Bullying Experiences of Workers in Small-Sized Workplaces: A Phenomenological Study
Department of Nursing, Honam University, 120 Honamdae-gil, Gwangsan-gu, Gwangju 62399, Republic of Korea
Sustainability 2023, 15(21), 15436; https://doi.org/10.3390/su152115436
Submission received: 22 September 2023
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Revised: 18 October 2023
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Accepted: 27 October 2023
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Published: 30 October 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Organizational Psychology and Sustainable Occupational Health)
Abstract
:While the study of workplace bullying has been ongoing for 30 years, there remains a lack of research focused on small business workers, despite their vulnerability to workplace bullying due to personal, environmental, and social factors. Therefore, this study applied a phenomenological qualitative research method to identify the phenomenon of workplace bullying, which negatively influences the sustainable development of small-sized workplaces. Methods: This research employed Colaizzi’s phenomenological research approach to explore the meaning and core structure of workplace bullying experiences among individuals working in small businesses. The research included a sample of 10 participants, and data collection took place from May to July in 2023. This involved conducting individual interviews with each participant, varying in frequency from one to three times, and each lasting between one to three hours. Results: This study revealed several significant themes, including individuals feeling stigmatized as incompetent, experiencing gaslighting, having nowhere to run for escape, and often confronting dilemma situations. Moreover, these themes coalesced into two theme clusters: the sense of one’s identity being gradually eroded and a prevailing feeling of having nowhere to turn for help. Ultimately, the core theme that emerged from this research—“the dimly lit maze of life”—encapsulated the complex nature of these experiences. Conclusions: Eliminating workplace bullying for the long-term success and sustainable development of small-sized workplaces will require a united front, involving employers, employees, policymakers, and society at large. Therefore, as a methodology for practically addressing the problem of workplace bullying in small businesses, I propose a problem-solving-oriented participatory action research method based on an ecological model in which participants make a plan, implement the plan, observe the process, and reflect on the outcome of the implemented plan.
1. Introduction
The global prevalence of workplace bullying, as evidenced by a survey conducted by the International Labor Organization (ILO) indicating that approximately 23% of workers worldwide have reported experiencing instances of workplace bullying [1], underscores the profound and widespread nature of this concern. Similarly, within the context of South Korea, a study by the non-governmental organization Workplace Abuse 119 in 2020, which involved 1000 office employees aged 19, revealed alarming statistics, with 34.1% of respondents acknowledging their exposure to workplace bullying incidents within the preceding year [2]. Consequently, workplace bullying remains a pressing issue globally, including in South Korea. This phenomenon has garnered significant attention, particularly in the healthcare sector, due to its infringement upon fundamental labor rights, such as dignity and personhood, within organizational settings [3]. Furthermore, extensive research has illuminated the adverse effects of workplace bullying, encompassing the compromised psychological and physical well-being of individuals and the substantial costs imposed on organizations, including increased turnover rates and diminished productivity [4]. As a result, workplace bullying has emerged as a critical and multifaceted social concern, prompting the development and implementation of laws and policies aimed at prevention and intervention.
In 2019, South Korea enacted the Labor Standards Act, the Occupational Safety and Health Act, and the Workers’ Compensation Insurance Act with the objective of regulating, preventing, and addressing workplace bullying [5]. However, despite these legislative efforts, significant challenges persist regarding the effectiveness of these measures [6]. Notably, workplace bullying manifests in various covert forms that are deeply rooted in latent power dynamics. Furthermore, In South Korea, a society with strong roots in Confucianism, there exists a profound cultural emphasis on collectivism and conformity [7]. This cultural context can lead to a situation where workplace harassment is not readily recognized as an inherent problem or an important social concern, despite its long-standing prevalence in organizations, and where the effectiveness of various legal measures is continually challenged by a reactive attitude of acceptance of the situation as it is, rather than a proactive attitude and desire to address the problem.
In South Korea, where the labor landscape is predominantly characterized by small businesses, which account for over 97% of establishments employing fewer than 50 individuals [8], the influence on employment demographics is substantial. In 2019, approximately 9.74 million workers were engaged in businesses of this scale, constituting 60% of the total labor force [8]. In contrast to their counterparts in larger organizations, employees in small businesses exhibit distinct characteristics, including older age, lower educational attainment, and a concentration in production-oriented roles [9]. Importantly, the risk factors for workplace bullying, as documented in the literature, are significantly affected by variables such as educational attainment, income levels, and occupational status [10]. Moreover, it is worth noting that these small-scale workplaces lack a mandatory legal requirement for the appointment of a health manager [11], posing challenges in the systematic management of physical and mental health issues arising from workplace bullying among employees. Therefore, an in-depth investigation of the demographic composition of workers in small-sized workplaces is needed. This is because demographic factors can amplify the severity of workplace bullying and ultimately have a negative impact on the sustainable development of small workplaces.
Academically, numerous studies are being conducted around the world to recognize and solve the problem of bullying in the workplace, but it should be noted that the lack of studies that approach solving the problem by applying theory has been pointed out as a problem [12]. This is because the phenomenon of workplace bullying stems from the need to solve it as a social problem rather than as a phenomenon of academic or theoretical interest [12]. In addition, the phenomenon of workplace bullying does not appear in one form but may be due to various causes and complex dynamics, resulting in the existence of phenomena that have not yet been revealed. Therefore, the phenomenon of workplace bullying is complex and appears in various forms, so it is difficult to explain it with a single theory, and this may also be the cause of the lack of theory [12]. However, theories provide reasonable questions and suggestions for explanations as guidelines for viewing, understanding, and explaining the world. For this reason, the result of the lack of theory about the phenomenon of workplace bullying is that it is difficult to apply research results on bullying to practice, and it is difficult to explain when and how workplace bullying is related to other variables. Therefore, theory development is urgently needed to solve the phenomenon of bullying in the workplace.
In the context of small businesses, where a significant workforce is employed, there is a noticeable shortage of research concerning workplace bullying. As previously mentioned, the absence of theory hinders problem-solving efforts [12]. Consequently, this study seeks to explore workplace bullying among small business employees, an area that has received limited attention.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to employ phenomenological research methods to investigate the phenomenon of workplace bullying among employees in small businesses, an area that has received limited attention. The aim is to provide a comprehensive understanding of workplace bullying and its impact on various aspects of life. Furthermore, the insights derived from this research can serve as a foundation for theory development and as a basis for conducting intervention research to address workplace bullying in small businesses.
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design
This study utilized Colaizzi’s (1978) phenomenological research method [13] to investigate the significance and essence of workplace bullying encounters among individuals employed in small business settings. Colaizzi (1978) proposed that a thorough understanding of the fundamental structure and meaning of an experience can be attained by vividly depicting the encounter as it unfolds within the human lifeworld [13]. By employing the phenomenological research method, which elucidates the subjective interpretation of experiences from the participants’ standpoint, this study aimed to gain an in-depth understanding of workplace bullying experiences among small business workers. Consequently, the application of Colaizzi’s (1978) [13] phenomenological research method facilitated the exploration of the meaning and core aspects inherent to the experience of workplace bullying in the context of small business environments.
2.2. Study Population
This research was undertaken in collaboration with health managers of the occupational health management service system in small-scale workplaces comprising fewer than 50 employees in cities S and G, South Korea. The processes for gaining a comprehensive understanding of the bullying experiences within small-scale workplaces were as follows. Firstly, workers who reported experiencing physical and mental health issues which they attributed to workplace bullying during their participation in occupational healthcare programs were targeted. Secondly, new employees may confuse difficulties in learning a new job with workplace bullying. Therefore, the researcher chose to focus on employees with over six months of experience, based on the guidance of a production manager who indicated that production workers in small-scale workplaces typically achieve competence in their roles within approximately six months. Thirdly, the researcher explained the purpose and methodology of the study to workers with at least six months of work experience who complained of physical and mental health problems due to workplace bullying, and obtained signed consent forms. Lastly, the researcher conducted in-depth individual interviews with the study participants to gain a comprehensive understanding of the workplace bullying experiences of workers at small businesses. A total of 12 subjects participated in the study; however, only the interview data from the final ten subjects were used due to insufficient responses, as two subjects exhibited a lack of active engagement.
2.3. Data Collection
Data collection took place between May and July 2023. Participants were individually interviewed one to three times, with each interview lasting between one and three hours. In-depth interviews were conducted with participants at their preferred time and location, and their consent was obtained prior to recording. Each interview lasted between 50 and 80 min per participant. A minimum of one and a maximum of three interviews were carried out per participant. Additional interviews were conducted when deemed necessary due to participants not providing comprehensive answers regarding their encounters with bullying in small workplace settings.
The formulation of the main interview questions was based on a comprehensive literature review and a clear understanding of the study’s objectives. The semi-structured open-ended questionnaire and interview guidelines were subsequently refined with input from two nursing professors. The primary inquiry focused on the participants’ workplace bullying experiences as employees in small businesses, aiming to capture the essence of their narratives by inviting them to recount specific incidents or situations they encountered in small-sized business settings.
Throughout the interview process, the researcher posed additional detailed questions to elucidate the subject matter. Empathetic techniques, including maintaining eye contact and nodding, were employed by the researcher to effectively elicit the participants’ experiences. Observations were made regarding non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, demeanor, intonation, and body language, and these were subsequently utilized for data analysis purposes.
2.4. Data Analysis
The collected data underwent further analysis; Colaizz’s phenomenological approach was employed to delineate the phases of data analysis [13]. The data analysis procedure encompassed the following steps.
First, the researcher thoroughly examined all the narrative data that had been collected. The researcher conducted individual, in-depth interviews to meticulously document and transcribe the experiences of workplace bullying among small business employees. The researcher carefully listened to and extensively reviewed the accounts provided by the participants to gain a comprehensive understanding of their statements. Step 2 involved identifying significant statements. Significant statements within phrases and sentences that encapsulated the phenomena representing workplace bullying experiences were identified and highlighted. Statements with similar meanings or redundancies were collected, and representative statements were chosen while omitting the redundant ones. In step 3, the meaning formed from the meaningful statements was structured. The researcher took the significant statements identified in step 2 and rephrased them in their own words to reveal the hidden significance within the various contextual aspects of the phenomena. To this end, the researcher changed the meanings of the experiences of the small business workers, changing the language used in the significant statements that had been identified in step 2 into more abstract language. Step 4 was the phase of clustering themes. In this study, the researcher selected subthemes by integrating and categorizing similar meanings and then organizing these themes by dividing them into subthemes. The validity of the organized themes was reviewed multiple times by revisiting the original data to ensure consistency. Subsequently, the themes were revised and supplemented, and theme clusters were named and categorized. Step 5 involved developing an exhaustive description. Therefore, in the results section, the researcher presented a comprehensive and inclusive description of the collection of subthemes, themes, and theme clusters that were established in step 4. Step 6 entailed creating the core structure. The researcher summarized the comprehensive description into a concise statement that captured only the essential aspects crucial to understanding the phenomenon’s structure. In this study, the researcher generated a core (fundamental) structure for the phenomenon of workplace bullying among small business workers. Step 7 involved seeking verification of the core structure. The researcher presented the core structure statement to all participants to inquire whether it accurately represented their experiences. In this study, the researcher shared the study results with the 10 participants and inquired whether the core structure, derived from the study, effectively represented workplace bullying experiences among small business workers and whether any adjustments or enhancements were necessary.
2.5. Ensuring Research Rigor
To uphold the rigor of the qualitative research, we aimed to enhance the criteria for evaluating truth value, applicability, consistency, and neutrality as outlined by Guba [14]. To bolster the truth value, we ensured comprehensive data collection by recording participants’ interviews with their consent, thus minimizing the risk of data omission. Additionally, we sought confirmation from one participant to ascertain that the transcribed interviews and analysis findings aligned faithfully with their original statements. To augment the applicability of the study, we made efforts to select participants who could provide rich and comprehensive insights into their experiences. We continued data collection until data saturation was reached, i.e., when participants’ statements were repeated and new statements did not significantly contribute to the existing findings. Subsequently, the collected data were scrutinized to verify their alignment with the participants’ experiences. In order to maintain consistency, we presented a thorough account of the entire study process. During data analysis, we engaged in discussions with two nursing professors who were well versed in qualitative research to ensure coherence and consistency in the analysis of the data. Finally, to uphold neutrality, the researcher diligently worked to minimize personal bias throughout the study process. To validate the researcher’s neutrality, feedback from two nursing professors was sought to assess any potential impact of the researcher’s subjective thoughts on the interpretation process.
2.6. Ethical Considerations
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB No 1041223-202306-HR-19) of H University for the protection of the study population. Prior to data collection, the researcher explained the purpose of the study, the interview method, and how the data would be utilized. Participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time during the study. It was also explained that the interviews would be anonymous and confidential, and that the data would be destroyed after the study was completed. Participants fully understood this and signed the consent form. The collected data were immediately coded and archived to ensure anonymity. The researcher also explained that the participants could consult with a psychological counselor if they wanted after finishing the final interview.
3. Results
The study revealed several significant themes, including individuals feeling stigmatized as incompetent, experiencing gaslighting, having nowhere to run for escape, and often confronting dilemma situations. Moreover, these themes coalesced into two theme clusters: the sense of one’s identity being gradually eroded and a prevailing feeling of having nowhere to turn for help. Ultimately, the core theme that emerged from this research and which encapsulated the complex nature of these experiences is described as “the dimly lit maze of life” (Table 1).
The dimly lit maze of life
Workers in small businesses who experience workplace bullying were understood to have had their identities stolen through the practical experience of being labelled incompetent, and they have even been gaslighted into changing from victims of workplace bullying into perpetrators who bully others. This study also revealed that employees in small businesses who encountered workplace bullying faced challenges not only in attempting to avoid the situation due to personal and environmental constraints, but that they also encountered dilemmas concerning their interactions with family, colleagues, and the organization, rendering them without a clear avenue by which to seek assistance. In the end, the experience of workplace bullying for workers in small businesses was a very frustrating reality in “the dimly lit maze of life”, where it is difficult to find a way out.
3.1. Eroding My Identity
Real-life encounters with workplace bullying among small business workers were investigated under the theme cluster of ‘stealing my identity’. The specific details of their experiences were as follows.
3.1.1. Stigmatized as Incompetent
Employees in small businesses who are subjected to workplace bullying frequently experience intense scrutiny. Specifically, it was noted that individuals in production roles at small-scale enterprises received insufficient information regarding overtime work or were allocated minimal tasks. Additionally, they endured public admonishments in the presence of their peers and were remunerated less than their coworkers. As a result, these adverse circumstances led to their stigmatization; they were categorized as individuals deemed incapable of fulfilling their job duties.
Blade of The Gaze Always on Me
The employees in small-scale enterprises who were victims of workplace bullying articulated feelings of anguish stemming from their inability to evade the scrutiny of the perpetrators, who closely monitored their every action. Under such a watchful gaze, they experienced a profound sense of isolation, which hindered them in seeking assistance or support from others.
I feel like there are always eyes on me. They watch everything I do, even who I talk to. They say they watch me because I’m not good at my job and they’re afraid I’ll make a mistake. Sometimes, I feel like I’m isolating myself because I’m afraid that other coworkers will be victimized by me.(P4, female, 42 years old)
Not Given Information or Work
The earnings of small business workers engaged in production occupations are predominantly derived from a modest base salary supplemented by night shifts to alleviate financial difficulties. Nevertheless, our investigation revealed a pattern according to which coworkers were privy to this circumstance, yet they refrained from sharing information about available night work opportunities or deliberately allocated fewer or no work assignments to these workers due to their lack of skills, thus exacerbating their economic disadvantages.
The basic salary is so low that I have to work overtime just to earn some extra money. They don’t even inform us in advance when we suddenly have to work overtime, and it happens a lot. On top of that, they rarely give me enough tasks or jobs to do. It’s like they treat me as if I can’t handle more work. It’s frustrating to feel undervalued and underappreciated like this.(P8, female, 56 years old)
Vociferously Critiqued in the Presence of Colleagues
The small business workers who were subjected to workplace bullying were found to have experienced the embarrassment of being loudly criticized in front of several other coworkers for small mistakes, making them look like they had caused a major accident.
It’s really demoralizing. Whenever I make even the tiniest mistake, they make a big deal out of it and criticize me loudly in front of everyone. It’s like they want to announce to the whole world that I can’t do my job properly. The constant public humiliation is really hard to handle.(P4, female, 42 years old)
Discrepancies in Financial Remuneration Compared to Peers
The analysis revealed a notable correlation between workplace bullying and remuneration disparities among small business workers. Specifically, those who experienced workplace bullying were found to receive lower compensation compared to their peers. Consequently, this discrepancy in pay contributed to the perception of these individuals as being less capable when juxtaposed with their colleagues.
It’s really frustrating for me. I don’t get many work assignments, so my pay is lower than my colleagues’. And because of that, they think I’m less capable than them, and I feel like the company sees me that way too. But the worst part is, because they think I’m incompetent, they don’t assign me too many tasks, and it becomes this vicious cycle. It’s just really disheartening to be stuck in this situation.(P5, male, 39 years old)
3.1.2. Being Gaslighted
The small business workers who encountered workplace bullying experienced distress as they perceived a transformation from being victims to adopting a perpetrator stance to evade further mistreatment. Nonetheless, the results revealed a gradual decline in their capacity for critical introspection concerning their thoughts and actions, ultimately leading to the rationalization of their behaviors and a consequent blurring of ethical judgment regarding moral rightness and wrongness.
Turning from Victim to Perpetrator of Workplace Bullying
The small business workers who experienced workplace bullying underwent a transformation from victim to perpetrator as they sought to escape ongoing workplace bullying, and some found that their perpetrator behaviors were reinforced by the recognition they received from the perpetrators of workplace bullying.
I found myself going from being a victim to taking on some of the behaviors of the bullies in an attempt to defend myself and escape the ongoing harassment. What’s even more troubling is that, at times, my actions seemed to be reinforced because I received recognition and validation from the very people who were originally harassing me.(P9, female, 47 years old)
Diminished Discernment of Ethical Principles
It was found that the people who were being bullied in the workplace and became perpetrators initially felt guilty about their actions, but gradually began to rationalize their actions and thoughts over time as their bullying coworkers began to adjust their thoughts and actions on the sidelines.
I would observe myself engaging in bullying behavior, and initially, I experienced guilt. However, as I continued to bully others, it seemed like those who had been bullying me began to view me as an ally, and over time, my sense of guilt diminished. At some point, I was doing and saying the same things they were.(P5, male, 39 years old)
3.2. Nowhere to Turn for Help
It was found that the small business workers who were subjected to workplace harassment found it difficult to escape harassment situations due to personal and environmental constraints, and in dilemma situations with their families, colleagues, and organizations, they were ultimately left with nowhere to turn for help to escape workplace harassment.
3.2.1. Nowhere to Run to Escape
The encounters of the small business employees who aspired to extricate themselves from workplace bullying but found themselves constrained by personal and environmental factors are detailed below.
Financial Difficulties and Mobility Constraints
Workers experiencing workplace bullying in small-sized businesses frequently encounter financial barriers that impede their ability to leave their jobs. Limited financial resources may restrict their options and compel them to endure bullying to sustain their livelihoods.
When I face workplace harassment, my first thought is to quit, but the problem is that it’s almost impossible to quit my job because of financial barriers. I don’t have a lot of resources and finding a new job is not easy, so I have no choice but to put up with the harassment in order to make a living. This situation is really frustrating.(P10, male, 48 years old)
Lack of Professionalism and Old Age
Workers employed in small-sized businesses encounter considerable challenges in changing job to escape workplace bullying due to their lack of formal qualifications or specialized skills that are sought after in the job market. Being older was also a barrier to changing jobs. This restricted occupational mobility confines employees to their existing positions, precluding their ability to explore alternative employment prospects and rendering them susceptible to enduring instances of continued bullying.
I have no formal qualifications or specialized skills required in the job market, so when it comes to dealing with workplace bullying, it’s not easy to switch roles or change departments to avoid it. Besides, being older adds another obstacle to finding a new job. With limited job mobility, I feel stuck in my current position, unable to explore other opportunities, and that makes me vulnerable to ongoing bullying. It’s really challenging to deal with this situation.(P7, male, 54 years old)
Limited Departmental Options
In contrast to large-scale organizations, small-sized workplaces frequently lack multiple departments, thereby constraining employees’ opportunities to transition to different work environments. Even when such departments exist, the pervasive nature of workplace bullying has been found to diminish the effectiveness of inter-departmental transfers, thereby rendering them inconsequential in addressing the issue. Furthermore, in cases where departmental changes are feasible, they may inadvertently perpetuate instances of workplace bullying, compounding the challenges faced by affected employees.
You know, one thing that makes working in a small-sized company difficult is the lack of multiple departments. It really limits our chances to move to different work environments if we want to escape workplace bullying. Even when there are some departments, the bullying seems to spread everywhere, and transferring to another department doesn’t seem to make much difference in addressing the issue. It’s frustrating because, in some cases, these transfers can even lead to more bullying, making it even harder for those of us who are affected by it.(P4, female, 42 years old)
Absence of Breaks and Avoiding Spaces
The lack of designated break areas in small workplaces exacerbated the workplace bullying problems. It was found that the victims of workplace harassment who did not have a safe break area were subjected to severe psychological distress and adverse mental health effects due to prolonged exposure to the perpetrator.
It’s really tough. There’s nowhere to run, and I’m stuck in the same room with my abuser all the time. The only place I can escape to is the restroom, but even then, on busy days, people notice when I’m going in there. It feels like there’s no space or time to get away, even if I wanted to. It’s so suffocating and distressing to be in this situation.(P3, female, 51 years old)
3.2.2. Facing Dilemma Situations
Small business employees enduring workplace bullying frequently encounter complex dilemmas involving their families, coworkers, and organizations.
Ambivalence Exhibited by Family
The small business workers who experienced workplace bullying expressed feelings of sadness due to the ambivalence displayed by their families when they became victims of workplace bullying. On one hand, their families provide support to help them overcome the challenging situation; however, on the other hand, they are concerned that quitting their job could lead to financial hardship.
When things get tough, my family listens to me and comforts me, but when I tell them that the work is too hard and I want to quit, they tell me that I should never quit, that it’s a sign of weakness, and that I should always be strong. I think they’re worried that if I quit, I’ll have financial difficulties. I don’t feel like their support is genuinely for me, it’s just outward, and whenever that happens, my heart is so sad.(P8, female, 56 years old)
Colleagues Who Adopt a Perpetrating Role to Avoid Becoming Victims Themselves
Colleagues who previously advocated for their harassed peers during episodes of workplace bullying would find themselves subjected to targeting by a different aggressor due to their supportive actions. The act of defending harassed workers exposed these individuals to retaliatory behavior from other workplace bullies. Consequently, a notable observation has been the transformation of certain coworkers, originally advocates for harassed individuals, into perpetrating agents as a protective measure against potential victimization in the workplace.
At one point, I had a colleague who supported me when I faced bullying at work. However, because of this support, that colleague ended up becoming the target of another workplace bully. As time passed, I came to realize that the coworker who had initially helped me was gradually distancing themselves from me and aligning with the bullies. My colleague said he was sorry, explaining that he felt it was an unavoidable choice for him to survive in the workplace. It pained me to see both my colleague, who knew it was wrong behavior, and myself, looking at that situation.(P1, male, 51 years old)
Prioritizing Company Profits Rather Than Employee Well-Being
The study population said that the dearth of organizational focus on workplace bullying emanated from perceiving it as an individual concern rather than an organizational issue. This perception was linked to insufficient staffing and resources, which hinder an organization’s ability to address the problem effectively. Moreover, prevailing organizational cultures that prioritized profitability over employee well-being served as a barrier to effectively tackling workplace bullying within small-sized businesses.
The company just doesn’t seem to care about the relationships between workers. They treat workplace bullying as if it’s a personal problem and all they care about is who is the most productive worker. There’s no department or staff to address workplace bullying, so we don’t even talk about it because we feel like we’ll be labeled as troublemakers if we do. It’s like they don’t protect us at all.(P10, male, 48 years old)
4. Discussion
The main phenomenon of workplace bullying in small-sized workplaces lies in the organizational culture, which creates obstacles for individuals to break free from workplace bullying, whether because of personal limitations or environmental factors. Consequently, those who are subjected to workplace harassment find themselves ensnared in a challenging and inescapable “dimly lit maze of life”, making it tough to extricate themselves from the situation even if they desire to do so.
First, in this section, I would like to discuss how the individual traits and attributes of employees in small businesses can render them susceptible to experiencing workplace bullying.
According to prior research findings, a prevailing trend among employees in small-scale enterprises, predominantly comprising blue-collar workers, is their tendency to possess a comparatively advanced age demographic when juxtaposed with their counterparts in medium to large enterprises, which are predominantly comprised of white-collar professionals [15]. An investigation based on findings from the 5th European Working Conditions Survey, which explored the connection between the individual characteristics of employees and incidents of workplace bullying, revealed a substantial link between lower educational attainment and occurrences of workplace bullying [16,17]. Because employees with lower educational attainment may have limited qualifications for alternative job opportunities, this lack of professional expertise could make it challenging for them to secure new employment that offers a safe and supportive work environment, leaving them trapped in their current situation. Additionally, the age of these workers can also play a role in hindering their ability to change jobs. Older employees may face age-related biases or discrimination in the job market, making it harder for them to transition to new employment. Moreover, they may have spent a considerable amount of time in their current roles, which can make the prospect of job searching and adapting to a new work environment daunting. Furthermore, the economic circumstances of these workers further complicate the situation. Low-income workers are often financially dependent on their current employment, making it financially unfeasible for them to simply quit their jobs to escape workplace bullying [18]. This financial vulnerability ties them to their current positions, even if they are subjected to mistreatment. These findings align with the existing literature, which indicates a strong connection between low incomes and workplace bullying [18]. It underscores the notion that individuals with limited financial resources are not only more susceptible to experiencing workplace bullying but also have fewer options available to extricate themselves from such harmful environments.
Thus, it is imperative for organizations and policymakers to address these challenges faced by vulnerable workers in small businesses and work towards creating more inclusive and supportive workplaces for all employees, regardless of their educational background, age, or income level. Additionally, efforts should be made to provide resources and assistance to workers who are experiencing workplace bullying and wish to change jobs, but who face significant barriers to doing so.
Second, this section will explore the situational factors that increase the susceptibility of small business employees to workplace bullying.
In the context of South Korea, a significant proportion of small businesses, approximately 97%, fall under the category of manufacturing enterprises [8]. The majority of the workforces in these establishments primarily consist of production workers [9]. The existing scholarly literature addressing workplace bullying underscores a noteworthy pattern: individuals engaged in professions demanding swift responses or physical labor, often characterized as blue-collar occupations, encounter a heightened risk of experiencing workplace bullying [19]. Furthermore, studies have emphasized the vulnerability of older workers to such mistreatment [20]. This study brings to the forefront a constellation of interconnected challenges. It reveals that within the confines of these small workplace settings, which are characterized by limited spatial dimensions and a conspicuous absence of designated areas for rest and respite [18], employees find themselves bereft of avenues by which to escape the scourge of workplace bullying. Consequently, the psychological distress endured by individuals subjected to such mistreatment is significantly exacerbated.
In tandem with this, this study identifies another environmental factor exacerbating workplace bullying in small businesses: the difficulty in transitioning between different departments as a protective measure against bullying. This challenge deepens the sense of isolation experienced by workers, who perceive themselves as having no feasible recourse or sanctuary within the organizational framework.
Concurrently, this research echoes earlier findings in the academic domain, particularly studies examining the characteristics of small businesses and their impact on workers’ cardiovascular health. One recurrent observation is the tendency of employers in small businesses to prioritize corporate profitability over the well-being of their workforce [18]. This profit-centric ethos cultivates an environment of apathy towards workers grappling with the repercussions of workplace bullying, ultimately resulting in a dearth of proactive measures and interventions. Significantly, the leadership style exhibited by those in authoritative positions emerges as a pivotal factor in the perpetuation of workplace bullying [7,21]. Notably, passive laissez-faire leadership, a prevalent trait among small business owners, is reported to amplify the risk of workplace bullying by an alarming factor of up to 4.3 times [22,23]. Adding to the multifaceted challenge is a regulatory gap in South Korea. Small businesses with fewer than 50 employees are not legally obligated to appoint a dedicated health manager [11]. This regulatory oversight gives rise to a concerning predicament: the absence of an accountable individual responsible for systematically addressing the physical and psychological health concerns arising from workplace bullying among employees.
In sum, these intricate environmental dynamics collectively render workers in small Korean businesses exceedingly susceptible to the distressing phenomenon of workplace bullying. Addressing these systemic issues emerges as an academic and practical imperative, necessitating concerted efforts to cultivate work environments that prioritize the safety, well-being, and dignity of all employees, transcending job roles, age groups, and hierarchical positions within organizational structures.
Third, this section will examine the ethical challenges faced by workers in small businesses who are subjected to workplace bullying.
Employees in micro-enterprises grapple with unique ethical dilemmas arising from their personal attributes and the specific contexts of these businesses. Those facing economic disadvantages and workplace harassment often confront ethical quandaries driven by their families’ conflicted feelings. Additionally, workers in small-scale enterprises endure psychological distress as they feel compelled to maintain a facade of well-being out of consideration for their families’ welfare, even amid personal difficulties. Moreover, small businesses with fewer than 50 employees face a higher risk of workplace harassment due to their limited workforce, creating ethical dilemmas in which employees may resort to becoming perpetrators to avoid victimization. Furthermore, the ethical complexity deepens when a colleague who initially offered support becomes the perpetrator of workplace bullying, resulting in a particularly traumatic experience for the victim. These ethical issues are not confined to victims; employees enduring workplace bullying may, at times, become perpetrators themselves as a means of escaping their distressing circumstances. They find themselves trapped in a cycle in which aggressors continually manipulate them, reinforcing these behaviors. This cycle creates a gaslighting scenario, characterized by one person instilling self-doubt in another individual’s judgment [24]. Gaslighting is a process that gradually erodes an individual’s self-confidence and can manifest as an isolated incident or as ongoing abuse. It often goes unnoticed by the victim in its early stages and can have severe emotional and cognitive effects as it is designed to assert the perpetrator’s dominance over the victim [25].
Due to the heightened vulnerability of employees in smaller organizational structures to workplace bullying, the ramifications extend beyond the immediate victims [26]. They encompass intricate ethical considerations that impact not only the victims themselves but also their families and coworkers. The emergence of ethical dilemmas from these circumstances can further worsen preexisting physical and psychological health issues, thus amplifying the severity of the health consequences associated with workplace bullying, especially in the specific context of small businesses.
Fourth, methodologies to prevent and address workplace bullying for workers in small businesses will be discussed.
The deontological model of justice (DMJ) explains how people who witness an unjust act against another person are motivated to respond based on their moral judgements [27,28]. In other words, it posits that people with a high moral identity are more likely to be sensitive to injustice and seek to support the victim or confront the perpetrator. In the context of addressing workplace bullying in small businesses, the theoretical framework of the DMJ, which is rooted in the principles of justice and moral identity, can inform a series of strategies aimed at fostering a respectful and equitable work environment [27,28]. A central pillar of this approach involves actively encouraging employees to cultivate a robust moral identity. This entails the promotion of virtues such as fairness, kindness, and empathy [27]. The practical realization of this goal can be achieved through the implementation of structured workplace training programs. These programs serve to not only underscore the importance of adopting a principled stance against workplace bullying, but also to accentuate the significance of ensuring just treatment for all employees.
An ethical organizational culture forms the foundational backdrop. It begins with the establishment of a comprehensive code of conduct that explicitly condemns workplace bullying. In parallel, this code places strong emphasis on the ethical responsibility of each employee to intervene when they observe any form of mistreatment. Essential to the approach are educational and training programs. These programs serve a dual function, raising awareness about workplace bullying and equipping employees with the requisite skills and knowledge to effectively address these issues. Simultaneously, employees are apprised of the organization’s reporting procedures and the moral obligation they carry to respond.
A pivotal component is the empowerment of bystanders. The creation of an environment that actively supports the reporting of bullying incidents is imperative. Bystanders are encouraged to act in accordance with their individual moral values, with readily accessible resources and guidance to facilitate their actions. The establishment of a confidential reporting system is a linchpin in the approach. This system serves to facilitate the reporting of bullying incidents, with the assurance provided to employees that they can report incidents without the fear of retaliation. Furthermore, the approach dictates that these reports be treated with the utmost seriousness and addressed promptly.
Leadership at all levels of the organization plays a pivotal role in shaping the ethical tone of the workplace. Managers and supervisors are called upon to lead by example, upholding values of fairness and kindness. Their commitment to these values serves to set the ethical standard for the entire organization. Ensuring the ongoing effectiveness of anti-bullying measures necessitates regular assessments and adaptations. Periodic reviews are essential to ensure that these strategies remain aligned with the principles of justice and moral identity, and they should be adjusted as required to address the evolving needs and dynamics within the organization.
By adhering to these strategies, which are informed by the provided theoretical framework, small businesses can foster workplace environments that actively discourage workplace bullying while empowering employees to act in accordance with their deeply held moral values. This, in turn, can help to promotes a culture of fairness and justice within the workplace. In addition, this study confirmed that the phenomenon of workplace bullying in small businesses includes individual factors, interpersonal factors, organizational factors, and environmental and social factors. Therefore, it is necessary to approach the problem from a multifaceted perspective rather than a single perspective, and it is necessary to develop interventions based on the ecological model.
5. Conclusions
In conclusion, this study confirmed that workplace bullying in small businesses is a multifaceted issue influenced not only by individual factors but also by family and coworker dynamics, organizational culture, and ethical dilemmas. While models like the DMJ offer valuable insights into understanding and addressing this phenomenon, they only address a portion of the problem and may not provide a complete solution to workplace bullying. Therefore, a comprehensive and ecological approach is imperative to effectively tackle workplace bullying, given its multifaceted nature in small businesses.
Furthermore, while workplace bullying is an essential topic for academic exploration, it also holds implications as a social problem that demands practical solutions. To address the complexities of workplace bullying in small businesses, this study suggests a participatory action research study based on an ecological model as a methodology for the future. Such research has the potential to guide the development of tailored interventions, transcending the intricate factors contributing to workplace bullying and fostering the creation of safer, more inclusive, and more supportive workplaces. This study holds significance as a qualitative exploration of the phenomenon of workplace bullying in small businesses, an area that has received limited research attention. However, it is important to note that generalizing the results of this study may be challenging, as it was conducted among workers in specific small businesses in Korea. Therefore, it is imperative to employ a variety of research techniques, including qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods, in order to thoroughly understand and tackle the issue of workplace bullying in small businesses in the coming years.
Funding
This research was supported by research fund from Honam University in 2021.
Institutional Review Board Statement
This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Honam University (1041223-202306-HR-19).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Table 1.
Core theme and theme clusters in small business workers’ workplace bullying experiences.
| Core Theme | Theme Clusters | Themes | Subthemes |
|---|---|---|---|
| The dimly lit maze of life | Eroding my identity | Stigmatized as incompetent | Blade of the gaze always on me |
| Not given information or work | |||
| Vociferously critiqued in the presence of colleagues | |||
| Discrepancies in financial remuneration compared to peers | |||
| Being gaslighted | Turning from victim to perpetrator of workplace bullying | ||
| Diminished discernment of ethical principles | |||
| Nowhere to turn for help | Nowhere to run to escape | Financial difficulties and mobility constraints | |
| Lack of professionalism and old age | |||
| Limited departmental options | |||
| Absence of breaks and avoiding spaces | |||
| Facing dilemma situations | Ambivalence exhibited by family | ||
| Colleagues who adopt a perpetrating role to avoid becoming victims themselves | |||
| Prioritizing company profits rather than employee well-being |
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Kim, J.A. Bullying Experiences of Workers in Small-Sized Workplaces: A Phenomenological Study. Sustainability 2023, 15, 15436. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152115436
AMA Style
Kim JA. Bullying Experiences of Workers in Small-Sized Workplaces: A Phenomenological Study. Sustainability. 2023; 15(21):15436. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152115436
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Jin Ah. 2023. "Bullying Experiences of Workers in Small-Sized Workplaces: A Phenomenological Study" Sustainability 15, no. 21: 15436. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152115436
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