na rebolusyong industrial (or industrial revolution 18th to 19th century) Sa panahong ito napalitan ang paraan ng produksyon, mulang gawang kamay ay gumamit ng makina sa paggawa at mula sa bahay at maliliit na paggawan naman ginawa ang mga produkto sa mga pabrika. Nagkaroon din ng hatian sa gawain at naging maramihan ang produksyon, ang prosesong ito ay naganap bunsod ng rebolusyong agrikultural sa europa. Noong 18th siglo maraming lupang pansakahan ang nakatiwang wang na lupain ang binili at binakuran ng mayayamang may ari ng lupa. Enclosure ang tawag sa binakurang kapirasong lupang ito sa mga enclosure nagsimula tumuklas ang mga may ari ng lupa ng paraan upang maparami ang kanilang ani. Kalaunan nakatuklas sila ng mga bagong paraan at teknolohiya sa pagsasaka, pinaunland din nila ang sistema ng crop protesyon sa ganitong paraan higit na tumaas ang produksyon ng ani at umunland ang sektor ng agrikultura samantala ang magsasaka na nawalan ng lupang pansakahan ay napilitang lumipat mula sa kayanunan patungo sa mga lungsod. Magkakaugnay ang naging epekto ng rebolusyong Agrikultural sa Great Britain. Sa pagunland ng agrikultura lumaki ang kita ng mga may ari ng lupa.
(Research - Rebolusyong Industriyal: Simula, Mga Inobasyon, at Epekto)
Ano ang Industrial Revolution?
Ang Rebolusyong Industriyal ay isang transisyonal na panahon(c. 1760 – 1840) sa Europa at
America na nakatuon sa pagbabago sa mga proseso ng paggawa, mula sa pagbuo ng mga produkto sa pamamagitan ng kamay papunta sa paggamit ng mga makinariya at awtomisasyon. Ito ay mas mailalarawan sa mabilis na pag-unlad sa iba’t ibang industriya dahil sa mga makabagong makinarya, paggamit ng steam engine, at bagong paraan ng paglikha ng mga kemikal at mga proseso sa pagkuha sa bakal.
Bakit nagsimula ang Rebolusyong Industriyal sa Britanya?
Ang unang rebolusyong industriyal ay nagsimula sa Britanya dahil sa iba’t ibang salik: Una, ang pagsisimula ng rebolusyong agrikultural na naglatag ng daan para mangyari ang maagang industriyalisasyon sa Britanya. Isa naging epekto nito ay ang pagkakaroon ng surplus sa suplay ng pagkain, ang mga tao ay hindi kinakailangan ng gumastos ng malaki para mapanatiling busog ang kanilang pamilya. Ang labis na pagkain ay nangangahulugan na ang isang pamilya ay maaaring makapagtabi pa ng sobrang salapi upang bumili ng mga produkto na mula sa siyudad. Pangalawa, ang migrasyon ng mga tao mula rural papunta sa urban na lugar para maghanap ng dagdag na kita ay nagdulot ng paglaki ng lakas- paggawa para sa mga bagong mga industriya.
Pangatlo, maraming negosyateng Briton ang handang sumugal sa pagtatayo ng mga
pabrika. Pang-apat, may malaking mina ng coal sa loob ng bansa ng Britanya. Dahil sa maliit na bansa din ang Britanya mas madali paghahatid ng mga hilaw na materyales sa iba’t ibang panig ng bansang ito. Panghuli, sa panahon na ito ang Britanya ay may malaking emperyo sa iba’t ibang dako ng daigdig. Sila ay may mga kolonya na maaaring kuhaan ng mga karagdagang hilaw na materyales at ang mga kolonya na ito ay kadalasan ang konsumer din ng mga produkto na nililikha sa Britanya.
Epekto ng Rebolusyong Industriyal sa Agrikultura
Ang Europa ay may malaking populasyon sa labas ng mga siyudad dahil ang pangunahing hanapbuhay noon ay ang pagsasaka. Matapos ang ilang mga inobasyon at mga inbensyon na nakatulong sa mabilis na pagtatanim ng mga butil, ito ay ang dulot ng ekponensyal na paglaki ng surplus sa agrikultura at sa hindi na pangangailangan ng madaming tao para sa pagtatanim at pag-aani.
Ito ay nagdulot ng pagkaunti ng mga manggagawa sa bukirin at pagsisimula ng pagtingin ng
mga tao sa siyudad bilang lugar kung saan makakakuha ng karagdagan na kita kung hindi permanente na hanapbuhay. Nagsimula ang migrasyon ng mga tao mula sa mga rural na pamayanan papunta sa urban na siyudad.
Epekto ng Rebolusyong Industriyal sa Industriya ng Textile
Ang industriya ng tela at sinulid ang pangunahing naapektuhan ng rebolusyong industriyal. Ang paggawa ng textile noon ay isang mano-manong gawain na nangangailang ng mahabang oras para matapos lamang ang isang hakbang ng proseso (hal. Pagtatanggal ng buto sa bulak, pagpusod nito papunta sa pagiging hibla ng sinulid, paghahabi ng tala atbp). Ang mga kagamitan ng mga manggawa noon ay mga simpleng makina para lamang mapadali ang manwal na gawain ng mga mangagawa. Sa pagpasok ng rebolusyong industriyal, dumating ang iba’t ibang makinarya na nagbigay daan sa pagpapabilis sa paggawa ng mga sinulid, tela at mga damit. Ilan sa mga makina na ito ay:
Ang cotton gin o ang “cotton engine” – ito ay isang makina na nilikha ni Ely Whitney na nagpadali sa proseso ng paghihiwalay ng mga hibla ng bulak sa buto nito. Ito’y batay sa isang makina na ginagamit sa India ngunit ito ay mas pinahusay ni Whitney sa pamamagitan paglalagay ng mga maliliit na kalawit at mga screen wire upang maiwas ang pagbara ng bulak at mas paladali ang paghiwalay ng buto nito. Ang Spinning Jenny – ito’y makina na nilikha ni James Hangreaves. Ito ay nagpabilis sa paggawa ng mga sinulid at paglalagay nito sa mga basyo nito. Bago ang spinning jenny nangangailan ng isang tao para makalikaha ng isang bungkos ng sinulid ngunit sa pagdating nito biglang bumilis ang produksyon. Isang tao na lang ang kailangan para makagawa ng walong basyo ng sinulid. Ang mga sinulid na lihak ng spinning jenny ay madalas na mababa ang kalidad at magaspang kumpara sa gawa ng kamay ngunit dahil sa mas mura ito at mas nakakatipid ang mga may-ari ng pabrika, 20000 na makina ang sabay sabay na ginagamit noong panahon na iyon.
Flying Shuttle – ang imbensyon na ito ay nagpabilis sa paghahabi ng mga sinulid upang maging tela. Sa tulong ng imbensyon ni John Kay, isang tao na lamang ang kailangan na gumamit ng isang habian. Bukod sa mas bumilis ang proseso ng paghahabi, nabawasan din ang kailangan na lakas paggawa ng mga may-ari ng negosyo.
Ang industriya ng textile na dating isang cottage industry ay nagtransisyon sa factory system dahil sa pag-unlad sa mga kasangkapan sa pagprose ng bulak at tela. Ito ay nag dulot ng kawalan ng trabaho at mahabang mga oras ng pagtatrabaho sa loob ng mga paggawaan. Mas naging mayaman ang mga may-ari ng mga pabrika ng textile dahil sa pagbabawas ng mga tauhan dahil sa malawakang paggamit ng mga mas epektibong makina sa paggawa ng tela at dahil sa mabilis na pagtaas ng demand sa damit na direktang epekto na rin ng paglaki ng populasyon sa loob ng mga urban na lugar.
Epekto ng Rebolusyong Industriyal sa Transportasyon
Ang naging tagumpay ng rebolusyong industriyal ay nakasalalay sa kakayahan na ihatid
ng mga negosyante ang hilaw na materyales at ang mga tapos na produkto sa mga lugar na patutunguhan nito. Maaaring hindi naganap ang rebolusyong industriyal kung nanatiling primitibo ang paraang paglalakbay ng mga tao sa lupa at sa tubig.
Sa mga panahon na ito ang pinakamurang paraan upang maihatid ang mga hilaw na materyales ay sa pagbaybay sa mga ilog kung kaya mas pinalawak at pinalalim ang mga canal na dinadaan ng mga barko para mapadali ang paglalakbay nito. Sa panahon na ito mas pinipili ng mga tao ang maglakbay sa ilog kaysa sa riles, nagbago lang lahat ng ito nang maimbento ni James Watt noong 1769 ang isa sa mga unang epektibong modelo ng “steam engine”.
Ang steam engine ay ginamit upang mas lalong mapabilis sa paglalakbay ang mga tao. Sa gitna ng 1800’s matagal nang ginagamit ang steam power sa mga barko ngunit nang unang ginamit ang steam engine sa mga locomotive ito ang nagdulot ng malaking pagbabago sa transportasyon ng mga tao. Noong 1928, nilikha ni John Stephenson ang unang gumaganang steam engine locomotive na tinawag nilang “Rocket”. Ito ay nagdulot ng pagsikat ng pagamit ng tren sa Europa at sa America.
Epekto ng Rebolusyong Industriyal sa Lipunan
Nagdulot ng malaking pagbabago sa pamumuhay ng mga tao ang rebolusyong industriyal.
Karamihan sa mga pagbabagong ito ay nararamdaman pa rin ng mga tao sa modernong panahon. Isa sa idinulot nito ay ang pagbibigay tuon ng mga tao sa kahalagahan ng industriyalisasyon sa pag- unlad ng mga bansa.
Ang populasyon ay nagsimula lumipat sa mula sa mga rural na probinsya papunta sa urban na siyudad. Ito ay nagdulot ng maraming mga komplikasyon sa pamumuhay ng mga taong nakatira sa parehong lokasyon. Maraming mga panlipunang isyu ang nagsimulang makita sa pagbabago ng paraan ng pamumuhay ng mga taong lumipat ng tirahan. Isa sa mga naging epekto nito ay ang mabilis na paglaki ng populasyon sa mga urban na lugar. Ang laki ng mga siyudad at ang mga imprastraktura ng mga sinaunang siyudad sa Europa ay hindi sapat para biglang pagbuhos ng mga migrante mula sa mga rural na lugar. Ang mabilis na paglaki ng populasyon ay nagdulot ng kakulangan sa trabaho sa loob ng siyudad. Hindi rin nakatulong na nagsimula magbawas ng mga trabahador ng mga may-ari ng pabrika dahil sa mas mura na palitan ang mga tao ng mga makabagong makina na kayang magtrabaho ng mas matagal, mas mabilis at mas epektibo.
Sa panahon din ito naging laganap ang child labor o ang paghahanap buhay ng mga bata sa mga pabrika. Maraming pabrika din mga panahon na ito ang nagbibigay ng mga hindi makataong kondisyon ng pagtatrabaho. Mahaba ang mga oras ng trabaho(umaabot ng 10 hanggang 12 oras ang trabaho), madalas pa ay delikado ang mga trabaho na ito. Hindi rin kadalasan sapat ang pasahod ng mga may- ari sa kanilang mga tauhan. Ito ay nagresulta sa lumalawak na agwat sa pagitan ng mahirap at ng mga mayayaman. Ang kondisyon ng kalikasan ay hindi rin maganda sa loob ng mga siyudad. Ang usok sa mga pabrika ay makapal at madalas na humahalo pa sa ulan, hamog at nyebe. Ang mga ilog ay naging tapunan ng mga kemikal at mga latak ng mga pabrika.Konklusyon Ang rebolusyong industriyal ay nagtulak sa mga tao sa landas ng industriyalisasyon. Kung hindi dahil sa rebolusyong ito ay hindi natin mararanasan ang mga ginhawa ng modernong panahon. Ngunit kailangan pa din tignan ang mga naging negatibong aspeto na nagsimula sa panahon na ito. Karamihan ng mga isyu kinakaharap ng mga tao ngayon ay nagsimula dito at lalo pa nito lumalala sa kasalukuyan, tulad nang di pantay na distribusyon ng yaman at mabilis na pagkasira ng kalikasan.
Rebolusyong industriyal | PPT (slideshare.net)
(Research - Rebolusyong Siyentipiko)
REBOLUSYONG SIYENTIPIKO – Sa paksang ito, ating tatalakayin kung
ano nga ba ang dahilan ng rebolusyong siyentipiko at ang mga halimbawa nito.
Sa modernong panahon, halos lahat ng ating mga kagamitan at
teknolohiya, kahit na ang mga kaunlaran sa ating lipunan, ay galing lahat sa siyensiya. Kaya naman, dapat nating bigyang halaga ang rebolusyong siyentipiko.
Sa panahong ito, umusbong ang ang pagkakatuklas sa agham at
nagbigay daan upang mas makakuha ng mas malawak na kaalaman ang mga tao. Heto ang naging dahilan ng rebolusyong ito:
Matapos matuklasan ng mga Griyego ang bahagi ng agham na
bumabalot sa mga bagay-bagay, nagsimula ang rebolusyong siyentipiko. Ang rebolusyong pang-agham ay naganap dahil sa saklaw ng kung ano ang maaaring maging teorya na pumapalibot sa paglikha ng mga tao at pagkakaroon ng mga bagay sa mundo.
Sa kabilang banda, ang agham, ay tumulong sa mga mamamayan
upang mas maunawaan kung bakit ang mundo ay binubuo ng iba’t ibang mga elemento. (Video 9 - Ang Panahon ng Pagmulat: Ang Enlightenment noong Panahon ng Transpormasyon)
Noong 18th Century, isang pilosopikal na galaw ang umunland sa Europa. Ang mga pagbabagong nakamit ng scientific revolution ang kanilang magiging inspirasyon upang baguhin at unawain ang lipunan ng tao. Ito ang enlightenment, noong scientific revolution, nagawang ipaliwanag ng mga scientist ang batas ng pisikal na daigdig gamit ang kanilang reason, dahil dito naisip din ng mga intellectuals kung posible din ba gamitin ang reason upang ipaliwanag ang batas ng lipunan ng tao. Ang enlightenment ay dinaluhan ng ibat ibang uri ng mga tao, mga manunulat, professor, ekonomista, journalist, at mga social reformer. Ang mga taong lumahok sa enlightenment ay tinatawag na Philosophers. Ang layunin ng philosophy ay makabuo ng isang lipunan ng mas mabuti kesa sa nauna.
Si John Locke ay isa sa mga unang Philosopher ng enlightenment, ayon sa kanya ang bawat tao ay isinilang na tabula rasa o may blankong isipan. Ang isipan ay nalalagyan lamang ng laman batay sa impluwensiyang nakapaligid dito at mga nararanasan ng isang tao. Para sakanya, kung mababago ang kapaligiran at mapapalitan natin ng mabubuting impluwensya ang nakapaligid sa lahat ng tao magiging mas mabuti ang ating lipunan.
Si Montesquieu ay isang Philosopher na nakilala dahil sa kanyang paniniwala sa separation of
powers. Para sakanya, ang pamahalaan ay kinakailangan ng executive, legislative, at judiciary. Ang mga branches ng pamahalaan ay kinakailangan ng pantay pantay at may kakayahan kontrolin at limatahan ang kapangyarihan ng bawat isa. Sa ganitong paraan, maiiwasan ang labis na paglakas ng isang sangay na pamahalaan na maaring magresulta sa pagmamalabis. Ang mga isinulat niya ay naisalin sa wikang ingles na nagresulta sa pagkakabasa nito sa estados unidos, kinuha ito ng mga amerikano at kanilang ginamit sa pagsulat ng kanilang konstitusyon.
Si Voltaire naman ay isa sa pinakadakilang enlightenment Philosopher. Para sa kanya, ang
lahat ng tao ay may karapatan magsalita, ang kanyang pagpapahalaga sa freedom of speech ay may kita sa kanyang quote na “Hindi man ako sang-ayon sa iyong sinasabi, handa akong ipaglaban ang iyong karapatan sa sabihin ito.” Bukod sa freedom of speech isinulong niya din ang Religious Tolerance at pagwaksi sa kahit anong uri ng dogmatism.
Paano nga ba lumaganap ang kaisipan ng enlightenment?
Masasagot ito sa pagsuri sa mga nagawa ni Denis Diderot. Siya ay isang freelance writer na nagsulat ng mga artikolo para sa ibat ibang mga larangan. Ang kanyang pinakamahalaga na ambag ay ang Classified Dictionary of Sciences, Arts, and Trades, o mas kilala sa tawag na Encyclopedie. Ang pinakaunang Cyclopedia niya ay naging mabisang instrumento upang ipalaganap ang mga bagong kaisipan mula sa renaissance, scientific revolution, at maging reformation. Nagamit din ito upang labanan ang mga religious superstition at mga makalumang mga isipan. Ang mga Encyclopedia ay nabasa at ipinagbili sa mga doktor, pari, guro, at mga lawyer. Sinubukan din ng mga tao na hanapin ang mga batas na sumasaklaw sa iba pang aspekto ng pamumuhay, isa rito ang economics. Ayun kay Adam Smith, ang ama ng modern ekonomiks, ang pamahalaan ay nararapat na huwag maki-alam sa mga gawing pang ekonomiko ng isang bansa. (“Ang pamahalaan ay hindi dapat mangialam sa gawaing pang ekonomiko ng bansa.”) Sinasabi niya na ang pangingialam na ito ng pamahalaan ay lumalabag sa natural na mga ekonomic forces. Ang paniniwala na hindi dapat mangialam ang pamahalaan sa ekonomiya ay tinatawag na Laissez Faire.
Noong 18th Century ang mga european countries ay meron ng kanyang kanya mga criminal justice system, ang criminal justice system noong panahon ito ay gumagamit ng betaine at mga torture upang takutin ang mga tao na huwag gumawa ng crimen, kinakailangan nila takutin ang mga gagawa ng crimen dahil ang mga alagad ng batas ay kapos sa kakayahan na manghuli ng mga criminal ngunit ito’y itinutula ni Cesare Beccaria, para sa kanya ang criminal justice system ay nararapat magbigay ng tuon sa rehabilitasyon ng mga lumabag sa batas hindi para parusahan ang mga tao. Ayon pa sakanya, ang pamahalaan na umaasa sa torture upang matakot ang mga tao na gumawa ng crimen ay hindi mahusay na pamahalaan.
Noong 1760, isa pang dakilang enlightenment philosopher ang nakilala, siya ay si Jean Jacques Rousseau kanyang ipinakilala ang Social Contract Theory sa daigdig. Ayon sa Theory na ito, ang pamahalaan at mamamayan ay pumapasok sa isang contrata. Ayon sa kontratang ito, ang pamahalaan ay may obligasyon pangalagaan at pagsilbihan ang mga mamamayan, ang mga mamamayan naman ay may obligasyon na magbigay ng serbisyo at buwis sa pamahalaan. Kinakailangan din nila sumunod sa mga batas na ipinatutupad ng pamahalaan. Sa pagkakataon, kung saan nilabag ng mga mamamayan ang kontrata nito sa pamahalaan, maari siyang parusahan ng batas, samantala, kung ang pamahalaan naman ay ang lalabag sa kontrata, ang mga mamamayan ay may karapatan na palitan ang pamahalaan.
Ang enlightenment ay lubos na nakaapekto sa ating lipunan, hanggang sa kasalukuyan, marami
sa mga ambag na ito ay patuloy pa din natin natatamasa. Ating isipin, ano kaya ang itsura ng daigdig kapag hindi naganap ang enlightenment. Research - Enlightenment)(
European politics, philosophy, science and communications were radically reoriented during the course of the “long 18th century” (1685-1815) as part of a movement referred to by its participants as the Age of Reason, or simply the Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers in Britain, in France and throughout Europe questioned traditional authority and embraced the notion that humanity could be improved through rational change. The Enlightenment produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. The American and French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals and respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning of its decline. The Enlightenment ultimately gave way to 19th-century Romanticism.
The Early Enlightenment: 1685-1730
The Enlightenment’s important 17th-century precursors included the Englishmen Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes, the Frenchman René Descartes and the key natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution, including Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Its roots are usually traced to 1680s England, where in the span of three years Isaac Newton published his “Principia Mathematica” (1686) and John Locke his “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1689)—two works that provided the scientific, mathematical and philosophical toolkit for the Enlightenment’s major advances. (Did you know? In his essay 'What Is Enlightenment?' (1784), the German philosopher Immanuel Kant summed up the era's motto in the following terms: 'Dare to know! Have courage to use your own reason!')
Locke argued that human nature was mutable and that knowledge was gained through accumulated experience rather than by accessing some sort of outside truth. Newton’s calculus and optical theories provided the powerful Enlightenment metaphors for precisely measured change and illumination. There was no single, unified Enlightenment. Instead, it is possible to speak of the French Enlightenment, the Scottish Enlightenment and the English, German, Swiss or American Enlightenment. Individual Enlightenment thinkers often had very different approaches. Locke differed from David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau from Voltaire, Thomas Jefferson from Frederick the Great. Their differences and disagreements, though, emerged out of the common Enlightenment themes of rational questioning and belief in progress through dialogue.
The High Enlightenment: 1730-1780
Centered on the dialogues and publications of the French “philosophes” (Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Buffon and Denis Diderot), the High Enlightenment might best be summed up by one historian’s summary of Voltaire’s “Philosophical Dictionary”: “a chaos of clear ideas.” Foremost among these was the notion that everything in the universe could be rationally demystified and cataloged. The signature publication of the period was Diderot’s “Encyclopédie” (1751-77), which brought together leading authors to produce an ambitious compilation of human knowledge. It was an age of enlightened despots like Frederick the Great, who unified, rationalized and modernized Prussia in between brutal multi-year wars with Austria, and of enlightened would-be revolutionaries like Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson, whose “Declaration of Independence” (1776) framed the American Revolution in terms taken from of Locke’s essays. It was also a time of religious (and anti-religious) innovation, as Christians sought to reposition their faith along rational lines and deists and materialists argued that the universe seemed to determine its own course without God’s intervention. Locke, along with French philosopher Pierre Bayle, began to champion the idea of the separation of Church and State. Secret societies—like the Freemasons, the Bavarian Illuminati and the Rosicrucians—flourished, offering European men (and a few women) new modes of fellowship, esoteric ritual and mutual assistance. Coffeehouses, newspapers and literary salons emerged as new venues for ideas to circulate.
The Late Enlightenment and Beyond: 1780-1815
The French Revolution of 1789 was the culmination of the High Enlightenment vision of throwing out the old authorities to remake society along rational lines, but it devolved into bloody terror that showed the limits of its own ideas and led, a decade later, to the rise of Napoleon. Still, its goal of egalitarianism attracted the admiration of the early feminist Mary Wollstonecraft (mother of “Frankenstein” author Mary Shelley) and inspired both the Haitian war of independence and the radical racial inclusivism of Paraguay’s first post-independence government. Enlightened rationality gave way to the wildness of Romanticism, but 19th-century Liberalism and Classicism—not to mention 20th-century Modernism—all owe a heavy debt to the thinkers of the Enlightenment. (Video 10 - Rebolusyong Amerikano)
Ang digmaan para sa kalayaan ng Amerika ay kilala sa katawagang Himagsikan sa Amerika.
Nagpasimula ang himagsikan nang ang mga Ingles na naging migrante sa Timog Amerika ay nagrebelde sa malabis na pagbubuwis na ipinataw sa kanila ng Parliamentong Ingles. Ngunit wala naman silang kinakatawan sa Parliamento upang sabihin ang kanilang mga hinaing. Nagdeklara sila ng paglaya sa mga Ingles noong 1776 at pagkatapos sila’y nagbuo ng isang malakas na hukbo na magiging tagapagtanggol nila sa mga hinaharap na alitan o sigalot laban sa Britanya.
Ang Labintatlong Kolonya
Ang malaking bilang ng mga ingles ay nagpasimula nang lumipat at manirahan sa Hilagang Amerika noong pang ika-17 siglo. Karamihan sa kanila ay nakaranas ng mga persekyusyon dahil sa kanilang mga bagong pananampalataya na resulta ng Repormasyon at Enlightenment sa Europa. Sa kalagitnaan ng ika 18 siglo ay nakabuo na sila ng 13 magkakahiwalay na kolonya. Ang bawat isa ay may sariling lokal na pamahalaan.
Ang 13 kolonya ng ESTADOS UNIDOS:
1. Massachusetts 2. New Hampshire 3. Rhode Island 4. Connecticut 5. New York 6. New Jersey 7. Pennsylvania 8. Dalware 9. Maryland 10. Virginia 11. North Carolina 12. South Carolina 13. Georgia
Ng maganap ang 7 years war (1756-1763) ay gumastos ng napalaking halaga ang Britanya laban sa Pransiya upang mapanatili sa ilalim ng kanilang imperyo ang 10 kolonya. Ito ang dahilan kung bakit nais ng Britanya na ang mga kolonya ay mag ambag sa naging gastusin ng Britanya at ito’y nais nilang kunin sa pamamagitan ng pagdaragdag ng mga buwis. Stamp Act of 1765
Ay nagdagdag ng buwis para sa pamahalaan ng Britanya sa pamamagitan ng paglalagay ng
mga selyo sa anumang produkto na dadalhin sa Brintaya mula sa mga kolonya.
British Parliament (House of Commons)
Ang mga kolonya ay walang representatnte sa Parliamento ng Britanya sa London kaya sila nagprotesta sa pagbabayad sa malabis na buwis na ipinapataw sa kanila. Ang kanilang paboritong slogan ay ang “Walang pagbubuwis, kung walang representasyon”. Noong December 16, 1773 ay isang grupo ng mga kolonista ang nagsuot ng kasuotan ng mga katutubong amerikano at nakapasok sa isang pangkalakal na bapor ng mga Ingles. Kanilang itinapon ang mga tone toneladang tsaa sa pantalan ng Boston harbor sa Massachusetts, kilala ito bilang “Boston Tea Party”. Nagpasa ang pamahalaan ng Britanya ng kaparusahan sa mga kolonista na naging kabahagi ng nabanggit na insidente, tinawag ang batas na ito sa amerika bilang “intolerable Acts”.
September 5, 1774 Nagpulong ang 56 na kinatawan mula sa 13 kolonya (hindi kasama ang Georgia) at binuo ang Unang Kongresong Kontinental. Pinagkaisahan na ititigil na ang pakikipagkalakalan sa Britanya. At ang bawat kolonya ay bumuo ng mga boluntaryong sundalo na handang makipaglaban sa pamamagitan ng digmaan. April ng 1775 Nagpadala ang Britanya ng tropa ng mga sundala sa Boston upang kunin puwersahan ang isang tindahan ng pulbura sa bayan ng Concord. Isang amerikong panday na si Paul Revere, ang naging kasangkapan upang malaman ng mga tao na may paparating na sundalong British. Sa pamamagitan ng pagsakay ng kabayo at pagligid sa buong bayan ay napagsabihan niya ang mga tao na maghanda para sa pakikipaglaban. Ito ang dahilan kayat nakapaghandang mga tagapag banta na mga amerikano at nakahadlangan ang mga sundlong British sa papalapit na sa kayang Lexington.
April 10, 1775 Battle of Lexington and Concord 8 amerikano ang namatay, at dito nagsimula ang digmaan para sa kalayaan ng mga amerikano. (Research - American Revolution)
The American Revolution—also called the U.S. War of Independence—was the insurrection fought between 1775 and 1783 through which 13 of Great Britain’s North American colonies threw off British rule to establish the sovereign United States of America, founded with the Declaration of Independence in 1776. British attempts to assert greater control over colonial affairs after a long period of salutary neglect, including the imposition of unpopular taxes, had contributed to growing estrangement between the crown and a large and influential segment of colonists who ultimately saw armed rebellion as their only recourse.
The American Revolution was principally caused by colonial opposition to British attempts to impose greater control over the colonies and to make them repay the crown for its defense of them during the French and Indian War (1754–63). Britain did this primarily by imposing a series of deeply unpopular laws and taxes, including the Sugar Act (1764), the Stamp Act (1765), and the so-called Intolerable Acts (1774).
On the ground, fighting in the American Revolution began with the skirmishes between British regulars and American provincials on April 19, 1775, first at Lexington, where a British force of 700 faced 77 local minutemen, and then at Concord, where an American counterforce of 320 to 400 sent the British scurrying. The British had come to Concord to seize the military stores of the colonists, who had been forewarned of the raid through efficient lines of communication—including the ride of Paul Revere, which is celebrated with poetic license in Longfellow’s “Paul Revere’s Ride” (1861).
American Revolution, (1775–83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain’s North American
colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and a large and influential segment of its North American colonies that was caused by British attempts to assert greater control over colonial affairs after having long adhered to a policy of salutary neglect. Until early in 1778 the conflict was a civil war within the British Empire, but afterward it became an international war as France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779) joined the colonies against Britain. Meanwhile, the Netherlands, which provided both official recognition of the United States and financial support for it, was engaged in its own war against Britain. From the beginning, sea power was vital in determining the course of the war, lending to British strategy a flexibility that helped compensate for the comparatively small numbers of troops sent to America and ultimately enabling the French to help bring about the final British surrender at Yorktown. Americans fought the war on land with essentially two types of organization: the Continental (national) Army and the state militias. The total number of the former provided by quotas from the states throughout the conflict was 231,771 men, and the militias totaled 164,087. At any given time, however, the American forces seldom numbered over 20,000; in 1781 there were only about 29,000 insurgents under arms throughout the country. The war was therefore one fought by small field armies. Militias, poorly disciplined and with elected officers, were summoned for periods usually not exceeding three months. The terms of Continental Army service were only gradually increased from one to three years, and not even bounties and the offer of land kept the army up to strength. Reasons for the difficulty in maintaining an adequate Continental force included the colonists’ traditional antipathy toward regular armies, the objections of farmers to being away from their fields, the competition of the states with the Continental Congress to keep men in the militia, and the wretched and uncertain pay in a period of inflation. By contrast, the British army was a reliable steady force of professionals. Since it numbered only about 42,000, heavy recruiting programs were introduced. Many of the enlisted men were farm boys, as were most of the Americans. Others were unemployed persons from the urban slums. Still others joined the army to escape fines or imprisonment. The great majority became efficient soldiers as a result of sound training and ferocious discipline. The officers were drawn largely from the gentry and the aristocracy and obtained their commissions and promotions by purchase. Though they received no formal training, they were not so dependent on a book knowledge of military tactics as were many of the Americans. British generals, however, tended toward a lack of imagination and initiative, while those who demonstrated such qualities often were rash.Because troops were few and conscription unknown, the British government, following a traditional policy, purchased about 30,000 troops from various German princes. The Lensgreve (landgrave) of Hesse furnished approximately three-fifths of that total. Few acts by the crown roused so much antagonism in America as that use of foreign mercenaries. The colony of Massachusetts was seen by King George III and his ministers as the hotbed of disloyalty. After the Boston Tea Party (December 16, 1773), Parliament responded with the Intolerable Acts (1774), a series of punitive measures that were intended to cow the restive population into obedience. The 1691 charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was abrogated, and the colony’s elected ruling council was replaced with a military government under Gen. Thomas Gage, the commander of all British troops in North America. At Gage’s headquarters in Boston, he had four regiments—perhaps 4,000 men—under his command, and Parliament deemed that force sufficient to overawe the population in his vicinity. William Legge, 2nd earl of Dartmouth, secretary of state for the colonies, advised Gage that The violence committed by those, who have taken up arms in Massachusetts, have appeared to me as the acts of a rude rabble, without plan, without concert, without conduct.
From London, Dartmouth concluded that
A small force now, if put to the test, would be able to conquer them, with greater probability of success, than might be expected of a larger army, if the people should be suffered to form themselves upon a more regular plan.
Gage, for his part, felt that no fewer than 20,000 troops would be adequate for such an endeavour, but he acted with the forces he had at hand. Beginning in the late summer of 1774, Gage attempted to suppress the warlike preparations throughout New England by seizing stores of weapons and powder. Although the colonials were initially taken by surprise, they soon mobilized. Groups such as the Sons of Liberty uncovered advance details of British actions, and Committees of Correspondence aided in the organization of countermeasures. Learning of a British plan to secure the weapons cache at Fort William and Mary, an undermanned army outpost in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Boston’s Committee of Correspondence dispatched Paul Revere on December 13, 1774, to issue a warning to local allies. The following day, several hundred men assembled and stormed the fort, capturing the six-man garrison, seizing a significant quantity of powder, and striking the British colours; a subsequent party removed the remaining cannons and small arms. That act of open violence against the crown infuriated British officials, but their attempts to deprive the incipient rebellion of vital war matériel over the following months were increasingly frustrated by colonial leaders who denuded British supply caches and sequestered arms and ammunition in private homes. On April 14, 1775, Gage received a letter from Dartmouth informing him that Massachusetts had been declared to be in a state of open revolt and ordering him to “arrest and imprison the principal Actors and Abettors in the [Massachusetts] Provincial Congress.” Gage had received his orders, but the colonials were well aware of his intentions before he could act. On July 3 Washington assumed command of the American forces at Cambridge. Not only did he have to contain the British in Boston, but he also had to recruit a Continental army. During the winter of 1775–76 recruitment lagged so badly that fresh drafts of militia were called up to help maintain the siege. The balance shifted in late winter, when Gen. Henry Knox arrived with artillery from Fort Ticonderoga in New York. The British fort, which occupied a strategic point between Lake George and Lake Champlain, had been surprised and taken on May 10, 1775, by the Green Mountain Boys, a Vermont militia group under the command of Col. Ethan Allen. The cannons from Ticonderoga were mounted on Dorchester Heights, above Boston. The guns forced Howe, who had replaced Gage in command in October 1775, to evacuate the city on March 17, 1776. Howe then repaired to Halifax to prepare for an invasion of New York, and Washington moved units southward for its defense.
Declaring Independence (1775-76)
When the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia, delegates—including new additions Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson—voted to form a Continental Army, with Washington as its commander in chief. On June 17, in the Revolution’s first major battle, colonial forces inflicted heavy casualties on the British regiment of General William Howe at Breed’s Hill in Boston. The engagement, known as the Battle of Bunker Hill, ended in British victory, but lent encouragement to the revolutionary cause. Throughout that fall and winter, Washington’s forces struggled to keep the British contained in Boston, but artillery captured at Fort Ticonderoga in New York helped shift the balance of that struggle in late winter. The British evacuated the city in March 1776, with Howe and his men retreating to Canada to prepare a major invasion of New York.
By June 1776, with the Revolutionary War in full swing, a growing majority of the colonists had come to favor independence from Britain. On July 4, the Continental Congress voted to adopt the Declaration of Independence, drafted by a five-man committee including Franklin and John Adams but written mainly by Jefferson. That same month, determined to crush the rebellion, the British government sent a large fleet, along with more than 34,000 troops to New York. In August, Howe’s Redcoats routed the Continental Army on Long Island; Washington was forced to evacuate his troops from New York City by September. Pushed across the Delaware River, Washington fought back with a surprise attack in Trenton, New Jersey, on Christmas night and won another victory at Princeton to revive the rebels’ flagging hopes before making winter quarters at Morristown.
Saratoga: Revolutionary War Turning Point (1777-78)
British strategy in 1777 involved two main prongs of attack aimed at separating New England (where the rebellion enjoyed the most popular support) from the other colonies. To that end, General John Burgoyne’s army marched south from Canada toward a planned meeting with Howe’s forces on the Hudson River. Burgoyne’s men dealt a devastating loss to the Americans in July by retaking Fort Ticonderoga, while Howe decided to move his troops southward from New York to confront Washington’s army near the Chesapeake Bay. The British defeated the Americans at Brandywine Creek, Pennsylvania, on September 11 and entered Philadelphia on September 25. Washington rebounded to strike Germantown in early October before withdrawing to winter quarters near Valley Forge. Howe’s move had left Burgoyne’s army exposed near Saratoga, New York, and the British suffered the consequences of this on September 19, when an American force under General Horatio Gates defeated them at Freeman’s Farm in the first Battle of Saratoga. After suffering another defeat on October 7 at Bemis Heights (the Second Battle of Saratoga), Burgoyne surrendered his remaining forces on October 17. The American victory Saratoga would prove to be a turning point of the American Revolution, as it prompted France (which had been secretly aiding the rebels since 1776) to enter the war openly on the American side, though it would not formally declare war on Great Britain until June 1778. The American Revolution, which had begun as a civil conflict between Britain and its colonies, had become a world war.
Stalemate in the North, Battle in the South (1778-81)
During the long, hard winter at Valley Forge, Washington’s troops benefited from the training and discipline of the Prussian military officer Baron Friedrich von Steuben (sent by the French) and the leadership of the French aristocrat Marquis de Lafayette. On June 28, 1778, as British forces under Sir Henry Clinton (who had replaced Howe as supreme commander) attempted to withdraw from Philadelphia to New York, Washington’s army attacked them near Monmouth, New Jersey. The battle effectively ended in a draw, as the Americans held their ground, but Clinton was able to get his army and supplies safely to New York. On July 8, a French fleet commanded by the Comte d’Estaing arrived off the Atlantic coast, ready to do battle with the British. A joint attack on the British at Newport, Rhode Island, in late July failed, and for the most part the war settled into a stalemate phase in the North. The Americans suffered a number of setbacks from 1779 to 1781, including the defection of General Benedict Arnold to the British and the first serious mutinies within the Continental Army. In the South, the British occupied Georgia by early 1779 and captured Charleston, South Carolina in May 1780. British forces under Lord Charles Cornwallis then began an offensive in the region, crushing Gates’ American troops at Camden in mid-August, though the Americans scored a victory over Loyalist forces at King’s Mountain in early October. Nathanael Green replaced Gates as the American commander in the South that December. Under Green’s command, General Daniel Morgan scored a victory against a British force led by Colonel Banastre Tarleton at Cowpens, South Carolina, on January 17, 1781.
Revolutionary War Draws to a Close (1781-83)
By the fall of 1781, Greene’s American forces had managed to force Cornwallis and his men to withdraw to Virginia’s Yorktown peninsula, near where the York River empties into Chesapeake Bay. Supported by a French army commanded by General Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau, Washington moved against Yorktown with a total of around 14,000 soldiers, while a fleet of 36 French warships offshore prevented British reinforcement or evacuation. Trapped and overpowered, Cornwallis was forced to surrender his entire army on October 19. Claiming illness, the British general sent his deputy, Charles O’Hara, to surrender; after O’Hara approached Rochambeau to surrender his sword (the Frenchman deferred to Washington), Washington gave the nod to his own deputy, Benjamin Lincoln, who accepted it. Though the movement for American independence effectively triumphed at the Battle of Yorktown, contemporary observers did not see that as the decisive victory yet. British forces remained stationed around Charleston, and the powerful main army still resided in New York. Though neither side would take decisive action over the better part of the next two years, the British removal of their troops from Charleston and Savannah in late 1782 finally pointed to the end of the conflict. British and American negotiators in Paris signed preliminary peace terms in Paris late that November, and on September 3, 1783, Great Britain formally recognized the independence of the United States in the Treaty of Paris. At the same time, Britain signed separate peace treaties with France and Spain (which had entered the conflict in 1779), bringing the American Revolution to a close after eight long years. (Video 11 - Rebolusyong Pranses)
(1789-1799)
Maraming bilang ng mga tao ang pinutulan ng ulo sa pamamagitan ng guillotine na nangyari sa panahon na tinawag ng mga Pranses bilang Reign of Terror. Ang rebolusyon ding ito ang naglatag ng mga digmaang pinamunuan ni Napoleon sa Europa. Ito ay nagiwan ng dalawang pangunahing epekto sa pransiya.
1. Pagpapa-alis sa isang Absolutong Hari
2. Pagtatatag ng isang republika
Ang kalagayan ng Lipunang Pranses noong 1789
Ang pransiya ay pinagharian ni King Louis the 16th (The last king of France). Ang kanyang pamumuno ay absolute at itinuturing na makapangyarihan pinuno ng isang nasyon sapagkat ang kanilang ginagamit na basehan sa kanilang pamumuno ay ang Divine Rights of King.
Ang Divine Rights ay ang paniniwala na ang kapangyarihan ng isang hari ay nagmula sa kanilang dayuses kaya sila ay pinili ng diyos para pamunuan ang bansa.
Ang lipunang Pranses ay nahahati sa tatlong pangkat na tinatawag na Estates (Tatlong Estates o Antas sa Lipunan)
1. Unang Estate - ito’y binubuo ng mga ubispo, hari, at ilan pang mga may katungkulan sa simabahan. 2. Ikalawang Estate - binubuo ng mga maharlikang pranses 3. Ikatlong Estate - binubuo ng mga pranses, tulad ng mga magsasaka, may ari ng mga tindahan, mga utusan, guro, manananggol, doktor, at mga manggagawa
Noon 1780 ay kinailangan ng pamahalaang Pranses ng malaking halaga ng pera para itaguyod ang pangangailangan ng lipunan. Ang bumubuo ng unang at ikalawang estate sa ilalim ng kautusan ng hari, ay hindi ibinilang sa mga magbubuwis at ang ikatatlong estate lamang ang magbabayad (tanging ang ikatlong estate ang magbabayad ng buwis). Ito ay nagbigay ng hindi magandang impresyon sa ikatlong estate sapagkat ito ay nagdulot ng ibayong pagpapahirap sa kanila, samantalang napakagarbo at maluho ang pamumuhay ng hari at ng kanyang pamilya. Isama pa rito ang maraming digmaan na sinalihan ng bansang pransiya tulad ng pagtulong sa rebolusyong americano na umubos ng napakamalaking halaga. Ang Pambansang Asemblea
Upang mabigyang lunas ang kakulangan sa salapi na kailangan ng Pransiya nang panahong iyon ay minabuti ni Haring louis na magdaos ng isang pagpupulong ng lahat ng kinatawan ng tatlong estate noong 1789 sa Versailles. Hindi nabigyang lunas ang suliranin ukol sa pananalapi dahil hindi nagkasundo ang mga delagado sa paraan ng pagboto. Dati ay hiwalay na nagpupulong ang tatlong estate matapos nito ay saka pa lamang sila magkikita kita at boboto. Bawat estate ay may Isang Boto, karaniwan magkatulad ang boto ng Una at ng Ikalawa laban sa Ikatatlong estate kaya naman laging talo ang ikatlong estate, at dahil dito ay hiniling ng ikatlong estate na ang bawat miyembro ng delegado asemblea ay magkaroon ng tag iisang boto, sapagkat humigit kumulang sa kalahating 1,200 na delegado ay mula sa ikatlong estate ay malaki ang kanilang pagkakataon na maisakatuparan ang nais nilang mga reporma. Dahil sa panunuyo ng Ikalawang Estate ay itinuloy parin ni Haring Louis the 16th ang hiwalay na pagpupulong. Isinara ang lugay na sana’y pagpupulungan ng ikatlong estate kaya’t sila ay nagtungo sa tennis court ng palasyo. Maraming pari at ilang noble ang sumama sa kanila at hinilig sa hari na bumuo ng isang konstitusyon at nanindigang hindi aalis hangga’t hindi naisasakatuparan ang kanilang layunin. Mula sa panukala ng isang pari na si Abbe Sieyes, idineklara ng ikatlong estate ang kanilang sarili bilang pambansang asembleya noong June 17, 1789. Ito ay kinilala sa kasaysayan bilang “Tennis Court Oath”. Matapos ng isang linggo ay binigay na ng hari ang hiling ng ikatlong estate ng kanyang ipagutos na sumama ang una at ikalawang estate sa pambansang asemblea, maituturing ang pangyayari na ito na unang pagwawagi ng ikatlong estate.
Ang pagbagsak ng Bastille
Sa pamamagitan ng pagpayo ni reyna Marie Antoinette, nagpadala ang hari ng mga sundalo sa paris at bastille upang payapain ang lumalaganap na kaguluhan. Ang desisyon na ito ay lalong nagpaigting sa paglaganap ng rebelyon, isang malaking kaguluhan ang nangyari noong July 14, 1789 nang sugurin ng mga galit na mamamayan ang Bastille. Ang bastille ay kulungan ng mga napagbintangan at kalaban ng kasalukuyang monarko sa kanyang pamamahala. Pinakawalan ang mga nakakulong dito, at ang pagbagsak ng bastille ay palatandaan na ang mga tao ay naghahangad na ng pagbabago mula sa pamahalaan. Lumaganap ang kaguluhan sa ibat ibang panig ng france at tinawag na rebolusyonaryo ang mga sumama sa pakikipaglaban. Sila ay binubuo ng mga sundalong sinanay at handang ipagtanggol ang asemblea. Karaniwan silang nakasuot ng mga badges na pula, puti, at bughaw, na naging kulay ng rebolusyon at hanggang sa kasalukuyan ang mga kulay na ito ay matatagpuan pa rin sa watawat ng bansang france. Kalayaan, Pagkakapantay-pantay at Kapatiran
Ang Constituent Assembly (Asembleyang Nasyonal) ay nakapagpalabas ng isang bagong
saligang-batas noong 1789. Ang pambungad na pananalita ng saligang-batas ay ukol sa deklarasyon ng mga karapatang pantao at mamamayan. Binigyan diin ito na ang lipunang pranses ay kinakailangan nababatay sa mga ideya ng kalayaan, pagkakapantay pantay at kapatiran (“Deklarasyon ng mga karapatang pantao at mamamayan”).
Setyembre 1791 lubusang napapayag si Louis the 16th na pamahalaan ang pransiya sa pamamagitan ng bagong saligang-batas. Ang kapangyarihan ng mga nasa simbahan at ng mga maharlika ay nabawasan din at ang halalan para sa asembleya na bubuo ng mga batas ay idinaos.
Ang pagsiklab ng Rebolusyon
Maraming mga monarko sa Europa ang naapektuhan ng malaki sa pagsiklab ng Rebolusyon sa
pransiya. Natakot sila na ang ganoong uri ng rebolusyon ay lumaganap sa kanilang mga kaharian at pinamumunuan. Kaya noong 1792 ay nagpadala ng Austria at Prussia (army) ng mga sundalong tutulong upang pulbusin ang mga rebolusyonaryong pranses. Sa mahabang panahon ng pakikipaglaban ay tinalo ng mga rebolusyonaryo ang mga sundalong tumulong upang sila’y patigilin. Ang rebolusyon ay lalong naging malakas at malaki sa pamamagitan ng pamumuno ng isang abogadong si Georges Danton. Pinagsuspetsahan ng mga rebolusyonaryo na posibleng ang mga nobilidad ng pransiya ay nakikipagbuo ng alyansa sa iba pang mga bansa sa europa upang muling ibalik ang kapangyarihan ng hari at tapusin ang rebolusyong pinasimulan, dahil dito ay kanilang hinuli ang hari at ang daan daang mga taga suporta at kanilang pinatay sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng guillotine. Tinawag ang pangyayari na ito sa pransiya bilang “September Massacres”. Sa sunod sunod na nangyayari ay na idineklarang Republika ang Pransiya (September 21, 1792) . January 21, 1793 nang pugutan ng ulo si Haring Louis the 16th sa pamamagitan ng guillotine, at noong October 16, 1793 ay pinugutan naman ang ulo ni Reyna Marie Antoinette.
Ang Reign of Terror
Noong April 1794 ay binuo ng mga rebolusyonaryo ang isang pansamantalang pamahalaan sa ilalim ng Committee of Public Safety. Ang pinakamabisa at aktibong miyembro nito ay ang isang manananggol na si Maximilien Robespierre, isang masidhing republikano. Isa sa naging pangunahin niyang gawain upang maipagpatuloy ang rebolusyon ay sa pamamagitan ng pagpapadala ng maraming mga sundalo na uubos sa mga kaaway ng republika. Ang mga kaaway na ito ay pawang pinatay sa pamamamagitan ng guillotine at tinawag ang pangyayaring ito bilang “Reign of Terror”. Umabot sa 17, 00 katao ang pinatay sa pagitan ng 1793 hanggang 1794 at may 20,00 naman ang mga namatay sa kulungan. Ang Pransiya sa ilalim ng Directory
Taong 1794 ng humina ang kapangyarihan ng mga rebolusyonaryo at nakuha ng mga
moderates ang pamamahala. Nahuli at pinarusahan ng kamatayan sa pamamagitan ng guillotine ang mga pinunong extremist’s ng 26 na rebolusyon kasama na si Danton at Robespierre. Sa panahong din na ito ay napagwagian naman ng Pransiya ang kanyang pakikidigma sa mga bansang europa kaya ang mga ito ay lumagda sa kasunduan sa kaniya maliban sa britanya. Taong 1795 ng ang republika ng pransiya ay gumamit ng bagong saligang batas na ang naging layunin ay ang magtatag ng isang Direktoryo na pinamumunuan ng limang tao na taun-taon ay inihahalal. Ngunit ang pamahalaang ito ay hindi nagtagumpay. Itoy sa dahilang ang pamahalaan ay naubusan ng pera, ibat ibang pangkating pampulitika ang nagnais na hawakan ang pamamahala at maraming tao ang nais na bumalik sa monarkiya.
Ang Pagiging Popular ni Napoleon
Kailangan ng pransiya ng isang malakas na leader matapos ang rebolusyon, kaya noong 1799 ang pinakapopular at matagumpay na heneral, si Napoleon Bonaparte ay nahirang na pinuno ng pransiya. Sa panahon ng kanyang pamumuno ay nasakop niya ang malaking bahagi ng Europa at kinilalang Emperor Napoleon the first noong 1804. Ang kanyang hukbo sa kanilang pananakop ay naging mga disipulo ng mga ideya ng rebolusyong pranses: “Kalayaan, pagkapantay pantay at kapatiran”.
Ang mga ideya na ito ng rebolusyon ay lumaganap sa europa, ang mga ideyang ito ay nagsilang sa iba pang ideya ng pampulitika gaya ng republikanismo na naging susi upang mag hangad ng mga pagbabago sa pamumuno ang tao at nagtatag ng isang republikang pamahalaan.
(Research - French Revolution - Reign of Terror)
The Reign of Terror, or simply the Terror (la Terreur), was a climactic period of state-sanctioned violence during the French Revolution (1789-99), which saw the public executions and mass killings of thousands of counter-revolutionary 'suspects' between September 1793 and July 1794. The Terror was organized by the twelve-man Committee of Public Safety, which exercised almost dictatorial control over France.
The Terror was the culmination of years of fear and paranoia, feelings which had long existed as undercurrents to the Revolution. In the autumn of 1793, as the Revolution fractured and the War of the First Coalition (1792-1797) spiraled out of control, the National Convention deemed it necessary to implement Terror as the order of the day so that it could root out counter-revolutionary spies and conspirators. This led to the enactment of the Law of Suspects, which allowed for the arrests of between 300,000 and half a million citizens nationwide. 16,594 of these 'suspects' were formally executed after a trial, while around 10,000 died in prison, and thousands more were killed in various massacres staged across France. It is estimated that the total death toll during the ten-month Reign of Terror rests anywhere between 30-50,000. The Law of 22 Prairial (June 1794) led to a marked acceleration of killings, a month-long period known as the Great Terror, which ended only with the fall of Maximilien Robespierre on 9 Thermidor Year II (27 July 1794). The subsequent period, known as the Thermidorian Reaction, put an end to the Terror and to Jacobin dominance.
Origins of Terror
The Reign of Terror was born out of an impulse for revolutionary self-preservation, conceived by a paranoid Revolution that saw enemies everywhere. Certainly, feelings of paranoia and dread were nothing new in 1793, as the specter of Terror had been present since the Revolution's earliest days, always lurking in the shadows. Terror reared its head on 22 July 1789 when fear of an aristocratic plot to starve the people led a Paris mob to brutally murder royal minister Joseph Foullon and his son-in-law. That same summer saw the Great Fear, in which whispers of counter-revolutionary dealings by aristocrats caused panicked peasants to raid the châteaux of their seigneurial lords.
As the Revolution became increasingly divided and as France went to war with most of Europe, hysteria and apprehension became more commonplace. Such feelings were exacerbated by the rapid depreciation of the assignat currency, and the continued scarcity of affordable bread. By the summer of 1793, ordinary French citizens were no less destitute, starving, or unemployed than they had been at the start of the Revolution. Moreover, inflammatory journalists and politicians kept them on their toes, insisting that their poverty and hunger was the fault of counter-revolutionary agents or foreign conspirators.
Such rhetoric was constantly reinforced by the actions of the Revolution's enemies; for instance, the Brunswick Manifesto, which threatened the complete destruction of Paris by a Prussian army, proved that the people's liberty was in grave danger. These thoughts led to bloody moments of mass hysteria, such as the September Massacres of 1792, in which Paris mobs brutally slaughtered over a thousand 'counter-revolutionaries' and priests. By the summer of 1793, counter-revolutionaries were seemingly everywhere; brutal civil wars such as the War in the Vendée and the federalist revolts, as well as the assassination of Marat on 13 July, strengthened the notion that the Republic was under attack from within, that France's most dangerous enemies were French themselves.
Yet, if the Terror was fueled by the fears of the people, it was ignited by their leaders' ideologies. At the heart of the terror was the quasi-dictatorial Committee of Public Safety, which itself was dominated by Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794), the idealist Jacobin leader nicknamed "the Incorruptible" for the steadfastness of his beliefs. Robespierre and his followers believed firmly that the Revolution's end goal was to obtain a republic governed virtuously by the general will. But there was a pressing danger that if certain bad actors were left to their devices, the general will would be corrupted and the Republic would fail. To prevent this, the Robespierrists were intent on weeding out potential counter-revolutionaries and traitors. Therefore, a genuine Republic could not exist without a foundation of Terror, for in Robespierre's own words, "terror without virtue is fatal, virtue without terror is impotent" (Robespierre, 21). (Research - French Revolution - The Last King of France)
Louis XVI (born August 23, 1754, Versailles, France—died January 21, 1793, Paris) the last king of France (1774–92) in the line of Bourbon monarchs preceding the French Revolution of 1789. The monarchy was abolished on September 21, 1792; later Louis and his queen consort, Marie-Antoinette, were guillotined on charges of counterrevolution.
Ultimately unwilling to cede his royal power to the Revolutionary government, Louis XVI was found guilty of treason and condemned to death. He was guillotined on January 21, 1793. His wife, Marie-Antoinette, was guillotined nine months later, and their son Louis (XVII) died at the age of 10 while imprisoned by the Revolutionary government.
Louis XVI approved French military support for the American colonies in their successful struggle against the British, but the expense nearly bankrupted the country. Louis convened the Estates-General in an effort to solve his budget crisis, but by doing so he unwittingly sparked the French Revolution.
Louis XVI’s father was the dauphin (heir apparent) Louis, and his mother was Maria Josepha of Saxony. Although Louis was his father’s third son, he was the eldest male child to survive to adulthood.
Louis was the third son of the dauphin Louis and his consort Maria Josepha of Saxony. At first known as the duc de Berry, he became the heir to the throne on his father’s death in 1765. His education was entrusted to the duc de La Vauguyon (Antoine de Quélen de Caussade). He was taught to avoid letting others know his thoughts, which has led to sharp disagreement about his intelligence. Louis nevertheless possessed an excellent memory, acquired a sound knowledge of Latin and English, and took an interest in history and geography. In 1770 he married the Austrian archduchess Marie-Antoinette, daughter of Maria Theresa and the Holy Roman emperor Francis I. On the death of his grandfather Louis XV, Louis succeeded to the French throne on May 10, 1774. At that time he was still immature, lacking in self-confidence, austere in manner, and, because of a physical defect (later remedied by an operation), unable to consummate his marriage. Well-disposed toward his subjects and interested in the conduct of foreign policy, Louis had not sufficient strength of character or power of decision to combat the influence of court factions or to give the necessary support to reforming ministers, such as Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot or Jacques Necker, in their efforts to shore up the tottering finances of the ancien régime.
Louis’s reaction to the Revolution
After 1789 Louis XVI’s incapacity to rule, his irresolution, and his surrender to reactionary influences at court were partially responsible for the failure to establish in France the forms of a limited constitutional monarchy. He allowed himself to be persuaded that royal dignity required him to avoid communication with the deputies assembled at Versailles, and he made no attempt to lay out a program that might have attracted their support. At critical moments, he was distracted by the illness and death of his eldest son, the dauphin (June 4, 1789). By this time the fundamental weakness of the king’s character had become evident. Lethargic in temperament, lacking political insight, and therefore incapable of appreciating the need to compromise, Louis continued to divert himself by hunting and with his personal hobbies of making locks and doing masonry. His dismissal of Necker in early July 1789 set off popular demonstrations culminating in the storming of the Bastille, which forced the king to accept the authority of the newly proclaimed National Assembly. Despite his reluctance, he had to endorse its "destruction" of the feudal regime and its Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August. The king privately continued to believe that the Revolution would burn itself out. Publicly, however, he appeared ready to accept his new role as constitutional monarch, and gestures such as his visit to Paris after the storming of the Bastille led to an upsurge in his popularity; in early August 1789 the National Assembly proclaimed him the “restorer of French liberty.”
(Research - French Revolution - Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen)
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, one of the basic charters of human liberties, containing the principles that inspired the French Revolution. Its 17 articles, adopted between August 20 and August 26, 1789, by France’s National Assembly, served as the preamble to the Constitution of 1791. Similar documents served as the preamble to the Constitution of 1793 (retitled simply Declaration of the Rights of Man) and to the Constitution of 1795 (retitled Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man and the Citizen). The basic principle of the Declaration was that all “men are born and remain free and equal in rights” (Article 1), which were specified as the rights of liberty, private property, the inviolability of the person, and resistance to oppression (Article 2). All citizens were equal before the law and were to have the right to participate in legislation directly or indirectly (Article 6); no one was to be arrested without a judicial order (Article 7). Freedom of religion (Article 10) and freedom of speech (Article 11) were safeguarded within the bounds of public “order” and “law.” The document reflects the interests of the elites who wrote it: property was given the status of an inviolable right, which could be taken by the state only if an indemnity were given (Article 17); offices and position were opened to all citizens (Article 6). The sources of the Declaration included the major thinkers of the French Enlightenment, such as Montesquieu, who had urged the separation of powers, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who wrote of general will—the concept that the state represents the general will of the citizens. The idea that the individual must be safeguarded against arbitrary police or judicial action was anticipated by the 18th-century parlements, as well as by writers such as Voltaire. French jurists and economists such as the physiocrats had insisted on the inviolability of private property. Other influences on the authors of the Declaration were foreign documents such as the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776) in North America and the manifestos of the Dutch Patriot movement of the 1780s. The French Declaration went beyond these models, however, in its scope and in its claim to be based on principles that are fundamental to man and therefore universally applicable. On the other hand, the Declaration is also explicable as an attack on the pre-Revolutionary monarchical regime. Equality before the law was to replace the system of privileges that characterized the old regime. Judicial procedures were insisted upon to prevent abuses by the king or his administration, such as the lettre de cachet, a private communication from the king, often used to give summary notice of imprisonment. Despite the limited aims of the framers of the Declaration, its principles (especially Article 1) could be extended logically to mean political and even social democracy. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen came to be, as was recognized by the 19th-century historian Jules Michelet, “the credo of the new age.”
Who wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen? The Marquis de Lafayette, with the help of Thomas Jefferson, composed a draft of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and presented it to the National Assembly on July 11, 1789. A committee of some 40 deputies was appointed to decide on the declaration’s final form. Those deputies included Jean-Joseph Mounier, Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, and Alexandre, count de Lameth. The draft was extensively revised before being adopted between August 20 and August 26, 1789.
What were the inspirations for the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen?
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was inspired by the writings of such Enlightenment thinkers as Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Voltaire. Other influences included documents written in other countries, including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the manifestos of the Dutch Patriot movement of the 1780s. The creators of the declaration went beyond its sources in intending the principles to be universally applicable.
(Research - French Revolution - Divine Rights)
Divine right of kings, in European history, a political doctrine in defense of monarchical
absolutism, which asserted that kings derived their authority from God and could not therefore be held accountable for their actions by any earthly authority such as a parliament. Originating in Europe, the divine-right theory can be traced to the medieval conception of God’s award of temporal power to the political ruler, paralleling the award of spiritual power to the church. By the 16th and 17th centuries, however, the new national monarchs were asserting their authority in matters of both church and state. King James I of England (reigned 1603–25) was the foremost exponent of the divine right of kings, but the doctrine virtually disappeared from English politics after the Glorious Revolution (1688–89). In the late 17th and 18th centuries, kings such as Louis XIV (1643–1715) of France continued to profit from the divine-right theory, even though many of them no longer had any truly religious belief in it. The American Revolution (1775–83), the French Revolution (1789), and the Napoleonic Wars deprived the doctrine of most of its remaining credibility. The bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627–1704), one of the principal French theorists of divine right, asserted that the king’s person and authority were sacred; that his power was modeled on that of a father’s and was absolute, deriving from God; and that he was governed by reason (i.e., custom and precedent). In the middle of the 17th century, the English Royalist squire Sir Robert Filmer likewise held that the state was a family and that the king was a father, but he claimed, in an interpretation of Scripture, that Adam was the first king and that Charles I (reigned 1625–49) ruled England as Adam’s eldest heir. The anti-absolutist philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) wrote his First Treatise of Civil Government (1689) in order to refute such arguments. The doctrine of divine right can be dangerous for both church and state. For the state it suggests that secular authority is conferred, and can therefore be removed, by the church, and for the church it implies that kings have a direct relationship to God and may therefore dictate to ecclesiastical rulers. (Video 12 - Ikalawang Yugto ng Imperyalismo sa Kanlurang Asya)
(Ika 18 hanggnag 19 Siglo)
Ang kapalaran ng ay nag bago, sa kagustuhang makalaya ng kanlurang asya sa pamumuno ng
ottoman empire, silay ay kumampi sa Alyadong Puwersa
Unang Digmaang Pandaigdig (WW 1)
Alyadong Puwersa - France - Britain - Russia Italy
Ng matapos ang Unang digmaang pandaigdig, naitatag ang Liga ng mga Bansa (League of Nations) ipinatupad ang sistemang Mandato (Mandate system) kung saan ang pamumunuan ng nanalong bansa ang mga dating teritoryo ng natalong bansa. Upang ihanda sila sa pagsasarili at pagkakaroon ng sariling pamahalaan. Ayon sa mandate system, ang iraq, palestine, westbank, gaza strip, at jordan ay mapapasailalim ng mandato ng Great Britain, at ang syria at lebanon naman ay sa ilalim naman ng France.
Naging interesado ang mga kanluranin sa kanlurang asya, lalo na ng madiskrubre ang malaking deposito ng langis dito.
Ng himasok din ang mga kanluranin, sa mga isyung sosyo politikal sa kanlurang asya. Isang halimbawa nito ay ang pagpapatupad ng Balfour Declaration (November 12, 1917) kung saan binigyan ng lupang matitirahan ang mga hudyo sa palestine, ito ay lubos na tinutulan ng nasyonalistang arabeng palestino sapagkat matagal na sila naninirahan sa palestine. Ito’y nagdulot ng malaking sigalot sa dalawang bansa hanggang ngayon. (Research - Mandate system)
What was the Mandate System of the League of Nations?
The Mandate System was devised by the League of Nations after WWI as a method to maintain peace and promote self-determination in territories formerly governed by the Ottoman and German Empires. In reality, the Mandate System was an internationally sanctioned form of colonialism that granted control over much of Africa, the Middle East, and the South Pacific to European powers.
How did the Mandate System affect colonies?
The Mandate System robbed colonies of their right to sovereignty and self-determination, or the right of peoples to decide how they would like to be governed. The end of the Mandate System led to stunted development, dangerous power vacuums, and violent territorial disputes, many of which persist to this day.
What was the significance of the Mandate System?
The Mandate System brought an end to the Imperial Age and marked the start of the European colonization of Africa, the Middle East, and the South Pacific. It led to a number of conflicts, many of which are still unresolved, and stunted the development of the territories it governed.
Types of Mandates
The League divided the occupied colonies into different classes, depending on their stage of development, and how ready they were for self-rule.
Class A Mandates were the previous colonies of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. They were developed provinces that could achieve independence with a little help. The colonies of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Transjordan (parts of Jordan and Saudi Arabia), and Palestine came until British control, while Syria and Lebanon went to the French.
Class B Mandates were former German colonies in Central and Sub-Saharan Africa, which were ready for independence in the distant future, but needed to be governed until then. Cameroon and Togoland (parts of Togo and Ghana) was divided among Great Britain and France, Tanganyika went to Great Britain, while Ruanda-Urundi (modern Rwanda and Burundi) went to Belgium. Class C Mandates were former German colonies in southwest Africa and the Pacific Islands. These were considered unlikely to ever become independent, and were to be ruled by the governing power as an integral part of its own territory, i.e., they became colonies of the mandatary. The Pacific Islands were distributed between Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, while South Africa was given control of southwest Africa (modern Namibia).
Significance
The mandates were intended to be a middle ground between complete dependence and independence. The victorious powers wanted to avoid making it seem like they were sharing the spoils of war. This system aimed at providing the control of ex-colonies for a finite period only, until self-rule was possible.
The system aroused a lot of suspicions, especially because it awarded most of the mandates to Great Britain and France, which were already the largest colonial powers at the time. While the United States was motivated by a desire to spread democracy across the world, these powers were motivated by colonial ambitions, and desired to retain the territories indefinitely.
Despite the best intentions of the League, the pitfall of the mandate system was the freedom it gave the powers in ruling their mandates. Though Britain and Japan used this freedom to introduce reforms in their colonies, it was misused by others. While, South Africa forcibly took over native lands in southwest Africa, Belgium forced the natives of Ruanda-Urundi into mining. New Zealand, on the other hand, deported Samoan leaders to prevent rebellions.
The origins of the current Israel-Palestinian conflict lie in the mandate system. Early in the war, the British incited the Arabs to revolt against the Ottomans in return for the control of Palestine. In 1917, they promised to give Palestine to the Jews as their ‘homeland’. However, when Palestine became a British mandate after the war, both, the Jews and Arabs felt betrayed. When Great Britain could no longer control Jewish-Arab conflicts, they pulled out of the mandate, and the Jewish State of Israel was partitioned from Palestine in 1948, further intensifying the situation.
Trusteeship Council, one of the principal organs of the United Nations (UN), designed to supervise the government of trust territories and to lead them to self-government or independence. The council originally consisted of states administering trust territories, permanent members of the Security Council that did not administer trust territories, and other members elected by the General Assembly. With the independence of Palau in 1994, the council suspended operations. Originally, the council met once each year. Each member had one vote, and decisions were taken by a simple majority of those present. Since 1994 the council is no longer required to meet annually, though it may meet on the decision of the Trusteeship Council’s president or on a request by a majority of its members, by the General Assembly, or by the Security Council. (Research - Latin America Independence)
Independence from Spain came suddenly for most of Latin America. Between 1810 and 1825, most of Spain's former colonies declared and won independence and had divided up into republics.
Sentiment had been growing in the colonies for some time, dating back to the American Revolution. Although Spanish forces efficiently quashed most early rebellions, the idea of independence had taken root in the minds of the people of Latin America and continued to grow.
Napoleon's invasion of Spain (1807-1808) provided the spark the rebels needed. Napoleon, seeking to expand his empire, attacked and defeated Spain, and he put his elder brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. This act made for a perfect excuse for secession, and by the time Spain had gotten rid of Joseph in 1813 most of their former colonies had declared themselves independent.
Spain fought valiantly to hold on to its rich colonies. Although the independence movements took place at about the same time, the regions were not united, and each area had its own leaders and history.
Independence in Mexico
Independence in Mexico was sparked by Father Miguel Hidalgo, a priest living and working in the small town of Dolores. He and a small group of conspirators started the rebellion by ringing the church bells on the morning of September 16, 1810. This act became known as the "Cry of Dolores." His ragtag army made it partway to the capital before being driven back, and Hidalgo himself was captured and executed in July of 1811.
Its leader gone, the Mexican Independence movement almost failed, but the command was assumed by José María Morelos, another priest, and a talented field marshal. Morelos won a series of impressive victories against Spanish forces before being captured and executed in December 1815.
The rebellion continued, and two new leaders came to prominence: Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria, both of whom commanded large armies in the south and south-central parts of Mexico. The Spanish sent out a young officer, Agustín de Iturbide, at the head of a large army to quash the rebellion once and for all in 1820. Iturbide, however, was distressed over political developments in Spain and switched sides. With the defection of its largest army, Spanish rule in Mexico was essentially over, and Spain formally recognized Mexico's independence on August 24, 1821. Independence in Northern South America
The independence struggle in northern Latin America began in 1806 when Venezuelan Francisco de Miranda first attempted to liberate his homeland with British help. This attempt failed, but Miranda returned in 1810 to head up the First Venezuelan Republic with Simón Bolívar and others.
Bolívar fought the Spanish in Venezuela, Ecuador, and Colombia for several years, decisively beating them several times. By 1822, those countries were free, and Bolívar set his sights on Peru, the last and mightiest Spanish holdout on the continent.
Along with his close friend and subordinate Antonio José de Sucre, Bolívar won two important victories in 1824: at Junín, on August 6, and at Ayacucho on December 9. Their forces routed, the Spanish signed a peace agreement shortly after the battle of Ayacucho.
Independence in Southern South America
Argentina drew up its own government on May 25, 1810, in response to Napoleon's capture of Spain, although it would not formally declare independence until 1816. Although Argentine rebel forces fought several small battles with Spanish forces, most of their efforts went towards fighting larger Spanish garrisons in Peru and Bolivia.
The fight for Argentine Independence was led by José de San Martín, an Argentine native who had been trained as a military officer in Spain. In 1817, he crossed the Andes into Chile, where Bernardo O'Higgins and his rebel army had been fighting the Spanish to a draw since 1810. Joining forces, the Chileans and Argentines soundly defeated the Spanish at the Battle of Maipú (near Santiago, Chile) on April 5, 1818, effectively ending Spanish control over the southern part of South America.
Independence in the Caribbean
Although Spain lost all of their colonies on the mainland by 1825, it retained control over Cuba and Puerto Rico. It had already lost control of Hispaniola due to uprisings by enslaved people in Haiti.
In Cuba, Spanish forces put down several major rebellions, including one which lasted from 1868 to 1878. Carlos Manuel de Cespedes led it. Another major attempt at independence took place in 1895 when ragtag forces including Cuban poet and patriot José Martí were defeated at the Battle of Dos Ríos. The revolution was still simmering in 1898 when the United States and Spain fought the Spanish-American War. After the war, Cuba became a US protectorate and was granted independence in 1902.
In Puerto Rico, nationalist forces staged occasional uprisings, including a notable one in 1868. None were successful, however, and Puerto Rico did not become independent from Spain until 1898 as a result of the Spanish-American War. The island became a protectorate of the United States, and it has been so ever since. (Spanish and American War) Fought between April and August 1898, the Spanish-American War was the result of American concern over Spanish treatment of Cuba, political pressures, and anger over the sinking of USS Maine. Though President William McKinley had wished to avoid war, American forces moved swiftly once it began. In rapid campaigns, American forces seized the Philippines and Guam. This was followed by a longer campaign in southern Cuba which culminated in American victories at sea and on land. In the wake of the conflict, the United States became an imperial power having gained many Spanish territories.
1. Papal Bull Inter Caetera and the Treaty of Tordesillas (1493–1494)
Many people do not know that when Christopher Columbus "discovered" the Americas, they already legally belonged to Portugal. According to previous papal bulls of the 15th century, Portugal held claim to any and all undiscovered lands west of a certain longitude. After Columbus' return, both Spain and Portugal laid claims to the new lands, forcing the pope to sort things out.
Pope Alexander VI issued the bull Inter Caetera in 1493, declaring that Spain owned all new lands west of a line 100 leagues (about 300 miles) from the Cape Verde Islands.
Portugal, not pleased with the verdict, pressed the issue and the two nations ratified the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which established the line at 370 leagues from the islands. This treaty essentially ceded Brazil to the Portuguese while keeping the rest of the New World for Spain, therefore laying the framework for the modern demographics of Latin America.
2. The Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires (1519–1533)
After the New World was discovered, Spain soon realized that it was an incredibly valuable resource that should be pacified and colonized. Only two things stood in their way: the mighty Empires of the Aztecs in Mexico and the Incas in Peru, who would have to be defeated in order to establish rule over the newly-discovered lands.
Ruthless conquistadores under the command of Hernán Cortés in Mexico and Francisco Pizarro in Peru accomplished just that, paving the way for centuries of Spanish rule and enslavement and marginalization of New World natives.
3. Independence from Spain and Portugal (1806–1898)
Using the Napoleonic invasion of Spain as an excuse, most of Latin America declared independence from Spain in 1810. By 1825, Mexico, Central America, and South America were free, soon to be followed by Brazil. Spanish rule in the Americas ended in 1898 when they lost their final colonies to the United States following the Spanish-American War.
With Spain and Portugal out of the picture, the young American republics were free to find their own way, a process that was always difficult and often bloody. 4. The Mexican-American War (1846–1848)
Still smarting from the loss of Texas a decade before, Mexico went to war with the United States in 1846 after a series of skirmishes on the border. The Americans invaded Mexico on two fronts and captured Mexico City in May of 1848.
As devastating as the war was for Mexico, the peace was worse. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Wyoming to the United States in exchange for $15 million and forgiveness of about $3 million more in debts.
5. The War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870)
The most devastating war ever fought in South America, the War of the Triple Alliance, pitted Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil against Paraguay. When Uruguay was attacked by Brazil and Argentina in late 1864, Paraguay came to its aid and attacked Brazil. Ironically, Uruguay, then under a different president, switched sides and fought against its former ally. By the time the war was over, hundreds of thousands had died and Paraguay was in ruins. It would take decades for the nation to recover.
6. The War of the Pacific (1879–1884)
In 1879, Chile and Bolivia went to war after spending decades bickering over a border dispute. Peru, which had a military alliance with Bolivia, was drawn into the war as well. After a series of major battles at sea and on land, the Chileans were victorious. By 1881 the Chilean army had captured Lima and by 1884 Bolivia signed a truce.
As a result of the war, Chile gained the disputed coastal province once and for all, leaving Bolivia landlocked, and also gained the province of Arica from Peru. The Peruvian and Bolivian nations were devastated, needing years to recover.
7. The Construction of the Panama Canal (1881–1893, 1904–1914)
The completion of the Panama Canal by Americans in 1914 marked the end of a remarkable and ambitious feat of engineering. The results have been felt ever since, as the canal has drastically changed worldwide shipping.
Less known are the political consequences of the canal, including the secession of Panama from Colombia (with the encouragement of the United States) and the profound effect the canal has had on the internal reality of Panama ever since.
8. The Mexican Revolution (1911–1920)
A revolution of impoverished peasants against an entrenched wealthy class, the Mexican
Revolution shook the world and forever altered the trajectory of Mexican politics. It was a bloody war, which included horrific battles, massacres and assassinations. The Mexican Revolution officially ended in 1920 when Alvaro Obregón became the last general standing after years of conflict, although the fighting continued for another decade. As a result of the revolution, land reform finally took place in Mexico, and the PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party), the political party that rose from the rebellion, stayed in power until the 1990s.
9. The Cuban Revolution (1953–1959)
When Fidel Castro, his brother Raúl and a ragged band of followers attacked the barracks at Moncada in 1953, they may not have known they were taking the first step to one of the most significant revolutions of all time. With the promise of economic equality for all, the rebellion grew until 1959, when Cuban President Fulgencio Batista fled the country and victorious rebels filled the streets of Havana. Castro established a communist regime, building close ties with the Soviet Union, and stubbornly defied every attempt the United States could think of to remove him from power.
Ever since that time, Cuba has either been a festering sore of totalitarianism in an increasingly democratic world or a beacon of hope for all anti-imperialists, depending on your point of view.
10. Operation Condor (1975–1983)
In the mid-1970s, the governments of the southern cone of South America—Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia and Uruguay—had several things in common. They were ruled by conservative regimes, either dictators or military juntas, and they had a growing problem with opposition forces and dissidents. They, therefore, established Operation Condor, a collaborative effort to round up and kill or otherwise silence their enemies.
By the time it ended, thousands were dead or missing and the trust of South Americans in their leaders was forever shattered. Although new facts come out occasionally and some of the worst perpetrators have been brought to justice, there are still many questions about this sinister operation and those behind it.
After three centuries of colonial rule, independence came rather suddenly to most of Spanish and Portuguese America. Between 1808 and 1826 all of Latin America except the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico slipped out of the hands of the Iberian powers who had ruled the region since the conquest. The rapidity and timing of that dramatic change were the result of a combination of long-building tensions in colonial rule and a series of external events. The reforms imposed by the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century provoked great instability in the relations between the rulers and their colonial subjects in the Americas. Many Creoles (those of Spanish parentage but who were born in America) felt Bourbon policy to be an unfair attack on their wealth, political power, and social status. Others did not suffer during the second half of the 18th century; indeed, the gradual loosening of trade restrictions actually benefited some Creoles in Venezuela and certain areas that had moved from the periphery to the centre during the late colonial era. However, those profits merely whetted those Creoles’ appetites for greater free trade than the Bourbons were willing to grant. More generally, Creoles reacted angrily against the crown’s preference for peninsulars in administrative positions and its declining support of the caste system and the Creoles’ privileged status within it. After hundreds of years of proven service to Spain, the American-born elites felt that the Bourbons were now treating them like a recently conquered nation. In cities throughout the region, Creole frustrations increasingly found expression in ideas derived from the Enlightenment. Imperial prohibitions proved unable to stop the flow of potentially subversive English, French, and North American works into the colonies of Latin America. Creole participants in conspiracies against Portugal and Spain at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century showed familiarity with such European Enlightenment thinkers as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The Enlightenment clearly informed the aims of dissident Creoles and inspired some of the later, great leaders of the independence movements across Latin America. Still, these ideas were not, strictly speaking, causes of independence. Creoles selectively adapted rather than simply embraced the thought that had informed revolutions in North America and France. Leaders in Latin America tended to shy away from the more socially radical European doctrines. Moreover, the influence of those ideologies was sharply restricted; with few exceptions only small circles of educated, urban elites had access to Enlightenment thought. At most, foreign ideas helped foster a more questioning attitude toward traditional institutions and authority. European diplomatic and military events provided the final catalyst that turned Creole discontent into full-fledged movements for Latin American independence. When the Spanish crown entered into an alliance with France in 1795, it set off a series of developments that opened up economic and political distance between the Iberian countries and their American colonies. By siding with France, Spain pitted itself against England, the dominant sea power of the period, which used its naval forces to reduce and eventually cut communications between Spain and the Americas. Unable to preserve any sort of monopoly on trade, the Spanish crown was forced to loosen the restrictions on its colonies’ commerce. Spanish Americans now found themselves able to trade legally with other colonies, as well as with any neutral countries such as the United States. Spain’s wartime liberalization of colonial trade sharpened Creoles’ desires for greater economic self-determination. Occurrences in Europe in the early 19th century created a deep political divide between Spain and its American colonies. In 1807 the Spanish king, Charles IV, granted passage through Spanish territory to Napoleon’s forces on their way to invade Portugal. The immediate effect of that concession was to send the Portuguese ruler, Prince Regent John, fleeing in British ships to Brazil. Arriving in Rio de Janeiro with some 15,000 officials, nobles, and other members of his court, John transformed the Brazilian colony into the administrative centre of his empire. When Napoleon turned on his Spanish allies in 1808, events took a disastrous turn for Spain and its dominion in the Americas. Shortly after Charles had abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand, Napoleon had them both imprisoned. With these figures of legitimate authority in his power, the French ruler tried to shatter Spanish independence. In the process he set off a political crisis that swept across both Spain and its possessions. The Spanish political tradition centred on the figure of the monarch, yet, with Charles and Ferdinand removed from the scene, the hub of all political authority was missing. In 1810 a Cortes (Parliament) emerged in Cádiz to represent both Spain and Spanish America. Two years later it produced a new, liberal constitution that proclaimed Spain’s American possessions to be full members of the kingdom and not mere colonies. Yet the Creoles who participated in the new Cortes were denied equal representation. Moreover, the Cortes would not concede permanent free trade to the Americans and obstinately refused to grant any degree of meaningful autonomy to the overseas dominions. Having had a taste of freedom during their political and economic isolation from the mother country, Spanish Americans did not easily consent to a reduction of their power and autonomy. Two other European developments further dashed the hopes of Creoles, pushing them more decisively toward independence. The year 1814 saw the restoration of Ferdinand to the throne and with it the energetic attempt to reestablish Spanish imperial power in the Americas. Rejecting compromise and reform, Ferdinand resorted to military force to bring wayward Spanish-American regions back into the empire as colonies. The effort only served to harden the position of Creole rebels. In 1820 troops waiting in Cádiz to be sent as part of the crown’s military campaigns revolted, forcing Ferdinand to agree to a series of liberal measures. That concession divided and weakened loyalist opposition to independence in the Americas. Many supporters of the crown now had doubts about the monarchy for which they were fighting. The north and the culmination of independence Independence movements in the northern regions of Spanish South America had an inauspicious beginning in 1806. The small group of foreign volunteers that the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda brought to his homeland failed to incite the populace to rise against Spanish rule. Creoles in the region wanted an expansion of the free trade that was benefiting their plantation economy. At the same time, however, they feared that the removal of Spanish control might bring about a revolution that would destroy their own power. Creole elites in Venezuela had good reason to fear such a possibility, for a massive revolution had recently exploded in the French Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue. Beginning in 1791, a massive slave revolt sparked a general insurrection against the plantation system and French colonial power. The rebellion developed into both a civil war, pitting blacks and mulattos against whites, and an international conflict, as England and Spain supported the white plantation owners and rebels, respectively. By the first years of the 19th century, the rebels had shattered what had been a model colony and forged the independent nation of Haiti. Partly inspired by those Caribbean events, slaves in Venezuela carried out their own uprisings in the 1790s. Just as it served as a beacon of hope for the enslaved, Haiti was a warning of everything that might go wrong for elites in the cacao-growing areas of Venezuela and throughout slave societies in the Americas. Creole anxieties contributed to the persistence of strong loyalist factions in the Viceroyalty of New Granada, but they did not prevent the rise of an independence struggle there. Creoles organized revolutionary governments that proclaimed some social and economic reforms in 1810, and in Venezuela they openly declared a break with Spain the following year. Forces loyal to Spain fought the Venezuelan patriots from the start, leading to a pattern in which patriot rebels held the capital city and its surroundings but could not dominate large areas of the countryside. Some saw the earthquake that wreaked particular destruction in patriot-held areas in 1812 as a sign of divine displeasure with the revolution. That year certainly was the onset of a difficult period for the independence cause. Loyalist forces crushed the rebels’ military, driving Bolívar and others to seek refuge in New Granada proper (the heart of the viceroyalty). Bolívar soon returned to Venezuela with a new army in 1813 and waged a campaign with a ferocity that is captured perfectly by the army’s motto, “Guerra a muerte” (“War to the death”). With loyalists displaying the same passion and violence, as well as obtaining significant support from the common people of mixed ethnicity, the revolutionists achieved only short-lived victories. The army led by loyalist José Tomás Boves demonstrated the key military role that the llaneros (cowboys) came to play in the region’s struggle. Turning the tide against independence, these highly mobile, ferocious fighters made up a formidable military force that pushed Bolívar out of his home country once more. By 1815 the independence movements in Venezuela and almost all across Spanish South America seemed moribund. A large military expedition sent by Ferdinand VII in that year reconquered Venezuela and most of New Granada. Yet another invasion led by Bolívar in 1816 failed miserably. The following year a larger and revitalized independence movement emerged, winning the struggle in the north and taking it into the Andean highlands. The mercurial Bolívar, the scion of an old aristocratic Creole family in Caracas, galvanized this initiative. Hero and symbol of South American independence, Bolívar did not produce victory by himself, of course; still, he was of fundamental importance to the movement as an ideologue, military leader, and political catalyst. In his most famous writing, the “Jamaica Letter” (composed during one of his periods of exile, in 1815), Bolívar affirmed his undying faith in the cause of independence, even in the face of the patriots’ repeated defeats. While laying out sharp criticisms of Spanish colonialism, the document also looked toward the future. For Bolívar, the only path for the former colonies was the establishment of autonomous, centralized republican government. Although liberal in some respects, in the Jamaica Letter and elsewhere, he expressed strong doubts about the capacity of his fellow Latin Americans for self-government, revealing his socially conservative and politically authoritarian side. “Do not adopt the best system of government,” he wrote, “but the one most likely to succeed.” Thus, the type of republic that he eventually espoused was very much an oligarchic one, with socioeconomic and literacy qualifications for suffrage and with power centred in the hands of a strong executive. And though he favoured the granting of civil liberties to all male citizens and the abolition of slavery, Bolívar also worried that the death of so many peninsular soldiers during the wars would condemn Latin America to a system of “pardocracy,” or rule by pardos (people of mixed ethnicity), an outcome he deemed threatening. He believed that a virtuous governing system would not be possible if the nation was divided by ethnicity. The Liberator emerged as a strong military and political force in the struggles that began in 1817. At this point he expanded the focus of the movement, shifting his attention to New Granada and courting supporters among the casta majority. A group of llaneros of mixed ethnicity led by José Antonio Páez proved crucial to the patriots’ military victories in 1818–19. A major step in that success came in the subduing of the loyalist defenders of Bogotá in 1819. After leading his army up the face of the eastern Andes, Bolívar dealt a crushing defeat to his enemies in the Battle of Boyacá. (Research - The History of the Philippines)
The history of what is today the Philippines started with the arrival of its first humans. It is believed they used rafts or boats around 60,000 years ago, with groups of diverse people settling in the archipelago. Some of these groups started to develop and expand into bigger settlements and in the next thousands of years they evolved in what some scholars believe to be considered early states. Austronesians and afterward speakers of the malayo-polynesian languages began to arrive in successive waves beginning about 4000 BC. According to the existing evidence a jade culture existed on these lands starting with the Neolithic era. By 1000 BC it is believed that the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four distinct kinds of peoples: Tribal Groups, Warrior Societies, The Plenty Plutocracy, and Harbor Civilizations. Important note is the fact that metallurgy reached the archipelago due to trade with India. Around 300-700 AD, the seafaring peoples of the islands began to trade with the indianized kingdoms in the malay archipelago and the nearby east asian principalities, adopting influences from both buddhism and hinduism.
Some cultures of present day vietnam showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Artifacts and goods were traded such as glass, agate, or gold. There were also other items present in the region which were most likely imported including ear ornaments that have been found in archaeological sites in the philippines, thailand, and taiwan. The indian culture influenced the south east asian region starting with 1st century AD. During the period of the south indian pallava dynasty and the north indian gupta empire, indian culture spread to southeast asia and it reached the philippines, which led to the establishment of new kingdoms largely influenced by the indian culture and traditions. The date inscribed in the oldest philippine document found so car the laguna copperplate inscription is 900 ad. From the details of the document written in kawi script, the bearer of a debt, namwaran, along with his children is cleared of a debt by the ruler of tondo. This is the earliest document that shows the use of mathematics in pre colonial philippine societies. A standard system of weights and measures is also demonstrated by the use of precise measurement for gold and other items as well as in astronomy. From the various sanskrit terms and titles seen in the document, the culture and society of the manila bay were that of a hindu-old malay amalgamation, similar to the cultures of java, peninsular malaysia, and sumatra at the time. In the years leading up to 1000, there were already several maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying political state encompassing the entire philippine archipelago. Instead the region was divided into numerous semi autonomous city states under the rule of the plutocracy while a number of states existed alongside the highland societies. These small structures alternated between being part of or being influenced by larger asian empires like maja pahit, the Ming dynasty of China, and Brunei. Around 1225 the nation of Ma-i a buddhist pre hispanic philippine island state centered in mindoro, flourished attracting traders and shipping from the kingdom of ryukyu to the empire of japan chao jukua a customs inspectors in fukien province china wrote the “description of the barbarous peoples” describing trade with pre colonial state. Its people were noted for their honesty in trade. Much of what is now indonesia was ruled by the hindi maja pahit empire. During the 1300s, this empire ruled over luzon island and the sulu archipelago, as more and more influence was on these islands, skirmishes and battles also existed. Some local tribes were waging incessant guerilla warfare against them. Eventually, the kingdoms of luzon regained independence from maja pahit after the battle of Manila (1365) and Sulo also reestablished independence and in vengeance assaulted the maja pahit province of brunei before a fleet from the capital drove them out. The start of the islamic era in indonesia set the collapse of the maja phit as its provinces eventually seceded and became independent sultanates. In 1380, makhidum karim, an arab trader born in johore arrived in sulu from malacca and brought islam to the philippines. Additionally, sharik ul-hasim an arab muslim explorer established the sultanate of suku by converting its previous ruler the hindu king rajah baguinda to islam and then marrying his daughter.
(Research - Kasaysayan ng Austria-Hungary)
Matapos ang pagpaslang sa Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand sa Sarajevo noong 28 Hunyo 1914, mabilis na tumaas ang isang serye ng mga krisis.Nagsimula ang isang pangkalahatang digmaan noong Hulyo 28 na may deklarasyon ng digmaan sa Serbia ng Austria-Hungary.Ang Austria-Hungary ay nag-draft ng 9 na milyong sundalo sa Unang Digmaang Pandaigdig , kung saan 4 na milyon ay mula sa kaharian ng Hungary.Ang Austria-Hungary ay lumaban sa panig ng Germany , Bulgaria at Ottoman Empire - ang tinatawag na Central Powers.Sinakop nila ang Serbia, at nagdeklara ng digmaan ang Romania .Pagkatapos ay sinakop ng Central Powers ang katimugang Romania at ang kabisera ng Romania ng Bucharest.Noong Nobyembre 1916, namatay si Emperador Franz Joseph;ang bagong monarko, si Emperador Charles I ng Austria (IV. Károly), ay nakiramay sa mga pasipista sa kanyang kaharian.Sa silangan, itinaboy ng Central Powers ang mga pag-atake mula sa Imperyong Ruso .Ang Eastern Front ng tinatawag na Entente Powers na kaalyado sa Russia ay ganap na bumagsak.
Umalis ang Austria-Hungary sa mga talunang bansa.Sa larangan ng Italya, ang hukbong Austro-Hungarian ay hindi makagawa ng mas matagumpay na pagsulong laban saItalya pagkatapos ng Enero 1918. Sa kabila ng mga tagumpay sa Silangang Prente, ang Alemanya ay dumanas ng pagkapatas at kalaunan ay pagkatalo sa mas tiyak na Western Front.Noong 1918, ang kalagayang pang-ekonomiya ay nakababahala nang lumala sa Austria-Hungary;Ang mga welga sa mga pabrika ay inorganisa ng mga kilusang makakaliwa at pasipista, at naging karaniwan na ang mga pag-aalsa sa hukbo.Sa mga kabiserang lungsod ng Vienna at Budapest, sinuportahan ng Austrian at Hungarian ang makakaliwang kilusang liberal at kanilang mga pinuno ang separatismo ng mga etnikong minorya.Nilagdaan ng Austria-Hungary ang Armistice ng Villa Giusti sa Padua noong 3 Nobyembre 1918. Noong Oktubre 1918, nabuwag ang personal na unyon sa pagitan ng Austria at Hungary. Nasyonalismo sa Europe at sa Asya
Ang kasaysayan ng daigdig sa ika-19 na siglo ay kinakitaan ng pag-unlad at
paglaganap ng nasyonalismo. Sa Europe, maraming rebelyon ang isinagawa sa ngalan ng nasyonalismo na ang nagsilbing inspirasyon ay ang ideyang pagkakapantay-pantay, at pagkakapatiran ng Rebolusyong French. Sa Asya,ang huling bahagi ng ika-19 na siglo ay kinakitaan ng pagtatangkang lumaya mula sa mga puwersang Kanluranin.
Ano ang ibig sabihin ng nasyonalismo?
Ito ay ang pagmamahal sa bansa na nakaugat sa kamalayan ng isang lahi na sila ay nabubuklod ng isang wika, kasaysayan, kultura, pagpapahalaga, at relihiyon. Sa kabuuan, ang nasyonalismo ay isang positibong puwersa kung ito ay gagamitin sa pagtataguyod ng pagkakaisa at pagkakakilanlan at kung ito ay hindi nakasasagabal sa tunguhin ng ibang bansa.
NASYONALISMO SA EUROPE
Ang unang yugto ng pagkabuo ng nasyonalismo sa Europe ay sinasabing kinakitaan ng
katapatan sa grupong lingguwistiko at kultural at ang pagnanais na makalaya mula sa kontrol ng dayuhan. Kalaunan, umunlad ito tungo sa kilusang nagtataguyod ng kagalingan ang bansang kinabibilangan at pakikipaglaban sa karapatan ng mga mamamayan na maitakda ang sariling kapalaran. Ang halimbawa nito ay ang Rebolusyong French.
Congress of Vienna Ang Congress of Vienna ay ipinatawag noong 1814 upang pagtibayin ang Treaty of Paris na nagwakas sa mga digmaang inilunsad ni Napoleon at upang buuing muli ang estrukturang politikal ng Europe. Nilahukan ito ngAustria, Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, Saxony, at Russia. Ang naging resulta ng nasabing kongreso ay ang restorasyon ng mga dinastiya sa kanilang trono at ang paghahati-hati ng mga nanalong bansa sa tinatawag na spoils of war o mga nakamit na tagumpay, pribilehiyo, o materyal na bagay mula sa digmaan. Sa kabuuan, ang naging resulta ng Congress of Vienna ay ang pagsasaayos muli ng mapa ng Europe.
Ang mga bansang bumuo sa Concert of Europe ay Russia, Prussia, Great Britain at France.
Germany Ang radikal na kilusan na nabuo sa Germany ay ang Burschenschaften, na ang layunin ay magkaroon ng pagkakaisa at nasyonalismong German. Binuwag ito ni Clemens von Metternich bilang bahagi ng ipinatupad na Carlsbad Decrees (1819) na nagsensura sa pamamahayag at naglagay ng mga espiya sa mga unibersidad. Italy Ang kilusan na itinatag ng mga rebolusyonaryo sa Italy ay ang Risorgimento, na ang layunin ay makamtan ang pagkakaisa at kalayaan.
Greece Noong 1821, nag-alsa ang Greece laban sa mga Ottoman Turk. Noong 1827, nakialam ang Great Britain, Russia, at France upang palayain ang Greece mula sa mga Turk na kanilang natalo noong 1829. Ang naging resulta ay ang Treaty of Adrianople kung saan ibinigay sa Greece ang kalayaan sa tulong ng tatlong puwersang Kanluranin. Iniluklok si Otto, anak ng hari ng Bavaria,bilang unang hari ng Greece.
Spain Bilang reaksyon sa kaayusang nalikha ng Congress of Vienna, nagkaroon ng pag-aalsa sa Spain noong 1820. Ang pag-aalsa ay natuon sa haring Bourbon na si Ferdinand VII na napilitang ibalik ang Konstitusyon matapos itong maisantabi dahil sa restorasyon ng monarkiya. Gayunpaman, nang makialam na ang Quadruple Alliance ay nanumbalik sa kapangyarihan si Ferdinand VII.
France Ang July Revolt noong 1830 ay nagsilbing reaksiyon sa mga restriksyong ipinatupad ni Haring Charles X hinggil sa pamamahayag at sa pagbuwag sa Chamber of Deputies o ang lehislatura. Ang kanyang mga patakaran ay nakabatay sa pagpapanumbalik sa kaayusang politikal, pang-ekonomiya, panlipunan, at panrelihiyon ng dating rehimen. Ito ang nagsilbing mitsa sa pagsiklab ng rebolusyon sa Paris noong 1830 kung saan ang mga mamamayan ay lumikha ng kaguluhan sa mga kalsada. Hindi nakayanan ni Charles na sugpuin ang rebelyon kung kaya tumakas siya papuntang Great Britain. Pinalitan siyang kasapi ng Dinastiyang Bourbon, si Louis Philippe.
Imperyong Austria-Hungary
Ang pag-aalsa sa Austria ay kasunod ng mga pag-alsa sa France noong 1848. Ito ay nakatuon laban sa mga patakarang pang-ekonomiya ni Metternich. Nagsama-sama sa mga kalsada ng Vienna ang mga manggagawa, magsasaka, at estudyante. Tumakas si Metternich papuntang Great Britain. Ipinagkaloob ni Haring Ferdinand I ang mga kahilingan ng mga rebolusyonaryo, kasama na rito ang pangako ng konstitusyong liberal para sa imperyo. (Research - Nasyonalismo, Unipikasyon ng Italya, Kilusang Pangkalayaan)
Ang Nasyonalismo at ang Unipikasyon ng Italya Nang panahon umuusbong ang nasyonalismo sa Inglatera at Pransya, ang Italya ay isang watak-watak na bansa, bagamat pansamantalang nagkaisa ang ilang bahagi nito sa ilalim ng pamumuno ni Napoleon I. Noong 1815, sa Kongreso ng Vienna, ang Italya ay pinaghatian ng iba’t ibang pinuno at bansa. Ang Lombardy at Venice sa Hilaga ay napunta sa Austria. Pinamunuan naman ng pamilyang Hapsburg ang Parma, Modenna at Tuscany. Ang Papa ay namahala sa Estado ng Papal, kasama ang Roma, sa gitnang Italya. Isang Bourbon ang namuno sa kaharian ng dalawang Sicily. Ang kaharian ng Sardinia na binubuo ng Piedmont ay napasailalim sa hari ng House of Savoy.
Mga Kilusang Pangkalayaan Isa si Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) sa mga taong gumising sa makabayang damdamin ng mga Italyano. Ang kanyang pagsisikap para sa kalayaan ay parang isang 19panatang relihiyon. Ang kanyang paniniwala sa pagkakapatiran ng tao ang nag-udyok sa kanya na tangkilikin ang kapakanan ng mga mahihirap na mamamayan. Noong kanyang kabataan, sumapi si Mazzini sa Karbonari at minsan, naaresto siya dahil sa kanyang rebolusyonaryong gawain. Iniwan niya ang Karbonari at itinatag niya ang Samahan ng Batang Italya (Society of Young Italy)na binuo ng mga batang Italyano. Ang kanilang islogan ay Kalayaan, Pagkakapantay-pantay, at Humanidad o Pagkamakatao. Maraming kasapi ang namatay nang hindi naitatag ang Republika. Naipatapon si Mazzini ngunit ang kanyang pinasimulan ang nagsindi ng apoy sa puso ng mga Italyano. Tinawag siyang Propeta sa Pag-iisa ng Italya. Si Konde Camilo Cavour (1810-1861) ang pangunahing Minister ng Sardinia- Piedmont ay tulad din ni Mazzini na praktikal at ideyalisa. Naisip niyang maaring mamuno ang kaharian ng Sardinia para sa unipikasyon ng Italya. Bagamat tapat ang kanyang paglilingkod kay Haring Victor Emmanuel II, naniwala si Cavour sa Pamahalaang Parlyamentaryo. Humingi siya ng tulong sa gitnang uri ng tao upang ihanda ang pakikipaglaban ng Sardinia sa Austria. Nagsikap siyang makakuha ng tulong sa Europa. Naging kakampi niya ang Britanya at Pransya laban sa Russia sa Digmaang Krimian. Sumunod, nakipagkasundo siya ng lihim kay Napoleon III. Pinangakuan niya si Napoleon III ng dalawang lalawigan, ang Nice at Savoy, kung tutulungan sila ni Napoleon III sa pagpapaalis sa Austria sa tangway ng Italya. Ikatlo, pinagkagalit ng matalinong si Cavour ang Austria at Sardinia na humantong sa isang labanan noong 1859. Nanalo ang Sardinia ngunit umurong sa laban si Napoleon III. Bagamat hindi tumupad si Napoleon III sa kasunduan, ibinigay pa rin Cavour kay Napoleon III ang Nice at Savoy. Si Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) na may ginintuang buhok at may balat na parang bronze ay katutubong mamamayan ng Nice na nakilahok din sa mga himagsikan laban sa mga malulupit na pinuno ng estado. Siya ay tumakas sa Timog Amerika noong 1830 dahil sa gantimpala sa kanyang ulo. Doon, nakianib siya sa mga labanan para sa demokrasya at nasyonalismo sa ilang bansa sa Latin Amerika. Sinanay ni Garibaldi ang ibang Italyanong ipinatapon sa Amerika sa pakikilaban. Treaty of Edirne or Adrianpole, (Sept. 14, 1829), pact concluding the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29, signed at Edirne (ancient Adrianople), Tur.; it strengthened the Russian position in eastern Europe and weakened that of the Ottoman Empire. The treaty foreshadowed the Ottoman Empire’s future dependence on the European balance of power and also presaged the eventual dismemberment of its Balkan possessions. Russia, victorious on the Balkan and Caucasus fronts, preferred a weakened Ottoman Empire to one that was dismembered by other powers. The treaty allowed Russia to annex the islands controlling the mouth of the Danube River and the Caucasus coastal strip of the Black Sea, including the fortresses of Anapa and Poti. The Ottomans recognized Russia’s title to Georgia and other Caucasian principalities and opened the Straits of the Dardanelles and Bosporus to Russian shipping. Furthermore, in the Balkans, the Ottomans acknowledged Greece as an autonomous but tributary state, reaffirmed the Convention of Akkerman (1826), granting autonomy to Serbia, and recognized the autonomy of the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Walachia under Russian tutelage.
Alexander I was the Tsar of the Russian Empire from 1801 to 1825. He fought on the side of the Coalition against Napoleon in the The Napoleonic Wars. His assistant was Dmitry Senyavin. Alexander was born on 23 December 1777 in Saint Petersburg, and he and his younger brother Constantine were raised by their grandmother, Catherine. Some sources allege that she planned to remove her son (Alexander's father) Paul I from the succession altogether. From the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of Catherine and his Swiss tutor, Frédéric-César de La Harpe, he imbibed the principles of Rousseau's gospel of humanity. But from his military governor, Nikolay Saltykov, he imbibed the traditions of Russian autocracy. Andrey Afanasyevich Samborsky, whom his grandmother chose for his religious instruction, was an atypical, unbearded Orthodox priest. Samborsky had long lived in England and taught Alexander (and Constantine) excellent English, very uncommon for potential Russian autocrats at the time.
On 9 October 1793, when Alexander was still 15 years old, he married 14-year-old Princess Louise of Baden, who took the name Elizabeth Alexeievna. His grandmother was the one who presided over his marriage to the young princess. Until his grandmother's death, he was constantly walking the line of allegiance between his grandmother and his father. His steward Nikolai Saltykov helped him navigate the political landscape, engendering dislike for his grandmother and dread in dealing with his father.
Catherine had the Alexander Palace built for the couple. This did nothing to help his relationship with her, as Catherine would go out of her way to amuse them with dancing and parties, which annoyed his wife. Living at the palace also put pressure on him to perform as a husband, though he felt only a brother's love for the Grand Duchess. He began to sympathize more with his father, as he saw visiting his father's fiefdom at Gatchina as a relief from the ostentatious court of the empress. There, they wore simple Prussian military uniforms, instead of the gaudy clothing popular at the French court they had to wear when visiting Catherine. Even so, visiting the tsarevich did not come without a bit of travail. Paul liked to have his guests perform military drills, which he also pushed upon his sons Alexander and Constantine. He was also prone to fits of temper, and he often went into fits of rage when events did not go his way.
Ang mga kaganapan na ito ay may kaugnayan sa mga pangyayari sa Europa noong ika-19 hanggang ika-20 siglo. Narito ang paglalarawan ng bawat isa:
A. Congress sa Vienna - Ito ay isang pagtitipon ng mga pinuno mula sa iba't ibang bansa ng Europa na naganap noong 1814 hanggang 1815. Layunin nito ang pagtakda ng mga patakaran at pangyayari pagkatapos ng pagbagsak ni Napoleon Bonaparte at ang pagsasaayos muli ng Europa matapos ang digmaang Napoleonic.
B. Unipikasyon ng Germany - Ito ay ang proseso kung saan ang iba't ibang estado at teritoryo sa loob ng saklaw ng dating Holy Roman Empire ay pinagsama-sama upang bumuo ng isang solong bansang Germany. Ito ay naganap noong 1871 sa pamumuno ng Prussia sa ilalim ng pamumuno ng Chancellor na si Otto von Bismarck.
C. Unipikasyon ng Italy - Katulad sa unipikasyon ng Germany, ito rin ay ang proseso kung saan ang iba't ibang estado at teritoryo sa Italya ay pinagsama-sama upang bumuo ng isang solong bansang Italya. Nangyari ito noong kalahating bahagi ng ika-19 siglo sa ilalim ng pamumuno ng mga lider tulad ni Giuseppe Garibaldi at Count Camillo di Cavour.
D. Paglaya ng Greece sa Turks - Ito ay tumutukoy sa proseso ng paghiwalay ng Gresya mula sa
Ottoman Empire o Turko. Naganap ito noong 1821 hanggang 1832 matapos ang isang mahabang digmaan ng kalayaan. E. Pagbabalik ng Spain bilang bagong Monarkiya - Hindi malinaw kung ano ang tinutukoy na panahon sa pagbabalik ng Spain bilang bagong Monarkiya. Maaaring ito ay tumutukoy sa pagpapanumbalik ng monarkiya pagkatapos ng diktaturya ni Francisco Franco noong 1975 nang itinatag ang isang konstitusyunal na monarkiya sa ilalim ng Hari Juan Carlos I.
F. Ang France pagkatapos ng French Revolution - Ang French Revolution ay isang mahalagang yugto sa kasaysayan ng Pransiya kung saan naganap ang isang malawakang rebolusyon mula 1789 hanggang 1799. Ito ay humantong sa pagbagsak ng monarkiya at pagtatatag ng Republika ng Pransiya. Matapos ang digmaan at politikal na kaguluhan, naitatag ang Unang Republika ng Pransiya, na sinundan ng ikalawang imperyo sa ilalim ni Napoleon Bonaparte at muling pagtatatag ng monarkiya sa ilalim ng pamumuno ng Hari Louis XVIII.
G. Imperyong Austria-Hungary - Ito ay isang dual monarchy na binubuo ng mga estado ng
Austria at Hungary, pati na rin ang ilang iba pang teritoryo sa Europa. Itinatag ito noong 1867 matapos ang Austro-Hungarian Compromise, na nagbibigay ng higit na awtonomiya sa Hungary habang nananatili ang Austria bilang sentro ng imperyo. Ang Imperyong Austria-Hungary ay nagwakas matapos ang pagkatalo nito sa Ikalawang Digmaang Pandaigdig.
