COVID-19 Pandemic Impacted Food Security and Caused Psychosocial Stress in Selected States of Nigeria
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Questionnaire Design
2.2. Field Interview
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Study Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Huang, C.; Wang, Y.; Li, X.; Ren, L.; Zhao, J.; Hu, Y.; Zhang, L.; Fan, G.; Xu, J.; Gu, X.; et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020, 395, 10223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Munster, V.J.; Koopmans, M.; van Doremalen, N.; van Riel, D.; de Wit, E. A Novel Coronavirus Emerging in China—Key Questions for Impact Assessment. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 382, 692–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, Q.; Guan, X.; Wu, P.; Wang, X.; Zhou, L.; Tong, Y.; Ren, R.; Leung, K.S.M.; Lau, E.H.Y.; Wong, J.Y.; et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 382, 1199–1207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Health Organization (WHO). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. 2022. Available online: https://covid19.who.int/ (accessed on 28 July 2021).
- Brooks, S.K.; Webster, R.K.; Smith, L.E.; Woodland, L.; Wessely, S.; Greenberg, N.; Rubin, G.J. The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. Lancet 2020, 395, 10227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- International Labour Organization (ILO). COVID-19 and the World of Work: Sectoral Impact, Responses and Recommendations. 2020. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/coronavirus/sectoral/lang--en/index.htm (accessed on 15 September 2021).
- Barrett, C.B. Actions now can curb food systems fallout from COVID-19. Nat. Food 2020, 1, 319–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Devereux, S.; Béné, C.; Hoddinott, J. Conceptualising COVID-19′s impacts on household food security. Food Sec. 2020, 12, 769–772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kalinowski, S.; Łuczak, A.; Koziolek, A. The Social Dimension of Security: The Dichotomy of Respondents’ Perceptions during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Sustainability 2022, 14, 1363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Denisov, I.; Petrenko, Y.; Koretskaya, I.; Benčič, S. The Gameover in Universities Education Management during the Pandemic COVID-19: Challenges to Sustainable Development in a Digitalized Environment. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pitoňakova, S. Public Relations as a Part of the Presentation for Teachers. In Высшее Гуманитарнoе Образoвание XXI Века: Прoблемы и Перспективы: Материалы Одиннадцатoй Междунарoднoй Научнo-Практическoй Кoнференции; ПГСГУ: Самара, Russia, 2016; pp. 172–183. ISBN 978-5-8428-1068-0. Available online: https://fhvuniza-my.sharepoint.com/:b:/g/personal/slavka_pitonakova_fhv_uniza_sk/Ea0cROFStstEpWsNmIqnqxYB7Kln88jB9_q5ZxvedBheyw?e=oKOiwr (accessed on 17 February 2023).
- Otekunrin, O.A.; Otekunrin, O.A. Healthy and Sustainable Diets: Implications for Achieving SDG2. In Zero Hunger. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals; Leal, F.W., Azul, A., Brandli, O.P., Wall, T., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- FAO; IFAD; UNICEF; WFP; WHO. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. In Transforming Food Systems for Food Security, Improved Nutrition and Affordable Healthy Diets for All; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- FAO; IFAD; UNICEF; WFP; WHO. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022: Repurposing Food and Agricultural Policies to Make Healthy Diets More Affordable; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Otekunrin, O.A.; Otekunrin, O.A. Nutrition outcomes of under-five children of smallholder farm households: Do higher commercialization levels lead to better nutritional status? Child. Ind. Res. 2022, 15, 2309–2334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Data Lab. 2021. Available online: https://worldpoverty.io/headline (accessed on 12 October 2021).
- Otekunrin, O.A.; Otekunrin, O.A.; Sawicka, B.; Pszczółkowski, P. Assessing Food Insecurity and Its Drivers among Smallholder Farming Households in Rural Oyo State, Nigeria: The HFIAS Approach. Agriculture 2021, 11, 1189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amare, M.; Abay, K.A.; Tiberti, L.; Chamberlin, J. COVID-19 and food security: Panel data evidence from Nigeria. Food Policy 2021, 101, 102099. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andam, K.; Edeh, H.; Oboh, V.; Pauw, K. Impacts of COVID-19 on food systems and poverty in Nigeria. Adv. Food Sec. Sustain. 2020, 5, 145–173. [Google Scholar]
- Otekunrin, O.A.; Otekunrin, O.A.; Fasina, F.O.; Omotayo, A.O.; Akram, M. Assessing the Zero Hunger Readiness in Africa in the Face of COVID-19 Pandemic. Caraka Tani J. Sustain. Agric. 2020, 35, 213–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Inegbedion, H.E. COVID-19 lockdown: Implication for food security. J. Agribus. Dev. Emerg. Econ. 2020, 11, 437–451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ibukun, C.O.; Adebayo, A.A. Household food security and the COVID-19 in Nigeria. Afr. Dev. Rev. 2021, 33, 575–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Otekunrin, O.A.; Fasina, F.O.; Omotayo, O.A.; Otekunrin, O.A.; Akram, M. COVID-19 in Nigeria: Why continuous spike in cases? Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med. 2021, 14, 1–4. [Google Scholar]
- Balana, B.B.; Ogunniyi, A.; Oyeyemi, M.; Fasoranti, A.; Edeh, H.; Andam, K. COVID-19, food insecurity and dietary diversity of households: Survey evidence from Nigeria. Food Secur. 2022, 15, 219–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dubey, S.; Biswas, P.; Ghosh, R.; Chatterjee, S.; Dubey, M.J.; Chatterjee, S.; Lahiri, D.; Lavie, C.J. Psychosocial impact of COVID-19. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020, 14, 779–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Durowade, K.A.; Sanni, T.A.; Adeniyi, M.A.; Babalola, S.A.; Popoola, T.A.; Adebara, I.O.; Ajayi, E.A. Psychological, socioeconomic effects of COVID-19 pandemic and associated prevalent self-reported vulnerability factors among residents of Southwest Nigeria. Niger. J. Med. 2020, 29, 566–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olaseni, A.O.; Akinsola, O.S.; Agberotimi, S.F.; Oguntayo, R. Psychological distress experiences of Nigerians during Covid-19 pandemic; the gender difference. Soc. Sci Hum. Open. 2020, 2, 100052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raza, S.H.; Haq, W.; Sajjad, M. COVID-19: A Psychosocial Perspective. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 554624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kunal, K.; Choudhary, P.; Kumar, J.; Prakash, R.; Singh, A.; Kanchan, K. Psychosocial Impact of COVID-19–A Global Scenario. In Psychosocial, Educational, and Economic Impacts of COVID-19; Intech Open: Vienna, Austria, 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The World Bank. World Bank Country and Lending Groups—Country Classification. 2022. Available online: https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups (accessed on 29 August 2021).
- FAO’s Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES). 2021. Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/a-bl354e.pdf (accessed on 12 March 2021).
- FAO. FAO’s Support to Mitigate Impact of COVID-19 on Food and Agriculture in Asia and the Pacific (Version 2.0). Internal Report. 2020. Available online: https://www.fao.org/3/cb0815en/cb0815en.pdf (accessed on 12 March 2021).
- Van Hoof, E. Lockdown is the World’s Biggest Psychological Experiment—And We Will Pay the Price. World Economic Forum (WE Forum) Global Agenda (Global Health). 2020. Available online: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/this-is-the-psychological-side-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-that-were-ignoring/ (accessed on 14 April 2020).
- Piolanti, A.; Offidani, E.; Guidi, J.; Gostoli, S.; Fava, G.A.; Sonino, N. Use of the psychosocial index: A sensitive tool in research and practice. Psychother. Psychosom. 2016, 85, 337–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Odetokun, I.A.; Akpabio, U.; Alhaji, N.B.; Biobaku, K.T.; Oloso, N.O.; Ghali-Mohammed, I.; Biobaku, A.J.; Adetunji, V.O.; Fasina, F.O. Knowledge of antimicrobial resistance among veterinary students and their personal antibiotic use practices: A national cross-sectional survey. Antibiotics 2019, 8, 243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hager, E.; Odetokun, I.A.; Bolarinwa, O.; Zainab, A.; Okechukwu, O.; Al-Mustapha, A.I. Knowledge, attitude, and perceptions towards the 2019 coronavirus pandemic: A bi-national survey in Africa. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0236918. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Odetokun, I.A.; Alhaji, N.B.; Akpabio, U.; Abdulkareem, M.A.; Bilat, G.T.; Subedi, D.; Ghali-Mohammed, I.; Elelu, N. Knowledge, risk perception, and prevention preparedness towards COVID-19 among a cross-section of animal health professionals in Nigeria. Pan. Afr. Med. J. 2022, 41, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Odetokun, I.A.; Al-Mustapha, A.I.; Elnadi, H.; Subedi, D.; Ogundijo, O.A.; Oyewo, M. The COVID-19 pandemic: A multi-regional cross-sectional survey of public knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions. PLoS Glob. Public Health 2022, 2, e0000737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dean, A.G.; Sullivan, K.M.; Soe, M.M. OpenEpi: Open Source Epidemiologic Statistics for Public Health, Version. Available online: www.OpenEpi.com (accessed on 15 September 2021).
- Anon. GraphPad QuickCalcs®. Available online: https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ (accessed on 15 September 2021).
- Pickett, K.E.; Wilkinson, R.G. Income inequality and health: A causal review. Soc. Sci. Med. 2015, 128, 316–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okpani, A.I.; Abimbola, S. Operationalizing universal health coverage in Nigeria through social health insurance. Niger. Med. J. 2015, 56, 305–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Adeniji, F. Burden of out-of-pocket payments among patients with cardiovascular disease in public and private hospitals in Ibadan, South West, Nigeria: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2021, 11, e044044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amu, H.; Dickson, K.S.; Kumi-Kyereme, A.; Darteh, E.K.M. Understanding variations in health insurance coverage in Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and Tanzania: Evidence from demographic and health surveys. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0201833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alam, K.; Mahal, A. Economic impacts of health shocks on households in low and middle income countries: A review of the literature. Glob. Health 2014, 10, 21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Barasa, E.; Kairu, A.; Ng’ang’a, W.; Maritim, M.; Were, V.; Akech, S.; Mwangangi, M. Examining unit costs for COVID-19 case management in Kenya. BMJ Glob. Health 2021, 6, e004159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gelburd, R. Profiles of COVID-19 Patients: A Study of Private Health Care Claims. Available online: https://www.ajmc.com/view/profiles-of-covid19-patients-a-study-of-private-health-care-claims (accessed on 14 February 2022).
- Muanya, C.; Salau, G.; Osakwe, F. COVID-19: Cost of Treatment above N100, 000 per Patient as Cases Climb to 4000. Available online: https://guardian.ng/news/covid-19-cost-of-treatment-above-n100-000-per-patient-as-cases-climb-to-4-000/ (accessed on 18 February 2022).
- Keshinro, S.O.; Awolola, N.A.; Adebayo, L.A.; Mutiu, W.B.; Saka, B.A.; Abdus-Salam, I.A. Full autopsy in a confirmed COVID-19 patient in Lagos, Nigeria—A case report. Hum. Pathol. 2021, 24, 200524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Olwande, J.; Njagi, T.; Ayieko, M.; Maredia, M.K.; Tschirley, D. Urban and Rural Areas Have Seen Similar Impacts from COVID-19 in Kenya: Policy Research Note #2. 2021. Available online: https://www.canr.msu.edu/prci/publications/Policy-Research-Notes/PRCI_PRN_2_Urban%20and%20Rural%20Areas%20Have%20Seen%20Similar%20Impacts%20From%20COVID-19%20in%20Kenya.pdf (accessed on 14 February 2022).
- Otekunrin, O.A.; Ayinde, I.A.; Momoh, S.; Otekunrin, O.A. How far has Africa gone in achieving the Zero Hunger Target? Evidence from Nigeria. Glob. Food Secur. 2019, 22, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Otekunrin, O.A. Investigating food insecurity, health and environment-related factors, and agricultural commercialization in Southwestern Nigeria: Evidence from smallholder farming households. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022, 29, 51469–51488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anon. United States: Pandemic Impact on People in Poverty—Current System Leaves Needs Unmet; Lasting Reforms Needed. 2021. Available online: https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/03/02/united-states-pandemic-impact-people-poverty (accessed on 24 February 2022).
- Eranga, I.O. COVID-19 Pandemic in Nigeria: Palliative Measures and the Politics of Vulnerability. Int. J. MCH AIDS 2020, 9, 220–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amzat, J.; Aminu, K.; Kolo, V.I.; Akinyele, A.A.; Ogundairo, J.A.; Danjibo, M.C. Coronavirus outbreak in Nigeria: Burden and socio-medical response during the first 100 days. Int. J. Infect Dis. 2020, 98, 218–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Demirgüç-Kunt, A.; Klapper, L.F.; Prasad, N. Measuring the Effectiveness of Service Delivery: Delivery of Government Provided Goods and Services in India (September 27, 2017). World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 8207. Available online: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3044151 (accessed on 14 February 2022).
- Giusti, E.M.; Pedroli, E.; D’Aniello, G.E.; Stramba Badiale, C.; Pietrabissa, G.; Manna, C.; Badiale, M.B.; Riva, G.; Castelnuovo, G.; Molinari, E. The Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Outbreak on Health Professionals: A Cross-Sectional Study. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 1684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Javed, B.; Sarwer, A.; Soto, E.B.; Mashwani, Z.U. The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic’s impact on mental health. Int. J. Health Plan Manag. 2020, 35, 993–996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uphoff, E.P.; Lombardo, C.; Johnston, G.; Weeks, L.; Rodgers, M.; Dawson, S.; Seymour, C.; Kousoulis, A.A.; Churchill, R. Mental health among healthcare workers and other vulnerable groups during the COVID-19 pandemic and other coronavirus outbreaks: A rapid systematic review. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0254821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bareeqa, S.B.; Ahmed, S.I.; Samar, S.S.; Yasin, W.; Zehra, S.; Monese, G.M.; Gouthro, R.V. Prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress in china during COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Int. J. Psychiatry Med. 2021, 56, 210–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Oyewunmi, A.E.; Oyewunmi, O.A.; Iyiola, O.O.; Ojo, A.Y. Mental health and the Nigerian workplace: Fallacies, facts and the way forward. Int. J. Psychol. Couns. 2015, 7, 106–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alam, P.; Booth, D.; Lee, K.; Thordarson, T. The use of fuzzy clustering algorithm and self-organizing neural networks for identifying potentially failing banks: An experimental study. Expert Syst. Appl. 2000, 18, 185–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rudenstine, S.; McNeal, K.; Schulder, T.; Ettman, C.K.; Hernandez, M.; Gvozdieva, K.; Galea, S. Depression and Anxiety during the COVID-19 Pandemic in an Urban, Low-Income Public University Sample. J. Trauma. Stress 2021, 34, 12–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Solomon, S.; Rostellato, D.; Testoni, I.; Calabrese, F.; Biasco, G. Journalistic Denial of Death during the Very First Traumatic Period of the Italian COVID-19 Pandemic. Behav. Sci. 2021, 11, 41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Variable (n) | Classification | Number | % |
---|---|---|---|
Marital status * (411) | Single | 132 | 32.12 |
Married | 255 | 62.04 | |
Separated/Divorced | 6 | 1.46 | |
Widowed | 18 | 4.38 | |
Total number of persons in the household (405) | 1–4 | 190 | 46.91 |
5–8 | 187 | 46.17 | |
9–12 | 23 | 5.68 | |
> 12 | 5 | 1.23 | |
Age (411) | ≤20 years | 7 | 1.70 |
21–30 years | 105 | 25.55 | |
31–40 years | 151 | 36.74 | |
41–50 years | 104 | 25.30 | |
>50 years | 44 | 10.71 | |
Gender (411) | Male | 239 | 58.15 |
Female | 172 | 41.85 | |
Level of education of household head (358) | ≤primary | 25 | 6.99 |
Secondary | 69 | 19.27 | |
Diploma—first degree | 193 | 53.91 | |
MSc and PhD | 71 | 19.83 | |
Work hours per day (382) | 2–6 h | 24 | 6.28 |
7–9 h | 205 | 53.66 | |
10–12 h | 62 | 16.23 | |
>12 h | 91 | 23.82 | |
∞ Family income based on society class (411) | Low | 295 | 71.78 |
Medium | 97 | 23.60 | |
High | 19 | 4.62 | |
Previously hospitalized for severe illness/surgery (405) | Yes # | 61 | 15.06 |
No | 344 | 84.94 | |
Allergic to medication ** (401) | Yes | 42 | 10.47 |
No | 359 | 89.53 | |
Drink alcohol routinely or periodically (410) | Yes | 44 | 10.73 |
No | 366 | 89.27 | |
Smoke routinely or periodically (410) | Yes | 18 | 4.39 |
No | 392 | 95.61 | |
Take recreational drugs routinely or periodically (410) | Yes | 12 | 2.93 |
No | 398 | 97.07 | |
Drink coffee and tea regularly (410) | Yes | 311 | 75.85 |
No | 99 | 24.15 |
Variable (n) | Classification | Number (%) | Unsatisfactory Experience | Satisfactory Experience | p Value (χ2) | OR | 95% CI | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Marital status * (412) | Single | 132 (32.04) | 72 | 60 | 0.669 | - | - | - |
Married | 255 (61.89) | 127 | 128 | - | - | - | ||
Separated/Divorced | 6 (1.46) | 4 | 2 | - | - | - | ||
Widowed | 18 (4.37) | 10 | 8 | - | - | - | ||
Total number of persons in the household (405) | 1–4 | 190 (46.91) | 107 | 83 | 0.158 | - | - | - |
5–8 | 187 (46.17) | 90 | 97 | - | - | - | ||
9–12 | 23 (5.68) | 10 | 13 | - | - | - | ||
>12 | 5 (1.23) | 1 | 4 | - | - | - | ||
Age (411) | ≤20 years | 7 (1.70) | 4 | 3 | 0.991 | - | - | - |
21–30 years | 105 (25.55) | 56 | 49 | - | - | - | ||
31–40 years | 151 (36.74) | 77 | 74 | - | - | - | ||
41–50 years | 104 (25.30) | 54 | 50 | - | - | - | ||
>50 years | 44 (10.71) | 22 | 22 | - | - | - | ||
Gender (411) | Male | 239 (58.15) | 111 | 128 | 0.012 α | 1.00 | - | - |
Female | 172 (41.85) | 102 | 70 | 0.59 | 0.40, 0.88 | 0.013 α | ||
Level of education of household head (358) | ≤primary | 25 (6.99) | 20 | 5 | 0.000 α | 1.00 | - | - |
Secondary | 69 (19.27) | 54 | 15 | 1.11 | 0.36, 3.46 | >0.999 | ||
Diploma–first degree | 193 (53.91) | 85 | 108 | 5.08 | 1.83, 14.1 | 0.001 α | ||
MSc and PhD | 71 (19.83) | 21 | 50 | 9.52 | 3.16, 28.74 | <0.001 α | ||
Work hours per day (382) | 2–6 h | 24 (6.28) | 16 | 8 | 0.006 α | 1.00 | - | - |
7–9 h | 205 (53.66) | 112 | 93 | 1.66 | 0.68, 4.05 | 0.366 | ||
10–12 h | 62 (16.23) | 38 | 24 | 1.26 | 0.47, 3.40 | 0.838 | ||
>12 h | 91 (23.82) | 34 | 57 | 3.35 | 1.29, 8.66 | 0.019 α | ||
∞ Family income based on society class (411) | Low | 295 (71.78) | 185 | 110 | 0.000 α | 1.00 | - | - |
Medium | 97 (23.60) | 27 | 70 | 4.36 | 2.64, 7.21 | <0.001 α | ||
High | 19 (4.62) | 1 | 18 | 30.27 | 3.99, 229.90 | <0.001 α | ||
Previously hospitalized for severe illness/surgery (405) | Yes # | 61 (15.06) | 179 | 165 | 0.579 | - | - | - |
No | 344 (84.94) | 29 | 32 | - | - | - | ||
Allergic to medication ** (401) | Yes | 42 (10.47) | 25 | 17 | 0.330 | - | - | - |
No | 359 (89.53) | 183 | 176 | - | - | - | ||
Drink alcohol routinely or periodically (410) | Yes | 44 (10.73) | 26 | 18 | 0.341 | - | - | - |
No | 366 (89.27) | 187 | 179 | - | - | - | ||
Smoke routinely or periodically (410) | Yes | 18 (4.39) | 9 | 9 | 1.000 | - | - | - |
No | 392 (95.61) | 204 | 188 | - | - | - | ||
Take recreational drugs routinely or periodically (410) | Yes | 12 (2.93) | 8 | 4 | 0.385 | - | - | - |
No | 398 (97.07) | 205 | 193 | - | - | - | ||
Drink coffee and tea regularly (410) | Yes | 311 (75.85) | 154 | 157 | 0.084 | - | - | - |
No | 99 (24.15) | 59 | 40 | - | - | - |
Variable (n) | Yes | No | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Selected Experience | Number | % | Number | % |
Death of a family member (407) | 20 | 4.91 | 387 | 95.09 |
Separation from spouse or long-term relationship (407) | 41 | 10.07 | 366 | 89.93 |
Recent change in job/loss of job (407) | 47 | 11.55 | 360 | 88.45 |
Financial difficulties (408) | 177 | 43.38 | 231 | 56.62 |
Movement/change in location within the same city (311) | 55 | 17.68 | 256 | 82.32 |
Movement to another city (407)) | 44 | 10.81 | 363 | 89.19 |
Legal problem (407) | 17 | 4.18 | 390 | 95.82 |
Begin a new relationship (409) | 59 | 14.43 | 350 | 85.57 |
Well-Being | ||||
Satisfaction with job (384) | 231 | 60.16 | 153 | 39.84 |
Felt more under pressure at work (382) | 99 | 25.91 | 283 | 74.08 |
Have more problem with colleagues at work (378) | 38 | 10.05 | 340 | 89.95 |
Retired person or student (349) | 49 | 14.04 | 300 | 85.96 |
Felt under pressure during the day (352) | 48 | 13.64 | 304 | 86.36 |
Unable to find a job due to COVID-19 (355) | 34 | 9.58 | 321 | 90.42 |
Have serious arguments with close relatives (358) | 36 | 10.06 | 322 | 89.94 |
Have serious arguments with other people (261) | 23 | 8.81 | 238 | 91.19 |
Close relatives been seriously ill due to COVID-19 (363) | 27 | 7.44 | 336 | 92.56 |
Felt tension at home (365) | 61 | 16.71 | 304 | 83.29 |
Live by oneself (367) | 75 | 20.44 | 292 | 79.56 |
Felt lonely (369) | 55 | 14.91 | 314 | 85.09 |
Variable (n) | Income Category | Not at All (%) | Only a Little (%) | Somewhat Much (%) | A Great Deal (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
It takes a long time to fall asleep | Low (294) | 159 (54.08) | 77 (26.19) | 47 (15.99) | 11 (3.74) |
Medium (96) | 62 (64.58) | 21 (21.88) | 9 (9.38) | 4 (4.17) | |
High (19) | 12 (63.16) | 4 (21.05) | 3 (15.79) | 0 (0.00) | |
Restless sleep | Low (294) | 152 (51.70) | 77 (26.19) | 53 (18.03) | 12 (4.08) |
Medium (96) | 64 (66.67) | 26 (27.08) | 3 (3.13) | 3 (3.13) | |
High (19) | 16 (84.21) | 2 (10.53) | 0 (0.00) | 1 (5.26) | |
Waking too early and not being able to fall asleep again | Low (294) | 146 (49.66) | 83 (28.23) | 42 (14.29) | 23 (7.82) |
Medium (96) | 54 (56.25) | 27 (28.13) | 7 (7.29) | 8 (8.33) | |
High (19) | 15 (78.95) | 1 (5.26) | 1 (5.26) | 2 (10.53) | |
Feeling tired on waking up | Low (294) | 168 (57.14) | 81 (27.55) | 33 (11.22) | 12 (4.08) |
Medium (96) | 45 (46.88) | 40 (41.67) | 8 (8.33) | 3 (3.13) | |
High (19) | 16 (84.21) | 0 (0.00) | 2 (10.53) | 1 (5.26) | |
Chest, stomach, or abdominal pain | Low (294) | 220 (74.83) | 54 (18.37) | 17 (5.78) | 3 (1.02) |
Medium (96) | 81 (84.38) | 11 (11.46) | 3 (3.13) | 1 (1.04) | |
High (19) | 18 (94.74) | 1 (5.26) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | |
Heart beating quickly or strongly (palpitation) without a reason like exercise | Low (294) | 243 (82.65) | 36 (12.24) | 13 (4.42) | 2 (0.68) |
Medium (96) | 78 (81.25) | 10 (10.42) | 5 (5.21) | 3 (3.13) | |
High (19) | 15 (78.95) | 3 (15.79) | 0 (0.00) | 1 (5.26) | |
Feeling dizzy or like fainting | Low (293) | 240 (81.91) | 36 (12.29) | 16 (5.46) | 1 (0.34) |
Medium (95) | 86 (90.53) | 6 (6.32) | 2 (2.11) | 1 (1.05) | |
High (19) | 15 (78.95) | 2 (10.53) | 2 (10.53) | 0 (0.00) | |
Feeling pressure or tightness in the head or body | Low (292) | 215 (73.63) | 61 (20.89) | 13 (4.45) | 3 (1.03) |
Medium (96) | 75 (78.13) | 16 (16.67) | 4 (4.17) | 1 (1.04) | |
High (19) | 16 (84.21) | 1 (5.26) | 0 (0.00) | 2 (10.53) | |
Breathing difficulties or feeling of not having enough air | Low (292) | 243 (83.22) | 29 (9.93) | 17 (5.82) | 3 (1.03) |
Medium (96) | 83 (86.65) | 8 (8.33) | 5 (5.21) | 0 (0.00) | |
High (19) | 16 (84.21) | 2 (10.53) | 0 (0.00) | 1 (5.26) | |
Feeling tired or lack of energy | Low (294) | 190 (64.63) | 55 (18.71) | 28 (9.52) | 21 (7.14) |
Medium (96) | 61 (63.54) | 26 (27.08) | 7 (7.29) | 2 (2.08) | |
High (19) | 16 (84.21) | 2 (10.53) | 1 (5.26) | 0 (0.00) | |
Irritable | Low (294) | 192 (65.31) | 73 (24.83) | 24 (8.16) | 5 (1.70) |
Medium (96) | 73 (76.04) | 16 (16.67) | 7 (7.29) | 0 (0.00) | |
High (19) | 14 (73.70) | 4 (21.05) | 0 (0.00) | 1 (5.26) | |
Sad or depressed | Low (293) | 175 (59.73) | 87 (29.69) | 21 (7.17) | 10 (3.41) |
Medium (96) | 65 (67.71) | 23 (23.96) | 5 (5.21) | 3 (3.13) | |
High (19) | 14 (73.70) | 3 (15.79) | 2 (10.52) | 0 (0.00) | |
Feeling tensed or ‘wound up’ | Low (293) | 188 (63.95) | 56 (19.05) | 41 (13.95) | 8 (13.95) |
Medium (97) | 67 (69.07) | 21 (21.65) | 7 (7.22) | 2 (2.06) | |
High (19) | 16 (84.21) | 2 (10.52) | 0 (0.00) | 1 (5.26) | |
Lost interest in most things | Low (293) | 201 (68.60) | 60 (20.48) | 22 (7.51) | 10 (3.41) |
Medium (97) | 67 (69.07) | 21 (21.65) | 6 (6.19) | 3 (3.09) | |
High (19) | 16 (84.21) | 2 (10.52) | 1 (5.26) | 0 (0.00) | |
Attack or panic | Low (294) | 232 (78.91) | 38 (12.92) | 22 (7.48) | 2 (0.68) |
Medium (97) | 85 (87.63) | 8 (8.25) | 4 (4.12) | 0 (0.00) | |
High (19) | 18 (94.73) | 1 (5.26) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | |
Perception of having a physical COVID-19 related problem wrongly diagnosed | Low (293) | 256 (87.37) | 27 (9.21) | 9 (3.07) | 1 (0.34) |
Medium (97) | 88 (90.72) | 7 (7.22) | 2 (2.06) | 0 (0.00) | |
High (19) | 19 (100.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | |
After reading or hearing about COVID-19, feeling of having similar symptoms | Low (293) | 251 (85.67) | 22 (7.50) | 19 (6.48) | 1 (0.34) |
Medium (97) | 83 (85.57) | 10 (10.31) | 2 (2.06) | 2 (2.06) | |
High (19) | 18 (94.73) | 1 (5.26) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | |
When I noticed a sensation in your nose, nostrils, trachea, or chest, or I coughed, I find it difficult to think of something else | Low (293) | 240 (81.91) | 31(10.58) | 13 (4.44) | 9 (3.07) |
Medium (97) | 75 (77.32) | 13 (13.40) | 4 (4.12) | 5 (5.15) | |
High (19) | 15 (78.95) | 2 (10.52) | 1 (5.26) | 1 (5.26) |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Bwala, D.G.; Otekunrin, O.A.; Adebowale, O.O.; Fasina, M.M.; Odetokun, I.A.; Fasina, F.O. COVID-19 Pandemic Impacted Food Security and Caused Psychosocial Stress in Selected States of Nigeria. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 4016. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054016
Bwala DG, Otekunrin OA, Adebowale OO, Fasina MM, Odetokun IA, Fasina FO. COVID-19 Pandemic Impacted Food Security and Caused Psychosocial Stress in Selected States of Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(5):4016. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054016
Chicago/Turabian StyleBwala, Dauda G., Olutosin A. Otekunrin, Oluwawemimo O. Adebowale, Modupe M. Fasina, Ismail A. Odetokun, and Folorunso O. Fasina. 2023. "COVID-19 Pandemic Impacted Food Security and Caused Psychosocial Stress in Selected States of Nigeria" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 5: 4016. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054016