Human Organ systems

Anatomy and physiology

The word “anatomy” has Greek origin. A literal translation would be cutting open.
Anatomy is the study of internal and external structures the body and the physical
relationships among body parts.
Physiology which also Greek origin is the study of how organism performs their
vital functions.

A. Human Cell
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is
the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the
building block of life. The cell is one of the most basic units of life. There are
millions of different types of cells. There are cells that are organisms onto
themselves, such as microscopic amoeba and bacteria cells. And there are cells that
only function when part of a larger organism, such as the cells that make up your
body. The cell is the smallest unit of life in our bodies. In the body, there are brain
cells, skin cells, liver cells, stomach cells, and the list goes on.

All of these cells have unique functions and features. And all have some
recognizable similarities. All cells have a 'skin', called the plasma membrane,
protecting it from the outside environment. The cell membrane regulates the
movement of water, nutrients and wastes into and out of the cell. Inside of the cell
membrane are the working parts of the cell. At the center of the cell is the cell
nucleus. The cell nucleus contains the cell's DNA, the genetic code that coordinates
protein synthesis. In addition to the nucleus, there are many organelles inside of the
cell - small structures that help carry out the day-to-day operations of the cell.
One important cellular organelle is the ribosome. Ribosomes participate
in protein synthesis. The transcription phase of protein synthesis takes places in
the cell nucleus. After this step is complete, the mRNA leaves the nucleus and
travels to the cell's ribosomes, where translation occurs. Another important cellular
organelle is the mitochondrion. Mitochondria (many mitochondrion) are often
referred to as the power plants of the cell because many of the reactions that

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produce energy take place in mitochondria. Also important in the life of a cell are
the lysosomes. Lysosomes are organelles that contain enzymes that aid in the
digestion of nutrient molecules and other materials. Below is a labelled diagram of a
cell to help you identify some of these structures.

B. Tissues

Cells group together in the body to form tissues - a collection of similar cells that
group together to perform a specialized function. There are 4 primary tissue types
in the human body: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue and nerve
tissue.

1. Epithelial Tissue - The cells of epithelial tissue pack tightly together and form
continuous sheets that serve as linings in different parts of the
body. Epithelial tissue serve as membranes lining organs and helping to keep
the body's organs separate, in place and protected. Some examples of
epithelial tissue are the outer layer of the skin, the inside of the mouth and
stomach, and the tissue surrounding the body's organs.
2. Connective Tissue - There are many types of connective tissue in the
body. Generally speaking, connective tissue adds support and structure to
the body. Most types of connective tissue contain fibrous strands of the
protein collagen that add strength to connective tissue. Some examples of
connective tissue include the inner layers of skin, tendons, ligaments,
cartilage, bone and fat tissue. In addition to these more recognizable forms
of connective tissue, blood is also considered a form of connective tissue.
3. Muscle Tissue - Muscle tissue is a specialized tissue that can contract. Muscle
tissue contains the specialized proteins actin and myosin that slide past one
another and allow movement. Examples of muscle tissue are contained in
the muscles throughout your body.
4. Nerve Tissue - Nerve tissue contains two types of cells: neurons and glial
cells. Nerve tissue has the ability to generate and conduct electrical signals in
the body. These electrical messages are managed by nerve tissue in the brain
and transmitted down the spinal cord to the body.

C. Organs
Organs are the next level of organization in the body. An organ is a structure that
contains at least two different types of tissue functioning together for a common
purpose. There are many different organs in the body: the liver, kidneys, heart, even
your skin is an organ. In fact, the skin is the largest organ in the human body and
provides us with an excellent example for explanation purposes. The skin is
composed of three layers: the epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous layer. The
epidermis is the outermost layer of skin. It consists of epithelial tissue in which the
cells are tightly packed together providing a barrier between the inside of the body
and the outside world. Below the epidermis lies a layer of connective tissue called
the dermis. In addition to providing support for the skin, the dermis has many
other purposes. The dermis contains blood vessels that nourish skin cells. It
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contains nerve tissue that provides feeling in the skin. And it contains muscle tissue
that is responsible for giving you 'goosebumps' when you get cold or
frightened. The subcutaneous layer is beneath the dermis and consists mainly of a
type of connective tissue called adipose tissue. Adipose tissue is more commonly
known as fat and it helps cushion the skin and provide protection from cold
temperatures.

Organ Systems
The human body is made up of several organ systems that work together as one
unit. 12 major organ systems of the body are listed below, along with several organs
that are associated with each system.

1. Skeletal System
2. Respiratory System
3. Muscular System
4. Digestive System
5. Circulatory System
6. Excretory System
7. Nervous System
8. Endocrine System
9. Reproductive System
10. Lymphatic/Immune System
11. Integumentary system
12. Sensory system

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1.1 Skeletal System

Human newborns have over 270 bones some of which fuse together into a
longitudinal axis, the axial skeleton, to which the appendicular skeleton is attached.

A. Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (26), the rib cage
(12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones).
The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits
the weight from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower
extremities at the hip joints. The bones of the spine are supported by many
ligaments.
B. Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles (4), the
upper limbs (60), the pelvic girdle (2), and the lower limbs (60). Their functions are
to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of locomotion,
digestion, excretion, and reproduction.

 Function of Skeletal System

1. Support
The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its
shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic

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structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the
heart would collapse.
2. Movement
The joints between bones permit movement, some allowing a wider range of
movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of
movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal
muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles,
bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by
the nervous system.
3. Protection
The skeleton protects many vital organs:
 The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the middle and inner ears.
 The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
 The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the human lungs, human heart and
major blood vessels.
4. Blood cell production
The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes
place in the bone marrow.
5. Storage
Bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone
marrow can store iron in ferrotin and is involved in iron metabolism. However,
bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and
hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone.

A) Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton consists of the 80 bones along the central axis of the human
body. It is composed of six parts; the human skull, the ossicles of the middle ear, the
hyoid bone of the throat, the rib cage, sternum and the vertebral column. The axial
skeleton and the appendicular skeleton together form the complete skeleton.

Skull (22)
 Cranial Bones (8)
 Parietal (2)
 Temporal (2)
 Frontal (1)
 Occipital (1)
 Ethmoid (1)
 Vomer (1)
Auditory Ossicles (6)
 Malleus (2)
 Incus (2)
 Stapes (2

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Fig. Human Skull

Vertebral Column (26)
 Cervical vertebrae (7)
 Thoracic vertebrae (12)
 Lumbar vertebrae (5)
 Sacrum (1)
 Coccyx (1)
Thoracic cage (27)
 Sternum (3) - Manubrium (1) Body of sternum (1) Xiphoid process (1)
 Ribs (24)

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B) Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major regions:
1) Pectoral Girdles (4 bones) - Left and right Clavicle (2) and Scapula (2).
2) Arm and Forearm (6 bones) - Left and right Humerus (2) (Arm), Ulna (2) and
Radius (2) (Fore Arm).
3) Hands (54 bones) - Left and right Carpal (16) (wrist), Metacarpal (10), Proximal
phalanges (10), Middle phalanges (8), distal phalanges (10).
4) Pelvis (2 bones) - Left and right os coxae (2) (ilium).
5) Thigh and leg (8 bones) - Femur (2) (thigh), Tibia (2), Patella (2) (knee), and
Fibula (2) (leg).
6) Feet and ankles (52 bones) - Tarsals (14) (ankle), Metatarsals (10), Proximal
phalanges (10), middle phalanges (8), distal phalanges (10).

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1.2 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is the biological system that introduces

respiratory gases to the interior and performs gas exchange. In humans and other
mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include airways, lungs,
and the respiratory muscles. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively
exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external environment and the blood.
This exchange process occurs in the alveolar region of the lungs. Other animals, such
as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in
amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange.
Function of the Respiratory System
 The function of the human respiratory system is to transport air into the
lungs and to facilitate the diffusion of Oxygen into the blood stream.
 Its also receives waste Carbon Dioxide from the blood and exhales it.

The respiratory system consists of the following parts, divided into the upper and
lower respiratory tracts:

 Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract

 Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The function of this part of the system is to
warm, filter and moisten the incoming air.

 Pharynx: Here the throat divides into the trachea (wind pipe) and
oesophagus (food pipe). There is also a small flap of cartilage called the
epiglottis which prevents food from entering the trachea.

 Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is generated.
It also helps protect the trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if any
solid objects pass the epiglottis.

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 Parts of the Lower Respiratory Tract

 Trachea: Also known as the windpipe this is the tube which carries air from
the throat into the lungs. It ranges from 20-25mm in diameter and 10-16cm
in length. The inner membrane of the trachea is covered in tiny hairs called
cilia, which catch particles of dust which we can then remove through
coughing. The trachea is surrounded by 15-20 C-shaped rings of cartilage at
the front and side which help protect the trachea and keep it open. They are
not complete circles due to the position of the oesophagus immediately
behind the trachea and the need for the trachea to partially collapse to allow
the expansion of the oesophagus when swallowing large pieces of food.

 Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the
left and one entering the right lung. The left bronchi is narrower, longer and
more horizontal than the right. Irregular rings of cartilage surround the
bronchi, whose walls also consist of smooth muscle. Once inside the lung the
bronchi split several ways, forming tertiary bronchi.

 Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi continue to divide and become bronchioles,

very narrow tubes, less than 1 millimeter in diameter. There is no cartilage
within the bronchioles and they lead to alveolar sacs.

 Alveoli: Individual hollow cavities contained within alveolar sacs (or ducts).
Alveoli have very thin walls which permit the exchange of gases Oxygen and
Carbon Dioxide. They are surrounded by a network of capillaries, into which
the inspired gases pass. There are approximately 3 million alveoli within an
average adult lung.

 Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a broad band of muscle which sits underneath

the lungs, attaching to the lower ribs, sternum and lumbar spine and forming
the base of the thoracic cavity.

Fig. Alveoli

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1.3 MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscles. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood
throughout the body. The muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the
nervous system, although some muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be
completely autonomous.

Muscle Types

There are three types of muscle tissue: Visceral, cardiac, and skeletal.

Visceral muscle: Visceral muscle is found inside of organs like the stomach,
intestines, and blood vessels. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscle
makes organs contract to move substances through the organ. Because visceral
muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it is known as involuntary
muscle – it cannot be directly controlled by the conscious mind. The term “smooth
muscle” is often used to describe visceral muscle because it has a very smooth,
uniform appearance when viewed under a microscope. This smooth appearance
starkly contrasts with the banded appearance of cardiac and skeletal muscles.

Cardiac Muscle: Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping
blood throughout the body. Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously,
so it is an involuntary muscle. While hormones and signals from the brain adjust the
rate of contraction, cardiac muscle stimulates itself to contract. The natural
pacemaker of the heart is made of cardiac muscle tissue that stimulates other
cardiac muscle cells to contract. Because of its self-stimulation, cardiac muscle is
considered to be autorhythmic or intrinsically controlled. The cells of cardiac
muscle tissue are striated – that is, they appear to have light and dark stripes when
viewed under a light microscope. The arrangement of protein fibers inside of the
cells causes these light and dark bands. Striations indicate that a muscle cell is very
strong, unlike visceral muscles. The cells of cardiac muscle are branched X or Y
shaped cells tightly connected together by special junctions called intercalated
disks. Intercalated disks are made up of fingerlike projections from two neighboring
cells that interlock and provide a strong bond between the cells.

Skeletal Muscle: Skeletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human
body – it is controlled consciously. Every physical action that a person consciously
performs (e.g. speaking, walking, or writing) requires skeletal muscle. The function
of skeletal muscle is to contract to move parts of the body closer to the bone that the
muscle is attached to. Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones across a joint,
so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other. Skeletal
muscle cells form when many smaller progenitor cells lump themselves together to
form long, straight, multinucleated fibers. Striated just like cardiac muscle, these

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skeletal muscle fibers are very strong. Skeletal muscle derives its name from the fact
that these muscles always connect to the skeleton in at least one place.

Function of Muscle Tissue

1) The main function of the muscular system is movement. Muscles are the only
tissue in the body that has the ability to contract and therefore move the other parts
of the body.

2) The maintenance of posture and body position. Muscles often contract to hold the
body still or in a particular position rather than to cause movement. The muscles
responsible for the body’s posture have the greatest endurance of all muscles in the
body – they hold up the body throughout the day without becoming tired.

3) Another function related to movement is the movement of substances inside the

body. The cardiac and visceral muscles are primarily responsible for transporting
substances like blood or food from one part of the body to another.

4) The final function of muscle tissue is the generation of body heat. As a result of
the high metabolic rate of contracting muscle, our muscular system produces a great
deal of waste heat.

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1.4 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The human digestive system is a complex process that consists of
breaking down large organic masses into smaller particles that the body can use as
fuel. The breakdown of the nutrients requires the coordination of several enzymes
secreted from specialized cells within the mouth, stomach, intestines, and liver. The
major organs or structures that coordinate digestion within the human body include
the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, and liver.

Function of Digestive system.

 The digestive system processes, breaks down, and absorbs the nutrients
from food.
 Digesting food is to break down the complex molecules of the food to simpler
ones so the body can use it in the way it wants to. The function of each organ
in the digestive system is to help convert food into simpler molecules so it
can absorbed by your body and can then be used by the cells.

A. Mouth
 In the human body, the mouth (oral cavity) is a specialized organ for
receiving food and breaking up large organic masses. In the mouth, food is
changed mechanically by biting and chewing. Humans have four kinds of
teeth: incisors are chisel-shaped teeth in the front of the mouth for biting;

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canines are pointed teeth for tearing; and premolars and molars are flattened,
ridged teeth for grinding, pounding, and crushing food.
 In the mouth, food is moistened by saliva, a sticky fluid that binds food
particles together into a soft mass. Three pairs of salivary glands—the
parotid glands, the submaxillary glands, and the sublingual glands—secrete
saliva into the mouth. The saliva contains an enzyme called amylase, which
digests starch molecules into smaller molecules of the disaccharide maltose.

B. Esophagus
 The esophagus is a thick-walled muscular tube located behind the windpipe
that extends through the neck and chest to the stomach. The bolus of food
moves through the esophagus by peristalsis: a rhythmic series of muscular
contractions that propels the bolus along. The contractions are assisted by
the pull of gravity.

C. Stomach
 The esophagus joins the stomach at a point just below the diaphragm. A
valvelike ring of muscle called the cardiac sphincter surrounds the opening to
the stomach. The sphincter relaxes as the bolus passes through and then
quickly closes.
 The stomach is an expandable pouch located high in the abdominal cavity.
Layers of stomach muscle contract and churn the bolus of food with gastric
juices to form a soupy liquid called chyme.
 The stomach stores food and prepares it for further digestion. In addition, the
stomach plays a role in protein digestion. Gastric glands called chief cells
secrete pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is converted to the enzyme pepsin in the
presence of hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is secreted by parietal cells
in the stomach lining. The pepsin then digests large proteins into smaller
proteins called peptides. To protect the stomach lining from the acid, a third
type of cell secretes mucus that lines the stomach cavity. An overabundance
of acid due to mucus failure may lead to an ulcer.

D. Small intestine
 The soupy mixture called chyme spurts from the stomach through a
sphincter into the small intestine. An adult's small intestine is about 23 feet
long and is divided into three sections: the first 10 to 12 inches form the
duodenum; the next 10 feet form the jejunum; and the final 12 feet form the
ileum. The inner surface of the small intestine contains numerous fingerlike
projections called villi. Each villus has projections of cells called microvilli to
increase the surface area.
 Most chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum. In this region,
enzymes digest nutrients into simpler forms that can be absorbed. Intestinal
enzymes are supplemented by enzymes from the pancreas, a large,
glandular organ lying near the stomach. In addition, bile enters the small
intestine from the gall bladder to assist in fat digestion.

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 The enzymes functioning in carbohydrate digestion include amylase (for

starch), maltase (for maltose), sucrase (for sucrose) and lactase (for lactose).
For fats, the principal enzyme is lipase. Before this enzyme can act, the large
globules of fat must be broken into smaller droplets by bile. Bile is a mixture
of salts, pigments, and cholesterol that is produced by the liver and stored in
the gall bladder, a saclike structure underneath the liver.
 Protein digestion is accomplished by several enzymes, including two
pancreatic enzymes: trypsin and chymotrypsin. Peptides are broken into
smaller peptides, and peptidases reduce the enzymes to amino acids.
Nucleases digest nucleic acids into nucleotides in the small intestine also.
 Most absorption in the small intestine occurs in the jejunum. The products
of digestion enter cells of the villi, move across the cells, and enter blood
vessels called capillaries. Diffusion accounts for the movement of many
nutrients, but active transport is responsible for the movement of glucose
and amino acids. The products of fat digestion pass as small droplets of fat
into lacteals, which are branches of the lymphatic system.
 Absorption is completed in the final part of the small intestine, the ileum.
Substances that have not been digested or absorbed then pass into the large
intestine.

E. Large intestine
 The small intestine joins the large intestine in the lower right abdomen of the
body. The two organs meet at a blind sac called the cecum and a small
fingerlike process called the appendix. Evolutionary biologists believe the
cecum and appendix are vestiges of larger organs that may have been
functional in human ancestors.
 The large intestine is also known as the colon. It is divided into ascending,
transverse, and descending portions, each about one foot in length. The
colon's chief functions are to absorb water and to store, process, and
eliminate the residue following digestion and absorption. The intestinal
matter remaining after water has been reclaimed is known as feces. Feces
consist of nondigested food (such as cellulose), billions of mostly harmless
bacteria, bile pigments, and other materials. The feces are stored in the
rectum and passed out through the anus to complete the digestion process.

F. Liver
 The liver has an important function in processing the products of human
digestion. For example, cells of the liver remove excess glucose from the
bloodstream and convert the glucose to a polymer called glycogen for
storage.
 The liver also functions in amino acid metabolism. In a process called
deamination, it converts some amino acids to compounds that can be used in
energy metabolism. In doing so, the liver removes the amino groups from
amino acids and uses the amino groups to produce urea. Urea is removed
from the body in the urine. Fats are processed into two-carbon units that can
enter the Krebs cycle for energy metabolism. The liver also stores vitamins
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and minerals, forms many blood proteins, synthesizes cholesterol, and

produces bile for fat digestion.

G. Gallbladder
 The gallbladder is a pear-shaped reservoir that sits just under the liver and
stores bile. Bile is made in the liver then travels to the gallbladder through a
channel called the cystic duct. During a meal, the gallbladder contracts,
sending bile to the small intestine.
 Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover liquid has passed
through the small intestine, what is left of the food you ate is handed over to
the large intestine, or colon.

H. spleen
 The spleen is Similar in structure to a large lymph node, the spleen acts
primarily as a blood filter. As such, it is a non-vital organ, with life possible
after removal. The spleen plays important roles in regard to red blood cells
(also referred to as erythrocytes) and the immune system.
 In humans, it is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. It removes
old red blood cells and holds a reserve of blood in case of hemorrhagic shock
while also recycling iron. As a part of the mononuclear phagocyte system, it
metabolizes hemoglobin removed from senescent erythrocytes. The globin
portion of hemoglobin is degraded to its constitutive amino acids, and the
heme portion is metabolized to bilirubin, which is subsequently shuttled to
the liver for removal.

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1.5 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The Human Circulatory System
The main organ of the circulatory system is the Human Heart. The other main
parts of the circulatory system include the Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Venules,
Veins and Blood. The lungs also play a major part in the pulmonary circulation
system.
The essential components of the human cardiovascular system are the
heart, blood, and blood vessels. It includes: the pulmonary circulation, a "loop"
through the lungs where blood is oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a "loop"
through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood. An average adult contains
five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood, accounting for approximately
7% of their total body weight. Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets. Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to
provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping.

Functions of the Circulatory System

 The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients (such as
amino acids, electrolytes and lymph), gases, hormones, blood cells, etc. to and
from cells in the body to help fight diseases, stabilize body temperature and
pH, and to maintain homeostasis.
 The blood itself also carries numerous other substances which the body
requires to function.The main substance being Oxygen, carried by a protein
called haemoglobin, found inside red blood cells. White blood cells are also
vital in their role of fighting disease and infection.
 Blood contains platelets which are essential for clotting the blood, which
occurs follwing an injury to stop blood loss. Blood also carries waste
products, such as Carbon Dioxide away from muscles and organs in order to
be dispelled by the lungs

How the Circulatory System Works

There are three circulatory processes occurring simultaneously within the body.
Firstly systemic circulation carries blood around the body, pulmonary circulation
carries blood to the lungs and coronary circulation provides the heart with its own
supply of blood.

A. Systemic Circulation

 At the start of the blood circulatory cycle the heart pumps oxygenated blood
out of the left ventricle, through the Aorta (the largest artery in the body).
The aorta divides into smaller arteries, then arterioles and finally into
microscopic capillaries, found deep within muscles and organs. Here the
Oxygen (and other nutrients) passes through the thin capillary walls, into the

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tissues where it can be used to produce the energy muscles require to

contract.
 A waste product of energy production (metabolism) is Carbon dioxide and in
order to be removed, it too passes across the walls of the capillaries, into the
blood stream. The blood continues back towards the heart, through venules
and then veins, into the right atrium.

B. Pulmonary Circulation

 The pulmonary circulatory system is the portion of the cardiovascular

system in which oxygen-depleted blood is pumped away from the heart, via
the pulmonary artery, to the lungs and returned, oxygenated, to the heart via
the pulmonary vein.
 Oxygen deprived blood from the vena cava, enters the right atrium of the
heart and flows through the tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into
the right ventricle, from which it is then pumped through the pulmonary
semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Gas exchange occurs
in the lungs, whereby CO2 is released from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed.
The pulmonary vein returns the now oxygen-rich blood to the heart.

C. Coronary circulation
 The coronary circulatory system provides a blood supply to the heart. As it
provides oxygenated blood to the heart, it is by definition a part of the
systemic circulatory system. The artery coronary sinus opens up into the
right atrium, and the back flow of blood through its opening during atricular
systole is guarded by the the basian valve.

A. The Heart
 The heart is a strong, powerful organ, consisting of cardiac muscle. The heart
pumps continuously, without resting and without becoming fatigued. Its
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function is to pump blood to the lungs and around the body. The heart is one
of the key organs in the Circulatory System.
 The human heart is an organ that provides a continuous blood circulation
through the cardiac cycle and is one of the most vital organs in the human
body.
 The heart is divided into four main chambers: the two upper chambers are
called the left and right atria (singular atrium) and two lower chambers are
called the right and left ventricles.
 There is a thick wall of muscle separating the right side and the left side of
the heart called the septum. Normally with each beat the right ventricle
pumps the same amount of blood into the lungs that the left ventricle pumps
out into the body. Physicians commonly refer to the right atrium and right
ventricle together as the right heart and to the left atrium and left ventricle
as the left heart.

Anatomy of the heart

 The heart consists of four chambers and is divided into left and right by a
wall of muscle called the septum. The right side of the heart consists of an
atrium which recieves blood returning from the body, and the right ventricle,
which then pumps blood out to the lungs, via the pulmonary artery.
 The left side again contains an atrium and a ventricle. The left atrium
recieves the oxygenated blood returning from the lungs and the ventricle
then pumps this blood around the body.
 Due to the distance which the blood being pumped from the left ventricle has
to travel, a more forceful contraction is required. For this reason the
muscular wall of the left side is thicker than that of the right side.
 The atria and ventricles are separated by valves known as Atrioventricular,
or AV valves. The purpose of these valves is to prevent blood from flowing in
the wrong direction. Following the movement of blood from the atrium, into

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the ventricle, the AV valve snaps shut which causes the first heart sound of
the heart beat (often described “lub dub”, with the closing of the AV valves
being the “lub”)
 The “dub” sound is caused by the closing of two other valves, known as the
Semilunar or SL valves. These are located between each ventricle and the
artery leaving the heart, and again prevent the blood flowing backwards.

This box diagram shows blood flow through the human heart.

B. Arteries
 Arteries are blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart. All of
which, with the exception of the pulmonary artery, carry oxygenated blood.
The most widely known artery within the human body is the Aorta.
 This is the largest of all blood vessels and transports blood away from the left
ventricle of the heart where it then branches into smaller arteries.
 As the arteries devide further they become smaller and smaller, until they
are classed as arterioles. Arterioles continue to branch into smaller and
smaller vessels which, once they have decreased in size below 10
micrometers in diameter are known as capillaries.
 The pulmonary artery, is classed as an artery as it carries blood away from
the heart, however it carries deoxygenated blood. The blood it carries has
travelled around the body and back to the heart where it is pumped, via the
pulmonary artery, to the lungs to release waste products and pick up more
oxygen.

C. Capillaries
 Capillaries are the smallest of all blood vessels and form the connection
between veins and arteries. As arteries branch and divide into arterioles and
continue to reduce in size as they reach the muscle they become capillaries.
Here the capillaries form a capillary bed, which is a vast expanse of very
small vessels forming a network throughout the muscle. However, unlike

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veins and arteries, their main function is not transporting blood. They are
specially designed to allow the movement of substances, mainly gases
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide into and out of the capillary.
Gaseous Exchange
 The oxygen carried within the red blood cells as Oxyhaemoglobin, at this
point dissociates from the Haemoglobin and passes through the capillary
wall into the muscle cells where it is 'picked up' by Myoglobin, the muscle
cells equivalent to Haemoglobin. The Oxygen can now be used in aerobic
metabolism to provide the muscle with energy.
 The waste product produced during aerobic metabolism is Carbon Dioxide.
Due to the lower concentration of Carbon dioxide in the capillaries than the
muscle tissue (especially during high levels of metabolism) there is a surge
through the capillary wall. From here the blood continues into venules and
then veins which return the deoxygenated and CO2 rich blood back to the
heart and then on to the lungs where the CO2 is exhaled and more Oxygen is
taken up.

D. Veins
 Veins are blood vessels which carry deoxygenated (or very low levels of
oxygen) blood back to the heart. The exception to this rule is the pulmonary
vein, which carries oxygenated blood, from the lungs, back to the heart, ready
to be pumped around the rest of the body.
 At tissue level, capillaries drain blood into venules, which are very small
veins, which as they return to the heart merge into larger veins before
reaching either the Superior Vena Cava (if returning from tissues and organs
above the heart) or the Inferior Vena Cava (if returning from tissues and
organs below to the heart). The Inferior Vena Cava is larger than the Superior
Vena Cava. These two large arteries merge and return blood to the right
atrium of the heart.

E. Blood

Blood performs many important functions within the body including:

 Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is carried in red

cells)
 Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in
the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids).
 Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.
 Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and
detection of foreign material by antibodies.
 Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism.
 Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling
of tissue damage.
 Regulation of body pH.
 Regulation of core body temperature.
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Constituents of human blood

 Blood accounts for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density of
approximately 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of
1000 kg/m3. The average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 liters (1.3
gal), which is composed of plasma and several kinds of cells.
 These blood cells consist of erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs), leukocytes
(white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the red blood
cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and
white cells about 0.7%.
 Whole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics; its
flow properties are adapted to flow effectively through tiny capillary blood
vessels with less resistance than plasma by itself. In addition, if all human
hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the
circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to
function effectively.

1. Cell
Erythrocytes: [4.7 to 6.1 million (male), 4.2 to 5.4 million (female)] Red blood
cells contain the blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen. Mature red blood cells
lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals. The red blood cells (together with
endothelial vessel cells and other cells) are also marked by glycoproteins that define
the different blood types. The proportion of blood occupied by red blood cells is
referred to as the hematocrit, and is normally about 45%. The combined surface
area of all red blood cells of the human body would be roughly 2,000 times as great
as the body's exterior surface.

Leukocytes: [4,000–11,000] White blood cells are part of the body's immune
system; they destroy and remove old or aberrant cells and cellular debris, as well as
attack infectious agents (pathogens) and foreign substances. The cancer of
leukocytes is called leukemia.

Thrombocytes: [200,000–500,000] also called platelets, thrombocytes are

responsible for blood clotting (coagulation). They change fibrinogen into fibrin. This
fibrin creates a mesh onto which red blood cells collect and clot, which then stops
more blood from leaving the body and also helps to prevent bacteria from entering
the body.

2. Plasma

About 55% of blood is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, which
by itself is straw-yellow in color. The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7–3.0 liters
(2.8–3.2 quarts) in an average human. It is essentially an aqueous solution
containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma proteins, and trace amounts of other
materials. Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, and

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fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins), and removes waste
products, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.

Other important components include:

 Serum albumin
 Blood-clotting factors (to facilitate coagulation)
 Immunoglobulins (antibodies)
 lipoprotein particles
 Various other proteins
 Various electrolytes (mainly sodium and chloride)

The term serum refers to plasma from which the clotting proteins have been
removed. Most of the proteins remaining are albumin and immunoglobulins.

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1.6 Excretory System

The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes
excess, unnecessary materials from an organism, so as to help maintain homeostasis
within the organism and prevent damage to the body. It is responsible for the
elimination of the waste products of metabolism as well as other liquid and gaseous
wastes, as urine and as a component of sweat and exhalation. As most healthy
functioning organs produce metabolic and other wastes, the entire organism
depends on the function of the system.

 Excretory functions
1. The excretory system removes metabolic and liquid toxic wastes as well as
excess water from the organism, in the form of urine.
2. The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess and
unnecessary materials from an organism, so as to help maintain homeostasis
within the organism and prevent damage to the body.
3. It is responsible for the elimination of the waste products of metabolism as
well as other liquid and gaseous wastes. As most healthy functioning organs
produce metabolic and other wastes, the entire organism depends on the
function of the system; however, only the organs specifically for the excretion
process are considered a part of the excretory system.

 Organs of the Excretory System

1. Lungs - removal of excess carbon dioxide

2. Liver - produces urea and uric acid as a by-product of the breakdown of
proteins
3. Skin - removal of excess water, salt, urea and uric acid
4. Urinary System - kidneys filter the blood to form urine, which is excess
water, salt, urea and uric acid

Urinary System
The urinary system is made-up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The
nephron, an evolutionary modification of the nephridium, is the kidney's functional
unit. Waste is filtered from the blood and collected as urine in each kidney. Urine
leaves the kidneys by ureters, and collects in the bladder. The bladder can distend to
store urine that eventually leaves through the urethra.

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A. Kidneys
 The kidneys are organs that serve several essential regulatory roles in most
animals, including vertebrates and some invertebrates. They are essential in
the urinary system and also serve homeostatic functions such as the
regulation of electrolytes, maintenance of acid–base balance, and regulation
of blood pressure (via maintaining salt and water balance).
 They serve the body as a natural filter of the blood, and remove wastes which
are diverted to the urinary bladder. In producing urine, the kidneys excrete
wastes such as urea and ammonium, and they are also responsible for the
reabsorption of water, glucose, and amino acids. The kidneys also produce
hormones including calcitriol, erythropoietin, and the enzyme renin.
 Located at the rear of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneum, the
kidneys receive blood from the paired renal arteries, and drain into the
paired renal veins. Each kidney excretes urine into a ureter, itself a paired
structure that empties into the urinary bladder.

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The Nephron
The nephron consists of a cup-shaped capsule containing capillaries and the
glomerulus, and a long renal tube. Blood flows into the kidney through the renal
artery, which branches into capillaries associated with the glomerulus. Arterial
pressure causes water and solutes from the blood to filter into the capsule. Fluid
flows through the proximal tubule, which include the loop of Henle, and then into
the distal tubule. The distal tubule empties into a collecting duct. Fluids and solutes
are returned to the capillaries that surround the nephron tubule.
The nephron has three functions:
 Glomerular filtration of water and solutes from the blood.
 Tubular reabsorption of water and conserved molecules back into the blood.
 Tubular secretion of ions and other waste products from surrounding
capillaries into the distal tubule.

Nephrons filter 125 ml of body fluid per minute; filtering the entire body fluid
component 16 times each day. In a 24 hour period nephrons produce 180 liters of
filtrate, of which 178.5 liters are reabsorbed. The remaining 1.5 liters forms urine.

Components of the Nephron

 Glomerulus: mechanically filters blood
 Bowman's Capsule: mechanically filters blood
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Reabsorbs 75% of the water, salts, glucose, and
amino acids
 Loop of Henle: Countercurrent exchange, which maintains the concentration
gradient
 Distal Convoluted Tubule: Tubular secretion of H ions, potassium, and certain
drugs.

Urine Production

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 Filtration in the glomerulus and nephron capsule.

 Reabsorption in the proximal tubule.
 Tubular secretion in the Loop of Henle.

Kidney Function
 Kidneys perform a number of homeostatic functions:
 Maintain volume of extracellular fluid
 Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid
 Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid.
 Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid.

B. Ureter
The ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder. In the human adult, the ureters are usually 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long. In
humans, the ureters arise from the renal pelvis on the medial aspect of each kidney
before descending towards the bladder on the front of the psoas major muscle. The
ureters cross the pelvic brim near the bifurcation of the iliac arteries (which they
run over). This "pelviureteric junction" is a common site for the impaction of kidney
stones (the other being the uteterovesical valve). The ureters run posteriorly on the
lateral walls of the pelvis.

C. Urinary bladder
The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to
disposal by urination. It is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, and
sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the
urethra.
Embryologically, the bladder is derived from the urogenital sinus, and it is initially
continuous with the allantois. In human males, the base of the bladder lies between
the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the prostate, and separated
from the rectum by the rectovesical excavation. In females, the bladder sits inferior
to the uterus and anterior to the vagina. It is separated from the uterus by the
vesicouterine excavation. In infants and young children, the urinary bladder is in the
abdomen even when empty.

D. Urethra
In anatomy, the (from Greek - ourethra) is a tube which connects the urinary
bladder to the outside of the body. In humans, the urethra has an excretory function
in both genders to pass.

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1.7 Nervous System

The nervous system is essentially a biological information highway, and is
responsible for controlling all the biological processes and movement in the body,
and can also receive information and interpret it via electrical signals which are
used in this nervous system
It consists of the Central Nervous System (CNS), essentially the processing area and
the Peripheral Nervous System which detects and sends electrical impulses that are
used in the nervous system
Functions of the nervous system
There are three general functions of the nervous system in man and animals:

1. Sensing specific information about external and internal conditions (In the
example above, this is seeing your friend).
2. Intergrating that information (This is the understanding of the information
coming from the eyes).
3. Issuing commands for a response from the muscles or glands (This is the
reaction of walking towards him).

The Central Nervous System (CNS)

The Central Nervous System is effectively the centre of the nervous system, the part
of it that processes the information received from the peripheral nervous system.
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for receiving and
interpreting signals from the peripheral nervous system and also sends out signals
to it, either consciously or unconsciously. This information highway called the
nervous system consists of many nerve cells, also known as neurones, as seen
below.

The Nerve Cell

 Each neurone consists of a nucleus situated in the cell body, where
outgrowths called processes originate from. The main one of these processes
is the axon, which is responsible for carrying outgoing messages from the
cell. This axon can originate from the CNS and extend all the way to the
body's extremities, effectively providing a highway for messages to go to and
from the CNS to these body extremities.
 Dendrites are smaller secondary processes that grow from the cell body and
axon. On the end of these dendrites lie the axon terminals, which 'plug' into a
cell where the electrical signal from a nerve cell to the target cell can be
made. This 'plug' (the axon terminal) connects into a receptor on the target
cell and can transmit information between cells

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Types of Neurons - the three main types of neurons are:

 Multipolar neurons are so-named because they have many (multi-)

processes that extend from the cell body: lots of dendrites plus a single axon.
Functionally, these neurons are either motor (conducting impulses that will
cause activity such as the contraction of muscles) or association (conducting
impulses and permitting 'communication' between neurons within the
central nervous system).
 Unipolar neurons have but one process from the cell body. However, that
single, very short, process splits into longer processes (a dendrite plus an
axon). Unipolar neurons are sensory neurons - conducting impulses into the
central nervous system.
 Bipolar neurons have two processes - one axon & one dendrite. These
neurons are also sensory. For example, biopolar neurons can be found in the
retina of the eye.

A) Peripheral Nervous System

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)contains only nerves and
connects the brain and spinal cord (CNS) to the rest of the body. The axons and
dendrites are surrounded by a white myelin sheath. Cell bodies are in the central
nervous system (CNS) or ganglia. Ganglia are collections of nerve cell bodies. Cranial
nerves in the PNS take impulses to and from the brain (CNS). Spinal nerves take
impulses to and away from the spinal cord. There are two major subdivisions of the
PNS motor pathways: the somatic and the autonomic.
Two main components of the PNS:
 sensory (afferent) pathways that provide input from the body into the CNS.
 motor (efferent) pathways that carry signals to muscles and glands
(effectors).
Most sensory input carried in the PNS remains below the level of conscious
awareness. Input that does reach the conscious level contributes to perception of
our external environment.
B) Somatic Nervous System

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The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) includes all nerves controlling the
muscular system and external sensory receptors. External sense organs (including
skin) are receptors. Muscle fibers and gland cells are effectors. The reflex arc is an
automatic, involuntary reaction to a stimulus. When the doctor taps your knee with
the rubber hammer, she/he is testing your reflex (or knee-jerk). The reaction to the
stimulus is involuntary, with the CNS being informed but not consciously controlling
the response. Examples of reflex arcs include balance, the blinking reflex, and the
stretch reflex.
Sensory input from the PNS is processed by the CNS and responses are sent
by the PNS from the CNS to the organs of the body. Motor neurons of the somatic
system are distinct from those of the autonomic system. Inhibitory signals, cannot
be sent through the motor neurons of the somatic system.
C) Autonomic Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System is that part of PNS consisting of motor
neurons that control internal organs. It has two subsystems. The autonomic system
controls muscles in the heart, the smooth muscle in internal organs such as the
intestine, bladder, and uterus. The Sympathetic Nervous System is involved in the
fight or flight response. The Parasympathetic Nervous System is involved in
relaxation. Each of these subsystems operates in the reverse of the other
(antagonism). Both systems innervate the same organs and act in opposition to
maintain homeostasis. For example: when you are scared the sympathetic system
causes your heart to beat faster; the parasympathetic system reverses this effect.
Motor neurons in this system do not reach their targets directly (as do those
in the somatic system) but rather connect to a secondary motor neuron which in
turn innervates the target organ.
D) Central Nervous System
The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal
cord. The CNS is surrounded by bone-skull and vertebrae. Fluid and tissue also
insulate the brain and spinal cord. The brain is composed of three parts: the
cerebrum (seat of consciousness), the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata (these
latter two are "part of the unconscious brain").
The medulla oblongata is closest to the spinal cord, and is involved with the
regulation of heartbeat, breathing, vasoconstriction (blood pressure), and reflex
centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and hiccuping. The
hypothalamus regulates homeostasis. It has regulatory areas for thirst, hunger, body
temperature, water balance, and blood pressure, and links the Nervous System to
the Endocrine System. The midbrain and pons are also part of the unconscious
brain. The thalamus serves as a central relay point for incoming nervous messages.
The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain, after the cerebrum. It
functions for muscle coordination and maintains normal muscle tone and posture.
The cerebellum coordinates balance.
The conscious brain includes the cerebral hemispheres, which are are
separated by the corpus callosum. In reptiles, birds, and mammals, the cerebrum
coordinates sensory data and motor functions. The cerebrum governs intelligence
and reasoning, learning and memory. While the cause of memory is not yet
definitely known, studies on slugs indicate learning is accompanied by a synapse
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decrease. Within the cell, learning involves change in gene regulation and increased
ability to secrete transmitters.

a. Spinal cord
The spinal cord of the central nervous system is a white cord of tissue passing
through the bony tunnel made by the vertebrae. The spinal cord extends from the
base of the brain to the bottom of the backbone. Three membranes called meninges
surround the spinal cord and protect it. The outer tissue of the spinal cord is white
(white matter), while the inner tissue is gray (gray matter).
Thirty-one pairs of projections called nerve roots extend out along each side
of the spinal cord. The nerve roots are sites of axons belonging to sensory and motor
neurons. A central canal in the spinal cord carries cerebrospinal fluid, which
provides for the nutrition and gaseous needs of the cord tissue. The neurons of the
spinal cord serve as a coordinating center for the reflex arc and a connecting system
between the peripheral nervous system and the brain.

b. Brain
The brain of the central nervous system is the organizing and processing
center. It is the site of consciousness, sensation, memory, and intelligence. The brain
receives impulses from the spinal cord and from 12 pairs of cranial nerves coming
from and extending to the senses and to other organs. In addition, the brain initiates
activities without environmental stimuli.
Two major hemispheres, the left and the right hemispheres, make up the
tissue of the brain. The outer portion of the brain consists of gray matter, while the
inner portion is white matter. Three major portions of the brain are recognized: the
hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.

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 The hindbrain consists of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons. The medulla is
the swelling at the tip of the brain that serves as the passageway for nerves
extending to and from the brain. The cerebellum lies adjacent to the medulla
and serves as a coordinating center for motor activity; that is, it coordinates
muscle contractions. The pons is the swelling between the medulla and
midbrain. The pons acts as a bridge between various portions of the brain.
 The midbrain lies between the hindbrain and forebrain. It consists of a
collection of crossing nerve tracts and is the site of the reticular formation, a
group of fibers that arouse the forebrain when something unusual happens.
 The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, the thalamus, the hypothalamus,
and the limbic system. The cerebrum contains creases and furrows called
convolutions that permit the cerebral hemisphere to accommodate more
than 10 billion cells. Each hemisphere of the cerebrum has four lobes, and
activities such as speech, vision, movement, hearing, and smell occur in these
lobes. Higher mental activities such as learning, memory, logic, creativity, and
emotion also occur in the cerebrum.
 The thalamus serves as an integration point for sensory impulses, while the
hypothalamus synthesizes hormones for storage in the pituitary gland. The
hypothalamus also appears to be a control center for such visceral functions
as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and blood pressure. The limbic system
is a collection of structures that ring the edge of the brain and apparently
function as centers of emotion.

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1.8 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is the system of glands, each of which secretes
different types of hormones directly into the bloodstream some of which are
transported along nerve tracts to regulate the body. The endocrine system is in
contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its chemicals using ducts. The word
endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo" meaning inside, within, and "crinis"
for secrete. The endocrine system is an information signal system like the nervous
system, yet its effects and mechanism are classifiably different. The endocrine
system's effects are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting from a
few hours up to weeks. The nervous system sends information very quickly, and
responses are generally short lived.
Hormones are substances (chemical mediators) released from
endocrine tissue into the bloodstream where they travel to target tissue and
generate a response. Hormones regulate various human functions, including
metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, and mood. The field of study
dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of
internal medicine.
Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their
vascularity, and usually the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing
their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands,
and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have
ducts or a hollow lumen.

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A. Pituitary gland
 The pituitary gland is located at the base of the human brain. The gland
consists of two parts: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior
lobe (neurohypophysis).
 The anterior lobe secretes at least seven hormones. One hormone, the human
growth hormone (HGH), promotes body growth by accelerating protein
synthesis. This hormone is also known as somatotropin. A deficiency of the
hormone results in dwarfism; an oversecretion results in gigantism.
 Another hormone of the anterior pituitary is prolactin, also called lactogenic
hormone (LH). This hormone promotes breast development and milk
secretion in females. A third hormone is thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
The function of TSH is to control secretions of hormones from the thyroid
gland. A fourth hormone is adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This
hormone controls the secretion of hormones from the adrenal glands.
 There are three more hormones produced in the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland. The first is follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). In females,
FSH stimulates the development of a follicle, which contains the egg cell; in
males, the hormone stimulates sperm production. The next hormone is
luteinizing hormone (LH). In females, LH completes the maturation of the
follicle and stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum, which temporarily
secretes female hormones. In males, LH is interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone (ICSH), which stimulates the production of male hormones in the
testes. The final hormone is melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), which
stimulates production of the pigment melanin.
 The posterior pituitary gland stores and then releases two hormones that are
produced in the hypothalamus of the brain. The first hormone is antidiuretic
hormone (ADH). This hormone stimulates water reabsorption in the kidneys.
It is also called vasopressin. The second hormone is oxytocin, which
stimulates contractions in the muscles of the uterus during birth.

B. Thyroid gland
 The thyroid gland lies against the pharynx at the base of the neck. It consists
of two lateral lobes connected by an isthmus. The gland produces thyroxine,
a hormone that regulates the rate of metabolism in the body. It also produces
a second hormone, calcitonin, which regulates the level of calcium in the
blood.
 Thyroxine production depends on the availability of iodine. A deficiency of
iodine causes thyroid gland enlargement, a condition called goiter. An
undersecretion of thyroxine results in a condition known as cretinism
(dwarfism with abnormal body proportions and possible mental
retardation). In adults, an undersecretion results in myxedema (physical and
mental sluggishness). Thyroxine oversecretion results in a high metabolic
rate and Graves' disease.

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C. Parathyroid glands
 The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surfaces of the thyroid
gland. They are tiny masses of glandular tissue that produce parathyroid
hormone, also called parathormone. Parathyroid hormone regulates calcium
metabolism in the body by increasing calcium reabsorption in the kidneys,
and by increasing the uptake of calcium from the digestive system.

D. Adrenal glands
 The adrenal glands are two pyramid-shaped glands lying atop the kidneys.
The adrenal glands consist of an outer portion, the cortex, and an inner
portion, the medulla.
 The adrenal cortex secretes a family of steroids called corticosteroids. The
two main types of steroid hormones are mineralocorticoids and
glucocorticoids. Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone, control mineral
metabolism in the body. They accelerate mineral reabsorption in the kidney.
Mineralocorticoid secretion is regulated by ACTH from the pituitary gland.
Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol and cortisone, control glucose metabolism
and protein synthesis in the body. Glucocorticoids are also anti-inflammatory
agents.
 The adrenal medulla produces two hormones: epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Epinephrine increases heart rate, blood
pressure, and the blood supply to skeletal muscle. Epinephrine functions in
stressful situations to promote the fight–flight response. Norepinephrine
intensifies the effects of epinephrine. Both hormones prolong and intensify
the effects of the sympathetic nervous system.

E. Pancreas
 The pancreas is located just behind the stomach. Its endocrine portion
consists of cell clusters called the islets of Langerhans.
 The pancreas produces two hormones: insulin and glucagon. Insulin is a
protein that promotes the passage of glucose molecules into the body cells
and regulates glucose metabolism. In the absence of insulin, glucose is
removed from the blood and excreted in the kidney, a condition called
diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by glucose in the urine,
heavy urination, excessive thirst, and a generally sluggish body metabolism.
 The second pancreatic hormone, glucagon, stimulates the breakdown of
glycogen to glucose in the liver. It also releases fat from the adipose tissue so
the fat can be used for the production of carbohydrates.

F. Other endocrine glands

 Among the other endocrine glands are the ovaries and testes. The ovaries
secrete estrogens, which encourage the development of secondary female
characteristics. The testes secrete androgens, which promote secondary
male characteristics. Testosterone is an important androgen.

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1.9 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The human male reproductive system (or male genital system) consists of a
number of sex organs that are a part of the human reproductive process. In this type
of reproductive system, these sex organs are located outside the body, around the
pelvic region.
The main male sex organs are the penis and the testes which produce semen and
sperm, which as part of sexual intercourse fertilize an ovum in female's body and
the fertilized ovum (zygote) gradually develops into a fetus, which is later born as a
child.

A. External genital organs

Penis
The penis is the male copulatory organ. It has a long shaft and an enlarged bulbous-
shaped tip called the glans penis, which supports the foreskin. When the male
becomes sexually aroused, the penis becomes erect and ready for sexual activity.
Erection occurs because sinuses within the erectile tissue of the penis become filled
with blood. The arteries of the penis are dilated while the veins are passively
compressed so that blood flows into the erectile cartilage under pressure.

Scrotum
The scrotum is a pouch-like structure that hangs behind the penis. It holds and
protects the testes. It also contains numerous nerves and blood vessels. During
times of lower temperatures, the Cremaster muscle contracts and pulls the scrotum
closer to the body, while the Dartos muscle gives it a wrinkled appearance; when
the temperature increases, the Cremaster and Dartos muscles relaxes to bring down
the scrotum away from the body and remove the wrinkles respectively. The scrotum

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remains connected with the abdomen or pelvic cavity by the inguinal canal. (The
spermatic cord, formed from spermatic artery, vein and nerve bound together with
connective tissue passes into the testis through inguinal canal.)

B. Internal genital organs

Epididymis
The epididymis is a whitish mass of tightly coiled tubes cupped against the testicles.
It acts as a maturation and storage place for sperm before they pass into the vas
deferens, tubes that carry sperm to the ampullary gland and prostatic ducts.

Vas deferens
The vas deferens, also known as the sperm duct, is a thin tube approximately 43.2
centimetres long that starts from the epididymis to the pelvic cavity.

Accessory glands
Three accessory glands provide fluids that lubricate the duct system and nourish the
sperm cells. They are the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral
glands (Cowper glands).

Seminal vesicles
Seminal vesicles are sac-like structures attached to the vas deferens at one side of
the bladder. They produce a sticky, yellowish fluid that contains fructose. This fluid
provides sperm cells energy and aids in their motility. 70% of the semen is its
secretion.

Prostate gland
The prostate gland surrounds the ejaculatory ducts at the base of the urethra, just
below the bladder. The prostate gland is responsible for the production of semen, a
liquid mixture of sperm cells, prostate fluid and seminal fluid.This gland is also
responsible for making the semen milky by mixing calcium to the semen coming
from seminal vesicle(semen coming from seminal vesicle is transparent in
colour),this process is called profibrinolysin .28 to 29% semen comprises its
secretion.

Bulbourethral glands
The bulbourethral glands, also called Cowper glands,are two small glands located on
the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear,
slippery fluid that empties directly the urethra. It produces substances related to
nourishment of spermatozoa

Female reproductive system

The human female reproductive system (or female genital system) contains two
main parts: the uterus, which hosts the developing fetus, produces vaginal and
uterine secretions, and passes the male's sperm through to the fallopian tubes; and

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the ovaries, which produce the female's egg cells. These parts are internal; the
vagina meets the external organs at the vulva, which includes the labia, clitoris and
urethra. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is
attached to the ovaries via the Fallopian tubes. At certain intervals, the ovaries
release an ovum, which passes through the Fallopian tube into the uterus.

A. External Genitals

The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes,
cervix and ovary.
 Vagina
The vagina is a fibro muscular tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior
of the body in female mammals, or to the cloaca in female birds and some reptiles.
Female insects and other invertebrates also have a vagina, which is the terminal
part of the oviduct.
The vagina is the place where semen from the male penis is deposited into the
female's body at the climax of sexual intercourse, a phenomenon commonly known
as ejaculation.
The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of
the body. It also is known as the birth canal.

 Cervix
The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins with the top end
of the vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper
anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half its length is visible, the remainder lies
above the vagina beyond view. The vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the
opening where the fetus emerges during delivery. The cervix is also called the neck
of the uterus.

 Uterus
The uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ of humans. The uterus
provides mechanical protection, nutritional support, and waste removal for the

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developing embryo (weeks 1 to 8) and fetus (from week 9 until the delivery). In
addition, contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus are important in pushing
out the fetus at the time of birth.
The uterus contains three suspensory ligaments that help stabilize the position of
the uterus and limits its range of movement. The uterosacral ligaments, keep the
body from moving inferiorly and anteriorly. The round ligaments, restrict posterior
movement of the uterus. The cardinal ligaments, also prevent the inferior movement
of the uterus.

 Fallopian tubes
The Fallopian tubes or oviducts are two tubes leading from the ovaries of female
mammals into the uterus.
On maturity of an ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum
to escape and enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed
along by movements of cilia on the inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or
days. If the ovum is fertilized while in the Fallopian tube, then it normally implants
in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus, which signals the beginning of
pregnancy.

 Ovaries
The ovaries are small, paired organs that are located near the lateral walls of the
pelvic cavity. These organs are responsible for the production of the ova and the
secretion of hormones. Ovaries are the place inside the female body where ova or
eggs are produced. The process by which the ovum is released is called ovulation.
The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts directly to the length of a menstrual
cycle.
After ovulation, the ovum is captured by the oviduct, after traveling down the
oviduct to the uterus, occasionally being fertilized on its way by an incoming sperm,
leading to pregnancy and the eventual birth of a new human being.
The Fallopian tubes are often called the oviducts and they have small hairs (cilia) to
help the egg cell travel.

 Reproductive tract
The reproductive tract (or genital tract) is the lumen that starts as a single pathway
through the vagina, splitting up into two lumens in the uterus, both of which
continue through the Fallopian tubes, and ending at the distal ostia that open into
the abdominal cavity.In the absence of fertilization, the ovum will eventually
traverse the entire reproductive tract from the fallopian tube until exiting the vagina
through menstruation.

B. External Genitals
The external components include the mons pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora, labia
minora, Bartholin's glands, and clitoris.

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1.10 IMMUNE SYSTEM

Introduction
The human body is often described as being 'at war'. By this, it is meant
that the body is constantly under attack from things that are trying to do it harm.
These include toxins, bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses. All of these can,
under the right conditions, cause damage and destruction to parts of the body and if
these were left unchecked, the human body would not be able to function. It is the
purpose of the immune system to act as the body's own army, in defence against
this constant stream of possible infections and toxins.
The human immune system is divided into two broad groups called the
Acquired Immune System and the Innate Immune System. The details about
these two systems and how they work is dealt with more under their specific pages.
This page will deal more with the structures of the immune system, detailing the
parts of the body that play a role in immunity.
These include:
1. The lymphatics
2. Lymph nodes
3. Thymus
4. Spleen

Different types of immunity

The immune system is divided into two parts, called the Acquired
Immune System and the Innate Immune System. While each of these plays a role in
defending the body, there are major differences between the two.
 The innate immune system is always working to protect the body and does
not require any special preparation to stop infection.
 The acquired immune system needs to be 'primed' before it can work to its
full effectiveness though, and is only really effective after it has seen a
possible infective agent before.

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 Structure and organs of the immune system

The lymphatic system

 The lymphatic system is almost equivalent to the blood vessels, only instead
of carrying blood through the body, the lymphatic system carries a substance
called 'lymph'. Lymph is excess tissue fluid that has been drained from the
body compartments. Lymphatic fluid is usually clear, watery, and has the
same constitution as the blood, but without any cells. The lymphatic system
is a complex network of lymphatic vessels (that carry the lymph), along
which there are occasional lymph nodes. After the lymphatic system has
collected all the lymph, this passes through the lymph nodes before being put
back into the blood via a large vein just below the neck. In the lymphatic
system there are lots of cells called lymphocytes (the T and B cells) that
circulate around and are part of the acquired immune system.

Lymphoid tissue
 Lymphoid tissue is scattered throughout the body and is home to the
lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are packed into clusters in the walls of parts of
the body that are often exposed to foreign substances. These sites include the
gastrointestinal system as well as the tonsils which play a role in protecting
the body from any air-borne infections.

Lymph nodes
 Lymph nodes are small, oval structures that can be anywhere from 1mm to
25mm big. Blood vessels and nerves attach to the lymph nodes, as well as
two sets of lymphatic vessels - those that enter the lymph node and those
that leave it.
 The lymph enters from one side and slowly moves past all the cells of the
lymph node before leaving through the other lymphatic vessel. This allows
the lymph time to access as many of the lymphatic cells as possible. In the
lymph node there is a dense packaging of immune cells such as macrophages.
These are the 'big eaters' and will engulf and destroy anything dangerous
that they can. They also play a role in showing these substances to the T and
B cells (which is described in more detail under the Acquired Immune
System).
 The lymph nodes are there as a filter for the lymph before it re-enters the
venous system. 99% of all the foreign substances that arrive at the lymph
node are removed.
Thymus
 The thymus is a lymphoid organ located in the lower part of the neck and the
front of the chest. With age, the thymus becomes smaller and loses most of its
active immune cells. The outside of the thymus contains lymphoid stem cells
(which are immature cells, still capable of growing) that divide rapidly,
producing cells that mature into T cells. These T cells then migrate to the
middle of the thymus. Detail of their growth is discussed under the Acquired
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Immune System. There are also cells in the thymus that release hormones
(signalling chemicals) that cause T cells to grow.

Spleen
 The spleen is the largest of the lymphoid organs. It is usually purple in colour,
and located in the upper-left of the abdomen (the belly). The spleen is located
behind the stomach, in front of the diaphragm (the muscle used for
breathing), and next to the left kidney. The spleen can vary in size and shape
dramatically; however, it is usually about 12cm long and 7cm wide (about
the size of a clenched fist). The spleen contains large amounts of blood that is
periodically pushes into the circulation by contraction of some tiny muscles
that surround it.
 There are two different 'parts' to the spleen, each with a different function.
The 'red pulp' is named because of its colour and its role is to filter the blood.
It does this by having tiny holes in its blood vessels that only allow some
types of blood cells through. The blood cells that are a little older or in any
way defective are not flexible enough to squeeze through these holes and so
gets stuck. These stuck cells are then eaten by the macrophages.

 The 'white pulp' is basically areas of lymphoid tissue in the middle of the
spleen. There are areas filled with T cells and B cells. These make up about 5-
20% of the spleen. There are lots more of the B cells in younger people than
there are in older people, and their numbers in the spleen decrease with age.

Bone Marrow
 Every cell involved in a person's immune system is initially derived from
bone marrow. These cells form through a process referred to as,
'Hematopoiesis.' During hematopoiesis bone marrow derived stem cells
differentiate into one of two things; either mature cells of the immune
system, or precursors of cells which then migrate out of the person's bone
marrow, continuing their maturation elsewhere in the body. Bone marrow
produces, 'B,' cells, killer cells, immature thymocytes, and granulocytes, as
well as platelets and red blood cells.

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1.11 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Introduction
 The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, the
subcutaneous tissue below the skin,and assorted glands.The most obvious
function of the integumentary system is the protection that the skin gives to
underlying tissues. The skin not only keeps most harmful substances out, but
also prevents the loss of fluids.
 A major function of the subcutaneous tissue is to connect the skin to
underlying tissues such as muscles. Hair on the scalp provides insulation
from cold for the head. The hair of eyelashes and eyebrows helps keep dust
and perspiration out of the eyes, and the hair in our nostrils helps keep dust
out of the nasal cavities. Any other hair on our bodies no longer serves a
function, but is an evolutionary remnant. Nails protect the tips of fingers and
toes from mechanical injury. Fingernails give the fingers greater ability to
pick up small objects.
 There are four types of glands in the integumentary system: Sudoriferous
glands, Sebaceous glands, Ceruminous glands, and Mammary glands.
Sudoriferous glands are sweat producing glands. These are important to help
maintain body temperature. Sebaceous glands are oil producing glands
which help inhibit bacteria, keep us waterproof and prevent our hair and
skin from drying out. Ceruminous glands produce earwax which keeps the
outer surface of the eardrum pliable and prevents drying. Mammary glands
produce milk.

Functions of the Integumentary System

The integumentary system has many functions, most of which are involved
in protecting you and regulating your body’s internal functions in a variety of ways:
1. Protects the body's internal living tissues and organs
2. Protects against invasion by infectious organisms
3. Protects the body from dehydration
4. Protects the body against abrupt changes in temperature
5. Helps dispose of waste materials
6. Acts as a receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold
7. Stores water and fat
8. Generate vitamin D through exposure to ultraviolet light

 Skin
The integumentary system is the largest of the body's organ systems. In
humans, this system accounts for about 12 to 15 percent of total body weight and
covers 1.5-2m2 of surface area. It distinguishes, separates, and protects the
organism from its surroundings. Small-bodied invertebrates of aquatic or
continually moist habitats respire using the outer layer (integument). This gas
exchange system, where gases simply diffuse into and out of the interstitial fluid, is
called integumentary exchange.

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The human skin (integument) is composed of a minimum of 3 major

layers of tissue: the epidermis; dermis; and hypodermis. The epidermis forms the
outermost layer, providing the initial barrier to the external environment. Beneath
this, the dermis comprises two sections, the papillary and reticular layers, and
contains connective tissues, vessels, glands, follicles, hair roots, sensory nerve
endings, and muscular tissue.The deepest layer is the hypodermis, which is
primarily made up of adipose tissue. Substantial collagen bundles anchor the dermis
to the hypodermis in a way that permits most areas of the skin to move freely over
the deeper tissue layers.

A. Epidermis
This is the top layer of skin made up of epithelial cells. It does not
contain blood vessels. Its main function is protection, absorption of nutrients, and
homeostasis. In structure, it consists of a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
comprising four types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells, and
Langerhans' cells. The major cell of the epidermis is the keratinocyte, which
produces keratin. Keratin is a fibrous protein that aids in protection. Keratin is also
a water-proofing protein. Millions of dead keratinocytes rub off daily. The majority
of the skin on the body is keratinized, meaning waterproofed. The only skin on the
body that is non-keratinized is the lining of skin on the inside of the mouth. Non-
keratinized cells allow water to "stay" atop the structure.
The protein keratin stiffens epidermal tissue to form fingernails. Nails
grow from thin area called the nail matrix; growth of nails is 1 mm per week on
average. The lunula is the crescent-shape area at the base of the nail, this is a lighter
color as it mixes with the matrix cells.

B. Dermis
The dermis is the middle layer of skin, composed of dense irregular
connective tissue and areolar connective tissue such as collagen with elastin
arranged in a diffusely bundled and woven pattern. The dermis has two layers. The
Papillary layer which is the superficial layer and consists of the areolar connective

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tissue and the Reticular layer which is the deep layer of the dermis and consists of
the dense irregular connective tissue. These layers serve to give elasticity to the
integument, allowing stretching and conferring flexibility, while also resisting
distortions, wrinkling, and sagging. The dermal layer provides a site for the endings
of blood vessels and nerves. Many chromatophores are also stored in this layer, as
are the bases of integumental structures such as hair, feathers, and glands.

C. Hypodermis
Also called the hypoderm, subcutaneous tissue, or superficial fascia and
the bottom layer of the integumentary system in vertebrates (hypoderm and
subcutaneous are from Greek and Latin words, respectively, for "beneath the skin").
Types of cells that are found in the hypodermis are fibroblasts, adipose cells, and
macrophages. It is derived from the mesoderm, but unlike the dermis, it is not
derived from the dermatome region of the mesoderm. In arthropods, the
hypodermis is an epidermal layer of cells that secretes the chitinous cuticle.

 Nails
A nail is a horn-like envelope covering the dorsal aspect of the terminal
phalanges of fingers and toes in humans, most non-human primates, and a few other
mammals. Nails are similar to claws, which are found on numerous other animals. In
common usage, the word nail often refers to the nail plate only. Fingernails and
toenails are made of a tough protein called keratin, as are animals' hooves and
horns. Along with hair they are an appendage of the skin.

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