ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

Course: Curriculum Development (8603)

Submitted by: Amina Hafeez Submitted To: Manzoor Ahmad

Semester: Autumn, 2022 Level: B.Ed. 1.5/2.5 years

Assignment: 1st Student Id: 0000132076

Q.1 what are the deficiencies in the existing curriculum of the grade VIII?
Discuss principles of curriculum construction and suggest strategies to
upgrade the existing curriculum?
Definition:
The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be taught, who will be
taught, and how it will be taught. Each component affects and interacts with other components. For
example, what will be taught is affected by who is being taught (e.g., their stage of development in
age, maturity, and education). Methods of how content is taught are affected by who is being taught,
their characteristics, and the setting. In considering the above three essential components, the
following are widely held to be essential considerations in experiential education in non-formal
settings:
Essential Considerations for Curriculum Development:
Issue/problem/need is identified (issue what),
Characteristics and needs of learners (target audience who),
Changes intended for learners (intended outcomes/objectives what the learners will be able to do),
The important and relevant content (what),
Methods to accomplish intended outcomes (how),
Evaluation strategies for methods, content, and intended outcomes (What works?).
The curriculum development model shows how these components relate to each other and to the
curriculum development process. It begins when an issue, concern, or problem needs to be addressed.
If education or training a segment of the population will help solve the problem, then curriculum to
support an educational effort becomes a priority with human and financial resources allocated.
The next step is to form a curriculum development team. The team makes systematic decisions about
the target audience (learner characteristics), intended out-comes (objectives), content, methods, and
evaluation strategies. With input from the curriculum development team, draft curriculum products
are developed, tested, evaluated, and redesigned -if necessary. When the final product is produced,
volunteer training is conducted. The model shows a circular process where volunteer training provides
feedback for new materials or revisions to the existing curriculum.
Phases and steps in curriculum development further illustrates how the 12 essential steps progress
from one to the next. It also shows the interaction and relationships of the four essential phases of the
curriculum development process: (I) Planning
(II) Content and Methods
(III) Implementation
(IV) Evaluation and Reporting.
It is important to acknowledge that things do not always work exactly as depicted in a model! Each
phase has several steps or tasks to complete in logical sequence. These steps are not always separate
and distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently. For example, the curriculum development team
is involved in all of the steps. Evaluations should occur in most of the steps to assess progress. The
team learns what works and what does not and determines the impact of the curriculum on learners
after it is imple-mented. Each step logically follows the previous. It would make no sense to design
learning activities before learner outcomes and content are described and identified. Similarly, content
cannot be determined before learner outcomes are described.
In the experience of the author, and confirmed by other curriculum specialists, the following
curriculum development steps are frequently omitted or slighted. These steps are essential to
successful curriculum development and need to be emphasized.
The Purpose of Curriculum:
We have suggested that curriculum refers to the means and materials with which the student interacts.
To determine what will constitute those means and materials, we must decide what we want the
curriculum to yield. What will constitute the “educated” individual in our society? In other words,
what purpose does the curriculum serve?
The things that teachers teach represent what the larger society wants children to learn. However,
beyond teaching reading and writing, what are the necessary things that they should be taught? Is it
really necessary to teach science? Does teaching mathematics really lead to logical thinking, or does it
just provide students with some basic computational skills that may or may not come in handy at
some future time? You may feel that answering such questions is not something a teacher has to be
able to do, but rest assured that at some point a parent will ask you questions like these. As a teacher,
you will be the representative of “the curriculum” to whom parents and students turn for answers. The
purpose of the curriculum is to prepare the student to thrive within the society as it is—and that
includes the capacity for positive change and growth.
You Actually Have Four Curriculums
There are essentially four curriculums at work in most educational settings: the explicit, implicit, null,
and extra-, or curriculum. You are probably familiar with the notions of explicit curriculum and
extracurricular activities. The real intrigue of curriculum debate and design comes into play with the
implicit and null curriculums.
There are four curriculums:
Explicit curriculum:
Subjects that will be taught, the identified “mission” of the school, and the knowledge and skills that
the school expects successful students to acquire
Implicit curriculum:
Lessons that arise from the culture of the school and the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations that
characterize that culture
Null curriculum:
Topics or perspectives that are specifically excluded from the curriculum
Extra curriculum: school-sponsored programs that are intended to supplement the academic aspect of
the school experience
The Explicit Curriculum:
Explicit means “obvious” or “apparent,” and that’s just what the explicit curriculum is all about: the
subjects that will be taught, the identified “mission” of the school, and the knowledge and skills that
the school expects successful students to acquire. If you speak with an administrator at your school or
where you do your observations or practicum work, ask about the curriculum; it is this publicly
announced (and publicly sanctioned) explanation of the message of school that will be explained to
you. The explicit curriculum can be discussed in terms of time on task, contact hours, or Carnegie
units (high school credit courses). It can be qualified in terms of specific observable, measurable
learning objectives.
The Implicit Curriculum
Sometimes referred to as the hidden curriculum, the implicit curriculum refers to the lessons that arise
from the culture of the school and the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations that characterize that
culture. While good citizenship may be part of the explicit curriculum, a particular ethos that
promotes, for example, multiethnic acceptance and cooperation may also characterize a particular
school. This is not to say that parents, teachers, and administrators sat around a table and said, “Hey,
let’s promote acceptance of diverse ethnic values in the context of the American experience.” That
would be nice, of course, but then it tends to fall into the category of the explicit curriculum. By virtue
of a high multiethnic enrollment, a particular school may have a culture of multiethnic cooperation.
Another school, isolated in that its enrollment is primarily that of one ethnic group, would develop a
different sort of culture. Individual schools within a district, or even classrooms within a school that
share a common explicit curriculum, can differ greatly with regard to the implicit curriculum. This is
not an altogether bad situation, but to a great degree the implicit curriculum is subjected to less
scrutiny than is the explicit curriculum.

Q.2 Define the concept of content selection in curriculum development.

Discuss the different elements which usually affect the selection of curricular
contents.
ANS:
There have always been excellent teachers of social studies in the elementary schools, and today is no
exception. Many teachers are working hard to provide elementary students with high quality,
meaningful social studies instruction. At the same time, they would like to improve their teaching
practices to ensure that students learn important social studies content, concepts, and skills.
Assuming that elementary teachers who join a professional organization focused on the social studies
are among those who regularly include social studies in their instruction, we sent questionnaires to all
NCSS members who identified themselves as elementary teachers in spring 1997. Two general
questions guided our development of the survey questions:
What current trends in elementary social studies education are being implemented by elementary
teachers who are members of NCSS?
What concerns do these elementary teachers have about the teaching of social studies today and
during the next five years?
The questionnaire used a combination of check-off responses and short, open-ended questions. In
addition to asking for standard demographic characteristics and information about teacher preparation,
the survey asked what methods teachers used to teach social studies in their classrooms. Three
openresponse items related to the topics being taught, the resources in use, and the ways teachers dealt
with individual differences in student interests and abilities. A fourth open-response question asked
teachers to express what concerns they had about teaching social studies now and during the next five
years. Most teachers included detailed responses to these questions.
Responses from 98 teachers, or about one-third of those surveyed, are included in the analysis. Sixtytwo
percent of the respondents were teaching in grades four to six, while only 17 percent taught in
grades one to three. A third group, identified as “others,” included supervisors, principals, and
recently retired teachers whose responses, for the most part, were similar to the active teachers’
responses. These respondents provide the profession with the first set of data on characteristics,
concerns, and practices of elementary teachers who belong to NCSS.
Teacher Characteristics
Seventy percent of the survey’s respondents were veteran teachers with an average of 16 years of
teaching experience in one or more grades. Sixty-five percent taught in a self-contained classroom.
These teachers regularly took time for their own professional development and on-going learning.
Nearly two-thirds reported attendance at the NCSS annual meeting or a state or regional social studies
conferences. And, 86% reported regular reading of social studies journals, with Social Education and
Social Studies and the Young Learner overwhelmingly identified as the professional journals they
read regularly. Respondents also listed Educational Leadership, Journal of Geography, and Phi Delta
Kappan as publications they read on a regular basis. Over one-third said they had published either an
article or a teaching idea in a journal or teaching guide.
Taken altogether, these teachers reported that they enjoyed teaching social studies and thought they
provided quality social studies instruction for their students. They also indicated that they strongly
believe it is important for their students to study social studies. They identified their greatest
satisfaction from teaching social studies as feeling that they teach important content, concepts, and
skills for children to learn (61%). One 5th grade teacher noted, “Our district has an excellent social
studies program. I have always been encouraged and challenged to do my best instruction. It has
changed a lot in the past 20 years, but it is always exciting.” Another teacher reported that she
integrates language arts into social studies, not social studies into language arts. A veteran teacher
who had recently retired said she would really like to see social studies used as an “umbrella” for
teaching many subject areas, because social studies is informative and can engage kids in active
learning.
When asked about the NCSS social studies standards, Expectations of Excellence, 90% of
respondents said they were familiar with them, and respondents overall viewed these standards as
helpful. A teacher of a fourth-fifth grade combination class wrote, “I think the new NCSS standards
have FREED me to teach the way I always have!” Another teacher noted the impact of the NCSS
standards on her as making her “more aware of the things I should include within my teaching.”
Three-quarters of the teachers were also knowledgeable about the content of their state and local
district standards. Several indicated that their states and districts were in the process of developing
new guidelines for social studies, but were uncertain as to what would be included in these new
guidelines. About one third of the teachers were involved in the development of state or district social
studies standards and performance assessment tasks.
Approaches to Teaching Social Studies
Teachers indicated that their instructional approaches were eclectic and that their choice of
instructional activities depended upon their goals and the topic being studied. The teachers reported
using a variety of strategies in their teaching. The majority of the sample (65%) still taught in
selfcontained classrooms, and 47% reported teaching social studies as a stand-alone subject.
Teachers were asked how frequently they used textbooks, media, and computers. Eight-one percent
reported using maps/globes/satellite images at least once each week, with 67% indicating use of these
geographic tools several times a week. While 90% indicated using a textbook for instruction, 45%
said they used the book no more than once per week, and 8% used no textbook. Media was used in
67% of the classes, but teachers reported using film or video less than once per week. Fewer than 25%
of the respondents used the computer at least once a week, with many teachers indicating that the
software programs available at the time of the survey did not match the content of their curriculum
study units.
Many teachers listed several teaching resources that they use frequently, and a total of 50 different
resources were identified (see Table 1). Various types of written materials dominated the teaching
resources selected, while the use of pictures and other graphics was reported somewhat less
frequently. Teachers noted that the skills needed to interpret various forms of visual information are
also important when working with computer and Internet sources of information. Geographic tools,
specifically atlases and globes, likewise require additional skills for gathering and interpreting data
and were among the more frequently used teaching resources. Resources involving human
interactions—such as guest speakers, interviews, living experiences, role playing, and personal
experience—were used much less frequently.
Most teachers (54%) described their predominant instructional approach as being social science
discipline-oriented, e.g., history, geography, economics, or social studies as a single discipline.
Twenty-six per cent indicated that their social studies program was predominantly literature based.
Sixty-nine per cent indicated that they sometimes teach social studies as part of an integrated,
multidisciplinary social studies curriculum unit. While interdisciplinary lessons are familiar to social
studies teachers, many states in recent years have promoted the integration of content through
thematic units in the overall elementary curriculum. The questionnaire contained seven questions
designed to obtain information on teachers’ training and use of integrated curriculum content.
Specifically, teachers were asked whether their educational background and experiences prepared
them to teach integrated/ interdisciplinary lessons, and what preparation they received to do so. Of
those who responded to the question, “How did you learn to do integrated, interdisciplinary
teaching?”, both veteran teachers (educated in the 1960s) and newer teachers (those with five years or
less of teaching experience) said they had received instruction in integrated units in their initial
teacher preparation programs. Others reported that they learned this approach through a variety of
continuing education experiences.
Teachers were asked to give examples of themes or topics they included in their integrated social
studies lessons. Twenty-one teachers did not identify any theme on their questionnaires. The
remaining 77 teachers listed 217 one-or-two word thematic topics/titles used in their classrooms.
These data indicate many elementary social studies teachers use interdisciplinary, integrated, or
thematic units to teach social studies to elementary students.
The themes cited most often were “Native Americans,” “Westward Movement,” “Civil War,” and
“Colonial America,” but no single topic added up to double digits.
Teachers in grades one and two stressed the teaching of cultural universals—such as housing, food,
traditions, and cultural and environmental geography—through studies of the local community or
other nations. This selection of topics clearly reflects the long-popular expanding horizons concept,
which still dominates elementary textbook series and state curriculum guidelines, with slight
modifications for the facts that the United States is now oriented more globally and is receiving
immigrants from a wider range of nations.
Beginning with grade three, the largest number of titles given for integrated or thematic units fits into
the category of history. Local history or the history of groups (such as immigrants, blacks, and
inventors) tended to dominate the content. Geographic themes, the second largest category, focused
on regions and map study. A very few third grade teachers mentioned topics related to the disciplines
of economics and political science/civic ideals/democracy.
Teachers in grades four to six, and respondents in the “others” category, offered a more diverse range
of responses. However, integrated study units overwhelmingly focused first on history, second on
anthropology (culture, including multicultural studies), and third on geography. When disciplines not
usually associated with history and the social studies were included in an integrated unit, the
respondents indicated that science disciplines such as physical environments were most frequently
integrated with social studies. When literature was used as the integrating mode, it was to teach about
either the Holocaust or other cultures. One experienced teacher commented that elementary teachers
need training and resources for dealing with topics related to economics and the globalization of
world communities.
Providing for Student Differences
Teachers reported using a wide variety of strategies to respond to the different needs of their students .
These included taped lessons, peer tutoring, journal, modified assignments (as for different reading
expectations), extended time for completing work (including tests), and calling on specially-trained
resource teachers. Clearly, the dominant trend is toward providing activities that are flexible in nature,
including cooperative learning activities, student selection of projects, model building, and journal
writing.
Most respondents wrote single words or short phrases in response to the question about providing for
differences in students’ abilities and interests. Some longer statements included the terms and
elaborated upon them.
Knowing the particular skills, talents and interests of the children allows me to challenge those
needing challenge…[For] the children needing help, I provide the right kind of research
activities/materials so that they don’t feel overwhelmed. All are challenged, but allowed to work at
their own speed [and encouraged] to try their best.
I use different teaching techniques such as: cooperative learning, role-playing, lecture/ note taking,
discussion. I also vary the types of assignments and rarely (if ever) assign work right from the text.
[I] prepare activities for visual/auditory/kinesthetic learners each day. I’ve begun to introduce
performance assessment techniques and individualized rubrics.
Concerns about Social Studies Education:
Elementary teachers were asked to identify two or three major concerns they have about social studies
education now and during the next five years. All but eight respondents replied, providing a total of
208 comments that were grouped into fourteen categories. Each category included at least five
expressions of concern, and could be described in terms of either a lack (see Table 3) or a want (see
Table 4) of something. The concern most frequently mentioned was the lack of priority given to social
studies programs in schools and districts. This low priority was sometimes perceived as coming from
other teachers or school policies that either pushed for integrated units in place of social studies or
indicated that reading/language arts, mathematics, or science were the primary disciplines to teach
elementary students.
In addition, new district and state policies were perceived by many teachers as weakening the social
studies in favor of reading and mathematics. One teacher wrote, “In Texas, higher priority is given to
other subjects by the state and/or school system. Texas tests reading and math in grade five and social
studies in 8th grade.” A teacher in California reported, “My principal told us this year that the state has
dropped all suggested time for social studies, so it doesn’t have to be taught. Very sad! I’m still
working very hard in the social studies area! This year (1997) has been the worst as the upper grade
teachers are completely demoralized!” Some of the teachers also indicated that this increasing lack of
priority for social studies was motivated by special interest groups who opposed elements of
particular social studies content.
The second greatest area of concern was the need for more staff development in social studies for both
veteran and new elementary teachers. This concern recognizes both the rapid changes taking place in
knowledge and technology, and the fact that the undergraduate teaching degree provides only a small
amount of the content knowledge base needed to teach social studies—and is subject to becoming
quickly outdated in today’s world. Topics suggested for staff development included both increasing
social studies content knowledge and adding new teaching strategies based on the application of
technology to social studies content.
One teacher who strongly supported quality staff development programs reported that “because of all
the workshops I’ve attended and what I’ve done with county and local standards, I’m finding other
elementary teachers look to me as an expert. Even though I’m far from being an expert, I find I am
more knowledgeable than the average elementary teacher.” This is a powerful statement concerning
the need for continued learning.
Concerns about testing focused on (1) the misuse of test results to evaluate teacher effectiveness and
student learning to rank order schools in a district or districts in a state, and (2) the lack of parent
understanding of test results and rubrics used in alternative assessments. Several teachers noted the
need for social studies leaders to work with classroom teachers to update the curriculum in order to
meet the new social studies standards that have been adopted. They also noted that there should be a
strong linkage between curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Teachers were eager to obtain good
computer software for more topics, and to secure Internet connections to help both students and
teachers in social studies learning.
Q.3 “Economic Foundations of Curriculum can accelerate the development”.
Justify this statement with specific arguments?
There have always been excellent teachers of social studies in the elementary schools, and today is no
exception. Many teachers are working hard to provide elementary students with high quality,
meaningful social studies instruction. At the same time, they would like to improve their teaching
practices to ensure that students learn important social studies content, concepts, and skills.
Assuming that elementary teachers who join a professional organization focused on the social studies
are among those who regularly include social studies in their instruction, we sent questionnaires to all
NCSS members who identified themselves as elementary teachers in spring 1997. Two general
questions guided our development of the survey questions:
What current trends in elementary social studies education are being implemented by elementary
teachers who are members of NCSS?
What concerns do these elementary teachers have about the teaching of social studies today and
during the next five years?
The questionnaire used a combination of check-off responses and short, open-ended questions. In
addition to asking for standard demographic characteristics and information about teacher preparation,
the survey asked what methods teachers used to teach social studies in their classrooms. Three
openresponse items related to the topics being taught, the resources in use, and the ways teachers dealt
with individual differences in student interests and abilities. A fourth open-response question asked
teachers to express what concerns they had about teaching social studies now and during the next five
years. Most teachers included detailed responses to these questions.
Responses from 98 teachers, or about one-third of those surveyed, are included in the analysis. Sixtytwo
percent of the respondents were teaching in grades four to six, while only 17 percent taught in
grades one to three. A third group, identified as “others,” included supervisors, principals, and
recently retired teachers whose responses, for the most part, were similar to the active teachers’
responses. These respondents provide the profession with the first set of data on characteristics,
concerns, and practices of elementary teachers who belong to NCSS.
Teacher Characteristics
Seventy percent of the survey’s respondents were veteran teachers with an average of 16 years of
teaching experience in one or more grades. Sixty-five percent taught in a self-contained classroom.
These teachers regularly took time for their own professional development and on-going learning.
Nearly two-thirds reported attendance at the NCSS annual meeting or a state or regional social studies
conferences. And, 86% reported regular reading of social studies journals, with Social Education and
Social Studies and the Young Learner overwhelmingly identified as the professional journals they
read regularly. Respondents also listed Educational Leadership, Journal of Geography, and Phi Delta
Kappan as publications they read on a regular basis. Over one-third said they had published either an
article or a teaching idea in a journal or teaching guide.
Taken altogether, these teachers reported that they enjoyed teaching social studies and thought they
provided quality social studies instruction for their students. They also indicated that they strongly
believe it is important for their students to study social studies. They identified their greatest
satisfaction from teaching social studies as feeling that they teach important content, concepts, and
skills for children to learn (61%). One 5th grade teacher noted, “Our district has an excellent social
studies program. I have always been encouraged and challenged to do my best instruction. It has
changed a lot in the past 20 years, but it is always exciting.” Another teacher reported that she
integrates language arts into social studies, not social studies into language arts. A veteran teacher
who had recently retired said she would really like to see social studies used as an “umbrella” for
teaching many subject areas, because social studies is informative and can engage kids in active
learning.
When asked about the NCSS social studies standards, Expectations of Excellence, 90% of
respondents said they were familiar with them, and respondents overall viewed these standards as
helpful. A teacher of a fourth-fifth grade combination class wrote, “I think the new NCSS standards
have FREED me to teach the way I always have!” Another teacher noted the impact of the NCSS
standards on her as making her “more aware of the things I should include within my teaching.”
Three-quarters of the teachers were also knowledgeable about the content of their state and local
district standards. Several indicated that their states and districts were in the process of developing
new guidelines for social studies, but were uncertain as to what would be included in these new
guidelines. About one third of the teachers were involved in the development of state or district social
studies standards and performance assessment tasks.
Approaches to Teaching Social Studies
Teachers indicated that their instructional approaches were eclectic and that their choice of
instructional activities depended upon their goals and the topic being studied. The teachers reported
using a variety of strategies in their teaching. The majority of the sample (65%) still taught in
selfcontained classrooms, and 47% reported teaching social studies as a stand-alone subject.
Teachers were asked how frequently they used textbooks, media, and computers. Eight-one percent
reported using maps/globes/satellite images at least once each week, with 67% indicating use of these
geographic tools several times a week. While 90% indicated using a textbook for instruction, 45%
said they used the book no more than once per week, and 8% used no textbook. Media was used in
67% of the classes, but teachers reported using film or video less than once per week. Fewer than 25%
of the respondents used the computer at least once a week, with many teachers indicating that the
software programs available at the time of the survey did not match the content of their curriculum
study units.
Many teachers listed several teaching resources that they use frequently, and a total of 50 different
resources were identified (see Table 1). Various types of written materials dominated the teaching
resources selected, while the use of pictures and other graphics was reported somewhat less
frequently. Teachers noted that the skills needed to interpret various forms of visual information are
also important when working with computer and Internet sources of information. Geographic tools,
specifically atlases and globes, likewise require additional skills for gathering and interpreting data
and were among the more frequently used teaching resources. Resources involving human
interactions—such as guest speakers, interviews, living experiences, role playing, and personal
experience—were used much less frequently.
Most teachers (54%) described their predominant instructional approach as being social science
discipline-oriented, e.g., history, geography, economics, or social studies as a single discipline.
Twenty-six per cent indicated that their social studies program was predominantly literature based.
Sixty-nine per cent indicated that they sometimes teach social studies as part of an integrated,
multidisciplinary social studies curriculum unit. While interdisciplinary lessons are familiar to social
studies teachers, many states in recent years have promoted the integration of content through
thematic units in the overall elementary curriculum. The questionnaire contained seven questions
designed to obtain information on teachers’ training and use of integrated curriculum content.
Specifically, teachers were asked whether their educational background and experiences prepared
them to teach integrated/ interdisciplinary lessons, and what preparation they received to do so. Of
those who responded to the question, “How did you learn to do integrated, interdisciplinary
teaching?”, both veteran teachers (educated in the 1960s) and newer teachers (those with five years or
less of teaching experience) said they had received instruction in integrated units in their initial
teacher preparation programs. Others reported that they learned this approach through a variety of
continuing education experiences.
Teachers were asked to give examples of themes or topics they included in their integrated social
studies lessons. Twenty-one teachers did not identify any theme on their questionnaires. The
remaining 77 teachers listed 217 one-or-two word thematic topics/titles used in their classrooms.
These data indicate many elementary social studies teachers use interdisciplinary, integrated, or
thematic units to teach social studies to elementary students.
The themes cited most often were “Native Americans,” “Westward Movement,” “Civil War,” and
“Colonial America,” but no single topic added up to double digits.
Teachers in grades one and two stressed the teaching of cultural universals—such as housing, food,
traditions, and cultural and environmental geography—through studies of the local community or
other nations. This selection of topics clearly reflects the long-popular expanding horizons concept,
which still dominates elementary textbook series and state curriculum guidelines, with slight
modifications for the facts that the United States is now oriented more globally and is receiving
immigrants from a wider range of nations.
Beginning with grade three, the largest number of titles given for integrated or thematic units fits into
the category of history. Local history or the history of groups (such as immigrants, blacks, and
inventors) tended to dominate the content. Geographic themes, the second largest category, focused
on regions and map study. A very few third grade teachers mentioned topics related to the disciplines
of economics and political science/civic ideals/democracy.
Teachers in grades four to six, and respondents in the “others” category, offered a more diverse range
of responses. However, integrated study units overwhelmingly focused first on history, second on
anthropology (culture, including multicultural studies), and third on geography. When disciplines not
usually associated with history and the social studies were included in an integrated unit, the
respondents indicated that science disciplines such as physical environments were most frequently
integrated with social studies. When literature was used as the integrating mode, it was to teach about
either the Holocaust or other cultures. One experienced teacher commented that elementary teachers
need training and resources for dealing with topics related to economics and the globalization of
world communities.
Providing for Student Differences
Teachers reported using a wide variety of strategies to respond to the different needs of their students .
These included taped lessons, peer tutoring, journal, modified assignments (as for different reading
expectations), extended time for completing work (including tests), and calling on specially-trained
resource teachers. Clearly, the dominant trend is toward providing activities that are flexible in nature,
including cooperative learning activities, student selection of projects, model building, and journal
writing.
Most respondents wrote single words or short phrases in response to the question about providing for
differences in students’ abilities and interests. Some longer statements included the terms and
elaborated upon them.
Knowing the particular skills, talents and interests of the children allows me to challenge those
needing challenge…[For] the children needing help, I provide the right kind of research
activities/materials so that they don’t feel overwhelmed. All are challenged, but allowed to work at
their own speed [and encouraged] to try their best.
I use different teaching techniques such as: cooperative learning, role-playing, lecture/ note taking,
discussion. I also vary the types of assignments and rarely (if ever) assign work right from the text.
[I] prepare activities for visual/auditory/kinesthetic learners each day. I’ve begun to introduce
performance assessment techniques and individualized rubrics.
Concerns about Social Studies Education
Elementary teachers were asked to identify two or three major concerns they have about social studies
education now and during the next five years. All but eight respondents replied, providing a total of
208 comments that were grouped into fourteen categories. Each category included at least five
expressions of concern, and could be described in terms of either a lack (see Table 3) or a want (see
Table 4) of something. The concern most frequently mentioned was the lack of priority given to social
studies programs in schools and districts. This low priority was sometimes perceived as coming from
other teachers or school policies that either pushed for integrated units in place of social studies or
indicated that reading/language arts, mathematics, or science were the primary disciplines to teach
elementary students.
In addition, new district and state policies were perceived by many teachers as weakening the social
studies in favor of reading and mathematics. One teacher wrote, “In Texas, higher priority is given to
other subjects by the state and/or school system. Texas tests reading and math in grade five and social
studies in 8th grade.” A teacher in California reported, “My principal told us this year that the state has
dropped all suggested time for social studies, so it doesn’t have to be taught. Very sad! I’m still
working very hard in the social studies area! This year (1997) has been the worst as the upper grade
teachers are completely demoralized!” Some of the teachers also indicated that this increasing lack of
priority for social studies was motivated by special interest groups who opposed elements of
particular social studies content.
The second greatest area of concern was the need for more staff development in social studies for both
veteran and new elementary teachers. This concern recognizes both the rapid changes taking place in
knowledge and technology, and the fact that the undergraduate teaching degree provides only a small
amount of the content knowledge base needed to teach social studies—and is subject to becoming
quickly outdated in today’s world. Topics suggested for staff development included both increasing
social studies content knowledge and adding new teaching strategies based on the application of
technology to social studies content.
One teacher who strongly supported quality staff development programs reported that “because of all
the workshops I’ve attended and what I’ve done with county and local standards, I’m finding other
elementary teachers look to me as an expert. Even though I’m far from being an expert, I find I am
more knowledgeable than the average elementary teacher.” This is a powerful statement concerning
the need for continued learning.
Concerns about testing focused on (1) the misuse of test results to evaluate teacher effectiveness and
student learning to rank order schools in a district or districts in a state, and (2) the lack of parent
understanding of test results and rubrics used in alternative assessments. Several teachers noted the
need for social studies leaders to work with classroom teachers to update the curriculum in order to
meet the new social studies standards that have been adopted. They also noted that there should be a
strong linkage between curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Teachers were eager to obtain good
computer software for more topics, and to secure Internet connections to help both students and
teachers in social studies learning.
Q.4 Prepare guidelines for writing textbooks of grade II learner.
Once students reach 2nd grade, they’re often ready to accelerate their learning. That’s because at this
point, they’ve adjusted to the more rigorous learning environment initially encountered in 1st grade,
and are able to further expand their skills and knowledge in every subject area.
In 2nd grade, your child becomes a more experienced writer and reader by practicing their skills in
more complex and comprehensive ways. Students read bigger and more complicated books, and write
longer and more in-depth pieces. What’s more, second graders pursue projects that involve research
and critical thinking.
Read on for what to expect this year, and shop all books and resources at The Scholastic Store! For
more book and reading ideas, sign up for our Scholastic Parents newsletter.
Reading in Second Grade:
Second graders continue to develop their literacy skills as they learn more complex words and absorb
longer, more rigorous texts in a variety of genres including fiction, non-fiction, and poetry. Students
also expand their reading comprehension skills as they talk about what they read, and develop more
advanced ideas around those topics. Just like in previous years, second graders also continuously
practice reading as they use texts for other subjects throughout the day.
To build reading skills, your second grader:
Reads more complex words, such as two-syllable words.
Reads words with common prefixes and suffixes, for example: pre-, re-, un-, -able, -ad, and -er.
Reads grade-appropriate, irregularly spelled words (consult your child’s teacher for a specific list of
these words).
Reads a variety of texts including fiction, nonfiction, fables, and poetry.
Understands the structure of a story, specifically the purpose of beginnings (introducing the text) and
endings (concluding the text).
Understands the most important details of a text—its main purpose and the “who,” “what,” “where,”
“when,” “why,” and “how.”
Talks about characters’ responses, main events, lessons learned, and important ideas or concepts.
Begins to make connections within and between texts.
Compares at least two different versions of the same story, such as two versions of a classic fairy tale.
Reads at grade level with correct accuracy, pace, expression, and comprehension.
Self-corrects mistakes and re-reads when necessary.
Second Grade Reading Activities:
Make a “W” Chart: While you and your child read books together, make a “W” chart. Fill out the
“who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” “why,” and “how” of the book as your child discovers them.
Pay Attention to Prefixes and Suffixes: When your child uses a word with a prefix or suffix,
occasionally stop to talk about it. Break down the word and say what the prefix or suffix and root
word mean when they’re put together, and brainstorm other words that have the same suffix or prefix.
Make Up Your Own Version of a Story: After your child reads a story, work together to create your
own versions, changing details such as setting, time, or even the ending. You can even tweak the story
so it occurs in places or with characters you know. This helps them understand story structure and
make comparisons.
Writing in 2nd Grade:
Second graders write texts that are more detailed, lengthy, and varied, all of which refines their
writing skills. They also use technology to publish their writing (you can help prepare them for this by
going online at home together).
Similar to reading, writing occurs throughout the day as students use it for a variety of subjects.
To build writing skills, your second grader:
Writes a variety of types of texts including:
Opinion Pieces:
Students state their opinions and provide reasons to support them, closing with a conclusion.
Narrative Pieces:
Students write about an event, describing actions, thoughts, and feelings, and provide a conclusion.
Informative/Explanatory Pieces:
Students introduce a topic, use facts and definitions to develop points, and provide a conclusion.
Revises and edits writing to improve it.
Uses digital tools with the aid of the teacher to publish writing.
Researches topics for shared, group, or class-wide research and writing projects.
Second Grade Writing Activities
Start a Journal: Use it to remember the trips, weekends, and special times your family has spent
together. Your child can both write and illustrate the journal — in fact, you can pick a favorite entry
from the journal and work with your child to write a longer piece or story about that event, illustrating
it with photographs or drawings.
Write What You Think: Kids often have very strong opinions! Ask your child to express their opinion
about something through writing and to explain the reasoning behind her thoughts. Your child can
then read the piece out loud to family members and take questions from the “audience.”
Read Other People’s Writing:
Second grade is a great time for your child to start reading magazines created specifically for kids.
These often have many types of texts, including narratives, fiction, non-fiction, and opinion pieces for
your child to absorb and learn from. Read the magazines together and talk about the articles — doing
so will help fortify their own writing skills.
Q.5 Explain briefly the approaches adopted for the development of
educational objectives?
The theory acknowledges that knowledge is dependent of the knower and only the knowledge created
for oneself from the information which is obtained from the environment while learners provide
answers from their own perspectives. It is based on guided discovery, discussions on thoughts, ideas
and activities to enable students learn effectively. It is learners-centred approach where students start
with existing knowledge while teachers guide learners to discover knowledge thereby facilitating the
learning process as opposed to giving direct instructions to learners. This approach promotes diversity
and different cultures than other theories due to being student-centred which entails involving them in
learning process as active participants using all their senses. It facilitates learning in students who
learn better by kinaesthetic approach and enables them apply the information acquired to life
situations. The constructivist curriculum considers learners’ previous knowledge, propels teachers to
devote more time to topics of interest to learners and enables teachers to emphasise relevant and
crucial information. It usually involves group work thereby providing opportunities for students to
gain social skills, share ideas, knowledge and information together. It is particularly effective for
enhancing learning for Special Education Needs students with sensory processing disorder like
autistic spectrum through the teacher’s guidance, encouragement by challenging ideas and enabling
them participate actively in learning. However, the theory has some short comings such as lack of
structure which hinders the progress of students who need highly structured environment to succeed.
Some students may lag behind others as it supports a more personalized study based on the prior
knowledge of learners and formative assessment rather than standardised curriculum and summative
assessment which enables the teacher to know the areas and levels of support required to enable them
progress. This prevents grade-centred goals and rewards and measurement of student state-wide
progress to be compared. It is difficult for teachers to customise the curriculum to every student due to
differences in their prior knowledge. The relevant training involved in constructive teaching is wide
and usually entails high cost long-term professional development. The theory may also lead to
confusion and frustration in learners as the success depends on students’ ability to establish
relationships and abstracts between prior knowledge and their current knowledge. Constructivism
principles when incorporated into learning may be beneficial but most students require more structure
and evaluation to progress.Learner based models (Dewey). Dewey’s theory (2008/1902) is based on
experiential education and the role of the schools in education. He believes that education is life itself
and a process of living as opposed to being a preparation for future living. His experiential education
centres on the concept of instrumentalism in education on ‘learning by doing or hands-on learning’
which falls under the educational philosophy of pragmatism (experience of reality) and implies
learning by theory and practice. Dewey creates instrumentalism which is a theory of knowledge which
views ideas as existing primarily to solve encountered environmental problems. He considers civil
society and schools as two basic elements and main topics that should be addressed and modified to
promote experimental intelligence and plurality for the improvement of life and environment of
people. He believes that the interaction of students with their environment enhances adaptation and
learning which ensures students and teachers learn together thereby promoting inclusivity. His
approach is child-centred with focus of learning on the child’s needs and interests which involves
supporting him to explore the environment. Dewey acknowledges the facilitating role of the teacher in
the process of allowing children to use their interests in modelling the educational environment as this
enables teachers to apply their professional judgement in streamlining the process and curbing the
excesses of children. He notes that an important mastery and control of a well-trained teacher ensures
the child’ education is achieved. He acknowledges the role of schools in education as where to learn
how to live in addition to where to acquire content knowledge thereby enhancing the aim of education
which is the achievement of the full potentials of all learners and maximum utilisation of skills. He
itemises his teaching methods in relation to the ages at which the tasks carried out by children
progressively becomes complex from simple ones. He states children go to school to make things:
cook; sew, work wood, and to make tools through clear acts of constructions whose context and
consequences articulate studies such as reading, writing and calculus. He expects students to be active
learning perceivers and critical thinkers as opposed to passive learners. His pedagogical key provides
children with experiences of first hand on conflictive situations which are mainly time based on
personal experiences. He notes that conducive conditions are vital to active participation of children in
the personal analysis of their problems as well as participation in the methods for solution at the
expense of multiple tries and mistakes otherwise the mind is not completely free. The theory is of
limited application as it cannot be applied in all disciplines but only provides understanding and
explanation in the inter-relationship in philosophy, pedagogy and psychology. The two types of
knowledge which originates from Newell’s symbolic framework are declarative and procedural. He
states that declarative knowledge is ‘Knowing that ’while procedural knowledge is ‘knowing how’.
Procedural knowledge is based on naturally occurring reflexes which involve the application of
declarative knowledge to a task to facilitate mastery in the long-term memory. It eventually results in
problem solving skills through active participation using different senses thereby promoting
inclusivity. Declarative knowledge is actual information (static) which is acquired by passive
memorization such as ideas, symbols, numbering, semantics and formulas and it is based on theories,
models and principles that are of practical application to procedural knowledge.