Contents

Overview of the structure and organization of the human body................................................................2

The Skeletal System...................................................................................................................................11
The Muscular System................................................................................................................................24
The Digestive System.................................................................................................................................30
The Cardiovascular System........................................................................................................................35
The Nervous System..................................................................................................................................44
The Respiratory System.............................................................................................................................50
The Skin System.........................................................................................................................................54
The Excretory System................................................................................................................................59
Guideline and Overview of the Domain Anatomy and Physiology............................................................67

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Anatomy And Physiology
Overview of the structure and organization of the human body
The four major categories:
1. Cells
2. Tissues
3. Organs
4. Systems

Cells:
Cells have been recognized as the simplest units of living matter that can maintain life and reproduce.

Tissues:
A tissue is an organization of many similar cells with varying amounts and kinds of non-living,
intercellular substances between them.

The four primary tissue types in the human body:

1. The epithelial tissue

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 2. The connective tissue
3. The muscle tissue
4. The nerve tissue

Organs:
An organ is an organization of several different kinds of tissues so arranged that together they can
perform a special function.

Example of an organ:
The stomach is an organization of muscle, connective, epithelial and nervous tissues. Muscle and
connective tissues form its wall, epithelial and connective tissues form its lining, and nervous tissue
extends throughout both its wall and its lining.

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Systems:
A system is an organization of varying numbers and kinds of organs so arranged that together they can
perform complex functions for the body.

The ten major systems of the human body:

1. Nervous

The body cavities

4
2. Skeletal

5
3. Muscular

6
4. Circulatory

5. Respiratory

7
6. Digestive

7. Excretory
8. Endocrine
9. Reproductive

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 10.Skin

The human body comprises the following four cavities: (See Page 4)
1. The dorsal body cavity
2. The thoracic cavity
3. The abdominal cavity
4. The pelvic cavity

The dorsal body cavity:

Encloses the brain and spinal cord

The Thoracic cavity:

Encloses the heart and the lungs

The Abdominal cavity:

Encloses most of the digestive organs and kidneys

The pelvic cavity:

Encloses the bladder and the reproductive organs.

The body systems:

1. The skeletal system
2. The muscular system
3. The digestive system
4. The cardiovascular system
5. The nervous system

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6. The respiratory system
7. The skin system
8. The excretory system

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The Skeletal System
Our skeletal system consists of 206 bones, about half of which are in the hands and feet. At birth babies
have about 350 bones. However, as they grow, many of these bones fuse together. Most of our bones
are connected to other bones at flexible joints which facilitate our body to perform a wide range of
movements.

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Bone shape

Long bones – These are the bones of the arms (Humerus) and the legs (femur) which are used for
primary body movements. These bones are hard, dense bones that provide strength, structure and
mobility. Long bones contain yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow which produce blood cells.

Short Bones – These are the bones in our wrists and ankles (joints in our hands and feet). Short
bones provide the body with the opportunity to make fine movements.

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Flat bones – These are bones in our ribs, skull, pelvic girdle and shoulder girdle. They are made up of
a layer of spongy bone sandwiched between two thin layers of compact bones.

Irregular bones – They are irregular in shape and are generally used to give our body protection and
shape, for example, vertebra and facial bone.

Functions of the skeleton system

1. Protection – The skeleton protects vital organs such as the brain, heart, kidney and liver.
2. Framework – The hardy skeleton provides a framework for the body and can be likened to the
steel beams of a building. It gives the body the shape that it has.
3. Support – The skeleton provides support for muscles through its points of origin and insertion.
Bones are strong enough to support our body’s weight, but light enough to allow for movement.
4. Manufacture of red blood cells – A cavity filled with a soft tissue running along the center of
long bones is the bone marrow that produces the blood cells.
5. Storage of minerals – Bones act as a storage depot for minerals such as calcium.

The vertebral column

It is commonly called the spine or backbone.

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It is a flexible column of ring-like irregular bones that runs from the base of the skull to the pelvis.

Two if its primary functions are:

 It protects the spinal cord
 It holds the body and head in an upright position, allowing us to turn, twist and bend.

The vertebral column is made up of 33 irregular shaped bones called vertebrae. Each vertebra is
separated from the other by a disc-shaped pad of fibrous cartilage with a jelly-like core called an
invertebral disc. The disc cushions the vertebra during movement.

Functions of the vertebral column:

 To provide support for the body
 To act as a supporting framework for the upper part of the body.
 To provide a safe housing structure for the delicate spinal cord.
 Allows the body to produce a wide range of movements.
 Dissipates force from the axial skeleton to the appendicular skeleton.

Axial Skeleton
This is composed of bones that are along the central axis of the body and consists of bones of the skull,
the vertebral column, the ribs and sternum

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 Blue: the Axial skeleton

Appendicular skeleton

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This is composed of bones of the upper and lower limbs together with the bones attached to the upper
and lower limbs of the axial skeleton. It includes the bones in the pectoral girdle, the pelvic girdle,
humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia and fibula

Joints
Joints in our body allow for many possibilities of movement.

Joints are classified into 3 main types:

 Fixed joints

 Slightly movable joints

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  Freely movable joints or Synovial joints

Fixed joints
These are joints that do not allow any movement. Examples of fixed joints are the bones in our skull that
are held together by fibrous connective tissue.

Slightly movable joints (cartilaginous joint))

These joints allow only a small amount of movement. They are connected to each other by pads of
cartilage and can be found between the vertebrae in the spine and where the ribs join the sternum.
These joints help the spine to bend, twist and extend in different directions.

Synovial joints (freely moveable)

These are the freely movable joints found in most parts of our body. They are present in our limps
where motor activity is dominant. The bones in this type of joint are separated by joint cavity.

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The common characteristics of all types of synovial joint are:

They have an:

 Articular capsule
 Articular cartilage
 Joint cavity
 Synovial fluid
 Ligaments
 Nerves
 Blood vessels

The joint capsule

It is a dense fibrous tissue encasing the joint, forming an outer layer called the fibrous capsule. This
dense connective tissue strengthens the joints and prevents the bone from being pulled apart

The synovial membrane

It covers all of the internal joint surfaces not covered by cartilage and lines the joint capsule. It is
composed mainly of connective tissue. The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid which lubricates
and nourishes the articulating cartilage and acts as shock absorbers.

The synovial cavity is the space between the articulating cartilage that contains synovial fluid and which
permits separation of the articulating bones.

Articular cartilage
All bone surfaces in a synovial joint are covered with articular cartilage which reduces friction and
cushions against jolts and compression placed upon the joint.

Ligaments
These are dense connective tissues that connect one bone to another. They encase the joint to prevent
dislocation. They also limit the movement capabilities of the joint. At joints, bones are held in position
by ligaments

Nerve and Blood vessels

There are numerous nerve and blood vessels associated with a synovial joint. They provide nutrients to
the joint detect pain and relay messages to the brain relating to the quality of stretch or movement at
the joint.

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19
The six types of synovial joints

1. Ball and socket joints – These are joints that provide the widest range of motion. They are found
in the hip and shoulder joint and allow the arms and legs to move in many directions.

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2. Hinge joints – These joints enable movement like the hinge on a door, where movement takes
place in only one direction. Hinge joints are found in the elbows and knees.

3. Pivot joints – This joint can be found in the neck and allows the movement of the head from side
to side.

4. Saddle joint – In this type of joint, the bones are shaped like saddles and fit into each other. This
joint allows movement in two planes, back and forth and side to side. This has limited rotational
movement. An example of a saddle joint can be found in your thumb.

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5. Condyloid joint – The convex surface of one bone fits into the concave or elliptical cavity of
another bone. Examples of condyloid joints are the joints that allow wrist movements as well as
the joints in fingers 2 through 5. These joints allow movements in two planes, back and forth
and side to side. For example, we can mover our wrist up and down and side to side. We can
also flex our fingers to form knuckles as well as move them away from each other and also
closer to each other.

6. Gliding joints – These are present between the surfaces of two flat bones. One bone slides on
top of the other providing slight movement in all direction. An example of a gliding joint are the
carpal bones of the wrist.

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23
The Muscular System
Get acquainted with the major muscles

The gluteus maximus is the largest muscle in the body.

How do the muscles work?

 All the muscles are anchored to the skeleton
 The muscles are connected to the bones by tendons.
 Muscle attachments to bones or to other muscles are classified as points of origin or insertion.

Points of origin:
This is the point at which the muscle is anchored to the bone and provides a rock of stability when
muscles apply pulling force

Points of insertion:

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This is the point of attachment to the bone that the muscles move.

Muscle attachment points and insertion points usually bridge or cross joints. The result of muscular
contraction across joints is the production of movement.

Muscles work by contracting and relaxing. In the contraction phase, muscles shorten their length, pulling
on a bone (point of insertion). During contractions, one bone moves, whereas the other bones remain
fixed.

Muscles work in pairs:

Our muscles can pull on bones to create movements, but they cannot push back the bone to its original
position. What happens is another muscle pulls back the bone into its original position.

Muscles that work in pairs are called flexors and extensors.

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Flexors contract or pull on the bone at a joint to produce movement. During this time, the extensors
extend or lengthen. When the movement has been completed, extensors contract to return the bone to
its original position, while at the same time the flexors relax.

When the biceps pull on the bones of the forearm (flexor), it contracts, thereby producing movement.
At the same time, the triceps muscle relaxes. After the completion of the pull by the biceps, the triceps
now contract to return the forearm to its original position, while at the same time, biceps relaxes (See
page 73 (biceps and triceps)) The muscle that initiates the movement is known as the prime mover or
agonist, while the other that relaxes is the antagonist.

Muscle types

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Our body contains three different muscles types:
 Skeletal muscles
 Smooth or involuntary muscles
 Cardiac muscles (muscles of the heart)

Skeletal muscles:
These are muscles that are attached to our bones. They hold the skeleton together and give the body its
shape.

Smooth or involuntary muscles:

These are muscles over which we have no control. They are controlled by the central nervous system.

Example: Peristalsis, the pushing of the food through the system.

Cardiac Muscle:
This is a very specialized muscular tissue located in the walls of the heart that performs the unenviable
task of pumping blood non-stop throughout the body. It is an involuntary muscle and works under the
control of the central nervous system.

Properties of Muscles

Muscles tissues have special characteristics:

 Excitability – Muscle cells respond to stimuli.
 Contractibility – They are able to shorten in length
 Extensibility – They are able to extend in length
 Elasticity – They have the ability to stretch and return to their normal length

Functions of the skeletal muscular tissue

 Body movement
 Maintenance of posture
 Temperature regulation – Contraction generates heat

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  Support – The muscular system protects our organs and supports the weight within the
abdominal cavity.
 Gives our body shape

Muscular Atrophy:
This is a reduction in muscle size and power due to a loss of muscle mass. Muscular atrophy is also seen
in individuals who have had nervous or spinal injuries. In this situation, there is a loss of muscular
stimulation resulting in muscular atrophy.

Muscular Hypertrophy:

It is an increase in the muscle fiber size resulting in muscular development.

Slow twitch and fast twitch muscles

Slow twitch muscles are used in low-intensity, high endurance events:

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  Walking
 Jogging
 Relaxed cycling

Fast twitch muscles are muscles that are recruited by the body when heavy work is demanded of
the muscles and when strength and power are of paramount importance.

 Shot putt
 Sprint
 Long jump

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The Digestive System

The body is constantly in need of food as it is the body's fuel source. the food is necessary for our
survival. Food in its raw state cannot be used by the body. A right mango is of no use to the body by
itself. For it to have any beneficial effect on the body, it must first be eaten and thoroughly digested. the
digestive or alimentary track begins in the mouth and ends at the anus. It comprises a series of organs
that are twisted throughout its length. If it is on raffle and extended, the digestive track can measure as
many as 20 feet. in the mouth, the food we eat, and drink is broken down mechanically and chemically.
It is broken down mechanically by the action of the jaw and teeth and chemically through the action of
enzymes. the chewed food is mixed with saliva and is pushed into the Oesophagus through the action of
the tongue, Where is the swallow through peristaltic waves. it is deposited into the stomach where
further digestion takes place through the addition of other enzymes secreted by the stomach. The
thoroughly digested food now call chyme (small enough for cells in the intestine to absorb vital nutrients
for fuel, growth and repair). It is then passed all to the small intestine where essential nutrients are
absorbed into the bloodstream and transported for use and storage. as it enters the small intestine
(duodenum), other enzymes from the pancreas , liver and gallbladder are added to further digest the
chyme. From the small intestine, the residue is passed onto the large intestine where most of the water
and mineral salts are reabsorbed. The remaining rescue then travels to the rectum from storage waiting
to be expelled through the anus. not everything we ingest (eat and drink) is used by the body. Some of it
cannot be absorbed by the body (e.g. fiber) must be eventually excreted as bowel movements.

The digestive tract begins in the mouth and ends at the anus. Organs of
the digestive track are:
 mouth
 Oesophagus
 Stomach
 small intestine
 large intestine
 rectum
 anus

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Many other organs contribute to the digestive process but are not part of
the digestive tract. These include:
 Salivary glands
 Pancreas
 Liver
 Gallbladder
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Mouth
this is the entry point for food. Here, ingested food is mechanically broken down via chewing, and
salivary glands under the tongue secrete saliva to chemically act on some food. Even before food is
ingested into the mouth, saliva is secreted. Just the sensation provided by sight, smell or even imagining
delicious, tasty comfort food prompts the secretion of saliva. Amylase (an enzyme, found chiefly in saliva
and pancreatic fluid) in the saliva begins to break down carbohydrates in the mouth. The tongue is used
to push the food into the gullet (the passage by which food passes from the mouth to the stomach).
Apart from the breakdown of food, saliva also lubricates the mouth and moistens the food making it
palatable (edible, to be eaten).

Oesophagus
this is a long flexible tube (about 10 in.) which leads from the pharynx in the upper throat to the
stomach. Muscle fibers in the wall contract in peristaltic waves to push the chewed food down to the
stomach.

Stomach
this is one of the main organs in the digestive system and is located in the middle of the abdominal
cavity from the lower end of the oesophagus to the duodenum. Food enters the stomach from the
oesophagus. excretes enzymes such as hydrochloric acid, pepsin, lipase and rennin which assist in the
breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and fats in food. The stomach walls are protected by a durable
mucous lining Which ensures that the stomach itself is not digested. At times when the lining wears thin,
ulcers may develop. If there is a backwash of stomach acid up the oesophagus, the acid causes pain
behind the sternum (breastbone) Which seems to radiate from the heart, giving rise to the term
“heartburn”. The oesophagus walls are not protected by any mucous membrane. In the stomach, the
full is thoroughly digested before it passes on to the small intestine and then to the large intestine. The
stomach is also a storage depot which allows us to eat only two or three times a day. If we did not have
a stomach, we would have had to eat about every 20 minutes. at the point when it leaves the stomach,
food has been processed into a thick liquid called chyme. The stomach can hold up to 1 liter of digested
food. the pancreas produces enzymes that assist with the digestion of fats, carbohydrates and proteins.
It also makes a substance that neutralizes stomach acid. The liver produces bile which helps to absorb
fat. Bile is stored in the gallbladder until it is needed.

Small intestine

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the completion of digestion takes place in the small intestine which extends from the lower end of the
stomach (duodenum) To the beginning of the large intestine. It consists of coiled narrow tube 1 – 2 in. in
diameter and between 19 and 22 ft in length (6-7 m) in the lower abdomen below the stomach. As the
food passes through the intestine, by peristaltic wave-like contraction, it is further digested by bile and
other digestive juices deposited into the duodenum from the gallbladder, pancreas and liver. The inner
walls of the small intestine are covered with millions of finger-like projections called villi. it is through
these microscopic projections that nutrients are absorbed into the body. These microscopic projections
give the lining of the small intestine large surface area for absorption to take place. the gallbladder
pancreas and liver are not part of the alimentary canal but play important roles in the digestive system.

Large intestine
food that is not digested in the small intestine is passed on to the large intestine. At this time, most of
the absorption of nutrients has taken place. the main function of the large intestine is to remove water
from the undigested residue and form a solid waste that can be excreted. If re-absorption of too much
water takes place, it can lead to the formation of hard dry faeces which can become compacted making
excretion difficult. This is a condition known as Constipation. On the other hand, if not enough liquid is
re-absorbed, The intestine passes fluid to the anus making control of excretion difficult, a condition
known as diarrhea.

Rectum
The rectum is about 8 in. long and serves basically as a storage depot for faeces.

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Anus
This is the opening at the other end of the digestive tract. It serves to expel faeces.

Video on the Digestive System

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The Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system included the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) and blood.
The heart pumps the blood, and the blood vessels channel and deliver it throughout the body. Air rich in
oxygen is inhaled and goes to the lungs into the tiny air-containing sacs called the alveoli. Here, it is
exchanged for carbon dioxide in blood from the pulmonary artery across alveoli walls in a process of
diffusion. The oxygen-rich blood then goes to the heart via the pulmonary vein. From the heart, it is
pumped through the aorta throughout the body where it is needed for the production of energy.
Arteries, thick-walled tubes, carry blood filled with nutrients away from the heart to all parts of the
body. Arteries divide into smaller arterioles and then into even smaller capillaries, the smallest of all
blood vessels. One arteriole can serve a hundred capillaries. It is through capillaries that blood is able to
carry out its work when it gives up what the cells need and takes away the waste products, including
what they don’t need. The cells receive the oxygen from the smallest blood vessels or capillaries, and at
the same time waste products are exchanged. The waste material, including carbon dioxide, travels in
veins to the heart through the vena cava. From the heart, it is pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary
artery and once again exchanged for oxygen. This cycle repeats continuously. Oxygen-rich blood travels
away from the heart in arteries and returns to the heart in veins. Oxygenated blood pumped through
the arteries is bright red in color. Deoxygenated blood or blood that contains a high level of carbon
dioxide is dull red in color.

A video on the Cardiovascular System

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The heart
The heart is divided into 4 chambers and is considered by many as two pumps in one. The four
chambers are:

 The right atrium

 the right ventricle
 the left atrium
 the left ventricle

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The right side of the heart is separated from the left side by a muscular wall called the inter-ventricular
set-up. This prevents the mixing of the oxygenated blood in the left side of the heart with the
deoxygenated blood in the right side of the heart. Located between the atrium and ventricle in each half
of the heart is the atrioventricular (AV) valves which ensure that there is a unidirectional flow of blood
through the heart and the blood vessels. The valves prevent the backflow of blood within the heart. The
right AC valve is called tricuspid valve because it contains 3 fibrous flaps or cusps. The left AV valve has
two flaps and is called the bicuspid valve.

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Arteries and arterioles
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. As Arteries leave the heart, they branch off into smaller and
smaller arteries and eventually form arterioles.

Veins and veinules

after the exchange of gases in nutrients has taken place between the cells and capillaries, the
deoxygenated blood flows back to the heart and the veinules. As the veinules decrease in number, the
increase in size, eventually moving into veins. blood that is flowing back to the heart is under a lower
pressure than that leaving the heart. As such, valves are necessary in veins to prevent the backflow of
blood.

capillaries
The arterioles transport blood to the capillaries. These are the smallest blood vessels that make contact
with the cells in the body. These are microscopic in nature and thin walled. The exchange of gases and
nutrients takes place between the cells and the capillaries

Blood
Blood is composed of cells and platelets (cell fragments) that are found suspended in a liquid called
plasma. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, blood proteins, waste products, salt, glucose, fatty acids and enzymes
can all be found in a dissolved state in the plasma. The cells in the blood make up about 45% volume,
while the remaining 55% is plasma. About 90% of blood plasma is water. Two types of cells are found in
the blood:

 erythrocytes all red blood cells

 leukocytes or white blood cells
white blood cells

these cells perform the paramount function of protecting the body from bacteria, viruses and foreign
objects in our body. These white blood cells are manufactured in the bone marrow.

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red blood cells
these comprise approximately 99% of all blood cells. They are biconcave disks that are thicker at the
edges than in the middle and have a lifespan of about 120 days. They are produced in the bone marrow
(the soft interior of bones). red blood cells contain a protein called hemoglobin, Which has a high affinity
to oxygen and carbon dioxide. these reversible combine, meaning that these gases can rapidly diffuse to
and from cells, bringing in much needed oxygen and nutrients into the cells and removing waste
products.

Platelets
these are colorless cell fragments that help in blood clotting functions.

functions of the blood

 transportation
blood serves as the transport vehicle through which all the nourishment needed by the body moves
from one place to another. fuel in the form of oxygen is carried from the lungs to the heart and then to
all parts of the body where it is used. At the same time, carbon dioxide is transported to the cells of the
lungs to be expelled. Blood plasma transports the nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract to all parts
of the body where they are needed. Hormones secreted by the endocrine system into the blood are
transported to where they are needed. The blood is the vehicle used for transport. The arteries, veins
and capillaries are the routes used by the vehicle (blood) to carry these substances to their destination.

Regulation

body temperature is regulated through the blood in a variety of ways. If the body is excessively hot, then
a blood vessel in the dermis layer of the skin will dilate. in doing so, they allow excessive heat to pass
through the skin. On the other hand, if the blood is cold, the body needs to conserve heat. the blood
vessels in the dermis layer of the skin constricts, thereby reducing the body's ability to lose heat through
the skin. cells and tissues in the body require PH level of 7.4 to function optimally. Interstitial fluid or the

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fluid among tissues receives compounds and ions from the blood plasma to maintain this level, does
regulating the body's pH level.

Protection

white blood cells act as soldiers in the blood. They guard against bacteria, viruses or any objects that are
foreign to the body. They act against these traps by destroying them and removing them from the body.
In addition to this, they protect the body against blood loss by forming blood clots in areas where the
skin has been broken.

Heart diseases
What is a vascular disease?

Vascular disease is mainly caused by the thickening of the artery lining from fatty deposits or plaque,
also referred to as the “hardening” of the arteries. The arteries are blood vessels that supply blood,
oxygen and nutrients to the body from the heart. when the arteries become narrow or blocked, it
becomes difficult for life-saving blood to flow through them and reach the tissue and organs to function
properly. When this occurs, there is an inadequate blood supply to the tissues resulting in poor function,
tissue damage and in severe cases, even death. If any of the arteries supplying the heart gets completely
blocked, the part of the heart muscle that is deprived of blood dies, causing a heart attack. Vascular
diseases most commonly affect the arteries of the heart, brain and legs.

What is a heart attack?

the heart is a muscle like any other in the body and is in constant need of supply of oxygen-rich blood to
function properly, which is to contract and push blood to the rest of the body. When this blood supply is
reduced, it results in less oxygen flow to a muscle. This puts pressure on the heart, and it begins to
respond adversely. when the oxygen supply completely stops such as in the case when plaque in the
arteries ruptures, a small blood clot can form within the blood vessel, acting like a dam, completely
blocking the blood flow beyond the clot. When this occurs, that part of the heart loses its blood supply
completely, and the muscle dies. This is called a heart attack. The symptoms of a heart attack are a
shooting pain in your left arm just beforehand, followed by mammoth (enormous) chest pains.

High blood pressure

blood pressure is a measurement of the force against the walls of your arteries as the heart pumps
blood through the body. Blood pressure readings are measured in millimeters of Mercury (mmHg) and
usually given as 2 numbers -- for example,120 over 80 (120 / 80 mmHG). One or both of these numbers
can be too high. The top number is your systolic pressure, and the bottom number is your diastolic
pressure. your systolic pressure is considered normal if it is below 120 most of the time and high if it is
over 140 most of the time. your diastolic pressure is considered normal if it is below 80 most of the time
and high if it is over 90 most of the time. Persistent high blood pressure, also known as hypertension, is
a risk factor for stroke in heart failure. Symptoms of high blood pressure includes a headache that may

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continue throughout the day, you have a ringing or buzzing noise in your ears, and/or you're often dizzy
or confused.

Ischemic heart disease

Ischemic heart disease is the opposite of hypertension, in death it is the reduced flow of blood to the
heart. Ischemic heart disease is a condition off recurring chest pains or discomfort that occurs when a
part of the heart does not receive enough blood. This condition occurs most often during exertion or
excitement when the heart requires greater blood flow. The reduce blood flow can be cost by the
buildup of plaque in the walls of the arteries thereby reducing blood flow to the heart. If left unchecked,
it can lead to severe heart damage.

Heart rhythm disorders

irregular heartbeat is an arrhythmia (also called dysrhythmia). Heart rhythm disorders, also known as
heart murmurs, are irregularities in the sound that heart makes when listened to by a doctor via the
means of a stethoscope. these irregular heartbeats may be caused by many different factors, including
coronary artery disease, electrolyte imbalances in your blood (such as sodium potassium) and changes
in your heart muscle due to injury from heart attack. Sometimes heart murmurs are harmless; at other
times, however, heart murmurs can be extremely serious and need to be checked out more thoroughly
by your doctor for deeper analysis.

pulmonary heart disease

pulmonary heart disease occurs when the blood flow to the lungs is slowed, blocked or increased.
Normally blood from the heart goes to the lungs where it gets oxygenated. The lungs then return the
blood back to the heart where it is pumped to the rest of the body. If the supply to the lungs is
restricted, then this side of the heart (right side)has to work harder to compensate for the decreased
blood flow. This leads to the right ventricle becoming enlarged as the muscle grows due to the extra
exertion. this edit pressure can lead to heart failure

what are the risk factors?

There are many risk factors that can contribute to a heart attack. These include:

Unhealthy diet Lack of exercise

(too much fatty food)
Being overweight Family history

Diabetes High blood pressure

Taking the pulse
High cholesterol levels Stress

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Taking the pulse
the pulse represents the beating of the heart, specifically door injection blood from the left ventricle to
the general circulation of the body. The ventricles (right and left) have two faces: diastole, the time
when the ventricles rest so they can fill blood, and systole, the time when the ventricles contract to send
blood either to the lungs (from the right side of the heart) or to the rest of the body (from the left side
of the heart).blood from the left side of the heart first enters the aorta, the largest artery in the body.
The Aorta branches into smaller arteries which carry blood to all parts of the body. The pulse represents
the variation in blood pressure from diastole to systole. Doctors use a device called a
sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff) to measure the systolic and diastolic blood pressure readings.
The average adult has a systolic blood pressure of 120—150 mmHG, Average diastolic blood pressure of
80 mmGH, and an average pulse of 72 beats/minute. there are nine points where the post can be taken.
The most commonly used point is the radial pulse located in the wrist.

sphygmomanometer

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The Nervous System
Central nervous system
the nervous system works through electrical impulses throughout our body. It is a complicated yet
ideally organized electronic mechanism that produces movements based on information received. It is a
specialized system that controls the actions and reactions of the body and its adjustments to the
environment. The nervous system can be divided into 2 subdivisions:

1. the central nervous system

2. peripheral nervous system

The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord. the brain is enclosed and protected
within the skull or cranial cavity. The spinal cord extends from the base of the brain down the vertebral
column where it is housed and protected. The brain is the primary component of the nervous system. It
weighs about 3 pounds and comprises about 97% of the central nervous system. the brain is a Jelly-like
substance located in the cranial cavity. in adults, approximately 3 pounds. it is divided into 3 parts:

 the brainstem which is an extension of the spinal cord

 the forebrain
 The cerebellum

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 The brain

The brain's surface resembles wrinkled folds. it is protected on the outside by the skull and on the inside
by a buffer zone in the form of fluid which is very necessary to our survival. This fluid and this call
protect the brain from the bumps in grinds of daily living which could damage this fragile organ. the
brain receives sensory input from the spinal cord as well as from its own nerves. it devotes most of its
volume (and computational power) to processing its various sensory inputs and initiating appropriate
and coordinated motor outputs.

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The spinal cord
the spinal cord Runs along the dorsal side of the body and links the brain to the rest of the body. The
spinal cord is encased in a series of Boney vertebrae that comprise the vertebral column. This
encasement provides protection for the spinal cord. It connects a large part of the peripheral nervous
system to the brain. the Gray matter of the spinal cord consists mostly of cell bodies and dendrites. the
surrounding white matter is made up of bundles off interneuronal axons (tract). Some tracts are
ascending (Carrying message to the brain), and others are descending (carrying message from the
brain). both the spinal cord and the brain consist of white matter (bundles of axons, each coated with a
sheath of Myelin) and grey matter (masses of the cell bodies and dendrites each covered with synapses).
a basic nerve cell consists of a cell body an Axon and many dendrites. Dendrites are threadlike Branches
that increase the surface area of the cell, making it possible for it to receive many connections with
adjoining nerve cells. Signals picked up by the dendrites travel through the cell and continue along the
axon where they are transmitted to the next cell. Synaptic bulbs on the ends of the axons make
connections with other nerve cells, with tiny gaps or synapses between the cells. When the electrical
impulse reaches the end of the Axon it is transferred to the next nerve cell so that the message can
continue. at the end of the Axon, the cell widens and forms a bulb which comes close to, but does not
touch, the next nerve cell. It is this tiny space between the two cells that is referred to as a synapse.
Transmission of the signal across a synapse involves the release of a chemical, called a neurotransmitter,
which passes from one cell to the other across the synapse. The neurotransmitter acts on receptor sites
on the second cell's membrane, changing its permeability to sodium ions and thus stimulating
depolarization. in this manner, the nerve impulse is transferred to the second cell. The characteristic of
nerve cells which sets them apart from the other cells of the body and which allows them to transmit
signals is their ability to depolarize.

Nerve cell

Nerve Synapse (during signal transmission)

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peripheral nervous system
the peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves called cranial nerves that extend out of the brain,
and nerves called spinal nerves that extend out of the spinal cord all the distal parts of the body.

Functions

the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system perform three
general functions
1. collecting information -- receptors in the peripheral nervous system detect changes in the
internal and external environment and relay this information to the central nervous system.
2. Processing and evaluating information -- after the information has been relayed to the central
nervous system by the peripheral nervous system, that information is processed to determine
the type of response that is needed.
3. Response to the information evaluated -- having evaluated information, an appropriate
response is selected and carried out.
All these actions are carried out within fraction of a second. in cricket, for example, the pace bowler
delivers a ball at 136 kilometers per hour. from this point of delivery by the bowler to the batsman, the
time taken is just less than a second. within that short space of time, the best man has to anticipate in
formation on the ball being bowled, search as the pitch of the ball (short or full pitched), the speed of
the delivery and the placement of the delivery (in line with the wicket or outside the line of the wicket).
His visual receptors will relay this information to the brain which will process this information and
provide an appropriate response in terms of shot selection. All of this is done within a fraction of a
second. this is the magical nature of our nervous system.

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Functional division of the nervous system
sensory deficient (afferent) -- receiving sensory information from receptors and transporting this
information to the central nervous system.

Motor division (efferent) -- this system is responsible for transmitting motor impulses from the central
nervous system to muscles and glands.

somatic sensory -- transmits nerve impulses such as touch, pressure, hotness, cold, vibration, etc. and
special senses of the eyes, nose, ear and tongue to the central nervous system

Visceral sensory -- Transmits nerve impulses from blood vessels and viscera (organs of the urinary,
digestive, respiratory another viscera system) To the central nervous system.

somatic motor system -- this is the voluntary nervous system that conducts nerve impulse from the
central nervous system to skeletal muscles causing them to constrict. this system is under our conscious
control.

Autonomic nervous systems -- These are systems that are not under our conscious control. We cannot
dictate to these systems how to function. For example, we cannot tell the heart to stop beating or the
glands to release hormones into our blood.

Sympathetic nervous system -- this increases your heartbeat and constricts your blood vessels, does
making your blood flow faster. Your muscles are tensed, reflexes are speeded up and digestion and
elimination are slowed or halted completely. in essence, all of the primeval responses related to
defending your life or running from danger are activated (fight or flight).

parasympathetic system -- this system is responsible for “rest and recovery” or relaxation responses.
activation off the parasympathetic nervous system decreases your heartbeat and relaxes the blood
vessels and muscles, thus allowing blood to bring nutrients to and carry waste away from your cells. the
digestive and elimination systems are stimulated, and your breathing is slowed down. These are bodily
responses associated with recovering, resting and “essential” activities you do when your life is not in
danger.

Reflex -- the rapid automatic involuntary reactions of muscles or glands to a stimulus.

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49
The Respiratory System
Respiration is the act of breathing. The respiratory system is responsible for supplying oxygen to the
blood and removing and expelling waste gases, the main one being carbon dioxide. Oxygen is the chief
source of fuel used by the body for the production of energy in cells, for the many processes that are
essential to life. During this process, carbon dioxide, a waste product, is also produced and must be
removed from the body. Any accumulation of carbon dioxide in the body can result in the abnormal
functioning of the body.

Structure
the structure of the respiratory tract consists of an upper and lower respiratory track. The upper tract
consists of the nasal cavity, sinus and pharynx. The lower track consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveolus and lungs.

Nasal cavity -- the nose is the main airway for inhaled air and leads to the nasal cavity. In this cavity,
there are coarse hairs which help trap particles before they enter further into the air passageway.

Pharynx -- this is commonly known as the throat. It serves both the respiratory and digestive systems. It
moves into the lungs and it moves food into the stomach.

Larynx -- this is the cylindrical airway between the pharynx and trachea. It prevents swallowed materials
from entering the lower respiratory tract through the action of the epiglottis. it also conducts air into the
trachea and lower respiratory tract.

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Trachea -- this is also known as the windpipe. It is the main airway to the bronchi in the lungs. It divides
into right and left bronchus channeling air to the right and left long.

Bronchi -- the bronchi begin at the end of the trachea where they branch off into the lungs. As they
enter the lungs, they fall smaller branches called the bronchial or respiratory tree.

Bronchial tree -- this is the highly branched dot air passage that originates from the left and the right
primary bronchi. As they extend further into the lungs, they become narrower and narrower and are
called bronchiole. They eventually end as microscopic alveoli sacks. the lungs contain approximately 400
million alveoli sacks.

Alveolar duct an alveolar sac -- It is the smallest air duct found in the lugs that branches off from the
bronchioles, and at the end of which is the alveolar sac. It is true the membranes of the alveolar sacs
that the exchange of gases takes place.

Lungs -- The two lungs contain all the components of the bronchial tree and they occupy most of the
space in the thoracic cavity. The lungs feel soft and spongy because they are mostly air sacs surrounded
by alveolar cells.

Respiration can be broken down into two areas: inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation).
inhalation hear from the external environment (outside the body) through the Airways into the lungs
and alveoli during breathing, where the exchange of gases takes place. Exploration is the movement of
air in opposite direction. Inspiration and expiration constitute the respiration cycle. The respiration rate
is the number of breaths taken per minute. It varies depending on the individual and the situation. For
an adult, the respiration rate is about 14-20 breaths per minute. Children tend to breathe at the faster

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rate than adults. Breathing can be classified as normal, deep and shallow. Normal breeding (14-20 per
minute) occurs automatically as we go about our daily activities. Deep respiration involves the inhalation
and exhalation of a large volume of air resulting in inflation of the lungs. Shallow respiration involves
inhaling and exhale Ng small amounts of air. Air enters the body through the nose (and mouth. It is
filtered and warmed to body temperature before it reaches the gas exchange surfaces of the lungs. The
oral and nasal cavities trap airborne particles by nasal hair and mucus. From the nasal cavity, the air
travels past the pharynx, the larynx (Upper part of the trachea) and down the trachea into the bronchi
which carries the air into and out of the lungs. The bronchi then branches into smaller and smaller tubes
called bronchioles. At the end of this bronchioles are grapelike sacs known as alveoli. These microscopic
air sacs or alveoli are the smallest part of the lungs and are covered with capillaries. It is here that the
exchange of gases takes place (i.e., the exchange of oxygen carbon dioxide between the air and the
blood in the lungs). In the microscopic alveoli sacs, deoxygenated blood (carbon dioxide-rich blood) in
the pulmonary artery is exchanged for oxygen through the membrane of the alveolar walls to the blood
cells within the capillaries (a process of diffusion). The oxygenated blood is now carried to the heart via
the pulmonary vein and is then pumped through the aorta to the cells in the body for use. Similarly,
waste gases, namely carbon dioxide, diffuse out of the blood cells into the alveoli sacs to be eliminated
through expiration. The respiratory and the cardiovascular system work in tandem with each other. The
respiratory system exchanges gases between the atmosphere and the blood. The cardiovascular system
transports those gases between the lungs and the body’s cells where it is needed for energy production.
The upper structures of the respiratory system are combined with the sensory organs of smell and taste
and the digestive system. It performs many functions

Respiration

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Our body needs oxygen to mix with other substances to produce energy. Oxygen is responsible for
approximately 90% of our body's energy production. It is therefore important that the body receives a
large supply of this important commodity when needed. The greater the amount of oxygen taken in, the
faster the body metabolizes food with greater efficiency in terms of energy output. Muscles need a
constant supply of oxygen when in use, especially during vigorous activity. The more the oxygen supply,
the better they will perform. During vigorous physical activity, the body needs an increased supply of
energy to keep up with the demands of the activity. In order to get the required amount of oxygen
needed, we breathe deeper and faster nearby rushing oxygen to the muscles via the arteries. There
comes a certain point however, when the body cannot breathe any faster. The resulting effect is that
there becomes an oxygen debt where are muscles need more oxygen than we can get to them at the
time. It takes a longer time for oxygen to get into our bloodstream to reach the working muscles. Cells
can only produce a small amount of extra energy without the use of oxygen. This however creates a
buildup of lactic acid in the muscles which accumulates in the muscles and causes muscle fatigue,
painful contractions and muscular cramps. The lactic acid produced needs to be removed from the body
immediately after an activity. It can be broken down into carbon dioxide and is removed with the deep
breathing following vigorous activity. This debriding will neutralize the situation. Aerobic breathing will
become normal when all the lactic acid has been removed and the oxygen debt has been repaid. For a
moment, reflect on the sprinter after he/she has completed a Sprint event (100 meter, 200 meter or 400
meter event). on completion of the event, there is heavy deep breathing caused by the buildup of lactic
acid in the muscles. After a few minutes of this type of breathing, the athlete’s breathing returns to
normal. the lactic acid has been removed and the oxygen debt has been repaid. Oxygen is also
important for the fishing functioning of the brain. Reduced supply of oxygen to the brain can resolve in a
reduced functional capacity of the brain, leading to performance deficits.

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The Skin System
The integument or skin system Is the body's largest organ. It covers the body's entire surface with an
area that ranges between 1.5 and 2.0 m2. It also accounts for about 7% of the body's weight. The
thickness of the skin in the body varies with the location that is examined. Its thickness range from 1.5 to
5 mm in diameter.

Structure

the skin system consists of the skin and its derivates (nails, hair, sweat glands and sebaceous glands).
The skin can be divided into 3 layers, namely the epidermis, dermis and the subcutaneous layer. The
epidermis is the outermost layer. The dermis lies beneath the epidermis and the subcutaneous layer
below the dermis. The latter two have numerous blood vessels, nerve endings, oil glands and sweat
glands. Nerve endings act as receptors , collecting information and sending it to the brain comma which
will analyze the message and provide feedback for the muscles to take appropriate actions. The
numerous blood vessels in the skin nourish in by ensuring that there is a continuous supply of oxygen
nutrients, while at the same time getting rid of waste materials. Sick epidermis is found in the palms of
the hands and soles of the feet. The epidermis covers almost every other part of the body. The
sebaceous (oily) glands in the dermis continually produce sebum, our skin’s natural oil. The oil keeps the
skin waterproofed and lubricated. The sweat glands in the dermis produce sweat which exits through a
duct in the body’s surface. They are plentiful and are distributed throughout the body, with the few
exceptions, such as the nipples. The subcutaneous layer is made mostly of fat that helps the body to stay
warm and absorb shocks. It also holds up the skin and the tissue below it. Hair follicles start their growth
in this layer and extend through the dermis and the epidermis.

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Hair follicles extend into the dermis and their function is to sense the presence of things close to the
skin. Hair acts as an insulating layer, protecting organs against ultraviolet radiation (for example, hair on
the head) and filtering particles from the air that are inhaled (nasal hair).

nails are located at the distal parts of the fingers and toes. The phone hard, keratinized protective
covering and are often used as tools to perform functions such as to scratch the skin or pick up small
objects.

Functions
the skin system is more than what we call our birthday suit. It performs numerous functions vital to our
sustenance of life. These functions include protection, temperature regulation, metabolic regulation,
prevention of water loss, immune defense, sensory reception, excretion and the production of vitamin
D.

Protection
the skin encloses the entire body, protecting all cells, tissues and organs inside of it. It is a barrier that
protects the body from many physical injuries, trauma, harmful chemicals, pollutants come on disease
causing microbes , the damaging Rays of the sun and excessive heat and cold. It is selectively
permeable , meaning that it allows some materials to pass through it, while blocking others.

Temperature regulation

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a healthy individual maintains a constant temperature of approximately 37 degrees Celsius, regardless
of the environment that individual is in. Human life is compatible with a narrow range of temperature.
The table below shows the ranges

Temperature Symptoms

°C

28 Muscle failure

30 Loss of blood temperature control

33 Loss of consciousness

37 Normal

42 Central nervous system breakdown

44 Death

The skin when it is hot

temperature regulation is influenced by a large capillary network of sweat glands in the dermis. If the
skin is HAWT , blood vessels near the skin's surface widen, allowing more blood to flow to the surface so
that more heat is lost by radiation. Also, sweat glands in the skin produce more sweat. The sweat
evaporates on the surface of the skin, thus cooling it down.

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The skin when it is cold

when it is cold, blood vessels near the skin surface close up, thereby cutting down the flow of blood to
the surface so that less heat is lost by radiation. Also sweat glands in the skin stop making sweat. Also,
our muscles start shivering or contract quickly. This action produces heat which warms up the body.

Immune defense

the epidermis contains a small number of immune cells which initiate an immune response against any
harmful elements that might enter the skin.

Sensory reception

our skin is responsible for receiving many stimuli within our environment. The numerous sensory
receptors located throughout our body provide the brain with a wealth of information regarding heat,
pressure, pain, cold, touch, vibrations and texture. This information is sent by the receptors to the brain
for processing, and an appropriate response is activated.

Excretion

excretion takes place by means of the secretion of substances from the body during exercise. This is
what we normally call sweating. This is done by the body in an attempt to cool itself off. Substances
secreted include water, salt, urea, and sebum (the oil produced by the sebaceous gland). We also lose
fluids when we breathe out. To examine this, just stand in front of a mirror and breathe out onto the

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mirror. What you will see is that the mirror becomes frosted. That frost is water vapor being lost. During
exercise, we breathe more frequently and deeper, and we therefore lose a lot more fluid than during
resting levels.

Hypothermia

this is the gradual cooling of the body. The temperature deep inside the body eventually drops. A drop
of 2 degrees Celsius begins to affect the brain. Body movement and speech also began to slow down.
The person may go into a coma and eventually die.

Sweat glands

sweat is a watery substance that is made up of urea, fatty acids and salt. Perspiration or sweat has
important functions in the skin by cooling the body through evaporation and expelling waste through its
pores. Sweat gland is an elongated tubular structure that originates in the subcutaneous tissue beneath
the dermis and extends up to the surface of the epidermis. At its secretory base, The gland is coiled and
bunched, but it's emerging duct straightens as it reaches towards the surface.

Burns

first degree burn -- this involves damage to the epidermis layer only and is characterized by redness ,
pain and a slight edema.

Second degree burn -- the epidermis and part of the dermis is damaged. The skin is red, 10 or white and
is blistered, accompanied by pain.

Third degree burn -- damage is done to all the layers with little possibility of regeneration. Skin graft is
used to prevent disfigurement.

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The Excretory System
Excretion is the process by which waste products of metabolism and other non-useful materials how
eliminated from the body. The excretory system regulates the chemical composition of our body fluid. It
does this by removing excess, unnecessary or toxic materials from our body while retaining the proper
balance of water, salts and nutrients so as to help maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is the term we
used to describe the constant state of the internal environment. Cells in our body work best when their
surroundings are kept constant (e.g., temperature of 37 degrees Celsius). the human body has many
built in mechanisms that keep the cells’ surroundings constant even though the external environment is
changing. This mechanisms interact continuously and adjust to the changes originating within or outside
our body to maintain homeostasis or stability. The inability to maintain homeostasis may lead to death
or disease.

The functions of the excretory system are as follows:

1. get rid of wastes from cell metabolism.

2. eliminate harmful chemical buildups.
3. Maintain a steady, balanced chemical concentration or homeostasis.

Components of the excretory system

1. urinary system - the kidneys filter the blood to form urine , which is excess water, salt, urea, and
uric acid. this is expelled from the body.
2. Liver -- it produces urea and uric acid as a byproduct of the breakdown of proteins.
3. Lungs -- they remove excess carbon dioxide.

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 4. skin -- it removes excess water, salt, urea and uric acid.

Parts of the urinary system

the urinary system is made up of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.

 renal arteries -- transport blood to the kidneys.

 Kidneys -- two kidneys composed of millions of nephrons filter about 170 to 200 liters of blood
to produce about 1.5 to 2 liters of urine daily.

 Renal veins -- return useful nutrients back into the bloodstream.

 Ureters -- carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

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 Urinary bladder -- temporary stores urine until it is released from the body.

 Urethra -- carries urine from the urinary bladder out of the body.

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Kidneys

every individual has two kidneys, which are located beside the spine in our back within our rib cage in
the posterior part of the abdomen at about the level of the stomach and liver. They are bean-shaped (10
cm long) reddish-brown organs whose primary function is to regulate body fluid levels. Excretion of toxic
metabolic byproducts (urea, ammonia, and uric acid) is not the main function of the kidneys.

Blood enters the kidneys through the renal arteries, which split into many different arterioles. these
arterioles go to the Bowman’s capsules of nephrons, where the wastes are taken out of the blood by
pressure filtration. The kidneys filter waste materials (especially urea) From the blood and excrete them,
along with water, as urine. Urine is a watery solution that contains waste materials of the body such as
salts, organic compounds and nitrogen compounds (urea and uric acid). nitrogen wastes are a byproduct
off protein metabolism. Urine leaves the kidneys by the ureters and collects in the bladder. The bladder
can distend to store urine that eventually leaves through the urethra in a process known as urination or
peeing. The body produces on average about 1.5 liters of urine per day. This amount will vary due to
weather conditions and the body's built in mechanisms to maintain of homeostasis. For example, on a
hot day, a body will retain water for sweating and cooling, so the amount of urine is reduced. It is
estimated that 200 quarts of blood passes through the kidneys each day for filtration.

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Nephron

The functional unit of the kidney , which is responsible for the actual purification and filtration of the
blood, is the nephron. It produces urine and is the primary unit of homeostasis in the body. Structurally,
it is a long tubule with a series of associated blood vessels. At the upper end of the tubule is the
Bowman’s capsule, Which is a part of nephron that helps in the filtration process to produce urine. It
serves as a filter to remove organic wastes, excess inorganic salts and water. Within the Bowman’s
capsule is a coiled ball of capillaries known as a glomerulus. Blood from the renal artery enters the
Glomerulus.

Plasma containing water and dissolved salts and minerals including race products passes through the
walls of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule Due to the force of the blood pressure and flow into the
proximal tubule. It then flows to the coils, where usable materials are reabsorbed. It then flows into a
hairpin turn called the loop of Henle, which is the most inferior and middle portion of the nephron. It is
responsible for the reabsorption of water , chloride and sodium. After the loop of Henle, the tubule coils
once more as the distal tubule and then enters a collecting duct. the fluid moving from the distal tubules
into the collecting duct contains materials not needed by the body. This fluid is referred to as urine and
is expelled from the body.

Functions of the nephron

 filtration of water and solutes from the blood

 Reabsorption of water and other necessary molecules back into the blood for use by the body
and maintaining homeostasis.
 Secretion of waste products from surrounding capillaries into the distal tubule

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Each ureter is a small tube, (25-30 cm long) that carries urine from the renal pelvis (the funnel-shaped
expanded upper end of the ureter) in the kidney to the urinary bladder.

The urinary bladder is a hollow muscular organ that collects, and stores urine excreted by the kidneys,
until it is expelled from the body. An adult bladder can hold a pint or more of fluid. It lies behind the
pubic bone and is protected by the pelvis.

The urethra is the transport tube that connects the urinary bladder to the genitals to discharge urine out
of the body. In males, the urethra travels through the penis and carries semen as well as urine. In
females, the urethra is shorter and emerges above the vaginal opening.

Renal veins are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood out of the kidney to the inferior vena cava.

Homeostatic functions of the kidneys

1. maintain volume in ionic balance of extracellular fluid.

2. Maintained the pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid.
3. Excrete toxic metabolic byproducts such as urea, ammonia and uric acid.

liver

the liver is the largest internal organ and the largest gland in the body. It is located in the upper
abdomen on the right side of our body immediately below the diaphragm under the ribs and can weigh
between 1.8 kg in men and 1.3 kg in women. The liver is dark reddish-brown in color and is divided in
two main lobes (right and left).

Whatever we ingest, be it food, drink, medicine or drugs, they are digested in the small intestine and
absorbed by the walls of the small intestine. A big blood vessel, call the portal vein, carries nutrient-rich

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blood from the small intestine directly to the liver for further processing. Nutrients arising from the
small intestine into the liver are then made into products that can be more easily used by the body.
About 60% of the liver is made up of liver cells and called hepatocytes, which absorb nutrients and
detoxify and remove harmful substances from the blood. For example, ammonia, a toxic product arising
from the digestion of proteins, is converted into the less toxic urea by the liver. some of them pass into
the duodenum and then into the bowel via the bile ducts. the liver is the only organ in the body that has
the capability to regenerate if parts of it are removed.

The liver performs more than 500 functions in the body, some of these functions include to:

 produce substances that breakdown fats

 process digested food from the intestine
 neutralize and destroy drugs and toxins
 store vitamins and minerals (vitamins A, D, K and B12)
 Convert glucose to glycogen
 produce urea (the main substance of urine)
 Convert different amino acids into each other as needed
 Maintain proper level of glucose in the blood
 combat infections in the body
 clear the blood of Particles and infections including bacteria
 Manufacture bile
 breakdown food and turn it into energy
 process consumed alcohol

excretion by the lungs

the lung is an excretory organ because it gets rid of the waste product carbon dioxide. During cellular
respiration, chemical reactions occur within a living cell during which energy is released for the
sustenance of life and carbon dioxide is produced as a byproduct. The body cannot use this byproduct,
and it must get rid of it. The carbon dioxide is absorbed by the blood to be transported to the lungs. This
carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen in the lungs. The lungs also excrete water vapor, which is most
visible on cold days when we blow out through our mouth or stand in front of a mirror and blow into the
mirror. This water vapor is not generally considered part of the excretion process but is used to help
keep the long tissue moist and prevent it from drying out.

Excretion by the skin

whenever we perform stressful physical activities or the environmental temperature is high , we sweat.
Excretion in the skin takes place through the secretion of sweat by the sweat glands. Sweating involves
the production of a fluid consisting primarily of water (99%) and various dissolved solids such as sodium
chloride, lactic acid end urea. the evaporation of sweat from the skin surface has a cooling effect and
results in the lowering of the body's temperature, returning it to normalcy (37 degrees Celsius ). in cold

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or low environmental temperature, the production of sweat decreases. This Helps to maintain body
temperature and homeostasis.

Excretion and the large intestine

the large intestine, or the colon, is not generally viewed as part of the excretory system. It is part of the
digestive system, which removes solid waste from the body. It plays a role in maintaining body fluid
equilibrium: it collects water from the waste matter in the intestine , which can be reused, or allows
water to be expelled with the waist, thus maintaining homeostasis in the body.

A video on the Excretory system

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Guideline and Overview of the Domain Anatomy and Physiology
describe the structure and organization of the Cells -> Tissues -> Organs -> Systems ->
human body; Organisms

analyze the structure and functions of the (a) The skeletal system Bones: types, names,
systems of the human body. structure, function, growth. Joints: types,
names, structure, function, movement.
(b) The muscular system Muscles: types
(muscle fiber), names of major muscle
groups, structure, function.
(c) The circulatory system Names of major
organs (heart and blood vessels),
structure, function, heart-rate, stroke
volume, cardiac output, blood pressure.
(d) The respiratory system Names of major
organ (lungs), structure, function,
respiratory rate, tidal volume, minute
volume, vital capacity, residual volume,
total lung capacity, maximum aerobic
capacity.
(e) The nervous system Central, peripheral,
autonomic, types of nervous tissue
(sensory, motor and relay), structure,
function, voluntary and involuntary
actions, reflex actions.
(f) The digestive system Names of organs,
structure, function.
(g) The excretory system Relate structure of
the kidney to its excretory function.
Kidneys – excretory function only;
osmose regulation; homeostasis.
(h) The integumentary system: skin, hair,
nails and associated glands. Skin:
structure (diagram required), function.

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