Metabarcoding Analysis of Microorganisms Inside Household Washing Machines in Shanghai, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Collection and Preprocessing
2.2. Biomass Quantification through Either DNA Extraction or Plate Counting
2.3. Biomass Determination Based on RT-qPCR
2.4. High-Throughput Sequencing
2.5. Confocal Microscopy Approaches to Analyze the Biofilm Matrix
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Microbial Content of Washing Machine Water Samples
3.2. Analysis of Microbiological Composition of Household Washing Machines
3.3. Analysis of Differences in Various Water Samples
3.4. Correlation Analysis of Microbial Communities in Washing Machines
3.5. Function Prediction of the Microbial Communities in Biofilm Samples
3.6. Correlation Analysis of Microbial Communities
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Household Identity | Family Members | Type of WM 2 | Service Life (Years) | Usage Frequency (Per Week) | WM Cleaning Frequency | Type of WM Drum Cleaner | Detergent Soaking Time |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1001 | Couple + 1 child | Drum | 1–3 | 3–5 | 1–3 | Powder | >2 H |
1003 | Couple + parents + 1 child | Drum | 3–5 | 6–7 | 1–3 | Liquid | <30 min |
1005 | Couple | Drum | 3–5 | 3–5 | 1–3 | Powder | >2 H |
1008 | Couple + parents + 1 child | Agitator | 1–3 | 6–7 | <3 | Powder | <30 min |
1010 | Couple + 1 child | Drum | 1–3 | 6–7 | 1–3 | Powder | <30 min |
1011 | Couple + 1 child | Drum | 3–5 | 6–7 | 1–3 | Powder | >2 H |
1012 | Couple + 1 child | Drum | 3–5 | 3–5 | 1–3 | Effervescent tablet | <30 min |
1013 | Couple + parents + 1 child | Drum | 3–5 | 6–7 | 1–3 | Effervescent tablet | <30 min |
1016 | Couple + 1 child | Agitator | 1–3 | 3–5 | <3 | Powder | <30 min |
1017 | Couple + 1 child | Drum | 3–5 | 6–7 | <1 | Powder | <30 min |
1018 | Couple | Agitator | 1–3 | 3–5 | <3 | Powder | <30 min |
1022 | Couple + 1 child | Drum | 3–5 | 3–5 | <1 | Effervescent tablet | <30 min |
1023 | Couple + parents + 1 child | Drum | 1–3 | 2–3 | 1–3 | Effervescent tablet | >2 H |
1025 | Couple + 1 child | Drum | 1–3 | 3–5 | 1–3 | Effervescent tablet | <30 min |
1026 | Couple + 1 child | Drum | 3–5 | 6–7 | 1–3 | Powder | <30 min |
1027 | Couple + parents + 1 child | Drum | 3–5 | 6–7 | 1–3 | Effervescent tablet | >2 H |
1028 | Couple | Drum | 3–5 | 3–5 | 1–3 | Effervescent tablet | <30 min |
1031 | Couple + 1 child | Drum | 5 | 6–7 | <6 | Powder | <30 min |
1032 | Couple + 1 child | Drum | 5 | 6–7 | 3–6 | Effervescent tablet | <30 min |
1033 | Couple | Drum | 3–5 | 2–3 | 1–3 | Powder | <30 min |
1034 | Couple | Drum | 5 | 6–7 | 3–6 | Powder | <30 min |
1036 | Couple | Drum | 5 | 3–5 | <6 | Powder | <30 min |
M1001 | M1003 | M1012 | M1032 | M1033 | M1034 | M1008-5 | M1010-5 | M1011-6 | M1013-5 | M1016-5 | M1017-5 | M1018-6 | M1022-5 | M1025-5 | M1026-5 | M1027-5 | M1028-5 | M1036-5 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
chemoheterotrophy | 38.57 | 34.27 | 21.13 | 25.20 | 30.19 | 29.22 | 21.77 | 34.74 | 29.77 | 23.77 | 25.41 | 30.76 | 34.94 | 16.79 | 29.06 | 32.25 | 32.70 | 25.98 | 21.75 |
aerobic_chemoheterotrophy | 37.80 | 28.60 | 19.77 | 25.01 | 30.04 | 29.09 | 19.13 | 32.46 | 26.46 | 23.58 | 23.90 | 30.19 | 31.87 | 16.34 | 28.66 | 24.31 | 30.79 | 25.39 | 20.12 |
fermentation | 1.02 | 3.83 | 2.86 | 4.78 | 21.12 | 17.13 | 4.32 | 0.94 | 5.99 | 6.85 | 3.42 | 17.72 | 3.77 | 1.76 | 0.18 | 0.30 | 2.81 | 1.37 | 8.78 |
ureolysis | 5.02 | 0.38 | 13.17 | 2.66 | 1.42 | 0.42 | 7.56 | 1.62 | 11.72 | 1.13 | 4.80 | 1.15 | 4.33 | 0.47 | 3.34 | 11.75 | 6.60 | 1.06 | 2.15 |
animal_parasites_or_symbionts | 4.48 | 5.13 | 11.99 | 12.12 | 1.04 | 5.99 | 7.74 | 3.73 | 8.46 | 12.37 | 3.24 | 3.30 | 2.19 | 3.76 | 4.38 | 4.40 | 4.42 | 0.94 | 1.33 |
human_pathogens_all | 4.47 | 5.12 | 11.97 | 12.12 | 1.04 | 5.99 | 7.65 | 3.72 | 8.46 | 12.37 | 3.24 | 3.30 | 2.08 | 3.57 | 4.38 | 4.40 | 4.42 | 0.93 | 1.33 |
nitrate_reduction | 1.16 | 1.45 | 1.08 | 1.00 | 1.27 | 2.40 | 2.73 | 0.73 | 0.08 | 2.27 | 2.96 | 3.14 | 1.58 | 5.03 | 10.03 | 1.62 | 0.90 | 4.60 | 3.75 |
aromatic_compound_degradation | 0.09 | 5.51 | 0.10 | 9.21 | 0.28 | 3.90 | 3.32 | 1.36 | 0.04 | 9.36 | 0.44 | 0.61 | 1.14 | 3.96 | 0.57 | 0.72 | 4.31 | 3.22 | 1.33 |
methylotrophy | 0.81 | 0.04 | 2.27 | 0.31 | 1.26 | 0.04 | 3.73 | 0.59 | 3.36 | 0.24 | 4.26 | 0.51 | 3.76 | 4.70 | 0.72 | 7.44 | 2.12 | 3.49 | 4.47 |
methanol_oxidation | 0.81 | 0.04 | 2.27 | 0.31 | 1.26 | 0.04 | 3.73 | 0.59 | 3.36 | 0.24 | 4.26 | 0.51 | 3.76 | 4.70 | 0.72 | 7.44 | 2.12 | 3.49 | 4.47 |
Other | 5.75 | 15.64 | 13.38 | 7.28 | 11.08 | 5.78 | 18.31 | 19.53 | 2.31 | 7.82 | 24.06 | 8.82 | 10.58 | 38.92 | 17.95 | 5.38 | 8.79 | 29.53 | 30.52 |
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Chen, T.; Zhang, S.; Yang, J.; Li, Y.; Kogure, E.; Zhu, Y.; Xiong, W.; Chen, E.; Shi, G. Metabarcoding Analysis of Microorganisms Inside Household Washing Machines in Shanghai, China. Microorganisms 2024, 12, 160. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12010160
Chen T, Zhang S, Yang J, Li Y, Kogure E, Zhu Y, Xiong W, Chen E, Shi G. Metabarcoding Analysis of Microorganisms Inside Household Washing Machines in Shanghai, China. Microorganisms. 2024; 12(1):160. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12010160
Chicago/Turabian StyleChen, Tong, Shu Zhang, Juan Yang, Youran Li, Eiichi Kogure, Ye Zhu, Weiqi Xiong, Enhui Chen, and Guiyang Shi. 2024. "Metabarcoding Analysis of Microorganisms Inside Household Washing Machines in Shanghai, China" Microorganisms 12, no. 1: 160. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12010160