Chapter 12

Lecture Outline
See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables pre-
inserted into PowerPoint without notes.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1

 Introduction

• The nervous system is very complex

• Nervous system is the foundation of our
conscious experience, personality, and
behavior
• Neurobiology combines the behavioral and
life sciences

12-2
 Overview of the Nervous System

• Expected Learning Outcomes

– Describe the overall function of the nervous
system.
– Describe its major anatomical and functional
subdivisions.

12-3
 Overview of the Nervous System

• Endocrine and nervous systems maintain

internal coordination
– Endocrine system: communicates by means of
chemical messengers (hormones) secreted into to the
blood
– Nervous system: employs electrical and chemical
means to send messages from cell to cell

12-4
 Overview of the Nervous System
• Nervous system carries out its task in three
basic steps
• Sense organs receive information about changes in
the body and external environment, and transmit
coded messages to the brain and spinal cord (CNS:
central nervous system)
• CNS processes this information, relates it to past
experiences, and determines appropriate response
• CNS issues commands to muscles and gland cells
to carry out such a response

12-5
 Overview of the Nervous System
• Two major subdivisions of nervous system
– Central nervous system (CNS)
• Brain and spinal cord enclosed by cranium and vertebral
column

– Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

• All the nervous system except the brain and spinal cord;
composed of nerves and ganglia
• Nerve—a bundle of nerve fibers (axons) wrapped in fibrous
connective tissue
• Ganglion—a knot-like swelling in a nerve where neuron cell
bodies are concentrated

12-6
 Overview of the Nervous System
• Peripheral nervous system contains sensory
and motor divisions each with somatic and visceral
subdivisions
– Sensory (afferent) division: carries signals from
receptors to CNS
• Somatic sensory division: carries signals from receptors
in the skin, muscles, bones, and joints
• Visceral sensory division: carries signals from the
viscera (heart, lungs, stomach, and urinary bladder)

12-7
 Overview of the Nervous System
• Motor (efferent) division—carries signals from
CNS to effectors (glands and muscles that carry
out the body’s response)
– Somatic motor division: carries signals to skeletal
muscles
• Output produces muscular contraction as well as somatic
reflexes—involuntary muscle contractions
– Visceral motor division (autonomic nervous system)
—carries signals to glands, cardiac and smooth muscle
• Its involuntary responses are visceral reflexes

12-8
 Overview of the Nervous System
• Visceral motor division (autonomic nervous system)
– Sympathetic division
• Tends to arouse body for action
• Accelerating heart beat and respiration, while inhibiting
digestive and urinary systems
– Parasympathetic division
• Tends to have calming effect
• Slows heart rate and breathing
• Stimulates digestive and urinary systems

12-9
Subdivisions of the Nervous System

Figure 12.1 12-10

Subdivisions of the Nervous System
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system

Spinal Sensory Motor

Brain
cord division division

Visceral Somatic Visceral Somatic

sensory sensory motor motor
division division division division

Figure 12.2 Sympathetic Parasympathetic

division division 12-11
 Properties of Neurons
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Describe three functional properties found in all
neurons.
– Define the three most basic functional categories of
neurons.
– Identify the parts of a neuron.
– Explain how neurons transport materials between the
cell body and tips of the axon.

12-12
 Universal Properties of Neurons
• Excitability (irritability)
– Respond to environmental changes called stimuli
• Conductivity
– Respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals that
are quickly conducted to other cells at distant locations
• Secretion
– When an electrical signal reaches the end of nerve
fiber, the cell secretes a chemical neurotransmitter
that influences the next cell

12-13
 Functional Classes of Neurons
• Sensory (afferent) neurons
– Detect stimuli and transmit information about them
toward the CNS
• Interneurons (association neurons)
– Lie entirely within CNS connecting motor and sensory
pathways (about 90% of all neurons)
– Receive signals from many neurons and carry out
integrative functions (make decisions on responses)
• Motor (efferent) neuron
– Send signals out to muscles and gland cells (the
effectors)

12-14
 Classes of Neurons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Peripheral nervous system Central nervous system

1 Sensory (afferent)
neurons conduct
signals from receptors
to the CNS.

2 Interneurons
3 Motor (efferent) (association
neurons conduct neurons) are
signals from the CNS confined to
to effectors such as the CNS.
muscles and glands.

Figure 12.3
12-15
 Structure of a Neuron Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Soma—control center of neuron Dendrites

– Also called neurosoma or cell body

– Has a single, centrally located Soma

nucleus with large nucleolus

Nucleus
Nucleolus

– Cytoplasm contains mitochondria, Trigger zone:

lysosomes, Golgi complex, inclusions, Axon hillock

Initial segment

extensive rough ER and cytoskeleton Axon collateral

• Inclusions: glycogen, lipid droplets, Axon

melanin, and lipofuscin pigment Direction of

(produced when lysosomes digest signal transmission

old organelles)
Internodes

Node of Ranvier

• Cytoskeleton has dense mesh of

microtubules and neurofibrils
Myelin sheath

Schwann cell

(bundles of actin filaments) that

compartmentalizes rough ER into
dark-staining Nissl bodies Terminal
arborization

• No centrioles, no mitosis
Synaptic knobs

(a) 12-16
Figure 12.4a
 Structure of a Neuron Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Dendrites

• Dendrites—branches that
come off the soma Soma
Nucleus

– Primary site for receiving

Nucleolus

signals from other neurons Trigger zone:

Axon hillock
Initial segment

– The more dendrites the

neuron has, the more Axon
Axon collateral

information it can receive

– Provide precise pathways for
Direction of
signal transmission

the reception and processing

Internodes

of information
Node of Ranvier

Myelin sheath

Schwann cell

Terminal
arborization

Synaptic knobs

(a) 12-17
Figure 12.4a
 Structure of a Neuron
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Axon (nerve fiber)—originates from a Dendrites

mound on the soma called the axon

hillock Soma

• Axon is cylindrical, relatively Nucleus

Nucleolus

unbranched for most of its length Trigger zone:

– Axon collaterals—branches of Axon hillock

Initial segment

axon Axon collateral

– Branch extensively on distal end

Axon

– Specialized for rapid conduction of Direction of

signal transmission

signals to distant points Internodes

– Axoplasm: cytoplasm of axon Node of Ranvier

– Axolemma: plasma membrane of Myelin sheath

Schwann cell

axon
– Only one axon per neuron (some
neurons have none) Terminal
arborization

– Myelin sheath may enclose axon

Synaptic knobs

(a)
12-18
Figure 12.4a
 Structure of a Neuron
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Distal end of axon has

Dendrites

terminal arborization: Soma

extensive complex of fine Nucleus

Nucleolus

branches Trigger zone:

Axon hillock

• Synaptic knob (terminal

Initial segment

button)—little swelling that Axon

Axon collateral

forms a junction (synapse) Direction of

with the next cell

signal transmission

Internodes

– Contains synaptic vesicles Node of Ranvier

full of neurotransmitter
Myelin sheath

Schwann cell

Terminal
arborization

Synaptic knobs

(a)
12-19
Figure 12.4a
 Structure of a Neuron Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Multipolar neuron
– One axon and multiple dendrites
– Most common – most neurons in CNS Dendrites

Axon

• Bipolar neuron Multipolar neurons

– One axon and one dendrite

– Olfactory cells, retina, inner ear Dendrites

• Unipolar neuron
– Single process leading away from soma Axon

– Sensory cells from skin and organs to Bipolar neurons

spinal cord Dendrites

• Anaxonic neuron Axon

– Many dendrites but no axon Unipolar neuron

– Retina, brain, and adrenal gland Dendrites

Anaxonic neuron

Figure 12.5 12-20

 Axonal Transport
• Many proteins made in soma must be transported to
axon and axon terminal
– To repair axolemma, serve as gated ion channels, enzymes or
neurotransmitters

• Axonal transport—two-way passage of proteins,

organelles, and other material along an axon
– Anterograde transport: movement down the axon away from
soma
– Retrograde transport: movement up the axon toward the soma

• Microtubules guide materials along axon

– Motor proteins (kinesin and dynein) carry materials “on their
backs” while they “crawl” along microtubules
• Kinesin—motor proteins in anterograde transport
• Dynein—motor proteins in retrograde transport
12-21
 Axonal Transport
• Fast axonal transport—rate of 20 to 400 mm/day
– Fast anterograde transport
• Organelles, enzymes, synaptic vesicles, and small molecules
– Fast retrograde transport
• For recycled materials and pathogens—rabies, herpes simplex,
tetanus, polio viruses
– Delay between infection and symptoms is time needed for
transport up the axon
• Slow axonal transport—0.5 to 10 mm/day
– Always anterograde
– Moves enzymes, cytoskeletal components, and new axoplasm
down the axon during repair and regeneration of damaged axons
– Damaged nerve fibers regenerate at a speed governed by slow
axonal transport

12-22
 Supportive Cells (Neuroglia)
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Name the six types of cells that aid neurons and state
their respective functions.
– Describe the myelin sheath that is found around
certain nerve fibers and explain its importance.
– Describe the relationship of unmyelinated nerve fibers
to their supportive cells.
– Explain how damaged nerve fibers regenerate.

12-23
 Supportive Cells (Neuroglia)
• About 1 trillion neurons in the nervous system
• Neuroglia outnumber neurons by at least 10 to 1
• Neuroglia or glial cells
– Protect neurons and help them function
– Bind neurons together and form framework for nervous
tissue
– In fetus, guide migrating neurons to their destination
– If mature neuron is not in synaptic contact with another
neuron, it is covered by glial cells
• Prevents neurons from touching each other
• Gives precision to conduction pathways

12-24
 Types of Neuroglia
• Four types of glia occur in CNS: oligodendrocytes,
ependymal cells, microglia, and astrocytes
– Oligodendrocytes
• Form myelin sheaths in CNS that speed signal conduction
– Arm-like processes wrap around nerve fibers
– Ependymal cells
• Line internal cavities of the brain; secrete and circulate
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
– Cuboidal epithelium with cilia on apical surface
– Microglia
• Wander through CNS looking for debris and damage
– Develop from white blood cells (monocytes) and become
concentrated in areas of damage

12-25
 Types of Neuroglia
• Astrocytes
- Most abundant glial cell in CNS, covering brain surface and
most nonsynaptic regions of neurons in the gray matter
- Diverse functions:
– Form supportive framework
– Have extensions (perivascular feet) that contact blood
capillaries and stimulate them to form a seal called the blood–
brain barrier
– Convert glucose to lactate and supply this to neurons
– Secrete nerve growth factors
– Communicate electrically with neurons
– Regulate chemical composition of tissue fluid by absorbing
excess neurotransmitters and ions
– Astrocytosis or sclerosis—when neuron is damaged,
astrocytes form hardened scar tissue and fill in space
12-26
 Neuroglial Cells of CNS
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Capillary Neurons

Astrocyte Oligodendrocyte

Perivascular feet Myelinated axon

Ependymal cell Myelin (cut)

Cerebrospinal fluid Microglia

Figure 12.6

12-27
 Types of Neuroglia

• Two types occur only in PNS

– Schwann cells
• Envelope nerve fibers in PNS
• Wind repeatedly around a nerve fiber
• Produce a myelin sheath similar to the ones produced
by oligodendrocytes in CNS
• Assist in regeneration of damaged fibers

– Satellite cells
• Surround the neurosomas in ganglia of the PNS
• Provide electrical insulation around the soma
• Regulate the chemical environment of the neurons
12-28
 Myelin
• Myelin sheath—insulation around a nerve fiber
– Formed by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann
cells in PNS
– Consists of the plasma membrane of glial cells
• 20% protein and 80% lipid

• Myelination—production of the myelin sheath

– Begins at week 14 of fetal development
– Proceeds rapidly during infancy
– Completed in late adolescence
– Dietary fat is important to CNS development

12-29
 Myelin
• In PNS, Schwann cell spirals repeatedly around a
single nerve fiber
– Lays down as many as one hundred layers of membrane
– No cytoplasm between the membranes
– Neurilemma: thick, outermost coil of myelin sheath
• Contains nucleus and most of its cytoplasm
• External to neurilemma is basal lamina and a thin layer of
fibrous connective tissue—endoneurium

12-30
 Myelin Sheath in PNS
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Schwann cell
Axoplasm nucleus

Axolemma
Neurilemma

Figure 12.4c Myelin sheath

(c)
Nodes of Ranvier and internodes 12-31
 Myelination in PNS
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Schwann cell

Axon
Basal lamina Endoneurium

Nucleus

(a)
Neurilemma Myelin sheath

Figure 12.7a
12-32
 Myelin
• In CNS—an oligodendrocyte myelinates
several nerve fibers in its immediate vicinity
– Anchored to multiple nerve fibers
– Cannot migrate around any one of them like Schwann
cells
– Must push newer layers of myelin under the older
ones; so myelination spirals inward toward nerve fiber
– Nerve fibers in CNS have no neurilemma or
endoneurium

12-33
Myelination in CNS
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Oligodendrocyte

Myelin

Nerve fiber

Figure 12.7b
(b) 12-34
 Myelin
• Many Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes are
needed to cover one nerve fiber

• Myelin sheath is segmented

– Nodes of Ranvier: gap between segments
– Internodes: myelin-covered segments from one gap
to the next
– Initial segment: short section of nerve fiber between
the axon hillock and the first glial cell
– Trigger zone: the axon hillock and the initial segment
• Play an important role in initiating a nerve signal

12-35
 Glial Cells and Brain Tumors
• Tumors—masses of rapidly dividing cells
– Mature neurons have little or no capacity for mitosis and
seldom form tumors

• Brain tumors arise from:

– Meninges (protective membranes of CNS)
– Metastasis from nonneuronal tumors in other organs
– Often glial cells that are mitotically active throughout life

• Gliomas grow rapidly and are highly malignant

– Blood–brain barrier decreases effectiveness of
chemotherapy
– Treatment consists of radiation or surgery

12-36
 Diseases of the Myelin Sheath
• Degenerative disorders of the myelin sheath
– Multiple sclerosis
• Oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths in the CNS
deteriorate
• Myelin replaced by hardened scar tissue
• Nerve conduction disrupted (double vision, tremors,
numbness, speech defects)
• Onset between 20 and 40 and fatal from 25 to 30 years
after diagnosis
• Cause may be autoimmune triggered by virus

12-37
 Diseases of the Myelin Sheath
(continued)
• Degenerative disorders of the myelin sheath
– Tay–Sachs disease: a hereditary disorder of infants of
Eastern European Jewish ancestry
• Abnormal accumulation of glycolipid called GM2 in the
myelin sheath
– Normally decomposed by lysosomal enzyme
– Enzyme missing in individuals homozygous for Tay–Sachs
allele
– Accumulation of ganglioside (GM2) disrupts conduction of
nerve signals
– Blindness, loss of coordination, and dementia
• Fatal before age 4
12-38
 Unmyelinated Nerve Fibers
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Unmyelinated
nerve fibers

Schwann cell

Basal lamina

Figure 12.7c Figure 12.8

• Many CNS and PNS fibers are unmyelinated

• In PNS, Schwann cells hold 1 to 12 small nerve fibers in surface grooves
• Membrane folds once around each fiber 12-39
Conduction Speed of Nerve Fibers

• Speed at which a nerve signal travels along

surface of nerve fiber depends on two factors
– Diameter of fiber
• Larger fibers have more surface area and conduct signals
more rapidly
– Presence or absence of myelin
• Myelin further speeds signal conduction

12-40
 Conduction Speed of Nerve Fibers

• Conduction speed
– Small, unmyelinated fibers: 0.5 to 2.0 m/s
– Small, myelinated fibers: 3 to 15.0 m/s
– Large, myelinated fibers: up to 120 m/s
– Slow signals sent to the gastrointestinal tract where
speed is less of an issue
– Fast signals sent to skeletal muscles where speed
improves balance and coordinated body movement

12-41
 Regeneration of Nerve Fibers
• Regeneration of damaged peripheral nerve fiber can occur
if:
– Its soma is intact
– At least some neurilemma remains
• Steps of regeneration:
– Fiber distal to the injury cannot survive and degenerates
• Macrophages clean up tissue debris at point of injury and beyond
– Soma swells, ER breaks up, and nucleus moves off center
• Due to loss of nerve growth factors from neuron’s target cell
– Axon stump sprouts multiple growth processes as severed distal
end continues to degenerate
– Schwann cells, basal lamina and neurilemma form a regeneration
tube
• Enables neuron to regrow to original destination and reestablish
synaptic contact
12-42
 Regeneration of Nerve Fibers
• Once contact is reestablished with original
target, the soma shrinks and returns to its
original appearance
– Nucleus returns to normal shape
– Atrophied muscle fibers regrow

• But regeneration is not fast, perfect, or always

possible
– Slow regrowth means process may take 2 years
– Some nerve fibers connect with the wrong muscle fibers;
some die
– Regeneration of damaged nerve fibers in the CNS cannot
occur at all
12-43
Regeneration of Nerve Fiber

Figure 12.9
12-44
 Nerve Growth Factor
• Nerve growth factor (NGF)—
protein secreted by a gland,
muscle, or glial cells and
picked up by the axon
terminals of neurons
– Prevents apoptosis
(programmed cell death) in
growing neurons
– Enables growing neurons to
make contact with their targets
• Isolated by Rita Levi-
Montalcini in 1950s
Figure 12.10
• Won Nobel prize in 1986 with
Stanley Cohen
• Use of growth factors is now
a vibrant field of research
12-45
 Electrophysiology of Neurons

• Expected Learning Outcomes

– Explain why a cell has an electrical charge difference
(voltage) across its membrane.
– Explain how stimulation of a neuron causes a local
electrical response in its membrane.
– Explain how local responses generate a nerve signal.
– Explain how the nerve signal is conducted down an
axon.

12-46
 Electrophysiology of Neurons
• Galen (Roman physician) thought brain pumped a vapor called
psychic pneuma through hollow nerves and into muscles to make
them contract
• René Descartes in the 17th century supported Galen’s theory
• Luigi Galvani discovered the role of electricity in muscle
contraction in the 18th century
• Camillo Golgi developed an important method for staining neurons
with silver in the 19th century
• Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934) used stains to trace neural
pathways
– He showed that pathways were made of distinct neurons (not
continuous tubes)
– He demonstrated how separate neurons were connected by synapses
12-47
 Electrophysiology of Neurons

• Cajal’s theory brought up two key questions:

– How does a neuron generate an electrical signal?
– How does it transmit a meaningful message to
the next cell?

12-48
 Electrical Potentials and Currents
• Electrophysiology—study of cellular mechanisms for
producing electrical potentials and currents
– Basis for neural communication and muscle contraction

• Electrical potential—a difference in concentration of

charged particles between one point and another
– Living cells are polarized and have a resting membrane potential
– Cells have more negative particles on inside of membrane than
outside
– Neurons have about −70 mV resting membrane potential

• Electrical current—a flow of charged particles from one

point to another
– In the body, currents are movements of ions, such as Na+ or K+,
through channels in the plasma membrane
– Gated channels are opened or closed by various stimuli
– Enables cell to turn electrical currents on and off 12-49
 The Resting Membrane Potential
• Resting membrane potential (RMP) exists
because of unequal electrolyte distribution
between extracellular fluid (ECF) and
intracellular fluid (ICF)
• RMP results from the combined effect of three
factors
– Ions diffuse down their concentration gradient through
the membrane
– Plasma membrane is selectively permeable and allows
some ions to pass easier than others
– Electrical attraction of cations and anions to each other

12-50
 The Resting Membrane Potential
• Potassium (K+) has greatest influence on RMP
– Plasma membrane is more permeable to K+ than any
other ion
– Leaks out until electrical charge of cytoplasmic anions
attracts it back in and equilibrium is reached (no more
net movement of K+)
– K+ is about 40 times as concentrated in the ICF as in the
ECF
• Cytoplasmic anions cannot escape due to size
or charge (phosphates, sulfates, small organic
acids, proteins, ATP, and RNA)

12-51
 The Resting Membrane Potential

• Membrane is not very permeable to sodium (Na+)

but RMP is slightly influenced by it
– Na+ is about 12 times as concentrated in the ECF as in
the ICF
– Some Na+ leaks into the cell, diffusing down its
concentration and electrical gradients
– This Na+ leakage makes RMP slightly less negative
than it would be if RMP were determined solely by K+

12-52
 The Resting Membrane Potential
• Na+/K+ pump moves 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ it
brings in
– Works continuously to compensate for Na+ and K+
leakage, and requires great deal of ATP (1 ATP per
exchange)
• 70% of the energy requirement of the nervous system
– Necessitates glucose and oxygen be supplied to nerve
tissue (energy needed to create the resting potential)
– The exchange of 3 positive charges for only 2 positive
charges contributes about −3 mV to the cell’s resting
membrane potential of −70 mV

12-53
 The Resting Membrane Potential
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

ECF

Na+ 145 m Eq/L

K+ 4 m Eq/L

K+
Na+ channel
channel
Na+ 12 m Eq/L
K+ 150 m Eq/L
Large anions
that cannot
ICF escape cell

• Na+ concentrated outside of cell (ECF) Figure 12.11

• K+ concentrated inside cell (ICF) 12-54
 Local Potentials
• Local potentials—changes in membrane
potential of a neuron occurring at and nearby the
part of the cell that is stimulated
• Different neurons can be stimulated by
chemicals, light, heat, or mechanical
disturbance
• A chemical stimulant binds to a receptor on the
neuron
– Opens Na+ gates and allows Na+ to enter cell
– Entry of a positive ion makes the cell less negative; this
is a depolarization: a change in membrane potential
toward zero mV
– Na+ entry results in a current that travels toward the
cell’s trigger zone; this short-range change in voltage is
called a local potential
12-55
 Local Potentials
• Properties of local potentials (unlike action
potentials)
– Graded: vary in magnitude with stimulus strength
• Stronger stimuli open more Na+ gates
– Decremental: get weaker the farther they spread from
the point of stimulation
• Voltage shift caused by Na+ inflow diminishes with distance
– Reversible: if stimulation ceases, the cell quickly
returns to its normal resting potential
– Either excitatory or inhibitory: some
neurotransmitters make the membrane potential more
negative—hyperpolarize it—so it becomes less likely to
produce an action potential

12-56
 Local Potentials
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Dendrites Soma Trigger Axon

zone

Current

ECF

Ligand
Receptor

Plasma
membrane
of dendrite

Na+
ICF
12-57
Figure 12.12
 Action Potentials
• Action potential—dramatic change in membrane
polarity produced by voltage-gated ion channels
– Only occurs where there is a high enough density of
voltage-regulated gates
– Soma (50 to 75 gates per m2 ); cannot generate an
action potential
– Trigger zone (350 to 500 gates per m2 ); where action
potential is generated
• If excitatory local potential reaches trigger zone and is still
strong enough, it can open these gates and generate an
action potential

12-58
 Action Potentials
• Action potential is a rapid up-and-down shift in the
membrane voltage involving a sequence of steps:
– Arrival of current at axon hillock depolarizes membrane
– Depolarization must reach threshold: critical voltage
(about -55 mV) required to open voltage-regulated gates
– Voltage-gated Na+ channels open, Na+ enters and
depolarizes cell, which opens more channels resulting in a
rapid positive feedback cycle as voltage rises

12-59
 Action Potentials
• (Steps in action potential shift in membrane voltage,
Continued)

– As membrane potential rises above 0 mV, Na+ channels

are inactivated and close; voltage peaks at about +35 mV
– Slow K+ channels open and outflow of K+ repolarizes the
cell
– K+ channels remain open for a time so that membrane is
briefly hyperpolarized (more negative than RMP)
– RMP is restored as Na+ leaks in and extracellular K+ is
removed by astrocytes

12-60
 Action Potentials
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Only a thin layer of the

4
+35

cytoplasm next to the

cell membrane is 3 5

affected 0
Depolarization Repolarization

– In reality, very few ions Action

potential

mV
Threshold
are involved –55
2

Local
potential 1
• Action potential is often –70
7

called a spike, as it Resting membrane 6 Hyperpolarization

potential
happens so fast
(a) Time

Figure 12.13a
12-61
 Action Potentials
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

K+
Na+

K+
channel

Na+
channel

35 35
0 0

mV
mV

1 Na+ and K+ channels closed 2 Na+ channels open, Na+

–70 enters cell, K+ channels –70
beginning to open
Resting membrane Depolarization begins
potential

35 35
0 0
Figure 12.14
mV

mV

3 Na+ channels closed, K+ 4 Na channels closed,

+

channels fully open, K+ –70 K+ channels closing –70

leaves cell
Depolarization ends, Repolarization complete 12-62
repolarization begins
 Action Potentials
• Characteristics of action Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

potential (unlike local +35

4

potential)
– Follows an all-or-none law 3 5

• If threshold is reached, 0
Depolarization Repolarization
neuron fires at its Action
potential

mV
maximum voltage Threshold
2
• If threshold is not reached, –55
Local
it does not fire potential 1

– Nondecremental: do not –70

7

get weaker with distance Resting membrane 6 Hyperpolarization

potential
– Irreversible: once started,
(a) Time
goes to completion and
cannot be stopped Figure 12.13a
12-63
 Action Potential vs. Local Potential
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

4
+35 +35

3 Spike
5
0
0
Depolarization Repolarization
Action

mV
mV

potential
Threshold
2
–55
Local
potential 1
7 Hyperpolarization
–70
Resting membrane 6 Hyperpolarization
potential –70

Time 0 10 20 30 40 50
(a) (b) ms

Figure 12.13a,b

12-64
Action Potential vs. Local Potential

Table 12.2

12-65
 The Refractory Period
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Absolute Relative
refractory refractory

• During an action +35

period period

potential and for a few

milliseconds after, it is
difficult or impossible 0
to stimulate that region
of a neuron to fire again

mV
Threshold

• Refractory period—the
period of resistance to –55
Resting membrane
potential
stimulation –70

Time

Figure 12.15

12-66
 The Refractory Period
• Two phases Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

– Absolute refractory period Absolute Relative

• No stimulus of any strength refractory
period
refractory
period
will trigger AP +35

• Lasts as long as Na+ gates

are open, then inactivated
– Relative refractory period 0

• Only especially strong

mV
stimulus will trigger new AP
• K+ gates are still open and any
Threshold
effect of incoming Na+ is
opposed by the outgoing K+ –55
Resting membrane
• Generally lasts until potential
–70
hyperpolarization ends
• Only a small patch of neuron’s Time
membrane is refractory at one
time (other parts of the cell can Figure 12.15
be stimulated)
12-67
Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers
• Unmyelinated fibers have voltage-gated channels along
their entire length
• Action potential at trigger zone causes Na+ to enter
the axon and diffuse into adjacent regions; this
depolarization excites voltage-gated channels
• Opening of voltage-gated ion channels results in a
new action potential which then allows Na+ diffusion
to excite the membrane immediately distal to that
• Chain reaction continues until the nerve signal
reaches the end of the axon
– The nerve signal is like a wave of falling dominoes

12-68
Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Dendrites
Cell body Axon

Signal

Action potential ++++–––++ ++++ +++++

––––+++–––––– –––– –
in progress

Refractory
membrane
––––+++–––––– –––– –
Excitable ++++–––++ ++++ +++++
membrane

+++++++++ –––+ +++ ++

• Refractory –––––––––+++– –––– –

membrane ensures
that action potential –––––––––+++– –––– –
+++++++++ –––+ +++ ++
travels in one
direction +++++++++ ++++ ––– ++
––––––––––––– +++– – Figure 12.16

––––––––––––– +++– – 12-69

+++++++++ ++++ ––– ++
 Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers
• Myelinated fibers conduct signals with saltatory
conduction—signal seems to jump from node to
node
• Nodes of Ranvier contain many voltage-gated ion
channels, while myelin-covered internodes
contain few
• When Na+ enters the cell at a node, its electrical
field repels positive ions inside the cell
• As these positive ions move away, their positive
charge repels their positive neighbors,
transferring energy down the axon rapidly
(conducting the signal)

12-70
 Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers
(Continued)
•Myelin speeds up this conduction by minimizing leakage
of Na+ out of the cell and further separating the inner
positive ions from attraction of negative ions outside cell
– But the signal strength does start to fade in the
internode
•When signal reaches the next node of Ranvier it is
strong enough to open the voltage gated ion channels,
and a new, full-strength action potential occurs

12-71
Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers

Figure 12.17a 12-72

 Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers

Figure 12.17b

• Much faster than conduction in unmyelinated fibers

12-73
 Synapses

• Expected Learning Outcomes

– Explain how messages are transmitted from one
neuron to another.
– Give examples of neurotransmitters and
neuromodulators and describe their actions.
– Explain how stimulation of a postsynaptic cell is
stopped.

12-74
 Synapses
• A nerve signal can go no further when it reaches
the end of the axon
– Triggers the release of a neurotransmitter
– Stimulates a new wave of electrical activity in the next
cell across the synapse
• Synapse between two neurons
– First neuron in the signal path is the presynaptic
neuron
• Releases neurotransmitter
– Second neuron is postsynaptic neuron
• Responds to neurotransmitter

12-75
 Synapses
• Presynaptic neuron may synapse with a dendrite,
soma, or axon of postsynaptic neuron to form
axodendritic, axosomatic, or axoaxonic synapses
• A neuron can have an enormous number of
synapses
– Spinal motor neuron covered by about 10,000 synaptic
knobs from other neurons
• 8,000 ending on its dendrites
• 2,000 ending on its soma
• In the cerebellum of brain, one neuron can have as
many as 100,000 synapses

12-76
 Synapses
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Soma
Synapse
Axon

Presynaptic Direction of
Postsynaptic
neuron signal
neuron
transmission

(a)

Axodendritic synapse

Axosomatic
synapse

Axoaxonic synapse

(b) 12-77
Figure 12.18
The Discovery of Neurotransmitters
• Synaptic cleft—gap between neurons was discovered
by Ramón y Cajal through histological observations
• Otto Loewi, in 1921, demonstrated that neurons
communicate by releasing chemicals—chemical
synapses
– He flooded exposed hearts of two frogs with saline
– Stimulated vagus nerve of the first frog and the heart
slowed
– Removed saline from that frog and found it slowed heart of
second frog
– Named it Vagusstoffe (“vagus substance”)
• Later renamed acetylcholine, the first known neurotransmitter

12-78
The Discovery of Neurotransmitters
• Electrical synapses do exist
– Occur between some neurons, neuroglia, and cardiac
and single-unit smooth muscle
– Gap junctions join adjacent cells
• Ions diffuse through the gap junctions from one cell to the
next
– Advantage of quick transmission
• No delay for release and binding of neurotransmitter
– Disadvantage that they cannot integrate information and
make decisions
• Ability reserved for chemical synapses in which neurons
communicate with neurotransmitters

12-79
 Structure of a Chemical Synapse
• Synaptic knob of presynaptic neuron contains
synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter
– Many vesicles are docked on release sites on plasma
membrane ready to release neurotransmitter
– A reserve pool of synaptic vesicles is located further
away from membrane

• Postsynaptic neuron membrane contains

proteins that function as receptors and ligand-
regulated ion gates

12-80
Structure of a Chemical Synapse

Figure 12.19 12-81

 Structure of a Chemical Synapse
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Microtubules
ofcytoskeleton

Axon of presynaptic neuron

Mitochondria

Postsynaptic neuron Synaptic knob

Synaptic vesicles
containing neurotransmitter
Synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitter
receptor
Figure 12.20 Postsynaptic neuron
Neurotransmitter
release

• Presynaptic neurons have synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitter

and postsynaptic have receptors and ligand-regulated ion channels
12-82
 Neurotransmitters and Related
Messengers
• Neurotransmitters are molecules that are released when a
signal reaches a synaptic nob that binds to a receptor on
another cell and alter that cell’s physiology
• More than 100 neurotransmitters have been identified but
most fall into four major chemical categories: acetylcholine,
amino acids, monoamines, and neuropeptides
– Acetylcholine
• In a class by itself
• Formed from acetic acid and choline
– Amino acid neurotransmitters
• Include glycine, glutamate, aspartate, and -aminobutyric
acid (GABA)
12-83
 Neurotransmitters and Related
Messengers
(Continued)
– Monoamines
• Synthesized from amino acids by removing the –COOH
group while retaining the –NH2 (amino) group
• Include the catecholamines:
– Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
• Also include histamine, ATP, and serotonin
– Neuropeptides
• Chains of 2 to 40 amino acids
• Stored in secretory granules
• Include: cholecystokinin and substance P

12-84
 Neurotransmitters and Related
Messengers Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Acetylcholine Monoamines Neuropeptides

Met Phe
CH3 O Catecholamines Gly Gly
+
H3C N CH2 CH2 O C CH3 OH Try Leu Met
Phe Gly
CH3 HO CH CH2 NH CH2 Glu Phe
Enkephalin
Glu Substance P
HO Epinephrine Pro
OH Ary Try Lys
Amino acids
O HO CH2 CH2 NH2
C CH2 CH2 CH2 NH
HO Norepinephrine Phe
HO
GABA Asp Tyr Met Gly Trp Met Asp
O CH2 CH2 NH2 Met
C CH NH
HO
Ser Thr Phe
HO HO Dopamine Gly SO4 Cholecystokinin
Glycine Glu Gly
O O Try
Lys
C CH CH C HO CH2 CH2 NH2
HO OH
NH2 Ser ß-endorphin
Asparticacid N
Serotonin
N Glu
O
C CH CH2 CH2 C
O
CH2 CH2 NH2 Lys Asn Ala Tyr
HO OH N Thr Ile
NH2 Histamine Ile Lys
Glutamic acid Ala
Pro Asn Lys
Lys
Leu Gly
Phe
Val
Thr Leu Glu

Figure 12.21

12-85
 Neurotransmitters and Related
Messengers Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Neuropeptides are chains of 2 to Met Phe

Neuropeptides

40 amino acids Gly Gly

Try
Phe Gly
Leu Met

– Beta-endorphin and substance P Enkephalin

Glu
Glu Phe
Substance P
Pro
• Act at lower concentrations than Ary Try Lys

other neurotransmitters Phe

Asp Tyr Met Gly Trp Met Asp
• Longer lasting effects Ser Thr
Met
Phe
Gly SO4
• Stored in axon terminal as larger Glu Gly
Try
Cholecystokinin

secretory granules (called dense- Lys

core vesicles) Ser ß-endorphin

• Some function as hormones or Glu

Ile
Lys Asn Ala Tyr
neuromodulators Thr
Ala
Ile Lys
Pro Asn Lys
• Some also released from Leu
Lys
Gly
digestive tract Val
Thr Leu
Phe
Glu
– Gut–brain peptides cause food
cravings Figure 12.21

12-86
 Synaptic Transmission
• Synapses vary
– Some neurotransmitters are excitatory, others are
inhibitory, and sometimes a transmitter’s effect differs
depending on the type of receptor on the postsynaptic cell
– Some receptors are ligand-gated ion channels and others
act through second messengers

• Next we consider three kinds of synapses:

– Excitatory cholinergic synapse
– Inhibitory GABA-ergic synapse
– Excitatory adrenergic synapse

12-87
 An Excitatory Cholinergic Synapse
• Cholinergic synapse—uses acetylcholine (ACh)
– Nerve signal arrives at synaptic knob and opens voltage-
gated Ca2+ channels
– Ca2+ enters knob and triggers exocytosis of Ach
– Ach diffuses across cleft and binds to postsynaptic
receptors
– The receptors are ion channels that open and allow Na+
and K+ to diffuse
– Entry of Na+ causes a depolarizing postsynaptic potential
– If depolarization is strong enough, it will cause an action
potential at the trigger zone

12-88
An Excitatory Cholinergic Synapse
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Presynaptic neuron

Presynaptic neuron
3
Ca2+

2 ACh

Na+

– – –
– – – –
4 + + +
+ + + + Figure 12.22
5
K+

Postsynaptic neuron
12-89
An Inhibitory GABA-ergic Synapse
• GABA-ergic synapse employs -aminobutyric acid as its
neurotransmitter
• Nerve signal triggers release of GABA into synaptic
cleft
• GABA receptors are chloride channels
• Cl− enters cell and makes the inside more negative than
the resting membrane potential
• Postsynaptic neuron is inhibited, and less likely to
fire

12-90
 An Excitatory Adrenergic Synapse
• Adrenergic synapse employs the neurotransmitter
norepinephrine (NE), also called noradrenaline
• NE and other monoamines, and neuropeptides, act through
second-messenger systems such as cyclic AMP (cAMP)
• Receptor is not an ion gate, but a transmembrane protein
associated with a G protein
• Slower to respond than cholinergic and GABA-ergic
synapses
• Has advantage of enzyme amplification—single molecule
of NE can produce vast numbers of product molecules in the
cell

12-91
An Excitatory Adrenergic Synapse
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Presynaptic neuron

Postsynaptic neuron

Neurotransmitter
receptor
Norepinephrine
Adenylate cyclase
G protein
–
– –
+
+ +
1
2 Ligand-
3 5
gated
Na+
channels
opened
cAMP

4 Postsynaptic
potential
Multiple
Enzyme activation possible
6 effects
7
Metabolic
Genetic transcription
changes
Figure 12.23
Enzyme synthesis 12-92
 Cessation of the Signal
• Synapses must turn off stimulation to keep
postsynaptic neuron from firing indefinitely
• Presynaptic cell stops releasing neurotransmitter
• Neurotransmitter only stays bound to its receptor
for about 1 ms and then is cleared
– Neurotransmitter diffuses into nearby ECF
• Astrocytes in CNS absorb it and return it to neurons
– Synaptic knob reabsorbs neurotransmitter by endocytosis
• Monoamine transmitters are broken down after reabsorption by
monoamine oxidase
– Acetylcholine is broken down by acetylcholinesterase (AchE) in
the synaptic cleft
• After degradation, the presynaptic cell reabsorbs the fragments of
the molecule for recycling
12-93
 Neuromodulators
• Neuromodulators—chemicals secreted by neurons
that have long term effects on groups of neurons
– May alter the rate of neurotransmitter synthesis, release,
reuptake, or breakdown
– May adjust sensitivity of postsynaptic membrane
• Nitric oxide (NO) is a simple neuromodulator
– It is a gas that enters postsynaptic cells and activates 2nd
messenger pathways (example: relaxing smooth muscle)
• Neuropeptides are chains of amino acids that
can act as neuromodulators
– Enkephalins and endorphins are neuropeptides that inhibit
pain signals in the CNS
12-94
 Neural Integration

• Expected Learning Outcomes

– Explain how a neuron “decides” whether or not to
generate action potentials.
– Explain how the nervous system translates complex
information into a simple code.
– Explain how neurons work together in groups to
process information and produce effective output.
– Describe how memory works at cellular and molecular
levels.

12-95
 Neural Integration
• Neural integration—the ability to process, store,
and recall information and use it to make
decisions
• Chemical synapses allow for decision making
– Brain cells are incredibly well connected allowing for
complex integration
• Pyramidal cells of cerebral cortex have about 40,000 contacts
with other neurons
– Trade off: chemical transmission involves a synaptic
delay that makes information travel slower than it would
be if there was no synapse

12-96
 Postsynaptic Potentials
• Neural integration is based on postsynaptic potentials
occurring in a cell receiving chemical signals
• For a cell to fire an action potential it must be
excited to its threshold level (typically −55 mV)
– An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is a
voltage change from RMP toward threshold
– EPSP usually results from Na+ flowing into the cell
• Some chemical messages inhibit the postsynaptic
cell by hyperpolarizing it
– An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) occurs
when the cell’s voltage becomes more negative than it is
at rest (it is less likely to fire)
– IPSP can result from Cl− entry or K+ exit from cell

12-97
Postsynaptic Potentials
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

–20

–40
mV

Threshold

–60 EPSP Resting membrane

potential

Repolarization
–80
Depolarization

(a) Stimulus Time

0

–20
mV

–40
Threshold

–60 Resting membrane

potential
IPSP

–80
Figure 12.24
Hyperpolarization

(b) Stimulus Time

12-98
 Postsynaptic Potentials
• Different neurotransmitters cause different
types of postsynaptic potentials in the cells
they bind to
– Glutamate and aspartate produce EPSPs in brain cells
– Glycine and GABA produce IPSPs

• A neurotransmitter might excite some cells

and inhibit others, depending on the type of
receptors the postsynaptic cells have
– Acetylcholine (Ach) and norepinephrine work this way
– Ach excites skeletal muscle but inhibits cardiac muscle
because of different Ach receptors

12-99
Summation, Facilitation, and Inhibition
• One neuron can receive input from thousands of
other neurons
• Some incoming nerve fibers may produce
EPSPs while others produce IPSPs
• Neuron’s response depends on whether the net
input is excitatory or inhibitory
• Summation—the process of adding up
postsynaptic potentials and responding to their net
effect
– Occurs in the trigger zone

12-100
Summation, Facilitation, and Inhibition
• The balance between EPSPs and IPSPs enables the
nervous system to make decisions
• Temporal summation—occurs when a single synapse
generates EPSPs so quickly that each is generated before
the previous one fades
– Allows EPSPs to add up over time to a threshold voltage that
triggers an action potential
• Spatial summation—occurs when EPSPs from several
different synapses add up to threshold at an axon hillock
– Several synapses admit enough Na+ to reach threshold
– Presynaptic neurons collaborate to induce the postsynaptic
neuron to fire
– An example of facilitation—a process in which one neuron
enhances the effect of another
12-101
Temporal and Spatial Summation
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

3 Postsynaptic
neuron fires
2 EPSPs spread
from one synapse
to trigger zone
1 Intense stimulation
by one presynaptic
neuron

(a) Temporal summation

3 Postsynaptic
neuron fires
2 EPSPs spread from
several synapses
to trigger zone
1 Simultaneous stimulation
by several presynaptic
neurons

(b) Spatial summation

Figure 12.25 12-102
 Summation of EPSPs
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

+40

+20

Action potential
mV

–20

–40 Threshold

–60 EPSPs

–80 Resting
Stimuli
membrane Figure 12.26
potential
Time

• Does this represent spatial or temporal summation?

12-103
Summation, Facilitation, and Inhibition
• Presynaptic inhibition—process in which one presynaptic
neuron suppresses another one (opposite of facilitation)
– Reduces or halts unwanted synaptic transmission
– Inhibiting neuron (cell “I” in figure) releases GABA
• Prevents voltage-gated calcium channels in synaptic knob
(“S” in figure) from opening and so knob releases little or no
neurotransmitter
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Signal in presynaptic neuron Signal in presynaptic neuron

Signal in inhibitory neuron

No activity in inhibitory
neuron

No neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter
release here Inhibition of presynaptic IPSP
neuron
S S
Neurotransmitter No neurotransmitter
release here
Excitation of postsynaptic
neuron
+
EPSP
R No response in postsynaptic R
neuron
(a) (b)
Figure 12.27 12-104
 Neural Coding
• Neural coding—the way the nervous system converts
information into a meaningful pattern of action potentials
• Qualitative information depends on which neurons fire
– Labeled line code: each sensory nerve fiber to the brain
leads from a receptor that recognizes a specific stimulus
type (e.g., optic nerve labeled as “light”)

• Quantitative information—information about the intensity

of a stimulus is encoded in two ways:
– Weak stimuli excite only low threshold stimuli whereas
strong stimuli also recruit higher threshold neurons
– Weak stimuli cause neurons to fire at a slower rate whereas
strong stimuli cause a higher firing frequency (more action
potentials per second)
12-105
 Neural Coding
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Action potentials

2g

5g

10 g

20 g

Time 12-106
Figure 12.28
 Neural Pools and Circuits
• Neural pools—neurons function in large groups, each
of which consists of thousands of interneurons
concerned with a particular body function
– Control rhythm of breathing
– Moving limbs rhythmically when walking
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Input neuron

Figure 12.29

Facilitated zone Discharge zone Facilitated zone 12-107

 Neural Pools and Circuits
• Information arrives at a neural pool through one or more
input neurons
– Input neurons branch repeatedly to synapse with many targets
– Some input neurons form multiple synapses with a single
postsynaptic cell
• Can simultaneously produce EPSPs at all those synapses and
(through spatial summation) make it fire
– Within input neuron’s discharge zone it can act alone to make
postsynaptic cells fire
– In its broader facilitated zone, the input neuron makes fewer,
less powerful synapses
• Can only stimulate targets with the assistance of other input
neurons
12-108
 Neural Pools and Circuits
• Diverging circuit
– One nerve fiber branches and synapses with several
postsynaptic cells
– One neuron may produce output through hundreds of
neurons

• Converging circuit
– Input from many different nerve fibers can be funneled
to one neuron or neural pool
– Opposite of diverging circuit

12-109
 Neural Pools and Circuits
(Continued)
• Reverberating circuits
– Neurons stimulate each other in linear sequence but
one or more of the later cells restimulates the first cell to
start the process all over
– Diaphragm and intercostal muscles

• Parallel after-discharge circuits

– Input neuron diverges to stimulate several chains of
neurons
• Each chain has a different number of synapses
• Eventually they all reconverge on one or a few output
neurons but with varying delays
• After-discharge—continued firing after the stimulus stops

12-110
 Neural Pools and Circuits
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Diverging Converging

Input Output

Output
Input

Reverberating Parallel after-discharge

Figure 12.30

Input Output
Input Output
12-111
 Memory and Synaptic Plasticity
• Physical basis of memory is a pathway through
the brain called a memory trace or engram
– Along this pathway, new synapses were created or
existing synapses modified to make transmission easier
– Synaptic plasticity: the ability of synapses to change
– Synaptic potentiation: the process of making
transmission easier

• Kinds of memory
– Immediate, short- and long-term memory
– Correlate with different modes of synaptic potentiation

12-112
 Immediate Memory

• Immediate memory—ability to hold something

in your thoughts for a few seconds
– Essential for reading ability
• Feel for the flow of events (sense of the
present)
• Our memory of what just happened “echoes”
in our minds for a few seconds
– May depend on reverberating circuits

12-113
 Short-Term Memory
• Short-term memory (STM)—lasts from seconds to a
few hours
– Includes working memory for taking action
• Example: calling a phone number you just looked up
• Storage appears to occur in circuits of facilitated
synapses
– Tetanic stimulation: rapid arrival of repetitive signals at
a synapse may foster very brief memories
• Causes Ca2+ accumulation and makes postsynaptic cell
more likely to fire
– Posttetanic potentiation: appears to be involved in
jogging a memory from a few hours ago
• Ca2+ level in synaptic knob stays elevated
• Little stimulation needed to recover memory
12-114
 Long-Term Memory
• Long term memory (LTM) may last a lifetime and can
hold more information than short term memory
• Types of long-term memory
– Declarative: retention of events you can put into words
– Procedural: retention of motor skills
• Some LTM involves remodeling of synapses or
formation of new ones
– New branching of axons or dendrites
• Some LTM involves molecular changes such as long-
term potentiation

12-115
 Long-Term Memory
• Long-term potentiation involves NMDA receptors
on dendritic spines of pyramidal neurons
• When NMDA receptors bind glutamate and
receive tetanic stimuli, they allow Ca2+ to enter
the cell
• Ca2+ acts as second messenger causing:
– More NMDA receptors to be produced
– Synthesis of proteins involved in synapse remodeling
– Releases of signals (maybe nitric oxide) that trigger more
neurotransmitter release from presynaptic neuron

12-116
 Alzheimer Disease
• 100,000 deaths/year
– Affects 11% of population over 65; 47% by age 85
• Memory loss for recent events, moody, combative, lose
ability to talk, walk, and eat
• Show deficiencies of acetylcholine and nerve growth factor
(NGF)
• Diagnosis confirmed at autopsy
– Atrophy of gyri (folds) in cerebral cortex
– Neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques
– Formation of β-amyloid protein from breakdown product of plasma
membranes
• Treatment
– Trying to find ways to clear β-amyloid or halt its production, but
research halted due to serious side effects
– Patients show modest results with NGF or cholinesterase inhibitors
12-117
 Alzheimer Disease

Figure 12.31b

Figure 12.31a

12-118
 Parkinson Disease
• Progressive loss of motor function beginning in 50s or
60s— no recovery
– Degeneration of dopamine-releasing neurons
• Dopamine normally prevents excessive activity in motor
centers (basal nuclei)
• Involuntary muscle contractions
– Pill-rolling motion, facial rigidity, slurred speech
– Illegible handwriting, slow gait
• Treatment—drugs and physical therapy
– Dopamine precursor (L-dopa) crosses brain barrier; bad side
effects on heart and liver
– MAO inhibitor slows neural degeneration
– Surgical technique to relieve tremors
12-119