Nigeria is a secular state in theory, religion supremacy functions has been the expression of political identity and facts obviously in conflicts over resources, land, and political offices. Increasing clashes between religious groups, predominantly Muslim and Christian have taken the nation from what used to be peaceful coexistence to violent disharmony. For the course of this paper, region in politics is as old as the history of the Nigerian state. What is new in the current exclusion is the extent to which religion dominates national life. The myth of the secular Nigerian state that purports to separate the institutions of religion from those of the government has failed to translate into reality. Indeed, there is evidence to show that Nigeria's troublesome religious conflict, especially during election and beyond will negatively affect national development. It is against this backdrop that the paper traces the historical and contemporary issues of religion plurality in the challenge of national development, with particular attention to the security dilemma for Nigeria in the 21st century, paying attention to the growing influence of the unchecked religion in politics, and its significance to modern politics and how this accounts for increasing manners of conflict in Nigerian states. This paper therefore makes some recommendations and concludes that there cannot be any meaningful national development without proper interreligious peace and harmony.
The CSRCS at Elon University promotes interdisciplinary study of religion, culture, and society. In 2014-15, the center convened discussions on prominent global religious issues, including the conflicts in Israel/Gaza, the rise of ISIS, and global refugee crises. Events explored the complex political and religious roots of these issues through panels of experts, including officials from the Syrian opposition coalition. The center aims to foster understanding of religion's role in society through rigorous intellectual programs and dialogue.
Religion makes the people to put their lives on the way for salivation through having a vision of reality that transcend temporal world into a becoming world where everyone lives in a situation that is, full of an everlasting peace. But the role religious institutions play in ensuring the desired goal is a bone of contentions among scholars. The focus of the study was to explore the implication of religious institutions for sustainable peace in Amhara National Regional State with a particular reference to East Gojjam selected woredas.
Method of Resolving Conflict among Religious People in North Sumateraiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
This document discusses harmony of religions from the perspectives of Sri Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda. It notes that while diversity of religion raises philosophical questions, it also has social and political consequences like religious conflicts and wars. It states that true religion itself does not cause conflicts, but that politics and manipulation of religion by institutions have historically incited people to acts of violence. It emphasizes recognition of religious differences, and distinguishes harmony from mere toleration. It also discusses intrareligious harmony within religious sects as well as interreligious harmony among world religions.
Tactful Intelligence Sharing and Synergy among the Nigerian Security Operativ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Nigeria‟s peace and human security is currently engulfed in turmoil. And one of the notable
problems of insecurity in the country is menace of advanced cult killings on daily basis most especially the
upsurge of a dreaded cult group known as “Badoo”, that carries out attacks on human lives in Ikorodu suburb of
Lagos State, Nigeria. Residents of Ikorodu and others suburbs in Lagos State, Nigeria now live in perpetual
phobia and the menace has forced several others to have fled the state. The dreaded “Badoo” cult group killings
and attacks pose dangerous threats to human lives, national peace and security. Among the notable factors
aiding the emergence of such dreaded cult group in the state are; poor intelligence gathering and synergy on the
part of Nigerian security operatives, frustration, financial assistance, injustice, forced membership,
unemployment among youths, get-rich-quick syndrome on the part of many Nigerian youths, drug abuse among
others. The study examines threats posed by the menace to human lives, state‟s peace and security; it assesses
the concerted efforts of Nigerian government and security operatives in combating the menace. The study
concludes that, lack of adequate intelligence gathering, general insecurity in the country, corruption, abject
poverty and youth unemployment remain the factors hindering a total arrest of the menace in Nigeria. It also
requests the need for giving adequate support to security operatives by the citizens; continuous
orientation/education for the youths, good laws and governance, adequate intelligence gathering on the part of
security agents to nip the menace in the bud.
KEYWORDS: Badoo cultists, Human security, Security intelligence, Unemployment, Good governance,
Lagos.
This document provides an introduction and summary of a book titled "Human Rights, Related Conflicts & State Security in Nigeria 1999-2006" by Joseph Adeyemi Sangosanya. The summary includes:
1) The book examines the issues of human rights, conflicts, and threats to state security in Nigeria between 1999-2006. It analyzes these issues through the lens of political economy and provides accounts from Nigeria's six geopolitical zones.
2) Chapter 1 introduces the topics and provides context on Nigeria's federal system and diversity. Chapter 2 discusses conceptual frameworks for analyzing conflicts, human rights, and state security and their interrelationships.
3) Subsequent chapters provide zonal accounts of these issues
Borchers, H. (2004) - Hardline Islamist Discourse in Indonesia-Sabilih.borchers
This document summarizes a paper about hardline Islamist discourse in Indonesia. It discusses how the magazine Sabili promotes an exclusionary Islamist perspective that is gaining popularity. While still a minority view, Sabili's circulation has grown significantly. The document also provides historical context, noting Indonesia has a long history of both moderate and more radical Islamic movements. Radical groups in the past like Darul Islam challenged the secular government through armed rebellion.
Politicians in India and Pakistan mobilized religious and ethnic identities to support the partition of India in 1947 and the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state. This politicization of identity led to violence between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, including over 1 million deaths and 100,000 women being abducted. A similar process occurred in 1971 when East Pakistan seceded from Pakistan to form Bangladesh, again involving mass rape and violence along partition borders. The document analyzes how instrumentalism, or using religion for political goals, can mobilize populations but also inflame tensions and violence.
This document provides background information on ethnic and religious conflicts in Nigeria, specifically in Jos, Plateau State. It discusses the long-standing tensions over indigenous rights and political representation in Jos that have led to protracted communal conflict since 2001, resulting in thousands of deaths. Competing claims over resources, fears of religious domination, and land disputes have amalgamated into explosive violence between Christian and Muslim groups. Well-organized armed groups and proliferation of weapons have increased risks of future large-scale violence. The conflicts have taken a huge human and economic toll, displacing thousands and destroying homes and livelihoods.
This document discusses the challenges and opportunities for Muslim youth in contributing to state-building. It argues that youth alienation from political processes has led some Muslim youth to see active engagement in politics as a way to contribute to their countries and gain recognition. However, Muslim youth are often stereotyped as disruptive or prone to radicalism. The document calls for giving Muslim youth greater roles in development, addressing their economic frustrations, and promoting their identity as positive change agents through civic engagement and building networks across communities. It also discusses the need to counter online extremist propaganda and radicalization of Muslim youth through education and promoting moderate religious views.
Rethinking islamist politics, culture, the state and islamism by salwa ismailtopbottom1
This document provides an overview and summary of the book "Rethinking Islamist Politics" by Salwa Ismail. Some key points:
- The book aims to provide an account of Islamist activism by examining the socio-political contexts and "infrastructures of action" rather than invoking Islam as a unitary entity.
- It focuses on both macro-level factors like state structures, but also micro-level processes like how Islamist activists mobilize at the neighborhood level and engage with communities.
- The book examines the heterogeneity of Islamist movements and how their discourses generate meanings in relation to historical contexts rather than referring to sacred texts alone.
- The author argues against generalizations about the
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
TOWARDS EXPLORING INDIGENES/SETTLERS CRISIS IN SOUTHERN TARABA STATE, NIGERIAAJHSSR Journal
This document summarizes a research paper that explores the indigene/settler crisis in Southern Taraba State, Nigeria. It finds that economic, religious, and political factors all contribute to tensions between indigenous and settler groups in the region. Specifically, it notes that disputes over land ownership between groups like the Jukuns and Hausa-Fulani Muslims have led to violence. It also discusses how poverty, unemployment, and environmental degradation have exacerbated the crisis. The researcher uses Marxist conflict theory to analyze the indigene/settler divisions as a class struggle over resources. In conclusion, the document examines different approaches the Nigerian government has taken to address the crisis with limited success.
The Rise of Nationalism and Religious Politics in Nigeriapaperpublications3
Abstract: Man is basically political and religious. He is variously described as homo politicus and homo religious. In the course of the Millennia, he has also proved these affirmations to be true to his nature. However, the problem is often with the manner of man’s application of these attributes. He is either too zealous with his religious obligations or he is brutal in the use of his political power. In the combination of these extremes, man renders both politics and religion a problem and often obstacle to human progress and development. In Africa and in Nigeria, particularly, the struggle to attain independence and autonomy from colonialism led to nationalist movements and eventual regionalization of such motif. In the long run, it has become difficult to differentiate between politics and religion in Nigeria leading to the question of how successful the struggles of the fathers of independence like Herbert Macaulay, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Ahmadu Bello, and Obafemi Awolowo have been in the course of Nigeria’s history. The paper uses a historical, expository, and analytical method to view the politico-religious evolution of Nigeria and arrives at the conclusion that after fifty-five years of Independence from Colonialism much has not happened to de-tribalize the myopic attachment to religious sentiments in order to cling to selfish manipulation of power and economic dissipation of the country. There is therefore need for further and consistent research and enlightenment of the masses to achieve better development and progress.
Need for an Ethics Education for Peace book 8 chap 1Miguel Cano
This book presents a proposal for ethical education for peace that includes a character and heart education, and a civic and intercultural education, to be taught in the family, school and society.
What is clear is that a superficial education of democratic values is not enough to solve the current crisis of values and solve the problems of individual, family and social moral degradation that paradoxically affect more to democratic advanced nations.
Rather, it would require a genuine silent revolution that will bring people to a moral maturity, form healthy families, and create communities and nations that live in peace and harmony.
1. The document discusses the complex relationship between religion and globalization. While globalization can increase religious pluralism and dialogue, it has also aggregated religious fundamentalism and fractionalization as religions push back against cultural homogenization.
2. Religions both utilize tools of globalization like social media and technology to spread their messages more widely, but are also a source of resistance to globalization as people turn to religion and traditionalism in response to feelings of instability from global forces.
3. The rise of groups like ISIS exemplify the contradictions, as they promote a global caliphate through social media recruitment, but also turn to religious violence and extremism that disrupts global integration and cooperation. The
This document discusses the influence of world religions on international trade. It analyzes the views of five major world religions - Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam - on economic activity and trade. Hinduism views economic well-being as a legitimate aim and promotes trade, within the limits of the caste system. The document intends to empirically study the different impacts of these religious beliefs on international trade flows.
MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD AND EGYPTIAN POLITICS (1954-2010) (A Lesson for Nigeria in...paperpublications3
Abstract: Religion and Politics play very important roles in the life of every individual and society, directly or indirectly, willingly or unwillingly. This is an indication that both are inevitable aspects of human existence. In the course of human history, however, there have been exaggerations of their influence in the polity. Sometimes, these roles have been translated into fundamentalism, violence, and fanaticism. Examples abound, and I like to use two countries to buttress my argument in this paper: the wrong interpretation and application of religion and politics in Egypt (where I lived and studied for two years, 2006-2008) and Nigeria where I am born and bred. It is a glaring fact that in Africa and in Nigeria particularly, Christianity and Islam have shown various faces of the above-mentioned ‘translations’ associated with religion and politics. Sometimes, they have allowed themselves to produce religious and political disorders – a complete opposite of what they are supposed to achieve in human society. It is my intention in this paper to consider the role of a particular group called the ‘Muslim Brotherhood’ in shaping the religious and political history of an African country called Egypt, and to use the development and possible misuse of the same and similar group in Nigeria to remind the citizenry of the dangers of religious extremism in the practice of democracy in a secular state. In the light of this, one cannot but mention the most recent ugly incident perpetrated by the Boko Haram sect in Northern Nigeria since 2009. It would therefore not be an exaggeration to maintain that if Boko Haram was a Brotherhood, it was simply an anomaly. At best, one can refer to it as a secret cult, detrimental to both religion and society. The world has witnessed its havoc in the last six years. Thus, it is my candid opinion that honest and genuine co-existence rooted in love and mutual acceptance of one another would enhance progress and development in Nigeria, and in the world as a whole. The globalized world cannot but co-operate to eradicate religious violence and fanaticism.
Military and Civil Action in Combating Terrorism in the North EastAJHSSR Journal
After a successful military operation in a combact area, lasting peace is achieved through
complementary effort by civil actions. In the Northeastern area of Nigeria, military action has considerably
degraded Boko Haram terrorist activities. The terrorists are drastically reduced. They have been flushed out of
their enclaves including a greater part of Sambisa forest. Their arms and sources of funding have Shrinked. Civil
actions have now become expedient: to reorientate the reminants of terrorism, to return children back to school;
to embark on reconstruction of roads, schools, homes, markets, electric supply create Jobs and empower youths.
This study is important due to its contribution to knowledge of the history of north eastern Nigeria.
This document provides a summary of religion in Nigeria from 1900 to 2013. It begins with an introduction to the three major religions in Nigeria - Christianity, Islam, and African Traditional Religion. It then discusses the meaning and definitions of religion. The next sections provide historical overviews of the arrival and emergence of Islam and Christianity in Nigeria, noting that African Traditional Religion was already established prior to their arrival. The document uses phenomenological and historical analytical methods to examine the evolution and coexistence of religions in Nigeria over time. It concludes that while fundamentalism is rising, the three religions still have prospects for survival in Nigeria if meaningful dialogue can be fostered to promote peaceful coexistence.
Refocusing the Social Studies Curriculum for Religious Tolerance, Unity and P...iosrjce
The state of peace and tolerance in Nigeria is gradually collapsing and the nation is gradually
disintegrating. The clamor by many eminent Nigerians for a sovereign national conference, spells doom for the
once united „giant of Africa‟. The unity and peaceful coexistence of Nigeria is under the threat of collapse by
the growing level of religious intolerance. The increase in religious conflicts has led to the loss and destruction
of many lives and properties. According to Williams (2004), religious intolerance seems to be the cause of most
wars and sufferings in the world. The on-going religious violence unleashed on many Nigerians especially in the
northern part of the country by the fundamental Islamic sects, the Jama‟atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda‟awati Wal-Jihad,
popularly known as Boko Haram‟s insurgency, mainly in northern Nigeria, has left more than 3,600 people dead
since 2009. There is an increasing need to unite the citizenry despite the odds against her peaceful coexistence.
There is need to ensure that Nigeria remains a united entity where all citizens will see themselves first as
Nigerians before seeing themselves in the light of their ethnic group or religious affiliations. Religious conflicts,
has caused a wide spread of suspicion and distrust among the various ethnic and religious groups in the country.
The increasing perception of some parts of the country as „dangerous‟ due to its restiveness, has led to
skepticism and suspicion, which inhibits cooperation (Otuenu 2011). This further confirms one of the
predictions implied in Huntington‟s (1996) thesis, that conflicts that occur on the fault lines between major
religions will run a higher risk of spreading across borders due to kinship alliances and intra-civilizations
solidarity. The inauguration of the council of Inter-religious harmony by the Federal government stands out as
one of the government‟s effort to ensure peace and stability within the adherents of the two major religions
(Christianity and Islam) in Nigeria. The Council of Inter-religious Harmony is co-headed by the president of the
Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs and the national president of the Christian Association of Nigeria. Despite
all efforts made by the government to ensure peace and stability within the country, there have been several
pockets of violent clashes among the followers of the two religious groups.
The document discusses cultural pluralism as a challenge for universities in Nigeria to foster dialogue and understanding. It notes that Nigeria has over 400 ethnic groups and two major religions, creating cultural complexity that is sometimes exploited and causes social conflicts. These conflicts negatively impact the university system by intensifying competition between ethnic groups for control over university resources and management. However, the Nigerian constitution and policies aim to promote equity and national unity in higher education through principles like federal character. The document argues that Nigerian universities still manage to contribute to dialogue despite challenges, through policies governing admission diversity and equitable resource allocation.
Globalization has led to rapid economic growth and rising prosperity in India, creating an urban middle class. However, contrary to predictions, this class has become more religious rather than less. Hinduism legitimates Indian nationalism and the middle class's newfound consumerism. It reconciles traditional renunciation of desires with materialism by teaching that desires reflect divinity when used to motivate work. Similarly, modernized versions of Hinduism allow rituals to "spiritually balance" consumerism. This has contributed to a "Hindu ultra-nationalism" but also widening divisions with religious minorities.
This document discusses cultural pluralism as a challenge for universities in Nigeria to foster dialogue and understanding. It notes that Nigeria has over 400 ethnic groups and two major religions, creating cultural complexity. This diversity has been politicized by elites and fueled conflicts over resources. The university system is intensely contested by ethnic groups seeking control and benefits. Appointing vice chancellors is especially controversial. However, the document argues that Nigerian universities still contribute to promoting dialogue despite these challenges, and that higher education has an important role to play in managing diversity through open communication across groups.
Fanaticism and Barbarism: Synonyms of Dysfunctionality in Nigeria Todaypaperpublications3
Abstract: Civility is the language of decency, moderation, honesty, truthfulness, justice, equity, tolerance, mutual understanding, dialogue and mutual responsibility for the development of any society. There are other associated values and virtues, which are imbedded in the cultivation of civility in a polity such as patience and forgiveness. On the other hand, it renounces violence, coercion, destruction of life and property, as well as fanaticism and barbarism in every aspect of societal life. It denounces corruption and disorder. In fact, civility is antithetical to anarchy and lawlessness. But the reality of the Nigerian society manifests a total opposition to all the aforementioned virtues towards development and progress, especially with the current threats of Boko Haram and other political manipulations of the economy. It is in the light of this fact that the paper considers various acts of fanaticism and barbarism inflicted on the country, thus, challenging the sustainability of Nigeria as a nation.
This document discusses the relationship between religion, national security, and harmonious coexistence in Nigeria. It provides definitions and conceptual frameworks for these terms. Specifically, it examines three theories of religion - evolutionary, Marxist, and functional - and how they link religion to concepts of security. It analyzes how religion could serve as an instrument to enhance national security and peaceful coexistence in Nigeria but has instead contributed to threats. The document aims to motivate further research on how to properly harness religion for these purposes in Nigeria's diverse society.
Running Head HOMELAND SECURITY’S STRATEGIC PLAN1HOMELAND SE.docxwlynn1
Running Head: HOMELAND SECURITY’S STRATEGIC PLAN 1
HOMELAND SECURITY’S STRATEGIC PLAN 2
Homeland Security’s Strategic Plan
Student’s Name:
Instructor’s Name:
Course:
Date:
Border security involves protection of borders from drugs, contraband, movement of weapons, and people while giving a promotion to travel and lawful trade, which is essential to homeland security, national sovereignty and economic prosperity, (Harvey, 2007). Border security, therefore, is a crucial national security component. It is even more than territorial access restriction through reform migration. It has been the core activities within states since the formation of sovereign nations, and it is noted to be an ambitious power expansion in modern history. In accordance with the Homeland Security department, border security is regarded as an act of border protection from all illegal movement. There has been an overwhelming increase on border security focus due to growing violence by transnational terrorism and nonstate groups on combat recent issues of national security, (Bigo, D2006). Porous and weak borders enhance secure entrance into the U.S. for smugglers and terrorist.
Policy makers in Washington D.C. care a lot on what happens miles away on northern and southwestern borders. Mexican American community extent provides an exceptional opportunity for cooperation between its ties back to family and friends for collaboration between civil society in the United States and Mexico, (Sánchez, 1995). Effective cooperation has long existing networks. Efforts to enhance accountability and transparency with the Mexico rule of law is an area where countries benefit through cooperation. Strengthening and preserving the U.S. bilateral relationship with Mexico through cooperation that is sustainable helps the U.S. advance its national interest all around the globe, nationalism, and nativism will not. The complexity and dynamism of the Mexico-U.S. relationship require non-state and state actors from both countries on basic construction and relationship deepening that benefits individuals in Mexico, the United States and beyond, (Andreas, 2012).
However, homeland security agencies are confined in what information and intelligence they can gather and how they can utilize it, foreign agencies of intelligence face no such limitations when researching non-US residents abroad. The shifted gathering specialists drive remote and residential organizations to gather various types of data and to characterize it at numerous dimensions, bringing about confusions accommodating the trade and sharing of data. What's more, offices regularly neglect to flow data since it doesn't meet an apparent edge of significance. CTC gives the scene to faculty from various organizations to cooperate and utilize all the data assets accessible in various foundations to address issues to do with terrorism. CTC additionally utilizes present day innovation to break up stovepipes and en.
Towards national integration in nigeria jumping the hurdlesAlexander Decker
This document discusses national integration in Nigeria. It outlines several policies and programs that Nigerian governments have implemented to promote national integration since independence, such as adopting federalism, creating new states, and establishing the Land Use Decree. However, Nigeria's unity remains threatened by socio-cultural, religious, and political divisions between its many ethnic groups. The document argues that achieving true national integration requires overcoming challenges like ethnicity, corruption, weak institutions, and an ineffective political leadership. It concludes that national integration will only be realized through open dialogue and consensus between Nigeria's diverse ethnicities on the future of their country.
The document discusses terrorism and some religious responses. It provides context on the history and toll of terrorism, noting that religious communities have sometimes used terrorism with flimsy religious justification. After events like 9/11, people commonly respond religiously through prayer, memorials, and discourse. The document examines teachings in Islam, Christianity, and Judaism regarding adversaries, noting a diversity of interpretations but priorities of peace in most traditions.
This document discusses several theories of globalization, including:
1. Homogeneity vs heterogeneity - whether globalization increases sameness (homogeneity) or differences (heterogeneity) across cultures, economies, and politics.
2. Theories of cultural globalization - including cultural imperialism, hybridization, convergence, and McDonaldization.
3. Theories of economic and political globalization - including the spread of neoliberalism, capitalism, and similar models of governance.
4. The impact of globalization on religion - facilitating the spread of religions while also strengthening religious identities and potentially causing conflicts between religions.
Religion as a repository of nigeria national communication policy israel udom...Alexander Decker
This document discusses how religion serves as a source for communication policies in Nigeria. It examines two dominant religions in Nigeria - Islam and Christianity. Some key points:
1) Religious actions, statements by religious leaders, and beliefs from holy books have influenced the behavior and regulation of mass communication in Nigeria.
2) While the Nigerian constitution provides the ultimate source of communication policy, the lack of a formal national policy leaves room for religious influences.
3) Examples of religious influences on policy include the first printing press established by the Presbyterian Church and restrictions on media coverage of religious events to avoid conflicts between faiths.
This paper examines the interface between religion and globalization in India. It makes four main arguments: 1) Globalization is using the world's major religions to spread its agenda, accompanied by unprecedented funds flowing to the developing world. 2) Globalization is transforming traditional religions and belief systems and beginning to undermine shared social norms through consumerism, technology, and changing work patterns. 3) Globalization is spreading societal anomie and pushing more people towards superficial religious expressions for support. 4) Some attribute extremism and terrorism in developing countries to religion being used to destabilize societies and civilizations. The paper analyzes religion in social, global, and Indian contexts.
This document summarizes a study examining religion and challenges to national unity in Nigeria. The study found that religious crises pose a serious threat to Nigeria's unity. While the core values of religions like Islam, Christianity, and African traditional religions promote peace, the religious followers in Nigeria do not practice these values and are more focused on external rituals. The government is also too involved with certain religions, creating suspicions. Religious leaders also emphasize materialism over religious teachings. A lack of thorough religious education in schools means many lack understanding of different faiths. To improve unity, the study recommends less government involvement in religion and religious leaders focusing more on care values and teachings in their preaching.
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is an International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
The document discusses secularism in India and its inclusion in the Indian constitution. It notes that secularism cannot have a precise definition in India's multicultural context. India formally adopted secularism as a constitutional objective in 1976 through an amendment. The amendment also aimed to make other changes related to fundamental rights and directive principles. However, the law minister at the time argued that concepts like secularism and socialism are difficult to define precisely. While definitions may vary between countries, there is consensus on how these concepts are practiced in India based on the constitution. The key purpose of adding secularism to the preamble was to establish it as a fundamental feature of the Indian constitution.
The document discusses the historical origins of religious tensions between Muslims and Christians in Nigeria. It notes that Nigeria emerged from British colonial rule in 1914, combining Northern and Southern territories with different dominant ethnic groups and religions. While the North was predominantly Muslim, the South was mostly Christian. This religious divide, combined with political and economic factors under colonialism and after independence, have contributed to ongoing ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria between Muslims and Christians over issues like the introduction of Sharia law. Major events and groups like the Boko Haram insurgency have exacerbated tensions and violence.
Similar to The Myth of The Secular Nigerian State and National Development (18)
In the early twentieth century, major representatives of the Jadid movement became active participants in the socio-political processes in the Turkestan region. Usmonkhoja Polatkhoja, a progressive from Bukhara, was one of the beams not only in the Emirate of Bukhara, but also in Turkestan. He first participated in the reforms and progressives, and later in the national liberation movements, and fought for the prosperity and independence of the country.This article provides information about Usmonkhoja's life and work in Jadidism, revolts, national liberation struggles, and emmigiration.
Flood is one of the natural disaster known to be part of the earth biophysical processes, which its occurrence can be devastating; due to mostly anthropogenic activities and climatological factors. The aim of the research is to identify and map the extent at which the impact of flood due to intense rainfall and rise in water in the study area using geospatial techniques and the specific objectives are to carry out terrain analysis of the study area and to generate flood indicator maps of the study area. The study analyzed rain fall data;, the drainage system and Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM 30m) of the area. ArcGIS 10.8 was to modelled and to generate the contributing factors map of the study area. The drainage system was generated through on-screen digitization of topographic map of scale 1:50,000 of Ondo South-West. The mean annual rainfall of Lagos State was generated in the ArcGIS environment from the rainfall data through spatial analysis tool. The SRTM was used in terrain analysis of the study area. The results generated showed the lowest mean annual rain fall of the area 1,700mm and the highest mean annual rain fall was 2,440mm. Digital elevation model (DEM), slope, flow direction were generated from the SRTM. Drainage density of the area was generated using the drainage system. The slope map of the entire area which are classified into five slope classes of very high (14%-48.5%) to high (7.6%-13.9%) to moderately high (4.2%-7.6%) to low (1.5%-4.2%) and very low (0. % - 1.2%).
Work study is a catch-all phrase encompassing a variety of methodologies, including method research and work measurement, that are applied in a variety of contexts and lead to a systematic assessment of all elements that affect the efficiency and economy of the situation under evaluation that is meant to be improved. The main aim of this study is to examine and enhance the process token in manufacturing a Perfume of the famous, well-known, aromatic, and beautiful Taif Roses. Some changes in the process has been suggested using method study and time study method which lead to reduction in process time, labor cost and production cost.
Workers are the maximum precious method of an association. Their importance to institutions requires not most effective the want to draw the trendy bents but additionally the need to preserve them for a long term. This paper specializes in reviewing the findings of former research carried out with the aid of colourful experimenters with the quit to identify determinants factors of hand retention. This exploration almost looked at the subsequent broad factors improvement openings, reimbursement, work- lifestyles balance, operation/ management, work terrain, social aid, autonomy, training and improvement.
Watering plants during the correct time is very important due to scientific reasons. Both underwatering, as well as overwatering, can lead to the growth of unhealthy plants or in extreme cases, the death of the plant/tree. These issues which are the case with most self-gardeners and plant lovers can be solved using the smart irrigation technique. The main purpose of this innovation is to assist plant lovers to continue their passion to grow plants at home with ease. Smart irrigation system helps in monitoring the moisture level which majorly affects plant growth besides other factors such as sunlight, fertility of the soil, etc. The digital planting pot has been designed in a way that it effectively incorporates the idea of smart irrigation. Arduino Uno R3 has been used as the main chip in this project along with a few other components like a soil moisture sensor, relay, and water pump. This project requires coding to synchronize all the components, and function properly. A required test has been carried out to review the functioning of the mechanism. The project was tested by once using the soil with enough moisture in the pot and then the soil with the least moisture. Both times, it worked exactly how it was supposed to function. When the soil with the least moisture was tested, there was a clear indication of a low level of moisture and accordingly, the water pump got triggered to water the plant, and when the soil with enough moisture was tested, there was again the clear indication of the correct level of moisture and the water pump was inactive. All the readings which were displayed on the LCD were checked back and forth during the project. The outcomes were the same as expected. Hence, it shows that every component in this project is actively functioning and the whole project is effectively designed.
Because of its accessibility and flexibility, cloud technology is among the most notable innovations in today's world. Having many service platforms, such as GoogleApps by Google, Amazon, Apple, and so on, is well accepted by large enterprises. Distributed cloud computing is a concept for enabling every-time, convenient, on-demand network access to processing resources including servers, storage devices, networks, and services that may be mutually configured. The major security risks for cloud computing as identified by the Cloud security alliance (CSA) have been examined in this study. Also, methods for resolving issues with cloud computing technology's data security and privacy protection were systematically examined.
This study's goal is to present Solutions for Determining the importance level of criteria in creating cultural resources’ attractiveness from tourists’ evaluation. Data were collected from 558 international tourists who chose Vietnam as the destination for tourism.
The study points out that we need to resolve challenges such as: building a safe, friendly destination, etc., destinations need to review and re-evaluate the services of their products and tourist attractions to prepare for the largest number of visitors and stimulate the domestic tourism market is a good solution: To boost the domestic tourism market, it is necessary to increase domestic flights and train connections to major tourist destinations.
A new convenient and efficient route for the synthesis of two very important hydroxo-bridged stepped-cubane copper complexes viz: [Cu4(bpy)4Cl2(OH)4]Cl2.6H2O (1) and [Cu4(phen)4Cl2(OH)4]Cl2.6H2O (2) have been obtained. This synthetic route from the mononuclear CubpyCl2 complex is easier, more reproducible and afforded the complex in a much higher yield than the other two previously reported procedures which were equally serendipitously discovered. The purity and formation of the complexes were confirmed with elemental (C,H,N) analysis and the details of the UV-Vis, Fourier transform infrared, electrospray ionization mass spectra of both complexes and the single crystal X-ray crystallography of 1 are presented and discussed. X-ray crystallography confirms the absolute structure of the complexes. The complexes were formed via the connection of four copper atoms to four hydroxide bridging ligands and four bipyridyl ligands with two chloride ligands. There are two coordinate environments around two pairs of copper atoms (CuN2ClO2 and CuN2O3) and each copper atom is pentacoordinate with square pyramidal geometry.
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., which is commonly known as jackfruit is a tropical fruit, belonging to Moraceae family, native to Western Ghats of India and common in Asia, Africa, and some regions in South America. It is known to be the largest edible fruit in the world. The Jackfruit is an extremely versatile and sweet tasting fruit that possess high nutritional value. Jackfruit is rich in nutrients including carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals. The jackfruit has diverse medicinal uses especially antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antiviral properties, anticancer and antifungal activity, anthelminthic activity. Traditionally, this plant is used in the treatment of various diseases especially for treatment against inflammation, malarial fever, diarrhoea, diabetes and tapeworm infection. Jackfruit is a good natural source of phytochemicals such as phenolics, flavonoids and tannins, saponins. The health benefits of jackfruit have been attributed to its wide range of physicochemical applications. The use of jackfruit bulbs and its parts has also been reported since ancient times for their therapeutic qualities. The beneficial physiological effects may also have preventive application in a variety of pathologies.
Myogenic differentiation requires to be exactly explored for the effective treatment of fracture. The speed of healing is affected by skeletal muscle, linked to activation of specific myogenic transcription factors during the repair process. In previous study, we discovered that psoralen enhanced differentiation of osteoblast in primary mouse. In the current study, we show that psoralen stimulates myogenic differentiation through the secretion of factors to hone the quality of repair in fractured mice. 3-month old mice were treated with corn oil or psoralen followed by a tibial fracture surgery. Fractures were tested 7, 14, and 21 days respectively later by histology and images observation. Skeletal muscles including soleus muscle and posterior tibial muscle around the damaged bone were collected for quantitative real-time PCR, HE staining, as well as western blot. Daily treatment with psoralen at seven, fourteen days or twenty-one days improves protein or mRNA levels responsible for the whole myogenic differentiation process, makes the muscle fibers more tightly aligned, and promotes callus formation and development. This data shows that high levels of myogenic transcription factors in the process of fracture healing in mice foster the repair of damaged muscles, and indicates a pharmacological approach that targets myogenic differentiation to improve fracture repair. This also reflects the academic thought of "paying equal attention to both muscles and bones" in the prevention and treatment of fracture healing.
The current pandemic has generated the search for new reliable and economic alternatives for the detection of SARS-CoV-2, which produces the COVID-19 disease, one of the recommendations by the World Health Organization, is the detection of the virus by RT-qPCR methods from upper respiratory tract samples. The discomfort of the pharyngeal nasopharyngeal swab described by patients, the requirement of trained personnel, and the generation of aerosols, are factors that increase the risk of infections in this type of intake. It is known that the main means of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is through aerosols or small droplets, which is why saliva is important as a relevant means of detecting COVID-19. In this study, a modified method based on SARS-CoV-2 RNA release from saliva is described, avoiding the isolation and purification of the genetic material and its quantification of viral copies; the results are compared with paired pharyngeal/nasopharyngeal swab samples (EF/EN). Results showed good agreement in saliva samples compared to EF/EN samples. On average, a sensitivity for virus detection of 80% was demonstrated in saliva samples competing with EF/EN samples. The use of saliva is a reliable alternative for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 by means of RT-PCR in the first days of infection, having important advantages over the conventional method. Saliva still needs to be studied completely to evaluate the detection capacity of the SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid, however, the described process is viable, due to the decrease in materials and supplies, process times, the increment in the sampling and improvement of laboratory performance.
A recent study establishes that since 1970, there has been an ecological gap between human needs and the planet's resources, with annual resource demand exceeding the bio-productivity of the planet. Specifically, humanity utilises equivalent of 1.75 earths to produce the ecological resources used, with half of this attributable to food consumption. The present work therefore seeks to provide an empirically-based insight into the environmental sustainability of the EF of food consumption in Ijebu Ode. A descriptive cross-sectional approach was used, and primary data were collected from 400 systemically sampled households via structured questionnaires and analysed descriptively using Microsoft Excel and inferentially using mathematical models for calculating ecological footprints. Findings revealed that the household EF of food consumption in Ijebu Ode is 0.05gha per capita, with the footprint of cereal consumption (0.17gha; 37%) taking the major share, followed by meat with a footprint of 0.11gha (23.9%). As a result, it was concluded that Ijebu Ode has sustainable food consumption, which is necessary for its environmental sustainability. However, the sustenance of the former requires creating awareness of the need for sustainable consumption and prioritisation of integrated and population-wide policies and food intervention initiatives to encourage attitudinal change in favour of sustainable food consumption while fostering sustainable food production strategies amidst current environmental realities.
The symmetry occurs in most of the phenomena explained by physics, for example, a particle has positive or negative charges, and the electric dipoles that have the charge (+q) and (-q) which are at a certain distance (d), north or south magnetic poles and for a magnetic bar or magnetic compass with two poles: North (N) and South (S) poles, spins up or down of the electron at the atom and for the nucleons in the nucleus In this form, the particle should also have mass symmetry. For convenience and due to later explanations, I call this mass symmetry or mass duality as follows: mass and mass cloud. The mass cloud is located in the respective orbitals given by the Schrödinger equation. The orbitals represent the possible locations or places of the particle which are determined probabilistically by the respective Schröndiger equation.
Metal-organic molybdenum complexes were synthesized by the hydrothermal method using ammonium heptamolybdate as the metallic source, and as the organic ligand terephthalic acid (BDC) or bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate (BHET), obtained via glycolysis of poly(ethylene)terephthalate (PET). The BDC-Mo and BHET-Mo complexes were characterized by XRD, N2 physisorption, TGA, ATR-FTIR, SEM, XPS and their in vitro biocompatibility was tested by porcine fibroblasts viability. The results show that molybdates (MoO4-2) are coordinated to the carbonyl functional groups of BDC and BHET by urea bonding (-NH-CO-NH-) which is related to their high biocompatibility and high thermal stability. These organic molybdate complexes possess rectangular prism particles made up of rods arrays characteristics of molybdenum oxides (MoO3). The organic complexes BDC-Mo and BHET-Mo do not show to be cytotoxic for porcine dermal fibroblasts growing on their surface for up to 48 h of culture.
Exercise training with varying intensity increases maximal oxygen intake (VO2max), a strong predictor of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. Purpose: The aim of this study was to find out the influence of low intensity aerobic training on the vo2 max in 11 to 14 years school girls in Hyderabad district. Methodology: The research scholar has randomly selected thirty (N=30) high school girls were selected as subjects and their age ranged between 11 to 14 years. The subjects were divided into two equal groups, each group consist of 15 total 30. Group one acted as experimental group (EG) and group two acted as control group (CG). The dependent variable vo2 max was selected and it is measured by manual test. Statistical Tool: The statistical tool paired sample ‘t’ test was used for analysing of the data and the obtained ‘t’ ratio was tested for significance at 0.05 level of confidence. Results: The analysis of the data revealed that there was a significant improvement on vo2 max by the application of low intensity aerobic.
Hybrid rice has the potential to outperform existing inbred rice and was said to have the potential to produce 14-20 % more yield. In response, Malaysia Government has introduced its very own first Hybrid Rice Variety knew as Kadaria 1 developed by MARDI. This is in line with one of the strategies outlined in Dasar Agromakanan Negara (DAN) 2011-2020 as an approach to increasing rice productivity within Malaysia. The next step would be developing our hybrid seed rice production system. Therefore, an experiment to determine the planting ratio and planting distance between 0025A (A)-a hybrid with MR283 (R)-inbreed variety was carried out. Planting ratios studied in this study were 2:4, 2:6, 2:8, and 2:10 while planting distance was 14 x 30 cm, 16 x 30 cm, and 18 x 30 cm. Statistical analyses suggested that yield R, yield A, and panicle number A were significantly affected by planting ratios while yield A was significantly affected by an interaction between planting distance and planting ratios. Panicle number A performed significantly higher at planting ratios of 2:4 compared to 2:10. Yield R shows higher significant performance under ratio 2:6 compared to 2:4 and 2:8. Relatively, yield A performed the best under planting distance of 18 x 30 cm. Furthermore, under this particular planting distance, the planting ratio of 2:10 shows the highest significant figure while 2:8 exhibits statistical parity. Both yield R and yield A were significantly affected by planting ratios and have a significant positive association with each other. Therefore, the planting ratio of 2:10 should be the best since it contributed to significantly highest value for yield A while yield R under 2:10 shows statistical parity with 2:6 which was the highest significant value. In conclusion, the combination of 2:10 with a planting distance of 18 x 30 cm was the best since it shows best potential for both yields A and yield R
This document summarizes a study on cassava production systems in the Tivaouane department of Senegal. Key findings include:
- Cassava is an important crop for food security but production in Senegal remains low compared to other African countries.
- The study examined farming practices through surveys of 85 producers in 8 communes across two agro-ecological zones.
- Analysis showed cassava is only grown during rainy season with traditional cultivation methods. Four of five recommended varieties were grown, with different varieties preferred in each zone.
Cassava plays an important role in improving food security and reducing poverty in rural areas. Despite its importance, its production in Senegal remains low compared to other African countries. Nowadays, it is confronted with numerous constraints. It is in this context that a study was conducted on the cassava production system in the Thiès "cassava granary" region, with the objective of examining farmers' cultivation practices. It was conducted in eight communes located in the department of Tivaouane, some of which are located in the Niayes agro-ecological zone and others in the central-northern groundnut basin. Surveys were conducted among the largest cassava producers in these communes. Analysis of the results showed that cassava is only grown in the rainy season with the same cultivation practices that have been used for years. Of the five varieties listed by the President of the Senegalese Cassava Interprofession, only four are grown in the areas surveyed. The Terrasse (43%) and Kombo (36%) varieties are grown more by our respondents in the Niayes area. Soya (75%) and Wallet "Parydiey" (20% of our sample) dominate in the central-northern groundnut basin.
We are witnessing very demanding and stressful times in which we live, and an occupation that is particularly exposed to stress and different working conditions is the job of a nurse. Exposing themselves to everyday challenges and stressful situations, nurses reach a stage of great emotional and physical exhaustion, lethargy, dissatisfaction, and poorer work achievements, which we know as burnout. The aim of this paper was to determine whether there is and to what extent professional burnout is present in nurses and technicians working in nursing homes across Slovenia and Croatia. The paper is answering the questions of the extent of the burnout influenced by individual characteristics (age, education, years of service and work experience at the current workplace). The study involved a validated questionnaire “The Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI)” to measure professional burnout. Surveying of the nurses was conducted online at their home institutions. The results show that all respondents have a medium or high level of professional burnout, while no one has a low level or shows no signs of burnout. In terms of age, the group from 55-65 years of age had the highest relative level of burnout in the age group category. With regard to education, the highest burnout was measured in registered nurses.
This document discusses hepatitis and its transmission through needlestick injuries. It covers the different types of hepatitis viruses, their epidemiology, risk factors, and transmission. Healthcare workers are at high risk of contracting hepatitis B and C through needlestick injuries involving contaminated needles and sharps. Dental professionals face increased risk due to exposure to blood and saliva. The document recommends vaccination, safe handling of needles and sharps, and post-exposure prophylaxis to prevent transmission of hepatitis viruses occupationally.
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The Myth of The Secular Nigerian State and National Development
1. Middle East Journal of Applied Science & Technology (MEJAST)
(Peer Reviewed International Journal) Volume 2, Issue 3, Pages 01-10, July-September 2019
1 | P a g e ISSN (Online): 2582- 0974 Website: www.mejast.com
The Myth of The Secular Nigerian State and National Development
Loveday Enyinnaya Ogbuleke*
*Department of Peace and Conflict Resolution, College of Arts, Law, Administration and Management Sciences, Legacy University, The Gambia.
Email: [email protected]
Article Received: 20 January 2019 Article Accepted: 12 May 2019 Article Published: 15 July 2019
INTRODUCTION
One of the most enduring debates in social science concerns the role of religion in society. This is reflected how
post-Cold War international relations might be marked by a ‗clash of civilizations‘ in the early 20th century
concerns the compatibility of Catholicism and liberal democracy, and contemporary concerns about the
compatibility of Islam and western culture, which have almost certainly played a role in the rise and sustaining of
liberal democracy (Andersen, Bentzen, Carl-Johan, Paul, 2017).
Furthermore, religion is a system of social unity commonly understood as a group of beliefs or attitudes concerning
an object, person, unseen or imaginary being, or system of thought considered to be supernatural, sacred, divine or
highest truth, and the moral codes, practices, values, institutions, and rituals associated with such belief or system
of thought (Ikechi-Ekpendu, Audu and Ekpendu, 2016).
In Nigeria mostly there are two types of religions, Islam and Christianity. Islam started from Arab and eventually
spread throughout the world. When Arab merchants entered in Kanem Borno Empire in nineteenth century then it
result in Jihad. So jihad results in the speedily spreading of Islam especially in Northern part of Nigeria. Then
gradually it also spread in Southern part of the country mostly in Eastern region of the country. Islam is a religion
which provides complete code of conduct for every human being and in Islam perspective all the Muslims are part
of Islamic Ummahsss. Muslims are related to each other as being Ummah, either they are in any part of the word.
Though every religion extremists in Islam are destroying the beauty of Islamic religion. People from both religions
are not in state of accepting each other, Muslim fanatic consider that Nigeria must be a Islamic State and the other
part consider that it must be Christian State. Their immediate outcome is massive loss of life and property
(Ogbuleke, 2019). Nigeria is mainly consisting of Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa tribes. And these tribes also have strong
effect on the social life as well. In Northern part Hausa people have more influence than any other tribe and they
ABSTRACT
Nigeria is a secular state in theory, religion supremacy functions has been the expression of political identity and facts obviously in conflicts over
resources, land, and political offices. Increasing clashes between religious groups, predominantly Muslim and Christian have taken the nation from
what used to be peaceful coexistence to violent disharmony. For the course of this paper, region in politics is as old as the history of the Nigerian state.
What is new in the current exclusion is the extent to which religion dominates national life. The myth of the secular Nigerian state that purports to
separate the institutions of religion from those of the government has failed to translate into reality. Indeed, there is evidence to show that Nigeria's
troublesome religious conflict, especially during election and beyond will negatively affect national development. It is against this backdrop that the
paper traces the historical and contemporary issues of religion plurality in the challenge of national development, with particular attention to the
security dilemma for Nigeria in the 21st century, paying attention to the growing influence of the unchecked religion in politics, and its significance
to modern politics and how this accounts for increasing manners of conflict in Nigerian states. This paper therefore makes some recommendations
and concludes that there cannot be any meaningful national development without proper interreligious peace and harmony.
2. Middle East Journal of Applied Science & Technology (MEJAST)
(Peer Reviewed International Journal) Volume 2, Issue 3, Pages 01-10, July-September 2019
2 | P a g e ISSN (Online): 2582- 0974 Website: www.mejast.com
considered themselves more strong practicing Muslims than any other tribe. But their practicing style results in
misconception about Islam in Eastern part.
Ethno-religions crises have its roots deep in the history of Nigeria. As a state, Nigeria came into being in 1914 as
the creation of Lord Lugard. Before that time, the different ethnic nationalities like the Hausa/Fulani, the Igbo and
Yoruba existed independently. There were no socio-cultural, linguistic and political ties among them. Therefore,
when Lord Lugard in 1914 through executive/administrative fiat amalgamated the northern and southern
protectorates into one and proclaimed it as a country, it was one that was lacking in socio-cultural, political and
economic bonding of any kind. There was no ―we‖ feeling or consciousness of kind. Nigeria was not seen as ―ours‖
but as ―theirs‖. The ordinary man saw himself, first as an Igbo, Hausa or Yoruba and only secondarily as a Nigerian.
This situation was further compounded with the introduction of regions which made the northern region
disproportionately bigger than the East and the West put together.
The colonialists further perfected their plan of divide and rule by deliberating pursuing different educational
policies in the north and south. Though the North was more population than the South and West, the British pitched
the regions against themselves by pursuing different educational policies for them. In the East and West,
conventional education was pursued. But in the North, Islamic education was pursued in the name of preserving
traditional institutions. All of these stresses and strains were built into the fabric of the Nigerian state by the colonial
masters to ensure disunity. It was for this reason that, in 1953 when a motion for independence for Nigeria in 1956,
was moved, the north claimed that they were not ready thereby delaying Nigeria‘s independence till 1960. Thus,
upon the attainment of political independence, Nigeria was a state already fragmented along ethnic, religious,
linguistic and political lines. Therefore, when after only six years of independence a civil war broke out, it was
germination of the seed of acrimony and intolerance that was planted in 1914.
This paper examines the historical and contemporary issues of religion plurality (often referred to as
multiculturalism, although a little different) in the challenge of national unity and development, with particular
attention to the security dilemma for Nigerian state in recent time.
RELIGION, POLITICS AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE: A THEORETICAL
DISCOURSE
Assumed the aforementioned, religion means different things to different people. There is no consenting of opinion
on its meaning that is why Egwu (2001) argued that religion is a difficult subject of inquiry including attempts at its
definition and conceptualization. Religion is thus defined in many ways and the definitions usually vary among
scholars. According to Adeniyi (1993), religion is a body of truths, laws and rites by which man is subordinated to
the transcendent being. This implies that religion deals with norms and rules that emanated from God and which
must be followed by the believers. Ejizu (1993) provides another definition of religion. According to him, religion
is man‘s intuition of the sacred and ultimate reality and his expression of that awareness in concrete life.
Furthermore, scholars as Goody (1961) and Horton (1960) agree that the nation of ‗sacred‘ at once indicates the
idea of the transcendent in the concept of religion and they both go further to underline the fact that the ‗sensuous
religions‘ in a district type of experience that is essentially characterized by a feeling of mystery and awe.
3. Middle East Journal of Applied Science & Technology (MEJAST)
(Peer Reviewed International Journal) Volume 2, Issue 3, Pages 01-10, July-September 2019
3 | P a g e ISSN (Online): 2582- 0974 Website: www.mejast.com
Mc-Henry (Ayinla, 2003) understand religion as a particular system or set of systems in which doctrines, myths,
rituals, sentiments and other similar elements are interrelated. In submission Aldasheva and Jean-Philippe (2014),
there are at least two fundamental reasons why an economist might be interested in understanding the functioning
of religious institutions and their relationship with economic development.
Peter (1998) sees it as a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive and long lasting moods and
motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with
such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic. Religion according to the Oxford
dictionary is defined as ‗one of the systems of faith that are based on the beliefs in the existence of a particular God
or gods. The concept has also been defined as a particular interest or influence that is very important in one‘s life. In
its own definition, the Oxford learner‘s dictionary explained religion as the belief in a super human controlling
power that is entitled to obedience and worship. It goes further to state that it is a particular system of faith and
worship that one is entitled to.
On the other hand, national development is a multi-disciplinary concept exemplifying an extensive range of
concerns in the life of a nation. Its definition therefore varies depending on the various indices considered by the
author. Varaprasad (2004) defines national development as the valued and positive changes that bring about a better
life for the population as a whole by increasing the production system of a country. Varaprasad‘s view of national
development focuses more on the improvements in the economy. National development is however, a concept
which includes human, social, political and infrastructural dimensions, which concept does not cover.
Kwanashie (2000) defines national development as a process of cumulative change resulting from positive forces
that raises productivity, real income per head and create more employment opportunities. The positive forces that
raise productivity and create employment opportunities are numerous. These include security, enabling
environment and financial resources that need to be distributed among the competing establishments.
In the same vein, Todaro and Smith (2006) view national development as improvements in the standard of living of
the people, which encompass economic growth, better education and infrastructure, access to health care, equality
of opportunity and increase in employment. It also involves the capacity of a national economy to generate and
sustain an actual increase in its Gross National Product (GNP) at rates of perhaps 5 to 7 per cent or more. This
definition provides a multi-dimensional opinion, which condenses both the economic and human aspects of
national development. It encapsulates the indices of national development in relation to the elements of economic
growth, education, and infrastructural development amongst others. This definition is all encompassing and
therefore adopted for this study.
RELIGION IN NIGERIAN POLITICS
In many countries around the world, religion serves as a unifying force. Yet in others, religion has been a point of
contention and a source of and fuel for conflict and violence, thus a double-edged sword. The clashes among
various religious-identity groups have no geographical boundaries. They stretch across the globe from the Arabian
Peninsula, prairielands of Siberia, eastern Africa, and the South Pacific, to the United States of America (cited in
4. Middle East Journal of Applied Science & Technology (MEJAST)
(Peer Reviewed International Journal) Volume 2, Issue 3, Pages 01-10, July-September 2019
4 | P a g e ISSN (Online): 2582- 0974 Website: www.mejast.com
Griswold, 2010). Obodoagha (2015) notes that Nigeria, with her multiple religious and ethnic identity groups, is
not immune to this violence and conflict. There are in Nigeria a variety of forces driving the violence and conflict.
In 2014, following the use of Ayo Oritsejafor, the president of the Christian Association of Nigeria, CAN, with a
stack of $10 million in cash meant for arms purchase which was not declared in South Africa until immigration
officials discovered it, the CAN president was linked to the arms deal with critics condemning his role in the arms
deal like the Chairman of The Buhari Vanguard, Jasper Azuatalam, demanded that Pastor Ayo Oritsejafor be
arrested for his involvement in the South African arms smuggling operation, which was foiled leading to the arrest
of two Nigerians and an Israeli man in South African with close to $10 million in cash. He further argued that
Pastor Ayo Oritsejafor is a very close confidant and friend/brother to President Goodluck Jonathan and his family.
We have several reasons to believe that this is in preparation for the 2015 general election‖ (cited in Odunsi, 2014).
According to information by Sahara Reporters, the jet of the former CAN chairman is grounded due to cost of
maintenance. It will be recollected that the embattled jet was used to launder cash to South Africa during the
procurement of arm and ammunition for the Nigeria arm force during President Jonathan fight against Boko haram
insurgent in 2014.
We will recall ahead of elections in 2015, some fear the country's unity will face a new test and divisions will be
exacerbated by a vote which sees a Christian presidential candidate from the south, Goodluck Jonathan, facing stiff
competition from Muhammadu Buhari, a Muslim candidate from the north. In Will Rose assessment, if the
Christian leader does not have what it takes to provide good leadership I will not vote for him merely because he is
a Christian," says Arome Okwori at his home in Jos where the Christmas decorations still twinkle. "However, I will
make a choice between that Christian leader and a Muslim leader who may not guarantee freedom of religion… so
to that extent I may lead to the Christian leader but that is not how it should be," the father of two young children
adds (Cited in Ross, 2015). He however, concluded that many other Christians who fear that Mr Buhari has a
hard-line Islamist agenda and wants stricter implementation of Sharia - Islamic law is already in place across the
north will rather vote for President Goodluck Jonathan.
Like the immediate fallout of Nigeria‘s full membership of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Faseke
(2019) ushered that both Christians and Muslims anchored their opposition and support on the interpretation of the
secular status of the country. Christians demanded an immediate withdrawal from the organization because the
1979 constitution clearly makes the nation a secular one. Muslims, on the other hand, argued that the secular
posture of the country had not been violated in any respect since the country was not adopting Islam as a state
religion (Ibid). Faseke (2019), however, believed that Nigeria will be the better for it if both the Christian and
Muslim segments of the population embrace the OIC as a whole or are unanimous in discarding it. The divisive
tendency that Nigeria‘s membership breeds, however, will be detrimental to the nation‘s unity and development.
Therefore, the fear of other religion organizations as the leadership of Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN's)
Northern Zone puts it; our schools and colleges have been taken over by government and yet we see schools and
colleges established under the umbrella of another religion [that is, Islam] being sponsored and entirely financed
and administered by government; we have been denied access to the use of the electronic media in certain parts of
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the country and yet another religion has the monopoly of rendering a near-24-hours religious broadcast in the same
areas; some States have deliberately refused to accept and recognize the growing population of Christians in the
States, thus depriving the Christians not only of their rights, but also questioning their claim to being indigenes of
such states as claim to be religiously homogeneous.
In the same vein, Bishop Emmanuel Badejo, Catholic Diocese of Oyo, argues that the merging of schools formerly
belonging to Christian missions with others in Osun State Governor Rauf Aregbesola without regard for the vision
of the original owners is simply a continuation of the injustice done in the 70s to those organisations and education
in Nigeria. The take-over of schools has been regarded by many honest analysts as ill-advised. This is the reason
why some governors, who have mustered enough courage, sincerity and humility, have handed them back to the
original owners and even apologised. The allegations levelled against credible religious organisations as reasons
for taking over their schools, such as accusing them of undue profiteering, marginalisation of people of other
religions or discrimination against certain groups, simply do not hold water. Many Nigerian dignitaries have
testified to the fact that they went to mission schools belonging to religions other than theirs and were never forced
to convert, nor were they marginalized (see;
https://guardian.ng/sunday-magazine/ibru-ecumenical-centre/crisis-in-osun-state-is-handing-over-of-schools-to-
original-owners-a-better-option).
On a very serious note, he noted that Osun State governor is playing politics of distraction. He has craftily hidden
this in his hijab decree. The governor is doing this hijab rumpus in the face of the collapsed economy of Osun State,
the unresolved problem of unpaid hungry state workers, the impoverished and penurious condition of pensioners,
neglected sick and frail elderly citizens. Now this hijab matter is helping to heighten workers‘ plight and other
socioeconomic problems. Or does he think that this will make the problems invisible? Is Nigeria a religious or
secular nation? If the country is secular, then state owned schools should be state schools and secular indeed.
However, more Nigerian states are returning public schools seized from churches decades ago, refueling debate
over the high tuition charged by mission schools. According to Oguntola (2012), missionary schools, which since
the 1800s offered free or low-cost education to the majority of Nigeria's youth, were nationalized after the West
African nation's civil war ended in 1970 in an attempt to defuse tribalism. In 2001, Lagos became the first state to
return hundreds of seized mission schools to churches in hopes of seeing quality of education improve. The states
of Imo, Ogun, and Plateau—home of conflict-ridden Jos—followed suit. Recently, the southern state of Anambra
returned 1,040 primary schools to their original church owners, while neighboring Delta handed over 40 schools
with more to come. Four other southern states have expressed interest in doing the same and these will go a long
way to justified peaceful co-exist of Nigerian state (Ibid).
According to Anglican archbishop of Jos Archbishop Benjamin Kwashi explains how politicians use religion for
their own political gain, further emphasis that religions like Christianity and Islam have a huge following of hungry
not very educated people on both sides then politicians will explore the areas of religion to get them on their sides.
That's a very dangerous and bad thing to do. It's not fair and it's not right for national development.
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THE EFFECTS OF RELIGIOUS CRISES ON NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
While the causes for violence are rarely strictly religious--they have more to do with unequal access to land and
resources--conflict between Muslim and Christian ethnic groups often makes it appear that way. However,
Nigerian politicians frequently use religious affinity as a way to garner votes (Rose, 2015).
Though this paper is not primarily about the causes ethno-religious crises, a digression into it will give this
presentation a proper focus. There are a number of reasons why differences in ethnicity and religion will sometimes
result into violent crisis with far reaching and profound consequences on national development. One of such
reasons is religious intolerance arising out of the belief that one religion is superior to the other. It could come in the
form of attempting to impose one religion on another (Bagaji). The Boko Haram and others are good cases in point.
Beyond this is the question of the violation of the tenets of the beliefs of one religion by the adherents of the other.
The Bauchi religious uprising of the nineties resulted because it was alleged that some Christians in Bauchi
slaughtered pigs in a market in Bauchi. Recall that pork (pig meat) is strictly forbidden by Moslems. On the other
hand, communal clashes occur either due to historical reasons, the struggle for supremacy, border clashes, land
disputes such as between Umuleri-Aguleri and Ife/Modakeke (Nwaolise 2005).
When one considers the level of organization, the sophistication of the weaponry used, one cannot but conclude
that only knowledgeable people who have the mental ability, intellectual exposure, and material resources could
plan, finance and execute such levels of violent crises. In addition to the above, is the issue of xenophobia or more
appropriately the hatred and intolerance for strangers. Though this assertion has not been subjected to critical
interrogation, yet the frequency of the occurrence of crises might tempt any objective mind to reason along the line
that xenophobia could in some instances account for communal and ethnic crises.
In some quarters, it is believed that some of the crises have to do with the deep rooted contradictions and crises of
the Nigerian society. Nigeria is a richly endowed country, yet, the wealth is in the hands of only of few rich persons.
The result is that poverty is pervasive and unemployment is high especially among the youths. The allusion to
poverty and youth unemployment has been made because it is the poor and unemployed youths that are mostly used
in communal, ethnic and religious conflicts, (Oni, 2011). Sadly enough, it is the same youths, women and children
who are the worst casualties and victims of crises. It has been argued that, beyond religion and beyond communal
and ethnic considerations some of the crises have political undertones (Ezeibe, 2012).
The consequences of crises and conflicts have torn apart by the twin forces of religion and ethnicity and
worrisomely, there seem to be no solution in sight. The current Boko Haram crisis which has so far claimed
innumerable lives and damaged unquantifiable properties is fast becoming an issue for which every Nigerian
should be concerned. From all conceivable indications, its alleged links with the notorious Al Qaeda terrorist group
makes it seemingly difficult and intractable. The painful issue is, beyond the immediate effects, it also has some far
reaching implications for the development of Nigeria. The effects of religious crises would be best appreciated if
we focus a little bit more on Boko Haran. According to information posted by the world press on the internet, from
July 2009 till date about 900 lives have been lost in roughly 160 different attacks. The same report stated that, since
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the beginning of 2012 up to the time the report was posted on the internet, 200 people have so far lost their lives
(www.worldpress.com).
When the sect attacked the United Nations building in Abuja on the 26th
, August 2011, 23 died and about 800
wounded. In another report, it was stated that the Federal Government of Nigeria spent a whopping sum of
N3.2billion to enable the United Nation rent an alternative accommodation and reconstruct its damaged building.
While N2.6 billion was spent on reconstruction of the building, N.6 billion would be used to rent another
accommodation (www.dailytrust.com.ng). Subjected to deeper analysis, it could be seen that, for one single attack,
the nation lost such huge sum which would otherwise have been channeled into other development projects. In
economic terms, it damages resources and facilities which took time to acquire. More seriously, the time of crisis,
be it ethnic or religious is a time when direct foreign investment is discouraged. No foreign investor will like to
invest funds in a country that is divided by communal and ethno religious conflicts (Ayinla, 2003).
There are fears at two levels. Firstly, the basic aim of foreign investment is to make profit which is not possible in
an environment of crisis. Secondly, the resources invested already will definitely go down the drains. Foreigners
will not want to live in a country where there is no guarantee of lives and property (Esezebor, 2011 unpublished
M.A. thesis). A corollary to the above is that it portrays Nigeria in a very bad light internationally. It depicts our
leaders, at all levels and in different facets of life as weak, naïve, selfish and self centered. In an environment of
strong, dedicated and selfless leadership, the diversity and complexity of the Nigerian society would have been
harnessed and channeled into national development efforts. Nigeria estimated has about 450 languages and ethnic
groups (Onwuejeogwu 1984).
Geographically and by implication climatically, she is also diverse with the result that resources which are not
available in one area are more than abundant in the other. With an abundance of human and material resources, with
religious and cultural diversity, Nigeria only needed the right kind of leadership to propel it to greatness and into the
league of developed nations of the world. Rather than being a source of strength, diversity has been subverted by
the Nigerian elite into source of conflict and disunity. In ordinary terms, Nigeria would have been a tourist haven,
but the frequent occurrence of conflicts and crises in different parts of the country at different points in time will
definitely discourage foreign tourists (Onwumah: 2010).
The effect of it is that, foreign exchange needed to drive development, that could have been brought in by
foreigners is lost. Though Nigeria is richly endowed in terms of tourism and resources, it is said that, by African
standards, her performance is an abysmal failure. Places like Kenya, Ghana, Egypt and others have more people
coming into their countries than Nigeria. The reason for this is not farfetched. Nigeria is perceived as unsafe and
indeed not conducive in terms of security caused mainly by communal and ethno-religious crises. From the
Nigerian experience, crises and conflicts appear to have a multiplier effects. Instances abound where crisis in one
part of the country provoked similar crisis in another part of the country. For example, when Igbos was attacked in
Kano in 1986, it provoked reprisal attacks against Hausa/Fulanis in the East. In 1999, when Yoruba and Hausa
clashed in Shagamu during an Oro festival, it triggered off similar clashes between Hausa and Yoruba in Kano
(Esezebor Lucky 2011).
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Similarly, in 2000, religious and ethnic uprisings in Kaduna triggered off retaliatory attacks targeted at
Hausa/Fulani in places like Enugu. Therefore, crises and conflicts aggravate disunity, weakens patriotism, and
national development cannot occur in such an environment of disunity. A time of crisis and conflict is a time that
brings out the worst instincts and impulses in man. It is a time when social relationship is at its worst. No one would
want to relate happily to a group of people, who have or perceived to have killed or maimed one‘s relations. It is
difficult, if not impossible to associate and be at home with persons who are hostile to you or people from your
ethnic group. Beyond these are the socio-cultural consequences.
It is also a time when the promotion of culture cannot take place. At such times, cultural activities such as festivals,
folktales, moonlight games, and others cannot take place. Even cultural industries such as pottery, ceramics,
blacksmithing, tie and dye will all come to a halt for as long as the crises last. The psychological consequences of
conflicts are no less severe and unsalutory. It also breeds fear, hatred, acrimony and suspicion. A psychologically
depressed, fearful, and suspicious person or group of persons cannot contribute meaningfully to the national
development drive. So far, we have shown that crises and conflicts are antithetical to peace and development.
Because it is easier to destroy than to build, this writer is of the view that one month of destruction and decay caused
by crises will take more than a year of sustained effort to rebuild.
Generally, conflicts and crises are religious, ethnic or communal is an ill wind that blows no one any good. It
disrupts the educational system, restricts the movement of people, occasioning the loss of man hours. Nigeria‘s
former President, Olusegun Obasanjo presented a graphic picture of the consequence of crises in the following
statement: ―Violence has reached unprecedented levels and hundreds have been killed with much more wounded or
displaced from their homes on account of their ethnic or religious identification. Schooling for children has been
disrupted and interrupted; businesses lost billions of naira and property worth much more destroyed (Obasanjo,
2004)‖.
In the state of affairs in recent time, Olusegun Obasanjo cited in Campbell (2019) that Nigeria is on the precipice
and dangerously reaching a tipping point where it may no longer be possible to hold danger at bay,‖ said former
President Olusegun Obasanjo in a letter to President Muhammadu Buhari on the deteriorating security situation in
Nigeria. His focus in the letter is on Boko Haram and the ―herdsmen/farmers crises,‖ and his sense of urgency is
palpable. He writes, ―When people are desperate and feel that they cannot have confidence in the ability of
government to provide security for their lives and properties, they will take recourse to anything and everything that
can guarantee their security individually and collectively. Therefore, issue he (Obasanjo) emphasized is very
weighty and must be greatly worrisome to all concerned Nigerians and that means all right-thinking Nigerians and
those residents in Nigeria.
THE WAY FORWARD
Advocating for religious tolerance, Adebayo (2010), call to forget the differences of the ethnic diversity and
religious affiliation of Nigerians seems to be not working for the unity of country.
Therefore, there is need for proper education and knowledge of the plight of each ethnoreligious groups,
amicable settlement of the differences could be facilitated.
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