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Review

Classification of Degradable Mulch Films and Their Promotional Effects and Limitations on Agricultural Production

by
Zhiwen Song
1,†,
Lei Zhao
1,†,
Junguo Bi
2,
Qingyun Tang
1,
Guodong Wang
3,* and
Yuxiang Li
1,*
1
Key Laboratory of Oasis Ecological Agriculture, College of Agriculture, Shihezi University/Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, Shihezi 832003, China
2
Shanghai Agrobiological Gene Center, Shanghai 201106, China
3
Key Laboratory of Water–Saving Agriculture in Northwest Oasis/Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Water and Fertilizer Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Reclamation Sciences, Shihezi 832000, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Agriculture 2024, 14(8), 1235; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081235 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 5 May 2024 / Revised: 17 July 2024 / Accepted: 20 July 2024 / Published: 26 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Film mulching technology has greatly improved the efficiency of agricultural production. However, it also causes environmental problems such as soil contamination. Biodegradable mulch films, which represent environmentally friendly alternatives, present different characteristics depending on regional differences and crop growth differences. This review was based on the literature and data collected from databases such as the Web of Science. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the development, types and degradation characteristics of biodegradable mulch films. The following conclusions are presented: (1) Applying biodegradable mulch films can conserve water, maintain the soil temperature, improve soil nutrition, increase the soil respiration rate, and promote soil microbial activity. (2) Biodegradable mulch films promote crop root system development, suppress weeds, shorten the crop growth cycle, improve crop emergence rates, and expand the planting range of crops. (3) At present, the incomplete degradability of biodegradable mulch films, their relatively high cost and the potential harm to soil from their degradation products still limit their widespread use in agricultural production. The aim of this study is to provide a reference for future research and for the application of biodegradable mulch films in the hope of promoting their role in the sustainable development of agriculture.

1. Introduction

Mulching technology, with its ability to increase soil temperature and water content, enhance water preservation, promote root growth, increase crop yield, suppress surface weeds, and expand planting areas, has become a widely used material applied after seeding, fertilization, and pesticide application in agricultural production. It is one of the key technologies used to protect agricultural production [1,2,3]. At present, the global consumption of mulch film is approximately 2 million tons. In the past decade, the use of mulch film has increased at a rate of 10–20% per year, with the Far East region (especially China, Japan, and India) accounting for nearly 80% of the world’s area covered by mulch film and with the Mediterranean basin accounting for approximately 15% of the world’s greenhouse coverage [4]. However, the extensive use of mulch film has also caused environmental pollution issues, including the accumulation of residual film in the soil tillage layer, which hinders the transport of soil water and nutrients, affects the physical and chemical properties of the soil, and even causes “white pollution” in severe cases; notably, these nondegradable mulch films, when deposited in landfills or incinerated, still cause more environmental pollution [2]. Since 1990, organizations such as the American Plastics Council (APC) have invested more than 1 billion US dollars to support the recycling of residual film, but the increasing use of mulch film continues to increase the amount of residual film in the field. Research has shown that when the accumulation of plastic residue in soil exceeds 240 kg·ha−1, crop yield and soil water use efficiency are significantly reduced [5], but some studies have reported that the peak weight of residual plastic film in fields can reach 317.4 kg·ha−1 [6]. Therefore, finding alternatives to mulch film to alleviate “white pollution” is imperative.
To solve the “white pollution” problem, people have started to look for new alternative mulch coverings to replace mulch films. According to EN 17033, degradable mulch films are considered degradable in the field via nonbiological factors such as sunlight, temperature, and pH, as well as via biological factors such as microorganisms, with the ultimate products being water, carbon dioxide, and other new biomass [7]. Degradable mulch films not only promote the growth and development of crops but also reduce soil pollution and have become a primary method for solving the problem of “white pollution” [8]. The effectiveness and applicability of biodegradable mulch film are influenced by various factors, including regional climate conditions, crop types, and material characteristics; for example, mulch film in the high-temperature environment of India is used mainly to reduce water evaporation, whereas in some arid and cold areas in southwestern China, mulch film is used to increase the soil temperature to ensure the normal maturation of crops. Moreover, the growth period of early maturing corn is only 70–90 days, whereas grapes require more than 2 years to mature, and the degradation rate of PBAT mulch film in the field is lower than that of PHA mulch film [9]. Therefore, single-factor experiments cannot be used for objective evaluation of these mulch films, and more systematic and comprehensive studies are needed in this field. This paper summarizes the development and application status of biodegradable mulch films, reviews the relevant literature in the field of biodegradable mulch films, outlines the current development status of the field, and explores the role of biodegradable mulch films in promoting the soil environment and crop growth, as well as the potential hazards to the soil and the shortcomings in degradation performance, aiming to provide a reference for the sustainable development of biodegradable mulch films in future agricultural production.

2. Methods

During the literature search, we carefully selected keywords such as “film covering”, “biodegradable mulch film”, “agricultural production”, “crops”, “yield”, “classification”, “soil”, “moisture”, “temperature”, and “soil microorganisms” and conducted thorough searches in databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, MDPI, Cambridge Journal, Taylor & Francis, Science Direct, Springer, Annual Reviews, Agricola, Google Scholar, and CNKI. We ensured that the retrieved papers were published within the past 50 years. To improve the reproducibility of our study, we clearly defined the inclusion and exclusion criteria: we included only empirical and quantitative studies, excluding articles not published in Chinese or English, review articles, editorials, conference abstracts, and non-peer-reviewed publications. Preliminary screening was based on titles and abstracts, followed by a full-text review of the potentially eligible literature. We focused on the research design, experimental methods, main findings, and impacts on soil conditions and crop growth. Furthermore, we conducted a quality assessment of the included literature, as discussed in the relevant sections of the manuscript.

3. Overview of the Development of Degradable Mulch Films

Mulch film is used in agriculture and was first developed by scientists in Britain and Japan in the 1950s. In 1963, cotton was cultivated with mulch film in the American state of Arizona, and the increase in cotton production was significant. In the 1970s, Shoichi Ishimoto introduced film mulching technology to China, leading to a white revolution in promoting China’s agricultural development [10,11,12]. China has become the largest consumer of mulch films in the world, accounting for 60–80% of the total global consumption [13,14,15]. Despite their consumption peaking in 2016 (1.470 million tons), 1.379 million tons of mulch films were consumed in 2019 [16]. While the white revolution has contributed to development, it has led to white pollution [17,18,19]. Polyethylene (PE) is derived mainly from compounds such as petroleum [20], and its hydrophobicity and difficult-to-break carbon–carbon (C–C) bonds increase the probability of forming residual films and microplastics in the field, thereby polluting soil and affecting crop growth [21,22]. According to statistics, the total amount of residual mulch film in China’s farmlands has reached 2 × 106 tons, and the issue of mulch film pollution has gradually received systematic attention. To solve the problem of “white pollution”, researchers have proposed various technical methods, such as residual film recycling, straw mulching, hydromulch, paper mulching, and degradable plastic film [23,24]. However, residual film recycling is challenging because of the inefficient mechanization rate and soil pollution from plastic film adhering to the soil [25,26]. Straw mulching is associated with problems such as a slow degradation rate and pests and diseases. Hydromulching and paper mulching are associated with problems such as irrigation costs, nutrient loss and insufficient durability. Degradable plastic film, which is a derivative of regular plastic film, has become a practical solution to the problem of “white pollution” [8,13].
In the 1970s, the British scientist Griffin was the first to introduce the concept of biodegradable plastics [27]. Currently, according to ASTM D883-22 and GB/T 20197-2006, degradable mulch films are defined as mulch films that undergo significant structural changes in a specific spatiotemporal environment through one or more steps, and their changes can be detected [28,29]. The degradation of such films is related mainly to abiotic and biotic factors (Figure 1) [4,30]. Abiotic factors include soil temperature and pH. For example, degradable mulch films have a higher degradation rate in summer than in winter, and they are prone to oxidation and degradation under alkaline conditions [30,31]. Biotic factors are related to microorganisms enriched on the surfaces of mulch films via three steps: degradation, cracking, and mineralization [32]. Biodegradation refers to changes in the physical and chemical properties of plastic films caused by microbial aggregation, UV radiation, surface oxidation, embrittlement, etc. Cracking refers to the hydrolysis and breakage of ester bonds to form oligomers or monomers [33], which are completely biodegraded by aerobic microorganisms into CO2 and H2O or transformed by anaerobic microorganisms into CO2, CH4, and other small molecules [34,35]. Mineralization is the process by which microorganisms absorb the necessary energy and carbon molecules from the abovementioned processes, release CO2 and H2O and produce new biomass.

3.1. Classification of Degradable Mulch Films

Currently, there are three main types of degradable mulch: photooxidative degradable, photo/oxidative biodegradable, and biodegradable mulch [36]. The photooxidative degradable mulch film is made by adding photosensitizers and oxidation catalysts to polyethylene, which undergoes photooxidative reactions under ultraviolet irradiation to achieve degradation. However, the degradation process stops once the film is buried, leading to a significant amount of residual film remaining in the soil. In recent years, photooxidative degradable mulch film has been banned in Europe [37]. Photo/oxidative-biodegradable mulch films are blends of biodegradable materials with photosensitizers and oxidation catalysts that are capable of undergoing both photooxidative degradation and biodegradation, resulting in increased degradation efficiency. However, the cost of these films is greater than that of biodegradable mulch films, which is why they have not been widely promoted. Biodegradable mulch films contain organic carbon that can be degraded by soil microorganisms, such as bacteria and mold, under natural conditions, indicating their broad market potential [7,38]. In general, biodegradable mulch films can be divided into two types: partially biodegradable and completely biodegradable. Partially biodegradable mulch films are usually made by mixing and modifying polymers and degradable materials, with blending with starch and cellulose serving as foci of research and development. Completely biodegradable mulch films are polymers containing ester bonds or polysaccharides that are further divided into natural polymers, chemically synthesized polymers, and microbially synthesized polymers [39,40,41]. Microbially synthesized polymers include polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), and polybutylene succinate (PBS) (Table 1). Chemically synthesized polymers are made by adding artificial chemical additives that can be decomposed by microorganisms. Examples of such polymers include polypropylene carbonate (PPC), polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and polycaprolactone (PCL). Natural polymers include starch-and cellulose-based materials [42,43]. Importantly, the complete biodegradation of mulch films is contingent upon specific environmental conditions. Adverse conditions, such as increased rainfall, can accelerate the induction of biodegradation and the start of film-free periods by 3–7 days and 11–17 days, respectively, for PBAT, PPC, and PCO2 mulch films. In contrast, under aerobic conditions, PBS films have a 31% degradation rate within 80 days, whereas under anaerobic conditions, no degradation occurs within 100 days [44]. These conditions may significantly reduce the degradation rate or even halt the process altogether.
According to statistics, China, Germany, Thailand, and Italy are the primary users of biodegradable mulch films. China has popularized biodegradable films across approximately 100,000 hectares of land. Additionally, 10% of the biodegradable plastics in Japan and Europe are utilized in the production of base mulch films. The primary crops to which biodegradable mulch films are applied are corn, cotton, potatoes, tomatoes, and taro (Table 2) [45]. At present, Novamont in Italy; BASF in Germany; and BioBag, Biolegeen, and Organix Solutions in the United States are the main manufacturers of degradable mulch films, which primarily produce materials such as PBAT, PLA, PPC, PBS, and PCL [46,47]. Among these films, PBAT and PLA are the most widely used types on the market, accounting for 38.1% of the global production of biodegradable mulch films in 2021 [48,49].
Table 2. Some degradable mulch film materials and their degradation properties.
Table 2. Some degradable mulch film materials and their degradation properties.
Mulch Film TypeMaterial CompositionCorpDegradation PropertiesReferences
Dual-layered biodegradable filmPHA + PCLRice50% degradation in 35 days[2]
Add additives to degrade filmPE + Degradation
additives		Maize37.4% degradation during the growth period[50]
Mater-BiPLA + StarchTomato98% degradation in 730 days[51]
Oxygenated biodegradable membranePE + Oxygen biodegradation
additives		Peanut25% of the cracks appear to maturity[52]
Plant fiber-based degradable filmPVA + Cellulose—79.2% degradation in 30 days[53]
CellulosePumpkin85% degradation in 126 days[54]
Starch-based biodegradable filmPCL/Starch (50%/40%)Maize—[55]
PCL/Starch (50%/30%)Maize—[56]
PCL/Starch (62%/30%)Maize90–100 days to take stage V[57]
PBATTomato50% degradation in 100 days[58]
TaroGrade VI degradation in 118 days[59]
Melon86.08% weight loss after 240 days[60]
PLAOatsDegradation occurs after 70 days[61]
PBSASugarcane38.14%–73.84% weight loss after 330 days[62]
WheatComplete degradation occurs after 135 days[63]
PPCTaro130 days to take stage VI[59]
Peanut90% degradation in 120 days[64]
PCO2TaroSmaller degradation rate than PBAT and PPC[59]
Mixed biodegradable filmPBAT + PLAPotato150 days to take stage III[12]
Millet33.6% degradation in 150 days[65]
PBAT/PLA +
PPC		Potato27%–41% weight loss in 120 days[5]
PBAT/PLA +
MCPA-PHBV		——[66]
The Roman numerals represent the stages of degradation that the biodegradable mulch film undergoes, the specifics of which are detailed in Table 3. MCPA-PHBV: Methyl 3-chloropropionate-co-poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate).
Table 3. Classification of the field degradation stage and effective life of biodegradable plastic films.
Table 3. Classification of the field degradation stage and effective life of biodegradable plastic films.
Field Degradation Stage Division of Degradable Plastic FilmEffective Life Grading of Biodegradable Plastic Films
GradeEffective Service Life (d)Degradation StageField Performance
I≤60IThe stage from the beginning of mulching to
the appearance of cracks in the mulch
II>60–≤90IIThe stage where 25% of the plastic film
has small cracks
III>90–≤120IIIThe stage when 2~2.5 cm cracks appear
in the plastic film
IV>120IVThe stage when uniform network cracks
appear in the mulch film
VThe stage where there is no large piece
of mulch in the field
VIThe stage where the plastic film fragments
are not visible on the surface
For the classification of the effective life of biodegradable plastic films, please refer to Liu et al. [67] and Guo et al. [68].

3.2. Degradation Properties of Degradable Mulch Films

Degradation properties, including mechanical properties, integrity duration, and degradation rate, are important indicators for evaluating degradable mulch films, which must initially remain intact during the crop growth period and subsequently degrade rapidly [44,46]. Mechanical properties, including tensile strength and elongation at break, result from molecular changes inside a material. The duration of mulch film integrity needs to be determined according to the growth cycle of the crop (e.g., the cauliflower growth period is 60 days, while grape production takes more than 2 years) and the mulching purpose to ensure that the mulch film is suitable throughout the growing season [69,70]. The degradation rate determines their application value in agriculture (Table 3) [67,68]. Mulch film thickness and material properties are two limiting factors that determine the degradation properties of degradable mulch films. Wang et al. [71] reported that the degradation properties of 0.012 mm thick degradable mulch films are inferior to those of 0.008 and 0.010 mm thick mulch films. Uzamurera et al. [72] reported that the weight loss rate of a 0.010 mm thick degradable mulch film was greater than that of a 0.016 mm thick mulch film. In terms of material properties, Li et al. [51] reported that the degradation rates of the films decreased in the following order: starch > cellulose > PHA > PBAT > PLA. Chen et al. [73] reported that the elongation at break of PLA mulch films is much lower than that of PE mulch films. Yang et al. [65] reported that the mechanical properties of degradable plastic films such as PBAT and PLA were stronger than those of PE in the early stage of mulching, but over time, the mechanical properties of these degradable mulch films began to decline to varying degrees.
With the advancement of technology, researchers are no longer pursuing a single material or thickness; instead, they blend materials with strong mechanical and degradation properties to compensate for their deficiencies (Table 2) [73]. Considering PLA as an example, even though this polymer can be blended with flexible polymers, such as polyurethane (PU), PBAT, and PCL (Table 2), the good complementarity of PLA and PBAT makes PLA-PBAT the most preferential blend among these options [74]. Dong et al. [48] reported that the addition of chain extenders to PLA-PBAT copolymers can increase the elongation at break by 500% without decreasing the tensile strength. Moreover, the addition of 6% acetylated cellulose nanocrystals to PLA increases the tensile strength by 61.3%, ensuring its integrity at the early stage of mulching [75]. Therefore, when preparing degradable mulch films, it is necessary to fully consider the trade-offs between mulch film thickness and material properties to balance the relationship between the duration of mulch film integrity and the rate of degradation.

4. Effects of Degradable Mulch Films on Agricultural Production

4.1. Degradable Mulch Film Increases Crop Yield

Yield is the direct goal of agricultural production, and the process of crop formation involves material accumulation and distribution. Dilibaier et al. [76] reported that, compared with conventional plastic mulch films, PBAT + PLA can result in greater maize plant heights. Abduwaiti et al. [77] reported that in comparison with PE, the use of PBAT mulch films led to a 6% increase in the yield of processed tomatoes in Xinjiang, China. Moreover, the degradation rates of degradable mulch films affect the growth and development of crops. Degradation properties directly affect the temperature increase and moisture retention of crops and thus impact crop growth and yield. Song et al. [52] reported that biodegradable mulch films with slower degradation rates (e.g., PE + oxo-biodegradable additives) enable more organic matter to accumulate, and their yield is also greater than that of mulch films with faster degradation rates (e.g., PLA and starch-based monolayer films).
Film mulching promotes crop growth and increases crop yield by providing a suitable microenvironment [78] (e.g., white starch-based degrading films can increase soil moisture under drought conditions, whereas white PPC or PCO2 mulch films can suppress weeds and increase the soil temperature in relatively humid environments [50,55]). Studies have shown that compared with bare land, degradable mulch films generally increase crop yield, with average increases ranging from 10% to 30%. However, a comparison of degradable mulch film with PE revealed some differences. Wang et al. [58] and Wang et al. [71] reported that the yields of crops under degradable mulch films are generally lower than those under conventional plastic mulch films. Conversely, Cozzolino et al. [79], Morra et al. [80], and Abduwaiti et al. [77] reported that yields of crops under degradable mulch films (PBAT, starch, PLA, etc.) are greater than those under conventional plastic mulch films (Table 4). However, these studies all focused on crops planted in horticultural vegetables, and few relevant studies have reported higher yields of food crops under biodegradable mulch films than under conventional plastic mulch films. Therefore, compared with bare land, degradable mulch films promote crop growth and increase crop yield. There are differences in the effects of degradable and conventional plastic mulch films on yield among crops.

4.2. Effects of Degradable Mulch Films on Environmental Factors, Such as Water and Heat Fluxes, in Soil

Suitable soil temperature and sufficient soil moisture are essential for crop growth. Studies have shown that the water-saving and heat-insulating mechanisms of degradable mulch films are similar to those of conventional plastic mulch films; both rely on their water impermeability to reduce evaporation, collect precipitation, and block heat exchange between the atmosphere and soil. Sun et al. [82] and Jia et al. [84] reported that mulching with PBAT or EBP mulch films can increase the temperature of the tillage layer at depths of 5–25 cm and reduce the water consumption level during the cotton seedling stage by 30.7–36.8% [85]. Jia et al. [85] and Li et al. [86] reported that the soil temperature and moisture content of PBAT or EBP are 1.5% and 9.53% greater than those of bare land, respectively. In addition, Liu et al. [87] reported that water consumption in the 0–60 cm soil layer under white oxidatively degradable mulch films (PE + eco-biodegradable plastic masterbatch) was greater than that under black biodegradable mulch films, which may be related to the low light transmittance of black mulch films slowing the rate of the corresponding temperature increase.
The integrity of mulch films influences their temperature increase and moisture retention. The degradation rate of degradable mulch films is generally faster than that of PE mulch films. As mulch films crack, their ability to block water begins to weaken; hence, their moisture retention performance starts to decline [88]. Chen et al. [89] reported that the evaporation of soil moisture under biodegradable mulch films is 30.5% greater than that under conventional plastic mulch films. However, some studies have shown that for crops with short life cycles, biodegradable mulch films increase the temperature and retain more moisture than traditional plastic mulch films do. Considering sugar beet as an example, Wang et al. [90] reported that the average soil temperature of beets mulched with PBAT degradable mulch films is greater than that of beets mulched with plastic films. This phenomenon may be related to the short growth cycle of sugar beet and the fact that degradable mulch films remain intact even at maturity. Therefore, when degradable mulch films are used, the relationships among film color, crop growth period, and mulch film degradation cycling should be fully considered to maximize the temperature increase and moisture retention capabilities of degradable mulch films.

4.3. Degradable Mulch Films Improve Soil Nutrients and Their Availability

The degradation of biodegradable plastic film increases water vapor in soil aggregates, accelerates the decomposition of soil organic matter, improves soil nutrient availability, and prevents nutrient loss [91]. Studies have shown that organic carbon molecules rich in degradable mulch films can increase the soil carbon (C)-to-nitrogen (N) ratio, which is beneficial for the balance of soil organic C and total N [92]. Moreover, increases in soil moisture and temperature are conducive to maintaining soil looseness, thereby reducing contact with the external environment and increasing fertilizer use efficiency [93]. Zhou et al. [56] reported that after mulching with starch + PCL films, the soil nitrate content significantly increased, which improved the N use efficiency of crops, with the 2-year average N uptake being 8.67% to 12.86% greater than that for bare land. Compared with those of conventional plastic mulch films, the abilities of degradable mulch films to retain heat and increase moisture in the late stage of crop growth decrease, thus reducing the mineralization of organic matter, the capacity for N leaching, and the risk of soil nitrate-N leaching while indirectly increasing fertilizer use efficiency [94]. Yin et al. [8], in a three-year location test on maize, reported that the organic nitrogen content in the 30 cm soil layer under starch + PCL mulch film was 11.49% greater than that under PE film. Therefore, degradable mulch films can increase soil surface nutrients, improve soil fertility, increase fertilizer use efficiency and, in specific regions, are superior to conventional plastic mulch films.

4.4. Degradable Mulch Films Increasing Soil Microbial Activity and Abundance

Soil microbes are very sensitive to the environment. Film mulching can provide a relatively stable microenvironment for soil, which can increase the abundance of bacteria, such as monas, Actinomyces, Nitrospirae, and α-proteobacteria. These microbial communities are important for disease suppression, N fixation, and soil nitrification promotion [95]. In addition to increasing the abundance of microbial communities [96], degradable mulch films, which are rich in their own macromolecules, enter the soil as a carbon source during degradation and thus affect microbial communities [5,97]. When measuring the abundance of nitrifying bacteria, Xue et al. [95] reported that black or white starch-based mulch films with a thickness of 0.008 mm selectively increase the abundance levels of nxrA and nxrB, thus promoting fixation and affecting the level of soil N. Soil microbial biomass reflects the nutrient cycling of microorganisms during reproduction and death and indirectly reflects soil microbial activity. Feng [98] reported that the C contents of soil microbial biomass during the seedling and jointing stages of maize mulched with biodegradable films increased by 23.44% and 13.06%, respectively, compared with those in bare land.
Soil respiration and soil enzyme activity indirectly reflect soil microbial activity. With increasing temperature, degradable mulch films affect soil microbial activity by increasing the microbial respiration rate. Wang et al. [99] reported that the degradation products of PBAT mulch films with thicknesses ranging from 0.01 to 0.012 mm are noteworthy causes of increased soil respiration rates. For example, D-3-hydroxybutyrate, which is produced from the decomposition of PHA films, promotes the growth of microorganisms and increases the soil enzyme content, thereby increasing the rate of soil respiration [100]. Mu et al. [101] reported that, compared with conventional plastic mulch films, white or black CO2-based degradable mulch films significantly increase soil catalase activity. Studies have shown that degradable films can minimize phthalate plasticizer contents [100], thereby increasing soil enzyme activity and microbial diversity.

4.5. Degradable Mulch Films Promote Crop Emergence and Shorten the Crop Growing Season

Both seed germination and seedling growth are affected by soil temperature. Film mulching can significantly increase the soil temperature, enabling early crop germination and rapid seedling emergence to ensure uniform seedling growth [102]. Dilibaier et al. [76] reported that under PBAT + PLA/PBS mulch films, the seedling, jointing, tasseling and maturity stages of maize occur 4, 3, 7 and 8 days earlier than those under conventional plastic mulch films, respectively. Film mulching enables crops to enter critical growth stages earlier, prolongs the growth time of vegetative organs, and allows an increase in crop yield. For example, degradable mulch films promote the growth of cotton, prolong the cotton flowering and boll-setting stages, and increase cotton yield [102]. Zhao et al. [85] reported that PBAT + PLA mulch films enable cotton to enter the boll-opening stage earlier, thereby significantly increasing the pre-frost flowering rate and laying the foundation for increasing the yield. In addition, the presence of large residual film fragments in the soil tillage layer can lead to difficulties for seeds in terms of water absorption, germination, or emergence after germination, whereas degradable plastic film fragments in the soil may reduce these issues.

4.6. Degradable Mulch Film Can Promote Root Growth in Crops and Increase Root Biomass

Like conventional plastic mulch films, degradable mulch films increase root activity by increasing the water availability and temperature of the crop root system and by promoting root penetration, thereby increasing crop root density, volume, surface area, and root tip number [103]. Mu et al. [101] reported that, compared with conventional plastic mulch films, degradable mulch films can significantly increase root growth. Gu et al. [104] reported that treatment with degradable mulch films is conducive to the tap root penetration of rapeseed, and the mass densities of lateral roots in the 20–30 cm deep soil layer during the maturity stage are significantly greater than those under conventional plastic mulch films (18–26 g·m−3). Zhou et al. [105] similarly reported that the root length density in the 0–100 cm deep soil layer under PLA (50%) + starch (30%) mulch films increased by 16.92% compared with that without film mulching. A high root number and density can further increase the water and nutrient uptake capacities of crops in the soil, hence promoting crop growth.
In some regions, conventional plastic mulch films may lead to overly high soil temperatures, leading to an increase in the number of soil pests and problems such as root shrinkage and rot. Conversely, as biodegradable mulch film degrades in the field at the later stages of crop growth, the area of contact surface between the soil and the external environment increases, thereby reducing potential issues, such as the corrosion of crop root systems via root–rot bacteria and the presence of microorganisms in the soil resulting from excessive soil surface moisture, thereby reducing root shrinkage and rot in crops [106]. Fang et al. [55] reported that compared with conventional plastic mulch films, PCL (50%) + starch (40%) mulch films increased the level of maize root-bleeding sap (RBS) per unit area, increased root weight, and improved the ability of crops to absorb water and nutrients. Zhang et al. [107] reported that, compared with paper-based degradable mulch films, conventional plastic mulch films reduce root biomass by 31.1%. In addition, some research has suggested that biodegradable mulch films can enhance crop lodging resistance, but related research is limited, and further studies concerning this point of view can be performed in the future.

4.7. Degradable Mulch Films Reduce Weed Growth in the Field

Owing to the low light transmittance and mechanical obstruction of mulch films, film mulching can effectively suppress the growth of weeds [108]. Currently, white and black are the colors most widely used for degradable mulch films. White mulch films have good moisture retention and temperature increase effects but weak weed controllability, whereas black mulch films have a light transmittance of less than 10% and good moisture retention and weed controllability [4]. In addition to film color, the mechanical properties determine the weed control effect of mulch films. Moore et al. [109] reported that, compared with biodegradable PBAT + PLA and PHA films, paper mulch provided superior weed suppression for pepper cultivation. This enhanced weed control is attributed primarily to the superior mechanical properties of the paper mulch during the initial phase of residue, which effectively inhibits weed growth. Furthermore, the addition of weed-suppressing chemical molecules has good effects on weed control. PLA-PBAT has excellent blending ability. By creating the weed-suppressing compound MCPA-PHBV, the degradable mulch film produced after application can release herbicides into the field to suppress broad-leaved weeds [66]. Wang et al. [110] obtained similar results by mixing herbicides with PVA. Overall, degradable mulch films have a good ability to control weeds, but different film colors and degradation rates lead to distinct degradation effects.

5. Limitations of Degradable Mulch Films in Agricultural Production

5.1. The Influence of Environmental Factors on the Effectiveness of Biodegradable Mulch Film Coverage

The EN 17033 standard stipulates that biodegradable mulch films must achieve at least 90% degradation under environmental soil conditions within 2 years. However, the degradation of biodegradable mulch films in the field is a complex process, and various external environmental factors, such as ultraviolet radiation, temperature, humidity, and soil characteristics, affect the degradation of mulch films. First, ultraviolet light from the sun affects the degradability of biodegradable mulch films. Taking PLA and PBAT as examples, the ultraviolet light absorption groups within them (such as carbonyl groups and double bonds) can accelerate the breakage of polymer chains and accelerate degradation when they absorb ultraviolet light [111]. Touchaleaume et al. [112] reported that the internal structures of PBAT/PLA, PBAT/PPC, and PBAT/starch significantly changed under ultraviolet irradiation. In addition, the degree of weathering also affects the degradation rate of mulch film. During tests with PLA/PHA, Anunciado et al. [113] reported that the degradation rates of weathered and unweathered mulch covers were 76% and 38%, respectively.
The environmental temperature and humidity also influence the effectiveness of biodegradable mulch film coverage. Studies have shown that high temperatures can promote the ageing of high-molecular-weight polymeric materials within biodegradable mulch films, accelerating their degradation [114]. Moreover, environmental humidity can impact the degradation of water-soluble degradable polymers (such as those in starch-based biodegradable mulch films). For example, under 98% humidity, 75% of the ester bonds in PLA undergo hydrolysis within 130 days, and when the environmental temperature increases from 5 °C to 25 °C, the water absorption rate of PLA increases significantly from 7 g/100 g to 86 g/100 g, indicating a marked increase in the degradation rate [114].
Soil properties also affect the degradation of mulch film. Han et al. [115] reported that after placing PBAT in different soils for 120 days, the mineralization levels were 16%, 9%, 0.3%, and 0.9%, respectively, mainly because of differences in microbial communities and hydrolytic enzyme activity. In addition, soil texture can influence degradability. In sandy soils with lower water retention, soil moisture can be evaporated by high external temperatures. In such cases, biodegradable mulch films with low gas permeability should be used to reduce soil moisture evaporation. In contrast, in clay soils with greater water retention, biodegradable mulch films with strong mechanical properties should be used to suppress weeds [33].

5.2. Material Properties and Pricing Limit the Development of Biodegradable Mulch Films

Nondegradable films such as PE are known for their stability, and their use generally does not account for differences in the environment or region. In contrast, there is a wide variety of biodegradable materials, each with distinct characteristics. For example, PBAT is heat resistant with good ductility but poor tensile strength, whereas PLA has high strength but poor ductility (Table 1). Therefore, different biodegradable materials must be used selectively on the basis of the crops being grown and the regional environment, which increases the cost of using biodegradable mulch films. Although the production cost of materials such as PBAT has approached that of PLA (Table 5), the inherent properties of biodegradable mulch films require them to be stored in warehouses that are cool, shady, ventilated, and away from light after production, increasing the cost of use. This results in the current market price of biodegradable mulch films being higher than that of PE [116]. Ming et al. [117] noted that the cost of plant fiber mulch films is USD 517·ha−1, which is three times greater than that of ordinary mulch films. Bo et al. [118] suggested that the cost of biodegradable mulch films should be less than 1.37 times greater than that of ordinary mulch films to achieve an overall benefit. Therefore, in addition to demonstration farms operated by the government, few farmers are willing to use biodegradable mulch films voluntarily [119].

5.3. Harm of Degradable Mulch Films to Soil

5.3.1. Harm to Soil from Incomplete Degradation

In contrast, owing to the difficulty in balancing the relationship between the duration of integrity and the degradation properties of mulch films, most degradable mulch films fail to achieve ideal degradation effects (Table 2). Song et al. [52] reported that only 25% of oxo-biodegradable mulch films (made of PE and pro-oxidant additives, which can be degraded by microorganisms) exhibit fine cracks during the peanut growing season. Sintim et al. [54] reported that biodegradable mulch films applied in the United States of Tennessee and Washington have degradation rates ranging from 61 to 83% and 26 to 63%, respectively, after 36 months. Griffin-LaHue et al. [120] reported that it took 21–58 months for partially biodegradable mulch films to achieve a degradation rate of 90%. The reason for this phenomenon is related to the choice of materials. For example, cellulose has a greater degree of degradation than polyester-based degradable mulch films in soil. Paper mulch films can be completely degraded within 12 months, whereas PBAT and other materials take more time to degrade. Wang et al. [59] reported that the degradation rates of materials decreased in the order of PBAT > PPC > PCO2. Since land that is currently arable generally does not have a fallow period, these incompletely degraded film residues are usually ploughed and buried in the soil, where microorganisms colonize rough surfaces. This colony affects soil moisture movement, causes soil salinization, and serves as a carrier for heavy metals and organic pollutants, thereby affecting the reproduction of Caenorhabditis elegans, harming invertebrates, including earthworms, and polluting the soil environment [121,122].
In addition, partially degradable mulch films are made by blending PE with additives for degradation. After the degradation of the additives, nondegradable PE molecules directly form microplastics in the soil, and the residual mulch films cannot be recovered. Therefore, the amount of microplastics eventually incorporated into the soil is even greater than that for conventional plastic mulch films [123]. Yang et al. [124] reported that under certain conditions, 163 and 147 microplastics are released per unit area from conventional plastic mulch films within the depth range of 0.02–0.10 mm, whereas 475 microplastics are released from degradable mulch films.

5.3.2. Harmful Effects of Degradation Products on Soil

Despite the positive effects of degradable mulch films on soil nutrients and microorganisms, products of partially degradable mulch films are ecotoxic and can harm the soil microenvironment. Ma et al. [125] reported that terephthalic acid (TPA), an intermediate product of PBAT degradation, is a toxic molecule that can persist in soil for more than 180 days, reducing the soil pH from 8.30 to 7.84 and decreasing the number of soil microbial communities. Cai et al. [126] reported that 2,6-diisopropylaniline (2,6-DIPA), an organic additive in PBAT degradable films, may pollute water bodies and be toxic to fish. Moreover, it is easily adsorbed by soil and resistant to biological degradation, which could affect microbial activity and thereby impact the soil environment. Li et al. [127] reported that during the degradation of biodegradable mulch films, phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are released, which disrupt the soil environment and decrease crop yields. The degradation of biodegradable mulch films relies on the enrichment of microorganisms, including soil-harming microorganisms, such as saprophytic fungi (e.g., Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium species). Some of these fungi produce toxins such as aflatoxin, fumonisin, zearalenone, and ochratoxin [128]. Moore et al. [128] isolated soil-polluting Aspergillus and Fusarium from biodegradable mulch films. Balestri et al. [129] reported that the extract of Mater-Bi, which acts as a colonizer of aflatoxin, affects the radicle growth of plants, such as cress.
In addition to polluting the soil, degradable mulch films may affect the genes of microorganisms. Bacterial nitrification and denitrification are associated with the amoA, nirS and nirK genes. On the basis of the quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) of the target genes relative to 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) gene abundance, Seeley et al. [130] measured the relative abundance levels of amoA, nirS, and nirK and reported that PLA increases the abundance levels of amoA and nirS and decreases the abundance of nirK in sediments, thus promoting both nitrification and denitrification. Souza et al. [131] used PLA to perform bioassay analysis on A. cepa and reported that PLA degradation products decrease the mitotic index, thus increasing chromosomal abnormalities. The microbial enrichment caused by degradable mulch film residues depends on the region. Li et al. [51] reported that degradable mulch film residues enrich soil fungi in Texas and bacteria in Tennessee. Overall, the effects of degradable mulch film degradation products on soil microorganisms and the associated harm to the soil are not fully understood, and follow-up research is still needed [132].

6. Conclusions and Perspectives

A wide variety of biodegradable mulch films, which are used as agricultural cover materials, are available, such as those made of PBAT, PLA and PPC. These materials are designed to promote plant growth while ensuring safe degradation in the natural environment. Extensive research has confirmed that biodegradable mulch films perform like PE films do in terms of heat and moisture retention and increased crop yield. However, the price of biodegradable mulch films is typically greater than that of PE films, and the specificity of degradation conditions, together with the potential impact of degradation products on soil, has limited the widespread adoption of these films. Despite these challenges, biodegradable mulch films are still considered ideal replacements for PE films because of their environmental benefits. To promote their widespread use, future research should focus on the following directions:
(1)
Investigate the degradation behavior of biodegradable mulch film materials under different environmental conditions (such as temperature, humidity and soil pH), optimize material selection, establish a scientific evaluation system and application standards, address the inconsistency of degradation rates, and promote the widespread application of mulch film technology.
(2)
The mechanism of biodegradable mulch film degradation and the subsequent effects on the chemical and physical properties of the soil and microbial communities should be thoroughly analyzed, a safe degradation process and safe products for the soil ecosystem should be established, and the environmental friendliness and long-term sustainability of biodegradable mulch films should be ensured.
(3)
Combine policy support and market incentives to improve the production process for biodegradable mulch films, reduce costs and alleviate the economic burden on farmers through price subsidies, thereby promoting the widespread use of biodegradable mulch films in agricultural production and achieving a win–win situation for economic benefits and environmental protection.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Z.S., L.Z., J.B., Q.T., G.W. and Y.L.; methodology, Z.S., L.Z. and J.B.; software, Z.S.; validation, Z.S., L.Z., J.B. and Q.T.; formal analysis, Z.S.; investigation, Z.S. and L.Z.; resources, Z.S. and L.Z.; data curation, Z.S.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.S. and L.Z.; writing—review and editing, Z.S.; visualization, Z.S.; supervision, G.W. and Y.L.; project administration, Z.S., G.W. and Y.L.; funding acquisition, G.W. and Y.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Please add: This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32360527, 31460541), the Science and Technology Plan Project of Tumushuke City, the Third Division (KJ2023CG03), the Young Innovative Top Talents Project of Shihezi University (CXBJ202003), and the Independent Support Scientific Research Project of Shihezi University (ZZZC2022008).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

All authors thank their institutions for their support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Agriculture 14 01235 g001
Figure 1. Degradable mulch film degradation process.
Figure 1. Degradable mulch film degradation process.
Agriculture 14 01235 g001
Table 1. Characteristics of commonly used biodegradable mulch materials.
Table 1. Characteristics of commonly used biodegradable mulch materials.
TypeMaterial PropertiesLimitations
Poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)/PBAT
Agriculture 14 01235 i001		Copolyesters synthesized through condensation polymerization; Tm (110~115 °C), Ts (34~40 MPa), and Eb (700%); heat resistant, high ductility, low transparency, can be blended
with other materials		Slow degradation rate in the natural environment, low mechanical strength, and poor water vapor barrier properties
Polyhydroxyalkanoate/PHA
Agriculture 14 01235 i002		Biopolyesters produced by bacteria; Tm (70~170 °C), Ts (18~24 MPa), and Eb (5~500%); high thermal resistance, high mechanical strength, good gas barrier properties, can be degradable in various environmentsWeak in mechanical performance, challenging to process and mold, with slow crystallization, and lacking in toughness
Poly (lactic acid)/PLA
Agriculture 14 01235 i003		Biobased plastics derived from renewable resources through fermentation; Tm (130~180 °C), Ts (48~53 MPa), and Eb (4~10%); high heat resistance, high mechanical strength, good degradability, and high transparencyPoor in both impact and tensile strength
Polycaprolactone/PCL
Agriculture 14 01235 i004		A high-molecular-weight organic polymer formed by the polymerization of ε-caprolactam monomers; Tm (59~64 °C), Ts (4~28 MPa), and Eb (700%); moderate heat resistance, good degradability, and high tensile strengthLow melting point and decomposition temperature, soft structure, and average strength
Poly (propylene carbonate)/PPC
Agriculture 14 01235 i005		Copolymerization of CO2 and epoxide as a raw material; Tm (180~220 °C), Ts (4~38 MPa), and Eb (500%); strong temperature resistance, high tensile strength, and good gas barrier propertiesSoft molecular chains, poor thermal and mechanical properties, amorphous structure, and low rate of transformation
Poly (vinyl alcohol)/PVA
Agriculture 14 01235 i006		Categorized as a water-soluble synthetic polymer; Tm (180~230 °C), Ts (28~46 MPa), and Eb (4~40%). Poor temperature resistance, high tensile strength, and poor gas barrier propertiesMay lose properties at high temperatures, limiting its use in high-humidity or aqueous environments
Poly (butylene succinate)/PBS
Agriculture 14 01235 i007		Classified as an aliphatic polyester; Tm (108~115 °C), Ts (35~41 MPa), and Eb (600%); convenient for processing,
with excellent flexibility and impact resistance		Poor water resistance and requires specific environments and microbial communities for degradation
Eb: elongation at breaking point (%); Tm: melting point (°C); and Ts: tensile strength (MPa). In the ‘Type’ column in the table, the chemical structure of the biodegradable material is given in parentheses.
Table 4. Effect of partially degradable plastic films on crop yield.
Table 4. Effect of partially degradable plastic films on crop yield.
Mulch Film TypeCropCultivarRegionEffect of Increasing ProductionReferences
PBAT + StarchVineCotFranceyield of 1.31 t·ha−1 for mulched compared to 0.024 t·ha−1 for bare land[9]
PBATMaize/
Cotton		—China72.6% and 69.2% increase in yield compared to bare land[1]
SBPMCottonSicot 74 BRFAustralian5~7% increase in yield compared to bare land[81]
PBAT + StarchPeanuthuayu 22ChinaSignificantly increased yield compared to bare land[82]
PBATTomatoTianhong 8China 2.60% reduction in yield compared to PE film[58]
PLA/jute/hemp/
viscose		Lettuce—Croatiadifferences among mulch films, but all are superior to bare land[83]
Mater-BiMelonPregiatoItaly9.5% increase in yield compared to PE film[79]
Mater-BiStrawberryFortunaItaly10% increase in yield compared to PE film[80]
Black biodegradable filmTomatoKirosItalyhigher than PE mulch,
but not significant		[78]
SBPM: spray-on biodegradable polymer membrane; Mater-Bi: Mater-Bi is a biobased film developed by the Italian company Novamont and is primarily composed of starch.
Table 5. Characteristics and market prices of different biodegradable materials.
Table 5. Characteristics and market prices of different biodegradable materials.
Mulch Film TypeMarket Price ($·t−1)
PE810~1240
PBAT1655
PHA4100~20,690
PLA4100~5517
PCL6890~9655
PPC6890~11,034
PVA1655~3448
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Song, Z.; Zhao, L.; Bi, J.; Tang, Q.; Wang, G.; Li, Y. Classification of Degradable Mulch Films and Their Promotional Effects and Limitations on Agricultural Production. Agriculture 2024, 14, 1235. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081235

AMA Style

Song Z, Zhao L, Bi J, Tang Q, Wang G, Li Y. Classification of Degradable Mulch Films and Their Promotional Effects and Limitations on Agricultural Production. Agriculture. 2024; 14(8):1235. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081235

Chicago/Turabian Style

Song, Zhiwen, Lei Zhao, Junguo Bi, Qingyun Tang, Guodong Wang, and Yuxiang Li. 2024. "Classification of Degradable Mulch Films and Their Promotional Effects and Limitations on Agricultural Production" Agriculture 14, no. 8: 1235. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081235

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