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 M A P P I N G T H E F I E L D O F A D U LT A N D
C O N T I N U I N G E D U C AT I O N
Volume Three

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Knox_Vol_3.indb ii 10/14/2017 12:45:29 PM
 MAPPING THE FIELD OF
ADULT AND CONTINUING
EDUCATION
An International Compendium

VOLUME THREE: Leadership and Administration

EDITED BY

Larry G. Martin, Simone C. O. Conceição,

and Alan B. Knox
Consulting Editors: Mary V. Alfred, Joe F. Donaldson,
Burton Sisco, and Karen E. Watkins

Editorial Coordinator: Anita Samuel

Foreword by Steven B. Frye

Co-published with

STERLING, VIRGINIA

Knox_Vol_3.indb iii 10/14/2017 12:45:30 PM

 COPYRIGHT © 2017 BY STYLUS
PUBLISHING, LLC.
Published by Stylus Publishing, LLC.
22883 Quicksilver Drive Sterling,
Virginia 20166-2102

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced

in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, recording, and
information storage and retrieval, without permission in writing from
the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Knox, Alan B. (Alan Boyd), 1931- editor. |
Conceição, Simone C. O., 1963- editor. |
Martin, Larry G., editor.
Title: Mapping the field of adult and continuing education : an
international compendium / edited by Alan B. Knox, Simone C.O.
Conceição, and Larry G. Martin ; editorial coordinator Anita Samuel.
Description: First edition. |
Sterling, Virgina. : Stylus Publishing, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017022658 (print) |
LCCN 2017047549 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781620365267 (uPDF) |
ISBN 9781620365274 (mobi, ePub) |
ISBN 9781620365243 (cloth : alk. paper) |
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ISBN 9781620365274 (consumer e-edition)
Subjects: LCSH: Adult education. | Adult education--Cross-cultural
studies. | Continuing education. | Continuing education--Cross-cultural
studies.
Classification: LCC LC5215 (ebook) | LCC LC5215 .M255 2017 (print) |
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LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017022658

13-digit ISBN: 978-1-62036-532-8 (cloth)

13-digit ISBN: 978-1-62036-533-5 (paperback)
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Call 1-800-232-0223

First Edition, 2017

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Knox_Vol_3.indb iv 10/14/2017 12:45:31 PM

 CONTENTS

VOLUME THREE: LEADERSHIP AND ADMINISTRATION

FOREWORD ix
Steven B. Frye

PREFACE xi

INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME THREE 337

Larry G. Martin

SECTION EIGHT: ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION 341

39 ANDRAGOGIK, ANDRAGOGY, AND ADMINISTERING GRADUATE

PROGRAMS 343
Katarina Popović and Jost Reischmann

40 ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE FOR ADULT AND

CONTINUING EDUCATION 347
Henry S. Merrill

41 ADULT EDUCATION DEPARTMENTAL LEADERSHIP

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 351
E. Paulette Isaac-Savage and Henry S. Merrill

42 ADMINISTRATION OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION IN

SOUTHERN AFRICA 355
Oitshepile MmaB Modise

SECTION NINE: PLANNING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION 361

43 FUNDING IN ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION

ADMINISTRATION 363
Susan M. Yelich Biniecki and Steven W. Schmidt

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 vi CONTENTS

44 STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR LIFELONG LEARNING 369

A Campus Perspective
Jeffrey S. Russell, Sara J. Kluender, and Mary K. Thompson

45 THE IMPORTANCE OF BUDGETS IN ADULT AND CONTINUING

EDUCATION 375
Steven W. Schmidt and Susan M. Yelich Biniecki

46 SHELF LIFE AS A REVISION STRATEGY FOR ENDURING COURSE

CONTENT 385
Eric C. Buxton and Erik C. Burns

SECTION TEN: ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND CULTURE 391

47 CREATING POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTS FOR ADULT AND

CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS 393
Chanell Morello

48 LEADERSHIP FOR ORGANIZATIONAL DIVERSITY 397

Tackling Microaggressions in Educators’ Workplaces
Robert C. Mizzi

49 MILLENNIAL BLACK WOMEN IN PREDOMINANTLY WHITE

INSTITUTIONS 403
Cultivating the Educational Climate
Danielle L. Apugo

50 ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS IN LEARNING

AND WORK 407
Kevin Rose

SECTION ELEVEN: LEADERSHIP AND VISION 411

51 IMPROVING PERFORMANCE 413

Coaching as an Emerging Leadership Style
Neil Moore

52 LEADING, LEARNING, AND EDUCATING IN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 415

John D. Holst

53 LEADERSHIP AND COLLABORATIVE SKILL DEVELOPMENT

FOR THE DIGITAL WORLD 419
Damien Michaud

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 CONTENTS vii

54 MAKING MEANING OF STIGMATIZATION OF UNIVERSITY-BASED

ADULT EDUCATION IN BOTSWANA 423
Rebecca Nthogo Lekoko and Oitshepile MmaB Modise

55 THE CHALLENGES OF ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION

LEADERSHIP IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 427
Marcia Muirhead

SECTION TWELVE: STRUCTURE AND STAKEHOLDERS 431

56 NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS AND LEADERSHIP 433

Leona M. English

57 BUILDING COMMUNITY PROGRAMMING CAPACITY 437

Elizabeth A. Roumell

58 CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 441

History and Influences
Ronald M. Cervero and Barbara J. Daley

59 LEADERSHIP FOR THE COMPLEXITY AND CHALLENGES OF

GLOBAL ADULT EDUCATION 445
Carmela R. Nanton

60 INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATIONS TO ESTABLISH FAMILY

MEDICINE IN ETHIOPIA 449
Cynthia Haq, Elizabeth Kvach, Ann Evensen, and Andrew Janssen

GLOSSARY 453

APPENDIX 479
Contents for Volume One, Volume Two, and Volume Four

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS 485

INDEX 491

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Knox_Vol_3.indb viii 10/14/2017 12:45:31 PM
 FOREWORD

T
he rapid-paced changes we are experiencing in our world call for an
ongoing conversation to keep adult education relevant, fresh, and
current. Two years ago, Stylus Publishing and the American Asso-
ciation for Adult and Continuing Education (AAACE) jointly launched an
international compendium to map the field of adult and continuing educa-
tion. This initiative reflected the commitment of both organizations to assist
associations, practitioners, and scholars who contribute to many parts of the
adult education field worldwide.
I am pleased to serve as AAACE’s president during the timely comple-
tion of this important project. I am thankful for the support and contribu-
tions of my two predecessors (Margaret Eggleston and Steve Schmidt), as
well the publications committee and the board, who initiated and supported
the creation of this valuable resource.
The editors successfully attracted an exceedingly diverse group of practi-
tioners and scholars from many countries, types of providers, stages of career,
and perspectives. The contributors and editors who helped to create the com-
pendium have given us an extensive resource that will benefit adult educators
worldwide. The end product is a useful and accessible tool for adult educa-
tors in our continual journey to better our field of study and practice.
The four parts of the compendium are focused on adult learners, teach-
ing and learning, leadership and administration, and inquiry and influences.
About 20 brief and substantive articles in each volume refer to related com-
pendium articles and to other publications for more details about the topic.
This organization allows each compendium reader to use this map to explore
the combination of topics that pertain to their own provider mission and
career journey.
I want to offer special thanks to the editors: Alan b. Knox, Simone C. O.
Conceição, and Larry G. Martin for their impassioned commitment to this
monumental effort. I am confident that your efforts will benefit many in our
field and encourage the continual conversation that we call adult education.

ix

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 x FOREWORD

On behalf of AAACE, I invite our membership and our many partners

worldwide to make use of this excellent resource. Together we will build the
future of our field.

Steven B. Frye
President,
American Association for Adult and Continuing Education;
Associate Professor and Interim Director,
School of Interdisciplinary Studies,
Tennessee Technological University

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 P R E FA C E

W
elcome to this distinctive map of our field. The map was created
by and for educators of adults and includes 80 brief and substan-
tive articles. Together, these articles give you access to concepts
and examples about various learning opportunities for adults. We hope these
examples, concepts, and guidelines will enhance your learning opportunities
for adults.
To create this compendium, practitioners and scholars assembled con-
cepts and examples from many countries and types of provider organizations
to prepare brief articles that are relevant to your experience and interest in
excellent learning opportunities for adults. The table of contents serves as a
matrix of potential topics that we used to map the conceptual base of the
field. Our matrix was a taxonomy of four parts (learners, teaching, admin-
istering, inquiry), each composed of major topic areas and subtopics (con-
cepts) based on the work of numerous practitioners and scholars.
A basic feature of this publication is the ability to follow connections
among topics to navigate among articles, discover additional publications,
and find ideas to share with program stakeholders. In the electronic edition,
hyperlinks allow you to navigate easily among volumes, articles, and key-
words so you can create your own individual pathways through the compen-
dium. Connections among articles illustrate important educator decisions
related to concepts from several parts of the compendium. For example,
helping adults learn is related to participant experience and interests, pro-
gram coordinator assistance, and available program funding. The compen-
dium includes a glossary to clarify the meanings of terms and concepts for
the benefit of readers.
Adult learners vary in what they want to learn and why. The participants
in each learning opportunity also vary greatly in experiences, abilities, inter-
ests, vocations, ages, responsibilities, and outlooks, all of which influence
their lifelong learning activities. Young people may be recipients of educa-
tion, but as adults, many of them want to be users of education in adult life
roles in family, work, and community.

xi

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 xii PREFACE

Volumes and Sections

VOLUME ONE: ADULT LEARNERS

Editors: Alan B. Knox, Simone C. O. Conceição, and Larry G. Martin
Sections: Adult Life Cycle Development; Learning Theory and Practice;
A Broad Spectrum of Learners

VOLUME TWO: TEACHING AND LEARNING

Editors: Simone C. O. Conceição, Larry G. Martin, and Alan B. Knox
Sections: Multiple Contexts; Approaches to Teaching; Professional Develop-
ment; Critical Innovation

VOLUME THREE: LEADERSHIP AND ADMINISTRATION

Editors: Larry G. Martin, Simone C. O. Conceição, and Alan B. Knox
Sections: Administration and Coordination; Planning and Resource Alloca-
tion; Organizational Change and Culture; Leadership and Vision; Structure
and Stakeholders

VOLUME FOUR: INQUIRY AND INFLUENCES

Editors: Alan B. Knox, Simone C. O. Conceição, and Larry G. Martin
Sections: Organizational and Societal Influences; Engaged Inquiry; Methods
of Inquiry; Assessment and Evaluation
For each volume, the table of contents and introduction explain to readers
the purpose, organization, contents, and contributors. Each article begins
with a list of concepts and keywords central to the article. The keywords are
all in the index so readers can use the index to locate articles of interest. These
features reflect our commitment to a compendium that facilitates individual-
ized inquiry by readers so as to practice what we teach.
Having each of the four volumes of the compendium published sepa-
rately is a convenience for some readers who may be interested mainly in the
contents of that volume.
At the beginning of this preface you were welcomed and introduced to
its contents and organization. Similar to a marathon or relay race where the
starting line becomes the finish line, we now return full circle, and it is time
to pass the baton to you.
Alan B. Knox, Simone C.O. Conceição, and
Larry G. Martin

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 INTRODUCTION TO
VOLUME THREE
Larry G. Martin

A
dministrative roles and responsibilities represent the linchpin that
is critically important to the successful implementation of adult,
community, and continuing education organizations. Although the
amount of literature focusing on the leadership and administration of adult
education programs and organizations has increased recently, it dwarfs in
comparison with other aspects of the field (Galbraith, Sisco, & Guglielmino,
1997). The leadership and administrative roles and positions staffed by adult
education practitioners would likely vary based on a number of variables: (a)
the types and functions of the adult, community, and continuing education
programs and organizations (e.g., cooperative extension, community-based
agencies, correctional institutions, continuing higher education); and (b) the
extent to which it is a stand-alone organization (e.g., adult high school) or if it
is affiliated with a parent organization (e.g., an employee training unit within
a business/industry organization) that has functions other than adult educa-
tion as a primary mission (Galbraith, Sisco, & Guglielmino, 1997).
Regardless of the context—adult, community, or continuing educa-
tion—administrative leaders should be familiar with and have an under-
standing of the following: (a) the basic structural features of organizations
(e.g., authority, division of labor, etc.), (b) the tasks of administration (e.g.,
staff development, budgeting and financial management, personnel and pro-
gram evaluation, promotion and public relations, effective communication,
facilitating change), (c) different approaches to organizational management
(e.g., leadership theories and approaches, power and organizational politics,
the management of symbolism), (d) measuring organizational performance

337

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 338 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME THREE

(e.g., productivity, morale, organizational climate and culture), and (e) strat-
egies for improving organizational effectiveness.
This volume is composed of 22 articles organized into five sections that
address salient topics and subtopics that are important to the development
of leadership and administrative practices relevant to adult, community, and
continuing education programs and organizations. The four articles in sec-
tion eight focus on administration and coordination. They assist readers in
understanding the complexities of organizing, coordinating, and administer-
ing adult education departments and programs in colleges and universities
in Germany, Southern Africa, and the United States. Planning and resource
allocation are routine but vital functions for maintaining organizational
consistency and stability. Therefore, a major concern of many adult educa-
tion enterprises is the development and maintenance of multiple sources of
funding and resource support. The four articles in section nine provide ideas
for seeking and maintaining resources to support adult education programs
and organizations, including funding programs and organizations, strategic
planning processes, budgeting processes, and a process for revising course
content. Section ten focuses on organizational change and culture. It recog-
nizes that one of the most difficult management challenges in twenty-first-
century multicultural organizations is the development and maintenance of
an organizational climate and culture in which all employees feel valued and
respected. The four articles in this section assist leaders in proactively address-
ing the following key concerns: empowering employees, confronting work-
place microaggressions, cultivating the higher education campus climate for
millennial Black women, and understanding and enhancing organizational
citizenship behaviors among employees and colleagues.
Section eleven, on leadership and vision, recognizes that in many coun-
tries around the world, adult, community, and continuing education pro-
grams are both agents of change and instruments of stability in support of
the status quo. Articles in this section address the roles of adult education
administrators and leaders to envision different possibilities and futures for
adult education organizations. The articles focus on coaching as a leadership
style; leading, learning, and educating in the context of social movements;
digital leadership and collaboration for workers at a distance; making mean-
ing of the stigmatization of adult education and creating a shared vision;
and exploring the primary challenges of adult education in the twenty-first
century. Section twelve addresses structure and stakeholders. This section
recognizes that a major concern of adult education organization leaders is to
build and grow their organizations. The five articles in this section provide
ideas and examples for leaders to engage in capacity building for a variety
of organizational settings, including the following: nonprofit organizations,

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 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME THREE 339

community programming, continuing professional education organizations,

global adult education, and collaboration to establish family medicine in
Ethiopia.
Contributors from different countries involved with leading and admin-
istering adult, community, and continuing education programs and organi-
zations prepared the 22 articles in this volume. This volume is intended to
assist scholars and practitioners in expanding the depth and breadth of their
knowledge of administrative practice in the service of developing and manag-
ing more successful and impactful adult education enterprises. Consequently,
these articles can be part of a module or unit in a formal course or serve as
resources for practitioners who work with adults. Many of the articles are
brief and provide examples and resources for future exploration. Each article
contains concepts, examples, implications, keywords, and cross-references to
other articles in the compendium. For the e-book version of the compen-
dium, the keywords at the top of the article and cross-references before the
references are linked to different parts of the compendium and to the com-
pendium index where interrelated topics can be accessed through a link.
The total compendium has four volumes: adult learners (volume one),
teaching and learning (volume two), leadership and administration (volume
three), and inquiry and influences (volume four). It is published in separate
volumes as a convenience for readers who may be interested in the contents
of a specific volume. Each volume has its own introduction and a table of
contents for the the other three volumes is located in the appendix to help
the reader identify and read articles of interest located in the other three
volumes.
While an exhaustive survey would require a far longer work, the con-
sulting editors and I worked to ensure that this volume of the compendium
provides comprehensive and timely coverage of the important topics that
inform administrative practices for adult, community, and continuing edu-
cation organizations.

References
Galbraith, M. W., Sisco, B. R., & Guglielmino, L. M. (1997). Administering success-
ful programs for adults: Promoting excellence in adult, community, and continuing
education. Malabar, FL: Krieger.

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Knox_Vol_3.indb 340 10/14/2017 12:45:31 PM
 SECTION EIGHT

A D M I N I S T R AT I O N A N D
C O O R D I N AT I O N

Articles in this section assist readers in understanding the complexities of

organizing, coordinating, and administering adult education departments
and programs—particularly those in colleges and universities.

341

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Knox_Vol_3.indb 342 10/14/2017 12:45:31 PM
 39
A N D R A G O G I K , A N D R A G O G Y,
AND ADMINISTERING
G R A D U AT E P R O G R A M S
Katarina Popović and Jost Reischmann

Keywords: academic discipline, Andragogik, andragogy, change agent, com-

petencies, identity, lifelong learning, lifewide learning, professionalization

T
his article characterizes the (European) understanding of Andragogik.
The main purpose is to strengthen the identity of the academic field.
Andragogik—labelling an academic discipline—opens a widened
understanding of adult learning and education beyond the role of “teacher
of adults.” The diversified work reality of andragogues proves the follow-
ing strength of andragogy: Graduates work successfully in the complexity
of lifewide adult learning (Jackson, 2012; Reischmann, 1986) in leadership
(by themselves leading and by supporting others to lead) and administra-
tion (by planning and organizing programs and measures). This complex
understanding and performing of supporting change needs the following
four groups of competencies: teaching, planning/organizing, consulting/
counselling, and evaluation/research. Graduate programs have to prepare for
these complex tasks.

The (European) Understanding of Andragogik

Andragogik/andragogy labels the scientific discipline, the subject of which is the
study of the lifelong and lifewide adult learning and education (germ. Bildung);

343

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 344 ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION

it includes “education and learning of adults in all its forms of expression”

(Savićević, 1999, p. 97). Andragogik does not mean a theory, nor a concept or
model: Where Andragogik is used, it functions as a header for (places of) sys-
tematic reflections, parallel to other academic headers like biology, medicine,
and physics.
The first use of the term Andragogik by the German teacher and
author Alexander Kapp in 1833 remained not much more than an oddity
(Reischmann, 2004). But from the mid-twentieth century, societies around
the world became challenged by manifold changes, leading to the increasing
importance of adult learning and education (e.g., impressively described by
UNESCO, 1997). Accordingly, a new reality developed with new types of
professional institutions, functions, and roles, with full-time employed and
academically trained professionals in the field of adult learning.
This development led to the need for two different labels for the aca-
demic and scholarly field (andragogy) versus the field of practice (adult edu-
cation). In a number of countries Andragogik/andragogy became connected
with new academic and professional institutions, publications, and pro-
grams, most notably in Eastern Europe.
Andragogik, as it is used in parts of Europe, has the advantage that dif-
ferent labels are available for the academic field (andragogy, andragogue) and
for the practical field (adult education, adult educator), preventing confusion
about the different responsibilities and competencies. Using the same label
(as in the United States and other countries) is not beneficial to differentiat-
ing these roles because nearly everybody can be labeled as adult educator.
This makes it difficult to build a specific professional identity of university
programs, students, and graduates.
Similarly, the concept of lifelong learning was not beneficial for the
professionalization of the field; on the contrary, because there aren’t (and
cannot be) experts and professionals in lifelong learning (when understood
as an all-encompassing general concept), the global rise of lifelong learning
left behind adult education and professionals working in this field, hindered
their academic qualification, and replaced not only adult education but also
andragogy (Popović, 2014).

Workplaces and Functions of Andragogues

In many countries the working fields of the graduates of academic pro-
grams in andragogy significantly changed over the last three decades; they
far exceed the traditional understanding of adult educators or teachers of
adults. Andragogues work in manifold settings and institutions in business
and industry, politics and churches, hospitals, museums, charities, tourism,

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 ANDRAGOGIK, ANDRAGOGY, AND ADMINISTERING GRADUATE PROGRAMS 345

armed forces, cultural institutions, media, and as freelance workers in their

own training and consulting businesses. Their task is to organize, man-
age and coach, inform, moderate, and motivate; they identify and solve
problems, help to find visions and directions, mediate in tensions and con-
flicts, and sometimes teach and conduct trainings. The working fields of
andragogues have become diversified, with an increasing range of needed
competencies.
The unifying idea/concept linking these various andragogical work
activities is: they support change—personal, organizational, and social. The
term change agent, sometimes used in the United States, is probably the best
one to describe the competencies and role of graduates from andragogy pro-
grams (Reischmann, 2015).

Implications for Administering University Programs of Andragogik

In medicine or architecture, like in other professional fields, it is not enough
to obtain theoretical knowledge through university education to meet the
needs of the complex professional reality of lifewide learning. In addition
to knowledge, competencies—the capability to act based on reflection—are
also needed. Andragogues are expected to master the following four groups
of competencies:

1. To teach, train, and facilitate learning processes

2. To plan and organize educational programs, measures, and interventions
3. To consult and counsel—individuals, organizations, and communities
4. To evaluate learning and education and to do research in the field of
adult education and learning

Andragogues, as change experts, can practically perform and theoretically

reflect, have a range of competencies, and produce the most successful mix of
these ingredients (Lattke, Popović, & Weickert, 2012). Their work perspec-
tive far exceeds traditional educational institutions: Everywhere change hap-
pens, they can take leadership and initiate or support positive changes by the
means of learning. In administrative functions, their focus is change through
learning. The identity of andragogues is not defined by specific institutions
or one single function; it is defined by complex understanding and perform-
ing of supporting change. This has to be considered in the curriculum of
andragogical programs and degrees.
The discussion about Andragogik/andragogy as a unifying label for
all professionals working in the fields of lifelong and lifewide learning has

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 346 ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION

important benefits. It broadens the professional perspectives and chances of

graduates and practitioners, and for scholars, it provides an important impe-
tus for the systematic research of the entire field of adult learning and educa-
tion—formal, nonformal, and informal.

Suggested Cross-References
For more information on concepts and ideas discussed in this article, please
see the following articles in the compendium: 9, 13, 40, 43, 45, 52

References
Jackson, N. J. (2012). Lifewide learning: e-book. Retrieved from http://
lifewideeducation.co.uk/sites/default/files/chapter_a1_jackson.pdf
Lattke, S., Popović, K., & Weickert, Y. (2012). Curriculum for global adult learn-
ing and education. Bonn, Germany: DVV International; Deutsches Institut fuer
Erwachsenenbildung.
Popović, K. (2014). Evropska i globalna politika obrazovanja odraslih—koncepti, para-
digme i pristupi [European and global adult education policy—concepts, paradigms
and approaches]. Belgrade, Serbia: Institut za pedagogiju i andragogiju, Društvo
za obrazovanje odraslih.
Reischmann, J. (1986). Learning “en passant”: The forgotten dimension. Paper pre-
sented at the Conference of AAACE. Hollywood, Florida. Columbus, OH:
ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. Retrieved
from http://www.reischmannfam.de/lit/1986-AAACE-Hollywood.pdf
Reischmann, J. (2004). Andragogy: History, meaning, context, function. Retrieved
from http://www.andragogy.net
Reischmann, J. (2015). Andragogy: Because “adult education” is not beneficial to
the academic identity! International Perspectives in Adult Education—IPE 71,
87–97. Retrieved from http://www.reischmannfam.de/lit/2015-Andragogy-
HeribertHinzen.pdf
Savićević, D. (1999). Understanding andragogy in Europe and America. In J. Reis-
chmann, M. Bron, & Z. Jelenc (Eds.), Comparative adult education 1998. Lju-
bljana, Slovenia: Slovenian Institute for Adult Education (pp. 97–119). Retrieved
from http://www.iscae.org/ISCAE-Book1999.pdf
UNESCO. (1997): CONFINTEA V: The Hamburg declaration on adult learning.
Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/education/uie/confintea/declaeng.htm

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 40
A D M I N I S T R AT I V E
FUNCTIONS AND
S T R U C T U R E F O R A D U LT
AND CONTINUING
E D U C AT I O N
Henry S. Merrill

Keywords: administration, adult and continuing education, controlling, coor-

dinating, leading, open organization theory, organizing, planning, structure

T
his article presents the traditional concepts relevant to administra-
tive functions and operational structures in adult and continuing
education (A&CE) organizations (or as subunits of larger organiza-
tions). It concludes with an overview of open organization theory for the
twenty-first century.

Background
The following five major functions of administrative processes were defined
in the classic nineteenth- and twentieth-century theories: planning, organ-
izing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling (Schmidt & Biniecki,
2016). In current usage, these functions are often described as follows: plan-
ning, organizing, coordinating/controlling, and leading. These are hierarchi-
cal with a focus on traditional lines of authority within complex systems

347

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 348 ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION

(e.g., corporations or large universities). A&CE organizations are very differ-

ent depending on whether the unit is within a business, educational institu-
tion, or independent organization (nonprofit or for-profit).
Planning functions include defining and selecting priorities and results
to achieve the organization’s and AC&E unit’s missions. These are described
as defining and implementing strategies to achieve goals (or outcomes).
A&CE organizational plans may include the following categories: strategic,
business, educational program, and project planning. Strategic planning is a
comprehensive process of identifying the organization’s mission and overall
goals or outcomes for a specific period of time, often three to five years; how-
ever, the rapid pace of change is forcing organizations to be more agile and
plan in shorter cycles. Planning processes may include identifying new prod-
ucts and/or services and strengthening or eliminating current ones. Feedback
loops need to be embedded in both strategic and short-term planning to
maintain accountability. Business planning includes identifying and allocat-
ing resources to support the organization’s activities.
Organizational communication strategies need to be considered in plan-
ning, focusing on fundamental questions about telling the story of why the
organization exists (mission), defining target audiences, and delivering prod-
ucts or services. The needs of both internal and external audiences are con-
sidered to develop internal relationships and support, reach target audiences,
and develop relationships with external stakeholders. The channels to tell
the story are identified and developed using traditional marketing strategies
(e.g., print and broadcast media) as well as electronic web-based and social
media channels.
The organizing function is the process of arranging and allocating
resources so the A&CE unit may achieve defined objectives to reach desired
goals/outcomes. This function may range widely from a smaller organization
to a larger A&CE organization, especially if it is embedded within a large
institution. Primary elements to organize are people (individual employees
and members of groups) and facilities (e.g., offices, classrooms, laboratories,
workshops, and technologies).
One primary human resource element to be organized includes employee
positions describing responsibilities, employee selection, and training and
development requirements. Other tasks are employee assignments to inter-
nal and external work groups, and expectations related to responsibilities for
target audiences and other stakeholders.
Administrative structures flow from the organizing function and are
often displayed graphically as organizational charts. The structures neces-
sary are influenced by the size and complexity of the organization (or as a
subunit of a larger organization). A small organization/unit will have all of

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 ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE 349

the functions completed by that team. Larger units may be organized by nec-
essary functions, a combination of functions and educational program focus,
or some hybrid or matrix structure ensuring all functions are assigned (or
completed by administrative units in the larger organization). The titles of
some units may differ across international organizations, but these primary
administrative functions are mostly recognizable.
The coordinating/controlling function is primarily monitoring and
adjusting resource allocation for progress toward achieving goals and objec-
tives for maximum effectiveness. Financial management is one important
process, consisting of building and managing budgets, periodic income and
expenditure analysis, audits, and annual reports. A variety of evaluation pro-
cesses are available to gather feedback on program direction and effectiveness,
individual and team/group performance, and quality benchmarks. Compli-
ance with institutional policies (e.g., employee, financial, conflict of interest,
risk management, external funding) is another important component of the
coordinating/controlling function of an A&CE unit.

Leadership Functions
Although leading (or leadership) is discussed here as a separate function, it
is the force that drives an organization’s administration and goal attainment.
A generally accepted definition of leadership is the process of establishing
the vision/direction of an organization and influencing others to support
it (Schmidt & Biniecki, 2016). Many leadership theories have evolved,
including the “great man,” classical scientific management, leadership traits,
and shared leadership, to name a few (Foster, 2013, p. 14). A distinction
is often made between leadership and management. If leadership is the
force that drives the direction and influences support, then management
may be defined as guiding the other functions, planning, organizing, and
coordinating/controlling, to keep all the operations working efficiently. One
person may both lead and manage operational functions or there may be an
operations manager working in tandem with the leader.
The crucial personal competencies of a leader include determining the
vision, planning, problem-solving, and decision-making in consultation with
the organization’s managers and sharing that vision with those in the larger
organization and external stakeholders. The twenty-first-century focus is on
shared leadership in flatter organization structures where interpersonal and
communication skills to build trust and manage conflict are most impor-
tant due to reduced power distance and variety in values, strategies, and
cultural and generational perspectives. Leaders need skills to facilitate meet-
ings, enable group problem-solving, and communicate effectively. They also

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 350 ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION

must recognize the importance of creating and influencing the culture of

the organization. This process will be different if working in independent
A&CE organizations, and it will be more complex if the unit is part of a larger
organization that may or may not have education as a primary function.

Overview of Open Organization Theory

Significant twenty-first-century trends in organizational theory build on open
systems and flatter organizations developed in the late twentieth century.
A&CE organizations are experiencing the challenges of economic shifts and
multiple cultural, political, generational, and religious perspectives. The open
organization is an organic approach to help organizations become more agile
when responding to these challenges. It is defined as “a decentralized matrix
style organization” with the result of creating “a more flexible flow of ideas and
processes that meets the need of each individual within the organization as they
pursue the goals of the organization and its stakeholders” (Foster, 2013, p. 29).
The challenges of interactive communication technologies, globalization,
sustainability, and social justice issues impact administering A&CE organiza-
tions. The multiple cultural influences of organizations increase the challenges
of developing educational programs and services. Cultural and generational
attributes of employees, stakeholders, and audiences need consideration in
the administrative functions and structures of a successful A&CE organiza-
tion in the twenty-first century (Ross-Gordon, Rose, & Kasworm, 2017).

Suggested Cross-References
For more information on concepts and ideas discussed in this article, please
see the following articles in the compendium: 36, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 51,
52, 56, 61, 75, 78

References
Foster, P. A. (2013). Organization 3.0: The evolution of leadership and organization
theories toward an open system for the 21st century. Murfreesboro, TN: Maximum
Change Press.
Ross-Gordon, J., Rose, A. D., & Kasworm, C. E. (2017). Foundations of adult and
continuing education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schmidt, S. W., & Biniecki, S. M. (2016). Organization and administration of adult
education programs: A guide for practitioners. Charlotte, NC: Information Age
Publishing.

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 41
A D U LT E D U C A T I O N
D E P A R T M E N TA L
LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES
A N D O P P O RT U N I T I E S
E. Paulette Isaac-Savage and Henry S. Merrill

Keywords: adult education, adult education programs, leadership

L
eading a graduate adult education program may require a unique skill
set. Although organizational and time management skills are impor-
tant for adult education program leaders, they must also know how
to seize opportunities and possess the acumen to face challenges head on.
In many countries, the future of graduate adult education programs is in
limbo. In the United States, as a result of decreased funding, higher educa-
tion academic departments have reduced faculty positions and eliminated
course offerings (Mitchell & Leachman, 2015). This causes challenges and
spurs opportunities for adult education program departmental leaders. In
this article, we provide strategies for successful adult education programs
within higher education institutions in the midst of challenges.
Despite increasing challenges, some adult education leaders find them-
selves as part of a flourishing program. Yet, some face many challenges in
keeping programs viable with fewer hires to replace exiting faculty and a lack
of support from administrators. This is a result of many factors including a
general lack of understanding of adult education by “outsiders,” decreased
state funding and grants, and colleges of education focusing on K–12
education.
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 352 ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION

Adult education may lack a clear identity or mission. Many external to

the field do not understand our relevance to education in general—or even
to other fields. Sadly, many still view adult education as simply teaching
adults with low-level skills. To change this concept, consider courses that can
be taught in or cross-listed with other departments/programs. Explore other
degree and certificate offerings at institutions and offer viable course options
for students in those programs.
In the United States, many states have decreased funding to public
higher education institutions. This forces universities and colleges to make
tough budgetary decisions. A common strategy is cutting programs. Within
colleges of education, the focus is on K–12 education. As a result, over the
past few years, a number of once flourishing adult education programs have
been eliminated. Whereas education in general may not garner the volume of
grants of other disciplines, opportunities for collaboration within programs
and across disciplines do exist.
Vigorous internal and external promotion of the programs, quality of the
degrees, and successful outcomes of alumni are vital in the narrow and not
well-defined adult education space. Clarifying and promoting the program’s
mission within the institutional structure (usually a school/college of educa-
tion in North America) where the primary focus is on K–12 teacher educa-
tion, curriculum, and leadership is important. If there are higher education
leadership programs in the same organization, adult education may be seen
as competition (Schmidt & Biniecki, 2016). In some institutions adult edu-
cation programs have been incorporated within a number of departments,
such as higher education leadership; instructional systems technology; and
counseling, adult, and health education, to name a few. Adult education
leaders and faculty must maintain focus on their program’s unique mission
and also be regarded as collaborative and collegial partners within the insti-
tution rather than competition for scarce resources (Ross-Gordon, Rose, &
Kasworm, 2017).
Qualified and engaged faculty members are key to program success.
Adult education faculty should have research and professional engagements
in areas that connect with relevant internal and external audience sectors and
other stakeholders. Faculty prospects for tenure-eligible or long-term con-
tract positions should articulate how their research, engagement with pro-
fessional communities/practitioners, and scholarly work parallels with the
mission of the program and the overall institution (Benoit, 2017).
External promotion of adult education programs needs to be targeted to
specific audiences that may not be part of the traditional focus of the insti-
tution’s marketing mix. Students seeking graduate study in adult education
may require professional development in the sector where they are employed

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 ADULT EDUCATION DEPARTMENTAL LEADERSHIP 353

(or seeking employment). These sectors may include corporate career/talent

development, curriculum development, instructional design and delivery in
health occupations, nonprofit organizations, and literacy/adult basic educa-
tion leadership (Schmidt & Biniecki, 2016). Social media presence and fac-
ulty engagement in these employment sectors in regional, national, and/or
international organizations is vital. Promotion of the availability of online
degree delivery via social media and traditional online marketing strategies is
very important to attract regional/national and international students (Ross-
Gordon et al., 2017).
Online/distance education has emerged as a strategy to make graduate
degrees more accessible and efficient to deliver. There are a variety of models
to examine, such as asynchronous, synchronous, or hybrid delivery; cohort
or open enrollment; and whether to include a short-term campus residency.
The implementation of distance delivery has driven an increased use of best
instructional design and quality assurance practices that result in improve-
ment in instructional delivery (Cordie, Lin, & Witte, 2017).
Although the picture we paint may appear gloomy, these can be excit-
ing times. Leadership affects the success or failure of any organization
(Kocolowski, 2010). Leading an academic adult education department (or
program) requires many skills in this complex and ever-changing world.
Today’s adult education leaders in higher education institutions must realize
the challenges that lie ahead, but seize the opportunity to strengthen and
build their programs for a dynamic future.

Suggested Cross-References
For more information on concepts and ideas discussed in this article, please
see the following articles in the compendium: 40, 43, 46, 47, 51, 53, 54, 75

References
Benoit, A. (2017). Reframing faculty development as adult learning. In V. C. X.
Wang (Ed.), Theory and practice of adult and higher education (pp. 349–372).
Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
Cordie, L. A., Lin, X., & Witte, J. E. (2017). The transformation of higher educa-
tion: Successfully leading adaptation through the e-learning landscape. In V. C.
X. Wang (Ed.), Theory and practice of adult and higher education (pp. 181–213).
Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
Kocolowski, M. D. (2010). Shared leadership: Is it time for a change? Emerging
Leadership Journeys, 3(1), 22–32. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/
viewdoc/download? doi: 10.1.1.462.2678&rep=rep1& type=pd

Knox_Vol_3.indb 353 10/14/2017 12:45:32 PM

 354 ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION

Mitchell, M., & Leachman, M. (2015). Years of cuts threaten to put college out of
reach for more students. Washington DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priori-
ties. Retrieved from http://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/years-
of-cuts-threaten-to-put-college-out-of-reach-for-more-students
Ross-Gordon, J., Rose, A. D., & Kasworm, C. E. (2017). Foundations of adult and
continuing education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schmidt, S. W., & Biniecki, S. M. (2016). Organization and administration of adult
education programs: A guide for practitioners. Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

Knox_Vol_3.indb 354 10/14/2017 12:45:32 PM

 42
A D M I N I S T R AT I O N O F
A D U LT B A S I C E D U C A T I O N
IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
Oitshepile MmaB Modise

Keywords: administrative, adult basic education, coordination, international

development partners, resource availability, southern African

S
ince the World Conference on Education for All in 1990, adult basic
education (ABE) has attracted attention and debate the world over. As
a result, ABE in southern Africa has increasingly been recognized as
playing an important role in socioeconomic development of this region. In
countries like Botswana, major policy reforms have been introduced, but
they do not always translate into tangible support for effective administra-
tion of these programs.

An Outline of Southern Africa

Geographically, southern Africa includes a few countries; the Southern
African Development Community (SADC) countries are accepted as repre-
sentatives of both the geographical and political southern Africa. Therefore,
SADC countries constitute the context for this article. The countries include
Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Madagascar,
Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swa-
ziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (SADC, 2012). The languages
include English, which is spoken by the majority of the countries; French;

355

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 356 ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION

and Portuguese (SADC, 2012). The practice of ABE is rife in SADC,

although in varying degrees of intensity and extensiveness.

ABE
ABE has been discussed from various angles including its meanings and the
various roles it may play in society. Consequently, it has been said,

Research has undeniably shown that basic education is the fundamental

pillar in the development process. It arms individuals with basic knowl-
edge, reading and writing skills and use of numbers, which are all criti-
cal in the fight against poverty and inequality (Nhamo & Nhamo, 2006;
Gardiner, 2008; George & Onyekachi, 2013). The United Nations Educa-
tional Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO 1997) asserts that
“basic education opens up communication channels, expands personal
choice and control over one’s environment, gives them access to informa-
tion, allows them to cope with work and family responsibilities and also
changes the image they have of themselves.” Moyo (2014) corroborates
the preceding views and avers that “education equips an individual with
the skills needed for survival, social interactions, as well as contribution to
societal growth.” (Aitchison, 2006, p. 1)

This succinct summary of the nature of ABE applies to SADC countries

with varying degrees of administrative challenges.

Administrative Issues in SADC Adult Basic Education

A number of practical administrative issues, such as the policy–practice rela-
tionship, deployment of resources, monitoring of learning, and coordination
of activities, are discussed.

Policy to Practice
Policies are official statements that inform practice. Most SADC countries
have ABE policies, but they are ambiguous, broad, and serve as appendages
to other policies (Aitchison, 2006). They are ambiguous because it is not
clear whether they intend to promote ABE or other types of adult educa-
tion programs, such as literacy, vocational education, or life skills (Aitchison,
2006). Discussing the same concern, Biao and Maruatona (forthcoming)
have said that SADC countries’ main adult education program is literacy
education. By literacy, they mean traditional literacy (reading, writing, and
numeracy). This literacy education program tends to be adjusted from time

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 ADMINISTRATION OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA 357

to time for the purpose of addressing special local issues. For example, where
a relevant target group has mastered any of the three skills making up tradi-
tional literacy, emphasis is laid on the skill(s) yet to be mastered.
Alternatively, minor additions are made to the literacy program (upscal-
ing of one vocation that has been found to be in currency, a political educa-
tion program or HIV/AIDS education program). During this adjustment, the
original literacy education takes on the names of other learning programs, such
as ABE, adult vocational education, and the like. The SADC ABE policies are
stated in a broad manner, perhaps in order to allow countries to use them as
part of a fit-all type of education. Lastly, SADC countries’ ABE policies have
been said to be appendages of national education policies (Aitchison, 2006;
Biao & Maruatona, 2015) and poverty alleviation policies (Aitchison, 2006).

Resources
Human, material, and financial resources are needed to support the promotion
of ABE. Because adult education in general, and ABE in particular, is rela-
tively new in comparison to formal schooling, resources for ABE have always
been scarce. Trained personnel, learning resources, and funds have always been
scarce in the area of adult remedial education for more reasons than the one
mentioned earlier. Trained personnel in this context are supposed to be made
up of men and women equipped with the knowledge and techniques for pro-
moting ABE. Very few institutions have existed in southern Africa since the
1960s that are training ABE personnel. The few existing institutions have con-
tributed to helping a larger number of people acquire the skills of reading,
writing, and numeracy, rather than to obtain the type of education described
earlier by Moyo (2014). The main reasons for this situation are that it is easier
to make people literate than to equip them with basic education, and literacy
enjoys greater official acceptance in southern Africa as it has been recognized as
being equivalent to primary-level education (Aitchison, 2006).
Material resources refer to the learning resources, equipment, and
physical facilities that are needed to promote ABE. There exists no separate
physical facilities or equipment that ABE can use in the region. As it is in
the case of adult education in general, ABE is promoted using a number of
already existing formal education facilities. Available equipment in these
facilities are not always adequate for use in the promotion of ABE. Yet, for
lack of other alternatives, they are often used to teach in the area of ABE.
Learning resources are the scarcest. The knowledge and skills they need
to make available to the SADC ABE personnel are yet to be well defined
(Aitchison, 2006). Consequently, many of the adult basic learning resources
currently used are improvised and, at best, borrowed from literacy educa-
tion programs.

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 358 ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION

Financial resources are expected to provide the funds necessary for

financing all activities in the area of ABE. However, as Biao and Maruatona
(2015) and Aitchison (2006) have said, SADC allocates only about 1% of its
annual education budget to the general sector of adult education. Even when,
according to Biao and Maruatona (2015), some southern African countries
met the internationally prescribed threshold on funding of education, adult
education still suffered from poor funding.

Beginning from the 2007/2008 financial year, Botswana experienced a

revolution in national education funding. It was able to fund its educa-
tional sector to the tune of 6 per cent of its gross national product (GNP).
. . . This is the threshold for education funding in the twenty-first cen-
tury as recommended by the International Commission on Education. . .
. This general improvement in education funding has equally led to some
increment in adult education funding, even if marginal (from 1 percent in
2007/2008 to 1.2 percent since 2008/2009 onwards). (p. 99)

This means that adult basic education has been getting only a fraction of
the 1% or 1.2% of the annual adult education budget. This is very low indeed.

Monitoring
The success of adult remedial education is dependent on a good monitoring
system. In southern Africa,

monitoring of adult education programmes and projects is done with a

variety of methods: class visits and inspections, classroom observations,
field visits, daily progress performance evaluations, vulnerability reduction
assessments, SWOT analyses (of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats) and various types of monthly and mid-year reports and assess-
ments. (Aitchison, 2006, p. 8)

However, the previous description applies more to literacy education

than to ABE. Because ABE has not been clearly defined, its monitoring
has been challenging over the years (Modise, 2015). In fact, the following
assessment credited to Aitchison (2006) applies more to ABE than to adult
education generally: “There is clearly an overall lack of monitoring capacity
for collecting, recording, analysing, disseminating and using data on [ABE]”
(Aitchison, 2006, p. 8).

Coordinating Administrative Activities

In addition to monitoring, ability to coordinate administrative tasks is
one of the factors that ensures educational success. In the case of ABE, key

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 ADMINISTRATION OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA 359

administrative activities may include timely delivery of learning resources

to places in need. These administrative tasks may equally include planned
workshops, visits to clusters, and the timely delivery of service to learners.
The main reason cited for poor coordination is the lack of transportation
for supervision and visits, and the distribution of literacy materials. Also
unexpected divisional, regional, and national activities are clear examples
of poor coordination of activities. These contribute to the problem of being
unable to complete program activities on time. At times, administrators
have cancelled some agreed-on events due to lack of funds or other less
important reasons. This does not illustrate strong commitment and support
for ABE programs (Modise, 2015). Observation has shown that the move
to integrate the coordination of ABE into the formal system snubs the pro-
gram because this profits the formal system, as there is an uneven dispersion
of resources.

Suggested Future Directions and Implications

The following are recommendations that may improve the practice of ABE
in southern Africa in the future.

• ABE should enable the individual to acquire not only the skills of
reading, writing, and numeracy but also general and basic knowledge
on issues regarding the sciences, society, and the environment. As
such, a longer period of time and amount of resources are needed to
promote ABE than are needed to promote literacy education. A clear
policy statement is needed to differentiate adult remedial education
from literacy education in SADC. This way, required resources, time,
and logistics can be appropriately planned and provided far ahead of
the commencement of the relevant educational program (adult lit-
eracy or adult basic education).
• Policymakers must develop this policy with input from academics,
practitioners, and international development partners working within
the southern African region.
• Government funding should be complemented by private sector
contributions to ABE. It is acknowledged that the private sector already
contributes to the promotion of adult education through the training
of employees. However, before the employees join their workforce,
governments within the region spend money and resources to make
them employable through various forms of adult education programs.
The southern African region also needs to approach international
development partners for funds and resources.

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 360 ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION

• In the effort to make ABE more visible within southern Africa, the
number of literacy facilitators should be increased so that a few
literacy education facilitators can be upgraded to the level of ABE
facilitators.

Conclusion
In the southern African region, ABE is not different from literacy education.
Yet, the implementation of ABE is constrained by shortage of resources, poor
monitoring of learning, and poor coordination of administrative tasks. In
order to improve the practice of ABE in southern Africa, a clearer policy is
needed and the private sector and international development partners need
to bring their financial and material contributions to its promotion.

Suggested Cross-References
For more information on concepts and ideas discussed in this article, please
see the following articles in the compendium: 9, 13, 40, 43, 45, 52

References
Aitchison, J. (2006). Youth and adult learning and education in Southern Africa: Over-
view of five nation study. Retrieved from http://www.osisa.org/sites/default/files/
educationoverview02.pdf
Biao, I., & Maruatona, T. (2015). The state of adult education in Botswana in the
twenty-first century. In M. Milana & T. Nesbit (Eds.), Global perspectives on adult
education and learning policy (pp. 91–103). Palgrave Macmillan UK.
Biao, I., & Maruatona, I. (Forthcoming). The Southern African development com-
munity.
Milana, M., Webb, S., Holford, J., Richard Waller, R., & Jarvis, P. (Eds.).
(Forthcoming). Challenges and prospects in lifelong learning. In Palgrave inter-
national handbook of adult education. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Modise, O. M. (Ed.). (2015). Management issues in the Botswana adult basic educa-
tion program: A case study. In Cases on leadership in adult education (pp. 1–327).
Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8589-5
Moyo, C. (2014). Is adult basic education the answer to rural women’s poverty? Jour-
nal of Human Ecology, 45(2), 111–118.
South African Development Community. (2012). Southern African development
community: Towards a common future. Retrieved from http://www.sadc.int/about-
sadc/overview/history-and-treaty/#SADCC

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 SECTION NINE

P L A N N I N G A N D R E S O U RC E
A L L O C AT I O N

A critical concern for any adult education enterprise is the development and
maintenance of multiple sources of funding and resource support. This sec-
tion provides ideas for seeking and maintaining resources to support adult
education programs and organizations.

361

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Knox_Vol_3.indb 362 10/14/2017 12:45:32 PM
 43
F U N D I N G I N A D U LT A N D
C O N T I N U I N G E D U C AT I O N
A D M I N I S T R AT I O N
Susan M. Yelich Biniecki and Steven W. Schmidt

Keywords: funding, grants, proposals

S
ecuring funding is an essential role for administrators of adult and con-
tinuing education programs in higher education, nonprofit, for-profit,
and governmental sectors. It is important for the administrator to think
creatively about the types of funding needed, how to create new streams of
funding, and how to leverage existing resources (Schmidt & Yelich Biniecki,
2016). This article focuses on the categories of funding, sources of funding,
securing funding, and moving from soft money to hard money within adult
education leadership and administration.

Categories of Funding
Within diverse areas such as higher education, adult basic education, human
rights, the military, and public health, adult and continuing education admin-
istrators share fiscal responsibility for their organizations. Securing funding
may be one of the more stressful roles administrators play, but the more they
educate themselves on their fields or industries, trends, budgets, and financial
management, the more tools they will have to inform this aspect of their jobs.
Both funding and support are necessary for a fiscally sound organization.
Funding refers to sources of income (Caffarella & Daffron, 2013). Support

363

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 364 PLANNING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION

also can be financial income; however, support is usually nonmonetary types

of backing, such as bartering, in-kind donations, and lobbying. The focus
within this article is on monetary funding that supports a specific organiza-
tional need or program area.
Some organizational funding is provided through a planned amount of
money in the parent organization’s budget or a line item. However, the adult
and continuing education administrator usually needs to seek other funding
sources to support organization initiatives. In higher education, for example,
the value and power held by a unit or department is often equivalent to the
external dollars generated for research or program development, contribut-
ing to the overall external funding goals for the organization. Funding can
be categorized in these two main areas: financial donations and sponsorships
(monetary contributions made by individuals or groups of individuals to the
organization and its educational programs) and internal and external grants
(monies that a unit applies for with a specific idea and organized plan to
address a certain need; Schmidt & Yelich Biniecki, 2016).

Sources of Funding
There are a variety of sources for funding, including foundations or non-
governmental funding organizations supported by an endowment, or a per-
manent amount of money or other assets that are used to provide grants
(Gitlin & Lyons, 2008). In addition, local, state, and federal governmental
organizations, associations, companies, and individuals are entities that may
award grants. Grants also may be internal, or monies that the parent organi-
zation provides for specific initiatives. For example, a university may provide
competitive internal research grants in order to provide seed, or start-up,
monies, particularly for new faculty or for organizational priorities to which
the institution would like to see additional efforts devoted.
Different nation states have governmental funding streams that organiza-
tions can access. Within the United States, for example, funding for research
projects may come directly from federal agencies such as the National Science
Foundation (NSF), Department of Defense (DoD), or the Institute of Edu-
cation Sciences (IES), among others. States also have specific funding sources
such as humanities councils or departments of public instruction grants.
Within other countries, funding may flow from federal ministries to provin-
cial and local levels. In addition, nation state networks such as the European
Union (EU) may provide funds for research and student or staff mobility for
EU member states as well as external partners. Supranational organizations
like the United Nations (UN) provide competitive international grants for

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 FUNDING IN ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION 365

development in connection with the Sustainable Development Goals. Other

organizations such as the Humanitarian Innovation Fund, the Ford Founda-
tion, the South African Development Community, and other foundations
and organizations can support worldwide initiatives focusing on a vast range
of adult and continuing education programs.

Securing Funding
The specifics for each competitive grant will be stated in a request for pro-
posals (RFP). Although the type of information required will differ from one
RFP to another, an important guide for proposal writing and structure can
be successful past proposals that were funded by the organization offering the
current funding opportunity. An adult and continuing education administra-
tor can analyze what has worked in the recent past to get an idea of what the
funding organization is most interested in funding in the future. Through
the representative responsible for managing the proposal receipt process, the
administrator also can investigate whether parameters or rules have changed
from previous ones and how the funder might receive a new idea.
Both writing style and structure are important when beginning to put
together a proposal. It is beneficial to get advice from people familiar, and
not familiar, with the adult education topic and proposal. Insiders, or those
familiar with the topic, can help with details and facts. Outside reviewers,
who may not be familiar with the area of the proposal, can ensure that the
communication of the proposal is at an appropriate level because those at
funding organizations may not be as familiar with the topic.
Some proposals may be as simple as creating a request letter. Others may
be as complex as a 25-page written narrative with several different appendices
(Yang, 2005). The audience for whom the proposal is intended may be varied
as well (Rosenberg, 2010). Administrators may be seeking outside support
from a foundation, or they may be drafting an internal proposal to the par-
ent organization to fund research on the use of communication technology
to improve literacy. Each proposal requires a specific type of communication
for a unique audience.
The grant-offering organization will evaluate the application and decide
whether a grant will be awarded. When grants are awarded, they are usually
accompanied by periodic requests for records and information regarding how
the money is being spent. The organization receiving the grant must under-
stand, up front, what type of information the grant-providing organization
needs, so it can fulfill its obligations to the grant provider. The organization
applying for the grant is also informed if a grant is not awarded. In those

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 366 PLANNING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION

cases, the grant-writing organization can use the exercise as a learning experi-
ence for the next time a grant proposal is developed.
Planning a strategy for funding and support connects to organizational
strategic planning, marketing, and budgeting. The phase of an organization’s
growth, annual programming, and current events may determine the input
of soft money and hard money within the funding strategy.

Soft Money and Hard Money

When addressing funding sources such as grants, the terms soft money and
hard money are often used. Hard money refers to more permanent and ongo-
ing sources of income for the organization, such as tuition (Stein & Candler,
2007). In contrast, this article has focused on soft money, such as donations,
sponsorships, and grants, which need to be pursued (often competitively),
and are awarded to an organization on a limited (perhaps one-time) basis
to be used during a specific time period (Barinaga, 2000). Some soft money
may be for a one-time event, such as an evening speaker on advocacy educa-
tion, and other soft money may support an initiative over a period of several
years with the possibility of renewal at the end of a period of time, such as
research on physician training.
Hard money positions and initiatives tend to be more permanent, or
longer-term, in the organization, such as an administrative assistant’s sal-
ary or money to pay for electricity (Stein & Candler, 2007). Although less
certain, an administrator often needs to use soft money to demonstrate suc-
cess in a particular area, such as literacy programs for refugees. Then, if the
program is successful, the organization can highlight its expertise to external
funders to secure future funding. In addition, if the need remains for a pro-
gram and success is demonstrated, a unit may promote its success to the par-
ent organization, which then may devote hard money to the adult education
initiative in the form of a staff member, space allocation, technology, or other
resources.

Conclusion
Adult and continuing education administrators can secure diverse funding
in order to achieve their missions. Being continually mindful of funding
streams can support strategic planning and budgeting. As funding gets tight
in one sector, adult education administrators may need to think of creative
ways of finding support from other sources. Every potential source of fund-
ing is accompanied by the need for internal resources dedicated to manage it,

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 FUNDING IN ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION 367

and one source may not be relied on forever. Therefore, the adult education
administrator also needs to develop or maintain an infrastructure for manag-
ing funding. Staying current and proactive in regard to proposal opportuni-
ties as well as funding challenges and trends will help the organization move
ahead smoothly.

Suggested Cross-References
For more information on concepts and ideas discussed in this article, please
see the following articles in the compendium: 17, 40, 41, 42, 45, 56, 64

References
Barinaga, M. (2000). Soft money’s hard realities. Science, 289(5487), 2024–2028.
Caffarella, R., & Daffron, S. (2013). Planning programs for adult learners: A practical
guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Gitlin, L. N., & Lyons, K. M. (2008). Successful grant writing: Strategies for health
and human service professionals (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Springer.
Rosenberg, G. (2010). The artist’s guide to grant writing: How to find funds and write
foolproof proposals for the visual, literary, and performing artist (1st ed.). New York,
NY: Watson-Guptill.
Schmidt, S. W., & Yelich Biniecki, S. M. (2016). Organization and administration
of adult education programs: A guide for practitioners. Charlotte, NC: Information
Age.
Stein, D. G., & Candler, A. G. (2007). Hard money/soft money: The two cultures.
The Academic Exchange, 9(6). Retrieved from http://www.emory.edu/ACAD_
EXCHANGE/2007/may/steinessay.html
Yang, O. (2005). Guide to effective grant writing: How to write an effective NIH grant
application. New York, NY: Springer.

Knox_Vol_3.indb 367 10/14/2017 12:45:32 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The beacon to
elsewhere
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The beacon to elsewhere

Author: James H. Schmitz

Illustrator: Virgil Finlay

Release date: December 31, 2023 [eBook #72558]

Language: English

Original publication: New York, NY: Ziff-Davis Publishing Company,

1963

Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BEACON

TO ELSEWHERE ***
 The forces of the Universe met
at Lion Mesa. They were
represented by the rebel
Terrans; by Dowland of the
Interstellar Police; and by the
monstrous shapes from an alien
galaxy. They all sought the
same thing: the time-wrenching
power of ...

The BEACON to ELSEWHERE

Complete Novel by JAMES H. SCHMITZ

Illustrated by FINLAY

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

Amazing Stories April 1963.
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
It didn't happen twice a year that Gustavus Robert Fry, Chief
Commissioner of the Interstellar Police Authority, allotted more than
an hour in his working day to any one appointment. However, nobody
in the outer offices was surprised to learn that the chief expected to
remain in conference until noon today, and was not to be disturbed
before then. The visitor who had been ushered in to him—without
benefit of appointment—was Howard Camhorn, the
Overgovernment's Coordinator of Research. It was a meeting of
political mastodons. Portentous events would be on the agenda.
Seated at the desk in his private office, Gus Fry, massive, strong-
jawed, cold-eyed—looking precisely like the power-house, political
and otherwise, which he was—did not feel entirely at ease. Howard
Camhorn, sprawled in a chair half across the room from the Chief
Commissioner, might have passed for a middle-aged, moderately
successful artist. He was lanky, sandy-haired, with a lazy smile, lazier
gestures. But he was, by several degrees, the bigger VIP of the two.
Camhorn said, "There's no question at all, of course, that the space
transport your boys picked up is the one we're interested in. But is it
absolutely certain that our Ym-400 is no longer on board?"
Fry shrugged. "It's certain that it isn't in the compartment where it was
stored for the trip—and the locks to that compartment have been
forced. It's possible that whoever removed the two Ym cases has
concealed them in some other part of the ship. That would be easy to
do, but...."
Camhorn shook his head. "No," he said. "Nobody would benefit from
that. I'm afraid we'll have to resign ourselves to the fact that the stuff
has been taken."
Fry said, "It looks like it. The police search will go on until your own
investigators get there, but there's no reason to believe anything will
be found."
"The ship's course had been reset so that it was headed into
unoccupied space?"
"Yes," said Fry. "It was only by a very improbable coincidence that an
IPA boat happened to spot it. The transport's new course wouldn't
have brought it anywhere near a traffic lane, inhabited planet, or
normal patrol route. Three weeks later, when its fuel was exhausted,
the planted explosives would have blown it up without a chance that
the wreckage would ever be detected."
"How about the cargo? Have you heard about that? Was it otherwise
intact?"
"As far as we can tell. The shippers will check everything in detail
when the freighter gets back to port. But it's a good guess that the
Overgovernment's Ym-400 is the only item missing."

Camhorn nodded. "A group which was planning to pick it up wouldn't

be very interested in ordinary loot. That seems to make it conclusive."
He wrinkled his nose reflectively. "Modus operandi?" he asked.
"Two possibilities," Fry said. "They had themselves loaded aboard
with the cargo, or they intercepted the transport en route and entered
it in flight."
"Which do you like?"
"The first. In fact, the other is hardly a possibility. Even the IPA
couldn't get aboard a modern automatic freighter between ports
without setting off an explosion of alarms in every flight control station
on its course. No such alarm was recorded. And there is no indication
of a forcible entry."
"So our thieves had themselves loaded on," said Camhorn. "Now,
Gus, I've always been under the impression that the check system
which keeps stowaways out of the automatic transports was
foolproof."
The IPA Chief shrugged. "It's been foolproof so far. But not because it
was impossible to circumvent. It's simply that circumventing the check
system would add up to so enormously expensive a proposition that
the total cash value of a transport and its cargo wouldn't be worth the
trouble. These people definitely were not considering expenses."
"Apparently not," Camhorn said. "So how did they get the Ym-400 off
the ship?"
"They had a small boat loaded on board with them. That's a
supposition, so far; they left very few traces of their activities. But it's
the only way the thing could have been done. They had obtained
exact information of the transport's plotted route and time schedule.
At a calculated point, they picked up the two cases of YM, rerouted
the ship, timed and planted their explosives, disconnected the alarm
system at the entry lock, and left in the boat. Naturally, another ship
was moving along with the freighter by then, waiting to pick them up.
That's all there was to it."
"You make it sound simple," said Camhorn.
"The difficulty," said Gus Fry, "would be in preparing such an
operation. No matter how much money these people could lay on the
line, they must have spent several months in making the necessary
arrangements without once alerting the port authorities."
"They had enough time," Camhorn admitted reflectively. "Ym-400 has
been shipped for a number of years in the same manner and over the
same route."
"I've been wondering," Fry remarked, "why this manner of shipping it
was selected."
Camhorn smiled briefly. "When was the last time an automatic
transport was hijacked, Gus?"
"Fifty-seven years ago," Fry said. "And the method employed then
wouldn't have worked on a modern transport, or under the present
check system."
"Well, that's part of your answer. Automatic shipping risks have
become negligible. The rest of the answer is that we've avoided too
obviously elaborate safeguards for Ym-400. If we put it on a
battleship each time it was moved, the technological espionage
brethren would hear about it. Which means that everybody who might
be interested would hear about it. And once the word got out, we'd
start losing the stuff regardless of safeguards to people who'd be
willing to work out for themselves just what made it so valuable to the
Overgovernment. As it is, this is the first sample of Ym-400 to go
astray in the thirty-two years we've had it."
"Two thirty-four kilogram cases," Fry said. "Is that a significant
amount?"
"I'm afraid it's an extremely significant amount," Camhorn said wryly.
Fry hesitated, said, "There's something very odd about this,
Howard...."
"What's that?"
"I had the definite impression a few hours ago that you were almost
relieved to hear about the transport."

Camhorn studied him for a few seconds. "As a matter of fact," he

said, "I was. Because of one thing. If this hadn't been obviously a
criminal act, humanly engineered—if the transport, say, had simply
blown up en route or vanished without giving an alarm...."
"Vanished without giving an alarm?" Fry repeated slowly. "Without
human intervention?"
"If," said Camhorn, "any least part of the Ym-400 it was carrying had
been radioactive, I wouldn't have been surprised to learn something
like that had happened. But, of course, the shipment was stable. And
stable Ym-400 has shown no more disturbing potentialities to date
than the equivalent amount of pig iron. If it ever develops them, the
research programs connected with the substance will be indefinitely
delayed. They may have to be abandoned." He gave Fry his lazy
smile. "Does that explain my apparent relief, Gus?"
"More or less," Gus Fry said. "Would it be a calamity if those
particular programs had to be abandoned?"
"The Overgovernment would consider it a calamity, yes."
"Why?"
"If and when," said Camhorn, "the bugs get worked out of Ym-400, it
may ensure our future control of space against any foreseeable
opposition."
Fry kept his face carefully expressionless.
"So, naturally," Camhorn went on, "we'd prefer to keep dissident
groups from playing around with the substance, or becoming aware
of its possibilities."
Fry said, "There seems to be at least one dissident group which has
much more complete information about Ym-400 than, for example,
the Interstellar Police Authority."
Camhorn shook his head. "We can't say how much they really knew,
Gus. The theft might have been arranged as a speculative operation.
There's enough loose money in large quantities around to make that
quite possible."
Fry grunted. "Do you have any definite suspects?"
"A great many. Unfortunately, there seems to be at least some
probability that the people involved won't turn out to be among them.
However, those lists will provide an immediate starting point. They're
being transferred to the IPA today."
"Thanks," Fry said sourly.
"I wouldn't do it if I didn't have to, Gus. Our Research investigators
can't begin to cope with a number like that. They will cooperate with
you closely, of course."
"Nobody else will," said Fry. "I've come to the conclusion that our
current populations are the least cooperative people in the history of
the race."
Camhorn nodded. "Naturally."
"Naturally? Why should they be? Most of them are a little short of
living space—unless they're willing to put up with frontier conditions—
but otherwise humanity's never had it so good. They're not repressed;
they're babied along—nine-tenths of the time anyway. They do just
about as they damn well please. Thirty percent of them won't turn out
a stroke of honest work from the beginning of their lives to the end."
"True enough. And you've described an almost perfect setting for
profound discontent. Which is being carefully maintained, by the way.
We don't want humanity to go to sleep entirely just yet. Gus, how
much do you know personally about Ym-400?"
"Nothing," said Fry. "Now and then some rumor about it comes to the
IPA's attention. Rumors of that kind go into our files as a matter of
course. I see the files."
"Well, then," said Camhorn, "what rumors have you seen?"
"I can give you those," Fry said, "in a few sentences. YM—or Ym-400
—is an element rather recently discovered by the Overgovernment's
scientists; within the past few decades. It has the property of
'transmuting space-time stresses'—that's the rumor, verbatim. In that
respect, it has some unspecified association with Riemann space
phenomena. It has been located in a star system which lies beyond
the areas officially listed as explored, and which at present is heavily
guarded by Overgovernment ships. In this system is an asteroid belt,
constituting the remnants of a planet broken up in an earlier period by
YM action. And there," Fry added, grinning wolfishly, "I can even bring
in a factual detail. I know that there is such a guarded system, and
that it contains nothing but its star and the asteroid belt referred to. I
could give you its location, but I'm sure you're familiar with it."
Camhorn nodded. "I am. Any other rumors?"
"I think that sums them up."
"Well," Camhorn said judiciously, "if the IPA is to be of much use to us
in this investigation, it should be better informed than that. The
rumors are interesting, though satisfactorily inaccurate. Ym-400, to
begin with, is not a single element. It's a compound of several
elements of the same series. The symbol attached to it is quite
meaningless...."
"For security reasons?"
"Of course. Now, with one notable exception, all elements in this
series were discovered during the Overgovernment's investigation of
Riemann space properties in the two intragalactic creation areas we
have mapped to date. As you may recall, that program was initiated
forty-five years ago. The elements we're talking about are radioactive:
half-life of up to an hour. It was suspected they had a connection with
the very curious, apparently random distortions of space-time factors
found in the creation areas, but their essential properties made it
impossible to produce them in sufficient quantity for a sufficient length
of time to conduct a meaningful examination.
"Ymir, the last element of this series, was not discovered in the same
areas, or at the same time. It was located ten years later, in stable
trace-quantities in the asteroid belt you've mentioned, and to date it
has not been found anywhere else. Ymir is a freak. It is chemically
very similar to the rest of the series and has an unstable structure.
Theoretically, its presence as and where it was found was an
impossibility. But it was recognized eventually that Ymir produces a
force field which inhibits radioactivity. Until the field is interfered with
the element is stable...."
"What interferes with it?"
Camhorn grinned. "People. Until it's deliberately tampered with, Ymir
is changeless—as far as we know. Furthermore it will, in compound,
extend its inhibiting field effect instantaneously to three other
elements of the same series. A very fortunate circumstance, because
Ymir has been found only in minute amounts, and unknown factors
still prevent its artificial production. The other three elements are
produced readily, and since a very small proportion of Ymir retains
them in stable—or pseudostable—form, they can be conserved
indefinitely."
"That's the Ym-400 compound?" Fry asked.
"That's it."
Fry said thoughtfully, "Perhaps I should remind you, Howard, that this
conversation is being recorded."
Camhorn nodded. "That's all right. Now that we know someone else
is in possession of sixty-eight kilograms of Ym-400, we're confronted
with radically altered circumstances. The loss incurred by the theft
isn't important in itself. The Ymir component in such a quantity is
detectable almost only by its effects, and the other components can
be produced at will.

"The question is how much the people who have the stolen
compound in their hands actually know about it. We would prefer
them to know several things. For example, up to a point Ym-400 is
easily handled. It's a comparatively simple operation to reduce or
restore the force field effect. The result is a controlled flow of
radioactivity from the compound, or its cessation. Now, you've
mentioned having heard that Ym-400 transmutes space-time stresses
—"
Fry nodded.
"Well," Camhorn said, "as a matter of fact, that's exactly what it
appears to do—as was surmised originally of the unstable elements
in the series. The active compound transmutes space-time stresses
into a new energy with theoretically predictable properties.
Theoretically, for example, this new energy should again be
completely controllable. Have you picked up any rumors of what our
experiments with the substance were supposed to achieve?"
Fry said, "Yes. I forgot that. I've heard two alternate theories. One is
that the end result will be an explosive of almost unimaginable
violence. The other is that you're working to obtain a matter
transmitter—possibly one with an interstellar range."
Camhorn nodded. "Potentially," he said, "Ym-400 is an extremely
violent explosive. No question about it. The other speculation—it isn't
actually too far-fetched—well, that would be the equivalent of
instantaneous space-travel, wouldn't it?"
Fry shrugged. "I suppose so."
"However," Camhorn said, "we haven't transmitted even a speck of
matter as yet. Not deliberately, at any rate. Do you know why, Gus?"
"No. How would I?"
"No rumors on that, eh? I'll tell you. Ym-400, when activated even in
microquantities, immediately initiates the most perverse, incalculable
effects ever to confront an experimenter. There has been, flatly, no
explanation for them. I've had ordinarily unimpressionable physicists
tell me with tears in their eyes that space-time is malevolently
conscious of us, and of our attempts to manipulate it—that it delights
in frustrating those attempts."
Gus Fry grinned sourly. "Perhaps they're right."
"As it happens," Camhorn observed, "the situation is very unfunny,
Gus. Experiments with Ym-400 have, to date, produced no useful
results—and have produced over eleven hundred casualties. Most of
the latter were highly trained men and women, not easily replaced."
Fry studied him incredulously. "You say these accidents have not
been explained?"
Camhorn shook his head. "If they were explicable after the event," he
said, "very few of them would have happened in the first place. I
assure you there's been nothing sloppy about the manner in which
the project has been conducted, Gus. But as it stands today, it's a
flop. If the stakes were less high, it would have been washed out ten
years ago. And, as I said before, if there were reason to believe that
the stable compound was involved in the disappearance of a space
transport, we probably would postpone further operations indefinitely.
One such occurrence would raise the risks to the intolerable level."
Fry grunted. "Is that what those accidents were like? Things—people
—disappear?"
"Well ... some of them were of that general nature."
Fry cleared his throat. "Just tell me one more thing, Howard."
"What's that?"
"Has any part of what you've said so far been the truth?"
Camhorn hesitated an instant. "Gus," he said then, "can you erase
your question and my reply from the recording?"
"Of course."
"Erase them, please. Then blank out our further conversation."

A few seconds later, Fry said, "All right. You're off the record."
"Most of what I told you was the truth," Camhorn said, leaning back in
his chair. "Perhaps not all of it. And perhaps I haven't told you the
whole truth. But we're out to spread some plausible rumors, Gus. We
could not afford to get caught in obvious lies."
Fry reddened slowly. "You feel the Interstellar Police Authority will
spread those rumors?"
"Of course it will. Be realistic, Gus. Naturally, you'll transmit the
information I've given you only to qualified personnel. But there'll be
leaks, and ... well, what better authentication can we have for a rumor
than precisely such a source?"
"If you know of any potential leaks among the IPA's 'qualified
personnel,'" Fry said, "I'd appreciate seeing the names."
"Don't be stuffy, Gus," Camhorn said affably. "We're not slandering
the Authority. We're banking on the law of averages. As you've
indicated, the IPA can't be expected to carry out this investigation
unless it's given some clues to work on. We're giving it those clues. In
the process, we expect to start the spread of certain rumors. That's all
to the good."
"But what's the purpose?"
"I've told you that. Our criminals may or may not be caught as quickly
as we'd like. The group actually in the know may be—probably is—
quite small. But they should have a wide-spread organization, and
they'll be alert for counteraction now. They certainly will get the
information we want them to have, whether it comes to them through
the IPA or through some other channel; and that should be enough to
keep them from committing any obvious stupidities. Meanwhile, we'll
have avoided making the information public.
"We want to make sure they know—if they don't already know it—that
Ym-400 is unpredictably dangerous. That leaves them with several
choices of action. They can abandon those two thirty-four kilogram
cases, or simply keep them concealed until they obtain more
complete information about the material. Considering the manner in
which the theft was prepared and carried out, neither is a likely
possibility. These people are not ignorant, and they aren't easily
frightened—and they certainly have the resources to handle any
expense factor."
Fry nodded.
"The probability is," Camhorn went on, "that they'll evaluate the
warning contained in these rumors realistically, but proceed with
experimentation—perhaps more cautiously than they would have
done otherwise.
"Which is as much as we hope to accomplish. I've told you of the
losses among our personnel. We have no real objection to seeing
someone else attempt to pull a few chestnuts out of the fire for us.
That's the secondary purpose of sacrificing some quite valid
information. By the time we catch up with our friends, we expect the
sacrifice will have been—in one way or another—to our advantage."
"And suppose," said Fry, "that their secret experiments with Ym-400
result in turning another planet into an asteroid cloud?"
"That's an extreme possibility," Camhorn said, "though it exists. The
point is that it exists now whatever we choose to do about it. We can
only attempt to minimize the risks."
"You'd still sooner catch them before they start playing around with
the stuff?"
"Of course we would. But we're working against time there."

"How much time do we have before the thing gets critical?"

"Well," said Camhorn, "assume they've had at least four or five years
to prepare for the day when they could bring a quantity of Ym-400
into their possession. They'll have made every necessary
arrangement for concealed full-scale experimentation. But, unless
they are utterly reckless, they still have to conduct a thorough
preliminary investigation of the compound and its possibilities. That
phase of the matter shouldn't be too dangerous, and it can't be
concluded in less than six months."
Fry shook his head exasperatedly. "Six months!" he said. "We might
get lucky and pick them up next week, Howard ... but there are
eighteen planets and planet-class satellites at peak population levels,
seventy-three space cities with a total of eight times the planetary
populations, five Freeholder planets on each of which you could keep
an army concealed indefinitely if you wanted to go to the trouble. Add
in close to a hundred thousand splinter populations on
semihabitables, asteroids, spaceborne in fixed stations and mobile
craft—we can't do it, Howard! Not in six months. We've already
started putting anyone who might have the slightest connection with
that space transport job through the strainer, and we'll get on your
lists of suspects as soon as they're placed in our hands.
"But don't expect results in anything less than a year...."
Fry, for once, had been too optimistic.
A year and a half went by. Endless series of more or less promising
leads were run into the ground. The missing Ym-400 didn't turn up.
The IPA put out its nets again, and began to check over the
possibilities that were left.

Seen from the air, Lion Mesa, in the southwest section of the
American continent on the Freehold Planet of Terra, was a tilted,
roughly triangular table-land, furred green with thick clusters of cedar
and pinyon, scarred by outcroppings of naked rock. It was eight miles
across at its widest and highest point, directly behind an upthrust
mass of stone jutting toward the north and somewhat suggestive of
the short lifted neck and heavy skull of a listening beast. Presumably
it was this unusual formation which gave the mesa its name. From
there the ground dropped to the south, narrowing gradually to the
third point of the triangle. Near the southern tip in cleared ground
were the only evidences of human habitation—half a dozen buildings
of small to moderate size, handsomely patterned in wood and native
stone. Directly adjoining one of the buildings was a large, massively
fenced double corral. This was an experimental animal ranch; it and
the mesa plus half a hundred square miles of surrounding wasteland
and mountain were the private property of one Miguel Trelawney,
Terrestrial Freeholder.
For the past twenty minutes, Frank Dowland—Lieutenant Frank
Dowland, of the Solar Police Authority—had kept his grid-car moving
slowly along the edges of a cloud bank west of the mesa, at an
unobtrusive height above it. During that time, he was inspecting the
ranch area in the beam of a high-powered hunting-scope. He had
detected no activity, and the ranch had the general appearance of
being temporarily deserted, which might be the case. Miguel
Trelawney's present whereabouts were not known, and Lion Mesa
was only one of the large number of places in which he was
periodically to be found.
Dowland put the scope down finally, glanced at the sun which was
within an hour of setting. He was a stocky man in his early thirties,
strongly built, dressed in hunting clothes. The packed equipment in
the grid-car, except for a few special items, was that of a collector of
live game, the role regularly assumed by Dowland when at work on
the planet. The Freeholder Families traditionally resented any
indication of Overgovernment authority on Terra, and would have
been singularly uncordial to a Solar City police detective here,
regardless of the nature of his mission. But the export of surplus
native fauna was one of the forms of trade toward which they were
tolerant. Moreover, they were hunting buffs themselves. Dowland
ordinarily got along well enough with them.
He now opened a concealed compartment in the car's instrument
panel, and brought out a set of pictures of Trelawney's ranch on the
mesa, taken from an apparent distance of a few hundred yards above
it. For some seconds, Dowland compared the depth photographs with
the scene he had been observing. There appeared to have been no
changes in any of the structures in the eight months since the
pictures were taken. At least not above ground.
Dowland rubbed the side of his nose, scowling slightly. If the ranch
really was deserted, it would be best to leave it alone for the time
being and search elsewhere for Trelawney. To go down uninvited in
the absence of the owner would be as much out of character for an
experienced visitor on Terra as for a Freeholder. If observed at it—a
remote possibility perhaps in this area, but the possibility was there—
he could offer the excuse of a suspicion of engine trouble in the grid-
car. The excuse would be good, once. He preferred to reserve it as a
means of introducing himself to the Trelawneys when he caught up
with them—either Miguel, the current head of the dwindled family, or
Miguel's younger half-brother, Dr. Paul Trelawney. Neither rated as a
serious suspect in the matter of the Overgovernment's missing Ym-
400, but it had been a little difficult to find out what they had been
doing with themselves during the past year and a half. Dowland's
assignment was to find out, and to do it unobtrusively. Strictly routine.