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 Eleventh Edition Page i

Introduction to
Mass Communication
MEDIA LITERACY AND CULTURE

Stanley J. Baran
Bryant University
 Page ii

INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY
10121. Copyright © 2021 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
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In loving memory of my mother, Page iii
Margaret Baran—
she gave me life;
and in honor of my wife,
Susan Baran—
she gave that life meaning. Page iv
 Page v
From the Author

Courtesy of Stanley Baran

Dear Friends,
The media, like sports and politics, are what we talk about, argue
over, dissect, and analyze. Those of us who teach media know that
these conversations are essential to the functioning of a democratic
society. We also know that what moves these conversations from
simple chatting and griping to effective public discourse is media
education. And regardless of what we might call the course—
Introduction to Mass Communication, Introduction to Mass Media,
Media and Society, or Media and Culture—media education has been
part of the university for more than six decades. From the outset,
the course has fulfilled these goals:

Increasing students’ knowledge and understanding of the mass

communication process and the mass media industries
Increasing students’ awareness of how they interact with those
industries and their content to create meaning
Helping students become more skilled and knowledgeable
consumers of media content and therefore more ethical and
confident participants in their worlds

We now call the fulfillment of these goals media literacy.

A Cultural Perspective
This text’s cultural orientation toward mass communication places a
great deal of responsibility on media consumers. In the past, people
were considered either victims of media influence or impervious to it.
The cultural orientation asserts that audience members are as much
a part of the mass communication process as are the media
technologies and industries. As important agents in the creation and
maintenance of their own culture, audience members have a moral
obligation not only to participate in the process of mass
communication but also to participate critically as better consumers
of mass media.

Enriching Students’ Literacy

The focus of this book, from the start, has been on media literacy
and culture, and those emphases have shaped its content and its
various learning aids and pedagogical features. Every chapter’s
Cultural Forum box poses a critical thinking dilemma based on a
current social problem and asks students to work through their
solution. The Using Media to Make a Difference feature offers
chapter-specific examples of how people in and outside the media
industries have employed technology to meet important cultural and
social needs. And each chapter ends with a Media Literacy Challenge
that asks students to apply what they’ve learned to a contemporary
media issue. Literacy, in this case media literacy, is about living in,
interacting with, and making the most of the world that surrounds
us. That belief is the central philosophy of this text.
Page vi
My Thanks to You
Thank you for teaching mass communication. There are few college
courses that will mean more to our students’ lives now and after
they graduate than this one. Thank you, too, for considering
Introduction to Mass Communication: Media Literacy and Culture for
use in your course. I have poured the last 30 years of my career into
this text and what it has to say about mass communication and the
world that our interaction with the media produces. Your interest in
this text confirms my passion.

—Stanley J. Baran
 Page vii
Brief Contents

Preface xv

PART 1 LAYING THE

GROUNDWORK 2
1 Mass Communication, Culture, and Media Literacy 2
2 Convergence and the Reshaping of Mass Communication 30

PART 2 MEDIA, MEDIA

INDUSTRIES, AND MEDIA AUDIENCES
50
3 Books 50
4 Newspapers 76
5 Magazines 100
6 Film 122
7 Radio, Recording, and Popular Music 152
8 Television, Cable, and Mobile Video 180
9 Video Games 206
10 The Internet and Social Media 228
 PART 3 STRATEGIC
COMMUNICATION INDUSTRIES 262
11 Public Relations 262
12 Advertising 284

PART 4 MASS-MEDIATED CULTURE

IN THE INFORMATION AGE 314
13 Theories and Effects of Mass Communication 314
14 Media Freedom, Regulation, and Ethics 348
15 Global Media 374

Glossary G-1
Index I-1 Page viii
 Page ix

Contents
Preface xv

PART 1 LAYING THE

GROUNDWORK 2
1 Mass Communication, Culture, and Media
Literacy 2
What Is Mass Communication? 4
Communication Defined 4
Mass Communication Defined 6
What Is Culture? 7
Culture as Socially Constructed Shared Meaning 9
Functions and Effects of Culture 10
Mass Communication and Culture 14
Mass Media as Cultural Storytellers 14
Mass Communication as Cultural Forum 15
Scope and Nature of Mass Media 15
The Role of Technology 16
The Role of Money 17
CULTURAL FORUM Audience as Consumer or
Audience as Product? 17
Mass Communication, Culture, and Media Literacy
18
 The Gutenberg Revolution 18
The Industrial Revolution 20
Media Literacy 20
Elements of Media Literacy 20
Media Literacy Skills 23
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Recognizing
Cultural Values 25
Resources for Review and Discussion 25
Review Points 25
Key Terms 26
Questions for Review 26
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 27
References 27
2 Convergence and the Reshaping of Mass
Communication 30
Traditional Media Industries in Transition 32
The Good News for Media Industries 33
Changes 33
Concentration of Ownership and Conglomeration 34
CULTURAL FORUM Should the Government
Subsidize Local Journalism? 36
Globalization 37
Audience Fragmentation 37
Hypercommercialism 38
Erosion of Distinctions among Media: Convergence 39
The New Mass Communication Process 41
 Interpreter A—The Content Producer 41
The Message 42
Feedback and Interpreter B—The Audience 43
The Result 43
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS
Making Our Way in the Meme Culture 43
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE The Fraction of
Selection 45
Resources for Review and Discussion 45
Review Points 45
Key Terms 46
Questions for Review 46
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 46
References 46 Page x

PART 2 MEDIA, MEDIA

INDUSTRIES, AND MEDIA AUDIENCES
50
3 Books 50
A Short History of Books 52
Books Come to Colonial North America 53
Books and Their Audiences 55
The Cultural Value of Books 55
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE
Books That Changed American Life 56
 Libraries, Books, and Social Infrastructure 57
Censorship 57
Aliteracy as Self-Censorship 59
CULTURAL FORUM Would You Ban a Book by
Adolph Hitler? One by Milo Yiannopoulos? 60
Scope and Structure of the Book Industry 61
Categories of Books 61
Trends and Convergence in Book Publishing 62
Convergence 62
Smartphones, Tablets, E-readers, and Audiobooks 64
Conglomeration 65
Demand for Profits and Hypercommercialism 66
Growth of Small Presses 68
Restructuring of Book Retailing 68
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS The
Lessons of Harry Potter 69
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Literacy:
Limiting Access to Books in School 70
Resources for Review and Discussion 71
Review Points 71
Key Terms 71
Questions for Review 72
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 72
References 72
4 Newspapers 76
A Short History of Newspapers 78
 The Earliest Newspapers 78
The Modern Newspaper Emerges 80
Newspapers and Their Audiences 82
Scope and Structure of the Newspaper Industry
83
Types of Newspapers 83
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE
Nonprofit Newsrooms Fill the Void in Journalism
84
The Newspaper as an Advertising Medium 87
The News and Feature Services 87
Trends and Convergence in Newspaper Publishing
87
Loss of Competition 87
Conglomeration: Hypercommercialism, Erosion of the
Firewall, and Loss of Mission 88
Convergence with the Internet 90
CULTURAL FORUM Attracting Readers with
Click Bait 92
Smartphones, Tablets, and E-readers 93
Changes in Newspaper Readership 93
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS
Interpreting Relative Placement of Stories 95
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Reading the
Newspaper: Hard Copy vs. Online vs. Mobile 96
Resources for Review and Discussion 96
Review Points 96
 Key Terms 97
Questions for Review 97
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 97
References 97
5 Magazines 100
A Short History of Magazines 103
The Early Magazine Industry 103
The Mass Circulation Era 103
CULTURAL FORUM Magazines and #MeToo 105
The Era of Specialization 106
Magazines and Their Audiences 107
Scope and Structure of the Magazine Industry
107
Categories of Consumer Magazines 108
Magazine Advertising 108
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE No
Ads? No Problem: Consumer Reports 110
Types of Circulation 110
Measuring Circulation 111
Trends and Convergence in Magazine Publishing
112
Online Magazines 113
Smartphones, Tablets, and E-readers 113
Custom Magazines 114
Meeting the Competition 115
Advertiser Influence over Magazine Content 116 Page xi
 DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS
Recognizing the Power of Graphics 117
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Identifying
Digital Alteration 119
Resources for Review and Discussion 119
Review Points 119
Key Terms 120
Questions for Review 120
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 120
References 120
6 Film 122
A Short History of the Movies 125
The Early Entrepreneurs 125
The Coming of Narrative 127
The Big Studios 129
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE
African American Response to D. W. Griffith: The
Lincoln and Micheaux Film Companies 130
Change Comes to Hollywood 131
Movies and Their Audiences 134
Scope and Nature of the Film Industry 136
Three Component Systems 136
CULTURAL FORUM Will We Continue to Go to
the Movies? 137
The Studios 140
Trends and Convergence in Moviemaking 142
 Conglomeration and the Blockbuster Mentality 142
Convergence Reshapes the Movie Business 144
Smartphones, Tablets, and Social Networking Sites 145
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS
Recognizing Product Placements 146
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Product
Placement in Movies 148
Resources for Review and Discussion 148
Review Points 148
Key Terms 149
Questions for Review 149
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 149
References 149
7 Radio, Recording, and Popular Music 152
A Short History of Radio and Sound Recording
154
Early Radio 155
Early Sound Recording 155
The Coming of Broadcasting 156
The Coming of Regulation 157
Advertising and the Networks 158
The Golden Age 159
Radio and Its Audiences 160
Scope and Nature of the Radio Industry 161
FM, AM, and Noncommercial Radio 161
Radio Is Local 161
 Radio Is Fragmented 162
Radio Is Specialized 162
Radio Is Personal 163
Radio Is Mobile 163
The Business of Radio 164
Radio as an Advertising Medium 164
Deregulation and Ownership 164
Scope and Nature of the Recording Industry 165
The Major Recording Companies 165
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE Rock
’n’ Roll, Radio, and Race Relations 166
Trends and Convergence in Radio and Sound
Recording 168
The Impact of Television 168
Satellite and Cable 169
Terrestrial Digital Radio 169
Web Radio and Podcasting 170
Smartphones, Tablets, and Social Networking Sites 171
The Internet and the Future of the Recording
Industry 172
Streaming and Downloading 172
CULTURAL FORUM Will Streaming Kill
Songwriting? 174
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS You
Are What You Listen To 175
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Finding New
Music 176
 Resources for Review and Discussion 176
Review Points 176
Key Terms 177
Questions for Review 177
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 177
References 177
8 Television, Cable, and Mobile Video 180
A Short History of Television 183
Mechanical and Electronic Scanning 183
The 1950s 184
The Coming of Cable 189 Page xii
Television and Its Audiences 189
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE The
Creation of Sesame Street 190
Scope and Nature of the Broadcast Television
Industry 191
The Networks and Program Content 191
How a Program Gets on the Air, Traditionally and Otherwise
192
Cable and Satellite Television 194
Programming 194
CULTURAL FORUM Should You Cut the Cord?
196
Trends and Convergence in Television and Cable
198
VCR 198
 DVD 198
DVR 198
Streaming Video 199
Interactive Television 199
Phone-over-Cable 200
Smartphones, Tablets, and Social Networking Sites 200
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS
Watching Satirical News 201
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE No Video for a
Week 202
Resources for Review and Discussion 202
Review Points 202
Key Terms 203
Questions for Review 203
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 203
References 204
9 Video Games 206
A Short History of Computer and Video Games
208
Today’s Games Emerge 209
Rapid-Fire Developments 211
Games and Their Players 212
What Is a Video Game? 212
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE
Using Games for Good 213
Who Is Playing? 213
 Scope and Nature of the Video-Game Industry
214
Trends and Convergence in the Video-Game
Industry 216
Convergence Everywhere 216
Smartphones, Tablets, and Social Networking Sites 218
Hypercommercialism 219
CULTURAL FORUM Using the ESRB Ratings 221
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS The
Treatment of Female Gamers 222
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Masculinity
and Femininity in Game World 223
Resources for Review and Discussion 224
Review Points 224
Key Terms 225
Questions for Review 225
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 225
References 225
10 The Internet and Social Media 228
A Short History of the Internet 231
Development of the Computer 231
Military Applications 232
The Personal Computer 233
The Internet Today 235
The World Wide Web 236
Smartphones 237
Social Media 237
The Debate over Social Media’s Value 238
The Internet, Social Media, and Their Users 240
Changes in the Mass Communication Process 240
The Double Edge of Technology 241
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE
From Those on the Inside: It’s Time to Fix the
Internet 242
Reconceptualizing Life in an Interconnected
World 243
The Internet and Freedom of Expression 243
Freedom of the Press for Whom? 243
Fake News 245
Pornography on the Internet 247
Copyright (Intellectual Property Ownership) 247
Privacy 248
CULTURAL FORUM Why Not Here? 252
Virtual Democracy 252
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS The
Internet Bill of Rights 254
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Internet
Addiction Self-Diagnosis 255
Resources for Review and Discussion 256
Review Points 256
Key Terms 257
Questions for Review 257
 Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 258
References 258 Page xiii

PART 3 STRATEGIC
COMMUNICATION INDUSTRIES 262
11 Public Relations 262
Defining Public Relations 264
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE The
MADD Campaign 266
A Short History of Public Relations 267
Early Public Relations 267
The Propaganda–Publicity Stage 267
Early Two-Way Communication 268
Advanced Two-Way Communication 270
Shaping the Character of Public Relations 271
Public Relations and Its Audiences 271
Scope and Structure of the Public Relations
Industry 272
Public Relations Activities 273
CULTURAL FORUM Protecting a Company’s
Good Name in the Era of Social Media 275
Public Relations’s Management Function 276
Organization of a Public Relations Operation 276
Trends and Convergence in Public Relations 277
Globalization, Concentration, and Specialization 277
Convergence 278
 Smartphones, Tablets, and Social Networking Sites 278
Trust in Public Relations 279
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS
Recognizing Fake Online Reviews 280
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Ferreting Out
Fake Online Reviews 280
Resources for Review and Discussion 281
Review Points 281
Key Terms 281
Questions for Review 282
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 282
References 282
12 Advertising 284
A Short History of Advertising 286
Early Advertising 287
Industrialization and the Civil War 288
Magazine Advertising 289
The Advertising Agency and Professionalism 289
Advertising and Radio 290
World War II 290
Advertising and Television 291
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE
Effecting Positive Social Change 292
Advertising and Its Audiences 293
Criticisms and Defenses of Advertising 293
Specific Complaints 293
 CULTURAL FORUM Kids’ Advertising: Is Self-
Regulation Enough? 295
Scope and Nature of the Advertising Industry 296
The Advertising Agency 296
Types of Advertising 298
The Regulation of Advertising 299
Measuring the Effectiveness of Advertising 301
Trends and Convergence in Advertising 302
New and Converging Technologies 302
Smartphones, Tablets, and Social Networking Sites 303
Increased Audience Segmentation 306
Psychographics 306
Globalization 307
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS
Interpreting Intentional Imprecision 308
MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Finding Those
Little White Lies 309
Resources for Review and Discussion 310
Review Points 310
Key Terms 310
Questions for Review 311
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 311
References 311 Page xiv

PART 4 MASS-MEDIATED CULTURE

IN THE INFORMATION AGE 314
13 Theories and Effects of Mass
Communication 314
The Effects Debate 316
Micro- versus Macro-Level Effects 317
Administrative versus Critical Research 318
Transmissional versus Ritual Perspective 319
Defining Mass Communication Theory 319
A Short History of Mass Communication Theory
320
The Era of Mass Society Theory 320
The Emergence of the Limited Effects Perspective 322
Cultural Theory—A Return to the Idea of Powerful Effects 328
CULTURAL FORUM Are the News Media Really
Liberal? 330
The Meaning-Making Perspective 332
The Effects of Mass Communication—Four
Questions 336
Does Media Violence Lead to Aggression? 336
Do Portrayals of Drugs and Alcohol Increase Consumption?
339
What Is Media’s Contribution to Gender and Racial/Ethnic
Stereotyping? 340
Do Media Have Prosocial Effects? 341
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE
Television and the Designated Driver 342
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS
Applying Mass Communication Theory 343
 MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Be a News
Production Researcher 343
Resources for Review and Discussion 343
Review Points 343
Key Terms 344
Questions for Review 344
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 345
References 345
14 Media Freedom, Regulation, and Ethics
348
A Short History of the First Amendment 351
Early Sentiment for a Free Press 351
CULTURAL FORUM Who Decides Who Has an
Online Voice? 352
Defining and Refining the First Amendment 352
Ongoing Issues of Freedom and Responsibility 357
Social Responsibility Theory 361
Media Industry Ethics 362
Defining Ethics 362
Three Levels of Ethics 362
Balancing Conflicting Interests 363
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE
Should Journalists Be Activists? 367
Codes of Ethics and Self-Regulation 369
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS
Judging News Using Ethical Values 370
 MEDIA LITERACY CHALLENGE Talk to the FCC
371
Resources for Review and Discussion 371
Review Points 371
Key Terms 372
Questions for Review 372
Questions for Critical Thinking and Discussion 372
References 372
15 Global Media 374
A Short History of Global Media 377
The Beginning of International Mass Media 377
Global Media Today 379
Comparative Analyses 381
CULTURAL FORUM We’re Number 48! Media
Freedom Rankings around the Globe 382
USING MEDIA TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE The
Logic of Connective Action 385
Programming 388
The Global Village and the Debate over Cultural
Imperialism 389
The MacBride Report and the NWICO 390
The Case for the Global Village 392
The Case against the Global Village 392
DEVELOPING MEDIA LITERACY SKILLS
Making the Invisible Visible: Comparative Analysis
393
Another random document with
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 grace, her form all of beauty to me who opposite sat and was
watching her dextrous fingers.
The manufacture of flax into linen material was ever felt to be of
vast importance, and was encouraged by legislation from earliest
colonial days, but it received a fresh impulse in New England
through the immigration of about one hundred Irish families from
Londonderry. They settled in New Hampshire on the Merrimac about
1719. They spun and wove by hand, but with far more skill than
prevailed among those English settlers who had already become
Americans. They established a manufactory according to Irish
methods, and attempts at a similar establishment were made in
Boston. There was much public excitement over spinning. Women,
rich as well as poor, appeared on Boston Common with their wheels,
thus making spinning a popular holiday recreation. A brick building
was erected as a spinning-school, and a tax was placed in 1737 to
support it. But this was not an industrial success, the excitement died
out, the public spinning-school lost its ephemeral popularity, and the
wheel became again simply a domestic duty and pride.
For many years after this, housewives had everywhere flax and
hemp to spin and weave in their homes, and the preparation of these
staples seems to us to-day a monumental labor. On almost every
farm might be seen a patch of the pretty flax, ripening for the hard
work of pulling, rippling, rotting, breaking, swingling, and combing,
which all had to be done before it came to the women’s hands for
spinning. The seed was sown broad-cast, and allowed to grow till the
bobs or bolls were ripe. The flax was then pulled and spread neatly
in rows to dry. This work could be done by boys. Then men whipped
or threshed or rippled out all the seed to use for meal; afterwards the
flax stalks were allowed to lie for some time in water until the shives
were thoroughly rotten, when they were cleaned and once more
thoroughly dried and tied in bundles. Then came work for strong
men, to break the flax on the ponderous flaxbreak, to get out the
hard “hexe” or “bun,” and to swingle it with a swingle knife, which
was somewhat like a wooden dagger. Active men could swingle forty
pounds a day on the swingling-board. It was then hetchelled or
combed or hackled by the housewife, and thus the rough tow was
gotten out, when it was straightened and made ready for the spruce
distaff, round which it was finally wrapped. The hatchelling was
tedious work and irritating to the lungs, for the air was filled with the
fluffy particles which penetrated everywhere. The thread was then
spun on a “little wheel.” It was thought that to spin two double skeins
of linen, or four double skeins of tow, or to weave six yards of linen,
was a good day’s work. For a week’s work a girl received fifty cents
and “her keep.” She thus got less than a cent and a half a yard for
weaving. The skeins of linen thread went through many tedious
processes of washing and bleaching before being ready for weaving;
and after the cloth was woven it was “bucked” in a strong lye, time
and time again, and washed out an equal number of times. Then it
was “belted” with a maple beetle on a smooth, flat stone; then
washed and spread out to bleach in the pure sunlight. Sometimes
the thread, after being spun and woven, had been washed and
belted a score of times ere it was deemed white and soft enough to
use. The little girls could spin the “swingling tow” into coarse twine,
and the older ones make “all tow” and “tow and linen” and “harden”
stuffs to sell.
To show the various duties attending the manufacture of these
domestic textiles by a Boston woman of intelligence and social
standing, as late as 1788, let me quote a few entries from the diary
of the wife of Col. John May:—
A large kettle of yarn to attend upon. Lucretia and self rinse
our through many waters, get out, dry, attend to, bring in, do
up and sort 110 score of yarn, this with baking and ironing.
Went to hackling flax.
Rose early to help Ruth warp and put a piece in the loom.
Baking and hackling yarn. A long web of tow to whiten and
weave.
The wringing out of this linen yarn was most exhausting, and the
rinsing in various waters was no simple matter in those days, for the
water did not conveniently run into the houses through pipes and
conduits, but had to be laboriously carried in pailfuls from a pump, or
more frequently raised in a bucket from a well.
I am always touched, when handling the homespun linens of olden
times, with a sense that the vitality and strength of those enduring
women, through the many tedious and exhausting processes which
they had bestowed, were woven into the warp and woof with the flax,
and gave to the old webs of linen their permanence and their
beautiful texture. How firm they are, and how lustrous! And how
exquisitely quaint and fine are their designs; sometimes even
Scriptural designs and lessons are woven into them. They are,
indeed, a beautiful expression of old-time home and farm life. With
their close-woven, honest threads runs this finer beauty, which may
be impalpable and imperceptible to a stranger, but which to me is
real and ever-present, and puts me truly in touch with the life of my
forbears. But, alas, it is through intuition we must learn of this old-
time home life, for it has vanished from our sight, and much that is
beautiful and good has vanished with it.
The associations of the kitchen fireside that linger in the hearts of
those who are now old can find no counterpart in our domestic
surroundings to-day. The welcome cheer of the open fire, which
graced and beautified even the humblest room, is lost forever with
the close gatherings of the family, the household occupations, the
homespun industries which formed and imprinted in the mind of
every child the picture of a home.
 Transcriber’s Notes
Minor punctuation errors have been silently corrected.
Page 100: “take the the case” changed to “take the case”
Page 162: “promply sailed” changed to “promptly sailed”
Page 302: “was was set outside” changed to “was set outside”
Spelling and punctuation quoted from original sources has been left as-is.
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