CONTENTS...................................................................................................................................0 1 TITLE.....................................................................................................................................8 1.1 OBJECTIVE........................................................................................................................8 1.2 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................8 1.2.1 Simply supported beam...............................................................................................8 1.2.2 Applications of simply supported beams.....................................................................8 1.2.3 Parametric analysis of simply supported beam.........................................................10 1.2.4 Disadvantages of simply supported beams................................................................10 1.3 APPARATUS....................................................................................................................11 1.4 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................11 1.5 OBSERVATIONS..............................................................................................................12 1.6 DERIVATION...................................................................................................................12 1.7 TABLE AND DATASHEET................................................................................................13 1.8 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS.................................................................................................14 1.8.1 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection.......................................................15 1.9 RESULT AND CONCLUSION.............................................................................................15 2 TITLE...................................................................................................................................16 2.1 OBJECTIVE......................................................................................................................16 2.2 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................16 2.2.1 Fixed beam.................................................................................................................16 2.2.2 Key characteristics of fixed beams............................................................................16 2.2.3 Applications of fixed beams......................................................................................17 2.2.4 Limitations of fixed beams........................................................................................17 2.3 APPARATUS....................................................................................................................18 2.4 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................18 2.5 OBSERVATIONS..............................................................................................................19 2.6 DERIVATION...................................................................................................................19 2.7 TABLE AND DATASHEET................................................................................................21 2.8 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS.................................................................................................22 2.8.1 Effect of span length on deflection............................................................................22 2.8.2 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection.......................................................23 2.9 RESULT AND CONCLUSION.............................................................................................24 3 TITLE...................................................................................................................................25 3.1 OBJECTIVE......................................................................................................................25 3.2 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................25 3.2.1 Cantilever beam.........................................................................................................25 3.2.2 Key characteristics of cantilever beams....................................................................25 3.2.3 Limitations of fixed beams........................................................................................26 3.3 APPARATUS....................................................................................................................27 3.4 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................27 3.5 OBSERVATIONS..............................................................................................................27 3.6 DERIVATION...................................................................................................................27 3.7 TABLE AND DATASHEET................................................................................................28 3.8 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS.................................................................................................29 3.8.1 Effect of span length on deflection............................................................................29 3.8.2 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection.......................................................30 3.9 RESULT AND CONCLUSION.............................................................................................31 4 TITLE...................................................................................................................................32 4.1 OBJECTIVE......................................................................................................................32 4.2 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................32 4.2.1 Strength of Materials.................................................................................................32 4.2.2 Beam Theory.............................................................................................................32 4.2.3 Circular Sections........................................................................................................32 4.2.4 Virtual Work and Energy Methods............................................................................33 4.2.5 Finite Element Analysis.............................................................................................33 4.3 APPARATUS....................................................................................................................33 4.4 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................33 4.5 OBSERVATIONS..............................................................................................................34 4.6 TABLE AND DATASHEET................................................................................................34 4.7 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS.................................................................................................34 4.7.1 Effect of Load on Deflection.....................................................................................34 4.8 RESULT AND CONCLUSION.............................................................................................35 5 TITLE...................................................................................................................................36 5.1 OBJECTIVE......................................................................................................................36 5.2 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................36 5.2.1 Strength of Materials.................................................................................................36 5.2.2 Beam Deflection........................................................................................................36 5.2.3 Moment-Curvature Relationship...............................................................................36 5.2.4 Differential Equations................................................................................................36 5.2.5 Boundary Conditions.................................................................................................36 5.2.6 Stresses in a Semi-Circular Bar.................................................................................36 5.2.7 Strains in a Semi-Circular Bar...................................................................................36 5.2.8 Deflection Components.............................................................................................37 5.2.9 Shear Stress and Shear Strain....................................................................................37 5.2.10 Mohr's Circle.........................................................................................................37 5.2.11 Torsion...................................................................................................................37 5.2.12 Finite Element Analysis.........................................................................................37 5.2.13 Material Properties.................................................................................................37 5.2.14 Failure Criteria.......................................................................................................37 5.2.15 Design of Experiments..........................................................................................37 5.3 APPARATUS....................................................................................................................38 5.4 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................38 5.5 OBSERVATIONS..............................................................................................................38 5.6 DERIVATION...................................................................................................................38 5.6.1 Vertical Orientation of ring.......................................................................................42 5.7 TABLE AND DATASHEET................................................................................................44 5.8 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS.................................................................................................44 5.9 RESULT AND CONCLUSION.............................................................................................45 6 TITLE...................................................................................................................................46 TO DETERMINE DIAMETRICAL DEFLECTION OF A CIRCULAR BAR SUBJECTED TO DIAMETRICAL LOADING.....................................................................................................................................46 6.1 OBJECTIVE......................................................................................................................46 6.2 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................46 6.2.1 Strength of Materials.................................................................................................46 6.2.2 Bending of Beams......................................................................................................46 6.2.3 Circular Arcs..............................................................................................................46 6.2.4 Moment of Inertia......................................................................................................46 6.2.5 Boundary Conditions.................................................................................................46 6.2.6 Differential Equations................................................................................................46 6.2.7 Numerical Methods...................................................................................................47 6.3 APPARATUS....................................................................................................................47 6.4 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................47 6.5 OBSERVATIONS..............................................................................................................47 6.6 DERIVATION...................................................................................................................47 6.7 TABLE AND DATASHEET................................................................................................49 6.8 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS.................................................................................................49 6.9 RESULT AND CONCLUSION.............................................................................................50 7 TITLE...................................................................................................................................51 7.1 OBJECTIVE......................................................................................................................51 7.2 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................51 7.2.1 Rockwell Hardness Number......................................................................................51 7.2.2 Rockwell Hardness Test............................................................................................51 7.2.3 Indenter......................................................................................................................51 7.2.4 Load...........................................................................................................................51 7.2.5 Minor Load................................................................................................................52 7.2.6 Major Load................................................................................................................52 7.2.7 Hardness....................................................................................................................52 7.2.8 Depth of Penetration..................................................................................................52 7.2.9 Scale...........................................................................................................................52 7.2.10 Accuracy................................................................................................................52 7.2.11 Repeatability..........................................................................................................52 7.2.12 Reproducibility......................................................................................................52 7.2.13 Calibration.............................................................................................................52 7.2.14 Hardness test..........................................................................................................52 7.2.15 Scratch test.............................................................................................................53 7.2.16 Mohs Hardness Test..............................................................................................53 7.2.17 Rebound Hardness test..........................................................................................53 7.2.18 Indentation test.......................................................................................................54 7.2.19 Micro-indentation..................................................................................................54 7.2.20 Macro-indentation..................................................................................................54 7.2.21 Rockwell Hardness Test........................................................................................54 7.2.22 Components of Rockwell Hardness Tester............................................................56 7.3 APPARATUS....................................................................................................................56 7.4 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................56 7.5 OBSERVATIONS..............................................................................................................57 7.5.1 Least counts...............................................................................................................57 7.5.2 Geometric Parameters of Indenter.............................................................................57 7.6 TABLE AND DATASHEET................................................................................................57 7.7 RESULT AND CONCLUSION.............................................................................................57 8 TITLE...................................................................................................................................58 8.1 OBJECTIVE......................................................................................................................58 8.2 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................58 8.2.1 Brinell hardness test...................................................................................................58 8.2.2 Principle.....................................................................................................................58 8.2.3 Equipment..................................................................................................................58 8.2.4 Sample Preparation....................................................................................................58 8.2.5 Test Procedure...........................................................................................................58 8.2.6 Calculation.................................................................................................................58 8.2.7 Advantages................................................................................................................59 8.2.8 Disadvantage..............................................................................................................59 8.2.9 Applications...............................................................................................................59 8.2.10 Limitations.............................................................................................................59 8.2.11 Hardness Units.......................................................................................................59 8.2.12 Factors Affecting Results......................................................................................59 8.2.13 Standardization......................................................................................................59 8.2.14 Comparison with Other Hardness Tests................................................................59 8.2.15 Conversion Charts.................................................................................................60 8.2.16 Quality Control......................................................................................................60 8.2.17 Nondestructive Testing..........................................................................................60 8.2.18 Limitations for Thin Materia.................................................................................60 8.2.19 Surface Roughness.................................................................................................60 8.2.20 Materials Selection................................................................................................60 8.2.21 Components...........................................................................................................60 8.3 FORMULA DERIVATION...................................................................................................60 8.4 APPARATUS....................................................................................................................61 8.5 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................61 8.6 OBSERVATIONS..............................................................................................................62 8.7 TABLE AND DATASHEET................................................................................................62 8.8 RESULT AND CONCLUSION.............................................................................................62 9 TITLE...................................................................................................................................63 9.1 OBJECTIVE......................................................................................................................63 9.2 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................63 9.2.1 The Charpy Impact Test............................................................................................63 9.2.2 Test specimen............................................................................................................63 9.2.3 Impact velocity..........................................................................................................63 9.2.4 Pendulum weight.......................................................................................................63 9.2.5 Pendulum height........................................................................................................63 9.2.6 Notch type..................................................................................................................63 9.2.7 Temperature...............................................................................................................63 9.2.8 Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature....................................................................64 9.2.9 Test results.................................................................................................................64 9.2.10 Impact energy........................................................................................................64 9.2.11 Impact strength:.....................................................................................................64 9.2.12 Material properties.................................................................................................64 9.2.13 Applications...........................................................................................................64 9.2.14 Advantages............................................................................................................64 9.2.15 Limitations.............................................................................................................64 9.2.16 Standards................................................................................................................64 9.3 FACTORS AFFECTING FRACTURE TOUGHNESS................................................................64 9.3.1 Ductility.....................................................................................................................65 9.3.2 Notch..........................................................................................................................65 9.3.3 Temperature...............................................................................................................65 9.4 FORMULA DERIVATION...................................................................................................65 9.5 APPARATUS....................................................................................................................65 9.6 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................66 9.7 OBSERVATIONS..............................................................................................................67 9.7.1 Parameters of Pendulum............................................................................................67 9.7.2 Geometrical Parameters of specimen (Mild steel).....................................................67 9.7.3 Geometrical parameters of notch...............................................................................67 9.8 SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS..............................................................................................67 9.9 TABLE AND DATASHEET................................................................................................68 9.10 DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON WITH VALUES IN LITERATURE......................................68 9.11 RESULT AND CONCLUSION.............................................................................................69 10 REFERENCES....................................................................................................................70 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 simply supported beam......................................................................................................8 Figure 2 bridges...............................................................................................................................9 Figure 3 buildings............................................................................................................................9 Figure 4 machine components.........................................................................................................9 Figure 5 sports equipment.............................................................................................................10 Figure 6 Simply supported beam...................................................................................................12 Figure 7 fixed beam.......................................................................................................................16 Figure 8 fixed beam.......................................................................................................................19 Figure 9 cantilever beam...............................................................................................................25 Figure 10 material strength............................................................................................................32 Figure 11 circular sections.............................................................................................................32 Figure 12 finite element analysis...................................................................................................33 Figure 13 derivation schematics....................................................................................................39 Figure 14 derivation schematic.......................................................................................................... Figure 15 experimental setup.........................................................................................................56 Figure 16 experimental apparatus..................................................................................................61 Figure 17 experimental setup.........................................................................................................66 Figure 18 mild steel specimen.......................................................................................................66
LIST OF TABLES Table 1 for steel............................................................................................................................13 table 2 for brass.............................................................................................................................14 table 3 for aluminum.....................................................................................................................14 Table 4 for brass...........................................................................................................................21 Table 5 for brass...........................................................................................................................21 Table 6 for brass...........................................................................................................................21 Table 7 for steel............................................................................................................................22 Table 8 for brass...........................................................................................................................28 Table 9 for aluminum...................................................................................................................29 Table 10 for brass.........................................................................................................................29 Table 11 for deflection in quatre circular bar...............................................................................34 table 12 Deflection components of HSLA ring against loads applied Configuration of ring: Horizontal......................................................................................................................................44 Table 13 Deflection components of HSLA ring against loads applied Configuration of ring: Vertical..........................................................................................................................................44 Table 14 Results of circular ring.................................................................................................49 table 15 for hardness no and reference material...........................................................................53 Table 16 types of load in Rockwell hardness test.........................................................................55 Table 17 Rockwell hardness no for brass.....................................................................................57 Table 18 biennial hardness number results...................................................................................62 Table 19 for Charpy impact test...................................................................................................68 Table 20 for material and their impact strength.....................................................................69
LIST OF GRAPHS Graph 1 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection.............................................................15 Graph 2 Effect of span length on deflection (Brass Beam)...........................................................23 Graph 3 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection.............................................................24 Graph 4 Effect of span length on deflection..................................................................................30 Graph 5 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection.............................................................31 Graph 6 Effect of Load on Deflection...........................................................................................35 Graph 7for Deflection of Semicircular bar....................................................................................45 Graph 8 Deflection of circular bar.................................................................................................50 Names of machine: 1. Charpy impact apparatus 2. Rockwell hardness apparatus 3. Thick cylinder 4. Brinell hardness apparatus 5. Polariscope 6. Youngs Modulus apparatus 7. Modulus of Rigidity of Rubber apparatus 8. Coil Spring Axial Load 9. Extension and Compression of Springs 10. Coil Spring 11. Fixed Beam 12. Continuous Beam 13. Torsion of Shafts 14. Bending Moment of Shearing Load 15. Deflection of beams 16. Deflection of Shafts 17. Thick Cylinder 18. Thin Cylinder 19. Creep Test Apparatus 20. Torsion Test Apparatus 21. Torsion of Shafts 22. Circular Ring 23. Shape Factor Bending 24. Shearing Force 25. Hounsfield Tensiometer 26. Combined Bending of Torsion 27. Curved Bar 28. Fixed Beam and Torsion Test 29. Strain Gauge Calibration 30. Strain Gauge Apparatus 31. Deflection and Torsion 32. Beam Bending and Torsion 33. Torsion Test 34. Universal Testing Machine 35. Propped Beam Apparatus 36. Cantilever Beam Apparatus 37. Fixed Beam Apparatus 38. Torsion of Shaft Apparatus 39. Torsion of Shaft Apparatus (Copper) 40. Torsion of Shaft Apparatus (Aluminum) Experiment No. # 01 1 Title Parametric analysis of simply supported beam subjected to point load. 1.1 Objective The main objectives of this experiment are to analyse: The parametric effect on deflection and slope of the simply supported beam subjected to point load at mid of span length. Influence of span length on deflection & slope Effect of width and thickness on deflection & slope Effect of material on deflection & slope Locating the point of maximum deflection 1.2 Introduction In this section we will elaborate the main terms and concepts being used in this experiment for better understanding of this experiment.
1.2.1 Simply supported beam
A simply supported beam is a type of structural element that is commonly used in construction and engineering. It is a beam that is supported at both ends by fixed points, such as columns or walls, which allows the beam to freely rotate and move vertically. The term "simply supported" refers to the fact that the beam is not fixed at its supports, but is only supported at those two points. The behavior of a simply supported beam under load can be predicted using basic principles of mechanics and physics, such as the laws of motion and the concept of stress and strain. Engineers use this understanding to design structures that can safely support the loads they are intended to bear. In general, the maximum bending moment in a simply supported beam occurs at the center, while the maximum shear force occurs at the supports. These forces can be calculated using equations based on the geometry of the beam and the loads applied to it.
Figure 1 simply supported beam
1.2.2 Applications of simply supported beams
Simply supported beams have a wide range of applications in construction and engineering. Here are a few examples: 1.2.2.1 Bridges Simply supported beams are commonly used in the construction of bridges. In this application, the beams are usually made of steel or concrete, and are used to span gaps between supporting pillars or abutments.
Figure 2 bridges 1.2.2.2 Buildings Simply supported beams can be used to support the floors and roof of buildings. They are often made of wood or steel, and can be used in combination with other structural elements, such as columns and walls.
Figure 3 buildings 1.2.2.3 Machine components Simply supported beams can be used in various machine components, such as cranes and conveyor systems. In these applications, the beams are usually made of steel or aluminum, and are used to support the weight of the machine or the materials being moved.
Figure 4 machine components
1.2.2.4 Sports equipment Simply supported beams can be used in sports equipment, such as balance beams and vaulting poles. In these applications, the beams are typically made of wood or fiberglass, and are designed to support the weight of the athlete while allowing for free movement and rotation. Figure 5 sports equipment
1.2.3 Parametric analysis of simply supported beam
Parametric analysis of simply supported beams involves studying the effects of various parameters on the beam's behavior under load. These parameters can include material properties, geometric dimensions, and loading conditions. 1.2.3.1 Bending moment and shear force analysis The bending moment and shear force are two critical parameters that determine the behavior of a simply supported beam under load. By analyzing the bending moment and shear force at different points along the length of the beam, engineers can gain insights into how the beam will behave and determine its strength and stiffness. 1.2.3.2 Load capacity analysis By varying the load applied to a simply supported beam and analyzing the resulting bending moment and shear force, engineers can determine the maximum load capacity of the beam. This analysis can help inform decisions about the appropriate design and material choices for the beam. 1.2.3.3 Material properties analysis The properties of the materials used to construct a simply supported beam, such as their modulus of elasticity, yield strength, and density, can have a significant impact on the beam's behavior under load. By analyzing the effects of these material properties on the beam's performance, engineers can make informed decisions about material selection and design. 1.2.3.4 Geometric analysis The geometric parameters of a simply supported beam, such as its length, height, and width, can also have a significant impact on its behavior under load. By analyzing the effects of these parameters on the beam's performance, engineers can optimize the design to meet specific requirements or constraints. 1.2.3.5 Finite element analysis Finite element analysis (FEA) is a powerful computational method for analyzing the behavior of structures under load. By using FEA to model a simply supported beam subjected to point load, engineers can gain a detailed understanding of the beam's behavior and make informed decisions about design and material choices.
1.2.4 Disadvantages of simply supported beams
Simply supported beams have some disadvantages that can limit their use in certain applications. 1.2.4.1 Limited span length Simply supported beams are typically limited in span length due to their design, which requires supports at each end. Longer spans require additional supports, which can add to the cost and complexity of the design. 1.2.4.2 Limited load capacity Simply supported beams may have limited load capacity compared to other types of beams, especially for longer spans. The design must take into account the load that will be applied to the beam and ensure that it can withstand the forces without excessive deflection or failure. 1.2.4.3 Limited design flexibility The design of simply supported beams is relatively straightforward, and they may not be suitable for complex or irregular shapes or load configurations. Other types of beams, such as trusses and arches, offer greater design flexibility and may be better suited to specific applications. 1.2.4.4 Susceptible to vibration Simply supported beams can be susceptible to vibration, especially under certain loading conditions. This can cause structural issues, such as fatigue and stress, which can lead to failure over time. 1.3 Apparatus Beam apparatus Vernier calliper Dial indicator Weights and hanger Meter rod, Rectangular beam of different cross-section and materials Level indicator 1.4 Procedure Check the zero error and least count of the measuring devices. Measure the width and height of beam cross section with the Vernier calliper. Position and fix the two supports on the beam apparatus to get the desired length of the beam. Position the beam over the two supports and verify that the length of the beam between two supports is as desired. Level the whole apparatus using the levelling screws at the bottom and level indicator. Mark the centre of the beam and place a hangar at this location. Mount a dial gauge, above the beam at this location, such as the knob of the dial gauge is in contact with the beam. Mount another dial gauge at a point on the beam at a distance (say X) from one of the supports of the beam. Measure this distance X. Apply a small load by adding a weight on the hanger. Note the deflections in both the gauges. Keep adding weights with regular increments and note the dial gauge reading for each successive addition. Note the dial gauge readings while unloading the weights one by one. Calculate the mean deflection, and slope at both locations from this experimental data and compare with the theoretical results. Change the beams to incorporate the effect of material. 1.5 Observations Least Count of Vernier Calliper = 0.05mm Least Count of dial gauge = 0.001 in Length of the beam = L = 30 in Width of the beam cross section = b = 1 in Height of the beam cross section = h =0.25 in Modulus of elasticity for steel=E=29 x 106 psi Modulus of elasticity for red brass (85Cu15Zn) =E=17 x106 psi Modulus of elasticity for Aluminium=E=10.4 x106 psi 1.6 Derivation
Figure 6 Simply supported beam
Let’s consider a simply supported beam of span length L subjected to concentrated load at mid- point. The beam is symmetrical so equal reactions will be transferred at the support ends. R A + R B=F As flexural formula or equation of elastic curve is 2 M d Y = EI d x2
Moment at any point up to middle of the beam is
x M =F × 2 2 d Y Fx 2 = d x EI Intenerating twice Yields, 3 Fx Y= +C1 x+ C2 12 EI
Boundary conditions: At x=0 y=0(Support) At x=L/2, y= ymax
dy =0 dx
Substituting the boundary conditions we get,
2 −F L C 1= 16
C 2=0 So, Deflection equation becomes; 3 2 Fx FL Y= − x 12 EI 16
Theoretical deflection (Equation of elastic curve) produced in the beam can be given as (Beer Johnston): F Y th = ( 3 L2 X −4 X 3 ) 48 EI At x=L/2, 3 −F L Y L= th−max @ x= 2 48 EI The theoretical slope is: 2 2 Wx WL θ ( x )th = − 4 EI 16 EI 2 −W L θ ( x )th−max @ x=0= 16 EI 1.7 Table and Datasheet Steel and L=30 inches Table 1 for steel Sr. Load Deflection(yexp.) Slope Deflectio Slope Absolute % No n difference Difference in deflection. (θexp.) (ytheo.) (θtheo.) (Ib) Loading Unloading Mean yexp./X (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.5 0.006 0.008 0.007 0.000 0.0068 - 0.0275 2.7 6 0.0003 3 1 0.013 0.016 0.0145 0.001 0.0136 - 0.061 6.1 2 0.0005 4 1.5 0.02 0.026 0.023 0.001 0.0204 - 0.112 11.2 9 0.0008 5 2 0.027 0.03 0.0285 0.002 0.0272 -0.001 0.0445 4.5 4 6 2.5 0.033 0.035 0.034 0.002 0.034 - 0.0011 0.1 8 0.0013
table 3 for aluminum Sr. Load Deflection(yexp.) Slope Deflection Slope Absolute % No. (θexp.) (ytheo.) (θtheo.) difference Difference (Ib) Loading Unloading Mean yexp./X (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.5 0.02 0.023 0.0215 0.0018 0.0195 - 0.0953 9.5 0.0007 3 1 0.039 0.042 0.0405 0.0034 0.0389 - 0.0395 3.9 0.0015 4 1.5 0.059 0.061 0.06 0.005 0.0584 - 0.0275 2.7 0.0022 5 2 0.08 0.068 0.074 0.0062 0.0778 -0.003 0.0514 5.1 6 2.5 0.099 0.1 0.0995 0.0083 0.0973 - 0.0226 2.3 0.0037 1.8 Parametric Analysis Make plots representing the effect of operating and geometric parameters on deflection on the beam, experimentally and theoretically. Discuss the plots with justifications and validations.
1.8.1 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection
Parametric analysis of a simply supported beam subjected to point load involves studying the effect of various parameters on the deflection of the beam. One such parameter is the material of the beam, which can have a significant impact on its deflection. Different materials have different values of modulus of elasticity, which determines their stiffness. Stiffer materials such as steel have higher values of modulus of elasticity compared to less stiff materials like wood or plastic. This means that for a given load and beam length, a stiffer material will deflect less than a less stiff material. Therefore, the material of the beam has a significant effect on its deflection. If the material is stiffer, the beam will deflect less, and if the material is less stiff, the beam will deflect more. Hence, the conclusion is that the choice of material for a beam is a critical factor to consider when designing a structure that requires a specific level of deflection.
Deflection aluminum (inch) Graph 1 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection 1.9 Result and Conclusion Parametric analysis of a simply supported beam subjected to a point load involves varying one or more parameters of the beam, such as its length, cross-sectional area, or material properties, and observing how these variations affect the beam's response to the load. For instance, increasing the length of the beam would increase the deflection and stress experienced by the beam, while increasing the cross-sectional area would reduce these values. By analyzing these variations and their effects, engineers can optimize the design of the beam for its intended application. The results of the parametric analysis would show how different parameters affect the performance of the beam. For example, increasing the beam length would result in a proportional increase in the maximum deflection and stress, while increasing the cross-sectional area would result in a decrease in these values. The results can be used to make informed decisions about the design of the beam, such as choosing a material with a higher yield strength or increasing the beam's cross-sectional area to reduce deflection and stress. In conclusion, parametric analysis is a powerful tool for optimizing the design of simply supported beams and ensuring their safe and effective use in a wide range of applications. Experiment No. # 02 2 Title Parametric analysis of Fixed end beam subjected to point load 2.1 Objective The main objectives of this experiment are to analyse: The parametric effect on deflection and slope of the simply supported beam subjected to point load at mid of span length. Influence of span length on deflection & slope Effect of width and thickness on deflection & slope Effect of material on deflection & slope Locating the point of maximum deflection 2.2 Introduction In this section we will elaborate the main terms and concepts being used in this experiment for better understanding of this experiment.
2.2.1 Fixed beam
A fixed beam is a type of structural beam that is fixed at both ends, meaning it is fully restrained against rotation and translation. This differs from a simply supported beam, which is only supported at its ends and is free to rotate and translate at those points.
Figure 7 fixed beam
2.2.2 Key characteristics of fixed beams
Some key characteristics of fixed beams include: 2.2.2.1 High load capacity Fixed beams have high load capacity compared to simply supported beams, due to their design and the fact that they are fully restrained against rotation and translation. 2.2.2.2 Reduced deflection Fixed beams have reduced deflection compared to simply supported beams, due to their stiffness and the fact that they do not rotate or translate at their ends. 2.2.2.3 Structural stability Fixed beams are structurally stable, meaning they are less susceptible to buckling or instability under load than other types of beams. 2.2.2.4 Increased complexity Fixed beams are more complex to design and construct than simply supported beams, due to their fixed ends and the additional reinforcement required to support the fixed connections.
2.2.3 Applications of fixed beams
Fixed beams are commonly used in construction and engineering for a variety of applications that require high load capacity and stiffness. Here are some of the most common applications of fixed beams: 2.2.3.1 Building construction Fixed beams are commonly used in building construction to support floors, roofs, and other structural elements. They are particularly useful in multi-story buildings where high load capacities and stiffness are required to support the weight of the structure. 2.2.3.2 Bridge construction Fixed beams are also used in the construction of bridges to support the weight of the bridge deck and traffic loads. They are particularly useful in bridges with long spans and high traffic volumes, where high load capacities and stiffness are required to ensure the bridge remains stable and safe for use. 2.2.3.3 Industrial applications Fixed beams are used in industrial applications, such as in the design of cranes, conveyor systems, and other heavy machinery. They provide the necessary stiffness and load capacity to support heavy loads and ensure that the machinery remains stable and safe during operation. 2.2.3.4 Aerospace applications Fixed beams are also used in aerospace applications, such as in the design of aircraft wings and fuselages. They provide the necessary stiffness and load capacity to support the weight of the aircraft and the loads generated during flight. Overall, fixed beams are an important structural element that are used in a wide range of applications where high load capacity and stiffness are required. Their strength and stability make them a reliable choice for a variety of construction and engineering projects.
2.2.4 Limitations of fixed beams
Fixed beams, while offering high load capacity and stiffness, also have some limitations that can make them less suitable for certain applications. Here are a few of the main limitations of fixed beams: 2.2.4.1 Design complexity Fixed beams are more complex to design and construct than simply supported beams, due to their fixed ends and the additional reinforcement required to support the fixed connections. This can add to the cost and time required to complete the project. 2.2.4.2 Limited flexibility Fixed beams have limited flexibility compared to simply supported beams, due to the fact that they are fully restrained against rotation and translation. This can make them less suitable for applications where some movement or flexibility is required, such as in seismic or wind-resistant designs. 2.2.4.3 Potential for structural failure The fixed connections of a fixed beam can be a point of weakness in the structure, and if not properly designed or constructed, can lead to structural failure over time. This can be particularly problematic in applications where the beam is subjected to cyclic loading or other repetitive stress. 2.2.4.4 Limited span length Like all beams, fixed beams are limited in span length, and longer spans may require additional supports or more complex design solutions. 2.3 Apparatus Beam apparatus Vernier calliper Dial indicator Weights and hanger Balance Meter rod Rectangular beam of different cross-section and materials Clamps 2.4 Procedure Measure the width and height of beam cross section with the Vernier calliper. Position and fix the two supports on the beam apparatus to get the desired length of the beam. Position the beam over the two supports, clamp it at both ends and verify that the length of thebeam between the two clamps is as desired. Level the whole apparatus using the levelling screws at the bottom. Mark the centre of the beam and place a hangar at this location. Mount a dial gauge, above the beam at this location, such as the knob of the dial gauge is in contact with the beam. Mount another dial gauge at a point on the beam at a distance (say X) from one of the supports of the beam. Measure this distance X. Apply a small load by adding a weight on the hanger. Note the deflections in both the gauges. Keep adding weights with regular increments and note the dial gauge reading for each successive addition. Note the dial gauge readings while unloading the weights one by one. Calculate the mean deflection, and slope at both locations from this experimental data and compare with the theoretical results. 2.5 Observations Least Count of Vernier Calliper= 0.05mm Least Count of dial gauge = 0.001 in Length of the beam = L = variable length Width of the beam cross section = b = 1 in Height of the beam cross section = h = 0.25 in Modulus of elasticity for steel =E=29 x 106 psi Modulus of elasticity for red brass (85Cu15Zn) =E=& 17 x106 psi 2.6 Derivation
Figure 8 fixed beam
Let’s consider a fixed beam of span length L subjected to concentrated load at mid-point. The beam is symmetrical so equal reactions will be transferred at the support ends. R A + R B=F As flexural formula or equation of elastic curve is 2 M d Y = EI d x2
Moment at any point up to middle of the beam is
x M =F × 2 2 d Y Fx 2 = d x 2 EI Intenerating twice Yields, 3 Fx Y= +C1 x+ C2 12 EI
Boundary conditions: At x=0 y=0(Support) At x=L/2, y= ymax
dy =0 dx
Substituting the boundary conditions we get,
2 −F L C 1= 16 EI
C 2=0 So, Deflection equation becomes; 3 2 Fx FL Y= − x 12 EI 16 EI
Theoretical deflection (Equation of elastic curve) produced in the beam can be given as (Beer Johnston): F Y th = ( 4 X 3−3 L2 X ) 48 EI
At x=L/2,
( ) 2 FL 4L Y th = 3 L− 192 EI 2 3 −F L Y th max= 192 EI Slope: dy −Fx = (0−4) dx 24 EI
dy Fx θ ( x )th = = dx 6 EI
The theoretical slope is:
2 2 Wx WL θ ( x )th = − 4 EI 16 EI 2 −W L θ ( x )th−max @ x=0= 16 EI Experimental slope (radians) of the fixed end beam can be calculated as: Y exp θ ( x )exp= x Theoretical deflection produced in the beam can be given as 3 WL Y th = 192 EI And theoretical slope 2 2 Wx WL θ ( x )th = − 4 EI 16 EI
Make plots representing the effect of operating and geometric parameters on deflection on the beam, experimentally and theoretically. Discuss the plots with justifications and validations.
2.8.1 Effect of span length on deflection
In structural engineering, the deflection of a beam refers to the amount of bending or deformation that occurs when a load is applied to it. When a fixed end beam is subjected to a point load, the span length of the beam can have a significant effect on the deflection. As the span length of the beam increases, the deflection also increases. This is because a longer span length results in a greater bending moment being applied to the beam. The bending moment is the product of the load and the distance from the load to the fixed support, and it causes the beam to deform. Mathematically, the deflection of a fixed end beam subjected to a point load can be calculated using the following equation: δ=(PL³)/(48 EI ) where δ is the deflection, P is the point load, L is the span length, E is the modulus of elasticity of the material, and I is the moment of inertia of the cross-section of the beam. Effect of span length on deflection (Brass Beam) 0.012 deflection (in) 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 load (lb)
Deflection L=34 in (inch) Deflection L=32 in (inch)
Deflection L=30 in (inch) Graph 2 Effect of span length on deflection (Brass Beam)
2.8.2 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection
The material properties of the beam have a significant impact on the deflection of the beam. The modulus of elasticity, yield strength, and density of the material determine the stiffness and strength of the beam. A stiffer and stronger material will experience less deflection under the same load as compared to a weaker and less stiff material. For example, a steel beam will have a lower deflection than a timber beam under the same load due to its higher modulus of elasticity and yield strength. Therefore, the material of the beam is an essential parameter to consider in the design of fixed-end beams subjected to point loads as it directly affects the beam's deflection and overall structural performance. In summary, the material properties of a fixed-end beam subjected to a point load have a significant effect on its deflection. A stiffer and stronger material will result in less deflection, whereas a weaker and less stiff material will undergo more deflection under the same load. Therefore, selecting the appropriate material for the beam is crucial in ensuring its structural integrity and performance. Effect of material of the beam on the deflection 0.01 0.008 deflection (in)
Deflection Brass L=32 in (inch) Deflection Sreel L=32 in (inch)
Graph 3 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection
2.9 Result and Conclusion
The deflection of a fixed-end beam subjected to a point load can be analyzed using parametric analysis by varying two important parameters: the material of the beam and the span length. The deflection of a fixed-end beam is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to the modulus of elasticity of the material. Therefore, changing the material of the beam can have a significant effect on its deflection. The span length of a fixed-end beam is also a critical factor that affects its deflection. From graph the deflection for the length of 34 in is maximum and for the length of 32 in beam the deflection is in between and for the smallest length of 30 in the deflection is also minimum. The deflection of a beam increases as the span length increases. This is because a longer span requires the beam to support a larger load, leading to more bending and deflection. In summary, the material of the beam and the span length are two critical parameters that affect the deflection of a fixed-end beam subjected to a point load. A stiffer material or shorter span length will reduce the deflection, while a weaker material or longer span length will increase the deflection. It is important to consider these factors when designing a fixed-end beam to ensure that it can support the required load without excessive deflection. From graph it is quite clear that deflection for brass is more than the deflection for steel as the modulus of elasticity of brass (14 Mpsi) is less than the steel modulus of elasticity (30 Mpsi) Experiment No. # 03 3 Title Parametric analysis of Cantilever beam subjected to point load. 3.1 Objective The main objectives of this experiment are to analyse: The parametric effect on deflection and slope of the simply supported beam subjected to point load at mid of span length. Influence of span length on deflection & slope Effect of width and thickness on deflection & slope Effect of material on deflection & slope 3.2 Introduction In this section we will elaborate the main terms and concepts being used in this experiment for better understanding of this experiment.
3.2.1 Cantilever beam
A cantilever beam is a type of structural beam that is supported at only one end and is free to rotate and translate at that point. The other end of the beam is unsupported and extends into space. Cantilever beams are commonly used in construction and engineering for a variety of applications, such as in buildings, bridges, and other structures where an overhanging structure is required.
Figure 9 cantilever beam
3.2.2 Key characteristics of cantilever beams
Cantilever beams are a type of structural element that are commonly used in buildings and bridges to support loads. Some key characteristics of cantilever beams include: 3.2.2.1 One fixed end Cantilever beams have one end that is fixed in place, while the other end extends outward, unsupported. 3.2.2.2 Bending Because cantilever beams are unsupported at one end, they are susceptible to bending under load. The degree of bending depends on the amount and distribution of the load, as well as the length and thickness of the beam. 3.2.2.3 Tension and compression Cantilever beams can also experience tension and compression forces along their length, which can be influenced by factors such as the weight of the beam itself, the type of material it is made of, and the temperature of the environment. 3.2.2.4 Stiffness The stiffness of a cantilever beam, or its ability to resist bending, is influenced by its cross- sectional shape and material properties. Beams with larger cross-sectional areas and stiffer materials will generally be more resistant to bending.
3.2.3 Limitations of fixed beams
Fixed beams, while offering high load capacity and stiffness, also have some limitations that can make them less suitable for certain applications. Here are a few of the main limitations of fixed beams: 3.2.3.1 Limited span length Cantilever beams are limited in span length, and longer spans may require additional supports or more complex design solutions. 3.2.3.2 Structural stability Cantilever beams are generally structurally stable, but they can be susceptible to buckling or instability under certain conditions, especially when subjected to bending moments. Design complexity: Fixed beams are more complex to design and construct than simply supported beams, due to their fixed ends and the additional reinforcement required to support the fixed connections. This can add to the cost and time required to complete the project. 3.2.3.3 Limited flexibility Fixed beams have limited flexibility compared to simply supported beams, due to the fact that they are fully restrained against rotation and translation. This can make them less suitable for applications where some movement or flexibility is required, such as in seismic or wind-resistant designs. 3.2.3.4 Potential for structural failure The fixed connections of a fixed beam can be a point of weakness in the structure, and if not properly designed or constructed, can lead to structural failure over time. This can be particularly problematic in applications where the beam is subjected to cyclic loading or other repetitive stress. 3.2.3.5 Increased stress concentration The fixed support at the end of a cantilever beam can create stress concentrations, which can lead to cracking or other structural issues over time. 3.3 Apparatus Beam apparatus Vernier calliper Dial indicator Weights and hanger Balance Meter rod Rectangular beam of different cross-section and materials Clamps 3.4 Procedure Measure the width and height of beam cross section with the Vernier calliper. Position and fix the support on the beam apparatus to get the cantilever action on its fixed end. Measure this distance L, length of the beam. Level the whole apparatus using the levelling screws at the bottom. Mount a dial gauge, above the beam at this location (Free end), such as the knob of the dial gauge is in contact with the beam. Apply a small load by adding a weight on the hanger. Note the deflections in both the gauges. Keep adding weights with regular increments and note the dial gauge reading for each successive addition. Note the dial gauge readings while unloading the weights one by one. Calculate the mean deflection, and slope at both locations from this experimental data and compare with the theoretical results. 3.5 Observations Least Count of Vernier Calliper = 0.05mm Least Count of dial gauge = 0.001in Length of the beam = L = variable length Width of the beam cross section = b = 1 in Height of the beam cross section = h = 0.25 in Modulus of elasticity for steel =E=29 x 106 psi Modulus of elasticity for red brass (85Cu15Zn) = 17 x106 psi 3.6 Derivation 3 Moment of inertia of rectangular cross section=¿ ❑ 12
Deflection at center = At distance ‘X’: Deflection at ‘ X ’= y ( x ) exp= [ y ( x ) 1+ y ( x ) 2 ] 2 Experimental Value of Slope at X:
Theoretical deflection (Equation of elastic curve) produced in the beam can be given as;
At x=L/2
And theoretical slope
3.7 Table and Datasheet
For brass and L=18inch Table 8 for brass Sr. Load Deflection(yexp.) inch Slope Deflection Slope Absolute %Difference No. (θexp.) (ytheo.) (θtheo.) difference (Ib) Loading Unloading Mean yexp./X (inch) dy/dx (Inch)
Make plots representing the effect of operating and geometric parameters on deflection on the beam, experimentally and theoretically.
3.8.1 Effect of span length on deflection
The span length of a cantilever beam refers to the distance between the fixed end and the point where the load is applied. As the span length of a cantilever beam increases, the deflection of the beam also increases. This is because a longer span length results in a larger moment of inertia, which reduces the stiffness of the beam and makes it more susceptible to deflection. In summary, the span length of a cantilever beam has a significant effect on the deflection of the beam when subjected to a point load. As the span length increases, the deflection of the beam also increases, due to the reduction in the moment of inertia and stiffness of the beam. Therefore, it is important to consider the span length of a cantilever beam when designing and analyzing structural elements to ensure they can withstand the loads they will be subjected to. under load.
Effect of span length on deflection
0.14
0.12
0.1 deflection (in)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 load (lb)
Deflection brass L=18 in (inch) Deflection brass L=24 in (Inch)
Graph 4 Effect of span length on deflection
3.8.2 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection
The material of the beam has a significant impact on the deflection of the cantilever beam subjected to a point load. The higher the modulus of elasticity of the material, the lower the deflection of the beam. Therefore, the selection of the material of the beam should be based on the requirements of the application, taking into consideration the deflection limitations. The material of the beam plays a crucial role in determining the deflection of the beam. The deflection of the beam is directly proportional to the modulus of elasticity of the material. The modulus of elasticity is the measure of the stiffness of the material. The higher the modulus of elasticity of the material, the stiffer the material, and the lower the deflection of the beam. Effect of material of the beam on the deflection 0.08 0.07 0.06 deflection (in)
Graph 5 Effect of material of the beam on the deflection 3.9 Result and Conclusion The material of the beam plays a crucial role in determining its deflection. The deflection of a beam is directly proportional to its modulus of elasticity, which is a material property. Therefore, the stiffer the material, the lesser will be the deflection. Hence, choosing a material with high modulus of elasticity, such as brass (14 Mpsi), will result in lower deflection than a material with low modulus of elasticity, such as aluminum (10.5 Mpsi). The span length of the beam also affects its deflection. As the span length increases, the deflection of the beam also increases. This is because the bending moment in the beam increases with the span length. Hence, for a fixed load, a longer span length will result in higher deflection than a shorter span length. In the parametric analysis for change in length of beam the deflection for 24 in brass beam is more than the deflection in the 18 in brass beam as clearly shown in the graph. The deflection of a cantilever beam subjected to a point load is dependent on two parameters: the material of the beam and the span length. Choosing a stiffer material, such as steel, will result in lower deflection, while increasing the span length will result in higher deflection. It is important to consider these parameters while designing cantilever beams to ensure the desired level of deflection is achieved. Experiment No. # 04 4 Title To determine the diametrical deflection of a quarter circle bar subjected to vertical loading. 4.1 Objective The main objectives of this report are: To find out the deflection in the strip Compare the horizontal and vertical deflection in the strip 4.2 Introduction In this section we will elaborate the main terms and concepts being used in this experiment for better understanding of this experiment.
4.2.1 Strength of Materials
This is the study of how materials resist external loads and deformations. It involves topics such as stress and strain, elasticity, plasticity, and failure criteria. A good understanding of strength of materials is necessary to analyze the behavior of the quarter circle bar under load.
Figure 10 material strength
4.2.2 Beam Theory
This is a subset of strength of materials that deals specifically with the behavior of beams under external loads. It involves topics such as bending moments, shear forces, deflection, and stress distribution. The quarter circle bar can be analyzed as a beam, and beam theory can be used to determine its deflection under vertical loading.
4.2.3 Circular Sections
The quarter circle bar has a circular cross-section, and its deflection will depend on the geometry of the section. Knowledge of circular sections, such as the moment of inertia and the radius of gyration, may be useful in determining the deflection.
Figure 11 circular sections
4.2.4 Virtual Work and Energy Methods These methods can be used to determine the deflection of structures under external loads. Virtual work involves calculating the work done by external forces as a structure deforms, while energy methods involve calculating the potential and kinetic energy of the system. These methods can be used to analyze the deflection of the quarter circle bar.
4.2.5 Finite Element Analysis
This is a numerical method used to analyze the behavior of complex structures under external loads. It involves dividing the structure into small elements and using computer software to calculate the deflection and stress in each element. Finite element analysis can be used to analyze the deflection of the quarter circle bar and obtain accurate results.
Figure 12 finite element analysis
4.3 Apparatus Curved bar apparatus Ring Vernier Calliper Meter rod Dial Indicator Gauge Weight and weight pans 4.4 Procedure Check the zero error and least count of the measuring devices. Measure the width and height of circular bars with the Vernier calliper. Also measure the diameter of the circular ring with the meter rod. Position and fix the dial indicator gauge on the ring to get the desired the deflection. Level the whole apparatus using the levelling screws at the bottom and level indicator. Apply a small load by adding a weight on the hanger. Note the deflections in the central gauge. Keep adding weights with regular increments and note the dial gauge reading for each successive addition. Note the dial gauge readings while unloading the weights one by one. Calculate the mean deflection. Now calculate the theoretical deflection by using the formula given in derivation section. Compare the actual and theoretical deflection. Find error and compare the results for the analysis and conclusion. 4.5 Observations Least Count of Vernier Calliper = 0.05 mm Least Count of dial gauge =0.01mm width of the circular ring = b = 13.5 mm Thickness of the circular ring = t = 3.5 mm Radius of the circular ring = R =100 mm Modulus of elasticity=E=210 Gpa for steel 4.6 Table and Datasheet Table 11 for deflection in quatre circular bar S Loa Deflection Deflection Mean Absolute r d n W o (N) (Experimental) (Theoretical) mm Percentage Error (%) (mm) Horizontal Vertical Horizonta Verti Horizon Vertic l cal tal al
In this section we will discuss the effect of load on the deflection. in this experiment the deflection is of two types one is vertical deflection and the other is horizontal deflection.
4.7.1 Effect of Load on Deflection
When a load is applied to a structural member, it causes the member to deform or deflect. The amount of deflection is dependent on several factors, including the type and magnitude of the load, the geometry of the member, and the material properties of the member. In the case of a quarter circle bar subjected to vertical loading, the diametrical deflection is the amount of deformation that occurs perpendicular to the direction of the load. The deflection is calculated using principles of mechanics and can be influenced by various factors, such as the modulus of elasticity, the cross-sectional area, and the length of the bar. Understanding the effect of load on deflection is essential for designing safe and efficient structures that can withstand the loads they are subjected to without experiencing excessive deformation or failure.
Deflection (Theoretical) mm Vertical Graph 6 Effect of Load on Deflection 4.8 Result and Conclusion When a quarter circle bar is subjected to vertical loading, it experiences a deflection that is dependent on the magnitude of the load applied. The diametrical deflection, which is the amount of displacement in the vertical direction of the farthest point from the center of the quarter circle, is a crucial parameter that characterizes the bar's behavior under loading. It is determined by the material properties of the bar, such as its modulus of elasticity, and the dimensions of the bar, such as its radius and thickness. The results of an experiment or simulation that investigates the diametrical deflection of a quarter circle bar can provide insights into the bar's strength and stiffness, which can be useful in engineering design and analysis. The load and the deflection has direct relation ie when the load is applied the deflection in the strip also increases but the vertical deflection is more than the horizontal deflection. The discussion of these results can involve comparing the theoretical predictions of deflection with the experimental or simulated values, analyzing the sources of error or uncertainty in the measurements, and exploring ways to improve the accuracy or reliability of the results.
Experiment No. # 05 5 Title To determine deflection components of a semi-circular bar subjected to diametrical loading. 5.1 Objective Behaviour of thin semi-circular rings under different orientations. Comparing deflection components (horizontal and Vertical) under same operating Conditions 5.2 Introduction In this section we will elaborate the main terms and concepts being used in this experiment for better understanding of this experiment.
5.2.1 Strength of Materials
Strength of Materials is a branch of engineering that deals with the behavior of materials under various loading conditions. It covers concepts such as stress, strain, elasticity, and deformation.
5.2.2 Beam Deflection
Beam deflection is the bending of a beam due to the applied loads. It is an important factor to consider in designing structures such as bridges and buildings.
5.2.3 Moment-Curvature Relationship
The moment-curvature relationship is a mathematical relationship between the bending moment and curvature of a beam. It is used to determine the behavior of a beam under different loading conditions.
5.2.4 Differential Equations
Differential equations are mathematical equations that describe the relationship between a function and its derivatives. They are used to model a wide range of physical phenomena, including the deflection of beams.
5.2.5 Boundary Conditions
Boundary conditions are the conditions that must be satisfied at the boundaries of a physical system. In the case of a semi-circular bar subjected to diametrical loading, the boundary conditions would be that the deflection is zero at the ends of the bar and that the angle of rotation is zero at the center.
5.2.6 Stresses in a Semi-Circular Bar
The stresses in a semi-circular bar can be calculated using equations that take into account the bending moment, the moment of inertia, and the radius of curvature.
5.2.7 Strains in a Semi-Circular Bar
The strains in a semi-circular bar can be calculated using equations that relate the stress to the elastic modulus of the material and the strain to the deformation of the bar.
5.2.8 Deflection Components
The deflection components of a semi-circular bar can be calculated by solving the differential equation that describes the deflection of the bar under diametrical loading, subject to the appropriate boundary conditions. The deflection components can be expressed in terms of trigonometric functions.
5.2.9 Shear Stress and Shear Strain
Shear stress is the stress that occurs when a force is applied parallel to the surface of a material. Shear strain is the deformation that occurs in response to that stress. The relationship between shear stress and shear strain is described by the material's shear modulus.
5.2.10Mohr's Circle Mohr's circle is a graphical method used to determine the principal stresses and strains in a material. It is based on the concept of a stress tensor and can be used to analyze stresses in both two and three dimensions.
5.2.11Torsion Torsion is the twisting of a material when it is subjected to a torque or moment. It is an important factor to consider in the design of structures such as drive shafts and propeller shafts.
5.2.12Finite Element Analysis
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a numerical method used to solve complex engineering problems. It involves dividing a structure into smaller elements and then applying mathematical equations to each element to determine its behavior under different loading conditions.
5.2.13Material Properties Material properties are the physical and chemical characteristics of a material that determine its behavior under different loading conditions. These properties include elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate strength, and ductility.
5.2.14Failure Criteria Failure criteria are the criteria used to determine when a material or structure will fail. There are different types of failure criteria, such as stress-based criteria and strain-based criteria.
5.2.15Design of Experiments Design of Experiments (DOE) is a statistical method used to optimize the design of experiments. It involves selecting the appropriate variables and levels to study and then analyzing the data to determine the optimal settings for those variables. 5.3 Apparatus Curved bar apparatus Semi Circular Rings Vernier Calliper Meter rod Dial Indicator Gauge Weight and weight pans 5.4 Procedure Check the zero error and least count of the measuring devices. Measure the width and height of circular bars with the Vernier calliper. Also measure the diameter of the circular ring with the meter rod. Position and fix the dial indicator gauge on the ring to get the desired the deflection. Level the whole apparatus using the levelling screws at the bottom and level indicator. Apply a small load by adding a weight on the hanger. Note the deflections in the two gauges. Keep adding weights with regular increments and note the dial gauge reading for each successive addition. Note the dial gauge readings while unloading the weights one by one. Calculate the mean deflection. 5.5 Observations 1 Least Count of Vernier Calipers = ∈¿ 128 Least Count of dial gauge = 10−3 ∈¿ Modulus of elasticity=E=29 x 106 psi for steel Deflection at the center: Horizontal deflection 2 3 δ H= WR EI Vertical deflection 3 3 δ V= WR 2 EI 5.6 Derivation Derivation of the Castigliano’s Theorem for Quarter Circular Bar The general expression of Castigliano’s theorem is as follows: s s M dM 1 dM δ=∫ × × ds=¿ ×∫ M × ×ds 0 EI dW EI 0 dW where M = is the moment induced by the force of loading, E = is the elastic modulus of the beam material, I = is the moment of inertia of the beam, dM/dW = is the change in moment with respect to the force of loading and ds = is the finite quantity of the beam over which integration is to take place.
Figure 13 derivation schematics
Because the modulus = E and the moment of inertia = I am constants, they are factored out of the integral. The work of deformation, or the moment, can be expressed as the product of the loading force, P, the radius from the center of curvature of the beam R and the sine of the angle of curvature. The moment can be expressed by the following equation: M =PRsinθ The integrating factor ds of the general Castigliano equation can be expressed as follows: ds=Rdθ The partial derivative of the work of deformation with respect to the component of the force is expressed as a function of the radius of the beam and angle of the deflected beam. For the vertical deflection, the partial derivative is written as:
( ) dM dW v =Rsinθ
( ) dM dW H =R (1−cosθ ) Substituting all three values in integral for vertical deflection
( ) π 2 L 1 PR ∫ (sinθ) dθ+∫ PR × Rdy 3 2 δ v= EI 0 0
Integrating w.r.t theta
1 3 π 2 δ v= ( PR + PR L) EI 4 In our case L=0
1 3π δ v= PR EI 4 It vertical deflection Similarly we can solve for the horizontal deflection 1 δ H= ¿ EI
1 δ H= ¿ EI In our case L=0
1 3 Equation 2 δ H= PR EI
M θ=−w ( 1−cosθ ) + X (Rsinθ )
M θ=X ( Rsinθ )−WR (1−cosθ) Equation 3
Where X and W are the horizontal and vertical components of the load respectively.
M θ=−W (1−cosθ ) Equation 4
Now differentiating equation 7 w.r.t W and X, vertical and horizontal component of applied load respectively. ∂M =−R (1−cosθ ) ∂W And ∂M =R (1−cosθ ) ∂W Now, The Castiglione’s theorem is given as: L M 2 Equation 5 U =∫ ds 0 2 EI
From the Castiglione’s deflection theorem we write;
∂U Equation 6 δG= ∂G
Where G is any load which produces deflection in its direction in the curved beam. Solving 3 and 4 together we get the following relation for the deflection in the curved beam in the direction of applied load; L 2 M δ=∫ ds 0 EI Which can be simplified as following by substituting ds=R dθ ; L 2 M δ=∫ Rdθ 0 EI Writing in the partial differential form we have the following relation for deflection; π M ∂M δ=∫ × Rdθ 0 EI ∂X ∂M Now putting, =Rsinθ and M θ=−WR ( 1−cosθ ) ∈theabove relation we get ; ∂X π 1 δ H =∫ (−WR ( 1−cosθ ) ) × Rsinθ × Rdθ 0 EI Solving the integral we get the following relation; −2 3 1 3 δ H= W R − × W R (1−1) EI EI So; 2 3 Equation 7 δ H= W R EI
Which is the required component of deflection in the semi-circular ring in the horizontal direction. Now for the vertical component of the deflection in semi-circular ring as a result of applied verticall. π M ∂M δ v =∫ × Rdθ 0 EI ∂ X
∂M Now putting, =−R (1−cosθ ) and M θ=−WR ( 1−cosθ ) ∈theabove relation we get ; ∂W π 1 δ V =∫ (−WR ( 1−cosθ ) ) ×(−R ( 1−cosθ ) )× Rdθ 0 EI
π π π π 1 1 1 1 δ V =∫ W R dθ−∫ W R cosθdθ−¿∫ W R cosθdθ+∫ W R cos θdθ ¿ 3 3 3 3 2
0 EI 0 EI 0 EI 0 EI 3 1 3 W R δ V= W R (π )+ (π ) EI 2 EI 3π 3 δ V= WR EI Which is the required component of deflection in the vertical deflection. 5.6.1 Vertical Orientation of ring Consider a semi-circular ring in the vertical orientation subjected to point load in the vertical direction. The deflection in this case will again have two components, horizontal and vertical. Writing the moment at a section on the ring making an angle @ with the horizontal axes due to the horizontal (X) and vertical components (W) of the load. M θ=W ¿ Equation 8
Simplifying;
M θ=W [Rsinθ− XR ( 1−cosθ ) ]
In our case we do not have any horizontal load so putting X=0 we reduce the moment formula to the following;
M θ=W Rsinθ Now differentiating the moment formula 12 w.r.t W and X , horizontal and vertical components of the load on the semi-circular ring;
∂M Equation 9 =Rsinθ ∂W
And ∂M Equation 10 =R (1−cos θ) ∂W
Now applying the Castiglione’s theorem to find the deflection in curved beam; π M ∂M δ=∫ × Rdθ 0 EI ∂G This formula gives us the deflection in curved beam in the direction of load component G, so to find the deflection in the semi-circular ring in the direction of components (horizontal and vertical) of the applied ad we have the following relations; π M ∂M δ H =∫ × Rdθ 0 EI ∂G This is the required deflection in the curved beam in the direction of horizontal component of the load, (X). The putting the values of Mθ=WRsine and R (1-cose) in the above formula we have our desired deflection component in the horizontal direction; π 1 δ H =∫ ( R ( 1−cosθ ) ) ×WRsinθ × Rdθ 0 EI Solving we get; π π 1 1 δ H =∫ [W R sinθ]dθ−∫ ( W R3 ( 2 sinθcosθ ) ) dθ 3
0 2 EI 0 EI Solving the integral and applying the limits we reach the following formula; −1 3 δ H= W R (−1−1) EI 2 3 Equation A δ H= W R EI
And for the vertical component of the deflection in the semi-circular ring we have the following relation, we in utilize the interpretation of Castiglione’s theorem but this time in terms of Vertical component of the plied load on the curved beam: π M ∂M δ V =∫ × Rdθ 0 E I ∂W ∂M Now putting, =Rcosθ and M θ=W ( cosθ ) ∈the above relation we get ; ∂W π 1 δ V =∫ WRsinθ× Rsinθ × Rdθ 0 EI
Simplifying; π 1 δ V =∫ 3 [W R sinθ]dθ 0 EI 2 1−cos 2θ Upon replacing sin θ= we get; 2 π 1 1−cos 2 θ δ V =∫ [W R × 3 ]dθ 0 EI 2 Solving the integral and applying limits we get the following relation; π 3 Equation B δ V= WR 2 EI
Which is the desired component of deflection in the semi-circular ring in vertical orientation, subjected to a vertical direction.
5.7 Table and Datasheet
table 12 Deflection components of HSLA ring against loads applied Configuration of ring: Horizontal
Sr.No load δ exp(mm) Def(TH) errors
Load Loading Unloading Averag e
(lb) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 0 0.25 0.5 0.375 0.3 20
2 0.5 0.69 0.87 0.78 0.6 23
3 1 1.07 1.27 1.17 0.9 23
4 1.5 1.44 1.57 1.505 1.216 19
5 2 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.52 6
Table 13 Deflection components of HSLA ring against loads applied Configuration of ring: Vertical
Sr.No load δ exp(mm) Def(TH) errors
Load
Loading Unloading Averag
e
(lb) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 0 0.57 0.65 0.61 0.23 62
2 0.5 1.65 1.8 1.72 0.46 73
3 1 2.52 2.65 2.58 0.69 73
4 1.5 3.4 3.55 3.47 0.92 73
5 2 3.84 3.84 3.84 1.15 70
5.8 Parametric Analysis
The results of the experiment confirm that the deflection of a semi-circular bar under diametrical loading is a function of both the radial and tangential components. The radial deflection is caused by the axial stress in the bar, while the tangential deflection is caused by the bending stress in the bar. The ratio of the tangential to radial deflection can be used to determine the Poisson's ratio of the material. Deflection of Semi circular bar 4.5 4 3.5 3 Deflection (mm)
5.9 Result and Conclusion The experiment on the deflection of a semi-circular bar under diametrical loading has confirmed the importance of both radial and tangential components in determining its deflection. The axial stress causes radial deflection while the bending stress causes tangential deflection, and the ratio between these deflection components can provide insight into the material's Poisson's ratio. Overall, this experiment has demonstrated the usefulness of basic principles of mechanics and a simple setup for obtaining important information on the design and analysis of structures incorporating semi-circular bars. Experiment No. # 06 6 Title To determine diametrical deflection of a circular bar subjected to diametrical loading.
6.1 Objective To analyse the effect of loading in circular ring with different geometrical parameters. To compare deflection components in rings experimentally. 6.2 Introduction The determination of diametrical deflection of a quarter circular bar subjected to vertical loading involves several topics in the background theory, including:
6.2.1 Strength of Materials
This is the study of the behavior of materials under external loads. It is important to understand the properties of the material of the quarter circular bar, such as its modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, and Poisson's ratio, as well as its stress-strain relationship.
6.2.2 Bending of Beams
The quarter circular bar can be considered as a beam, and the bending moment caused by the vertical loading results in a curvature of the bar. The theory of bending of beams helps to determine the deflection of the quarter circular bar under this bending moment.
6.2.3 Circular Arcs
The quarter circular bar is a circular arc, and its geometry plays a significant role in the determination of its deflection. The properties of circular arcs, such as their radius, arc length, and central angle, must be considered.
6.2.4 Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia is a property of a cross-section that measures its resistance to bending. The moment of inertia of the quarter circular bar's cross-section is required to determine its deflection.
6.2.5 Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions of the problem determine how the quarter circular bar is supported and constrained. The deflection of the bar is affected by the support and constraint conditions at its ends.
6.2.6 Differential Equations
The theory of differential equations is used to derive the equation that governs the deflection of the quarter circular bar. Solving this equation requires knowledge of calculus and differential equations.
6.2.7 Numerical Methods
In some cases, it may be necessary to use numerical methods, such as finite element analysis, to determine the deflection of the quarter circular bar. These methods involve discretizing the bar into smaller elements and solving the equations numerically. 6.3 Apparatus Curved bar apparatus Quarter circular ring Vernier calliper Meter rod Dial Indicator Gauge Weight and weight pans 6.4 Procedure Check the zero error and least count of the measuring devices. Measure the width and thickness of Quarter circular bars with the Vernier calliper. Also measure the diameter (inside and outside) of the circular ring with the meter rod. Position and fix the dial indicator gauge on the ring to get the desired the deflection. Level the whole apparatus using the levelling screws at the bottom and level indicator. Apply a small load by adding a weight on the hanger. Note the deflections in the dial indicator gauges. (Horizontal and vertical) Keep adding weights with regular increments and note the dial gauge reading for each successive addition. Note the dial gauge readings while unloading the weights one by one. Calculate the mean deflection in horizontal and vertical directions. 6.5 Observations Least count of Vernier calipers = 0.05mm Least count of dial gauge = 0.001in Width of circular ring = b = 0.9375in Thickness of the circular ring = h = 0.125in Radius of circular ring = R = 5.95in Modulus of elasticity = E = 29 × 106 psi Moment of inertia = I = = 1.52 × 10–4 in4
6.6 Derivation Figure 14 derivation schematic
Consider a thin curved beam of radius R, rectangular cross section having area bd subjected to force F. In order to derive the formula for its deflection, let us consider its top left quadrant as shown in figure. The section is subjected to a: i. Vertical load V which is equal to half of the applied load F ii. Horizontal load H (which is a dummy load) iii. Moment Mo in order to maintain the equilibrium Applying the condition for equilibrium, we have ∑M=0 OR, M + Mo – VRsinθ – HR (1 – cosθ) = 0 M = VRsinθ + HR (1 – cosθ) – Mo For H = 0, M = VRsinθ – Mo = Rsinθ and = –1 Using Castigliano’s theorem, we have π L 2
δV = ∫ 0 M ∂M . EI ∂ V ds = 1 ∫( EI 0 VR sin θ – M o) R sin θR d θ = π 4(VR – M o R2 EI ) and π L 2
δM = ∫ o M ∂M . 0 EI ∂ M o ds = 1 ∫ EI 0 ( ( π VR sin θ – M o ) ( –1 ) R d θ = – VR + M o 2 R ) EI Since there is no rotation, therefore, δMo = 0 Mo = VR Thus, δV becomes δV = Putting V = , the diametrical deflection coaxial with the load is given as: δth = 2δV = 6.7 Table and Datasheet Table 14 Results of circular ring
Sr Load Deflection (𝛿𝑒𝑥𝑝..) Deflection %
No (𝛿𝑡ℎ.) Difference
(Ib) Loading Unloading Mean π
(in) (in) (in) ( – 2/ π ) R3W/EI 4
1 1 0.005 0.0078 0.0066 0.0057 13
2 2 0.0131 0.014 0.0137 0.011 19
3 3 0.025 0.024 0.025 0.0171 32
4 4 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.0228 29
5 5 0.036 0.036 0.036 0.0285 22
6.8 Parametric Analysis
The graph shows that the diametrical deflection produced in a circular bar varies directly with the diametrical load applied to it within the elastic limit of the bar. The difference between the actual and theoretical diametrical deflection may be due to following reasons: Friction between the string carrying hanger on which load is placed and the surface of pulley. In order to reduce this factor, the surface of pulley should be lubricated on regular basis. Error in measuring the diameter of curved bar. Since diameter of circle is the chord passing through the center of circle and there is not any marking on the bar from which the diameter of wire can be measured, therefore, the value of diameter is not exact and small difference may cause large error since the deflection varies directly with cube of diameter Deflection of circular bar 6
4 Load (lb)
0 0.0066 0.0137 0.025 0.031 0.036 Deflection (in)
Graph 8 Deflection of circular bar
6.9 Result and Conclusion
As the load applied to the ring increases, the mean deflection of the ring also increases. This is evident from the fact that the mean deflection values for all loads (1 to 5 Ib) are increasing in a progressive manner. The percentage difference between the theoretical and experimental values of deflection also increases with increasing load. This indicates that the theoretical model used to calculate the deflection may not be perfectly accurate, especially at higher loads. The data shows that the mean deflection values for loads 1 and 2 Ib are relatively lower compared to the values for loads 3 to 5 Ib. This may be due to the fact that the ring is still in the elastic region for lower loads, where the deflection is proportional to the load. As the load increases, the ring starts to enter the plastic region, where the deflection is no longer linearly proportional to the load. Experiment No. # 07 7 Title To Perform Rockwell hardness Test and Determine Hardness Number of given Specimen material. 7.1 Objective The main objectives of this experiment are to: Find out Rockwell hardness number of different specimens To identify the material type with the help of Rockwell hardness number 7.2 Introduction In this section we will elaborate the main terms and concepts being used in this experiment for better understanding of this experiment. Rockwell hardness testing is a widely used method for measuring the hardness of materials. Hardness is an important material property that describes a material's ability to resist deformation and wear. The Rockwell hardness test measures the depth of penetration of an indenter into a material under a specific load, which is used to determine the material's hardness.
7.2.1 Rockwell Hardness Number
The Rockwell hardness number (HR) is a unitless number that is calculated based on the depth of penetration of the indenter into the material. The higher the HR value, the harder the material is considered to be.
7.2.2 Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell hardness test involves using a specialized machine that applies a load to an indenter that is pressed into the material being tested. The depth of penetration is measured and used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number. There are different scales that can be used in the Rockwell test, depending on the type of material being tested and the expected hardness range.
7.2.3 Indenter The indenter is the tool used to make the impression on the material being tested. There are different types of indenters used in the Rockwell test, including diamond and tungsten carbide. The type of indenter used depends on the type of material being tested.
7.2.4 Load The load is the force applied to the indenter during the test. The load used in the Rockwell test can vary depending on the type of material being tested and the expected hardness range. The load is usually applied for a specific amount of time to ensure consistent results. 7.2.5 Minor Load A smaller load used in the Rockwell hardness test to initially depress the indenter into the surface of the material being tested.
7.2.6 Major Load
A larger load used in the Rockwell hardness test to further depress the indenter into the surface of the material being tested.
7.2.7 Hardness The ability of a material to resist deformation or indentation, which can be measured using various hardness testing methods.
7.2.8 Depth of Penetration
The depth of the indentation made by the indenter on the surface of the material being tested, which is measured to determine the Rockwell hardness number.
7.2.9 Scale The designation of the specific combination of load and indenter type used in the Rockwell hardness test. For example, the B scale uses a 1/16-inch diameter steel ball and a 100 kg load.
7.2.10Accuracy The degree of closeness between the measured value obtained in the Rockwell hardness test and the true value of the hardness of the material being tested.
7.2.11Repeatability The ability of the Rockwell hardness test to produce consistent results when the test is performed multiple times on the same material.
7.2.12Reproducibility The ability of the Rockwell hardness test to produce consistent results when the test is performed by different operators using different equipment.
7.2.13Calibration The process of adjusting the Rockwell hardness testing equipment to ensure that the test results are accurate and reliable.
7.2.14Hardness test There are a large variety of methods used for determining the hardness of a substance. 1. Scratch test 2. Rebound test 3. Indentation test 4. Mohs Hardness Test
7.2.15Scratch test Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to fracture or permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The principle is that an object made of a harder material will scratch an object made of a softer material. When testing coatings, scratch hardness refers to the force necessary to cut through the film to the substrate. The most common test is Mohs scale.
7.2.16Mohs Hardness Test
The mohs hardness test involves observing weather a material is scratched by a substance of known or defined hardness. To give numerical values to this physical property, minerals are ranked along the Mohs scale, which is composed of 10 minerals that have been given arbitrary hardness values. Mohs hardness test, while greatly facilitating the identification of minerals in the field, is not suitable for accurately gauging the hardness of industrial materials such as steel or ceramics. table 15 for hardness no and reference material Hardness No. Reference Mineral
The Scleroscope test is very old test that involves dropping a diamond tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass tube under the force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto the test specimen. The height of the rebound travel of the hammer is measured on a graduated scale. The scale of the rebound is arbitrary chosen and consists on shore units, divided into 100 parts, which represent the average rebound from pure hardened high-carbon steel. The scale is continued higher than 100 to include metals having greater hardness. The shore scleroscope measure hardness in terms of the elasticity of the material and the hardness number depend on the height to which the hammer rebounds, the harder the material the higher the rebound. The Rebound Hardness Test method is a recent advancement that builds on the scleroscope. There are a variety of electronic instruments on the market that measures the loss of energy of the impact body. These instruments typically use a spring to accelerate a spherical, tungsten carbide tipped mass towards the surface of the test object. When the mass contacts the surface, it has a specific kinetic energy and the impact produces an indentation (plastic deformation) on the surface which takes some of this energy from the impact body. The impact body will lose more energy and it rebound velocity will be less when a larger indentation is produced on softer material. The velocities of the impact body before and after impact are measure and the loss of velocity is related to Brinell, Rockwell or other common hardness value.
7.2.18Indentation test It has following types which are discussed in detail:
7.2.19Micro-indentation Micro-indentation hardness testing (or micro-hardness testing) is a method for measuring the hardness of a material on a microscope scale. A precision diamond indenter is impressed into the material at loads from a few grams to 1 kilogram. The impression length, measured microscopically, and the test load are used to calculate a hardness value.
7.2.20Macro-indentation Macro-indentation hardness testing (or macro-hardness testing) is a method for measuring the hardness of a material on a macroscopic scale. It has following types of tests 1. Rockwell test 2. Brinell test 3. Vickors test
7.2.21Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on the net increase in depth of impression as a load is applied. Hardness numbers have no units and are commonly given in the R, L, M, E and K scales. The higher the number in each of the scales means the harder the material. Hardness has been variously defined as resistance to local penetration, scratching, machining, wear or abrasion, and yielding. The multiplicity of definitions, and corresponding multiplicity of hardness measuring instruments, together with the lack of a fundamental definition, indicates that hardness may not be a fundamental property of a material, but rather a composite one including yield strength, work hardening, true tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and others. In the Rockwell method of hardness testing, the depth of penetration of an indenter under certain arbitrary test conditions is determined. The indenter may either be a steel ball of some specified diameter or a spherical diamond-tipped cone of 120° angle and 0.2 mm tip radius, called Brale. The type of indenter and the test load determine the hardness scale (A, B, C, etc.). A minor load of 10 kg is first applied, which causes an initial penetration and holds the indenter in place. Then, the dial is set to zero and the major load is applied. Upon removal of the major load, the depth reading is taken while the minor load is still on. The hardness number may then be read directly from the scale. The hardness of ceramic substrates can be determined by the Rockwell hardness test, according to the specifications of ASTM E-18. This test measures the difference in depth caused by two different forces, using a dial gauge. Using standard hardness conversion tables, the Rockwell hardness value is determined for the load applied, the diameter of the indenter, and the indentation depth. The results obtained from this test are a useful measure of relative resistance to indentation of various grades of plastics. However, the Rockwell hardness test does not serve well as a predictor of other properties such as strength or resistance to scratches, abrasion, or wear, and should not be used alone for product design specifications. The Rockwell hardness tester to measure the hardness of metal measures resistance to penetration like the Brinell test, but in the Rockwell case, the depth of the impression is measured rather than the diametric area. With the Rockwell tester, the hardness is indicated directly on the scale attached to the machine. This dial like scale is really a depth gauge, graduated in special units. The Rockwell hardness test is the most used and versatile of the hardness tests. Table 16 types of load in Rockwell hardness test Major Indenter Test Material Load Type 60 kg Diamond cone A Cemented carbides, thin steel sheets, shallow case-hardened steel, and hard cast irons
100 kg 1/16" (1.588 mm) steel B Aluminum alloys, copper alloys, soft steel, and brass ball
150 kg Diamond cone C Hardened steel, titanium alloys, deep case-hardened steel, and malleable iron
15 kg Diamond cone N Cemented carbides, thin steel sheets, and shallow case-hardened steel
45 kg 1/16" (1.588 mm) steel T Copper alloys, soft steel, and aluminum alloys ball
120 kg Diamond cone D Hardened steel, tempered steel, and annealed steels
100 kg 1/8" (3.175 mm) steel E Aluminum, copper alloys, soft steel, and brass ball
60 kg Diamond cone F Case hardened steel, shallow and hard cast iron, and medium steel
30 kg Diamond cone G Annealed copper alloys and soft steel
15 kg 1/16" (1.588 mm) steel H Case hardened steel, and shallow and medium hard cast iron ball 7.2.22Components of Rockwell Hardness Tester Lever Skirt Anvil support (table) Hydraulic System Weight and weight pans Dial indicator scale Trip lever 7.3 Apparatus Rockwell Hardness Tester Specimen
Figure 15 experimental setup
7.4 Procedure Clean the surface of anvil table to remove dust particles and oil to avoid slippage. Clean the surface of specimen whose hardness number is to be determined. Insert the steel ball type indenter in the split chuck. In order to remove the effect of surface roughness, apply a minor load of 10kg. To apply it, first adjust the anvil table to make indenter touch the surface of specimen then apply load of 10kg. Now apply major load of 100kg through the release un-release valve in accordance with the selected scale B. After passing through a dwell time of 15 seconds remove the major load. Remove the specimen and observe the reading on the dial scale. The final reading shown on the dial scale is the hardness no. of the tested specimen. 7.5 Observations Following are the some observations which are recorded before the start of the experiment.
7.5.1 Least counts
Least count of microscope scale = 0.05mm
7.5.2 Geometric Parameters of Indenter
Diameter of indenter made of steel = 1/16 inch 7.6 Table and Datasheet Table 17 Rockwell hardness no for brass No. of Major Load Minor Diameter of Ball Material Rockwell Obs. applied (kg) load (kg) Indenter (in) tested Hardness Number
1 100 10 1/16 Brass 59
2 100 10 1/16 Brass 60 3 100 10 1/16 Brass 62
Mean Rockwell Hardness Number = 60
7.7 Result and Conclusion
Based on the Rockwell hardness test conducted on the given specimen material, the hardness number obtained was 60. This indicates that the material is brass, which is a commonly used alloy consisting of copper and zinc. The hardness value of 60 suggests that the material is relatively hard, but still relatively easy to machine and form. The results of the Rockwell hardness test confirm the mechanical properties of the specimen material and provide valuable information for its potential application in various industries. Overall, the test results indicate that the given specimen material is suitable for its intended purpose. Experiment No. # 08 8 Title To Perform Brinell Hardness Test and Determine Hardness Number of given Specimen. 8.1 Objective Determine HB (Brinell Hardness number) of various Specimens. 8.2 Introduction In this section we will elaborate the main terms and concepts being used in this experiment for better understanding of this experiment.
8.2.1 Brinell hardness test
The Brinell hardness test is a method used to measure the hardness of a material by indenting a spherical ball into the surface of the material and measuring the resulting impression. It was developed by Swedish engineer Johan August Brinell in 1900.
8.2.2 Principle The principle of the Brinell hardness test is based on the indentation hardness, which is the ability of a material to resist permanent deformation when a hard object is pressed into its surface. The diameter of the resulting impression is then used to calculate the Brinell hardness number (BHN) of the material.
8.2.3 Equipment The Brinell hardness test requires a hardness testing machine, which consists of a hydraulic press, a hardened steel ball, and a measuring microscope. The diameter of the ball used in the test typically ranges from 1 to 10 mm, depending on the hardness of the material being tested.
8.2.4 Sample Preparation
Before conducting the test, the surface of the material being tested must be prepared by grinding or polishing to remove any surface irregularities or contamination that could affect the accuracy of the test.
8.2.5 Test Procedure
To perform the Brinell hardness test, the material is placed on the anvil of the hardness testing machine, and a steel ball is pressed into the surface of the material with a predetermined force for a specified amount of time. The depth of the resulting impression is measured using a microscope.
8.2.6 Calculation The Brinell hardness number (BHN) is calculated by dividing the load applied to the ball by the surface area of the resulting impression. The equation is: BHN = (Load / (π × Diameter of ball × Depth of impression)).
8.2.7 Advantages The Brinell hardness test is advantageous because it can measure the hardness of a wide range of materials, including metals, nonmetals, and composites. It is also relatively easy to perform and provides reliable and repeatable results.
8.2.8 Disadvantage One of the main disadvantages of the Brinell hardness test is that it requires a relatively large and heavy testing machine, making it difficult to use in some applications. It also produces a relatively large impression, which may not be desirable in some situations.
8.2.9 Applications The Brinell hardness test is commonly used in manufacturing, quality control, and material selection applications to determine the hardness of materials such as metals, plastics, and ceramics.
8.2.10Limitations While the Brinell hardness test is useful for measuring the hardness of many materials, it does have some limitations. For example, it may not be appropriate for materials that are too soft or too hard, or for materials that have an uneven or rough surface. Additionally, it is not a measure of the material's strength or toughness, which are separate material properties.
8.2.11Hardness Units The Brinell hardness number (BHN) is expressed in units of kilograms per square millimeter (kg/mm²) or in some cases, in units of Newtons per square millimeter (N/mm²).
8.2.12Factors Affecting Results
The results of the Brinell hardness test can be affected by several factors, including the diameter of the ball, the load applied, the time of application, and the surface condition of the material.
8.2.13Standardization The Brinell hardness test is standardized by several organizations, including the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), to ensure consistent and accurate results.
8.2.14Comparison with Other Hardness Tests
The Brinell hardness test is one of several methods used to measure hardness, including the Vickers hardness test, the Rockwell hardness test, and the Knoop hardness test. Each of these tests has its advantages and limitations and is used in different applications. 8.2.15Conversion Charts Conversion charts are available to convert Brinell hardness numbers to other hardness scales, such as Rockwell or Vickers, making it easier to compare results obtained using different hardness tests.
8.2.16Quality Control The Brinell hardness test is commonly used in quality control applications to ensure that the material being produced or used meets the required hardness specifications.
8.2.17Nondestructive Testing The Brinell hardness test is a nondestructive testing method, meaning that it does not damage the material being tested. This is useful in situations where the material cannot be damaged or destroyed, such as in the case of finished products or historical artifacts.
8.2.18Limitations for Thin Materia
For thin materials, the Brinell hardness test may not be suitable because the depth of the indentation can be significant compared to the thickness of the material, leading to inaccurate results.
8.2.19Surface Roughness The surface roughness of the material being tested can affect the accuracy of the Brinell hardness test, as surface roughness can lead to uneven loading and impression depths.
8.2.20Materials Selection The Brinell hardness test can be used in materials selection, as it provides information on the material's resistance to deformation and wear, which is important in applications such as machine components and tools.
8.2.21Components Lever: To move up or down the anvil support. Skirt: It is a threaded part of the machine which connects anvil to lever. Anvil Support: It is the table on which specimen is to be placed Hydraulic System: It converts the mechanical effort into hydraulic load. Weight & Weight pans: For the application of the effort. Trip Lever: It is used to engage and disengage the load. After the dwell time of 15 seconds, it should be disengaged. Drill Chuck: used to fit the indenter. Indenter: Used to indent the specimen it is a 10-mm spherical ball in this case. 8.3 Formula derivation BHN =Brinell hardness number P=load on theindenting tool(kg )
D=diameter of steel ball∨indenter (mm)
d=measure diameter at therim of theimpression(indentation)(mm)
8.5 Procedure Clean the surface of anvil table from dust particles and oil/grease to remove slippage. Clean the surface of indenter from dust particles. Insert the indenter of 10mm diameter in the split chuck. Apply load of kg on the specimen through indenter. Selection of load depends on the scale that we choose to perform. Keep the load applied for dwell time of 10 seconds and then remove the load. Measure the diameter of the indentation produced by microscope. 8.6 Observations Least count of microscope scale = 0.05mm Diameter of indenter = D =10mm
8.7 Table and Datasheet
Table 18 biennial hardness number results
No. of Load applied P Indentation Diameter d Indentation Depth B.H.N = P/π Obs. (kg) (mm) t = [D-(D2-d2)1/2]/2 (D*t) (mm)
1 500 5 0.670 23.78
2 500 4.9 0.641 24.82 3 500 5.1 0.699 22.76
Average BHN= 23.78
8.8 Result and Conclusion
The Brinell hardness test is a common method used to determine the hardness of a material. In this test, a hardened steel ball is pressed into the surface of the material and the resulting indentation is measured. The hardness number is determined based on the diameter of the indentation and the load applied. In the given case, the average Brinell hardness number (BHN) of the specimen was found to be 23.78. This value indicates that the material has a relatively low hardness, which could be due to various factors such as the composition, processing, and heat treatment of the material. It is important to note that the Brinell hardness test has limitations and is not suitable for all materials. It is also sensitive to factors such as the surface finish and the presence of residual stresses, which can affect the accuracy of the results. Therefore, it is important to use this test in conjunction with other methods to fully characterize the mechanical properties of a material. In conclusion, the Brinell hardness test is a useful tool for determining the hardness of materials. The results obtained for the given specimen indicate that the material has a relatively low hardness, which could have implications for its performance in certain applications. However, further testing and analysis would be required to fully understand the mechanical properties of the material. Experiment No. # 09 9 Title To Perform Charpy Impact Test and Determine CIV of Given Specimen 9.1 Objective Finding out Impact Energy Absorbed in the V-Notched Specimen, measuring impact strength and modulus of toughness. 9.2 Introduction In this section we will elaborate the main terms and concepts being used in this experiment for better understanding of this experiment.
9.2.1 The Charpy Impact Test
The Charpy Impact Test is a common method used to determine the toughness of materials. It measures the amount of energy absorbed by a material when it is struck by a pendulum hammer. The results of this test can help predict how materials will behave under different conditions.
9.2.2 Test specimen
The specimen used in the Charpy Impact Test is typically a rectangular bar with a standardized notch cut into it. The size and orientation of the notch can affect the results of the test.
9.2.3 Impact velocity
The impact velocity used in the Charpy Impact Test can affect the results. The velocity is typically set to a constant value to ensure consistent results.
9.2.4 Pendulum weight
The weight of the pendulum used in the Charpy Impact Test can affect the amount of energy delivered to the specimen. The weight is typically standardized to ensure consistent results.
9.2.5 Pendulum height
The height from which the pendulum is dropped can affect the amount of energy delivered to the specimen. The height is typically set to a standardized value to ensure consistent results.
9.2.6 Notch type
There are different types of notches that can be used in the Charpy Impact Test, including V- notch, U-notch, and keyhole notch. The type of notch used can affect the results.
9.2.7 Temperature The temperature at which the Charpy Impact Test is conducted can affect the results. At low temperatures, some materials may become brittle and fail more easily. 9.2.8 Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature The Charpy Impact Test can be used to determine the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature of a material. This is the temperature at which a material switches from being ductile to brittle.
9.2.9 Test results
The results of the Charpy Impact Test are typically reported as the energy absorbed by the specimen. This value can be used to compare the toughness of different materials.
9.2.10Impact energy The impact energy measured by the Charpy Impact Test is the amount of energy absorbed by the specimen when it is struck by the pendulum. This value can be used to compare the toughness of different materials.
9.2.11Impact strength: The impact strength of a material is a measure of its ability to resist impact. The Charpy Impact Test can be used to determine the impact strength of a material.
9.2.12Material properties The Charpy Impact Test can be used to determine the toughness, resilience, and ductility of a material. These properties can affect the material's performance in different applications.
9.2.13Applications The Charpy Impact Test is used in a variety of industries, including aerospace, automotive, construction, and manufacturing. It can be used to evaluate the toughness of materials used in these industries.
9.2.14Advantages The Charpy Impact Test is a simple and cost-effective method for measuring the toughness of materials. It can provide valuable information about material properties.
9.2.15Limitations The Charpy Impact Test has some limitations. For example, it may not accurately represent the behavior of materials under certain conditions, such as high strain rates.
9.2.16Standards The Charpy Impact Test is standardized by different organizations, such as ASTM and ISO. These standards ensure that the test is conducted consistently and the results are comparable. 9.3 Factors affecting fracture toughness The fracture toughness of a material depends on various factors, such as its microstructure, composition, temperature, loading rate, and the presence of defects or stress concentrations. Understanding these factors and their influence on fracture toughness is crucial for designing and selecting materials that can withstand the stresses and strains encountered in real-world applications. In this section, we will discuss some of the key factors that affect fracture toughness and their implications for material selection and design.
9.3.1 Ductility More the yield point is and more the toughness and more the ductility more the material will have fracture toughness
9.3.2 Notch Reason of notch creation: notch is created to localize the stress so that stress is concentrated and material will have more chances to break at that point. Notch size and shape affect the fracture toughness.
9.3.3 Temperature BCC (body centered cubic) structures have increased impact toughness when its temperature is increased. FCC (face centered cubic) structures have no effect on impact strength when its temperature is increased. 9.4 Formula derivation ∆ E=E ₁−E ₂
9.6 Procedure Measure the cross-sectional area and height of the specimen. Measure the length, width and depth of the V- shaped notch. Place the specimen on the supports of Charpy impact tester with the help of centering device. Raise the metal pendulum up to 138 angle of attack from the vertical position. Unlock the pendulum by lifting the locking pin so the pendulum falls freely and strike the specimen. After striking the specimen, the pendulum continues its motion and forms angle β on the opposite side. This angle is measured with help of dial indicator scale mounted on the tester installed. 9.7 Observations Least count of Dial Indicator Scale = 0.5 Least count of Vernier Calliper =0.05 mm
9.7.1 Parameters of Pendulum
Mass = m = 42 kg Length = L = 696 mm = 0.696 m
9.7.2 Geometrical Parameters of specimen (Mild steel)
Length = 55mm = 0.055m Width= b = 10 mm = 0.01m Heigh= 10 mm = 0.01m
9.7.3 Geometrical parameters of notch
Depth of notch= d = 2mm V-notch angle = 45 9.8 Specimen calculations Impact Energy Absorbed=∆ E=mg ( H−h )=mgL (cosẞ−cosa)
∆ E=42∗9.81∗0.696(cos 70−cos 138)
∆ E=310.87 J
∆E Impact Strength= Effective cross section area
310.87 6 J Impact Strength= =3.11∗10 2 0.01∗0.01 m
∆E Modulus of Toughness/Charpy Impact Value=MOT ∨CIV = Effective volume of specimen
310.87 6 J MOT ∨CIV = =56.52∗10 3 0.055∗0.01∗0.01 m
MJ MOT ∨CIV =56.52 3 m
9.9 Table and Datasheet
Table 19 for Charpy impact test No. of Degree Degrees Impact Impact Modulus of Toughness/Charpy Obs. s β energy (J) Strength Impact Value (MJ/m3) a (MJ/m2)
Mean Impact Strength = 3.06 MJ/m2 Mean Modulus of Toughness/Charpy Impact Value = 55.69 MJ/m3
9.10Discussion and comparison with values in literature
The Impact Strength of a material is a measure of its ability to resist sudden impact loading. In the case of the mild steel specimen, the Impact Strength is 3.06 MJ/m2, indicating that the material has a high resistance to sudden impact loading. To compare this value with some reference values quoted in the literature, it is essential to consider the specific alloy and manufacturing process used to produce the specimen. However, in general, the Impact Strength of mild steel can range from 0.7 to 7.5 MJ/m2, depending on factors such as the carbon content and heat treatment of the material. Similarly, the Modulus of Toughness or Charpy Impact Value (MOT/CIV) of the mild steel specimen, which is 55.69 MJ/m3, can also be compared with reference values quoted in the literature. For example, the MOT/CIV of low carbon steel can range from 25 to 100 MJ/m3, depending on the specific alloy and manufacturing process used. Overall, the results of the Charpy Impact Test indicate that the mild steel specimen has a high Impact Strength and Modulus of Toughness, which are desirable properties for materials used in applications that require resistance to sudden impact loading. However, it is important to note that the specific properties of a material can vary depending on factors such as the alloy, manufacturing process, and testing conditions, so it is important to consider these factors when comparing the properties of different materials. To further compare the Impact Strength and Modulus of Toughness or Charpy Impact Value of the mild steel specimen with reference values quoted in the literature, we can look at some examples: The Impact Strength of ASTM A36 steel, which is a commonly used mild steel, is typically in the range of 2.5 to 7.5 MJ/m2. Therefore, the Impact Strength of the mild steel specimen in this case falls within this range. The Modulus of Toughness or Charpy Impact Value of ASTM A36 steel is typically in the range of 20 to 50 J/cm3 or 20 to 50 MJ/m3. The Modulus of Toughness or Charpy Impact Value of the mild steel specimen in this case, which is 55.69 MJ/m3, is higher than the upper end of this range, indicating that the material is tougher than ASTM A36 steel. The Impact Strength of AISI 1045 steel, which is another commonly used mild steel, is typically in the range of 1.5 to 4.5 MJ/m2. Therefore, the Impact Strength of the mild steel specimen in this case is higher than the upper end of this range. The Modulus of Toughness or Charpy Impact Value of AISI 1045 steel is typically in the range of 20 to 45 J/cm3 or 20 to 45 MJ/m3. The Modulus of Toughness or Charpy Impact Value of the mild steel specimen in this case, which is 55.69 MJ/m3, is higher than the upper end of this range, indicating that the material is tougher than AISI 1045 steel.
Table 20 for material and their impact strength
Material Impact Strength Modulus of Toughness or Charpy Impact Value (MJ/m3) (MJ/m2) Mild Steel Specimen 3.06 55.69
The mild steel specimen demonstrates robustness, as evidenced by its high Impact Energy of 306.35 J and Impact Strength of 3.06 MJ/m², indicating resilience against forceful impacts. Additionally, its Modulus of Toughness, measured at 55.69 MJ/m³, highlights its ability to absorb energy before fracturing, making it a suitable choice for applications requiring durability. During high-velocity collisions, mild steel exhibits ductile fracture, absorbing more energy through plastic deformation compared to carbon steel's brittle fracture. This quality renders mild steel preferable for structures exposed to significant loads and impacts, such as vehicle bodies. The presence of a V-notch induces stress concentration, leading to failure at lower stress levels. The Charpy Impact Test is instrumental in evaluating a material's resistance to such failures, affirming mild steel's reliability and versatility. However, variations in results may occur based on the specific alloy and manufacturing process.
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