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com 1
 CONTENT
CHAPTER: 1 - INDIAN ARCHITECTURE SCULPTURE AND POTTERY......................................... 3
CHAPTER: 2 - INDIAN PAINTINGS ........................................................................................................ 29
CHAPTER: 3 - INDIAN HANDICRAFTS ................................................................................................. 45
CHAPTER: 4 - UNESCO'S LIST OF TANGIBLE WORLD HERITAGE SITES IN INDIA .............. 53
CHAPTER: 5 - INDIAN MUSIC ................................................................................................................. 55
CHAPTER: 6 - INDIAN DANCE FORM1S ............................................................................................... 67
CHAPTER: 7 - INDIAN THEATRE ........................................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER: 8 - INDIAN PUPPETRY ......................................................................................................... 84
CHAPTER: 9 - INDIAN CIRCUS ............................................................................................................... 87
CHAPTER: 10 - MARTIAL ARTS IN INDIA ........................................................................................... 89
CHAPTER: 11 - UNESCO'S LIST OF INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE ............................... 91
CHAPTER: 12 - LANGUAGES IN INDIA ................................................................................................. 93
CHAPTER: 13 - RELIGIONS IN INDIA ................................................................................................. 100
CHAPTER: 14 – BUDDHISM AND JAINISM ........................................................................................ 106
CHAPTER: 15 - INDIAN LITERATURE ................................................................................................ 113
CHAPTER: 16 - SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY ..................................................................................... 126
CHAPTER: 17 - INDIAN CINEMA .......................................................................................................... 129
CHAPTER: 18 - SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH THE AGES ..................................... 134
CHAPTER: 19 - CALENDARS IN INDIA ............................................................................................... 137
CHAPTER: 20 - FAIRS AND FESTIVALS OF INDIA .......................................................................... 140
CHAPTER: 21 - AWARDS AND HONOURS.......................................................................................... 148
CHAPTER: 22 - LAW AND CULTURE .................................................................................................. 151
CHAPTER: 23 - CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA .................................................................... 152
CHAPTER: 24 - COINS IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA ....................................................... 156
CHAPTER: 25 - INDIAN CULTURE ABROAD ..................................................................................... 160
CHAPTER: 26 – INDIAN THROUGH THE EYES OF FOREIGN TRAVELLERS .......................... 166
APPENDIX: 1 - DELHI - A CITY OF SEVEN SISTERS....................................................................... 170
APPENDIX: 2 - BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT .............................................................................. 171
APPENDIX: 3 - FAMOUS PERSONALITIES OF INDIA ..................................................................... 174
APPENDIX: 4 - INDIAN ART AND CULTURE (CURRENT AFFAIRS) ........................................... 177
PYQ -PREVIOUS YEARS' QUESTIONS – PRELIMS .......................................................................... 183
PYQ: PREVIOUS YEARS' QUESTIONS - MAINS ............................................................................... 186

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 CHAPTER: 1 - INDIAN ARCHITECTURE SCULPTURE AND POTTERY
INTRODUCTION Some of the important sites of the Indus Valley
civilisation and their archaeological findings
• The word 'architecture' is derived from the
are:
Latin word 'tekton' which means builder.
So, as soon as the early man began to build • Harappa in present Pakistan on the bank of
his or her shelter to live in, the science of River Ravi - 2 row of six granaries with big
architecture started. platform, stone symbol of lingam and yoni,
mother goddess figure, wheat and barley in
Difference between Architecture and Sculpture
wooden mortar, dice, copper scale and
Point of Architecture Sculpture mirror.
difference • Mohenjodaro in present Pakistan on the
Size and Architecture refers Sculptures are River Indus the citadel, the great bath, the
scope to the design and relatively
construction of smaller 3- great granary, post cremation burial,
buildings. dimensional sculpture of bearded priest, the famous
works of art. bronze statue of the Dancing Girl and
Material Architecture A single piece Pashupati seal.
used generally uses a of sculpture is • Dholavira in Gujarat - giant water
mixture of various usually made of
reservoir, unique water harnessing system,
type of materials a single type of
like stone, wood, material. stadium, dams and embankments,
glass, metal, sand, inscription comprising 10 large sized.
etc. • Lothal (Manchester of Indus Valley
Principle Architecture Sculpture civilisation) in Gujarat - important site for
involves study of involves naval trade, had a Dockyard, practice of
engineering and creativity and
engineering imagination and burial of cremated remains, rice husk, fire
mathematics. It may not depend altars, painted jar, modern day chess,
requires detailed as heavily on terracotta figure of horse and ship,
and accurate accurate instruments for measuring 45, 90 and 180
measurements. measurements. degree angles, practice of burial of
Example Taj Mahal, Red Nataraj’s
cremated remains.
fort, etc. Image, Dancing
Girl, etc. • Rakhigarhi in Haryana is considered to be
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE the largest site of Indus Valley civilization.
• Ropar is located on the banks of Sutlej in
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM Punjab, India - Dog buried with human oval
pit burials, copper axe.
• Balathal and Kalibangan in Rajasthan -
bangle factory, toy carts, bones of camel,
decorated bricks, citadel and lower town,
Fire altar.
• Surkotada in Gujarat - first actual remains
of the horse bones.
• Banawali in Haryana on the dried-up
HARAPPAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE Saraswati River.
• A flourishing civilisation emerged on the • Alamgirpur in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh on
banks of the river Indus in the second half the banks of Yamuna - Eastern most site of
of the third millennium BCE and spread IVC.
across large parts of North-western and • Mehrgarh in Pakistan, considered
Western India. Harappa and Mohenjodaro - precursor to Indus Valley Civilisation,
the two major sites of this civilisation - are Pottery, copper tools have been found.
among the earliest and finest examples of
urban civic planning. ARCHITECTURE IN HARAPPAN
CIVILISATION

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 o On an average of 40 feet high, the were pillars were
pillars were usually made of chunar monolithic, i.e. made up of
sandstone and comprised of shaft they were various pieces
inscribed from a of sandstone
and capital. On top of it lay the single piece of cemented
capital, which was either lotus stone, mainly together.
shaped or bell shaped. chunar
o Example: Lauria Nandangarh pillar sandstones.
in Champaran. Location The Ashokan The
pillars were Achaemenian
independently pillars were
erected by royal generally
diction. attached to state
buildings.

UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM POPULAR ART

Apart from the royal patronage, cave-architecture,
sculpture and pottery took the expressions of art by
Fig: Basic structure of Ashokan pillars individual effort. These were grouped together as
• Stupa popular forms of art and architectures.
o During the period of Ashoka, the art Cave Architecture
of stupas reached its climax. Almost
84000 stupas were erected during • This period saw the emergence of rock-cut
his period. Although a Vedic cave architectures. During the Mauryan
tradition, stupas were popularised period, these caves were generally used as
by the Buddhists. After the death of viharas, i.e. living quarters, by the Jain and
Buddha, 9 stupas were erected. 8 of Buddhist monks.
them had the relics of Buddha at • Example: Barabar and Nagarjuni caves in
their medhi while the ninth had the Bihar
pot in which the relics were
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
originally kept. A basic diagram
representing the various parts of a
stupa is given below.
o Example: Sanchi Stupa in Madhya
Pradesh is the most famous of the
Ashokan stupas. Fig: Decorated entrance to Barabar caves

Sculptures
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM • Sculptures were used primarily for the
decoration of stupas, in the torana and
medhi and as the form of religious
expression. Two of the famous sculptures
of the Mauryan period are those of Yaksha
and Yakshi.

Fig: Basic structure of a stupa with different parts

Difference between Ashokan Pillars and
Achaemenian Pillars
Basis Ashokan Achaemenian
pillars pillars UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
Composition The shaft of the The shaft of
Ashokan pillars Achaemenian

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 Fig: The Pancha-rathas, i.e., 5 temples at Mahaballipuram, • Unlike the Nagara temples, the Dravidian
Tamil Nadu
temples were surrounded by high
• Rajsimha group: boundary walls.
o Rajsimhavarman led the third stage • The front wall had a high entrance
of temple development. Under him, gateway known as the gopuram.
development of real structural • The temple premise was laid out in the
temples was started in the place of panchayatan style with a principal temple
rock-cut temples. and four subsidiary shrines.
o Example: Shore temple at • Under Dravidian style, the spire is in the
Mahabalipuram, Kailashnath temple form of a stepped Pyramid that rises up
at Kanchipuram, etc. linearly rather than curved. It is known as
• Nandivarman group: vimana.
o This was the fourth stage of temple • The crowning element is shaped in the
development during the Pallava form of an octagon and is known as
dynasty. The temples built under shikhara. It is similar to the kalash of the
him were smaller in size. After the Nagara temple, but not spherical.
decline of Pallava dynasty, temple • There is only one vimana in the
architecture acquired a new style Dravidian architecture on top of the main
under the Chola kingdom, known as temple.
the Dravidian style of temple the • The assembly hall was connected with
architecture. This marked a new era the garbhagriha by a vestibular tunnel
in the development of temples in the known as antarala.
Southern India. In the later periods, • The entrance of the garbhagriha had
three other styles - Vesara style, sculptures of Dwaarpal, mithun and
Nayaka style and Vijaynagar style - yakshas.
also emerged in this region. • The presence of a water tank inside the
ARCHITECTURE AT MAHABALIPURAM temple enclosure was a unique feature of
the Dravidian style.
The ancient port city of Mamallapuram under • Example: Brihadeswara temple at
Pallava dynasty in Tamil Nadu, flourished with a Tanjore (built by Raja Raja I in 1011
number of marvelous architecture. These seventh A.D.).
century Pallava sites have been declared as
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 by the name
"Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram".
• Ratha temples or Pancha Ratha
• Rock-cut caves
• Open Air Rock Reliefs
• Shore Temple complex

UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
Fig. Descent of the Ganges or Arjuna’s Penance
Fig. Shore Temple Complex

DRAVIDIAN STYLE OF TEMPLE

ARCHITECTURE
The features of the Dravidian style or chola style
are:
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM

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 interest in the pursuit of art and
architecture.
o He was the last of the Mughals to
undertake architectural
constructions. He built Biwi-ka-
Maqbara in memory of his mother
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
Begum Rabia Durani, wife of
Fig: Buland Darwaza Aurangzeb. It is situated
Aurangabad and has been described
• Jahangir
as a poor imitation of Taj Mahal.
o During the reign of Jahangir,
architecture took a back seat as he
focused more on paintings and other
forms of art. Monuments including
Akbar's tomb in Sikandra. Shalimar
Bagh in Kashmir. He also built the
Moti Masjid at Lahore. UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
o During the reign of Jahangir, his Fig. Bibi-ka-maqbara
wife Noor Jahan also undertook
some major construction projects, Rajput Style
the tomb of Itmad-ud-daulah, father
The Rajput constructions of the period were also
of Noor Jahan, being an excellent
influenced by the Mughal style, but were unique in
example. Tomb of Jahangir was
the size and scope of their constructions.
constructed by his son Shah Jahan at
Lahore. • They introduced the concept of hanging
balcony, which were constructed in all
shapes and sizes.
• The cornices were built in the shape of an
arch such that the shadow took the shape of
a bow.

UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM

Fig: Itmad-ud-daulah’s tomb, Agra

• Shah Jahan
o Under Shah Jahan, Mughal
architecture reached its climax.
Some of his principal works are UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM

described below. Fig: Hawa Mahal, Jaipur with hanging balconies

o Taj Mahal
▪ It was constructed in the Sikh Style
memory of Arzuman Bano Sikh style of architecture developed in the region
Begum or Mumtaz Mahal. of modern day Punjab. It was heavily influenced by
The carvings on the marble the Mughal style of architecture. Some of the
were low relief. features of the Sikh school are:
▪ Red Fort in Delhi
▪ Jama Masjid in Delhi • The use of multiple Chhatris or kiosks on
▪ Shalimar Bagh in Lahore the top of the Construction.
▪ City of Shahjahanabad. • Use of shallow cornices.
• Aurangzeb • The buildings had fluted domes, which
o During the reign of Aurangzeb, were generally covered by brass and copper
Mughal architecture declined. Being guilds for decoration and support.
a puritanical, he didn't take an active

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 CHAPTER: 2 - INDIAN PAINTINGS
INTRODUCTION Pradesh. There are three major phases of pre-
• The history of painting can be traced historic paintings.
through the ancient and medieval period
where the books were illustrated with
paintings. Then came the miniature style
that dominated the Mughal and Rajput
courts. Upper Paleolithic Period (40000-10000 BC)
• With the coming of the Europeans, the art
of painting and engraving took a western • The walls of the rock shelter caves were
turn. Modern painters experimented with made of quartzite and s0 they used minerals
styles, colours and designs. for pigments. One of the most common
mineral was ochre or geru mixed with lime
PRINCIPLES OF PAINTING and water. They used different minerals to
• The history of paintings can be known from make colours like red, white, yellow and
primitive rock paintings of Bhimbetaka, green, which widened their palette. The
Mirzapur and Panchmarhi. They were white, dark red and green were used to
followed by the painted pottery of the Indus depict large animals like bison, elephant,
Valley Civilisation, but the real beginning rhino, tigers etc. For the human figurines,
of the art of painting begun from the Gupta red was used for hunters and the green
Age. In the third century AD, Vatsyayana mostly for dancers.
in his book Kamasutra mentioned about 6
nmain principles/limbs or shadanga of Mesolithic Period (10000-4000 BC)
paintings. They are: • This period mainly saw the use of red
Variety of form Variety of form colour. In comparison to the Upper
Portrayal of likeliness of the Sadrisyan Paleolithic period, the size of the paintings
subject also became smaller during this period. One
Creation of luster and gleam Bhava of the most common scenes depicted in
with the colours these paintings is of group hunting and
Mixing of colours to resemble Varnikabhanga several other paintings depict grazing
the effects of modelling
activity and riding scenes.
Proportion of the object or Pramanam
subject Chalcolithic Period
Immersion of emotions Lavanyayoganam
• There are numerous references to art of • This period saw the increase in the number
painting in the Brahmanical and Buddhist of paintings using the green and yellow
literature, for example, the representation of colour. Most of the paintings concentrate on
the myths and lore on textiles is known as depicting battle scenes. There are many
Lepya Chitra. paintings of men riding horses and
• The play, Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadutta, elephants. Some of them even carry bow
also facilitated the reader by mentioning the and arrow which might indicate
name of various paintings or patas. preparedness for skirmishes.

Styles of Paintings Major features

Cauka Pitaka Isolated framed drawings
Dighala Pitaka Long scrolls of paintings
Yama Pitaka Isolated paintings
PRE-HISTORIC PAINTINGS
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
The pre-historic paintings were generally executed
Fig. Pre-historic paintings
on rocks and these rock engravings were called
Petroglyphs. The first set of pre- historic paintings • We know that these cave sites were
was discovered in Bhimbetaka caves in Madhya inhabited in the late historical periods as we
have paintings and samples of writing in the

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 CHAPTER: 3 - INDIAN HANDICRAFTS
INTRODUCTION • A special kind of tie and dye that leads to
• Handicrafts are an amalgamation of all the ripples or wave like patterns in the fabric is
things that are crafted by a man/woman's called Laharia. This is usually made in
hands. Many States in India have their own Jaipur and Jodhpur. Another kind of tie and
handicrafts that reflect the skill and artistic dye is called Tkat'.
proficiency. People in India, not only take • Other processes from the ancient period that
handicrafts as a way to earn their livelihood are still being used are Kalamkari, which
but as an art to be preserved for the coming utilise the art of hand painting on fabrics
generations. Handicrafts hold special using vegetable dyes of the deep colours. It
importance to tribal and rural communities is commonly practiced in Andhra Pradesh.
who depend on them for their livelihood. Another beautiful technique of fabric
Some of the major handicrafts of India are: decoration is called Batik Art. Batik art is
famous in Madhya Pradesh and West
Glassware
Bengal.
• The first reference to glass making was
found in the Indian epic, Mahabharata. We UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM

have found archaeological evidences of a

glass industry in Brahmapuri and Kolhapur
in Maharashtra, which was operational
between 2 B.C.-2 A.D. and produced
specialised glassware, called lenticular Fig. Cloth Painting
beads. It seems that the glass industry had
made a foray in optical lenses as we find • Some techniques for fabric patterns came to
India from abroad via trade routes, for
references of spectacles in the Sanskrit text,
example, the Tanchoi weaving is said to be
Vyasayogacharita.
derived from Chinese inspiration. This
• In the southern part of India, we have found
might have come to Surat in Gujarat via the
archaeological evidence of glass at Maski,
trading communities. This weave resembles
which is a Chalcolithic site in Deccan.
a fine miniature painting. Another ancient
• The most exquisite ones are made in
art is of Jamdani (West Bengal).
Hyderabad and are called Churikajodas'.
The Tikuli Art of Bihar is presently also Embroidery Crafts
made on glazed hardboards to revive the art
form in contemporary and modern context. • Amongst the crafts used on textiles, the art
of working raised designs using threads or
CLOTH HANDICRAFTS wooden blocks is unique. This art is called
embroidery and can be performed by using
threads of gold, silver, silk or cotton on
cloth using needles. There are several types
of arts of embroidery.
• Embroidery arts like Applique or Pipli work
Tie and Dye
is practiced in Pipli village in Odisha. It is a
• The techniques in India. One of the most type of patchwork made of embroidered
important art is of Bandhani or Bandhej that colourful fabric that is sewed together to
is referred to as the technique of "Tie and make a single piece. They use this
Dye' in English. There is evidence of the technique to make beautiful lamps. Another
use of this ancient technique even presently famous technique is called Phulkari.
in Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is popular in
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu also. It is
also called resist dyeing process where the
portions tied do not take on the colour in
which the fabric is dipped.

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 CHAPTER: 5 - INDIAN MUSIC
INTRODUCTION • The Sangeet Ratnakara defined about 264
• Music is the soul of any culture and India ragas including some from the North Indian
has had a long tradition of musical and the Dravidian repertoires. Later, some
ingenuity. It is said that Narada Muni (sage) medieval texts on musicology focused on
introduced the art of music to earth. He also particular themes, for example, Brihaddeshi
taught the inhabitants about the sound that written in the 9th century by Matanga
pervades the whole universe called Naada focused on the definition of the word 'raga'.
brahma.Musical instruments like seven- • Chaturdandi-prakasika written by
holed flute and Ravanahatha, have been Venkatamakhin in the 17th century is also
recovered from the sites of Indus Valley famous for the important information on
Civilization. musicology. We find evidences of the
• All the seven notes of the raga existence of Gurukuls where students lived
Kharaharapriya can be found in the with the teacher in order to become a
descending order in the Sama Veda. The master in the art of music.
science of music called the Gandharva • This influx of Islamic and Persian elements
Veda is an Upaveda of the Sama Veda. The changed the face of North Indian music, for
parts of the instrument Veena are example, the Dhruvapad or the devotional
mentioned in Aitareya Aranyaka. The style of singing patronised by the rulers
Jaimini Brahmana speaks collectively of transformed into the Dhrupad style by the
dance and music. The Kausitaki Brahmana 15th century.
puts dance, vocal and instrumental music
GURUKUL SYSTEM
together as an art. Musicologists purport
theories about the word Om being the • It is also known as Ashram (hermitage
source of all ragas and notes. Panini in 500 system) and it embodied the Guru-shishya
BCE made the first proper reference to the tradition, i.e. the relationship was very
art of making music but the first reference close.
to musical theory was discussed in • In ancient period, the teachers or masters
Bharata's Natyashastra written and were sages and the students had to live in
compiled between 200 BC and 200 AD. the hermitage for 12 years and get the
knowledge by serving the master.
HISTORY OF INDIAN MUSIC
• A lot of development in music stemmed ANATOMY OF INDIAN MUSIC
from being played at devotional sites. This • There are three main pillars of Indian
type of ritualistic music was displayed in classical music: Raga, tala and swara. These
the later Vedic period through a type of elements can be seen as:
mnusic called Sangama. Even the epics Swara
were set to narrative type of music called • In the ancient period, the term "Swara" was
the Jatigan. associated with the recitation of the Vedas.
• The first work that clarified and elaborated Over time, the term is used to define the
on the subject of musicology was Bharata's note or 'scale degree' in a composition. In
Natyashastra. Especially the ones that the Natyasastra, Bharata has divided the
identified the octave and elaborated on its swaras into twenty-two notes scale.
22 keys. These 22 keys were recognised as Currently, the notational system of the
shrutis or srutis. This distinction was made Hindustani music is defined by these
in Dathilam, a text that endorsed the abbreviated swaras - Sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha,
existence of 22 srutis per octave and made ni. The Seven Swaras together are called
the suggestion that may be these were the Saptak or Sargam. He listed each pitch
only one that a human body could make. using the following names
Sarangadeva, a 13th century musicologist • The Swara differs from Shruti. A Shruti is
who wrote the classic text on music, the the smallest gradation of pitch representing
Sangeet Ratnakara, seconded this view. the quality of frequency. There are 22

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 • Lastly, during the composition of a musical • While the historical roots of both the music
piece, ornamentation is required in the form types belong to the Bharata's Natyasastra,
of Alankara'. It is a specific melodic they diverged in the 14th century. The
presentation in succession in which a Hindustani branch of music focuses more
pattern is followed. on the musical structure and the
possibilities of improvisation in it. The
Points of Thaat Raga
Difference Hindustani branch adopted a scale of
Origin These are scales Ragas belong to Shudha Swara Saptaka or the 'Octave of
which are produced the genre of Natural notes
from 12 swar thaats. • There are ten main styles of singing in
(notes). Hindustani music like the Dhrupad',
Number Thaat must have 7 Raga must have
Dhamar', 'Hori', "Khayal, 'Tappa',
of Notes notes in it. atleast 5 notes in
it. 'Chaturang', Ragasagar', 'Tarana', 'Sargam'
Types of Thaat only has Raga must and Thumri'. Some of the major schools
Notes Aaroha or ascending have are:
notes. Aaroha and
Avaroha notes. Dhrupad
Melody It is not necessary for Ragas are sung
thaat to be melodious and hence they • It is one of the oldest and grandest forms of
as they are not sung. need to be Hindustani classical music and finds it
melodious. mention even in Natyashastra (200 BC-200
Important Thaats don’t have Ragas have vaadi AD). It is said that dhrupad owes its roots to
notes vaadi and samvaadi. and samvaadi. older forms like Prabhanda and
Naming Thaats are named Ragas are named Dhruvapada. The name is derived from
after the popular after the emotion dhruva' and 'pada,' which means that it
ragas. they evoke. denotes both verse form of the poetry and
the style in which it is sung. It reached its
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN MUSIC zenith in the court of emperor Akbar.
• He employed and patronised musical
The classification of Indian music is as follows: masters like Baba Gopal Das, Swami
Haridas and Tansen, who was
considered to be one of the
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
Navaratna or nine gems of
the Mughal court. It is also
speculated that Baiju Bawra
sang at the court of Akbar.
We find evidences of singers
who mastered Dhrupad in the
court of Raja Man Singh
Tomar situated in Gwalior.
• Dhrupad is essentially a poetic form that is
Classical Music incorporated into an extended presentation
style that is marked by precise and overt
Over time, two distinct schools of Indian classical elaboration of a raga. Dhruva literally
music evolved: means 'unmoving'. It implies the return of
the Swara (tonal), Kala (time) and Shabda
• Hindustani music: practiced in the northern
(textual) trajectories to a fixed point.
parts of India.
• Dhrupad starts with Alap which is sung
• Carnatic music: practiced in the southern
without words. The alap evokes a mood in
parts of India.
the audience that coincides with the mood
HINDUSTANI MUSIC of the raga that is chosen. It is pure music
without distraction of words.

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 • It is composed in a single raga and is
generally written in Urdu, Punjabi or Hindi.
Some words of Brajbhasa and Awadhi are
also used.
Rabindra Sangeet
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
• This is one of the most famous forms of
Fig. Membranophone
composing music in Bengal. It recreates the
music produced by the Nobel Laureate Sushira Vadya
Rabindranath Tagore. The music is a • These are the aerophones, i.e. this category
mixture of classical elements and Bengali includes all the wind instruments. Most
folk strains. There are more than 2000 common instruments include Bansuri
Rabindra Sangeet presently sung and (flute), Shehnai, Pungi, Ninkirns, etc.
performed by music lovers in Bengal. • One of the most common yet difficult to
play instrument in this category is the
Gana Sangeet
Shehnai, which is a double reeded wind
• This is the form of fusion music that is sung
instrument with a widening tube towards
in chorus or groups and in large numbers.
the end. It is one of the oldest wind
The most common form of Gana Sangeet is
instruments in India.
to sing about the patriotic feelings. They
also include songs of protest against the
malpractices in the society.
Haveli Sangeet
• This genre of music developed mostly in
Rajasthan and Gujarat but now is seen in
many parts of the country. It was originally Fig. Wind Instrument
meant to be sung in the temple premises but
no are pertormed outside of the temple. It is Ghana Vadya
currently practiced by a community known • It is the genre of the solid instruments that
as the Pushtimarg Sampradaya. do not require any tuning. They are also
called the Idiophone instruments. The most
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS popular examples of Ghana Vadya are
• For any music to be created, one needs to Manjira, Jaltarang, Kanch- tarang, Jhanj,
have some semblance of music instruments. Khartal, etc.
There are four major traditional categories • The Manjira is a small brass cymbal that is
of musical instruments depending upon the generally used in temples. Archaeological
type of instruments that are included in it. excavations have dated Manjira to be as old
They are: as the Harappan civilisation.
Awanad/Avanaddha Vadya
• These are the membranophone instruments
as they contain an outer membrane, which
is beaten to take out particular musical
sounds. These are also known as percussion Fig. Manjira
instruments as one has to strike them to
generate musical sound. Tata Vadya
• They generally have one or two faces These are the Chordophones or the string
covered with hide or skin. The most ancient instruments that function best when their sound is
amongst this class are the Bhumi Dundubhi modified by hand. There are three major types of
or the earth drum. tata instruments:
• Generally, the musical instruments included a) Bowed: The instruments where the sound is
in this category are Tabla, Drum, Dhol, drawn from drawing a bow across the
Congo, Mridangam, etc.

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 CHAPTER: 6 - INDIAN DANCE FORM1S
BACKGROUND expression including mudras in the
• As the story goes in Bharata's Natya dance.
Shastra, when Lord Brahma was requested • There are nine rasas or emotions that are
by the Gods to create a pastime, he expressed through the dance.
combined certain aspects of the four Vedas o Shringaara for love
and created a fifth Veda known as Natya o Roudra for anger
Veda. Natya is an amalgamation of dance, o Bibhatsa for disgust
drama and music and included Pathya o Veera for heroism
(words) from Rig Veda, Abhinaya o Shaant for peace and tranquillity
(gestures) from Yajur Veda, Geet (music) o Haasya for laughter and comedy
from Sam Veda and Rasa (emotions) from o Karuna for tragedy
Atharva Veda. o Bhayanak for horror
• The engravings of community dancing at o Adbhuta for wonder
Bhimbetka and the sculpture of Bronze
dancing girl of the Harappan civilisation
highlights the importance of dance as
means of social entertainment.
• The first formal mention of dance is found
in Bharata Muni's famous work Natya
Shastra which gives a most comprehensive.
The work was compiled in between 200 BC
and 2nd century AD. Bharata Muni
describes dance as the complete art'
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
encompassing within its scope all other
forms of art music, sculpture, poetry and Fig. Different mudras involved in Indian dance forms
drama. • These moods and expressions are emoted
ASPECTS OF DANCE through the use of mudras -a combination
of hand gestures and body postures. There
• As per Natya Shastra, there are two basic are 108 fundamental mudras, a combination
aspects of Indian classical dance. of which is used to depict a particular
o Lasya - It denotes grace, bhava, rasa emotion.
and abhinaya. It is symbolic to the
feminine features of dance as an art INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCE FORMS
form. • Presently, Sangeet Natak Akademi, there
o Tandava - This is symbolic to the exists eight classical dance forms in India,
male aspects of dance and has more which have been described as follows:
emphasis on rhythm and movement.
• As per Abhinaya Darpan, Nandikeshwara's Bharatnatyam
famous treatise on dance, an act has been • Oldest among all classical dance forms,
broken into three basic elements: Bharatnatyam derives its name from
o Nritta - It refers to the basic dance Bharata Muni and 'natyam' which means
steps, performed rhythmically but dance in Tamil. However, other scholars
devoid of any expression or mood. have ascribed the name Bharata' to Bhava',
o Natya - It means dramatic 'Raga' and Taal'.
representations and refers to the • The origins of this dance form can be traced
story that is elaborated through the back to 'Sadir - the solo dance performance
dance recital. of the temple dancers or devadasis' in Tamil
o Nritya - Nritya refers to the Nadu, hence it was also referred to as
sentiment and the emotions evoked 'Dashiattam'.
through dance. It includes the mime • With the decline of the Devadasi system,
and the different methods of the art too became nearly extinct. However,

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 footwork. It combines both Lasya and Garba
Tandava elements.
• Garba is a popular folk dance of Gujarat,
• The Sattriya dance tradition has strictly laid
held at the time of Navaratra. Garba
down rules in respect of hand gestures and
actually refers to "Garbha deep" - an
footwork, and it plays a very important role.
earthern pot with holes, in which a lanmp is
• Costumes worn by male dancers are Dhoti,
lit and women dance around it in circular
and Paguri' (turban). While, females wear
movements with rhythmic clapping.
traditional Assamese jewellery, 'Ghuri' and
'Chador' made in Pat silk. Waist cloth is
worn by both men and women.
• Ankia Naat: a type of Sattriya, it involves
play or musical- drama. It was originally
written in Assamese-Maithili mix language
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
called Brajavali. It is also called Bhaona',
and involves stories of Lord Krishna. Fig. Garba dance

Dandiya Raas
• It is an energetic, lively dance form in
which polished sticks or dandiyas are used.
It represents a mock fight between Durga
and Mahishasura.
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
Tarangamel
Fig. Sattriya
• It is the folk dance of Goa that celebrates
FOLK DANCES OF INDIA the youthfulness of the region. It is
performed during Dussehra and Holi. The
• The folk dance forms are generally use of rainbow-like costumes with multi
spontaneous, crude and performed by the coloured flags and streamers make it a
masses without any formal training. This visual spectacle.
simplicity gives the art form an inherent
beauty. However, these art forms have Ghoomar or Gagore
remained confined to a certain sect of • It is a traditional folk dance performed by
people or at a particular locality. the women of the Bhil tribe in Rajasthan. It
is characterised by the pirouetting
Chhau movements of the women, which brings
• The word Chhau originates from 'Chhaya' into prominence the multi-coloured
meaning shadow. It is a form of mask dance vibrancies of the flowing Ghaghra.
that uses vigourous martial movements to
narrate mythological stories. There are three Kalbelia
main styles of Chhau dance Saraikella • It is a sensuous folk dance performed by the
Chhau in Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj Chhau in women of the Kalbelia community of
Odisha and Purulia Chhau in West Bengal. Rajasthan. The costumes and dance
Of these, Mayurbhanj Chhau artists don't movement are similar to that of the
wear masks. In 2010, UNESCO inscribed serpents. "Been' (wind instrument played by
Chhau in the Representative List of snake charmers) is the popular musical
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. instrument of this dance form.

UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
Fig. Chhau dance
Fig. Kalbelia Dance

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 CHAPTER: 7 - INDIAN THEATRE
INTRODUCTION • In the classical Sanskrit tradition, plays
• It has been postulated that the excavated were categorised into ten types namely
ruins at Sitabena and Jogimara caves Anka, Bhana, Dima, Ithamgra, Nataka,
represent the world's oldest amphitheatres. Prahasana, Prakarna, Svakarna, Vithi and
In Bharat Muni's Natya Shastra, Brahma Vyayog. Natya Shastra describes only two
created the Natya Veda for the pastime of of these - Nataka and Prakarna. Classical
Gods, combining elements of the four Sanskrit play was bound by some rigid
Vedas. conventions:
• Natya shastra itself was written in the ➢ They were generally four to seven-act
period between 200 BC and 200 AD and is plays.
the first formal treatise on dramaturgy. In it, ➢ They always had happy-endings.
ten types of play - from one-act play to ten ➢ The protagonist was male who would
acts has been described and covers all always achieve the object of his desire
aspects of classical Sanskrit literature. at the end.
➢ The plays had well defined opening,
CLASSICAL SANSKRIT THEATRE progression, development, pause and
• Theatre in India began as a narrative art conclusion.
form, which encompassed a concoction of
music, dance and acting. Recitation, dance Sanskrit plays followed an almost ritualistic
and music were integral parts of theatre. progression as well, described as below:
The Sanskrit word 'nataka' was derived
• The play started with a number of pre-play
from the root word nata' which actually
rituals.
meant a dancer. Rupaka, Drishyakvya and
• Following this, the Sutradhar, who was the
Preksakavya were others also used to
stage manager and director. Dressed in
describe drama. In ancient India, plays were
white, he would offer worship to the deity
generally of two types:
and seek his blessings.
➢ Lokadharmi: These were realistic
depictions of daily life. • After that, the leading lady was summoned
and the time and place of the play was
➢ Natyadharmi: These were conventional
announced by the Sutradhar.
plays with a more stylised narration and
overt symbolism. • The theatre, as per Bharata, could
accommodate around four hundred persons.
• Sariputraprakarana by Ashvaghosh, an
The stages were two-storeyed.
eminent philosopher, is considered the first
example of classical Sanskrit drama. It was • Curtains were used to intensify the impact
a nine act play. Another important of play. However, masks were not used.
playwright of the time was Bhasa, who
composed thirteen plays in the period
between 4th-5th century B.C. Sudraka was
the first to introduce the essence of conflict
in his play Mricchakatika.
• Kalidasa is perhaps the most popular among
the Sanskrit playwrights. His three works
Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashi and Fig. Sanskrit Plays
Shakuntalam. Kalidasa was unparallel in his
portrayal of the eternal conflict between Characters in Sanskrit plays were important. They
desire and duty. Some of the other were broadly classified into three kinds which are
examples of plays are Uttaramacharitra and Nayaka (Hero or the Protagonist), Nayika
Mahaviracharitra by Bhavabhuti, (Heroine) and the Vidusaka (Clown).
Mudrarakshasa Visakhadatta and Ratnavali Thus, the Sanskrit play became an amalgamation of
by Harshavardhan. entertainment and religious traditions.
Reasons for decline of Sanskrit Theatre
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 The reasons for decline of Sanskrit theatre include:
• As Sanskrit dramatists began to diverge
towards poetry, the lyrical writings started
gaining popularity over the dramatic works.
• The rigid orthodoxy of the Sanskrit theatre
restricted the creative space of new
playwrights who turned to other forms.
• With the advent of Muslim rulers, Sanskrit
theatre took a definite backseat, as dance
and music gained patronage.
Koothiyattam (Koodiyattam) is India's oldest
continuing form of theatre that has survived since
10th century A.D. in Kerala. It completely adheres UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
to the rules laid down in Natya Shastra and is the
traditional privilege of the Chakyar and Nambiar
castes of Kerala.
The play is performed in Sanskrit, Prakrit and
Malayalam, with Mizhavu and Edakka providing
the background music. Margi Madhu Chakyar is a
leading exponent of this art form.
form of theatre is the use of masks
to depict special expressions.
2. Ramlila
FOLK THEATRE
• Ramlila is a popular folk theatre in
• While the Sanskrit theatre was more urban- the region of Uttar Pradesh. It is an
oriented and sophisticated in its treatment enactment of Ramayana using
of the play, folk theatre had rural roots and songs, dances and dialogues, mainly
the rustic flavour was reflected in the during the period before Dusselhra.
dramatic style involved. It is generally performed by male
• Most of the folk theatres that still exist, actors, who perform the role of Sita
emerged in the period around 15th - 16th as well.
century A.D. with devotional themes. 3. Raslila
Indian folk theatre can be broadly classified • Raslila is a dance drama enactment
into three categories as follows: of the adolescent love stories of
Krishna and Radha, popular in the
RITUAL THEATRE
region of Gujarat.
During the period of Bhakti movement, folk theatre 4. Bhuta Aradhana
became a popular means for communicating faith • Bhuta, which means spirit, is a
to God, both for the performer as well as audience. traditional practise of worshipping
Some of the popular examples of such theatre are the dead ancestors, prevalent in the
given below. Kannara district of Karnataka.
5. Ramman
1. Ankia Nat
• It is a ritualistic theatre of Garhwal
• It is the traditional one-act play of region of Uttarakhand. It is
Assam. It was started by the famous
dedicated to Bhumiyal Devta, the
Vaishnava Saint Shankaradeva and
local deity. It is listed in the
his disciple Mahadeva in the 16th
UNESC0's Representative list of the
century A.D. It is performed in the
Intangible Cultural Heritage of
style of an opera and depicts
Humanity. People of the Bhandari
incidents from the life of Krishna. caste wear the sacred mask
One of the unique features of this

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 CHAPTER: 8 - INDIAN PUPPETRY
INTRODUCTION • Miniature jewelleries and other accessories
• Puppetry suggestive element of a puppet are attached to give a realistic feel.
being controlled by a master makes it a • Strings are attached to small holes in the
captivating experience, while the low cost hands, head and back of the body which are
of animation and production of a then controlled by the puppeteer.
performance makes it popular among
Some of the popular examples of string
freelance artists.
puppetry in India are
INDIAN ORIGIN
Kathputli
• Puppetry has long been of interest in India,
both for entertainment and educational • The traditional string puppets of the
purposes. The excavation sites at Harappa Rajasthan area known as Kathputli, which
and Mohenjo-daro have yielded puppets derives its name from kath' meaning wood
with sockets attached to them. Some and putli' meaning doll. The puppets are
references of marionette theatre have been covered in traditionally bright Rajasthani
found in the period around 500 B.C. dress. A unique feature of the puppets is the
However, the oldest written reference to absence of legs. The strings are attached to
puppetry is found in the Tamil classic the finger of the puppeteer.
Silappadikaram, written around 1st and 2nd
century B.C.
• In the Bhagwata, God has been described as
a puppeteer, controlling the universe with
the three strings- Satta, Raja and Tama.
Puppetry has imbibed elements of painting,
sculpture, music, dance and drama and has
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
created a unique avenue of artistic
expression. However, the lack of devoted Fig. A Kathputli performance
audience and financial security has led to a
Kundhei
steady decline of this art form in the
modern times. Puppetry in India can be • The string puppets of Odisha are known as
broadly classified into four categories. A Kundhei. They are made of light wood and
brief outline of each with some prominent are dressed in long skirts. The puppets have
examples are given as follows: more joints, thus giving the puppeteer more
flexibility. The strings are attached to a
triangular prop.

UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM

STRING PUPPETS

String puppets or marionettes have a prominent

presence in the Indian cultural traditions. The
features of string puppets are:
• The puppets are generally 8-9 inch Fig. Kundhei
miniature figures chiselled out of wood. Gombeyatta
• Oil colour is used to paint the wood with
skin colour and add other facial features • It is the traditional puppet show of
such as eyes, lips, nose, etc. Karnataka. They are styled and designed on
the various characters of the Yakshagana

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 CHAPTER: 10 - MARTIAL ARTS IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION
• India, the land of diverse culture and
ethnicities, is known for its wide variety of
martial arts that have developed since the
ancient times. Earlier used for warfare,
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
these art forms are today usually used for
demonstration, as a part of a ritual, Fig. Thang-ta
achieving physical fitness or as a means of Cheibi Gad-ga
self-defence. Some of the popular and • One of the most ancient martial arts of
prevalent types of martial arts in India are Manipur, Cheibi Gad-ga involves fighting
discussed below: using a sword and a shield. It has now been
Kalaripayattu modified to a stick encased in soft leather in
• One of the oldest martial arts in India, place of a sword and a leather shield. The
Kalaripayattu, although practiced in most contest takes place in a circle of 7 metre
parts of southern India, originated in the diameter, on a flat surface. Within the
state of Kerala in the 3th century BC. circle, there are two lines, 2 metre apart.
Kalaripayattu's most important key is Pari-khanda
footwork; it also includes kicks, strikes and • Pari-khanda, created by Rajputs, is a form
weapon-based practice. of martial art from Bihar. It involves
fighting using sword and shield. Still
practiced in many parts of Bihar, its steps
and techniques are widely used in Chhau
dance.
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM Thoda
• Originating in the State of Himachal
Fig. Kalaripayattu Pradesh, Thoda is a mixture of martial arts,
Silambam sport and culture. It takes place during
• Silambam, a kind of staff fencing, is a Baisakhi (13th and 14th April) every year.
modern and scientific martial art of Tamil A number of community prayers are done
Nadu. The kings which ruled in Tamil so as to invoke the blessings of Goddesses
Nadu, including Pandya, Chola and Chera, Mashoo and Durga, the principal deities.
had promoted it during their reign. The The game is quite popular in various parts
reference to the sale of silambam staves, of the State including Narkanda block,
pearls, swords and armour to foreign traders Theong division (Shimla district), Chopal
can be found in a Tamil literature known as division, Solan and Sirmaur district.
Silappadikaram, which dates back to second • The martial art relies on a player's skill of
century A.D. The long-staff was used for archery. Thoda can be dated back to
both mock fighting and self-defence. Mahabharata, the times when bows and
Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak arrows were used in the epic battle, in the
• Created by the Meitei people of Manipur, valleys of Kullu and Manali.
Thang-ta is an armed martial art that finds Gatka
its mention in the most lethal combat forms. • Gatka is a weapon based martial art form,
Sarit Sarak, on the other hand, is an performed by the Sikhs of Punjab. The
unarmed art form that uses hand-to-hand name Gatka' refers to the one whose
combat. Their history can be traced back to freedom belongs to grace. Some also say
the 17th century when it was used that the word 'Gatka' comes from a Sanskrit
successfully used by the Manipuri kings to word 'Gadha', which means mace. Gatka
fight the British for quite sometime. features the skillful use of weapons,
including stick, Kirpan, Talwar and Kataar.

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 CHAPTER: 12 - LANGUAGES IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION and is one of the 22 scheduled languages
• Language in its literary meaning is a system listed in the Constitution.
of communication through speech, a Classical Sanskrit as a vehicle of Indian culture
collection of sounds that a group of people • The development of Sanskrit grammar
understand to have the same meaning. began with Panini in 400 B.C. with his
o A language family includes book Asthadhyayi being the oldest book in
individual languages related through Sanskrit grammar. Some of the Buddhist
a common ancestor that existed literature belonging to Mahayana and the
before the recorded history. Hinayana school are even written in
o Dialect is a form of language Sanskrit language. The book Mahavastu of
spoken in a local area. It should be the Hinayana school is a treasure of stories.
noted that several dialects can be Lalitavistara, the most sacred Mahayana
derived from a particular language. text and Ashvagosha's Buddhacharita were
• The languages spoken around the various also written in Sanskrit.
corners of India belong to several languages • The chaste form of Sanskrit developed in
families where most of them belong to the between 300 BC to 200 BC. It was a refined
Indo- Aryan group of languages. This Indo- version of Vedic Sanskrit. The first
Aryan group has been born out the Indo- evidence of the use of Sanskrit can be found
European family. in the inscriptions of Rudradamana at
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN Junagarh in the present Southern Gujarat
LANGUAGES region.
Languages in India are classified into the following • Many of the places developed during Gupta
major sub-groups: period is also written in Sanskrit. However,
it is to be noted that one of the features of
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM these places was the use of Sanskrit
language by the characters of high varna
and the use of Prakrit language by women
and shudras.
INDO-ARYAN GROUP OF LANGUAGES MIDDLE INDO-ARYAN GROUP
• It is a branch of the larger Indo-European • The period of development of this sub-
family which came to India with the advent group is between 600 BC to 1000 AD and
of the Aryans. It is the largest language started with the development of Prakrit
group of India and around 74% of the language. Prakrit is understood to mean
Indians speak those languages which natural, original, casual, etc. and which
belong to this group. This language group is explains to us that it did not have strict rules
again sub-divided into three groups of usage and was the common tongue.
depending upon the time period of their • Prakrit was associated with the common
origin. people. The writing of texts in Prakrit is
OLD INDO-ARYAN GROUP relatively a late development, as compared
• This group had its development around to Sanskrit. Prakrit and Ardha-Magadhi
1500 B.C. and Sanskrit was born out of this language were used in the Jain Agamas'.
group. The ancient form of Sanskrit is what Prakrit includes:
we find in the Vedas. Even Upanishads, • Pali: It was widely spoken in Magadha. It
Puranas and Dharmasutras were al written was popular during 5th- 1st century BC. It
in Sanskrit. It can be said that Sanskrit is is closely related to Sanskrit, and the texts
the mother of many Indian languages. It is in Pali were written generally in Brahmi
the most ancient language of our country script.

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 ANCIENT SCRIPTS OF INDIA
• A script is also known as writing system or
orthography. It is a standard for
representing the parts of a spoken language
by making specific marks on a medium
(Paper, rocks, birch-bark, etc). The two UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
ancient scripts in India comprise Brahmi
script and Kharosthi script. Fig. Brahmi script on Ashoka Pillar
• Most of the ancient and modern scripts in
India are developed from Brahmi
script be it Devanagari, Taml,
Telugu, Kannada, Odia,
Assamese/Bengali, etc. Hence, It
can very much be contended that
Brahmi is the mother of scripts.
• However, Urdu is written in a
script derived from Arabic, and a
few minor languages such as
Santhali use independent scripts.
1. Indus script
• The Indus script is a
corpus of symbols 3. Gupta script
produced by the Indus Valley • It belongs to Gupta Empire and was
Civilization. Most inscriptions are used to write Sanskrit. Gupta script
extremely short. It is not clear if descended from Brahmi and gave rise to
these symbols constitute a script the Nagari, Sharada and Siddham
used to record a language. scripts. These scripts in turn gave rise to
2. Brahmi script many of the most important scripts of
• Brahmi is the oldest writing systems India, including Devanagari, Gurmukhi
used in the Indian subcontinent and in script for Punjabi Language, Assamese
Central Asia during the final centuries script, Bengali script and the Tibetan
BC and the early centuries AD. All script.
surviving Indic scripts in South East 4. Kharosthi script
asia are descendants of the Brahmi. • The Kharosthi script (3rd Century BC
• The best-known Brahmi inscriptions are 3rd Century AD) is an ancient script
the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north- used in ancient Gandhara (present
central India, dated to 250-232 BCE. Afghanistan and Pakistan) to write the
The script was deciphered in 1837 by Gandhari Prakrit and Sanskrit. It is a
James Prinsep. sister script of Brahmi and was
• Brahmi is usually written from left to deciphered by James Princep again.
right. Brahmi is an abugida, meaning • Brahmi is also an abugida like Brahmi.
that each letter represents a consonant, Kharosthi is mostly written right to left
while vowels are written with but some inscriptions also show the left
obligatory diacritics called matras in to right direction of Kharosthi.
Sanskrit, except when the vowels
commence a word.
• Descendents of Brahmi script are as
follows:
Fig. Kharosthi manuscript

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 CHAPTER: 19 - CALENDARS IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION Vrishabham (Taurus); Mithuna, the
• A calendar is a system of organising days pairs (Gemini); Karka, the crab
for social, religious, commercial or (Cancer); Simha, the lion (Leo); Kanya,
administrative purposes. This is done by the maiden (Virgo); Tula, the scales
giving names to periods of time, typically (Libra); Vrischika, the scorpion
day, week, month, and year. The system (Scorpio); Dhanus, the bow
adopted to frame calendars across various (Sagittarius); Makara, the sea monster
regions of India belong to any of the (Capricorn); Kumbha, the water pot
following three types: (Aquarius) Mina, the fish (Pisces).
1. Solar system ➢ Lunar month - It ends either with new-
2. Lunar system moon (amavasya) or full-moon
3. Luni-Solar system (purnima).
• It is these systems which provide names as • Out of the two types of months described
discussed below: above, it is the lunar month or the moon
➢ Solar Year - It represents the time month which is followed in the greater part
taken by the Earth while revolving in its of the nation.
orbit around the Sun, going through a
point of the ecliptic, i.e. solstice or
equinox to which it returns after
completing its journey. The solar year
consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 48
minutes and 46 seconds. This system
maintains the closest correspondence
between the year and the seasons. The
solar year has 12 months in total.
➢ Lunar Year - The lunar year, like the
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM
solar year, consists of 12 months or
lunations. Since a lunar month varies
from 29.26 to 29.80 days, it gives a
period of 354 days, necessarily short of
11 days to the solar year. This
difference is accounted for by an ADHIK MASA
intercalation or suppression, to make the • Adhik Masa is the intercalary month added
lunar year confirm to the solar year. An to a lunar year after every 2.5 years in order
intercalary month is introduced every to adjust the difference of the lunar year
2.5 years in the lunar year to adjust it to with the solar year to ensure that the natural
the solar year. This extra month or events and cycle of seasonswhich occurred
intercalary month is called Adhik Masa. in particular months were not upset by
➢ Luni-Solar Year - Here the year is falling into different months. Lunar year
calculated by the solar cycle and the comprises of 354 days andbhence falls
months by the lunar divisions as in the shorter of 1 days every year with regard to a
Hindu calendars, the adjustment solar year. In order to adjust these 11 days,
between the two being brought about by an intercalary month is added to the Lunar
intercalation and suppression of days Calendar after every 2.5 years, known as
and months. Adhik Masa or Mala Masa.
➢ Solar month - In the solar year, the
months are 12 in number and bear the • The months in the various calendar forms
names of the twelve zodiac signs called are divided into Pakshas or fortnights,
Rashis or mansions by which they are weeks and days. The two Pakshas or
also known in some parts of India. fortnights under Lunar calendar are:
These twelve rashis are Mesha (Aries);

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 CHAPTER: 23 - CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL CENTRE FOR
THE ARTS
• The Constitution of India has vested upon
• The late Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, in
the Government of India with the
memory of his mother Smt. Indira Gandhi,
responsibility to preserve, conserve and
launched the Indira Gandhi National Centre
propagate the Indian culture and there are
for the Arts (1GNCA) in 1985.
various government and non- Government
• The IGNCA is an autonomous institution
organisations that specialise in safeguarding
that concentrates on research, conservation,
the long cultural traditions of India. Some
display and dissemination of arts. Although
of these institutions are:
they concentrate on the visual and
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF performing art, yet they also promote
INDIA critical and creative literature.

• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) Units Functions

is directly under the aegis of the Ministry of Kala Nidhi The multi-form library
Kala Kosa Devoted mainly to the study and
Culture and it is the foremost institution for
publication of fundamental texts in
archaeological researches conducted across Indian languages.
India. It has been charged with preservation Janapada Engaged in lifestyle studies
of the cultural heritage of our nation. Its Sampada
focus is on the preservation of physical and Cultural Apply technology-based tools for
tangible heritage that is accumulated in the Informatics cultural preservation and
propagation
ancient monuments and archaeological
Sutradhara Administrative section that acts as a
sites. spine supporting and coordinating
• The provisions of the Ancient Monuments all the activities
and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, Kala Darsana The executive unit which transforms
1958, guide ASI. Another major legislation researches and studies emanating
that directs the working of the ASI, is the from the IGNCA into visible forms
through exhibitions
Antiquities and Art Treasure Act, 1972.
ALL INDIA RADIO
This Act directs ASI to prevent the illegal
• The All India Radio is the premier public
export of Indian antiquities from our nation.
service radio broadcaster They are under
• One of the more specialised and one in the
the Ministry of Information and
kind project by the ASI is their Underwater
Broadcasting, Government of India. Their
Archaeology Wing. The ASI also has
motto is Bahujan Hitaya: Bahujan Sukhaya',
several diplomas and degrees for studying
that literally means that their sole objective
archaeology from the Institute of
is to serve, educate and entertain the
Archaeology in New Delhi.
audience.
CRAFTS COUNCIL OF INDIA • They create programmes in about 23
• The Crafts Council of India or CCI is a languages and cover 146 dialects. The
non-profit organisation that promotes content, aims and objectives of AlR are
activities to preserve and develop handicraft governed by the Prasar Bharati Act, which
industry in India. Kamala Devi was amended in 1990. According to the
Chattopadhyay who wanted to help the craft Act, the main objectives of AIR are:
persons to get regular work and recognition ➢ create programmes to promote national
for their craft, established the CCI in 1976. integration and uphold the values
Although their headquarter is located in enshrined in the Indian Constitution;
Chennai, they have over ten State Councils ➢ pay greater attention to the
that are affiliated to the parent organisation. dissemination of education and spread
They achieved a global platform after being of literacy, environment, health and
affiliated to the World Crafts Council. family welfare, agriculture, rural
development, etc;

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 CHAPTER: 24 - COINS IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA
• The word Coin is derived from the Latin
word Cuneus and it is believed that the first
recorded use of coins was in China and
Greece around 700 B.C. and in India in the
sixth century BC. The study of coins and
medallions is known as Numismatics. Fig. A magadha coin (five symbols)

PUNCH MARKED COINS

The earliest coins were casted coins and were die-
struck only on one side. One to five marks or
symbols incused on single side and termed as
Punch Marked' coins. Panini's Ashtadhyayi cites
that in punch marked coins, the metallic pieces Fig. Mauryan Karshapana with symbols of wheel and
were stamped with symbols. Each unit was called elephant. 3rd century BC.
'Ratti' weighing 0.11 gram. The first trace of this INDO-GREEK COINS
coin was available in the period between sixth and • The reign of Indo-Greeks was from 180 BC
second century BC. Following two of its to around 10 AD. The Indo-Greeks
classifications are available: introduced the fashion of showing the
1. Punch marked coins issued by various bustor head of the ruler on the coins. The
Mahajanapadas (around 6th century legends on their Indian coins were
BC): The first Indian punch marked coins mentioned in two languages - in Greek on
called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana were one of the side and in Kharosthi on the
minted in the 6th century BC by the various other side of the coin. The Greek gods and
Janapadas and Mahajanapadas of the Indo- goddesses commonly shown on the Indo-
Gangetic Plain. Greek coins were Zeus, Hercules, Apollo
These coins had irregular shapes, standard and Pallas Athene. The initial series used
weight and were made up of silver with images of Greek deities but later coins had
different markings like Saurashtra had a images of Indian deities as well.
humped bull, Dakshin Panchala had a • These coins are significant because they
Swastika and Magadha had generally five carried detailed information about the
symbols. Magadhan punch-marked coins issuing monarch, the year of issue and
became the most circulated coins in South sometimes an image of the reigning king.
Asia. Coins were mainly made of silver, copper,
They are mentioned in the Manusmriti and nickel and lead. The coins of the Greek
Buddhist Jataka stories and lasted three kings in India were bilingual, i.e., written in
centuries longer in the south than in the Greek on the front side and in Pali language
north. (in Kharosthi script) on the back.
2. Punch marked coins during Mauryan • Later, Indo-Greek Kushan kings introduced
Period (322-185 BC): Chanakya, the prime the Greek custom of engraving portrait
minister to the first Mauryan emperor heads on the coins. Kushan coins were
Chandragupta Maurya, mentioned the adorned with helmeted bust of the king on
minting of punch marked coins such as one side, and the king's favourite deity on
rupyarupa silver), suvarnarupa (gold), the reverse. The coins issued by Kanishka
tamrarupa (copper) and sisarupa (lead) in employed only Greek characters.
his Arthashastra treatise.
Out of the various symbols used, sun and
six armed wheel were most consistent. The
coin contained an average of 50-54 grains
of silver and 32 rattis in weight and termed
as Karshapanas. Fig. A Kushan period Coin

COINS BY SATAVAHANAS

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 APPENDIX: 2 - BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT
ORIGIN OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT establishing a personal connection with
• The Bhakti movement originated in the God.
southern parts of India, especially Tamil
THE TWO SCHOOLS OF BHAKTI: SAGUNA
Nadu between 6th and 10th century AD; it
SCHOOL/NIRGUNA SCHOOL
slowly percolated to the northern belt by the
end of 15th century. • The Bhakti saints were divided into two
schools depending on the way they
imagined God. One school of
thought imagined God as
formless with no attributes or
quality. This school of thought is
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM the Nirguna School. They are
more focused on acquiring
knowledge. They rejected the
scriptures and condemned every
form of idol worship. The
prominent figures of this school
of thought were Kabir, Guru
Nanak and Dadu Dayal.
• On the other hand, the
Saguna School thought of God
as having a definite form, quality
and positive attributes and the
god manifests himself in
incarnations such as Rama and
Krishna. His spirit is to be found
in the idols and images
worshipped at home and in
temples The Saguna School
emphasizes on love and
devotion. They accept the
spiritual authority of the Vedas
Main Features of the Bhakti Movement and the need of a human Guru as
mediator between God and his devotee.
• Intense love and devotion as the means of Ramanuja, Ramananda and Chaitanya
salvation.
Mahaprabhu belonged to this school of
• Unity of God (Universalism) and repeating thought.
the one true name again and again
• Rejection of rituals and ceremonies THE SUFI MOVEMENT
• No caste discrimination and keeping an Origin
open mind on religious and gender issues. • Sufism is the mystical arm of Islam. Sufis
• Using local and regional languages to represent the inner side of the Islam creed
spread their messages. (tasawwut). It stresses on self-realisation,
• They stressed on the idea of a personal tolerance, righteousness and universal love
God. for all.
• Need of a true Guru (teacher) to realize
God. Characteristics
• They propagated equality and spirit of • The Sufis tried to purify their inner self by
brotherhood like the Sufis rigid introspection and mental struggle so as
• They despised priests who they thought to remove even the smallest sign of
were middlemen and instead focused on

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 APPENDIX: 4 – INDIAN ART AND CULTURE (CURRENT AFFAIRS)
Jaipur City declared as UNESCO World Scheme" with central financial assistance. It
Heritage Site is one of the projects identified for
• The Pink City was founded in 1727 by Raja development under the Special Package for
Sawai Jai Singh II and was developed Bihar.
through a proper urban planning and well- • Bhitiharwa: This was one of the centre for
structured grid plan. The streets intersect at social work selected by Gandhiji, when he
the centre thereby creating large public was in Champaran in 1917. There is a
squares called chaupars and the stalls, Gandhi Ashram where Mahatma Gandhi
residences, etc have uniform facades. had stayed.
• Turkaulia: It was a burning centre of Indigo
Air India Allows Haj Pilgrims to Carry
agitation. It has widely been referred to
Zamzam Water in Flight
as"Turkaulia Concern'" in context of
• Air India has clarified that passengers are
Champaran Satyagraha to refer to the plight
allowed to carry Zamzam cans within their
of indigo cultivators.
permissible baggage.
• The well of Zamzam is located at Al- Prasad Scheme
Masjid-al-Haram (Great Mosque of Mecca) • PRASAD stands for "Pilgrimage
in Saudi Arabia and Hajj pilgrims bring Rejuvenation and Spiritual, Heritage
holy water from the well for family and Augmentation Drive".
friends. • Gangotri (Uttarakhand), Yamunotri (Utta-
rakhand), Amarkantak (MP) and Parasnath
Indian Council of Historical Research
(Jharkhand) have been included in the list
• Government reconstituted Indian Council of
of sites under PRASAD scheme bringing
Historical Research (ICHR), an
the number of sites under the scheme to 41
autonomous organization under the
in 25 States.
Ministry of Human Resources Development
• The scheme aims at integrated development
(MHRD).
of pilgrimage destinations in a planned,
• Its objective is to promote and give
prioritised and sustainable manner to
direction to historical research and to
provide complete religious tourism
encourage d foster objective and scientific
experience. It focuses on the development
writing of history. It also provides
and beautification of the identified pilgrim
fellowships and financial assistance to the
destinations.
young teachers in colleges, universities.
Government Adopts Heritage Sites
Seva Bhoj Scheme
• Ten monuments have been adopted under
• Ministry of Culture launched "Seva Bhoj
Adopt a Heritage (Apni dharohar
Yojana".
Apnipehchan) project.
• It envisages reimbursing the Central
• It is a joint initiative of Ministry of
Government share of Central Goods and
Tourism, ASI under Ministry of Culture
Services Tax (CGST) and lntegrated Goods
and the State/UT Governments.
and Service Tax (IGST) for such Charitable
• A company to utilise its Corporate Social
Religious Institutions who provide
Responsibility (CSR) funds to develop and
Food/Prasad/Langar/ Bhandara free of cost
conserve these monuments and the legal
without any discrimination to
status of the monument does not change
Public/Devotees.
after adoption.
Gandhi Circuit In Bihar
1 . Red Fort Delhi
• Proiect for "Development of Gandhi
Circuit: Bhitiharwa-Chandrahia-Turkaulia" 2. Gandikota Fort Andhra
has been sanctioned in Bihar. Pradesh
• The project is sanctioned under "Rural 3. Jantar Mantar Delhi
Circuit theme of Swadesh Darshan

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 • It also commemorates the sacrifices made • Archaeologists have discovered a life-size
by Indian soldiers sent on peace-keeping stucco sCulpture from a Buddhist site in
missions of the United Nations, Phanigiri, Telangana and it is the largest
Humanitarian Assistance Dis aster Relief stucco found in the country so far.
(HADR) and counter-insurgency • The sculptural wealth from the site shows a
operations. gradual transition between the Satavahana
• The Memorial has following 04 concentric period and Ikshvaku period.
circles and these are designed as a • Traditional stucco is made of lime, sand,
Chakravyuh:- and water. The modern stucco is made of
• Amar Chakra or Circle of Immortality Portland cement, sand, and water.
• Veerta-Chakra on Circle of Bravery • Stucco art was earliest seen in the Gandhara
• Tyag Chakra or Circle of Sacrifice region. In the sculptural art of Nalanda and
• Rakshak Chakra or Circle of Protection Vikramashila monasteries, stucco was used
extensively. In the Dravidian architecture,
Chaukhandi Stupa hundreds of stucco figures used to decorate
• Chaukhandi Stupa has been declared as a the Vimana.
monument of national importance by the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
• It is an ancient Buddhist site in Sarnath,
Uttar Pradesh.
• The octagonal tower on top is a Mughal
monument built to commemorate
Humayun's visit to this place.

UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM

Fig. Stucco Sculpture

Sanchi Stupa
UPSCSUMMARYNOTES.COM

Fig. Chaukhandi Stupa • Union Cabinet has signed a MoU with

Charminar Vietnam on joint postal stamp which
depicts Sanchi Stupa and Pho Minh Pagoda
• A chunk of one of its pillar has felt down of Vietnam.
recently which has raised concerns about • Sanchi Stupa is one of the oldest structures
the stability of this nore than 400 years old in India that was commissioned by emperor
structure. Ashoka in 3rd century BC.
• Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (fifth sultan of • Pho Minh Pagoda was built originally
the Qutb onahi dynasty of Golconda) built during the Ly Dynasty and later expanded
this monument to Commemorate the end of during Tran Dynasty in 1262 AD. It was a
a deadly plague menace. It 1s located near place for high-ranking mandarins and the
River Musi. aristocrats of the Tran Royal Court to
worship and lead their religious life.
Stupa Pagoda
It is mainly a Buddhist It refers to a temple or a
architecture in India and sacred architecture of
South-East Asia. East Asia. It can also be
used as a secular
structure.

It has a single dome It has a set of multiple

structure. discs.
Fig. Charminar
37Th UNESCO World Heritage Site of India
Stucco Sculpture

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 PYQ -PREVIOUS YEARS' QUESTIONS – PRELIMS
2019 Ans. 2 and 4 only
4. Consider the following pairs of tradition vs
1. Which one of the following is not a Harappan
State:
site:- Sohgaura
1) Chapchar Kut festival: Mizoram
2. In which of the following relief sculpture
2) Khongjom Parba ballad: Manipur
inscriptions in “Ranyo Asho- ka” (King
3) Thang-Ta dance: Sikkim
Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone
Ans. 1 and 2
portrait of Ashoka:- Kanganahalli
5. With reference to the religious practices in
3. Consider the following:
India, the "Sthanakvasi" sect belongs to:-
1. Deification of the Buddha.
Jainism
2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas.
6. With reference to Indian history, who
3. Image worship and rituals.
among the following is a future Buddha, yet
Which of the above is/are the feature to come to save the world: - Maitreya
/Features of Mahayana Buddhism? 7. Which one of the following foreign
travellers elaborately discussed about da
Ans. 1,2 and 3
and diamond mines of India (2018):- Jean-
4. Building “Kalyana Mandapas” was a notable Baptiste Tavernier
feature in the temple construc- tion in the
2017
kingdom of:- Vijayanagara
1. The following is famous for Sun Temples:-
5. Consider the following statements: Are
Arasavalli
correct?
2. The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is
1. Saint Nimbarka was a contemporary Of
one of the most famous and of illustrated
Akbar.
paintings at: Ajanta
2. Saint Kabir was greatly influenced by
8. With reference to the religious history of
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
India, the following Statement is correct:-
Ans. Neither 1 nor 2 Sarvastivadin held that the constituents
of phenomena were not wholly
6. With reference to Mian Tansen, which one of
momentary but existed forever in a latent
the following statements is not correct:-
form.
Tansen was the title given to him by
9. The following is correctly matched:-
Emperor Akbar.
Chaliha sahib festival – Sindhis
7. Who among the following Mughal Em- perors
1. With reference to Manipuri Sankirtana,
shifted emphasis from illustra- ted
consider the following statements:
manuscripts to album and individual Portrait:-
1) It is a song and dance performance.
Jahangir
2) Cymbals are the only musical
2018 instruments used in the performance
3) It is performed to narrate the life and
1. The well-known painting "Bani Thani" deeds of Lord Krishna.
belongs to the:- Kishangarh school Ans. 1 and 3 only
2. The following pairs Craft vs Heritage of:-
Puthukkuli shawls 2016
3. With reference to cultural history of India, 1. The following pairs are correctly
consider the following statements matched:-
1) Most of the 'Tyagaraja Kritis are Famous place Region
devotional songs in praise of Lord • Khajuraho Bundelkhand
Krishna. • Tirupati Rayalaseema
2) Tyagaraja created several new ragas. 3. What is common to the two historical
3) Annamacharya and Tyagaraja are places known as Ajanta and
contemporaries. Mahabalipuram:- Both have rock-cut
4) Annamacharya kirtanas are devotional monuments
songs in praise of Lord Venkateshwara.

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